{"id": 12, "summary": [{"text": "elachista kilmunella is a moth of the elachistidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found from northern europe to the alps and hungary and from ireland to russia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 8 \u2013 12 millimetres ( 0.31 \u2013 0.47 in ) .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on wing from may to august .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on carex riparia and eriophorum vaginatum .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they mine the leaves of their host plant .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "they are yellowish grey .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "larvae can be found from april to july . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "elachista kilmunella", "paragraphs": ["elachista kilmunella ( moorland dwarf ) - norfolk micro moths - the micro moths of norfolk .\nelachista kilmunella \u00a72 male ; dock , tarn , cumbria ; 30 / 06 / 2014 ; fw 4 . 8mm \u00a9 chris lewis\nmany species of elachista are extremely similar , great care should be given when separating these species .\n\u2022 white holme , w . yorks , gen . det . h . beaumont \u2022 \u00a9\nthis upland species , occurring on acid heaths and boggy moorland , is distributed mostly in northern britain , from wales through northern england into most of scotland .\nspecies , and are best identified with certainty by reference to the genitalic structure .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 06 - 16 12 : 27 : 40 page render time : 0 . 2361s total w / procache : 0 . 2921s\nbl\u00e5 punkter visar fynd registrerade i artportalen och \u00f6vriga databaser anslutna till lifewatch . kan inneh\u00e5lla observationer som inte \u00e4r validerade . kartan uppdateras var fj\u00e4rde vecka .\ni det avancerade verktyget kan man s\u00f6ka ut och f\u00e5 fram artlistor , t ex arter i ett visst l\u00e4n , i en viss biotop , substrat , som p\u00e5verkas av en hotfaktor , eller som \u00e4r knutna till en sk v\u00e4rdart , t ex tr\u00e4det alm . dessa kan \u00e4ven kombineras .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , knutna till alm , \u00e4r beroende av d\u00f6d ved och som finns i kronobergs l\u00e4n .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , lever i sm\u00e5vatten och som p\u00e5verkas negativt av igenv\u00e4xning .\ndefaultl\u00e4get i verktyget \u00e4r arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade 2015 och dessa \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga s\u00f6kfaktorer . under fliken r\u00f6dlistekategori kan man dock v\u00e4lja att \u00e4ven inkludera arter som inte \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade . om man v\u00e4ljer att inkludera icke r\u00f6dlistade arter beh\u00f6ver man vara medveten om att samtliga arter inte \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga faktorer . nedan en sammanst\u00e4llning av vad som \u00e4r komplett .\ndenna funktion anv\u00e4nds n\u00e4r du vill skapa din egen lista av arter att hantera . du kan t . ex . navigera mellan arterna i listan genom att klicka p\u00e5 deras namn . du kan ocks\u00e5 v\u00e4lja att anv\u00e4nda knappen \u201dj\u00e4mf\u00f6r arter\u201d f\u00f6r att se bilder , kartor och k\u00e4nnetecken i en j\u00e4mf\u00f6relsevy .\ndu kan komponera ditt eget urval av arter genom att klicka dig fram via sl\u00e4kttr\u00e4det och d\u00e4r v\u00e4lja arter eller artgrupper till din lista . ett annat s\u00e4tt att g\u00f6ra ditt urval \u00e4r att anv\u00e4nda fliken \u201dfiltrera\u201d , d\u00e4r du kan s\u00f6ka p\u00e5 olika egenskaper . ovanf\u00f6r listan med s\u00f6kresultatet finns en knapp \u201dl\u00e4gg i mitt urval\u201d .\nthe mit license copyright ( c ) 2014 - 2016 google , inc . urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\nthe mit license ( mit ) copyright ( c ) 2011 - 2015 twitter , inc permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright ( c ) 2008 - 2013 sprymedia limited urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright 2008 - 2015 martin wendt , urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright jquery foundation and other contributors , urltoken this software consists of voluntary contributions made by many individuals . for exact contribution history , see the revision history available at urltoken the following license applies to all parts of this software except as documented below : = = = = permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software . = = = = all files located in the node _ modules and external directories are externally maintained libraries used by this software which have their own licenses ; we recommend you read them , as their terms may differ from the terms above .\nthe mit license ( mit ) - urltoken copyright ( c ) steven sanderson , the knockout . js team , and other contributors urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright ( c ) 2009\u20132015 permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright 2005 - 2014 openlayers contributors . all rights reserved . redistribution and use in source and binary forms , with or without modification , are permitted provided that the following conditions are met : 1 . redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice , this list of conditions and the following disclaimer . 2 . redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice , this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and / or other materials provided with the distribution . this software is provided by openlayers contributors ` ` as is ' ' and any express or implied warranties , including , but not limited to , the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose are disclaimed . in no event shall copyright holder or contributors be liable for any direct , indirect , incidental , special , exemplary , or consequential damages ( including , but not limited to , procurement of substitute goods or services ; loss of use , data , or profits ; or business interruption ) however caused and on any theory of liability , whether in contract , strict liability , or tort ( including negligence or otherwise ) arising in any way out of the use of this software , even if advised of the possibility of such damage . the views and conclusions contained in the software and documentation are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as representing official policies , either expressed or implied , of openlayers contributors .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nfor moth sightings in and around herefordshire and worcestershire . we can also help with id ' s .\nalso of note were the green hairstreak butterflies which must have run to a few hundred individuals .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nlisted as widespread in upland areas in northern britain as far south as herefordshire . not known from east anglia .\nhistoric records from surrey to norfolk are thought to be unconfirmed and improbable . [ mbgbi ]\nrecorded in 3 ( 4 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1874 . last recorded in 1874 .\nunderlying maps using digital map data \u00a9 norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola\u2122 2018 . \u00a9 james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data \u00a9 nola\u2122 2018\nresident . a widespread and fairly common species found in wales , the north of england and scotland .\nthis species was first recorded in 2013 on the berwyns in the north of the county .\nleaf miner . eggs laid on foodplant . larva mines the leaf . the pupa is yellowish brown .\nws : 9 - 11mm ; may - aug ; ? sedges ( carex spp ) ; boggy areas in acid heath and grassland in upland areas throughout britain .\nid : forewing dark with pale costal and tornal spots , not involving bases of tornal or apical cilia and with other pale markings ; pale markings without a metallic sheen ; frons dark ; uncus lobes separated by a u - shaped notch which is broader than an uncus lobe , vinculum strongly produced , aedeagus not notched or pointed at apex with 1 or 2 small thorns . white - tipped tegulae are an additional feature of this species , ( but i don ' t know how often this occurs in other species ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nnotes : local on acid heathland , bogs and damp grassland in upland areas of britain , as far south as herefordshire ( mbgbi vol 3 ) . unlikely to be recorded in hampshire or on the isle of wight . wingspan 9 - 11 mm . larva mines leaves of various sedges ."]}
{"id": 29, "summary": [{"text": "seriola is a genus of bony fish , commonly known as amberjacks .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "nine extant species are currently recognized , although these were formerly split into many more .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "also , several species are currently placed in several other genera of carangidae that were originally described under seriola .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they are a large , carnivorous finfish popularly known for the firm texture and rich flavour of their flesh , which make them an ideal fish for aquaculture .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "because specimens caught can weigh up to 41 kg ( 90 lb ) , and are powerful swimmers and hunters , they are also highly prized by sport fisherman .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "most seriola species are either benthic , demersal or pelagic , and can be found down to 200 m in depth .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "all 9 species cover most of the globe in terms of distribution , usually in coastal waters .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "most are shown to be pelagic spawners , releasing eggs into the open ocean habitat until hatching , and they do this through dioecious , external reproduction .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "most seriola species are found in schools , and have diets consisting of fish , squid and other invertebrates . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "seriola", "paragraphs": ["fao . 2008 . cultured aquatic species information programme seriola quinqueradiata ( temminck & schlegel 1845 ) . urltoken seriola _ quinqueradiata / en\nwe cultured seriola lalandi for 488 days in a ras with artificial sea water .\ngarc\u00eda - g\u00f3mez a . 1993 . primeras experiencias de crecimiento de juveniles de seriola mediterr\u00e1nea ( seriola dumerili , risso 1810 ) alimentados con una dieta semih\u00fameda . bol . inst . esp . oceanog . 9 ( 2 ) : 347 - 360 .\nscientific synonyms and common names seriola rivoliana cuvier , 1833 synonyms : seriola rivoliana valenciennes , in cuv . val . , 1833 , hist . nat . poiss . , 9 : 207 ( ' archipel ' = brazil ) . holotype : mnhn no . a 6633 ( ' archipel ' ) . seriola falcata valenciennes , in cuv . val . , 1833 , hist . nat . poiss . , 9 : 210 ( ' golfe du mexique ' ) . holotype : mnhn no . a 781 . seriola bonariensis valenciennes , in cuv . val . , 1833 , hist . nat . poiss . , 9 : 211 ( ' buenos ayres ' ) . holotype : mnhn no . a 6619 . seriola dubia lowe , 1839 , proc . zool . soc . london , 7 : 81 ( ' madeira ' ) . seriola dubia : lowe , 1840 : 5 g\u00fcnther , 1860 , 2 : 463 . seriola rivoliana : carus , 1893 : 672 nichols , 1946 : 260 randall , 1968 : 103 , fig . 118 blache et al . , 1970 : 309 , fig . 808 . seriola bonariensis : barnard , 1927 : 556 . seriola falcata : fowler , 1936 : 680 nichols , 1946 : 259 maul , 1948 : 151 albuquerque , 1954 - 1956 : 672 . seriola colburni evermann & clark , 1928 seriola songoro smith , 1959 common names : almaco jack [ en ] charuteiro [ pr ] edregal lim\u00f3n [ es ] s\u00e9riole limon [ fr ]\ngarc\u00eda - g\u00f3mez a . 2000 . recent advances in nutritional aspects of seriola dumerili . cah options m\u00e9dit\u00e9rr . 47 : 249 - 257 .\nmiranda i . t . & peet c . 2008 . farmed yellowtail seriola spp . japan and australia final report , october 22 , 2008 .\ngarc\u00eda a . & d\u00edaz m . v . 1995 . culture of seriola dumerili . cah . opt . m\u00e9diterr . 16 : 103 - 114 .\nholthus p . 2009 . seriola & cobia aquacultre dialogue . meeting summary . world wildlife fund , september 2009 . veracruz , mexico . www . worldwildlife .\na yellowtail kingfish , seriola lalandi , at the solitary islands , new south wales . source : rick stuart - smith / reef life survey . license : cc by attribution\nmoran d , gara b , wells rmg ( 2007 ) energetics and metabolism of yellowtail kingfish ( seriola lalandi valenciennes 1833 ) during embryogenesis . aquaculture 265 : 359 - 369\nsanzo , l . 1930b . contributo alla conoscenza dello sviluppo nei carancidi : seriola dumerilii risso . boll . zool . , napoli , 1 : pp . 33 - 34 .\nseriola and cobia , also known as amberjack , yellowtail kampachi , hamachi and hiramasa , are large , carnivorous finfish known for their firm texture and rich flavor . they also are prized by sport fishermen , in part because they can weigh up to 90 pounds . most seriola is farmed , mainly in japan ( where the industry started about 50 years ago ) and australia . the seriola aquaculture industry is set for significant growth . most cobia is caught in the wild by sport fishermen . but the cobia aquaculture industry has started to grow over the past few years , particularly in west virginia , puerto rico and belize . seriola and cobia are usually produced in cages , some close to land and some in the open ocean . several land - based tank trials also are underway with both fish species . cobia is usually sold fresh and served in the form of grilled or poached fillets . seriola is increasingly served raw in sushi .\nmoran d , smith ck , gara b , poortenaar cw ( 2007 ) reproductive behaviour and early development in yellowtail kingfish ( seriola lalandi valenciennes 1833 ) . aquaculture 262 : 95 - 104\nsanzo , l . 1933b . uova , larve e stadi giovanili di seriola dumerilii risso . memorie r . com . talassogr . ital . , 205 : 1 - 12 , 1 pl .\npoortenaar cw , hooker sh , sharp n ( 2001 ) assessment of yellowtail kingfish ( seriola lalandi lalandi ) reproductive physiology , as a basis for aquaculture development . aquaculture 201 : 271 - 286\n( of seriola boscii valenciennes , 1833 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of seriola gigas poey , 1860 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of seriola rhombica smith , 1959 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of seriola tapeinometopon bleeker , 1853 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of seriola tapeinometapon bleeker , 1853 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of seriola sparna jenkins , 1903 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of seriola purpurascens temminck & schlegel , 1845 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of seriola simplex ramsay & ogilby , 1886 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of seriola dumerilii ( risso , 1810 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of seriola purpurescens temminck & schlegel , 1845 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nscientific synonyms and common names seriola dumerili ( risso , 1810 ) synonyms : caranx dumerili risso , ichth . nice : 175 , pl . 6 ( fig . 20 ) ( nice ' ) . holotype : mnhn no . b 868 ( nice ) . trachurus aliciolus rafinesque , 1810 , caratt . gen . spec . sicil . : 42 , pl . 11 ( fig . 2 ) ( sicily ) . seriola dumerili : risso , 1826 : 424 valenciennes , 1843 : 57 de buen , 1926 : 103 weber & beaufort , 1931 : 297 de buen , 1935 : 107 , fig . 56 nobre , 1935 : 273 fowler , 1936 : 678 tortonese , 1947 : 171 tortonese & trotti , 1949 : 83 cadenat , 1951 : 167 , fig . 97 ben - tuvia , 1953 : 19 dollfus , 1955 : 145 furnestin et al . , 1958 : 447 , fig . 51 dollfus , 1960 : 105 tortonese , 1961 : 357 randall , 1968 : 102 , fig . 117 bini , 1968 , 5 : 65 , col . fig . wheeler , 1969 : 329 , fig . 107 . seriola dumerilii : valenciennes , in cuv . val . , 1833 , 9 : 201 , fig . 258 moreau , 1881 : 462 , fig . 131 carus , 1893 : 672 sanzo , 1930 : 33 lozano rey , 1952 : 591 , col . pl . 46 ( fig . 2 - 5 ) dieuzeide et al . , 1954 : 225 , fig . seriola tapeinometopon : giglioli , 1880 : 27 carus , 1893 : 672 . seriola dumerili dumerili : albuquerque , 1954 - 1956 : 670 . seriola purpurescens temminck & schlegel , 1844 seriola simplex ramsay & ogilby , 1887 seriola rhombica smith , 1959 common names : accola [ mlt ] greater amberjack [ en ] insk [ eg ] may\u00e0tico [ he ] orfan [ hr ] pez de lim\u00f3n [ es ] poisson limon [ fr ] ricciola [ it ] sarikuyruk [ tu ] seriola [ it ] seriole [ fr ] s\u00e9riole couronn\u00e9e [ fr ] serviola [ es ]\ntachihara k . , ebisu r . & tukashima y . 1993 . spawning , eggs , larvae and juveniles of the purplish amberjack seriola dumerilii . bull . jpn . soc . sci . fish . 59 : 1479 - 1488 .\nhutson ks , ernst i , mooney aj , whittington id . 2007 . metazoan parasite assemblages of wild seriola lalandi ( carangidae ) from eastern and southern australia . parasitol . int . 56 ( 2 ) : 95 - 105 .\nchambers c . b . & ernst i . 2005 . dispersal of skin fluke benedenia seriolae ( monogenea : capsalidae ) by tidal currents and implications for sea - cage farming of seriola spp . aquaculture , 250 : 60 - 69 .\nlazzari a . , fusari a . , boglione c . , marino g . & di francesco m . 2000 . recent advances in reproductional and rearing aspects of seriola dumerili . cah . options m\u00e9diterr . 47 : 241 - 247 .\npapandroulakis n . , mylonas c . , maingot e . & divanach p . 2005 . first results of greater amberjack ( seriola dumerili ) larval rearing in mesocosm . aquaculture , 250 ( 1 - 2 ) : 155 - 161 .\ncarton , a . g . & m . r . vaughan 2010 . behavioural and anatomical measures of visual acuity in first - feeding yellowtail kingfish ( seriola lalandi ) larvae . environ . biol . fish . 89 : 3 - 10\nandaloro f . & pipitone c . 1997 . food and feeding habits of the amberjack , seriola dumerili in the central mediterranean sea during the spawning season . cah . biol . mar . , 38 ( 2 ) : 91 - 96 .\nmazzola a . , fava loro e . & sara g . 2000 . cultivation of the mediterranean amberjack , seriola dumerili ( risso , 1810 ) , in submerged cages in the western mediterranean sea . aquaculture . 181 : 257 - 268 .\nmylonas c . c . , papandroulakis n . , smboukis a . , papadaki m . & divanach p . 2004 . induction of spawning of cultured greater amberjack ( seriola dumerili ) using gnrha implants . aquaculture 237 , 141 - 154 .\npapadakis i . e . , chatzifotis s . , divanach p . & kentouri m . 2008 . weaning of greater amberjack ( seriola dumerilii risso 1810 ) juveniles from moist to dry pellet . aquaculture international , 16 : 13 - 25 .\nyokoyama h . , yanagida t . & takemaru i . 2006 . the first record of kudoa megacapsula ( myozoa : multivalvulida ) from farmed yellowtail seriola quinqueradiata originating from wild seedlings in south korea . fish pathol . 41 : 159 - 163 .\ngillanders bm , ferrell dj , andrew nl ( 1999 ) size at maturity and seasonal changes in gonad activity of yellowtail kingfish ( seriola lalandi ; carangidae ) in new south wales , australia . nz j mar freshw res 33 : 457 - 468\nmicale v . , maricchiolo g . & genovese l . 1999 . the reproductive biology of the amberjack , seriola dumerilii ( risso 1810 ) . i . oocyte development in captivity . aquac . res . 30 ( 5 ) : 349 - 355 .\nthis circumglobal species is restricted to subtropical waters , and consisting of a series of disjunct subpopulations , many of which until recently were considered to represent distinct species . until recently , most of the literature in the eastern pacific referred to this species are seriola dorsalis .\nharris p . j . 2004 . analytical report . age , growth , and reproduction of greater amberjack , seriola dumerili , in the southwestern north atlantic . marine resources research institute , south carolina department of natural resources , charleston , south carolina , 35 pp .\nmasumoto , t . 2002 . yellowtail , seriola quinqueradiata . in : c . d . webster & c . e . lim ( eds . ) , nutrient requirements and feeding of finfish for aquaculture , pp 131 - 146 . cab international , wallingford , uk .\nmarino g . , mandich a . , massari a . , andaloro f . & porrello s . 1995 . aspects of reproductive biology of the mediterranean amberjack ( seriola dumerili risso ) during spawning period . j . appl . ichtiol . 11 , 9 - 24 .\nhamasaki k . , tsuruoka k . , teruya k . , hashimoto h . , hamad k . , hotta t . & mushiake k . 2009 . feeding habits of hatchery - reared larvae of greater amberjack seriola dumerili . aquaculture 3 - 4 : 216 - 225 .\nclark , t . d . & seymour , r . s . ( 2006 ) . cardiorespiratory physiology and swimming energetics of a high - energy - demand teleost , the yellowtail kingfish ( seriola lalandi ) . j . exp . biol . 209 : 3940 - 3951 .\nyanase , k . , n . a . herbert & j . c . montgomery . 2012 . disrupted flow sensing impairs hydrodynamic performance and increases the metabolic cost of swimming in the yellowtail kingfish , seriola lalandi . the journal of experimental biology 215 : 3944 - 3954 .\nalcaide e . , sanjuan e . , de la g\u00e1ndara f . & garc\u00eda - g\u00f3mez a . 2000 . susceptibility of amberjack ( seriola dumerili ) to bacterial fish pathogens . bull . eur . ass . fish . pathol . 20 ( 3 ) : 153 - 156 .\nmunro , i . s . r . [ 1956\u2013 ] 1961 . handbook of australian fishes . nos . 1\u201342 . australian fisheries newsletter 15 - 17 , 19 , 20 : 1 - 172 [ published as separates 1956 - 1961 ] ( p . 802 as seriola grandis )\nmandich a . , massari a . , bottero s . , pizzicori p . , goos h . & marino g . 2004 . plasma sex steroid and vitellogenin profiles during gonad development in wild mediterranean amberjack ( seriola dumerili ) . mar . biol . 144 : 127 - 138 .\nskaramuka b . , kozul v . , teskeredzic z . , bolotin j . & onofri v . 2001 . growth rate of tank reared mediterranean amberjack , seriola dumerili ( risso 1810 ) fed on three different diets . j . appl . ichthyol . 17 : 130 - 133 .\nbrown , e . v . & nishimura , s . 1977 . yellowtail ( seriola quinqueradiata ) . in : e . e . brown , ( ed . ) , world fish farming cultivation and economics , pp . 297 - 309 . the avi publishing company , inc . , usa .\ntalbot c . , garc\u00eda - g\u00f3mez a . , de la g\u00e1ndara f . & muraccioli p . 2000 . food intake , growth , and body composition in mediterranean yellowtail ( seriola dumerilii ) fed isonitrogenous diets containing different lipid levels . cah . options m\u00e9dit\u00e9rr . 47 : 259 - 266 .\njover m . , garc\u00eda - g\u00f3mez a . , tom\u00e1s a . , de la g\u00e1ndara f . & p\u00e9rez l . 1999 . growth of mediterranean yellowtail ( seriola dumerili ) fed extruded diets containing different levels of protein and lipid . aquaculture 179 ( 1 - 4 ) : 25 - 33 .\nkozul v . , skaramua b . , kraljevic m . , dulcic j . & glamuzina b . 2001a . age , growth and mortality of the mediterranean amberjack seriola dumerili ( risso 1810 ) from the south - eastern adriatic sea . j . appl . ichthyol . 17 : 134 - 141 .\nkozul v . , skaramuka b . , glamuzina b . , glav ic n . & tutman p . 2001b . comparative gonadogenesis and hormonal induction of spawning of cultured and wild mediterranean amberjack ( seriola dumerili , risso 1810 ) . sci . mar . 65 ( 3 ) : 215 - 220 .\njerez s . , samper m . , santamar\u00eda f . j . , villamandos j . e . , cejas j . r . & felipe b . c . 2006 . natural spawning of greater amberjack ( seriola dumerili ) kept in captivity in the canary islands . aquaculture , 252 : 199 - 207 .\ngillanders , b . m . , ferrell , d . j . , andrew , n . l . 2001 . estimates of movement and life - history parameters of yellowtail kingfish ( seriola lalandi ) : how useful are data from a cooperative tagging programme ? marine and freshwater research 52 : 179 - 92 .\nmartinez - takeshita n , purcell cm , chabot cl , craig mt , corinne n . paterson cn , hyde jr & allen lg . ( 2015 ) a tale of three tails : cryptic speciation in a globally distributed marine fish of the genus seriola . copeia 103 ( 2 ) : 357\u2013368 . doi : urltoken\nkawabe k . , kato k . , kimura j . , okamura y . , ando k . , saito m . & yoshida k . 1996 . rearing of broodstock fish and egg - taking from amberjack seriola dumerili in chichijima , ogasawara islands , southern japan . suisan zoyozhoku 44 : 151 - 157 ( in japanese with english abstract ) .\nmontero f . e . , crespo s . , padr\u00f3s f . , de la g\u00e1ndara f . , garc\u00eda - g\u00f3mez a . & raga j . a . 2004 . effects of the gill parasite zeuxapta seriolae ( monogenea : heteraxinidae ) on the amberjack seriola dumerili risso ( teleostei : carangidae ) . aquaculture 232 ( 1 - 4 ) : 153 - 163\nstuart - smith , j . , pecl , g . , pender , a . , tracey . s . , villanueva , c . & smith - vaniz , w . f . 2016 . southernmost records of two seriola species in an australian ocean - warming hotspot . marine biodiversity : 4pp . doi : 10 . 1007 / s12526 - 016 - 0580 - 4 abstract\nas with most types of aquaculture species , the farming of cobia and seriola can have a negative impact on the environment and society . to address these impacts , wwf has created the seriola and cobia aquaculture dialogue . the inaugural meeting of the dialogue was held february 2009 in seattle , washington . two additional public dialogue meetings have been held since then : september 2009 in mexico and february 2013 in japan . the next public dialogue meeting will be in october 2013 in japan . over the course of the dialogue , participants will identify the key environmental and social impacts associated with the farming of four types of seriola ( s . rivoliana , s . quinqueradiata , s . dumerilli and s . lalandi ) and cobia . they will then create principles for addressing each impact . next they will develop criteria that will aim to provide direction on how to reduce each impact and the indicators that will address how to measure the extent of each impact . all of this information will be the framework for creating measurable , performance - based standards for the industry . when finalized , the standards will be given to a new organization , the aquaculture stewardship council , that will be responsible for working with independent , third party entities to certify farms that are in compliance with the standards . all dialogue meetings will be open and transparent . reports , presentations and other documents related to the dialogue will be posted on this website . also posted for public comment will be the draft principles , criteria , indicators and standards for seriola and cobia .\nrodr\u00edguez - barreto d . , jerez s . , cejas j . r . , mart\u00edn m . v . , acosta n . g . , bola\u00f1os a . & lorenzo a . 2012 . comparative study on lipid and fatty acid composition in different tissues of wild and cultured female broodstock of greater amberjack ( seriola dumerili ) . aquaculture , 360 - 361 : 1 - 9 .\nwhittington i . d . , corneillie s . , talbot c . , morgan j . a . t . & adlard r . d . 2001 . infections of seriola quinqueradiata ( temminick & schlegel ) and s . dumerili ( risso ) in japan by benedenia seriiolae ( monogenea ) confirmed by morphology and 28s ribosomal dna analysis . j . fish dis . 24 : 421 - 425 .\nwwf has identified farmed shrimp and salmon as priority commodities because , collectively , they represent the largest share of the global farmed seafood market . consequently , they can have a significant negative impact on the places and species we seek to protect . additionally , we are working to advance responsible seafood farming for abalone , bivalves ( clams , mussels , scallops and oysters ) , cobia , freshwater trout , pangasius , seriola , and tilapia .\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 8 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 29 - 35 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 18 - 22 . bluish grey or olivaceous above , silvery white below ; amber stripe along midside of body ; fins dusky ( ref . 3197 ) . second dorsal and anal fins with low anterior lobe ( ref . 26938 ) . species of seriola lack scutes ( ref . 37816 ) .\nadults are benthopelagic in coastal and oceanic waters , off kelp beds and rocky areas ( eschmeyer et al . 1983 ) , sometimes entering estuaries ( may and maxwell 1986 ) . they are mostly solitary but can sometimes be found in small groups and can be found near rocky shores , reefs and islands ( kailola et al . 1993 ) . schools of juveniles are generally found in offshore waters , often near or beyond the continental shelf ( smith 1987 ) . seriola lalandi congregates in large offshore shoals in depths of 50 m , but occasionally ventures into surf zones in pursuit of prey . this species feeds primarily on small fishes and squids . it is also an excellent sport fish ( smith - vaniz in press ) . it is mainly caught on hook - and - line by sport fishers , but is also caught in seines and bottom trawls ( smith - vaniz 1984 ) . if seriola banisteri is conspecific , as believed , then the maximum verified size is 193 cm total length and 58 . 4 kg ( smith - vaniz in press ) .\ncircumglobal . indo - west pacific : south africa , persian gulf , southern japan and the hawaiian islands , south to new caledonia ; mariana and caroline islands in micronesia . western atlantic : bermuda ( ref . 26938 ) , nova scotia , canada to brazil ; also from the gulf of mexico and the caribbean sea ( ref . 9626 ) . eastern atlantic : british coast ( vagrant ) to morocco and the mediterranean . distribution in eastern central atlantic along the african coast is not well established due to past confusion with seriola carpenteri ( ref . 7097 ) .\nthe morphology of seriola dumerili changes considerably from juveniles to adults . body elongated , fusiform , moderate height , somewhat compressed laterally and covered with small cycloid scales . the total number of gill rakers decreases with size , from 15\u201322 at 2\u20137 cm in length , to 11\u201319 at sizes greater than 20 cm in length . two dorsal fins , the first with seven hard spines and the second with one hard spine and multiple soft rays ( 29\u201335 ) . colour yellow - green in juveniles and blue - olive laterally and silver ventrally in adults . black lateral band from eye to anterior base of dorsal fin , excluding the neck . the juveniles show 5 vertical , dark body bands and a sixth band at the end of the caudal peduncle .\nthis circumglobal species is restricted to subtropical waters and consists of a series of disjunct subpopulations , many of which until recently were considered to represent distinct species . in the indo - pacific , it is known from south africa , walters shoals , amsterdam island , japan , australia news zealand , new caledonia , rapa , pitcairn islands , easter island and hawaii . it is also found in the eastern pacific ( galapagos islands and the west coast of the united states ) ( smith - vaniz in press ) and southwest atlantic , from southern brazil and argentina . seriola lalandi also inhabits the eastern atlantic , known only from st helena island and south africa . it occurs at depths of one to 146 m ( r . myers pers . comm . 2015 ) .\nthe development of new species is a high priority for the diversification of the chilean aquaculture sector . the yellowtail kingfish ( seriola lalandi ) is a promising candidate for commercial production in recirculating aquaculture systems ( ras ) . this paper presents data on the culture of yellowtail kingfish in a marine ras working for 488 days using artificial sea water . growth performance , feed conversion , feeding rate , condition factor and mortality were determined for fish having an average initial weight ( \u00b1s . d . ) of 0 . 7 \u00b1 0 . 2 g up to a final average weight of 2006 \u00b1 339 . 0 g . the ras configuration ( drum filter , protein skimmer with ozone , biological nitrification and denitrification , carbon dioxide removal and oxygenation ) showed performance stability under the conditions assayed ( low water renewal rate ) . total ammonia nitrogen and nitrite - nitrogen concentration averaged 0 . 74 \u00b1 0 . 42 mg / l and 0 . 21 \u00b1 0 . 24 mg / l respectively . after installation , the denitrification reactor kept nitrate - nitrogen concentrations below 40 mg / l . nitrate - nitrogen was totally reduced at oxidation reduction potential values between \u2212150 and \u2212250 mv . water temperature averaged 22 . 6 \u00b1 1 . 4 \u00b0c and oxygen was maintained close to saturation levels . carbon dioxide concentration was in average 8 . 3 \u00b1 2 . 47 mg / l and ph 7 . 5 \u00b1 0 . 1 . water renewal rate was 0 . 45 % of the total system volume per day . the system proved the capability to maintain optimal water quality and secured animal welfare .\ngreater amberjack is a valuable food fish that sells well in the traditional fish markets as well as having potential for value - added products . farmed fish can be sold at different sizes ( whole or slices ) depending on the country . the preference in sizes affects market prices . in malta small sizes reach 15\u201320 usd per kg while larger fish fetch lower market prices , typically 10 - 15 usd per kg , because large fish are only suitable for steaks . however , prices in italy and spain for the largest fish are similar or even higher the smaller fish in malta . hong kong prices of cultured greater amberjack are slightly lower than the wild fish , but range from 10 to 20 usd per kg , while in japan the price is higher ( 20\u201330 usd per kg ) than other cultured seriola species because of the better texture of its flesh which is firmer and less buttery , and can sometimes reach up to 50 usd per kg . the price differences in europe according to the size will vary with the marketing strategy in the future . for now , whilst the production cost of the fry is very high , and because the culture technology is still being developed and refined , this benefit could be utilized . the optimum strategy may be to utilize the fast growth of the fish and sell at a larger size for a wider variety of value added products . greater amberjack has an existing reputation as a quality ingredient for sushi and sashimi and is very adaptable to a wide variety of prepared products including asian or american style marinated fillets or pieces . it would therefore be advisable to develop an active marketing strategy alongside any development of production capacity in order to exploit the full potential of this species .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n, select family and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the family .\n, select country and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the country .\n, select ecosystem and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the ecosystem .\ncfm script by eagbayani , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by cmilitante , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by cmilitante , 14 / 03 / 2013\nseafood is one of the most popular sources of protein worldwide . almost half of the seafood we eat comes from farms . and seafood farming\u2014also known as aquaculture\u2014is the fastest growing food production system in the world .\nthe rapid expansion of the aquaculture industry has not come without impacts . as a conservation organization , wwf is concerned about the negative effects the industry has had\u2014 and could continue to have\u2014on the environment and society . we know that when done responsibly , aquaculture\u2019s impact on wild fish populations , marine habitats , water quality and society can be significantly and measurably reduced .\nshrimp farming is associated with mangrove destruction , water pollution , and illegal fishing and labor practices , but wwf is working with some of the world\u2019s most innovative and conscientious farmers to demonstrate that shrimp production can be environmentally sustainable , socially responsible , and economically viable .\neighty - five percent of the world\u2019s marine stocks are either fully exploited or overfished , driving accelerated growth in the farmed seafood industry . with annual revenue in excess of $ 60 billion , that industry is on the verge of surpassing the total volume of wild - caught product .\nfarmed seafood provides an answer to increasing demand for protein sources as the world\u2019s population becomes more affluent , urbanized and approaches 9 billion before 2050 .\nchemicals and excess nutrients from food and feces associated with aquaculture farms can disturb the flora and fauna on the ocean bottom .\nexcessive use of chemicals\u2014such as antibiotics , anti - foulants and pesticides\u2014or the use of banned chemicals can have unintended consequences for marine organisms and human health .\nviruses and parasites that transfer between farmed and wild species as well as among farmed species present a risk to wild populations or other farms .\nescaped farmed species can compete with wild fish and interbreed with local wild stocks of the same population , altering the overall pool of genetic diversity .\naquaculture must responsibly source and reduce its dependency upon fishmeal and fish oil\u2014a primary ingredient in feed\u2014so as not to put additional pressure on the world\u2019s fisheries . fish caught to make fishmeal and fish oil currently represent one - third of the global fish harvest .\nexcess food and fish waste increase the levels of nutrients in the water and have the potential to lead to oxygen - deprived waters that stress aquatic life .\nseafood farming often employs a large number of workers on farms and in processing plants , potentially placing labor practices and worker rights under public scrutiny . additionally , conflicts can arise among users of the shared coastal environment .\nwe are on the forefront of spreading awareness among aquaculture producers about the importance of responsible practices if they are to survive in their present business model . wwf actively supports producers in implementing responsible practices through aquaculture improvement projects . in the same way , wwf encourages large retailers and restaurant chains to adopt responsible seafood procurement policies that call for sourcing responsibly farmed seafood products .\nin 2004 , we initiated and coordinated the aquaculture dialogues , a series of eight roundtables that included over 2 , 000 farmers , retailers , ngos , scientists and other important stakeholders within the aquaculture industry . together , the group committed to developing measurable and performance - based standards for responsibly farmed seafood . these standards focus on measureable performance and encourage innovation to reduce environmental impacts .\nin 2009 , wwf co - founded the aquaculture stewardship council ( asc ) with the dutch sustainable trade initiative ( idh ) to manage the global standards and certification programs . asc works with accreditation services international ( asi ) to accredit independent certification bodies to audit and certify compliant farms . wwf also engages with governments in countries that produce and export farmed seafood to design regulatory policy that will support a responsible aquaculture industry . we encourage financial institutions to be diligent in placing sustainability filters on loan applications for aquaculture operations .\nclick here to read more about why wwf cares about the production of meat , poultry , dairy and seafood .\nget email about important conservation news and how you can help wwf protect the diversity of life on earth .\nmake a symbolic animal adoption to help save some of the world ' s most endangered animals from extinction and support wwf ' s conservation efforts .\nworld wildlife fund 1250 24th street , n . w . washington , dc 20037\nlatin word diminutive with the meaning of a large earthenware pot ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; reef - associated ; oceanodromous ( ref . 51243 ) ; depth range 1 - 360 m ( ref . 11441 ) , usually 18 - 72 m ( ref . 9626 ) . subtropical ; 45\u00b0n - 28\u00b0s , 180\u00b0w - 180\u00b0e\nmaturity : l m 99 . 5 , range 80 - 127 cm max length : 190 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 3397 ) ; common length : 100 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 3197 ) ; max . published weight : 80 . 6 kg ( ref . 3287 ) ; max . reported age : 15 years ( ref . 113943 )\nadults found in deep seaward reefs ; occasionally entering coastal bays . they feed primarily on fishes such as the bigeye scad , also on invertebrates ( ref . 4233 ) . small juveniles associate with floating plants or debris in oceanic and offshore waters . juveniles form small schools or solitary ( ref . 5213 ) . eggs are pelagic ( ref . 4233 ) . utilized fresh and frozen ; eaten pan - fried , broiled and baked ( ref . 9987 ) . reported to cause ciguatera in some areas ( ref . 26938 ) .\nspawning happens during the summer , in areas near the coast . embryo development lasts about 40 hours at 23\u00b0 and larval development 31 - 36 days . egg size 1 . 9 mm , larval at hatching 2 . 9 mm .\npaxton , j . r . , d . f . hoese , g . r . allen and j . e . hanley , 1989 . pisces . petromyzontidae to carangidae . zoological catalogue of australia , vol . 7 . australian government publishing service , canberra , 665 p . ( ref . 7300 )\n) : 16 . 9 - 29 , mean 27 . 1 ( based on 3486 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5020 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01622 ( 0 . 01238 - 0 . 02125 ) , b = 2 . 92 ( 2 . 84 - 3 . 00 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 5 \u00b10 . 0 se ; based on diet studies .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( k = 0 . 18 ; tm = 4 ; tmax = 15 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate to high vulnerability ( 54 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nmarine ; reef - associated ; depth range 5 - 245 m ( ref . 90102 ) , usually 30 - 35 m ( ref . 40849 ) . subtropical ; 43\u00b0n - 38\u00b0s , 180\u00b0w - 180\u00b0e\ncircumglobal . indo - west pacific : kenya south to south africa ( ref . 3287 ) and east to mariana and wake islands in micronesia , north to the ryukyu islands , south to new caledonia and the kermadec islands ( ref . 8879 ) . absent from the red sea and french polynesia . likely at seychelles ( ref . 1623 ) . eastern pacific : usa to peru , including galapagos islands ( ref . 2850 ) . western atlantic : cape cod , usa to northern argentina ( ref . 9626 ) . distribution in the eastern atlantic is not well established . recently recorded from lampedusa island in the mediterranean ( ref . 47878 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 160 cm fl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 40637 ) ; common length : 90 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5450 ) ; max . published weight : 59 . 9 kg ( ref . 40637 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 8 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 27 - 33 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 18 - 22 .\nadults are benthopelagic in outer reef slopes and offshore banks to 160 m or more . they form small groups ( ref . 9283 , 26235 , 58302 ) . young often seen around floating objects ( ref . 4887 , 48635 ) . they feed mainly on fishes , but also on invertebrates . eggs are pelagic ( ref . 4233 ) . marketed fresh and salted or dried ( ref . 9283 ) . may cause ciguatera poisoning , particularly in coral reef areas ( ref . 5217 ) . uncommon on east indian reefs but occasionally found in cool upwelling areas of lesser sunda islands of indonesia ( ref . 90102 ) .\nmyers , r . f . , 1991 . micronesian reef fishes . second ed . coral graphics , barrigada , guam . 298 p . ( ref . 1602 )\n) : 22 . 1 - 28 . 6 , mean 27 . 3 ( based on 201 cells ) .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01905 ( 0 . 00755 - 0 . 04806 ) , b = 2 . 97 ( 2 . 75 - 3 . 19 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 5 \u00b10 . 7 se ; based on diet studies .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : very low , minimum population doubling time more than 14 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : high to very high vulnerability ( 74 of 100 ) .\ndescription inhabits deep seaward reefs occasionally entering coastal bays . feeds primarily on fishes such as the bigeye scad , also . . .\ndescription inhabits deep seaward reefs occasionally entering coastal bays . feeds primarily on fishes such as the bigeye scad , also feeds on invertebrates ( ref . 4233 ) . small juveniles associate with floating plants or debris in oceanic and offshore waters . juveniles form small schools or solitary ( ref . 5213 ) . distribution in eastern central atlantic along the african coast is not well established due to past confusion with @ s . carpenteri @ ( ref . 7097 ) . the species is rarely exotic ( ref . 637 ) . flesh is edible ( ref . 5521 ) . utilized fresh and frozen ; eaten pan - fried , broiled and baked ( ref . 9987 ) . [ details ]\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nvan der land , j . ; costello , m . j . ; zavodnik , d . ; santos , r . s . ; porteiro , f . m . ; bailly , n . ; eschmeyer , w . n . ; froese , r . ( 2001 ) . pisces , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 357 - 374 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nscott , w . b . ; scott , m . g . ( 1988 ) . atlantic fishes of canada . canadian bulletin of fisheries and aquatic sciences . no . 219 . 731 pp . [ details ]\nwelshman , d . , s . kohler , j . black and l . van guelpen . 2003 . an atlas of distributions of canadian atlantic fishes . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nmceachran , j . d . ( 2009 ) . fishes ( vertebrata : pisces ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 1223\u20131316 in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . [ details ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nrisso , a . ( 1810 ) . ichthyologie de nice ou histoire naturelle des poissons du d\u00e9partement des alpes - maritimes . schoell , paris . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 175 [ details ]\nwheeler , a . ( 1992 ) . a list of the common and scientific names of fishes of the british isles . j . fish biol . 41 ( suppl . a ) : 1 - 37 ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 175 [ details ]\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of caranx dumerili risso , 1810 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of trachurus aliciolus rafinesque , 1810 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of trachurus fasciatus rafinesque , 1810 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of regificola parilis whitley , 1948 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nintergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhong kong marine fish database . afcd . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\njoin us to make change . speak up for species and places through wwf ' s action center .\nhelp wwf conserve the world ' s wildlife and their homes by symbolically adopting a tiger .\nmarine ; brackish ; benthopelagic ; depth range 3 - 825 m ( ref . 4517 ) . subtropical ; 18\u00b0c - 24\u00b0c ( ref . 6390 ) ; 55\u00b0n - 57\u00b0s , 180\u00b0w - 180\u00b0e\ncircumglobal in subtropical waters : series of disjunct populations . indo - pacific : south africa , walter shoals , amsterdam island , japan , australia , new zealand , new caledonia , hawaii , rapa , pitcairn island , and easter island . eastern pacific : british columbia , canada to chile ( ref . 2850 ) , including desventuradas is . and juan fern\u00e1ndez is . ( ref . 89357 ) . eastern atlantic : st . helena , south africa ( ref . 7097 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? , range 51 - ? cm max length : 250 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 27865 ) ; common length : 80 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 9137 ) ; max . published weight : 96 . 8 kg ( ref . 40637 ) ; max . reported age : 12 years ( ref . 72462 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 5 - 6 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 33 - 35 ; anal spines : 2 - 3 ; anal soft rays : 20 - 21 . the only jack without scutella on the caudal peduncle . dark blue dorsally and almost white ventrally ; with a well defined line of demarcation between the two colors .\nadults are benthopelagic in coastal and oceanic waters , off kelp beds and rocky areas ( ref . 2850 ) , sometimes entering estuaries ( ref . 9563 ) . they are solitary or in small groups and can be found near rocky shores , reefs and islands ( ref . 6390 ) . schools of juveniles are generally found in offshore waters , often near or beyond the continental shelf ( ref . 27865 ) . they prefer warmer water ( 18 - 24\u00b0c ) although they are occasionally found in cooler water ( ref . 27128 ) . adults feed on small fish , squid and crustaceans ( ref . 27121 ) . marketed fresh and salted or dried ( ref . 9283 ) .\n) : 9 - 23 , mean 14 . 9 ( based on 1169 cells ) .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01820 ( 0 . 00972 - 0 . 03408 ) , b = 2 . 93 ( 2 . 76 - 3 . 10 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 2 \u00b10 . 1 se ; based on diet studies .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( k = 0 . 13 ; tm = 2 ; tmax = 12 ) .\nprior r = 0 . 6 , 2 sd range = 0 . 45 - 0 . 80 , log ( r ) = - 0 . 51 , sd log ( r ) = 0 . 14 , based on : 2 k , 1 tgen , 1 tmax , records\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : high to very high vulnerability ( 69 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this species is a circumglobal species restricted to subtropical waters , consisting of a series of disjunctive subpopulations . although highly sought after by sport fishers in some parts of its range and commercial exploitation in parts of its range , significant global population declines have not been reported and are not suspected . its range coincides with numerous marine protected areas . it is therefore listed as least concern .\nargentina ; australia ; brazil ; chile ( easter is . ) ; colombia ; costa rica ; ecuador ( ecuador ( mainland ) , gal\u00e1pagos ) ; fiji ; french polynesia ; french southern territories ( amsterdam - st . paul is . ) ; japan ; mexico ; new caledonia ; new zealand ; nicaragua ; norfolk island ; panama ; peru ; pitcairn ; saint helena , ascension and tristan da cunha ( saint helena ( main island ) ) ; south africa ; tonga ; united states ( hawaiian is . ) ; uruguay\nthere is limited population information available for this species . however , based on museum collections , this species may be common in parts of its range , with 210 global occurrences with each lot containing mostly one to five individuals , but some having upwards of 30 individuals ( accessed through the fishnet2 portal , www . fishnet2 . org , 2015 - 10 - 12 ) . in the eastern central atlantic ( eca ) , this species is very abundant at st . helena and elsewhere ( w . smith vaniz pers comm . 2013 ) . population data based on the cecaf south working ( 2009 ) , which covers guinea bissau to angola , aggregated catch landings for carangidae species from 1994 through 2008 show an increase up to 20 , 000 metric tonnes in 2001 and are stable until 2008 , when they drop to 12 , 000 metric tonnes , but not all countries are reporting ( fao cecaf 2009 ) . based on eca country reported landings to fao for carangids not elsewhere included , landings peaked between 1970 to 1980 , averaging around 24 , 000 metric tonnes per year , and then in 1980 fell to an average of 18 , 000 metric tonnes per year , fluctuating between 16 , 000 and 18 , 000 metric tonnes per year and remaining relatively stable since .\nthis species is of minor commercial importance but is a highly sought after sportfish ( w . smith - vaniz pers . comm . 2015 ) . this species is caught with seines , bottom trawls and on hook - and - line ( smith - vaniz in press ) . it is marketed fresh and salted or dried ( smith - vaniz 1995 ) .\nin the eastern central atlantic , catches for this species are not reported separately , and carangid species are mainly caught in the inshore fishery using purse - seines and in both industrial and artisanal fisheries . elsewhere , this species is a highly sought after sport fish . however , there have been no observed or suspected population declines resulting from these exploitation events .\nthere are currently no conservation measures in place for this species . however , its range overlaps with numerous protected areas ( iucn unep 2014 ) .\nsmith - vaniz , w . f . & williams , i . 2015 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nbody elongated , somewhat compressed , and without scutes on lateral line . dorso - posterior corner of maxillary angular . pectoral fin almost same length as pelvic fin . body with longitudinal yellow stripe . bears two free spines in front of the anal fin . anal fin is shorter than the weak dorsal fin , whereas the short spines of the first dorsal fin are not free , but interconnected by a membrane . fast swimming pelagic carnivorous fish , feeding by day on smaller fish , such as mackerels , horse - mackerels , sardines and squids .\njapanese amberjack culture has a long history , having begun in 1927 in the kagawa prefecture of japan when wild caught juvenile amberjacks were first reared in shore enclosures . over time , this type of culture became obsolete , due to problems related to poor water quality and excessive waste accumulation within the system . commercial production of japanese amberjack began in the 1940s , and production began to expand rapidly in the 1960s , exceeding 43 000 tonnes by 1970 . by 1995 it had reached a peak of nearly 170 000 tonnes but ranged between 139 000 and 162 000 between 1996 and 2003 ; no further growth trend is apparent . however , it is important to note that fish farmers have been able to maintain total production level at these significant levels despite a fall in the number of wild caught juveniles ( mojako ) .\njapanese amberjack features in the fisheries of the western central pacific ocean , from japan and the eastern korean peninsular to the hawaiian islands but its farming occurs mostly in japan , the republic of korea being the only other country reporting production to fao . in japan this species is the most cultured fish , its meat being relished as sashimi . the aquaculture production of\nconstituted about 57 percent of the total farmed marine finfish production in japan in 2003 .\njapanese amberjack is endemic to japan and adjacent areas . it spawns along the 200 m contour in the east china sea ; juveniles migrate north to near hokkaido , feeding for three to five years until reaching sexual maturity ; then they migrate south for spawning . adults of 70 - 80 cm sl approach the western coast of kochi prefecture , japan in march - april . from season to season , various sizes can be caught in different parts of japan ; therefore , special names are given to them in different regions . the common name of japanese amberjacks varies with size . in japan , those that are < 50 g are called mojako , those between that and 5 000 g named hamachi , and those > 5 000 g termed buri . this species is highly piscivorous species and , in the fisheries , reaches a maximum size of 150 cm tl and 40 kg . in nature , it feeds on microorganisms and small fishes while drifting north with the seaweed . small mojako ( 4 to 5 mm ) stay under or inside floating seaweed ; larger fish ( 0 . 5 to 2 cm ) swim below the surface . after reaching a size of 10 to 14 cm , they disperse from the floating seaweed and swim towards the shore . the optimum rearing water temperature for japanese amberjack is 20 - 29 \u00bac and the optimum salinity is 30 - 36\u2030 .\naquaculture of amberjack is primarily dependent on seed supply from wild . soon after spawning , larvae less than 15 mm long are brought near the coast by the kuroshio current , where they are caught in fine mesh nets , and sold to fry specialists . wild seed is also imported from other countries , such as the republic of korea and viet nam . although artificial propagation of japanese amberjacks has been successful , the number of juveniles produced through induced breeding has not reached a level where it can make a significant contribution to the demand of juveniles for aquaculture . in fact , there remain some problems in larval rearing : feeding is particularly critical , as imbalanced larval feed has leads to heavy mortalities . efforts are being made to improve this situation . the design of suitable larval feed by using mass - produced food organisms , such as rotifers and brine shrimp nauplii fortified with n - 3 highly unsaturated fatty acids ( hufa ) and formulated feeds may soon make the production of healthy fry in large numbers possible .\nwild caught japanese amberjack juveniles ( < 10 g ) , are reared in 5x5x5 m net pens and sold to growers when the fish have grown to 50 - 100 g . the first task of the fry specialists is to grade the larvae into small , medium , and large categories ; a failure to grade early can result in high mortality from cannibalism . after grading , the larvae are stocked into floating nylon net - pens . in 5 x 5 x 5 m net pens the stocking rate of 0 . 5 - 10 g mojako ranges from 10 000 to 30 000 and the harvest size ranges from 20 - 200 g with average survival of 90 percent . it is important to feed wild caught juveniles with good quality feed while the fish are on the collecting boat , to avoid growth related problems in the late grow - out phase ; weak individuals are eliminated . small juvenile amberjacks are sensitive to feed deprivation , and a prolonged fasting period before first feeding in net pens has a negative effect on subsequent growth rate .\n) . japanese amberjack culture expanded due to the massive catches of the low - cost fish used for feeding , such as sand - lance and sardine around japan . the availability of freezing equipment made it possible for the farmers to feed minced frozen sardine and supported the further development of farming . however , in recent years , there has been decline in the sardine resources caught around japan and the cost has therefore increased . this has forced many farmers to change from feeding fish to the use of formulated feed . formulated feed production has increased and the amount of extruded pellets is now about 40 percent of the total food used for japanese amberjack production , on an ' as fed ' basis . feeding extruded pellets for the first year of culture during the growing season ( high water temperature ) is popular . however , the use of raw fish or moist pellets is still common when water temperatures are reduced ( < 15 \u00bac ) ."]}
{"id": 31, "summary": [{"text": "the gold spangle ( autographa bractea ) is a moth of the family noctuidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in europe , across western siberia and the altai mountains , the northern caucasus , northern turkey and northern iran .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its wingspan is 42 \u2013 50 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are brown and gray with large rhomboid golden marks .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings and body are lighter grayish brown .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the moth flies from july to august depending on the location , and migrates long distances .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the larvae feed on a wide range of plants including hieracium , tussilago farfara , plantago , crepis paludosa , taraxacum , urtica , lamium , stachys and eupatorium cannabinum . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "gold spangle", "paragraphs": ["gold spangle ( autographa bractea ) - norfolk moths - the macro and micro moths of norfolk .\nchamaecyparis pisifera \u2018gold spangle\u2019 is a fairly fast growing , upright conical selection of sawara cypress with bright gold foliage that grows as a combination of typical short sprays , thread - leaf and contorted branchlets . the degree of gold or yellow is also quite variable . as a very vigorous grower , these trees benefit from periodic shearing to maintain tidiness . after 10 years of growth , a mature specimen will measure 7 . 5 feet ( 2 . 5 m ) tall and 4 feet ( 1 . 3 m ) wide , an annual growth rate 8 inches ( 20 cm ) or more .\nthree well known forms of c . pisifera are : ( 1 ) c . pisifera f . filifera ( threadbranch sawara cypress featuring drooping , whip or cord - like branches covered primarily with scale - like adult leaves ) , ( 2 ) c . pisifera f . plumosa ( plume sawara cypress featuring feathery , airy and ferny branches covered with part adult / part juvenile leaves ) and ( 3 ) c . pisifera f . squarrosa ( moss sawara cypress featuring branches with soft , needle - like juvenile leaves ) . genus name comes from greek chamai meaning dwarf or to the ground and kyparissos meaning cypress tree . specific epithet comes from the latin word pissum meaing pea and ferre meaing to bear in reference to the very small rounded cones . \u2018gold spangle ' is an upright broad - pyramidal form that features bright yellow thread - like foliage . it typically starts out as a low - growing shrubby plant , but will rise to 10 - 12 ' tall over the first 10 - 15 years , eventually maturing to as much as 25 - 35 ' tall .\nmuch of the immense task of data abstracting and entry from printed and manuscript sources as well as preliminary editing and name - checking was carried out by volunteers . many of these were school students on work - experience placements during 1993 - 2000 from , initially , the coopers ' company and coborn school , upminster , and later from other schools in greater london : christopher andrewes , simon bennett ( 1994 nhm vacation studentship ) , steven bond , michael brownlow , emma causer , laurence cooper , ailsa cranfield ( 1998 nuffield studentship ) , emily dwiar , andrew enever , jane feehan , madeleine ferry , max friedman , edward gold , jennifer hodgkinson , christopher joint , fateha khatun ( 1996 nuffield studentship ) , james lowe , louisa marchant , gemma millward , christopher milne , carolyn oughton , william perkins , rebecca reith , eleanor resheph , clare sambidge , neil shaftain , stephen sloan , helen stevens , samuel tarry , david taylor and thomas yeatman .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ngaden s . robinson , phillip r . ackery , ian j . kitching , george w . beccaloni and luis m . hern\u00e1ndez\nrecords of caterpillar hostplants are scattered through published and manuscript sources worldwide and are difficult to retrieve . many rearing records are never published and so are not accessible to other entomologists . but collected hostplant records form a valuable scientific resource that can be used eventually to answer broader biological questions about how lepidoptera and plants interact ( eg , letourneau , hagen & robinson , 2001 ) . it provides information of immediate relevance to agriculture , ecology , forestry , conservation and taxonomy .\nhosts brings together an enormous body of information on what the world ' s butterfly and moth ( lepidoptera ) caterpillars eat . the web - based version presented here offers a synoptic data set drawn from about 180 , 000 records comprising taxonomically ' cleaned ' hostplant data for about 22 , 000 lepidoptera species drawn from about 1600 published and manuscript sources . it is not ( and cannot be ) exhaustive , but it is probably the best and most comprehensive compilation of hostplant data available .\nwe hope that it will be useful to a wide range of biologists and that it will act as a spur to further recording and analysis of caterpillar - plant interactions .\nhosts can be searched in two ways , using text search and drill - down search modes .\nin text search mode , use either lepidoptera or hostplant criteria or a combination of the two . hosts operates only using scientific names . it is not possible to search for the hostplants of the red admiral butterfly but a search for hostplants using its scientific name , vanessa atalanta , will be successful . enter the generic name ( vanessa ) in the - lepidoptera criteria - genus box ; enter atalanta in the species : box ; click search .\nhint : leave the ' starts with ' command as the default and in the species entry box omit the last few letters of the species - name ( eg , atalant ) . this will get around the problem of variable gender - endings . hosts uses original orthography of species - group names as far as possible , but some checklists follow the convention of altering the species - group name to accord with the presumed gender of the generic name ( eg flava , flavus ) .\nrestrict or refine searches using additional criteria ; choosing ' usa ' from the drop - down location box and entering [ starts with ] ' urt ' in the hostplant family box will return hostplant records of vanessa atalanta from urticaceae in the usa .\nhint : restricting location may deliver a very incomplete subset of records : in the previous example all records specified as from the nearctic region ( usa + canada ) would be missed .\ndrill - down search mode allows the user to home in from the starting - point of either the lepidoptera or the plant family . choose a family group from the drop - down box and allow time for all genera of that family in the database to load to the genus drop - down box ; choose a genus and wait for the species to load . the search button can be pressed at any time , but the record delivery limit may be exceeded at higher taxonomic levels . drill - down search allows the user to see by scrolling all the taxa that are represented in the database . following the previous example , choose nymphalidae , then choose vanessa from the genus drop - down box and then atalanta from the ten possible species of vanessa included in hosts .\nthe preliminary search results pages give family , genus and species of the caterpillar and its hostplant . note that many hostplants are recorded as a plant genus only . clicking the caterpillar name will give the full record . the full record listing gives , additionally , the author of the lepidoptera species , subspecific information on the insect and the plant , if available , together with details of larval damage . laboratory rearings where the food utilised may not be the natural hostplant are indicated . the status of the record ( whether considered true , erroneous or suspect ) is not currently implemented in this version of hosts .\nleguminosae ( c ) - caesalpinioideae . leguminosae ( m ) - mimosoideae . leguminosae ( p ) - papilionoideae .\nall lepidoptera groups are covered and subspecific taxa are differentiated . the original source of the record , original form of the names used ( prior to taxonomic ' cleaning ' and standardisation of nomenclature ) and validation and verification fields are not included . this information is , however , retained in the databases used to generate this site . while we have included species that do not feed on green plants , the known food substrates of these are not listed exhaustively . such species comprise detritophages and predators and include , for example , most tineidae and the stored - products pests . the published compilations from hosts ( see more detail - publications from hosts ) include record status and the sources of all records .\ndetailed published compilations from hosts are available in press . these books give greater detail than the website , together with comprehensive cross - indexes , record status and full bibliographies . they are indispensable tools for naturalists and professional entomologists .\nrobinson , g . s . , ackery , p . r . , kitching , i . j . , beccaloni , g . w . & hern\u00e1ndez , l . m . 2001 . hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of the oriental region . 744 pp .\nrobinson , g . s . , ackery , p . r . , kitching , i . j . , beccaloni , g . w . & hern\u00e1ndez , l . m . 2002 . hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of america north of mexico . 824 pp . [ memoirs of the american entomological institute , volume 69 . ]\nbeccaloni , g . w . , viloria , a . l . , hall , s . k . & robinson , g . s . 2008 . catalogue of the hostplants of the neotropical butterflies / cat\u00e1logo de las plantas hu\u00e9sped de las mariposas neotropicales . m3m - monograf\u00edas tercer milenio , volume 8 . zaragoza , spain : sociedad entomol\u00f3gica aragonesa ( sea ) / red iberoamericana de biogeograf\u00eda y entomolog\u00eda sistem\u00e1tica ( ribes ) / ciencia y tecnolog\u00eda para el desarrollo ( cyted ) / natural history museum , london , u . k . ( nhm ) / instituto venezolano de investigaciones cient\u00edficas , venezuela ( ivic ) . 1 - 536 pp . , 1 fig , 3 tabs .\ngaden robinson was responsible for the overall project design and management of the hosts database , and for records of lepidoptera exclusive of butterflies and bombycoid moths . phillip ackery and george beccaloni were responsible for butterfly data , including data drawn from card catalogues developed by ackery , whilst ian kitching was responsible for hostplant data of bombycoid moths . luis m . hern\u00e1ndez was responsible for abstracting in the latter two years of the project and for development of the bibliography for the hardcopy versions of the data .\nwe are extremely grateful to the many people who contributed their own rearing records of lepidoptera or personal accumulations of data for inclusion in the hosts database , particularly mike bigger ( uk ) , john w . brown ( usa ) , chris conlan ( usa ) , rob ferber ( usa ) , konrad fiedler ( germany ) , jeremy holloway ( uk ) , frank hsu ( usa ) , jurie intachat ( malaysia ) , alec mcclay ( canada ) , bill palmer ( australia ) , pierre plauzoles ( usa ) and the generous individuals who contributed rearing records through the worldwideweb and who are known to us only as an email address .\nwe are particularly grateful to julian donahue and the los angeles county museum of natural history for allowing us to include data on microlepidoptera from the card catalogue prepared by the late j . a . comstock and c . henne , and for access to manuscript records by noel mcfarland .\nmarian fricano ( santa clara university ) and aileen giovanello ( clark university , international internship 1996 ) made substantial contributions of abstracted data ; fran love ( north carolina ) painstakingly checked scanned texts and reformatted them for import to paradox .\nwe are indebted to all our helpers for their diligence , accuracy and patience , and for their unswerving faith that this daunting project would reach a conclusion .\nour colleagues here and overseas provided substantial help , advice and assistance with the checking of names of lepidoptera and with many other aspects of this project : kim and david goodger and jeremy holloway ( macrolepidoptera families ) , martin honey ( noctuoidea ) , brian pitkin ( computing ) , malcolm scoble and linda pitkin ( geometroidea ) , klaus sattler ( gelechioidea ) , michael shaffer ( pyraloidea , thyridoidea , pterophoroidea ) , alma solis ( usda , washington - pyraloidea ) , fernley symons ( oxford university - technical support ) and kevin tuck ( tortricoidea ) . julie harvey and the staff of the bmnh entomology and general libraries provided sterling support in locating obscure source material and intuitively correcting bowdlerized references .\nwe thank the trustees of the loke wan tho memorial foundation for their generous support for this project .\nrobinson , g . s . , p . r . ackery , i . j . kitching , g . w . beccaloni & l . m . hern\u00e1ndez , 2010 . hosts - a database of the world ' s lepidopteran hostplants . natural history museum , london . urltoken . ( accessed : 18 aug . 2010 ) .\nbrummitt , r . k . 1992 . vascular plant families and genera . [ vi ] + 804 pp . , royal botanic gardens , kew .\nkartesz , j . t . 1994 . a synonymized checklist of the vascular flora of the unites states , canada and greenland . timber press , portland . 1 , checklist , lxi + 622 pp ; 2 , thesaurus , vii + 816 pp .\nkitching , i . j . & cadiou , j . - m . 2000 . hawkmoths of the world : an annotated and illustrated revsionary checklist . xx + 500 pp . , cornell university press , ithaca .\nkitching , i . j . & rawlins , j . e . 1999 . the noctuoidea . pp . 355 - 401 . in : kristensen , n . p . ( ed . ) lepidoptera , moths and butterflies . 1 . evolution , systematics and biogeography . handbook of zoology , 4 ( 35 ) . lepidoptera . x + 491 pp . de gruyter , berlin .\nletourneau , d . k . , hagen , j . a . & robinson , g . s . 2001 . bt crops : evaluating benefits under cultivation and risks from escaped transgenes in the wild . pp . 33 - 98 . in : letourneau , d . k . & burrows , b . e . ( eds ) , genetically engineered organisms : assessing environmental and human health effects . [ viii ] + 438 pp . , crc press , boca raton .\nmabberley , d . j . 1987 . the plant book . a portable dictionary of the higher plants . xii + 707 pp . , cambridge university press . [ the 1993 reprint edition is currently used in editing . ]\nnielsen , e . s . , edwards , e . d . & rangsi , t . v . ( eds ) 1996 . checklist of the lepidoptera of australia . monographs on australian lepidoptera . 4 . xiv + 529 pp . , csiro , melbourne .\nnye , i . w . b . ( ed . ) 1975 - 91 . the generic names of moths of the world . 1 : 568 pp . ( noctuoidea ( part ) - nye , i . w . b . , 1975 ) ; 2 : xiv + 228 pp . ( noctuoidea ( part ) - watson , a . , fletcher , d . s . & nye , i . w . b . , 1980 ) ; 3 : xx + 243 pp . ( geometroidea - fletcher , d . s . , 1979 ) ; 4 : xiv + 192 pp . ( bombycoidea to zygaenoidea - fletcher , d . s . & nye , i . w . b . , 1982 ) ; 5 : xv + 185 pp . ( pyraloidea - fletcher , d . s . & nye , 1984 ) ; 6 : xxix + 368 pp . ( microlepidoptera - nye , i . w . b . & fletcher , d . s . , 1991 ) . british museum ( natural history ) / the natural history museum , london .\nrawlins , j . e . 1984 . mycophagy in lepidoptera . pp . 382 - 483 . in : wheeler , q . & blackwell , m . ( eds ) fungus - insect relationships . perspectives in ecology and evolution . 514 pp . , columbia university press .\nrobinson , g . s . 1999 . hosts - a database of the hostplants of the world ' s lepidoptera . nota lepidopterologica , 22 : 35 - 47 .\nrobinson , g . s . , ackery , p . r . , kitching , i . j . , beccaloni , g . w . & hern\u00e1ndez , l . m . 2001 . hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of the oriental region . 744 pp . southdene sdn bhd , kuala lumpur .\nrobinson , g . s . , ackery , p . r . , kitching , i . j . , beccaloni , g . w . & hern\u00e1ndez , l . m . 2002 . hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of america north of mexico . memoirs of the american entomological institute , 69 : 1 - 824 .\nscoble , m . j . ( ed . ) 1999 . a taxonomic catalogue to the geometridae of the world ( insecta : lepidoptera ) . 2 vols . csiro publications , melbourne .\nroyal botanic garden edinburgh dipterocarpaceae database : http : / / 193 . 62 . 154 . 38 / diptero /\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\neasily grown in average , medium moisture , well - drained soils in full sun to part shade . best in part shade . prefers moist , fertile soils . avoid wet , poorly - drained soils . shelter from strong winds . pruning is rarely needed . winter burn may occur in some full sun locations .\n, commonly known as sawara cypress , is a large , pyramidal , evergreen conifer that grows in the wild to 50 - 70\u2019 ( infrequently to 150 ' ) tall with a trunk diameter to 5 ' . in cultivation , it more typically matures to a much smaller 20 - 30 ' tall . it is naive to the japanese islands of honshu and kyushu . fine - textured medium green needles are tinted white beneath . cones are small ( 1 / 4\nacross ) and ornamentally insignificant , appearing glaucous green during summer before turning black - brown when ripe . reddish brown bark peels in strips . species plants are rarely sold in commerce , but a large number of more compact cultivars including some dwarfs are available for purchase .\nno serious insect or disease problems . some susceptibility to juniper blight , root rot and certain insect pests such as bagworms .\ndwarf cultivars for rock gardens , foundation plantings or specimen . yellow foliage accent for the landscape .\nthe garden wouldn ' t be the garden without our members , donors and volunteers .\noccupying waste ground , gardens and moorland , this species is widespread and fairly common in the north of britain , but less so in the south , where it is thought to be mainly a migrant .\nthe moth flies during july and august , and can be attracted to light .\nthe caterpillars feed on a range of plants , overwintering in this stage before pupating in late spring .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 07 - 04 06 : 44 : 47 page render time : 0 . 2337s total w / procache : 0 . 2715s\n* click on your approximate section of the country to see a detailed map .\nusda zone : 5 ( - 10 to - 20 f / - 26 . 1 to - 23 . 3 c )\ngrowth size : intermediate : 6 to 12 inches ( 15 - 30 cm ) per year / 5 to 10 feet ( 1 . 5 - 3 m ) after 10 years .\nthis cultivar originated as a branch sport found in the early 1900s on a specimen of ch . pisifera \u2018filifera aurea\u2019 at koster brothers nursery , boskoop , the netherlands . it was later introduced to the nursery trade by a . mesman nursery , also of boskoop .\n13 norfolk records , the first at dilham in 1958 ( g . ford ) .\nrecorded in 9 ( 13 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1958 . last recorded in 2015 .\nautographa bractea in norfolk [ 1958 ] rev . guy a . ford . ent . rec . 88 . 1976 .\nunderlying maps using digital map data \u00a9 norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola\u2122 2018 . \u00a9 james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data \u00a9 nola\u2122 2018\nfeatures bright yellow , thread - like foliage all year on arching stems that forms an irregular mound .\nour current selection tops 400 varieties . to include plants we offered previously in your search , select\ncurrent & retired\nbelow .\ndescription : wingspan 40 - 50 mm . forewings brown with a darker median area above the dorsum . there is a large prominent metallic spot in the median area of the wing ; this spot can vary in size between different individuals . hindwings pale fuscous with darker veining and a darker terminal band .\nstatus : widely distributed across all counties but more commonly encountered in down , armagh and parts of fermanagh . it has also been recorded on rathlin island .\necology : an attractive species that has a preference for open habitats including woodland clearings , damp meadows by streams and roadside verges . adults are active from dusk onwards and are attracted to light and flowers . the larvae feed from september to may on a variety of low - growing plants . it overwinters as a larva .\nthe northscaping netps plant search engine has determined that the netps account you have tried to access is inactive at this time . you may wish to contact the nursery or garden center to inquire about the status of their plant finder tool . or , there may be a technical problem with the account .\nnetps error information : error action : [ default ] , error code : [ account . 102 ] , error info : [ netpsid request to database returned ! = ' active ' ]\na resident that is widely distributed but not a common moth in derbyshire . this plusia has been recorded in all areas of the county . it is not common and is primarily an upland species with greatest population in the north . it is quiet rare in the southern lowlands and records could relate to vagrants or immigrants .\n\u2013 the diagnostic feature is the large white mark ( like a warped triangle ) in the centre of the dark bronze coloured forewing . as with all the plusias , several thoracic tufts are striking features .\nby continuing to use the site , you agree to the use of cookies . more information accept\nthe cookie settings on this website are set to\nallow cookies\nto give you the best browsing experience possible . if you continue to use this website without changing your cookie settings or you click\naccept\nbelow then you are consenting to this ."]}
{"id": 33, "summary": [{"text": "the white-fronted capuchin ( cebus albifrons ) is a species of capuchin monkey , a type of new world primate , found in seven different countries in south america : bolivia , brazil , colombia , venezuela , ecuador , peru , and trinidad and tobago .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the species is divided into several different subspecies , though the specific divisions are uncertain and controversial .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "this primate is a medium-sized monkey with a light brown back and a creamy white underside .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "like other capuchin monkeys , it is omnivorous , feeding primarily on fruits , invertebrates , other plant parts and sometimes small vertebrates .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it is predated upon primarily by raptors and probably small cats , especially the margay , though snakes have been known to attack the species .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "it is a polygamous animal and lives on fairly large groups of 15 to 35 individuals , reproductive females give birth to a single young at biennial intervals .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the species maintains a home range of 1.2 to 1.5 km \u00b2 ( 0.46 to 0.58 sq mi ) and has a complex vocal repertoire .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "it is one of the few primates to have been observed crafting and utilising tools in the wild .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "white-fronted capuchin populations are declining .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the decline is believed to be caused by human-induced habitat loss and degradation , and hunting .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "in 2008 the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) classified the ecuadorian white-fronted capuchin ( ssp. aequatorialis ) and the trinidad white-fronted capuchin ( ssp. trinitatis ) as critically endangered , and the varied white-fronted capuchin ( ssp. versicolor ) in colombia is classified as endangered .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the total population of the trinidad subspecies was 61 at the last census . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "white - fronted capuchin", "paragraphs": ["species group within the genus cebus , a group that also includes the white - fronted capuchin , the weeper capuchin and the kaapori capuchin .\ninformation on the white - fronted capuchin is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nyou selected santa marta white - fronted capuchin ( english ) . this is a common name for :\nthe white - fronted capuchin is an arboreal , forest dwelling species which feeds mainly on fruit and insects .\nwhite - fronted capuchin at about 1600m elevation in our cerro candelaria reserve . photo : luis recalde / ecominga .\nnumerous subspecies of the white - fronted capuchin have been described , although there is some debate regarding the exact number .\nnotes on interactions between the tayra ( eira barbara ) and the white - fronted capuchin ( cebus albifro . . .\nclassified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix i of cites ( 2 ) . subspecies : ecuadorian white - fronted capuchin , cebus albifrons aequatorialis , and the trinidad white - fronted capuchin , c . a . trinitatis , are listed as critically endangered ( cr ) , the r\u00edo cesar white - fronted capuchin , c . a . cesarae , is listed as data deficient ( dd ) , the shock - headed capuchin , c . a . cuscinus , is listed as near threatened ( nt ) , the santa marta white - fronted capuchin , c . a . malitiosus , and the varied white - fronted capuchin , c . a . versicolor , are listed as endangered ( en ) and the white - fronted capuchin , c . a . albifrons , is listed as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\na white - fronted capuchin ( cebus albifrons ) . \u00a9 renee lynn , national audubon society collection / photo researchers , inc . reproduced with permission .\nwhite - fronted capuchins are found in rainforest habitats from sea - level to 2000 meters ( hill , 1960 ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - white - fronted capuchin ( cebus albifrons )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - white - fronted capuchin ( cebus albifrons )\ntitle =\narkive species - white - fronted capuchin ( cebus albifrons )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe average body mass for the white - fronted capuchin is about 3 kilograms . this species has relatively long limbs compared to trunk size . the white - fronted capuchin has a prehensile tail . this species is sexually dimorphic . fingers on this species are short and the thumb is opposable ( fleagle , 1988 ) . the premolars of the white - fronted capuchin are large , and the molars are square shaped with a thick enamel to help with cracking nuts ( fleagle , 1988 ) .\nlike other capuchin species , the white - headed capuchin matures slowly . sexual maturity can be reached at 3 years .\nmale white - fronted capuchins are dominant over females , and it has been observed that an alpha male appears to lead the group .\nabout whether there are any subspecies of white - headed capuchin . some authorities consider there to be three subspecies of white - headed capuchin , based on small differences in appearance :\nlike other monkeys of the cebus group , the white - headed capuchin is named after the order of capuchin friars \u2013 the cowls worn by these friars looks like the monkey ' s white fur .\nthe iucn red list and other sources don\u2019t provide the number of the white - fronted capuchin total population size . according to the wikipedia resource the total population size of the trinidad subspecies was 61 individuals at the last census . currently white - fronted capuchins are classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ; however their numbers today are decreasing .\nthis video was taken in the town of misahualli , ecuador . the town has a semi - free ranging population of white - fronted capuchin monkeys , that regularly use rocks to smash open nuts and sticks .\nenglish : white - shouldered capuchin ; french : sajou \u00e0 gorge blanche ; spanish : mono capuchino .\ntail that is often held coiled , giving the white - headed capuchin the nickname\nringtail\n.\nthere is disagreement among primatologists about whether there are any subspecies of white - headed capuchin . some authorities consider there to be three subspecies of white - headed capuchin , based on small differences in appearance :\nthe scientific community has focused on the tool use of brazilian populations of the brown tufted capuchin , cebus apella , the species in the attenborough video . in our ecominga reserves , we do not have this species , but we do have the white - fronted capuchin , cebus albifrons in our cerro candelaria , naturetrek , and rio zunac reserves . one of our forest caretakers , luis recalde , recently managed to photograph this white - fronted capuchin in the cerro candelaria reserve :\nthe white - headed capuchin ( cebus capucinus ) , also known as the white - faced capuchin or white - throated capuchin , is a medium - sized new world monkey of the family cebidae , subfamily cebinae . native to the forests of central america and the extreme north - western portion of south america , the white - headed capuchin is important to rainforest ecology for its role in dispersing seeds and pollen .\nthe white - headed capuchin was originally described by carolus linnaeus in his 18th century work , systema naturae . it is a member of the family cebidae . it is part of the family of new world monkeys containing capuchin monkeys , squirrel monkeys , tamarins and marmosets . it is part of the genus cebus . it is part of the c . capucinus species group . this group also includes the white - fronted capuchin , the weeper capuchin and the kaapori capuchin .\nthe white - headed capuchin has mostly black fur , with white to yellow like fur on the neck , throat , chest , shoulders , and upper arms .\non another occasion , juan pablo reyes and our caretakers set up a camera trap near that reserve to discover what animal was eating our neighbors\u2019 corn . the culprit turned out to be a sneaky white - fronted capuchin :\nwhite - fronted capuchins inhabit northwestern south america , including columbia , ecuador , venezuela , eastern peru , and a good part of amazonian brazil . they like to live in thick primary growth rainforest where traveling from tree to tree can be done easily . white - fronted capuchins also like flooded forests , forests growing between rocks , forests growing in white sand and gravel at the bottom of mesas .\nas white - fronted capuchins are limited to rainforest habitats , they are threatened by habitat destruction from logging and forest clearance . in some areas they are hunted for meat .\nthere are four species of capuchin monkeys found in south america . the brown capuchin ( cebus apella ) lives in tropical and subtropical forests from venezuela to brazil . capuchins are not found in the andes mountains along the western part of the continent . the brown capuchin has tufts a white - fronted capuchin ( cebus albifrons ) . \u00a9 renee lynn , national audubon society collection / photo r\u2026\nthe white - headed capuchin ( cebus capucinus ) is a medium - sized new world monkey of the family cebidae , subfamily cebinae . it is also known as the white - faced capuchin or the white - throated capuchin . it comes from the forests of central america . it also lives in the extreme northwestern part of south america . the white - headed capuchin is important to rain forests because of its role in dispersing seeds and pollen .\nthe white - headed capuchin ( cebus capucinus ) is a medium - sized new world monkey of the family cebidae , subfamily cebinae . it is also known as the white - faced capuchin or the white - throated capuchin . it comes from the forests of central america . it also lives in the extreme northwestern part of south america . the white - headed capuchin is important to rain forests because of its role in dispersing seeds and pollen .\nthe white - headed capuchin is found in much of central america and a small portion of south america . in\n, more than it directly impacts the white - headed capuchin , and so on a net basis deforestation may not be as harmful to the capuchin ' s status .\nthe white - headed capuchin was originally described by carolus linnaeus in his 18th century work , systema naturae . [ 4 ] it is a member of the family cebidae . it is part of the family of new world monkeys containing capuchin monkeys , squirrel monkeys , tamarins and marmosets . it is part of the genus cebus . [ 5 ] it is part of the c . capucinus species group . this group also includes the white - fronted capuchin , the weeper capuchin and the kaapori capuchin . [ 5 ]\nlike other monkeys of the cebus group , the white - headed capuchin is named after the order of capuchin friars \u2013 the cowls worn by these friars looks like the monkey ' s white fur . [ 6 ] [ 7 ]\nthe white - headed capuchin monkey ( cebus capucinus ) , also known as the white - faced capuchin or white - throated capuchin , is a small new world monkey of the family cebidae . native to the forests of south and central america , white - throated capuchins are important to rainforest ecology by their role in dispersing seeds and pollen . like other monkeys in the genus cebus , white - headed capuchins are named after the order of capuchin friars : the cowls worn by these friars closely resemble the monkeys head colouration .\ninsects , ant and wasp larvae and vertebrates become a particularly important part of the white - headed capuchin ' s diet .\nthe white - headed capuchin is known to rub parts of certain plants into their hair . plants used in this manner include\n) , also known as the white - faced capuchin or white - throated capuchin , is a medium - sized new world monkey of the family cebidae , subfamily cebinae . native to the forests of central america and the extreme north - western portion of south america , the white - headed capuchin is important to rainforest ecology for its role in dispersing seeds and pollen .\nthe white - fronted capuchin ( c . albifrons ) is found in the moist forests of venezuela , brazil , bolivia , ecuador , colombia , and on the island of trinidad . this species is slightly smaller than other capuchin monkeys . the colors are similar to weeper and white - faced capuchins , with a pale and broad cap that covers most of the tops of their heads .\nwhite - fronted capuchins assist in dispersing via their feces , the seeds of the fruits that they eat . this may transport propagules somewhere they normally would not get to , far away from the tree they fell from .\nperry , s . ( 1996 ) .\nfemale - female relationships in wild white - faced capuchin monkeys , cebus capucinus .\n.\nperry , s . ( 1997 ) .\nmale - female social relationships in wild white - faced capuchin monkeys , cebus capucinus\n.\nthe white - headed capuchin has a long life span given its size . the maximum recorded life span in captivity is over 54 years .\nother names : black - capped capuchin , brown capuchin , guianan brown capuchin , tufted capuchin ; gekuifde kapucijnaap ( dutch ) ; sajon apelle ( french ) ; macaco prego ( spanish ) ; tjockhuvudtamarin , brun kapucin , gulbr\u00f6stad kapucin , m\u00f6sskapucin ( swedish ) ; c . a . apella : mono capuchin pardo ( spanish ) .\nfactors such as easier access to water and food may have to do with the white - headed capuchin ' s less extensive use of tools .\nperry , s . ( 1997 ) .\nmale - female social relationships in wild white - faced capuchin monkeys , cebus capucinus .\n.\nthe white - headed capuchin can eat a wide variety of fruits as well as caterpillars in the early rainy season ( june to november ) .\nthe black capuchin monkey ( cebus nigritus ) , is a capuchin monkey from south america . it is found in brazil and argentina . the robust tufted capuchin ( cebus nigritus robustus ) , is a subspecies of the black capuchin endemic to brazil . conservation status \u2013 vulnerable .\nthough the white - headed capuchin has perhaps the most extensive and most frequent tool use in comparison to the other gracile capuchins , its tool use is considerably inferior to that of robust capuchins , especially the tufted capuchin . factors such as easier access to water and food may have to do with the white - headed capuchin ' s less extensive use of tools .\nthe white - fronted capuchin is found in the countries of bolivia , brazil , colombia , ecuador , peru , and venezuela . this species prefers to live in primary and advanced secondary forests . this species prefers canopy trees over 30 meters high with crowns 55 meters in diameter ( kinzey , 1997 ) .\nthough the white - headed capuchin has perhaps the most extensive and most frequent tool use in comparison to the other gracile capuchins , its tool use is considerably inferior to that of robust capuchins , especially the tufted capuchin .\nlike other monkeys in the genus cebus , the white - headed capuchin is named after the order of capuchin friars \u2013 the cowls of these friars closely resemble the monkey ' s head coloration . the white - headed capuchin has mostly black fur , with white to yellow like fur on the neck , throat , chest , shoulders , and upper arms . the face is pink or a white - cream color and may have identifying marks such as dark brows or dark fur patches . an area of black fur on the crown of the head is distinctive . it has a prehensile tail that is often held coiled , giving the white - headed capuchin the nickname\nringtail\n.\nwhite - fronted capuchins help to disperse the seeds of fruits they eat in their feces . this may carry propagules to an area that might not normally be reached , far from the perimeter of the tree . ( terborgh , 1992 ) .\n1986 . boa constrictor predation and group response in white - faced cebus monkeys .\nalthough they engage in activity that has been described as\nterritorial\n, more recent research indicates that white - faced capuchin troops tend to behave aggressively to other white - faced capuchin troops regardless of where they meet , and the aggression is not necessarily intended to exclude the other troops from a specific home range .\nlike other capuchin monkeys , the white - headed capuchin matures slowly . sexual maturity is reached at 3 years . on average , females give birth for the first time at 7 years old and give birth every 26 months . males reach maturity at 10 years old . the white - headed capuchin has a long life span . the maximum recorded life span in captivity is over 54 years .\nthe small size of white - fronted capuchins makes them vulnerable to larger predators . these capuchins have adopted a loud alarm call which scares some predators off and may warn others in the group about the presence of predators ( smuts et al . , 1987 ) .\nand agoutis are attracted by feeding white - headed capuchins , looking for fruit that the capuchins drop . several species of bird are also known to follow white - headed capuchins looking for food . these include the double - toothed kite , the white hawk and the\nseveral non - primate animal species tend to follow troops of white - faced monkeys or are otherwise attracted by their presence . white - lipped peccaries and common agoutis are attracted by feeding white - headed capuchins , looking for fruit that the capuchins drop . several species of bird are also known to follow white - headed capuchins looking for food . these include the double - toothed kite , the white hawk and the sharp - shinned hawk .\ncapuchin monkey ,\nmindy ' s memory primate sanctuary website , 2007 .\nthe capuchin monkeys are the group of new world monkeys classified as genus cebus .\nare attracted by feeding white - headed capuchins , looking for fruit that the capuchins drop .\nlike other capuchin species , the white - headed capuchin matures slowly . sexual maturity can be reached at 3 years . but on average , females give birth for the first time at 7 years old and give birth every 26 months thereafter . males attain reproductive maturity at 10 years old . the white - headed capuchin has a long life span given its size . the maximum recorded life span in captivity is over 54 years .\nalthough south american capuchin species often travel with and feed together with squirrel monkeys , the white - headed capuchin only rarely associates with the central american squirrel monkey . this appears to be related to the patchier , more dispersed distribution of food resources in central america and the fact that there is less dietary overlap between the central american squirrel monkey and the white - headed capuchin than between their south american counterparts . therefore , there is less benefit to the central american squirrel monkey in associating with the white - headed capuchin in order to exploit the capuchin ' s knowledge of food resource distribution . in addition , compared to their south american counterparts , male white - headed capuchins are relatively more alert to rival males than to predators , reducing the predator detection benefits that the central american squirrel monkey receives from associating with the white - headed capuchin compared to its south american counterparts . since the squirrel monkeys generally initiate interactions with the capuchins in south america , the fact that similar associations would impose higher foraging costs and impart fewer predator detection benefits to the central american squirrel monkey leads to fewer associations with the white - headed capuchin .\ni haven\u2019t noticed reports in the scientific literature about stone tool use in the white - fronted capuchin , but some friends of mine ( juan medina , oscar valenzuela ) have repeatedly observed complex behaviors in this ecuadorian species . the best place to observe these behaviors is in the jungle town of misahualli , home of a wild population of white - fronted capuchins that has adapted to human city life . juan medina , a guide who spent much time in the town , tells me that just like the brazilian cebus apella , the monkeys there collect large pounding rocks along the rivers and carry them ( sometimes using both hands ) into the town , where they use them to break hard food objects . juan observed that they also use carefully - chosen sticks ( again , brought from a distance ) to dig out carpenter bee larvae from their tunnels . here is a short clip on youtube made by a visitor in misahualli . the stone tool use by the white - fronted capuchin is clearly visible :\nthe black - striped capuchin monkey ( cebus libidinosus ) , is a new world capuchin monkey from south america . it is found in brazil , argentina and paraguay .\nseveral non - primate animal species tend to follow troops of white - faced monkeys or are otherwise attracted by their presence . white - lipped peccaries and common agoutis are attracted by feeding white - headed capuchins , looking for fruit that the capuchins drop . [ 38 ] several species of bird are also known to follow white - headed capuchins looking for food . these include the double - toothed kite , the white hawk and the sharp - shinned hawk . [ 38 ]\nthe white - headed capuchin sometimes interacts with other sympatric monkey species . white - headed capuchins sometimes travel with and even groom geoffroy ' s spider monkeys . however , aggressive interactions between the capuchins and spider monkeys also occur . interactions between the white - headed capuchin and mantled howler are infrequent , and sometimes result in the capuchins threatening the larger howlers . however , affiliative associations between the capuchins and howlers do sometimes occur , mostly involving juveniles playing together .\nthe white - headed capuchin sometimes interacts with other sympatric monkey species . white - headed capuchins sometimes travel with and even groom geoffroy ' s spider monkeys . however , aggressive interactions between the capuchins and spider monkeys also occur . interactions between the white - headed capuchin and mantled howler are infrequent , and sometimes result in the capuchins threatening the larger howlers . however , affiliative associations between the capuchins and howlers do sometimes occur , mostly involving juveniles playing together .\nblond capuchin , cebus queirozi ( new species , mendes pontes et al . 2006 )\nthe white - headed capuchin ' s intelligence and ability to use tools allows them to be trained to assist paraplegics . other species of capuchin monkeys are also trained in this manner . white - headed capuchins can also be trained for roles on television and movies , such as marcel on the television series friends . they were also traditionally used as organ grinder monkeys .\nthe white - headed capuchin ' s intelligence and ability to use tools allows them to be trained to assist paraplegics . other species of capuchin monkeys are also trained in this manner . white - headed capuchins can also be trained for roles on television and movies , such as marcel on the television series friends . they were also traditionally used as organ grinder monkeys .\nthe white - headed capuchin has mostly black fur . it has white or yellow fur on the neck , throat , chest , shoulders , and upper arms . the face is pink or a white - cream color . the face can sometimes have marks like dark brows or dark fur patches . there is also an area of black fur on the top of the head .\nalthough south american capuchin species often travel with and feed together with squirrel monkeys , the white - headed capuchin only rarely associates with the central american squirrel monkey . this appears to be related to the patchier , more dispersed distribution of food resources in central america and the fact that there is less dietary overlap between the central american squirrel monkey and the white - headed capuchin than between their south american counterparts . therefore , there is less benefit to the central american squirrel monkey in associating with the white - headed capuchin in order to exploit the capuchin ' s knowledge of food resource distribution . in addition , compared to their south american counterparts , male white - headed capuchins are relatively more alert to rival males than to predators , reducing the predator detection benefits that the central american squirrel monkey receives from associating with the white - headed capuchin compared to its south american counterparts . since the squirrel monkeys generally initiate interactions with the capuchins in south america , the fact that similar associations would impose higher foraging costs and impart fewer predator detection benefits to the central american squirrel monkey leads to fewer associations with the white - headed capuchin . [ 13 ] [ 43 ] [ 44 ] [ 45 ]\nlike other capuchin monkeys , the white - headed capuchin matures slowly . sexual maturity is reached at 3 years . [ 57 ] on average , females give birth for the first time at 7 years old and give birth every 26 months . [ 13 ] males reach maturity at 10 years old . [ 13 ] the white - headed capuchin has a long life span . the maximum recorded life span in captivity is over 54 years . [ 13 ]\nperry s . rose l . ( 1994 ) . begging and transfer of coati meat by white - faced capuchin monkeys , cebus capucinus . primates 35 ( 4 ) : 409 - 415\nthe white - headed capuchin also uses tools in other ways . it has been known to beat snakes with sticks in order to protect itself or to get the snake to release an infant .\nthe white - headed capuchin can adapt to forest fragmentation better than other species due to its ability to live in a wide variety of forest types and exploit a wide variety of food sources .\ncapuchin monkeys belong to the cebidae family with the marmosets , tamarins , and squirrel monkeys .\n. this appears to be related to the patchier , more dispersed distribution of food resources in central america and the fact that there is less dietary overlap between the central american squirrel monkey and the white - headed capuchin than between their south american counterparts . therefore , there is less benefit to the central american squirrel monkey in associating with the white - headed capuchin in order to exploit the capuchin ' s knowledge of food resource distribution . in addition , compared to their south american counterparts , male white - headed capuchins are relatively more alert to rival males than to predators , reducing the predator detection benefits that the central american squirrel monkey receives from associating with the white - headed capuchin compared to its south american counterparts . since the squirrel monkeys generally initiate interactions with the capuchins in south america , the fact that similar associations would impose higher foraging costs and impart fewer predator detection benefits to the central american squirrel monkey leads to fewer associations with the white - headed capuchin .\nperry , s . , manson , j . & barrett , h . c . ( 2004 ) .\nwhite - faced capuchin monkeys exhibit triadic awareness in their choice of allies .\n.\nwhite - faced capuchin troops occupy home ranges of between 32 and 86 hectares ( 79 and 213 acres ) . they travel between 1 and 3 kilometres ( 0 . 62 and 1 . 86 mi ) daily , averaging 2 kilometres ( 1 . 2 mi ) per day . although they engage in activity that has been described as\nterritorial\n, more recent research indicates that white - faced capuchin troops tend to behave aggressively to other white - faced capuchin troops regardless of where they meet , and the aggression is not necessarily intended to exclude the other troops from a specific home range .\nperry , s . ; manson , j . & barrett , h . c . ( 2004 ) .\nwhite - faced capuchin monkeys exhibit triadic awareness in their choice of allies .\n.\nwhite - faced capuchin troops occupy home ranges of between 32 and 86 hectares ( 79 and 213 acres ) . they travel between 1 and 3 kilometres ( 0 . 62 and 1 . 86 mi ) daily , averaging 2 kilometres ( 1 . 2 mi ) per day . although they engage in activity that has been described as\nterritorial\n, more recent research indicates that white - faced capuchin troops tend to behave aggressively to other white - faced capuchin troops regardless of where they meet , and the aggression is not necessarily intended to exclude the other troops from a specific home range .\none white - faced capuchin monkey sticks its fingers deep into the eye sockets of another capuchin it ' s friends with . a capuchin uses her ally ' s body parts to whack their common enemy . these behaviors become entrenched in the repertoires of the inventors . but in the first case , the behavior spreads to other group members , and in the second case it does not .\nthe white - headed capuchin is regarded as\nleast concern\nfrom a conservation standpoint by iucn . however , its numbers are affected by the fact that it is sometimes captured for the pet trade . its status can also be harmed by deforestation . however , deforestation may also impact its main predator , the harpy eagle , more than it directly impacts the white - headed capuchin , and so on a net basis deforestation may not be as harmful to the capuchin ' s status . the white - headed capuchin can adapt to forest fragmentation better than other species due to its ability to live in a wide variety of forest types and exploit a wide variety of food sources . the white - headed capuchin is important to its ecosystems as a seed and pollen disperser . it also impacts the ecosystem by eating insects that act as pests to certain trees , by pruning certain trees , such as\nseveral species of bird are also known to follow white - headed capuchins looking for food . these include the\nenglish : brown or tufted capuchin ; french : sapajou apelle ; spanish : capuchino de copete .\nthe range of the capuchin monkeys includes central america ( honduras ) and middle south america ( middle brazil , eastern peru , paraguay ) . capuchin monkeys generally resemble the friars of their namesake .\nthe white - headed capuchin was one of the many species originally described by linnaeus in his 18th century work , systema naturae . it is a member of the family cebidae , the family of new world monkeys containing capuchin monkeys , squirrel monkeys , tamarins and marmosets . it is the type species for the genus cebus , the genus that includes all the capuchin monkeys . it is a member of the\nthe kaapori capuchin monkey ( cebus kaapori ) is a capuchin monkey endemic to brazil . this species is found in the brazilian states of para and maranhao . formerly considered a subspecies of the weeper capuchin ( cebus olivaceus ) , it was recently elevated to species status . conservation status \u2013 vulnerable .\ncapuchin monkeys belong to the new world monkey group , native only to central and south america . the capuchin monkey is active during the day and generally lives and travels through trees . [ 1 ]\n, causing them generate more branches and possibly additional fruit , and by accelerating germination of certain seeds when they pass through the capuchin ' s digestive tract . in addition , the white - headed capuchin sometimes kills acacia collinsii plants when it rips through the plant ' s branches to get to resident ant colonies .\nthe white - headed capuchin sometimes interacts with other sympatric monkey species . white - headed capuchins sometimes travel with and even groom geoffroy ' s spider monkeys . [ 11 ] [ 38 ] however , aggressive interactions between the capuchins and spider monkeys also occur . [ 42 ] interactions between the white - headed capuchin and mantled howler are infrequent , and sometimes result in the capuchins threatening the larger howlers . [ 38 ] however , affiliative associations between the capuchins and howlers do sometimes occur , mostly involving juveniles playing together . [ 42 ]\nwhite - faced capuchin troops occupy home ranges of between 32 and 86 hectares ( 79 and 213 acres ) . [ 11 ] they travel between 1 and 3 kilometres ( 0 . 62 and 1 . 86 mi ) daily , averaging 2 kilometres ( 1 . 2 mi ) per day . [ 38 ] although they engage in activity that has been described as\nterritorial\n, more recent research indicates that white - faced capuchin troops tend to behave aggressively to other white - faced capuchin troops regardless of where they meet , and the aggression is not necessarily intended to exclude the other troops from a specific home range . [ 39 ]\nthe white - headed capuchin ' s intelligence and ability to use tools allows them to be trained to assist paraplegics . [ 54 ] other species of capuchin monkeys are also trained in this manner . [ 55 ] white - headed capuchins can also be trained for roles on television and movies , such as marcel on the television series friends . [ 56 ] they were also traditionally used as organ grinder monkeys . [ 57 ]\nfruit can make up between 50 % and 67 % or more of the capuchin ' s diet .\noccasionally eats insects or other small invertebrates . according to a year - long study in peru ' s manu national park , white - fronted capuchins only seek out invertebrates when traveling to fruiting trees , or when droughts reduce fruit availability . other food sources in times of drought include palm nuts , figs , and nectar . ( terborgh , 1992 ) .\nthe weeper capuchin monkey ( cebus olivaceus ) , is a new world capuchin monkey from south america . it is found in brazil , guyana , french guiana , suriname and venezuela . conservation status \u2013 least concern .\nthe white - faced capuchin ( c . capucinus ) is found in central america from the southern region of mexico , south into colombia . white - faced capuchins live in dry or wet forests , and in mangroves . the color of their fur is pale cream to white on their bellies and the upper parts of their arms and legs , with black fur on their backs and lower limbs . they have white fur on their faces and a black cap . many older white - faced capuchins have a ruff ( fringe ) of hair on their foreheads and crowns . the average weight for males is 7 lb ( 3 . 5 kg ) and 5 lb ( 2 . 5 kg ) for females .\nin captivity , it has been known to use tools to get to food or to defend itself , and in one case a white - headed capuchin used a squirrel monkey as a projectile , hurling it at a human observer .\nthe large - headed capuchin monkey ( cebus apella macrocephalus ) , is a subspecies of the tufted capuchin from south america . it is found in brazil , colombia , ecuador and peru . conservation status \u2013 least concern .\nperry , s . ( 1996 ) .\nintergroup encounters in wild white - faced capuchins , cebus capucinus .\n.\nseveral non - primate animal species tend to follow troops of white - faced monkeys or are otherwise attracted by their presence .\nthe diet of the capuchin monkey is more varied than other monkeys in the family cebidae . capuchin monkeys are omnivores , eating not only fruits , nuts , seeds and buds , but also insects , spiders , bird eggs and small vertebrates . capuchin monkeys living near water will also eat crabs and shellfish by cracking their shells with stones .\nthe white - fronted capuchin monkey ( cebus albifrons ) , is a new world primate , endemic to six different countries in south america : bolivia , brazil , colombia , venezuela , ecuador and peru . the species is also divided into several different subspecies . just like any other capuchin monkey , it is also an omnivorous animal , feeding primarily on fruits , although it can also eat invertebrates and other plant parts . it is a polygamous animal and lives on fairly large groups ( 15 up to 35 individuals ) , giving birth to a single young at 2 year intervals . conservation status \u2013 least concern .\nperry , s . ( 1996 . ) .\nintergroup encounters in wild white - faced capuchins , cebus capucinus .\n.\nthe face is pink or a white - cream color and may have identifying marks such as dark brows or dark fur patches .\nthe white - headed capuchin has mostly black fur . it has white or yellow fur on the neck , throat , chest , shoulders , and upper arms . [ 8 ] the face is pink or a white - cream color . the face can sometimes have marks like dark brows or dark fur patches . [ 8 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] there is also an area of black fur on the top of the head . [ 8 ] [ 11 ] [ 8 ] [ 12 ]\nwhite - headed capuchins have mostly black fur , with white to yellowish fur around the naked , pinkish face and on the shoulders ; and , of course , white throats . a v - shaped area of black fur on the crown of the head is distinctive . the tip of the tail is often held coiled , giving white - headed capuchins the nickname \u2018ringtail\u2019 . adults may reach a length of 435 millimetres and a weight of 3 . 9 kilograms . their tail is prehensile . conservation status \u2013 least concern .\nboinski , s .\nuse of a club by a wild white - faced capuchin ( cebus capucinus ) to attack a venomous snake ( bathrops asper ) .\namerican journal of primatology 4 , no . 2 ( 1998 ) : 177\u2013179 .\none of the unusual features of the kinship structure of the white - headed capuchin , relative to other primate species , is the high degree of relatedness within groups that results from the long tenures of alpha males who sire most of the offspring .\ngroup size ranges from 15 to 35 members . groups are typically led by a dominant male and female . aggressive interactions constitute only about 10 % of social interactions . white - fronted capuchins are highly social and spend a lot of time in reciprocal grooming , however , dominant males and females receive a large proportion of grooming and rarely groom other individuals ( smuts et al . , 1987 ) .\nthe blond capuchin monkey ( cebus queirozi ) is a claimed new capuchin monkey species that was discovered in early 2006 by zoology researchers from the federal university in pernambuco , near recife , northeastern brazil . pontes said that \u2018as soon as i saw the monkey with its golden - yellow hair and the white tiara on its head , i knew it was a new species\u2019 .\nthe diet can vary between the rainy and dry season . for example , in guanacaste , costa rica the white - headed capuchin can eat a wide variety of fruits as well as caterpillars in the early rainy season ( june to november ) . but during the dry season , only figs and a few other types of fruit are available . during the dry season , chitinous insects , ant and wasp larvae and vertebrates become a particularly important part of the white - headed capuchin ' s diet . access to water can also become an issue during the dry season . the white - headed capuchin likes to drink daily , so in forests where water holes dry up during the dry season , there can be competition between troops over access to the remaining water holes .\nthe diet can vary between the rainy and dry season . for example , in guanacaste , costa rica the white - headed capuchin can eat a wide variety of fruits as well as caterpillars in the early rainy season ( june to november ) . but during the dry season , only figs and a few other types of fruit are available . during the dry season , chitinous insects , ant and wasp larvae and vertebrates become a particularly important part of the white - headed capuchin ' s diet . access to water can also become an issue during the dry season . the white - headed capuchin likes to drink daily , so in forests where water holes dry up during the dry season , there can be competition between troops over access to the remaining water holes .\nare threatened by habitat destruction due to logging and forest clearing . they are not currently endangered because their habitats continue to be fairly widespread and population numbers remain fairly high . white - fronted capuchins are also hunted for meat in some areas . while this hunting is not excessive and simply maintains the population at a slightly lower level , it is a potential threat ( smuts et al . , 1987 ) .\nperry , s . ( 1998 ) .\nmale - male social relationships in wild white - faced capuchins , cebus capucinus .\n.\naccess to water can also become an issue during the dry season . the white - headed capuchin likes to drink daily , so in forests where water holes dry up during the dry season , there can be competition between troops over access to the remaining water holes .\nthe tufted capuchin monkey ( cebus apella ) , also known as brown capuchin or black - capped capuchin is a new world primate from south america . it is one of the more widespread species of primates in the neotropics . tufted capuchins are omnivorous animals , mostly feeding on fruits and invertebrates , although they sometimes feed on small vertebrates ( lizards and bird chicks ) and other plant parts .\nthe diet can vary between the rainy and dry season . for example , in guanacaste , costa rica the white - headed capuchin can eat a wide variety of fruits as well as caterpillars in the early rainy season ( june to november ) . [ 47 ] but during the dry season , only figs and a few other types of fruit are available . [ 47 ] during the dry season , chitinous insects , ant and wasp larvae and vertebrates become a particularly important part of the white - headed capuchin ' s diet . [ 47 ] access to water can also become an issue during the dry season . the white - headed capuchin likes to drink daily , so in forests where water holes dry up during the dry season , there can be competition between troops over access to the remaining water holes . [ 47 ]\n, 1975 . comparison of the behavior and ecology of red colobus and black - and - white colobus monkeys in uganda : a summary . in :\nthe white - headed capuchin also uses tools in other ways . it has been known to beat snakes with sticks in order to protect itself or to get the snake to release an infant . in captivity , it has been known to use tools to get to food or to defend itself , and in one case a white - headed capuchin used a squirrel monkey as a projectile , hurling it at a human observer . some populations also use trees or other hard surfaces as anvils in order to crack mollusks . and it sometimes uses sticks as probes to explore openings .\nduring the mosquito season , capuchin monkeys crush up millipedes and rub the remains on their backs . this acts as a natural insect repellent .\nit is very common in costa rica and panama , but the monkey has been thrown out from honduras and much of nicaragua . many honduran capuchin monkeys were captured and relocated to the island of roat\u00e1n , and many nicaraguan capuchin monkeys were captured and relocated to the island of ometepe .\nit is very common in costa rica and panama , but the monkey has been thrown out from honduras and much of nicaragua . many honduran capuchin monkeys were captured and relocated to the island of roat\u00e1n , and many nicaraguan capuchin monkeys were captured and relocated to the island of ometepe .\nthe white - headed capuchin also uses tools in other ways . it has been known to beat snakes with sticks in order to protect itself or to get the snake to release an infant . in captivity , it has been known to use tools to get to food or to defend itself , and in one case a white - headed capuchin used a squirrel monkey as a projectile , hurling it at a human observer . it has been historically noted that the species is often able to recognize , and therefore avoid baited cage traps , and hidden net snares are often the only way to capture this monkey .\nagile and lean , capuchin monkeys weigh only 3 - 9 pounds ( 1 . 36 - 4 . 9 kilograms ) . the fur of the capuchin monkey varies , but is most commonly seen with cream or light tan coloring around the face , neck and shoulders . the rest of its coat is dark brown . the hair is shorter and darker on the capuchin ' s back than on other parts of its body . the face of this cute monkey will range from white to pink in color . the tail is long , covered in hair and is partially able to wrap around branches .\nthe white - headed capuchin lives in central america and a small part of south america . in central america , its home includes honduras , nicaragua , costa rica and panama . it has also been seen in eastern guatemala and southern belize , but these reports are unconfirmed . in south america the white - headed capuchin lives in the extreme north - western part between the pacific ocean and the andes mountains in colombia and ecuador . it is among the most commonly seen monkeys in central america ' s national parks , such as manuel antonio national park , corcovado national park , santa rosa national park and soberania national park .\nperry , s . ( 1998 ) .\nmale - male social relationships in wild white - faced capuchins , cebus capucinus .\n. behaviour 135 : 1\u201334 .\ncapuchin monkeys live in central america and south america . they make their home in trees , traveling during the day and sleeping in the trees at night .\n. it is mostly black , but with a pink face and white on much of the front part of the body , giving it its common name . it has a distinctive\nthe white - headed capuchin is found in much of central america and a small portion of south america . in central america , its range includes much of honduras , nicaragua , costa rica and panama . it has also been reported to occur in eastern guatemala and southern belize , but these reports are unconfirmed . in south america the white - headed capuchin is found in the extreme north - western strip between the pacific ocean and the andes mountains in colombia and northwestern ecuador . it is among the most commonly seen monkeys in central america ' s national parks , such as manuel antonio national park , corcovado national park , santa rosa national park and soberania national park .\ncapuchin monkeys are featured in the movies outbreak , pirates of the caribbean : the curse of the black pearl ( and its sequels ) , the zookeeper film , george of the jungle , and the hangover part ii . ross geller ( david schwimmer ) on the nbc sitcom friends had a capuchin monkey named marcel .\nuniversity of california - los angeles .\nhow new behaviors appear and spread among capuchin monkeys .\nsciencedaily . urltoken ( accessed august 25 , 2017 ) .\nthe white - headed capuchin lives in central america and a small part of south america . in central america , its home includes honduras , nicaragua , costa rica and panama . [ 3 ] it has also been seen in eastern guatemala and southern belize , but these reports are unconfirmed . [ 3 ] in south america the white - headed capuchin lives in the extreme north - western part between the pacific ocean and the andes mountains in colombia and ecuador . [ 3 ] it is among the most commonly seen monkeys in central america ' s national parks , such as manuel antonio national park , corcovado national park , santa rosa national park and soberania national park . [ 63 ]\nmanson jh , gros - louis j , perry s ( 2004 ) .\nthree apparent cases of infanticide by males in wild white - faced capuchins ( cebus capucinus )\n.\nis one of the smaller species of the capuchin group . the head is small in comparison to the body and the torso is slender with long , narrow limbs .\nwhen presented with a reflection , capuchin monkeys react in a way that indicates an intermediate state between seeing the mirror as another individual and recognizing the image as self .\ntheir body , arms , legs and tail are all darkly ( black or brown ) coloured , while the face , throat and chest are white coloured and their head has a black cap . capuchin monkeys reach a length of 30 to 56 centimetres ( 12 \u2013 22 inches ) , with tails that are just as long as their body . capuchin monkeys weigh up to 1 . 3 kilograms ( 2 \u2013 3 pounds ) , with brains of mass 35 \u2013 40 grams . they are considered the most intelligent new world monkeys .\nthe white - headed capuchin has a polygamous mating system . the male can mate with many females . the dominant male usually fathers most of the young . the dominant male is more likely to mate when the female is the most fertile . dominant males avoid breeding with their own daughters who are members of the troop . this is rare among new world monkeys .\njack , k . & fedigan , l . ( 2004 ) .\nmale dispersal patterns in white - faced capuchins , cebus capucinus part 1 : patterns and causes of natal emigration\n.\njack , k . & fedigan , l . ( 2004 ) .\nmale dispersal patterns in white - faced capuchins , cebus capucinus part 2 : patterns and causes of secondary dispersal\n.\nmanson jh , gros - louis j , & perry s . ( 2004 ) .\nthree apparent cases of infanticide by males in wild white - faced capuchins ( cebus capucinus )\n.\nalso , higher densities of white - headed capuchins are found in older areas of forest and in areas containing evergreen forest , as well as areas with more water availability during the dry season .\nweeper capuchins ( c . nigrivittatus ) are found north of the amazon and north and east of the rio negro in brazil , the guianas , and central venezuela . females weigh less than 5 lb ( 2 . 5 kg ) and males weigh around 6 lb ( 3 kg ) . their colorings are like the white - faced capuchins but there is less contrast between the dark and light colors . they have a narrow crown patch that comes to a marked point on their foreheads . they also live in dry and wet forests and mangroves as do the white - faced capuchin .\nwhite - fronted capuchins are a monkey of the new world and one of the smallest within the capuchin group . their head is small compared to their body , their torso is slender and they have long , narrow limbs . they are a light brown color on their back and lighter underneath , often in shades of red and yellow . the fur on their back is long and soft , in contrast to the short coarser fur of their underparts . the crown of their head has a dark , round patch . females sometimes possess a tuft of hair behind this patch . their face is sparsely covered with pale colored hair , through which their peach - colored flesh can be seen . the color of their limbs ranges from yellows to reddy browns . the males are larger than females and the male\u2019s tail may have a lighter tip ."]}
{"id": 37, "summary": [{"text": "the black carp ( mylopharyngodon piceus ) or black chinese roach is a species of cyprinid fish and the sole species of the genus mylopharyngodon .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is native to lakes and rivers in east asia , ranging from the amur basin , through china , to vietnam .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is widely cultivated for food and chinese medicine .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the black carp can reach up to 1.8 m ( 5.9 ft ) in length and 35 kg ( 77 lb ) in weight .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it generally feeds on snails and mussels .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the average length is 60 \u2013 120 cm ( 23.5 \u2013 47 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "black carp , together with bighead , silver , and grass carps , make up the culturally important \" four famous domestic fishes \" used in polyculture in china for over a thousand years , and known as \" asian carp \" in the united states .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "black carp are not as widely distributed worldwide as the other three .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "in china , black carp are the most highly esteemed and expensive foodfish among the four domestic fishes , and partly because of its diet and limited food supply , is the most scarce and expensive in the marketplace . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "black carp", "paragraphs": ["more information on black carp and black carp distribution in the united states : u . s . geological survey animated map * u . s . geological survey black carp fact sheet identification of black carp and grass carp\nurltoken - black carp university of georgia . center for invasive species and ecosystem health .\nfws fact sheet on black carp draft environmental assesment draft economic analysis asian carp prevention and control act ( hr . 3049 and s . 1402 )\nblack carp ( jul 2002 ; pdf | 449 kb ) doi . fws . invasive species program .\nblack carp feed on mollusks and snails , consuming up to 20 % of their body weight per day .\nblack carp found at river mile 137 of illinois river in april of 2017 . photo courtesy of aaron roberts\nwhile adult black carp have been found sporadically in the mississippi , the november discovery near cape girardeau of juvenile fish among the hundreds of fish caught showed the black carp population in the river is higher than scientists expected , missouri department of conservation resource scientist quinton phelps said , and that there\u2019s a \u201chigh probability\u201d that more black carp were caught .\nwhat to do if you think you have found an asian carp ( 2010 ; pdf | 584 kb ) asian carp regional coordinating committee . see asian carp newsroom for updated news regarding asian carp response in the midwest .\nresembles many of the carp species in the united states . including its asian cousins : grass carp ( ctenopharyngodon idella ) silver carp ( hypophthalmichthys molitrix ) largescale silver carp ( hypophthalmichthys harmandi ) bighead carp ( hypophthalmichthys nobilis ) common goldfish ( carassius auratus ) crucian carp ( carassius carassius ) mud carp ( cirrhinus molitorella ) also resembles the common carp ( cyprinus carpio ) ( common carp are european , not asian , and are sometimes considered\nnative\nbecause they have been in the us since the 1800s )\na black carp captured this april in the illinois river by a commercial fisher highlights a unique partnership between fishers , the illinois department of natural resources , and southern illinois university . for surrendering this black carp , the commercial fisher received a $ 100 bounty , and in turn , helped resource agencies learn a little more about the range of black carp in the illinois river . the black carp was found south of peoria , illinois near copperas creek lock and extends the upstream detection of the species by 110 miles .\nnonindigenous aquatic species database . fact sheet - black carp . usgs , gainesville , fl . [ accessed sep 16 , 2014 ] .\nu . s . present : the black carp has been reported in arkansas , illinois , mississippi , and missouri . texas : while the black carp has been used in aquaculture in states as close as louisiana for decades , currently there are no reported texas invasions .\nillustrations and detailed information useful for the positive identification of this species appear in nico et al . ( 2005 ) and schofield et al . ( 2005 ) . an identification key to introduced asian carps and other cyprinids , including black carp , is provided by schofield et al . ( 2005 ) . the black carp closely resembles the grass carp ctenopharyngodon idella . the two species are similar in overall body shape , size and placement of fins . both black carp and grass carp have very large scales . in contrast to grass carp , the black carp is slightly darker in coloration ( not black ) and its pharyngeal teeth ( throat teeth ) are large and similar in appearance to human molars , an adaptation for crushing the shells of mollusks ( nico et al . 2005 ) commercial fishers in louisiana have noted that black carp also have a somewhat pointed snout , a character they find useful in distinguishing it from grass carp . juveniles and larvae may be difficult to distinguish from those of grass carp and certain other cyprinids . illustrations and descriptions of juvenile and larval asian carps , including black carp , appear in nico et al . ( 2005 ) and chapman ( 2006 ) .\nthe black carp is one of four species of asian carp that threaten waterways in the central united states . as molluscivores , black carps consume native freshwater mussels and snails that live in our large rivers . 26 freshwater mussel species native to illinois are state - threatened or endangered , twelve of which are federally listed . the asian carp regional coordinating committee\u2019s collaborative 2017 asian carp action plan recognizes the informational needs for black carp control and management , and is further addressing this need in the annual monitoring and response plan which focuses on the upper illinois waterway .\ncommercial fishers are valuable in the cooperative effort to better understand black carp because they are skilled in fishing large rivers throughout the region . beyond the illinois river , the bounty program also accounts for the majority of adult black carp reported in the rest of the country . in addition to commercial fishers , recreational anglers and bowfishers should be aware of these invasive fish and what to do if one is harvested . in appearance , black carp closely resemble the more common grass carp , another asian carp which is also found in large rivers of the central united states . proper identification of black carps is an essential component of the bounty program .\nthere is high potential that the black carp would negatively impact native aquatic communities by feeding on , and reducing , populations of native mussels and snails , many of which are considered endangered or threatened ( nico et al . 2005 ) . given their size and diet preferences , black carp have the potential to restructure benthic communities by direct predation and removal of algae - grazing snails . mussel beds consisting of smaller individuals and juvenile recruits are probably most vulnerable to being consumed by black carp ( nico et al . 2005 ) . furthermore , based on the fact that black carp attain a large size ( well over 1 meter long ) , both juvenile and adult mussels and snails of many species would be vulnerable to predation by this fish ( nico et al . 2005 ) . fish farmers report that black carp are very effective in reducing the numbers of snails in some ponds . recently , wui and engle ( 2007 ) argued that black carp can eliminate 100 % of the snails in a single pond . although their assumption that black carp are capable of eliminating all common pond snails in ponds is open to debate , the effectiveness of black carp in significantly reducing snail populations in aquaculture ponds indicates that any black carp occurring in the wild may cause significant declines in certain native mollusk populations in north american streams and lakes ( nico et al . 2005 ) . because the life span of black carp is reportedly over 15 years , sterile triploid black carp in the wild would be expected to persist many years and therefore have the potential to cause harm native mollusks by way of predation ( nico et al . 2005 ) .\nblack carp would compete with mollusk - eating native fish , including freshwater drum , redhorse species and the state threatened lake sturgeon , for limited food resources .\nthere is high potential that the black carp will negatively impact native aquatic communities by feeding on , and reducing , populations of native mussels and snails , many of which are considered endangered or threatened . given their size and diet preferences , black carp also have the potential to restructure benthic communities by direct predation and removal of algae - grazing snails and native mussels . furthermore , because the black carp can attain a large size ( well over 1 meter long ) , juvenile and adult mussels and many species of snails would be vulnerable to predation . since the life span of the black carp is reportedly over 15 years , sterile triploid black carp in the wild are expected to persist many years and therefore have the potential to cause harm native mollusks by way of predation . also , black carp juveniles feed on zooplankton and insect larvae while adults feed on benthic invertebrates such as snails and mussels , so many different resources maybe become exhausted .\nchick et al . ( 2003 ) believed that their illinois capture was the first wild record of black carp in the united states , but nico et al . ( 2005 ) provided new information indicating that louisiana commercial fishers had been collecting black carp in louisiana since the early 1990s . however , until recently the louisiana commercial fishers thought that the black carp in their nets were just an unusual type of grass carp\u2014somewhat darker and with a higher dorsal fin and more pointed head or snout ( nico et al . 2005 : xiii ) . the black carp that escaped in missouri may have been triploid and thus considered sterile ( anonymous 1994b ) . however , it also was rumored that these fish may have been brood stock . all wild black carp examined to date taken in louisiana waters have been found to be diploid ( nico et al . 2005 ) .\nnonindigenous aquatic species database : point map - black carp doi . usgs . wetland and aquatic research center . provides detailed collection information as well as animated map .\nbecause it\u2019s a federal offense to carry a live black carp across state lines , anyone who finds one should kill it and try to bring it to authorities without freezing it , said chapman , who is expecting to get funding this fall to develop a bait that targets black carp while not endangering other species or the public .\nblack carp , like the other asian carps , are able to invade novel habitats and ecosystems readily due to a variety of factors . first , the carp are aggressive and prodigious feeders . individuals may consume as much as 20 % of their body mass in one day . further , black carp are explosive breeders . gaining sexual maturity after a few years , these carp may lay hundreds of thousands of eggs in one brood . unfortunately , as the carp mature and grow they produce even more eggs and increase their fecundity , allowing for further invasions .\nnonindigenous aquatic species database : fact sheet - black carp doi . usgs . wetland and aquatic research center . provides distribution maps and collection information ( state and county ) .\nblack carp was first imported into the united states in the 1970s , and by the 1990s this species was being used in fish farms in several southern states to control pond snails . black carp were reported as having escaped into the osage river from a missouri fish farm during a major flood in april 1994 . due to its widespread use to control snails , escapees from aquaculture ponds have probably added to the wild population . during recent years there have been reports of black carp being captured in the wild . the first published report was that of a single black carp taken by a commercial fisher from horseshoe lake in southern illinois in march 2003 . other reports of captures have surfaced since .\nvoucher preserved specimens of the two wild - caught black carp taken in illinois are deposited in the ichthyological collection of southern illinois university - carbondale . several wild - caught black carp taken in louisiana waters were preserved and are in the possession of biologists at louisiana state university and at the u . s . geological survey - gainesville center in florida .\ndevaney et al . ( 2009 ) performed ecological niche modeling to examine the invasion potential for black carp and three other invasive cyprinids ( grass carp ctenopharyngodon idella , common carp cyprinus carpio , and tench tinca tinca ) . the majority of the u . s . between the mississippi river basin and the atlantic coast had a moderate to high predicted ecological suitability for this species , with the mississippi river drainage ( where individuals of black carp have been caught in the wild ) having the highest overall predicted suitability .\nin aquaculture ponds ( nico et al . 2005 ) . the first known record of an introduction of black carp into open waters occurred in missouri in 1994 when thirty or more black carp along with several thousand bighead carp reportedly escaped into the osage river , missouri river drainage , when high water flooded hatchery ponds at an aquaculture facility near lake of the ozarks . recently , owners of the missouri facility where the escapes reportedly took place have denied that black carp ever escaped from their facility ( nico et al . 2005 ) . in any case , flooding of aquaculture facilities and associated numbers and types of escaped fishes are very poorly documented in the public record . there is evidence that large portions of the lower mississippi river basin where aquaculture farms are present have been subject to large - scale floods on a number of occasions over the past few decades . consequently , it is likely that the source of some or all of the black carp present in the lower mississippi river basin . nearly all fish farms with black carp are in lowland areas and flood events increase the probability that more black carp will eventually escape fish farms ( nico et al . 2005 : 245 ) . there is also risk that black carp may be spread by other means . according to one aquaculture farmer , hundreds of young black carp were accidentally included in shipments of live baitfish sent from arkansas to bait dealers in missouri as early as 1994 ( nico et al . 2004 : 5 ) . in addition , because of the continued widespread distribution of grass carp across the united states , there remains the possibility that shipments may inadvertently contain black carp ( nico et al . 2005 ) . juveniles , in particular , are difficult to distinguish from grass carp young . as such , nico et al . ( 2005 ) expressed concern over the increased risk that the species be misidentified and unintentionally introduced as\ngrass carp\nto some areas .\nblack carp have been used in the aquaculture industry for decades so its removal in the near future seems unlikely . however , scientists , worried about an escape / colonization event , have urged fish farmers to use triploid black carp . these triploid individuals are sterile , so even if they do escape it will not lead to a breeding population . in fact , it is not illegal ( thanks to the lacey act ) to transport viable black carp across states . the lacey act has largely prevented the unwanted spread of black carp across the us . there is evidence that wild populations of black carp may have been present in the lower mississippi river basin , largely in and around the red river of louisiana , since the early 1990s . reproduction in the mississippi river has not been documented , but new information and recent collections suggest this species has likely established in the lower part of the mississippi basin .\nthe black carp is a blackish brown fish with blackish grey fins , an elongated and laterally compressed body . they average more than 3 feet in length and 33 pounds in weight , but can reach 5 feet in length and weigh up to 150 pounds . individuals of the species are known to live for at least 15 years . young black carp are difficult to distinguish from young grass carp ( ctenopharyngodon idella ) , another non - native species .\nmississippi national river and recreation area - asian carp overview doi . national park service .\nofficials are asking the public to help stop the spread of black carp by not dumping their bait buckets indiscriminately and stocking ponds with fish from licensed vendors , phelps said . and in some states along the mississippi \u2014 including missouri , ohio , illinois and tennessee \u2014 any black carp caught in the wild can earn a $ 100 reward from southern illinois university , using money from the illinois department of resources .\nthe native range of black carp includes most major pacific ocean drainages of eastern asia from the amur river basin south to the west - pearl river basin , and possibly the red river of northern vietnam .\npriority species : asian carp washington state recreation and conservation office . washington invasive species council .\nben - ami , f . , & heller , j . 2001 . biological control of aquatic pest snails by the black carp mylopharyngodon piceus . biological control , 22 ( 2 ) , 131 - 138 .\nthe black carp is a bottom - dwelling molluscivore that has been used by u . s . fish farmers to prey on and control disease - carrying snails in their farm ponds ; more recently , this species has been proposed as a biological control for the introduced zebra mussel dreissena polymorpha . although the subject has been debated , to date , there is no experimental evidence that indicates black carp would be effective in controlling zebra mussels . because black carp do not have jaw teeth and their mouths are relatively small , it is unlikely that these fish are capable of breaking apart zebra mussel rafts ( nico et al . 2005 ) .\naquatic invasive species : black carp ( apr 2009 ; pdf | 216 kb ) indiana department of natural resources . see also : invasive species for exotic animal and plant pests invading indiana , causing economic and visual damage\nif they become established in the great lakes , black carp could pose a major threat to michigan\u2019s native mussel populations , many of which are endangered , threatened , of special concern , or in need of conservation .\nu . s . habitat : a freshwater fish , the black carp has found suitable habitat in the united states . the great lakes and mississippi river ( and others ) , offer the necessary habitat for a rapid growth in the population numbers of these fish . there are plenty of snail and mussel species for the fish to eat , however many of those species are already endangered and could be pushed to extinction by the black carp .\nchick , j . h . , r . j . maher , b . m . burr , m . r . thomas . 2003 . first black carp captured in u . s . science . 300 : 1876 - 1877 .\nwui , y . - s . & engle , c . r . 2007 . the economic impact of restricting use of black carp for snail control on hybrid striped bass farms . north american journal of aquaculture 69 : 127 - 138 .\nthis 2008 photo provided by the u . s . geological survey shows jeremy haley holding a 50 - pound black carp at the usgs laboratory , in columbia , mo . the discovery of two juvenile black carp in a ditch attached to the mississippi river in missouri is a troubling sign that the invasive species is reproducing in the wild , which could threaten already - endangered mollusks and native fish species in the river , research scientists said . ( duane chapman / u . s . geological survey via ap )\nnico , l . g . , j . d . williams , and h . l . jelks . 2005 . black carp : biological synopsis and risk assessment of an introduced fish , american fisheries society special publication 32 , bethesda , md . 337 p .\nkansas city \u2022 the discovery of two juvenile black carp in a ditch connected to the mississippi river in missouri is the first , troubling sign that the invasive species is reproducing in the wild and becoming more of a threat to already endangered mollusks and some native fish , scientists say .\nblack carp were brought to the u . s . in the 1970s to help fish farms fight snails , which carry parasites that are dangerous to several fish species . no native fish is as efficient and , at the time , farmers and the government didn\u2019t want to use chemicals .\nfactsheet : asian carp pennsylvania state university . pennsylvania sea grant . see also : aquatic invasive species : resources for additional species information\n\u201cscientists really thought there were not enough adult black carp in the wild to find each other and reproduce , \u201d phelps said . \u201cbut what we found through this sampling is evidence there are enough to reproduce , and those young are surviving to a point where we are collecting them . \u201d\nscientists from federal agencies including the u . s . fish and wildlife service and u . s . geological survey provide valuable analysis of the surrendered black carps . the most recent black carp reported near peoria , illinois was 28 inches in length and weighed eight pounds . analysis by the u . s . fish and wildlife service indicates that this fish was fertile , referred to as diploid , which is consistent with most fish recently captured in the bounty program . since the establishment of the bounty program in 2015 , 37 black carps have been collected . of these , 26 were collected in 2016 alone . four have been found in the illinois river .\nthis species was first brought into the united states in the early 1970s as a\ncontaminant\nin imported grass carp stocks . these fish came from asia and were sent to a private fish farm in arkansas ( nico et al . 2005 ) . subsequent introductions of black carp into this country occurred in the early 1980s . during this period it was imported as a food fish and as a biological control agent to combat the spread of yellow grub\nto report a black carp captured in the central united states from the mississippi , illinois , ohio or wabash rivers , please call a number below during regular business hours or report to your local natural resource agency . fish should be held cold , on ice , not alive , until passed to a natural resource agent .\nnico , l . g . , j . d . williams , and h . l . jelks . 2005 . black carp : biological synopsis and risk assessment of an introduced fish , american fisheries society special publication 32 , bethesda , md . t . a . crowl . 1990 . life - history strategies of freshwater snail in response to stream permanence and predation : balancing conflicting demands . oecologia 84 : 238\u2013243 . w . l . shelton , a . soliman and s . rothbard . 1995 . experimental observation on feeding biology of black carp ( mylopharyngodon piceus ) . bamidgeh 47 : pp . 59\u201367 . internet sources urltoken urltoken urltoken urltoken urltoken\n\u201ceveryone is up in arms about damage from species like feral hogs , whitetail deer , and other native terrestrial species , \u201d he said . \u201cthe impact doesn\u2019t seem to be as bad when the damage is under the water . but ( black carp ) is no different or less destructive than other invasive species\u2019 interaction with native wildlife . \u201d\n* updated on may 23 , 2017 to reflect the reported capture of a black carp at douglas lake near chillicothe , illinois , adjacent to the illinois river at approximately river mile 182 . the report was from a commercial fisher , although no specimen was provided . more information can be found on u . s . geological survey ' s nonindigenous aquatic species page .\nblack carp can grow to 150 pounds and are the most efficient prey of mollusks in freshwater streams , according to duane chapman , a research fish biologist with the u . s . geological survey . that\u2019s a problem because the mississippi river basin has the most diverse mollusk population in the world , and three - fourths of the mussel species are threatened or endangered , he said .\nschramm , h . l . , jr . & basler , m . c . 2005 . evaluation of capture methods and distribution of black carp in arkansas , louisiana , and mississippi : final report 1 june 2004 - 31 may 2005 submitted to region 4 , u . s . fish and wildlife service , fisheries , atlanta , georgia . mississippi state , mississippi : u . s . geological survey , mississippi cooperative fish and wildlife research unit .\naquatic invasive species : asian carp risk analysis for arizona ( oct 2011 ; pdf | 316 kb ) arizona game and fish department . see also : aquatic invasive species for additional risk analyses and related species information\nfreshwater aquatic invasive species in rhode island - asian carp ( sep 2010 ; pdf | 553 kb ) rhode island department of environmental management . office of water resources . see also : aquatic invasive animals for species of concern\ndevaney , s . c . , k . m . mcnyset , j . b . williams , a . t . peterson , and e . o . wiley . 2009 . a tale of four\ncarp\n: invasion potential and ecological niche modeling . plos one 4 ( 5 ) : e5451 .\nthis species can be found in rivers , streams , or lakes ; however , it requires large rivers to reproduce ( nico et al . 2005 ) . reproduction takes place in late spring and summer when water temperatures and / or water levels rise ( nico et al . 2005 ) . both male and female black carp are broadcast spawners ; females are capable of releasing hundreds of thousands of eggs into flowing water , which then develop in the pelagic zone ( nico et al . 2005 ) . after fertilization , the eggs become semiboyant ( sukhanova , 1967 as cited in nico et al . 2005 ) . they hatch in 1 to 2 days , depending on water temperatures , and the yolk sac is absorbed in 6 to 8 days ( nico et al . 2005 ) . they become sexually mature at 4 to 6 years after which they migrate back to their spawning grounds ( nico et al . 2005 ) . successful reproduction is known only from riverine habitats ( nico et al . 2005 ) . their lifespan probably exceeds 15 years ( biro , 1999 ) .\npictures | can ' t connect to mysql database fbwebwritev4 . errorcode : too many connections\n$ 0 . 99 for first month , then $ 9 . 99 after that .\npartly cloudy . a stray shower or thunderstorm is possible . high 91f . winds light and variable . .\nbut it\u2019s not just about losing the mollusk species \u2014 there\u2019s a domino effect . lose the mollusks and there could be poorer water quality because some species clean impurities , as well as losing a food source for fish , muskrats , raccoons , otters and some birds , the conservation department said .\n\u201ca great number of species are in danger , species we\u2019ve done a great deal of work to protect , \u201d chapman said . \u201cnow we have this new threat coming in . conceivably , one large fish in the wrong place could cause the extinction of an endangered species in one place in a year , before we even know it\u2019s there . \u201d\n\u201ceveryone was trying to help the environment , but it\u2019s turned out to be a mistake , with potentially serious consequences , \u201d chapman said . it\u2019s unclear how the species escaped from fish farms into the mississippi river , he said , though some blame flooding .\nanother important step is being mindful of rules involving invasive species and the potential dangers of bringing them into the country , phelps said .\ngrabenhorst grading , inc . - always quality . always trusted . - call us today ! ( 636 ) 281 - 3317\n\u00a9 copyright 2018 urltoken , 900 n . tucker blvd . st . louis , mo | terms of use | privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe nonindigenous occurrences section of the nas species profiles has a new structure . the section is now dynamically updated from the nas database to ensure that it contains the most current and accurate information . occurrences are summarized in table 1 , alphabetically by state , with years of earliest and most recent observations , and the tally and names of drainages where the species was observed . the table contains hyperlinks to collections tables of specimens based on the states , years , and drainages selected . references to specimens that were not obtained through sighting reports and personal communications are found through the hyperlink in the table 1 caption or through the individual specimens linked in the collections tables .\nbased on asian records , large adults may be more than 1 . 5 m total length and 70 kg or more in weight ; the largest specimen , unconfirmed , from the chang ( yangtze ) river basin reportedly measured 2 . 2 m .\nmost major pacific drainages of eastern asia from the pearl river ( zhu jiang ) basin in china north to the amur river ( heilong jiang ) basin of china and far eastern russia ; possibly native to the honghe or red rivers of northern vietnam ( nico et al . 2005 ) .\ntable 1 . states with nonindigenous occurrences , the earliest and latest observations in each state , and the tally and names of hucs with observations\u2020 . names and dates are hyperlinked to their relevant specimen records . the list of references for all nonindigenous occurrences of mylopharyngodon piceus are found here .\n( richardson , 1846 ) . pages 345 - 365 in p . banarescu ( ed . ) . the freshwater fishes of europe : volume 5 / i , cyprinidae 2 / i . aula - verlag , wiebelsheim , germany .\nchapman , d . w . ( editor ) 2006 . early development of four cyprinids native to the yangtze river , china . reston virginia : us geological survey data series 239 . ( available online as urltoken\nschofield , p . j . , j . d . williams , l . g . nico , p . fuller , and m . r . thomas . 2005 . foreign nonindigenous carps and minnows ( cyprinidae ) in the united states\u2014a guide to their identification , distribution , and biology . scientific investigations report 2005 - 5041 . u . s . geological survey , tallahassee , florida . 103 p . ( available online at urltoken\nnico , l . g . , and m . e . neilson , 2018 , mylopharyngodon piceus ( richardson , 1846 ) : u . s . geological survey , nonindigenous aquatic species database , gainesville , fl , urltoken revision date : 6 / 27 / 2018 , peer review date : 4 / 1 / 2016 , access date : 7 / 9 / 2018\nthis information is preliminary or provisional and is subject to revision . it is being provided to meet the need for timely best science . the information has not received final approval by the u . s . geological survey ( usgs ) and is provided on the condition that neither the usgs nor the u . s . government shall be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of the information .\nthe data represented on this site vary in accuracy , scale , completeness , extent of coverage and origin . it is the user ' s responsibility to use these data consistent with their intended purpose and within stated limitations . we highly recommend reviewing metadata files prior to interpreting these data .\ncitation information : u . s . geological survey . [ 2018 ] . nonindigenous aquatic species database . gainesville , florida . accessed [ 7 / 9 / 2018 ] .\ncontact us if you are using data from this site for a publication to make sure the data are being used appropriately and for potential co - authorship if warranted . for queries involving fish , please contact pam fuller . for queries involving invertebrates , contact amy benson .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\ninjurious wildlife doi . fws . fish and aquatic conservation . includes species listed as injurious wildlife under the federal lacey act , which makes it illegal in the u . s . to import , export , or transport between states without a permit . see also : injurious wildlife : a summary of the injurious provisions of the lacey act ( dec 2017 ; pdf | 401 kb )\ntexas commission on environmental quality , galveston bay estuary program ; houston advanced research center ( harc ) .\ninvaders factsheet : asian carps ontario ' s invading species awareness program ( canada ) .\npest risk assessment for asian carps in oregon ( dec 15 , 2009 ; pdf | 90 kb ) oregon state library . oregon documents repository . prepared by : portland state university , center for lakes and reservoirs\nintegrated taxonomic information system . mylopharyngodon piceus . [ accessed jan 16 , 2016 ] .\nto view pdf files , you must have adobe\u00ae acrobat\u00ae installed on your computer . to view multimedia files , you must have adobe\u00ae flash\u00ae installed on your computer .\nbrowsers that can not handle javascript will not be able to access some features of this site .\nif possible , please take one or more photos of the invasive species you are reporting . also make note of the location , date and time of the observation . this will aid in verification of your report . you may be asked to provide your name and contact information if follow - up is needed .\nhabitat : large rivers and lakes but require large rivers for reproduction ( water current keeps their eggs from sinking to the bottom ) .\ndiet : their diet consists primarily of mussels and snails , but also includes freshwater shrimp , crayfish , and insects .\nu . s . distribution : reported in arkansas , illinois , louisiana , mississippi and missouri .\npotential means of introduction : illinois river or flood connections with great lakes waters .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nhas been assessed as data deficient , due to the lack of information regarding species population size , current population , impacts of threats and harvest trends .\nhas originally an east asian distribution , from in most pacific river drainages , from the amur river to the west river ( xi jiang ) ( kottelat and freyhof 2007 ) . introduced in many countries worldwide for control populations of molluscan vectors of fish and human parasites . furthermore , used to removed dreissena mussels that clog hydroelectric plants .\nnaturally reproducing populations established only in amu darya ( turkmenistan ) and possible in tone drainages ( japan ) ( freyhof and kottelat 2007 ) .\nin the second half of the 20th century , a massive decline in the abundance of this species was observed in its native distribution range . its current population trend is unknown .\ninhabits large lowland river and lakes , preferably with clear water and high oxygen concentration ( kottelat and freyhof 2007 ) .\nspawns for the first time at 6 - 11 years , females later than males ( at about 1000 mm sl and 15 kg , males at 900 mm and 11 kg , fecundity is about 700 - 800 thousand eggs ) . migrates upriver and spawns in open water during flood phase . eggs are pelagic or semipelagic and hatch while drifting downstream . if the river flow is blocked or if available river stretches are too short , eggs cannot drift for long enough and fail to develop . larvae migrate into floodplain lakes and channels with little or no current . larvae feed on zooplankton , then on ostracods and aquatic insects . at about 120 mm sl , juveniles start to feed on small snails and clams . larger juveniles and adults feed almost entirely on molluscs ( source : kottelat and freyhof 2007 ) .\nmajor threats to this species are overfishing , river modifications such as dam construction and the conversion of floodplains into agriculture land and water pollution .\nit is not known if there are any conservation measures in place . more research is needed .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nphotographer : rob cosgriff affiliation : illinois natural history survey source : urltoken copyright : ( cc by - ny 3 . 0 )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nillinois dnr : 217 . 557 . 0719 or 618 . 462 . 0362 southern illinois university : 618 . 453 . 6089 u . s . geological survey : 573 . 876 . 1866"]}
{"id": 46, "summary": [{"text": "dawkinsia filamentosa is a species of barb .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "young fish have barely any color and black spots .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they start having more color at three months old .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the fish is a swift swimmer .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "males are larger than females and they fertilize eggs by swimming into the cloud of eggs .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the species is most commonly found in coastal floodplains near the southwest indian states of kerala , tamil nadu and karnataka .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the species ' common names are filament barb and blackspot barb . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "dawkinsia filamentosa", "paragraphs": ["several dawkinsia species , including d . filamentosa , continue to appear on trade lists as \u2018mahecola barb\u2019 .\nfilamentosa : from the latin filamentosa , meaning \u2018filamentous\u2019 , in reference to the dorsal - fin extensions which develop as the fish mature .\ndawkinsia filamentosa is an omnivorous species and major components of its diet vary spatially , temporally , and ontogenetically . major food items include aquatic macrophytes , insects , cladocerans , ostracods , and detritus ( weliange and amarasinghe 2003 ) .\ndawkinsia : named for richard dawkins , for \u2018his contribution to the public understanding of science and , in particular , of evolutionary science\u2019 .\ntable 1 . states with nonindigenous occurrences , the earliest and latest observations in each state , and the tally and names of hucs with observations\u2020 . names and dates are hyperlinked to their relevant specimen records . the list of references for all nonindigenous occurrences of dawkinsia filamentosa are found here .\nanother old favorite , dawkinsia filamentosa was formerly in the genus puntius , where it was the type species for the filamentosus - group . the filament barb\u2019s common name derives from the extended dorsal fin filaments possessed by adult males . this feature distinguishes it from most other members of the genus .\nforms apparently intermediate between d . filamentosa and d . tambraparniei have also been collected where the two occur together in the thamirabarani river , tamil nadu .\nadult males of d . filamentosa . the fish in the bottom - left corner of the image is a specimen of the closely - related d . assimilis .\nleo nico , pamela j . schofield , and matt neilson , 2018 , dawkinsia filamentosa ( valenciennes in cuvier and valenciennes , 1844 ) : u . s . geological survey , nonindigenous aquatic species database , gainesville , fl , urltoken revision date : 3 / 11 / 2012 , peer review date : 2 / 10 / 2016 , access date : 7 / 9 / 2018\nd . filamentosa has been misidentified as puntius mahecola ( valenciennes 1844 ) in the past but the identity of both species was resolved by pethioyagoda and kottelat ( 2005a , 2005b ) .\nlike d . filamentosa , adult male d . tambraparniei also possess extended rays in the dorsal fin . although it is similar in size and temperament to d . filamentosa , i\u2019ve ranked d . tambraparniei higher because i find it more attractive . there is more of a pattern on the body , with variously shaped black blotches , a green area behind the gills , and a bit of green iridescence over the body .\np . mahecola had previously been considered a synonym of d . filamentosa , with a fish resembling the latter collected from the chalakudy river and exported for the aquarium hobby as \u2018 p . mahecola \u2018 in 1996 .\nthe common name for dawkinsia tambraparniei represents an old misidentification that has been perpetuated in the hobby for many years . the true d . arulius is exceedingly rare in the hobby , and almost all the fish sold as arulius barbs are in fact d . tambraparniei .\nthey inspected the syntypes of p . mahecola and concluded that though valid it isn\u2019t closely related to any member of dawkinsia ( then the p . filamentosus group ) but is rather a smaller , silvery fish with a single dark blotch on the caudal peduncle , located entirely posterior to the anal - fin .\nthe majority of sub - himalayan puntius species were reclassified and new genera dawkinsia , dravidia , and pethia erected to accomodate some of them , with the remainder either retained in puntius or moved to the existing systomus assemblage , though the definition of the latter was altered meaning some southeast asian species formerly placed there are no longer members .\nwhile no conclusions were reached because dna testing was not performed , hybridisation between d . filamentosa and d . arulius in that river had previously been speculated and is a phenomenon known to be more common in the family cyprinidae than in any other group of fishes , meaning future research may yield interesting results .\nd . exclamatio should also have a sub - terminal mouth and lack dorsal - fin filaments but some specimens possess a terminal mouth and / or possess dorsal filaments , and one specimen also had black caudal - fin tips as typically seen in d . filamentosa , whereas the description states that the fin tips are only dusky and lack distinctive markings .\ndistinguishing characteristics , a key , and a figure were given in talwar and jhingran ( 1992 ) , and a key to the ' puntius filamentosus ' species group was given by pethiyagoda and kottelat ( 2005 ) . pethiyagoda et al . ( 2012 ) recently moved this species into the genus dawkinsia , and provided a key to genera related to puntius . color photographs appeared in axelrod et al . ( 1985 ) and in petrovicky ( 1988 ) .\ngrowing to 5 inches ( 12 . 5 cm ) in length , this species is ideally suited to 75 gallon ( 284 liters ) and larger aquaria where it will be best displayed in larger schools . it is a great tankmate for similarly sized fishes that are not overly territorial or aggressive . filament barbs are plant safe and do well in planted aquariums . d . filamentosa is sometimes sold as d . mahecola .\nwithin the group the most similar - looking species are d . assimilis and d . rohani , but the former is readily identifiable by possession of an inferior mouth ( vs . subterminal in d . filamentosa ) and longer maxillary barbels ( 5 . 5 - 9 . 3 % sl , vs . 0 . 5 - 2 . 2 % ) , while in the latter the caudal - fin lobes lack transverse black bands .\nother species found in the same general area include pethia conchonius , puntius denisonii , haludaria fasciata , dawkinsia assimilis , d . arulius , d . rubrotinctus , barilius bakeri , b . bendelisis , b . canarensis , devario malabaricus , esomus danricus , garra mcclellandi , g . hughi , bhavania australis , travancoria jonesi , mesonoemacheilus guentheri , m . triangularis , schistura denisonii , lepidocephalichthys thermalis , batasio travancoria , mystus armatus , m . canarensis , glyptothorax annandalei , aplocheilus lineatus , parambassis thomassi , etroplus canarensis , e . maculatus , sicyopterus griseus , pseudosphromenus dayi , channa striata , and carinotetraodon travancoricus .\nd . filamentosa is told apart from all other d awksinia spp . by the following combination of characters : branched dorsal \u2013 fin rays extended into filament - like extensions in adult males and some adult females ; a black band about as wide as the eye near tip of each caudal - fin lobe ; lower lip continuous ; presence of a dark blotch on the caudal peduncle , 2 - 5 scales wide and commencing posterior to anal - fin origin ; no distinct markings on body in advance of anal - fin origin .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\neschmeyer , w . n . ( ed . ) . 2015 . catalog of fishes . updated 7 january 2015 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 7 january 2015 ) .\nrema devi , k . r . , gopalakrishnan , a . , johnson , j . a . , rahul , k . & molur , s .\nis found over a large area where threats are not uniform and also , since in rivers with existing threats , it is resilient and is assessed as least concern .\nis widely distributed across peninsular india , in the east flowing cauvery , krishna and tamitaparani rivers of andhra pradesh , karnataka and tamil nadu and throughout the west flowing coastal floodplain rivers of kerala , karnataka and goa .\nit occurs in lowland , upper and middle reaches of rivers and also in estuaries , reservoirs and marshes ( pethiyagoda and kottelat 2005 , jayaram 2010 ) . occurs in the west coast of maharashtra ( s . jadhav pers . comm . 2010 ) .\nit is very common across its range . the population status for this species is unknown .\nis a common fish found inhabiting a whole array of habitats , both in the hill streams and streams of the lowlands and wetlands . it exhibits sexual dimorphism during the breeding periods . in breeding males , the anterior 4 - 5 branched rays of the dorsal fin are extended into filaments , the scales display a brighter colour and the snout becomes covered with tubercles . it is also often found very close to the sea ( for e . g . , the type locality , alleppey ) in brackish water , together with typically estuarine fishes ( jayaram 1991 , chhapgar and manakadan 2000 , pethiyagoda and kottelat 2005 ) .\nthe species is often caught for consumption by local people . it is also caught for the aquarium trade .\nmany rivers in the species ' range is undergoing degradation due to pollution and habitat destruction , but the species is still found in large numbers in many of these rivers and also in dam reservoirs .\nthe species occurs in some protected areas , but the majority of it ' s range is unprotected .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis species will display better colouration and more interesting behaviour when maintained in a group .\nthe bhadra river , pictured here near kalasa , chikamagalur district , karnataka , is a natural habitat of this species .\nfreshly - collected adult males from chembarambakkam lake , tamil nadu state , southern india .\npossible natural hybrid : this wild - collected fish does not have an inferior mouth but possesses prominent barbels , thus mixing diagnostic characters for both d . assimilis and d . filamentosus .\nsexually - mature males develop a series of tubercules on the snout and head when in spawning condition .\nendemic to but widespread within the western ghats mountains region of southern india in the states of kerala , tamil nadu and karnataka , and possibly restricted to the south of the latter .\ntype locality is \u2018alleppey\u2019 , also known as alappuzha , situated between vembanad lake and the arabian sea , 9\u00b020\u2019n , 76\u00b025\u2019e , kerala state , southwestern india .\naccording to pethiyagoda and kottelat ( 2005 ) this species is most common in lowland coastal floodplains . it\u2019s found in both fresh and brackish waters of rivers , estuaries , coastal marshes and reservoirs .\nnot difficult to keep in a well - maintained set - up , though we recommend aquascaping the tank to resemble a flowing stream or river with a substrate of variably - sized , water - worn rocks , sand , fine gravel and perhaps some small boulders .\nthis can be further furnished with driftwood roots or branches , and while the majority of aquatic plants will fail to thrive in such surroundings hardy types such as microsorum , bolbitis or anubias spp . can be grown attached to the d\u00e9cor .\nsince it naturally occurs in relatively pristine habitats it\u2019s intolerant to accumulation of organic pollutants and requires more - or - less spotless water in order to thrive .\nthough torrent - like conditions are unnecessary it also does best if there is a high proportion of dissolved oxygen and moderate water movement , while weekly water changes of 30 - 50 % tank volume should be considered routine .\nprobably a foraging omnivore feeding on a variety of worms , insects , crustaceans , plant material , and other organic debris in nature .\nin the aquarium it\u2019s easily - fed but a balanced diet comprising regular meals of small live and frozen foods such as bloodworm , daphnia , and artemia alongside good quality dried flakes and granules will being about optimal condition and colours .\nan ideal addition to a peaceful community of riverine species alongside other schooling or shoaling cyprinids plus botiid , cobitid , nemacheilid , and balitorid loaches .\nif geography isn\u2019t an issue it can actually be combined with most peaceful fish of a size too large to be considered food and that have a bold enough disposition to not be intimidated by its size and active nature .\nas always , thorough research is the best way to avoid problems when selecting a compatible fish community .\nit\u2019s a schooling species by nature so ideally 8 - 10 specimens should be purchased . maintaining it in decent numbers will not only make the fish less skittish but will result in a more effective , natural looking display .\nin addition , any aggressive behaviour will normally be contained as males concentrate on maintaining their hierarchical position within the group .\nadult males develop a more intense colour pattern than females and exhibit noticeable tubercules on the head when in spawning condition .\nadult females tend to grow a little larger , are heavier - bodied , and less colourful .\nboth sexes may develop filamentous rays in the dorsal - fin , depending on population , but apparently these are not always present and shed or absorbed outside the spawning season ( k . r . devi et al . 2010 ) .\nlike most small cyprinids this is an egg - scattering free spawner exhibiting no parental care .\nwhen in good condition it will spawn often and in a mature aquarium it\u2019s possible that small numbers of fry may start to appear without intervention , although if you want to maximise yield a more controlled approach is required .\nthe adult group can still be conditioned together but a separate aquarium should be set up and filled with mature water .\nthis should be very dimly lit and the base covered with some kind of mesh of a large enough grade so that the eggs can fall through but small enough so that the adults cannot reach them . the widely available plastic \u2018grass\u2019 - type matting can also be used and works well , as does a layer of glass marbles .\nalternatively filling much of the tank with a fine - leaved plant such as taxiphyllum spp . or spawning mops can also return decent results .\nthe water itself should be of slightly acidic to neutral ph with a temperature towards the upper end of the range suggested above , and an air - powered sponge filter or air stone ( s ) should also be included to provide oxygenation and water movement .\nwhen the adults are well - conditioned and the females appear gravid one or two pairs should then be introduced , and spawning should take place the following morning .\nan alternative is to spawn the fish in a group with half a dozen specimens of each sex being a good number , although a larger aquarium may be necessary .\nin either situation the adults will probably eat the eggs given the chance and should be removed as soon as any are noticed .\nthese should hatch in 24 \u2013 48 hours with the fry free swimming around 24 hours later .\nthey require microscopic food for the first few days until large enough to accept microworm , artemia nauplii or suchlike .\nalso referred to as \u2018blackspot barb\u2019 and formerly included in the genus puntius and puntius filamentosus \u2018group\u2019 of related species which also contained p . arulius , p . assimilis , p . exclamatio , p . filamentosus , p . rohani , p . rubrotinctus , p . singhala , p . srilankensis and p . tambraparniei , but all of these were moved to the new genus dawksinia by pethiyagoda et al . ( 2012 ) .\ndawksinia species are defined by the following combination of characters : adult size normally 80 - 120 mm sl ; rostral barbels absent ; maxillary barbels present or absent ; last unbranched dorsal - fin ray smooth ; 4 unbranched and 8 branched dorsal - fin rays ; 3 unbranched and 5 branched anal - fin rays ; lateral line complete , with 18 - 22 scales on body ; gill rakers simple , acuminate ( not branched or laminate ) ; no antrorse predorsal spinous ray ; free uroneural present ; 4 - 5 supraneurals ; 15 precaudal and 14 - 17 caudal vertebrae ; post - epiphysial fontanelle absent ; infraorbital 3 slender , not overlapping preoperculum ; juvenile ( < 50 mm sl ) colour pattern consisting of three black bars on body , retained in adults of some species ; a black , horizontally elongate blotch on the caudal peduncle in adults .\nit\u2019s widely - distributed in kerala state , southern india and has been pictured in some older literature as puntius amphibius ( valenciennes 1842 ) .\nthe precise relationships within the genus are still open to question in some respects with knight et al . ( 2011 ) suggesting that members may hybridise naturally at some localities .\nfor example , a d . arulius - like fish ( possibly d . rubrotinctus ) co - occurs with d . assimilis in the kallada river at thenmalai , which also happens to be the type locality of d . exclamatio .\nthe latter is somewhat anomalous since it\u2019s the only dawksinia species other than d . rubrotinctus to feature a ( roughly ) w - shaped mid - lateral blotch , but also has a laterally - elongated blotch on the caudal peduncle as in other genus members .\nthe genus puntius was for a number of years viewed as a polyphyletic catch - all containing over 100 species of small to mid - sized cyprinid until pethiyagoda et al . ( 2012 ) published a partial review covering south asian members .\nit subsequently became clear that the name dravidia was preoccupied by a genus of flesh fly , therefore the replacement name haludaria was made available by pethiyagoda ( 2013 ) .\nno species from indochina , china , or indonesia were included in the study meaning a significant number of former puntius are currently classed as incertae sedis , i . e . , of uncertain taxonomic placement , and this also applies to a number of south asian species of unresolved status .\nthey\u2019re perhaps best referred to as \u2018 puntius \u2018 for the time being whereby the genus name is surrounded by quotation marks to denote its questionable usage , and that is the convention used here on sf .\nkottelat , m . and h - h tan , 2011 - ichthyological exploration of freshwaters 22 ( 3 ) : 209 - 214 systomus xouthos , a new cyprinid fish from borneo , and revalidation of puntius pulcher ( teleostei : cyprinidae ) .\nkurian abraham , r . , n . kelkar and a . biju kumar , 2011 - journal of threatened taxa 3 ( 3 ) : 1585 - 1593 freshwater fish fauna of the ashambu hills landscape , southern western ghats , india , with notes on some range extensions .\nmarcus knight , j . d . , k . rema devi , and v . atkore , 2011 - journal of threatened taxa 3 ( 4 ) : 1686 - 1693 systematic status of systomus rubrotinctus jerdon ( teleostei : cyprinidae ) with notes on the puntius arulius group of fishes .\npethiyagoda , r . , 2013 - zootaxa 3646 ( 2 ) : 199 haludaria , a replacement generic name for dravidia ( teleostei : cyprinidae ) .\npethiyagoda , r . and m . kottelat , 2005b - raffles bulletin of zoology supplement 12 : 145 - 152 the identity of the south indian barb puntius mahecola ( teleostei : cyprinidae ) .\npethiyagoda , r . and m . kottelat , 2005a - raffles bulletin of zoology supplement 12 : 127 - 144 a review of the barbs of the puntius filamentosus group ( teleostei : cyprinidae ) of southern india and sri lanka .\npethiyagoda , r . , m . meegaskumbura , and k . maduwage , 2012 - ichthyological exploration of freshwaters 23 ( 1 ) : 69 - 95 a synopsis of the south asian fishes referred to puntius ( pisces : cyprinidae ) .\nraju thomas , k . , c . r . biju , c . r . ajithkumar and m . j . george , 2000 - journal of the bombay natural history society 97 ( 3 ) : 443 - 446 fish fauna of idukki and neyyar wildlife sanctuaries southern kerala , india .\nraju thomas , k . , m . j . george , and c . r . biju , 2002 - journal of the bombay natural history society 99 ( 1 ) : 47 - 53 freshwater fishes of southern kerala with notes on the distribution of endemic and endangered species .\nrema devi , k . , t . j . indra , and j . d . marcus knight , 2010 - journal of threatened taxa 2 ( 9 ) : 1121 - 1129 puntius rohani ( teleostei : cyprinidae ) , a new species of barb in the puntius filamentosus group from the southern western ghats of india .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe nonindigenous occurrences section of the nas species profiles has a new structure . the section is now dynamically updated from the nas database to ensure that it contains the most current and accurate information . occurrences are summarized in table 1 , alphabetically by state , with years of earliest and most recent observations , and the tally and names of drainages where the species was observed . the table contains hyperlinks to collections tables of specimens based on the states , years , and drainages selected . references to specimens that were not obtained through sighting reports and personal communications are found through the hyperlink in the table 1 caption or through the individual specimens linked in the collections tables .\nasia . india , sri lanka , burma , and possibly thailand ( talwar and jhingran 1992 ) .\naxelrod , h . r . , w . e . burgess , n . pronek , and j . g . walls . 1985 . dr . axelrod ' s atlas of freshwater aquarium fishes . tropical fish hobbyist publications , inc . , neptune city , nj .\ndevick , w . s . 1991a . disturbances and fluctuations in the wahiawa reservoir ecosystem . project f - 14 - r - 15 , job 4 , study i . division of aquatic resources , hawaii department of land and natural resources .\ndevick , w . s . 1991b . patterns of introductions of aquatic organisms to hawaiian freshwater habitats . pages 189 - 213 in new directions in research , management and conservation of hawaiian freshwater stream ecosystems . proceedings of the 1990 symposium on freshwater stream biology and fisheries management , division of aquatic resources , hawaii department of land and natural resources .\nmenon , a . g . k . 1999 . check list - fresh water fishes of india . records of zoological survey of india , miscellaneous publication , occasional paper 175 : 1 - 366 .\nmundy , b . c . 2005 . fishes of the hawaiian archipelago . bishop museum bulletins in zoology , number 6 .\npethiyagoda , r . , and m . kottelat . 2005 . a review of the barbs of the puntius filamentosus group ( teleostei : cyprinidae ) of southern india and sri lanka . raffles bulletin of zoology supplement 12 : 127 - 144 .\npethiyagoda , r . , m . meegaskumbura , and k . maduwage . 2012 . a synopsis of the south asians fishes referred to puntius ( pisces : cyprinidae ) . ichthyological exploration of freshwaters 23 ( 1 ) : 69 - 95 .\ntalwar , p . k . , and a . g . jhingran . 1991 . inland fishes of india and adjacent countries . aa balkema , rotterdam , the netherlands .\nweliange , w . s . , and u . s . amarasinghe . 2003 . seasonality in dietary shifts in size - structured freshwater fish assemblages in three reservoirs of sri lanka . environmental biology of fishes 68 : 269 - 282 .\nyamamoto , m . n . , and a . w . tagawa . 2000 . hawaii ' s native and exotic freshwater animals . mutual publishing , honolulu , hi .\nthis information is preliminary or provisional and is subject to revision . it is being provided to meet the need for timely best science . the information has not received final approval by the u . s . geological survey ( usgs ) and is provided on the condition that neither the usgs nor the u . s . government shall be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of the information .\nthe data represented on this site vary in accuracy , scale , completeness , extent of coverage and origin . it is the user ' s responsibility to use these data consistent with their intended purpose and within stated limitations . we highly recommend reviewing metadata files prior to interpreting these data .\ncitation information : u . s . geological survey . [ 2018 ] . nonindigenous aquatic species database . gainesville , florida . accessed [ 7 / 9 / 2018 ] .\ncontact us if you are using data from this site for a publication to make sure the data are being used appropriately and for potential co - authorship if warranted . for queries involving fish , please contact pam fuller . for queries involving invertebrates , contact amy benson .\ntypical tank setup : a well planted aquarium with rock work and driftwood / bogwood . plants will give the weaker individuals a place to hide , until the pecking order of the school is established . plenty of open swimming space is required as the denison barb is always on the move and schooling .\ncompatibility : this fish needs to be kept in schools . the larger the school the better with 6 fish a good minimum amount . if kept in smaller schools the weaker individuals will be harassed continuously by the more aggressive individuals until they die .\nfeeding : omnivorous . they should be fed a varied diet of flakes , small pellets , frozen and live foods such as daphnia and brine shrimp . blood worms and brown worms can also be fed as a treat , but do not feed worms very often as they can cause bloat .\nsexing : adult males develop a more intense colour pattern than females and exhibit noticeable tubercules on the head when in spawning condition . adult females tend to grow a little larger , are heavier - bodied , and less colourful .\nbreeding : like most small cyprinids this is an egg - scattering free spawner exhibiting no parental care .\nadditional information : excellent addition to the community aquarium if you are looking for a schooling species however should be kept in groups of at least 6 , ideally 10 or more to encourage this natural behaviour .\nmales are larger and have a\nfilamented\ndorsal fin , an elongated spike on their dorsal fin . they also develop small white spots around their nose when they ' re spawning .\nthis fish prefers a laterally long spacious tank , minimum 4ft , with lots of open swimming room .\ntypical barb in shape , large iridescent green / blue / silver scales , with a large spot on the flanks towards the tail . tail is a scissor shape and tipped with black and red bands . males have an extended dorsal spike .\nhas been produced back in 1970s . the hybrids are fertile , unlike most other\nthis page was last edited on 13 december 2017 , at 03 : 07 .\ncontent is available under creative commons attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license unless otherwise noted .\noccurs in clear streams , lakes and ponds ( ref . 41236 ) . inhabits lowland rivers and also estuaries , reservoirs and marshes ( ref . 55036 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nbarbs have long been popular among aquarists , yet most of the species we know best are among the smaller members of the group . that is as it should be , because most aquariums are less than 75 gallons ( 284 liters ) in capacity , and smaller species are the best choices for those tanks . but small barbs can certainly be maintained by those with tanks of 75 gallons ( 284 liters ) or more , and many look great in large schools .\nbig tanks , though , offer additional possibilities , including a few species whose adult size may make you think they\u2019d be good choices for smaller tanks but whose activity level means they do best in larger tanks . this month we\u2019ll rate the top 10 barbs that are suitable only for tanks of at least 75 gallons ( 284 liters ) . some of these species will be old favorites , but others will be chosen from the numerous barbs that have reached the hobby in the last decade .\nand b . altus are two species that are regularly sold as tinfoil barbs . tinfoil barbs have to be on the list because they\u2019re the first fish most people think of when talk turns to larger barbs .\nas young fish , it can be difficult to tell the two species apart . b . altus is frequently sold as the red - tail tinfoil barb , but that won\u2019t always hold up as an indicator . by the time the fish have reached 4 to 5 inches ( 10 to 12 . 5 cm ) in length , the differences become more apparent in wild - type fish . b . schwanenfeldii have black lines on each lobe of the caudal fin ; b . altus does not . in addition , b . schwanenfeldii has a body color that is clearly silver while that of b . altus is more golden .\nwhy the proviso regarding natural color pattern , you ask ? because there are captive - bred forms that are more golden in color , and i suspect they represent a hybrid between the two species . at the end of the day , does it matter which species you have ? well , it might .\nwhile most b . schwanenfeldii will not exceed 12 inches ( 30 cm ) in length in an aquarium , that is still several inches longer than b . altus , which seldom exceeds 8 inches ( 20 cm ) . the potential for size in b . schwanenfeldii , is , however , much greater . while i haven\u2019t seen them with my own eyes , i have heard of breeder tinfoil barbs at farms in florida that exceed 20 inches ( 50 . 75 cm ) .\nregardless of species , tinfoils are active , boisterous fish that are suitable for only the largest of home aquariums . they make wonderful tankmates for any fish not bothered by their activity level . they will eat any and all commonly available prepared foods and will also eat most commonly fed vegetables such as romaine lettuce , bok choy , and other leafy greens along with zucchini , broccoli , etc . as you may have surmised , they will also view any aquatic plants as their own personal salad bar .\ni must admit i was very tempted to rank hypsibarbus wetmorei much higher on the list but didn\u2019t due to its 10 - inch ( 25 - cm ) size . it is one of my favorite fishes , but it has some drawbacks that make it less than a perfect species for many hobbyists .\napart from size , the biggest negative is that it likes plants as much as most planted tank enthusiasts ; unfortunately , it likes them on the menu , and has no appreciation for the aesthetics of a planted aquarium . lemon - fin barbs , in fact , like plants so much that they\u2019ll even eat anubias .\non the plus side , h . wetmorei is completely peaceful . while i would expect them to eat any fish small enough to fit into their mouths , they won\u2019t bother anything too big to be eaten . when kept in an unplanted tank with plenty of swimming room , this species makes a very striking addition . the tight school is always on the move , and their silvery bodies are real eye - catchers , with the scales edged in black and the bright yellow fins .\ninterestingly , juveniles start out with a rather elongated body shape , but as they grow the body depth increases until they are approximately the same shape as tinfoil barbs . their speed and durability make them an excellent dither fish for many larger cichlids and a good tankmate for most medium - size cichlids .\nwhile not common in american pet shops , desmopuntius johorensis is available regularly from exporters in asia . the color pattern is rather subtle , which probably makes it less popular than it should be . despite the lack of colors , the pattern is attractive and this species is particularly hardy .\nit is plant safe and does well with fishes of a similar size and temperament . i\u2019ve seen one or two individuals that were approaching 5 inches ( 12 . 5 cm ) in length , but most don\u2019t exceed 4 inches ( 10 cm ) , so a school of five to 10 will fit nicely in any aquarium of at least 75 gallons . most older aquarium literature refers to the lined barb as puntius ( or barbus ) lineatus , but that is a different and smaller species .\nan old - time favorite , barbodes lateristriga is still readily available from breeders in asia , but it is not as commonly seen in american pet shops as it once was . this is unfortunate because its 7 - inch ( 18 - cm ) size makes it a much better choice for many aquariums than the more popular tinfoil barbs .\nlike the tinfoils , b . lateristriga is active and outgoing . its very nature may intimidate shy fishes , so its tankmates should be chosen with care . it will nibble soft - leaved plants , but java ferns , anubias and similar species will typically go untouched .\nthe color pattern consists of a silver body with several vertical black stripes in the anterior portion of the body , with a horizontal black stripe that runs from the base of the caudal fin to the mid - body , forming a t shape with the mid - body vertical bar . when you add in the other vertical bar , the pattern is reminiscent of a spanner , or wrench , as well .\ni\u2019ve only seen the extended filaments on males but have read that they can also be present on females . their presence may indicate that the spawning season has arrived .\nadult males from some locations can develop a fair amount of red on the body , while others sport the more traditional brassy gold . the brassy gold color is more vibrant on the dorsal region and can fade to white on the ventral region . males are somewhat more colorful than females . other aspects of the color pattern include an elongated black spot on the caudal peduncle and red and black spots on each lobe of the caudal fin .\nyou\u2019re likely wondering about the scientific name , so let\u2019s start there . i\u2019ve always known this fish as puntius everetti . after all , that is the scientific name listed in every book i own or have seen that includes the clown barb .\nwith all the revisions that have been made to puntius recently , i checked the current name to see whether the genus had been changed . i looked at fishbase . org , where i found it listed as p . everetti . while looking up another species on urltoken i saw a reference to clown barbs as barbodes dunckeri .\nfaced with a choice , my inclination is to follow the name listed on seriouslyfish . com , which updates its nomenclature more rapidly than fishbase . org . these are the two go - to sites on the web for fish information and they usually agree , but sometimes situations like this arise . as it turns out , the true p . everetti hails from the sarawak region of borneo , where it is only rarely collected for the aquarium hobby .\nas for b . dunckeri , the clown barb has been a personal favorite ever since the first time i kept them back in the 1970s . its coloration is subtle yet attractive , with a pinkish body marked with black spots and bars that are overlain with a blue sheen and orange to red fins .\nmy personal experience is that they work well in planted aquariums , although not all hobbyists have found that to be true . they may nibble a bit on soft - leaved plants , but i don\u2019t feel that they do enough damage to justify leaving them out , unless the bulk of the aquascaping will feature such plants . while they are frequently listed as growing to 6 inches ( 16 cm ) in length , i\u2019ve never seen one that exceeded 5 inches ( 12 . 5 cm ) .\nthis is a gregarious species that does best when kept in a sizable school although it can be kept in groups as small as two specimens . a tank that features some driftwood , along with tough - leaved plants and a large open area for swimming is ideal .\ntankmates can include medium to large gouramis , larger rasboras , and most of the larger rainbows . robust tetras , such as bleeding hearts , also work quite well . medium - size cichlids are another possibility , as long as they are not too aggressive .\nwas not named after j . r . r . tolkien\u2019s fictional kingdom of rohan but rather after rohan pethiyagoda , in recognition of his work on the freshwater fishes of india and sri lanka .\nthe main thing to know about d . rohani is that it is absolutely gorgeous ! most of the time males feature a gold upper part of the body with each scale outlined in a golden - green pattern , all overlain with a green sheen , and a whitish lower body . where these colors meet on the caudal peduncle is a horizontal black spot in the shape of a teardrop . the caudal and anal fins are red , and the dorsal has black spines .\nwhen teardrop barbs are in spawning condition , all the colors intensify and the lower cheeks and gill covers also turn red . this is truly a sight to behold , and because the rohan barb grows to only about 4\u00bd inches ( 11 cm ) in length , it is a sight that anyone with a tank at least 75 gallons ( 285 liters ) or larger can experience .\nthis species is still a bit expensive , but you should try to buy as large a school as possible . your investment will pay dividends every time you look at your aquarium . to truly show its best colors , keep d . rohani in a planted aquarium with other robust , active species .\nis frequently imported and sold as puntius mahecola , but that is a smaller and not closely related species . one of the most beautiful species in the ranking , d . assimilis makes a wonderful addition to planted aquariums of at least 75 gallons ( 284 liters ) .\nthe blue line under the eyes leads to the common name . the snout is red in males from the lips up along the forehead to behind the eyes , where the red becomes a scale coloration in a pattern leading back to the almond - shaped black spot on the caudal peduncle .\nmany of the upper body scales have red centers , with the rest of the scale a luminous gold . the lower body is white . the caudal fin has a black crescent that ends in a red dot , with a black dot closer to the tip of each lobe . the dorsal and pectoral fins are red , and the anal and ventral fins are white .\nthe mascara barb grows to just over 4 inches ( 10 cm ) and is extremely active . it will be happiest in a large group , and its colors will make it a constantly moving , visual focal point of any display .\nthere is a lot of confusion regarding the description and status of sahyadria denisonii . it has variously been included in the genera puntius , barbus , labeo , and crossocheilus . it is my belief that there is actually a species complex , because size and color pattern are highly variable . while most individuals won\u2019t exceed 5 inches ( 12 cm ) or so in length , others will exceed 12 inches ( 32 cm ) . the amount of red on the body is highly variable , as is the yellow in the fins .\nfortunately for the hobbyist , the most colorful individuals seem to be those that grow to 5 inches ( 12 cm ) in length . it may be that the larger form is s . chalakkudiensis and that the smaller fish that are more common in the hobby now are s . denisonii , and these may be the only two species involved .\na great aspect of this fish is that it does not eat plants . a school of roseline sharks sporting their best colors in a large planted aquarium is a sight no aquarist will soon forget .\ndue to their high activity level and preference to be kept in large schools , roseline sharks are best suited to aquariums of at least 75 gallons ( 284 liters ) , with larger tanks being preferred . tankmates can include any species that is large enough not to be eaten and outgoing enough to compete with the roseline sharks at feeding time .\nbetween this article and my previous survey of the smaller barbs ( tfh , june 2014 ) , i hope i\u2019ve shown you that there is a barb for every tank . no matter the size of your tank , there is a barb that is well suited to occupying it . with the exception of highly predatory and highly aggressive species , there is a barb that can be a tankmate to almost every fish you might wish to keep .\nconsider a barb for your next aquarium and you\u2019ll be rewarded with a colorful , energetic fish of which you will likely grow increasingly fond of as time goes by ."]}
{"id": 48, "summary": [{"text": "elachista albifrontella is a moth of the elachistidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found from fennoscandia and northern russia to the pyrenees and italy and from ireland to romania .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 8 \u2013 9 millimetres ( 0.31 \u2013 0.35 in ) .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults have a whitish forehead .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they are on wing from june to july in one generation per year .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the larvae feed on agrostis canina , alopecurus pratensis , arrhenatherum elatius , avena , avenula pubescens , brachypodium sylvaticum , bromus , calamagrostis arundinacea , calamagrostis epigejos , dactylis glomerata , deschampsia cespitosa , elymus repens , festuca rubra , holcus lanatus , holcus mollis , koeleria macrantha , luzula pilosa , milium effusum , phalaris arundinacea , phleum , poa pratensis , poa trivialis , trisetum and triticum species .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they mine the leaves of their host plant .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the mine consists of a full depth blotch mine which descends from the leaf tip .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "it occupies half to the entire width of the blade .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "larvae may exit the mine and start again elsewhere .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the frass is deposited in a narrow central line with a greyish brown colour .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "larvae can be found from september to may .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "pupation takes place outside of the mine . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "elachista albifrontella", "paragraphs": ["kari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nvalkop\u00e4\u00e4hitukoi\nto\nelachista albifrontella\n.\nid : group g - fw dark with pale costal and tornal spots and other pale markings . pale markings without metallic sheen ; frons white > e . albifrontella / luticomella / alpinella / eskoi of these 4 only e . albifrontella shows a significant ' hump ' on the dorsum of the valva in the male genitalia male genitalia by key to group g : width across uncus lobes broader than width across tegumen immediately below uncus lobes ; vinculum with a narrow process ; uncus lobes separated by a ' v ' - shaped notch narrower than an uncus lobe ; dorsum of valva with a distinct hump at 3 / 4 ; aedeagus square at apex with a small thorn > e . albifrontella in both specimens \u00a71 & \u00a72 the aedeagus could be seen to be square at apex under microscope but this does not show well photographically apparently due to uneven sclerotisation and as with other species with only small thorns i could not see any thorns . e . orstadii is the only other species to show the combination of a v - shaped notch between the uncus lobes and a distinct dorsal hump on he valva - it has a dark frons and its median fascia is usually indistinct . female genitalia : i haven ' t got around to preparing a key to female genitalia as yet . elachista species are distinguishable on the shape of the antral region , the extent of spiculation in the antrum and the presence and form of the signum . the exact combination of these 3 features seen in the images below is sufficient to confirm the identification of \u00a73 .\nthis is a quite common species throughout most of the british isles , inhabiting a range of grassland habitats . named after the noticeably whitish forehead , the most likely confusion species is\n, which however has an additional white spot in the apical area of the forewing .\nduring september until around may , the larva mines a blade of a variety of grasses , leading to a pale blotch , sometimes moving between blades .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 07 - 04 23 : 52 : 45 page render time : 0 . 2103s total w / procache : 0 . 2544s\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nleaf - miner : the larva mines from the grass tip downwards and the mine occupies half or the whole of the leaf blade width . a whitish blotch is formed with characteristic narrow streaks of frass ( british leafminers ) .\nfull depth blotch , slightly inflated , descending from the leaf tip , occupying half or the entire width of the blade . the larva may move and make a new mine elsewhere . in the latter case the mines are fairly short ; otherwise an entire blade may be mined out . frass in a some narrow greyish brown streaks . pupation outside the mine ( bladmineerders van europa ) .\nlarva : the larvae of moths have a head capsule and chewing mouthparts with opposable mandibles ( see video of a gracillarid larva feeding ) , six thoracic legs and abdominal legs ( see examples ) .\nthe larva is illustrated in british leafminers , ukmoths and ? bladmineerders van europa .\npupa : the pupae of moths have visible head appendages , wings and legs which lie in sheaths ( see examples ) .\nadult : the adult is illustrated in ukmoths . the species is included in urltoken .\ntime of year - adults : the adults fly in a single generation during june and july ( ukmoths ) .\nnorth aberdeenshire , north ebudes , north hampshire , north northumberland , north somerset , outer hebrides , pembrokeshire , shropshire , south aberdeenshire , south hampshire , south lancashire , south northumberland , south wiltshire , south - east yorkshire , south - west yorkshire , stafford , stirlingshire , warwickshire , west cornwall , west gloucestershire , west kent , west lancashire , west norfolk , west suffolk , westmorland and worcestershire ( nbn atlas ) .\nalso recorded in the republic of ireland and northern ireland ( karsholt and van nieukerken in fauna europaea ) . see also ireland ' s nbdc interactive map .\ndistribution elsewhere : widespread in continental europe including austria , belgium , czech republic , danish mainland , estonia , finland , french mainland , italian mainland , latvia , lithuania , luxembourg , norwegian mainland , poland , romania , russia - central , east , north and northwest , slovakia , sweden , switzerland and the netherlands ( karsholt and van nieukerken in fauna europaea ) .\nclick here to support naturespot by making a donation - small or large - your gift is very much appreciated . thank you .\nwingspan about 10 mm . named after the noticeably whitish forehead , the most likely confusion species is e . apicipunctella , which however has an additional white spot in the apical area of the forewing .\nthere are other very similar species in this genus which means that detailed examination of an actual specimen is generally needed to identify the exact species . a red box around the image indicates that we think it is likely to be this species but can ' t be 100 % certain .\nthis is a quite common species throughout most of the british isles . in the butterfly conservation\u2019s microlepidoptera report 2011 this species was classified as common .\nit appears to be uncommon in leicestershire and rutland , where there are few records . l & r moth group status = d ( rare or rarely recorded ) .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nfor the county , we have a total of 51 records from 30 sites . first recorded in 1859 .\n\u00a71 nethybridge , inverness - shire ; 11 / 07 / 2011 ; male \u00a72 nethybridge , inverness - shire ; 13 / 07 / 2011 ; male \u00a73 meshaw moor , devon ; 24 / 06 / 2016 ; female ; fw 3 . 6mm ; netted by day all images \u00a9 chris lewis\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nsanton downham ( b palmer , 1987 - 9 ) , eye ( p kitchener , 6 . vii . 2007 )\ncommon on the leaves of various grasses . flew to monks soham light in july 1933 , and was beaten from bushes at eriswell in late june 1914 ( mly ) . hemley in 1932 ( whit . ) ."]}
{"id": 50, "summary": [{"text": "the eurasian wolf ( canis lupus lupus ) , also known as the common wolf or middle russian forest wolf , is a subspecies of grey wolf native to europe and the forest and steppe zones of the former soviet union .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it was once widespread throughout eurasia prior to the middle ages .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "aside from an extensive paleontological and genetic record , indo-european languages typically have several words for wolf , thus attesting to the animal 's abundance and cultural significance .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it was held in high regard in baltic , celtic , slavic , turkic , ancient greek , roman , and thracian cultures , whilst having an ambivalent reputation in early germanic cultures .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "it is the largest of old world grey wolves , averaging 39 kg ( 86 lb ) in europe ; however , exceptionally large individuals have weighed between 69 \u2013 80 kg ( 152 \u2013 176 lb ) , though this varies according to region .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its fur is relatively short and coarse , and is generally of a tawny colour , with white on the throat that barely extends to the cheeks .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "melanists , albinos and erythrists are rare , and mostly the result of wolf-dog hybridisation .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the howl of the eurasian wolf is much more protracted and melodious than that of north american grey wolf subspecies , whose howls are louder and have a stronger emphasis on the first syllable .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "the two are , however , mutually intelligible , as north american wolves have been recorded to respond to european-style howls made by biologists .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "many eurasian wolf populations are forced to subsist largely on livestock and garbage in areas with dense human activity , though wild ungulates such as moose , red deer , roe deer and wild boar are still the most important food sources in russia and the more mountainous regions of eastern europe .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "other prey species include reindeer , argali , mouflon , wisent , saiga , ibex , chamois , wild goats , fallow deer and musk deer . ", "topic": 12}], "title": "eurasian wolf", "paragraphs": ["eurasian wolf or european wolf ( canis lupus lupus ) . . . pictures | getty images\nthe eurasian wolf is one of the largest wolf subspecies , and the largest type of wolf found outside of the americas .\nthe eurasian wolf ' s scientific name is canis lupus lupus , as it is a subspecies of the gray wolf . other names for this variety include common wolf , carpathian wolf , european wolf , steppes wolf , chinese wolf , and tibetan wolf .\nthe eurasian wolf ( canis lupus ) is one of the largest wolf subspecies and the largest found outside of the americas . there are almost 40 wolf subspecies including arctic wolf , tundra wolf , critically endangered red wolf , dingo and the domestic dog . see more photos and learn more about eurasian wolves below .\neurasian wolf from zoopark chomutov , the czech republic . vlk euroasijsk\u00fd ze zooparku chomutov , \u010desk\u00e1 republika .\nthe eurasian wolf is one of the 37 recognized subspecies ( types ) of gray wolf . all 37 subspecies are essentially the same animal ; the eurasian wolf could have pups with any of the other grey wolf subspecies , which include the arctic wolf , the dingo \u2026 and the domestic dog .\nthis page contains amazing eurasian wolf facts for kids ( and adults ) . this animal is part of the\nalthough the howls of the eurasian wolf and the north american gray wolf appear to be different to human ears , they understand each other quite well .\napart from size , the physical differences between wolf subspecies are often small . the eurasian wolf has a slightly narrower head and longer ears than its north american cousins . the eurasian wolf\u2019s howl is longer and more varied in tone than those of the north american subspecies .\nthe eurasian wolf ( canis lupus lupus ) , also known as the common wolf , european wolf , carpathian wolf , steppes wolf , tibetan wolf and chinese wolf is a subspecies of the grey wolf ( canis lupus ) . currently , it has the largest range among wolf subspecies and is the most common in europe and asia , ranging through western europe , scandinavia , russia , china , mongolia and the himalayan mountains .\neurasian wolves are still hunted in many countries , but are increasingly protected by local laws .\nthe eurasian wolf has a pale gray - brown coat , which is lighter on the undersides and darker on the back and shoulders .\nthe iberian wolf is found exclusively in the iberian peninsula . its scientific name \u201csignatus\u201d refers to the signs in their fur that differentiate it from eurasian wolf ( canis lupus lupus ) .\nwe find no evidence of the eurasian golden jackal occurring in continental africa ,\nkoepfli said .\nthe chinese , or eurasian , wolf \u2013 canis lupus lupus \u2013 is thinner than its american cousin , with longer ears and a narrower head .\nin general , eurasian wolves are found in remote areas , that is , far from cities and towns .\nstudies of eurasian lynx , dingoes , lions and sea otters have found similar effects , the authors reported .\nthe lynx patrols work in the bohemian forest and its foothills - the home of our largest eurasian lynx population .\nif you want to read similar articles to what is the habitat of the eurasian wolf ? , we recommend you visit our facts about the animal kingdom category .\nancient nomads , female warriors and priestesses by jeannine davis - kimball ( center for the study of eurasian nomads ) useful information and details on the specific functions of these powerful priestesses and priestess - warriors of the early eurasian nomads .\ncotswold wildlife park is celebrating the birth of a litter of five eurasian wolf cubs \u2013 the first to be born at the park in its 47 - year history .\nandrew simpson and one of the eurasian wolves he trained , on the set of the chinese film wolf totem . simpson has released a book and documentary called wolves unleashed\nandrew simpson and one of the eurasian wolves he trained , on the set of the chinese film wolf totem . simpson has released a book and documentary called wolves unleashed .\nthe arctic wolf\u2019s medium - size distinguishes it from the northwestern wolf , which is smaller in comparison .\nthe second deepest split separates the modern western eurasian dogs , such as the labrador retriever , and east asian dogs , such as the shar pei ( figure 1a ) . it is interesting to note that the paleolithic newgrange dog clusters tightly with western eurasian dogs , indicating that the split between the east asian and western eurasian lineages occurred before that newgrange individual appeared .\nthe eurasian wolf still has the widest range among wolf subspecies , residing in the tundra , taiga , plains , scrublands , mountains and desert . their coats are suited to the plunging temperature and the northern , freezing climes .\nthe diet of eurasian wolves varies enormously throughout their ranges . eurasian wolves commonly prey on medium sized ungulates like moufflon , chamois , saiga , wild boar , red deer , roe deer and livestock . eurasian wolves will occasionally eat smaller prey such as frogs and hares . in europe , their largest prey is the wisent , while in asia , it is the yak .\nthe classification of species and subspecies of the wolf is still unclear , although most authors consider that there are 7 species of wolf : gray wolf ( canis lupus ) , red wolf ( canis rufus ) , ethiopian wolf ( canis simensis ) , eastern wolf ( canis lycaon ) , golden jackal ( canis aureus ) , himalayan wolf ( canis himalayensis ) and indian wolf ( canis indica ) . although some features are common to all species , we will focus on the gray wolf and specifically in the subspecies iberian wolf ( canis lupus signatus ) .\n) that most people think of when they hear the word\nwolf\n. currently there are two definitive species of wolf - the grey wolf and the ethiopian (\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - eurasian wolves fighting\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - eurasian wolves fighting\ntitle =\narkive photo - eurasian wolves fighting\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nas a subspecies of the gray wolf , the eurasian wolf inhabits the temperate grasslands of europe and asia . they live in smaller packs and are considered more adaptable to environmental changes , when compared to the north american gray wolf . eurasian wolves also have narrower heads , longer ears , coarser fur and thinner tails than gray wolves . size vary according to geographic distribution , but animals found in asia are often bigger than their european counterparts .\nthree - year - old eurasian wolf ember , who gave birth to five cubs this year , was killed by a keeper after being discovered outsider her enclosure at cotswold safari park on friday .\nthe scientists compiled a list of 494 prey species that provided food for 17 large carnivores \u2013 including the lion , tiger , leopard , cheetah , grey wolf , eurasian lynx and spotted hyena .\neneolithic horse exploitation in the eurasian steppes : diet , ritual and riding on the dietary and the ritual role of horses in the eneolithic western eurasian steppes . horses were strongly associated with the world of humans and had become an important symbol in mortuary rituals by about 5000 bc .\nthe eurasian wolf , leaner than its american cousin , was driven to extinction in france in the 20th century . thanks to a dedicated conservation effort , a small population has returned to the alps .\nthe temperate grasslands are a biome that includes the prairies of north america , the steppes of russia and mongolia and the south american pampas . among many other animals species , wolves also live in the temperate grasslands ; wolf species include the gray wolf ( canis lupus ) , the subspecies mexican wolf ( canis lupus baileyi ) and eurasian wolf ( canis lupus lupus ) , as well as the north american red wolf ( canis rufus ) and the south american maned wolf ( chrysocyon brachyurus ) .\nalthough the iucn status of the gray wolf is of least concern - remember that the species includes domestic dogs and dingoes - eurasian wolves face habitat fragmentation and persecution from humans , which are major threats .\nscientists believe the eurasian wolf moved eastwards , and it is less and less commonly found in the west . while it used to be found all over eurasia , now it is only found in select regions .\nthe colour of the eurasian wolf ranges from white , cream , red , grey and black , sometimes with all colours combined . wolves in central europe tend to be more richly coloured than those in northern europe .\nof the three major species of wolf that are spread across the globe , one of the most famous is the eurasian , or \u201ccommon\u201d , wolf . this large canine is most commonly found in central russia and eastern and northern europe . reaching up to 35 inches in height and weighing between 70 and 130 pounds , the eurasian wolf is the largest of its kind in eurasia . the largest recorded grey wolf was killed in romania , and was said to have weighed 158 pounds . although sometimes referred to as the \u201cgrey wolf\u201d , these wolves aren\u2019t always grey in color . in fact , it is common to see cream colored eurasian wolfs , as well as ones with brown or black pelts . these wolves are more rich in color when found in northern europe than elsewhere .\nnowadays the eurasian wolf is considered extinct in many european countries . fortunately , re - population efforts have had results in france , germany , norway and sweden . this effort began in the mid - 20th century , and it has spread to other regions . the population has more than doubled in russia ; however , the number of eurasian wolves in asia remains unknown .\nwolves have been driven out of many parts of europe and are now only found in remote areas , far away from towns and cities . despite this , the eurasian wolf has the largest range ( the area in which it is found in the wild ) of any type of wolf .\nthe arctic wolf ( canis lupus arctos ) , also known as the melville island wolf , is a subspecies of gray wolf native to the canadian arctic archipelago , from melville island to ellesmere island .\neurasian wolves display social characteristics , forming large packs . this behavior is , however , variable as some populations in europe have been seen to be solo hunters .\nthe wolf holds great importance in the cultures and religions of the nomadic peoples , both of the eurasian steppe and of the north american plains . in many cultures , the identification of the warrior with the wolf ( totemism ) gave rise to the notion of lycanthropy , the mythical or ritual identification of man and wolf . ( the wolf in the scandinavian tradition as either representing the warrior or as a symbol of odin , sometimes combined with the christian symbolism as the wolf representing evil or the devi . )\neurasian wolves have shorter , denser fur than their north american relatives . their size varies according to region , although adults measure 30 inches ( 76 centimetres ) at the shoulder and weigh around 70 \u2013 130 pounds ( 32 \u2013 59 kilograms ) , with females usually being about twenty per cent smaller than males . the heaviest known eurasian wolf was killed in romania and weighed 158 pounds ( 72 kilograms ) .\nthe grey wolf known also as the timber wolf , was once one of the world\u2019s most widespread species , however due to habitat reduction , persecution by humans and other factors , its range is now confined to remote wilderness areas of north america , eurasia and north africa . the eurasian wolf although still under threat , is starting to recover since it\u2019s major decline in the 1950\u2019s .\neurope has had a long and complex history with the eurasian wolf . ancient vikings , romans , celts and greeks all feared and respected the animal , writing it into their religious mythologies . the she - wolf , or lupa romana , the symbol of ancient rome , was so revered that romans only killed wolves when absolutely necessary .\nthe eurasian wolf subspecies is known for its long , narrow skull and slender build . it has a coarser and thinner coat than that of other gray wolves , and it can range from white to black , including cream , red , gray and brown .\nsmall , isolated groups are found in western european countries and scandinavia . larger wolf populations are present in eastern european countries such as poland and romania . by far the largest number of eurasian wolves \u2013 perhaps as many as 30 , 000 \u2013 live in russia .\nthe red wolf is under hot debate as to whether it is a separate species of a subspecies of the grey wolf . a study in 2011 found it ' s dna to consist mainly of coyote and be only 20 % grey wolf however , suggesting that it is not a genetically distinct species of wolf .\nin scottish folklore there are a number of tales of the wolf and fox . these tend to convey the wolf as somewhat more gullible than the cunning fox . in one tale fox tricks wolf out of a whole keg of butter , and in another fox ' s trickery results in wolf losing his tail !\nfrom the \u2018big bad wolf\u2019 in little red riding hood to the legendary \u2018 werewolf \u2019 , the wolf \u2013 or gray wolf to give it its full name \u2013 is the subject of myths and fairytales in many parts of the world .\nthe eurasian wolf was eliminated from most of northern europe during 19th century . it was hunted out of denmark in the 1770s , while the last norwegian wolf was eliminated as late as the 1970s . in central europe , gray wolves lowered in numbers during the first part of the 19th century : the last wolf of bavaria was hunted in the 1840s . in crimea , the subspecies has been eliminated not one but multiple times .\nthe wolf - size otter lived in a shallow swamp surrounded by thick vegetation .\ngenetic diversity in the caucasian wolves in comparison with wolf populations from southern europe .\nbut this wolf had apparently lain in wait for the young mining camp worker .\nthe wolf , it seems , is one animal that\u2019s always in the doghouse .\nin the 4th - 6th century ce the rouran took over control of the eurasian steppes . in 436 ce the rouran dislodged the usun to the tian - shan mountains [ 11 ] [ 12 ]\nthe arctic wolf ( canis lupus arctos ) , also known as the melville island wolf , is a possible subspecies of gray wolf and is native to the canadian arctic archipelago . it is a medium - sized subspecies , distinguished from the northwestern wolf by its smaller size , its whiter coloration , its narrower braincase , and larger carnassials .\neurasian wolves are regarded highly in various european cultures , including the greek , roman , baltic , celtic , etc . germanic people of yore , however , had both regard and contempt for this animal .\nfig . 1 . deep split between east asian and western eurasian dogs . ( a ) a neighbor - joining tree ( with bootstrap values ) based on identity by state of 605 dogs . red and yellow clades represent the east asian and western eurasian core groups , respectively . ( b ) a map showing the location and relative proportion of ancestry of dogs . negative values ( red ) indicate that the population shares more derived alleles with the east asian core , whereas positive values ( yellow ) indicate a closer association with the western eurasian core . ( doi : 10 . 1126 / science . aaf3161 )\nthe current ( dark blue ) and historic ( light blue ) population range for brown bears , gray wolves , eurasian lynx , and wolverines in europe . photo credit : chapron et al . 2014 .\nthe african golden wolf is found in north and east africa , with perhaps some in the middle east , while the eurasian golden jackal is found from southern europe to the middle east and across southern asia all the way to the edge of southeast asia in vietnam , the researchers said .\n) and grey wolf haplotypes published after 2010 , as well as any dog haplotypes .\nbelow we examine more versions of wolf legends and myths from indo - european lands .\nvillagers have also taken down a stuffed wolf that had been in the school lobby .\nlike many members of the animal kingdom , eurasian wolves breed during the early winter months and into the spring . after between 61 and 65 days of pregnancy , a female eurasian wolf will give birth to around 4 to 7 pups . the whole pack will raise and disciple these young wolves , though it is only the most dominate females and males that will mate . this ensures that only the strongest genes will survive , and that the strength of the pack will be maintained for generations to come .\nthe researchers determined that the african golden jackal lineage split from the lineage including gray wolves and coyotes about 1 . 3 million years ago while the eurasian golden jackal lineage split about 600 , 000 years earlier .\nthe wolf is often symbolically linked with mountain kami in shinto ( the most famous example being the wolf kami of mitsumine shrine in the town of chichibu in saitama prefecture ) .\nthe wolf in the scandinavian tradition as either representing the warrior or as a symbol of odin , sometimes combined with the christian symbolism as the wolf representing evil or the devil .\nthe elimination of the eurasian wolf from europe was an effort that began during the middle ages and persisted until the beginning of the 20th century . in some cases , like in the united kingdom , their killing was promoted through legislation : in scotland , wolves survived till the 1680s while ireland saw its last wolf killed in the 1780s . they are still considered extinct in the british isles .\non a continent that can go years without a major wolf attack , the area has hosted three suspected wolf attacks on adult men in 12 years . the attacks are all within 100 km of one another , and thus within the range of a single wolf population .\n\u201cthe turki , one branch of the hun people\uff0ctook the wolf as their ancestor\uff0ein turki annals\uff0czhou classics , it was recorded that the ashina tribe people were killed out by neighboring kingdoms\uff0cwith only one ten - year - old boy survivor , who was saved by a she - wolf\uff0ethe wolf brought him up and mated him\uff0ethe enemy kingdoms heard of this\uff0cendeavored to kill him and the pregnant wolf\uff0ethe last turki didn\u2019t survive this crisis\uff0cbut the wolf did\uff0cas well as their ten offspring\uff0e the wolf escaped to the caves in the mountain north to the nanchang kingdom\uff0cand gave birth to ten boys\uff0ethey prospered and took wolf as their totem\uff0eand in the legendary story of cham wukesi\uff0cthere was a god wolf who guided the way in the marching\uff0cand helped the army win the war .\niberian wolf pack howling at night / lobos ib\u00e9ricos aullando en la noche . durmiendo con lobos\nwolf shot dead after escaping from a zoo may have climbed over a defective electric fence .\nlisted below are the species or subspecies of wolf that are currently contested and under debate .\n, which translates into english as something like ' the great evil wolf ' , rather than the wolf of british fairytales , the somewhat downgraded ' big bad wolf ' . the tale of little red riding hood , as we know it today from the brothers grimm , was originally\nthe grey wolf legend the wolf is a common motif in the foundational mythologies and cosmologies of peoples throughout eurasia and north america ( corresponding to the historical extent of the habitat of the gray wolf ) . the wolf symbolizes honor and is also considered the mother of most turkic peoples . asena is the name of one of the ten sons who were given birth by a mythical wolf in turkic mythology . [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ]\nthe gray wolf is the biggest species in the canidae family , which inhabits temperate grasslands of the northern hemisphere . the gray wolf has several subspecies , which often refers to geographic groups with specific characteristics . the mexican wolf is a smaller and critically endangered subspecies of gray wolf , which was reintroduced to the north american temperate grasslands recently , after almost extinct in the wild .\nthe successful birth of four red wolf pups is an important addition to the populations of this rare florida species , and they are the first red wolf births at the zoo since 1993 .\nthe wolf lives on in a number of scottish place names , such as mullinavaddie ( ' mill of the wolf ' ) in perthshire , as well as lochmaddy , ardmaddy and craigmaddy .\nas soon as the elder son got to know that his mother was a wolf , he said to her , \u201cmamma ! mamma ! i have heard that you are a wolf . \u201d\nthe eurasian wolf sub - species ( canis lupus lupus ) has recovered since the nadir of its decline in the 1950s , and is found in the iberian peninsula , scandinavia , italy , northern europe , russia , turkey , israel , saudi arabia , afghanistan , pakistan , india , mongolia and china . across much of this range the wolf was widely hunted due to the threat of predation on livestock populations .\nthe tibetans attribute their grey wolf traditions to the mongol royal house , and not the tibetans , see mynak r . tulku , \u201c grey wolf in tibetan tradition , \u201d bulletin of tibetology 1967 no . 2 , or the notes on the grey wolf symbol , via digital himalaya :\nthe many names of the eurasian wolf point out the subspecies ' exceptionally wide range , from western europe to east asia and including the alps , scandinavia , russia , the caucasus , the kopet dag range , mongolia and the himalayas . interestingly , the gray wolves that you can find in italy are a separate subspecies .\n\u201ca single wolf basically pounced on him , \u201d was what a mine representative told the press .\non the very rare occasion that a north american wolf bites a human , the animal is usually rabid or surprised ; a hiker startling a wolf feeding on a moose carcass , for instance .\nthe wolf is a legally protected species \u2026 and there is no need to revisit that status .\n( the old spelling of the french word for wolf ) abound . the name chanteloup is particularly common , and signifies that in the middle ages professional wolf hunters must have made camp there (\nthe eurasian or european wolf has the largest range among wolf subspecies and can currently be found throughout europe , asia and russia . in the past wolves have been exterminated throughout central and northern european countries during the 19th century , the numbers of wolves throughout europe are now slowly recovering naturally with france , germany , sweden and norway being recolonised . the largest population can still be found in eastern european countries like romania , poland and the balkans . the european wolf disappeared from the uk and ireland during the 18th century .\nbrown bear , wolf , the eurasian lynx and wolverine are found in nearly one - third of mainland europe ( excluding belarus , ukraine , and russia ) , with most individuals living outside nature reserves , indicating that changing attitudes and landscape - scale conservation measures are successfully protecting species which have suffered massive persecution throughout human history .\nthe eurasian or european wolf has the largest range among wolf subspecies and can currently be found throughout europe , asia and russia . in the past wolves have been exterminated throughout central and northern european countries during the 19 th century , the numbers of wolves throughout europe are now slowly recovering naturally with france , germany , sweden and norway being recolonised . the largest population can still be found in eastern european countries like romania , poland and the balkans . the european wolf disappeared from the uk and ireland during the 18 th century .\nin the cardinal directions of the plains indians , the wolf represented the west , while for the pawnee , it represented the southeast . according to the pawnee creation myth , the wolf was the first creature to experience death . the wolf star , enraged at not having been invited to attend a council on how the earth should be made , sent a wolf to steal the whirlwind bag of the storm that comes out of the west , which contained the first humans . upon being freed from the bag , the humans killed the wolf , thus bringing death into the world . the pawnee , being both an agricultural and hunting people , associated the wolf with both corn and the bison ; the \u201cbirth\u201d and \u201cdeath\u201d of the wolf star ( sirius ) was to them a reflection of the wolf\u2019s coming and going down the path of the milky way known as wolf road . [ 12 ]\ntwo mexican gray wolf pups born at chicago\u2019s brookfield zoo swapped places with two wild - born pups in new mexico as part of the united states fish and wildlife service\u2019s mexican grey wolf recovery program .\nthe eurasian wolf , as the name suggests , is a canid subspecies found across europe and asia . it is a carnivore that has largely had its population cut down during various periods of history , but currently , conservation efforts have ensured that it thrives across the range that it inhabits . its numbers are believed to be generally stable .\nthe bears are the most abundant large carnivore in europe with around 17 , 000 individuals , alongside 12 , 000 wolves , 9 , 000 eurasian lynx and 1 , 250 wolverines , which are restricted to northern parts of scandinavia and finland .\nmost troubling of all , human habituation can be \u201cpassed down through wolf generations , \u201d said murray .\nthe geographic origin and age of the oldest archaeological dog remains in eurasia . ( b ) a suggested model of dog domestication under the dual - origin hypothesis . an initial wolf population splits into east and west eurasian wolves that were then domesticated independently before becoming extinct ( as indicated by the \u2020 symbol ) . the western eurasian dog population ( european ) was then partially replaced by a human - mediated translocation of asian dogs at least 6400 years ago , a process that took place gradually after the arrival of the eastern dog population . ( doi : 10 . 1126 / science . aaf3161 )\nthe researchers reviewed published scientific reports and singled out seven species that have been studied for their widespread ecological effects or\ntrophic cascades .\nthis includes african lions , leopards , eurasian lynx , cougars , gray wolves , sea otters and dingoes .\nby e . kuzmina ,\nthe eurasian steppes : the transition from early urbanism to nomadism\nand the papers by k . jones - bley ,\nsintashta burials and their western european counterparts\nand\nthe sintashta ' chariots '\n)\nas the wolf is a top predator , the state of the wolf can frequently be seen as a state of the land where it lives . wolves are still endangered after being hunted down in the 1600s .\nalthough man domesticated his best friend from the species at least 15 , 000 years ago , he has long regarded the wolf as his worst enemy . the wolf prowls through stories\u2014red riding hood , peter and the wolf , the norse myth of the beast that will swallow the sun at ragnarok\u2014as the embodiment of evil .\nkatja schulz set\nwolf 2\nas an exemplar on\ncanis lupus lupus linnaeus , 1758\n.\nthe capitoline wolf with romulus and remus . musei capitolini , palazzo dei conservatori , rome photo : wikimedia commons\nwolf attacks aren\u2019t supposed to happen this way , but wolves don\u2019t exactly act as expected in northern saskatchewan .\nthe modern gray wolf subspecies of northern and central north america probably descend from a relatively recent wave , as gray and eurasian wolves are more closely related to each other than to smaller wolves inhabiting the southern fringes of wolf range on each continent . as in north america , the average size of wolves in eurasia varies geographically , generally increasing toward the north . the romanian wolf is of intermediate size , most adults weighing between 75 to 130 lbs ( 34 to 60 kg ) . average pack size ( around five ) and territory sizes ( between 80 and 300 sq km ; 50 to 186 miles ) tend to be smaller than typical of most wolf populations in northwestern north america .\nfrom ms versteeg\u2019s photographs , and from the carcass of a deer found nearby\u2014its throat torn out in classic wolf fashion\u2014scientists verified that she was the first person to have seen a wolf in the netherlands since 1897 . having talked to the experts , she now understands that the wolf was probably more frightened than she was . \u201cbut all you know at the time is : it\u2019s a wolf , it\u2019s a predator and i\u2019m in its way . \u201d\na comparison of caucasian wolf mtdna haplotypes with the combined datasets of wolf and dog haplotypes from the studies by verginelli et al . [ 64 ] and savolainen et al . [ 65 ] showed that two caucasian haplotypes ( w4 and w47 ) belong to a haplogroup shared between eurasian wolves and domestic dogs , named haplogroup vi [ 64 ] or haplogroup b [ 65 ] . the remaining caucasian haplotypes ( including the three unique haplotypes ) belong to a haplogroup containing most of worldwide wolf haplotypes and only one domestic dog haplotype , named haplogroup viii [ 64 ] or haplogroup e [ 65 ] .\nanother recurring scene shows a warrior fighting two wild beasts ( wolves or bears , compared to the eddaic geri and freki ) . thus , spiedel ( 2004 ) connects geri and freki with archaeological finds depicting figures wearing wolf - pelts and frequently found wolf - related names among the germanic peoples , including wulfhroc ( \u201cwolf - frock\u201d ) , wolfhetan ( \u201cwolf - hide\u201d ) , isangrim ( \u201cgrey - mask\u201d ) , scrutolf ( \u201cgarb - wolf\u201d ) and wolfgang ( \u201cwolf - gait\u201d ) , wolfdregil ( \u201cwolf - runner\u201d ) , and vulfolaic ( \u201cwolf - dancer\u201d ) and myths regarding wolf warriors from norse mythology ( such as the \u00falfh\u00e9\u00f0nar ) . parallels in the 6th - to 7th - century iconography of vendel period sweden ( \u00f6land ; ekhammar ) , in alemannia ( gutenstein ; obrigheim ) as well as in england ( sutton hoo ; finglesham , kent ) suggest a persisting \u201cpan - germanic\u201d unity of a wolf - warrior band cult centered around wodan / wodin in scandinavia , in anglo - saxon england and on the continent right until the eve of christianization of england and alemannia in the 7th century . [ 3 ]\neurasian wolves are highly social animals , though due to a decline in territory , they form smaller packs than in north america . social behaviour seems to vary from region to region , an example being that wolves living in the carpathians tend to be predominantly solitary hunters .\nmech , l . d . & boitani , l . ( iucn ssc wolf specialist group ) . 2010 .\nwolf and lynx patrols are trained volunteers who dedicate their free time to the monitoring and protection of large carnivores .\n\u201cprior to the meiji restoration ( 1868 ) , japanese worshiped this canine , whether wolf or mountain dog . the shinto shrine mitsumine jinja was of particular importance in wolf worship and has been associated with both shugenoo , or traditions of mountain asceticism , and wolf iconography . mitsumine jinja stands near the village of ootaki , in saitama prefecture .\nthere has since been a suspected wolf killing of a 32 - year - old jogger in alaska in 2010 .\ncharacteristics iberian wolves are of medium size with a thinner build than the average eurasian wolf . males can weigh as much as 90 pounds and females are usually 75 to 80 percent the size of males . their coat will vary in color from a lighter grey or ochre in the warmer months to a darker reddish brown during the winter . the name signatus ( meaning marked ) was derived from white marks on the wolf ' s upper lips , and dark marks on the tail and front legs .\nmuch like north american wolves , the eurasian wolf eats mammals of a range of different sizes , including various domesticated breeds of livestock . these mammals range from saiga , wild boar , and red deer , to roe deer and moufflon . due to human advancements and construction , a lot of the eurasian wolf\u2019s natural food sources have become increasingly scarce , which is why they often seek out and attack farmers ' livestock in compensation . these wolves hunt in packs in order to take down larger animals such as yaks and wisents . during this type of hunting , the wolves will victimize the young or weak in order to separate them from the crowd , and chase the animal to the point of exhaustion , so that they will more easily be able to eventually kill it .\nlike all wolves , eurasian wolves are carnivorous animals . their main prey are herbivorous ungulate animals such as wild goats , boar and deer , and even large animals such as moose or elks . however , they also feed on mustelids , rodents , ducks and even lizards .\nthe survey found the eurasian lynx living permanently in 11 population groups across 23 european countries , of which only five were native populations \u2013 indicating the success of reintroduction efforts . according to monbiot , momentum is building for the reintroduction of the lynx into the cairngorms in scotland .\npoor statistical support for several dog breeds , such as the greenland sledge dog and the siberian husky , indicate that they probably have mixed ancestry from both the western eurasian ( yellow ; figure 1a ) and east asian ( red ; figure 1a )\ncore\ndog groups .\nthe project took up more than three years of simpson\u2019s life , most of which he spent in beijing . he first went to china in 2010 to work with zoos in finding proper parentage for the pups that would eventually be used in the film . he raised 16 eurasian wolf pups in china . and when he returned to alberta just before christmas , he brought them all back with him .\nwolves will fight to defend their territories . territorial fights are the leading natural cause of wolf deaths in the wild .\n) , however some other potential species are under hot scientific debate . listed below are the uncontested species of wolf .\nstill , that doesn\u2019t mean that members of simpson\u2019s friendly pack aren\u2019t often called upon to play those \u201cbad wolf\u201d roles .\nin angenanfu\uff0ca uiguri folk epic\uff0cthere is a god wolf named botanyouna\uff0cwho guided their ancestors out of the mountains\uff0cand persuaded a blacksmith to lead 100\uff0c000 soldiers to defeat the enemies\uff0euptonow\uff0cthe uigur people still take wolf as a symbol of bravery , and when a boy is born\uff0cthey would like to say they get a wolf cub\u201d\uff0e\u2013 teng yong qing\u2019s \u201c legend of the \u2018\u2019wolf\u2019\u2019\uff1aprobing into its cultural images \u201d pp . 66 - 67 , us - china foreign language\uff0cissn 1539 - 8080\uff0cusa mar\uff0e2008\uff0cvolume 6\uff0cno\uff0e3 ( serial no\uff0e54 )\nthere are now around 35 wolf packs in germany , comprising an estimated 150 animals . image : michelle bender , flickr\nthe wolves of romania are\neurasian wolves ,\ncanis lupus lupus , a subspecies which prior to the 20th century ranged over most of the vast super - continent\u2014from western europe and scandinavia eastward through russia , central asia , southern siberia , mongolia , the northern himalayas and china\u2014but now reduced in extent due to human persecution and loss of habitat , especially in the west . the eurasian wolf is believed to descend from canids that migrated from the north american continent across the bering strait when it was land or ice , possibly in multiple waves beginning at least two million years ago . after evolving into wolves , some migrated back to north america , possibly also in multiple waves .\nour results showed that african and eurasian golden jackals were distinct across all the genetic markers we tested , including data from whole genomes , suggesting these are independently evolving lineages ,\nsaid klaus - peter koepfli , a conservation and evolutionary geneticist at the smithsonian conservation biology institute in washington .\nat no time were members of the public in any danger as the wolf was away from the visitor area throughout .\nif you want to know more about the iberian wolf you can download the app ifelix ( in spanish ) listed here .\n\u201cif in fact it was a wolf attack , it\u2019s way outside what we understand and we know , \u201d he said .\nchina used to have one of the world ' s largest wolf populations , spread across grasslands in xinjiang and inner mongolia .\nthe double goddess : women sharing power by vicki noble \u201cit is now clear that the so - called silk road linked the mediterranean with india and china for at least 4000 years , and one thing that stands out is the unique and enduring amalgam of afro - eurasian female shaman priestesses . \u201d\nenvironmental and animal - welfare organisations are leading the fight to keep the wolf protected . they have generous supporters , for whom the wolf is totemic . when defenders of wildlife polls its 1m members about the species they care about , the wolf always comes out top , according to jamie rappaport clark , its president and a former director of the federal government\u2019s fish and wildlife service ( fws ) . that makes lobbying for the wolf a priority : \u201cour members expect a return on their investment . \u201d\nthe above practices merged with ta\u2019asobi rituals associated with rice planting and the god of the rice field , and as a result the wolf messenger or wolf deity became conflated with folk beliefs about the sarutahiko okami , god of the crossroads , see sarutahiko okami \u2013 monkey or wolf guide - deity . while legend tells that prince yamatotakeru was guided by a wolf once when he lost his way during one of his campaigns , which has shades of the following ashina ( as well as uighur ) legend :\nthe mexican wolf found in the usa once ranged from new mexico to texas and southeastern arizona . today , after becoming extinct in the wild , the mexican wolf has been reintroduced to a small area of arizona with the hope that as the population expands they will hopefully move back into new mexico . there are 47 mexican wolf captive breeding facilities in united states and mexico .\neuropean populations of gray wolves ( canis lupus ) , wolverines ( gulo gulo ) , brown bears ( ursus arctos ) and eurasian lynx ( lynx lynx ) are increasing . these four species collectively occupy one third of europe . photo credit : wikipedia , mike needham , dan stodola , trees for life .\n) , or introgression of wolf mtdna into the dog population following hybridisation events in early phases of the evolutionary history of dogs .\nthe zoo\u2019s participation in the mexican gray wolf recovery program shows how zoos can partner with other conservation organizations to help save species .\n\u201cthe messenger of the gods from mitsumine shrine is the japanese wolf , kami no tsukai , ookami , \u300c\u795e\u4f7f : \u72fc \u304a\u304a\u304b\u307f\u300d .\nunlike fox and bear , the wolf has always been feared and hated in finland , and wolf has been the symbol of destruction and desolation , to the extent that the very name of wolf in finnish language , susi , means also \u201ca useless thing\u201d and the by - name hukka means perdition and annihilation . while bear has been the sacred animal of finns , wolves have always been hunted and killed mercilessly . the wolf has been represented as implacable and malicious predator , killing more than it manages to eat .\nin the secret history of the mongols , the mongol peoples are said to have descended from the mating of a doe ( gua maral ) and a wolf ( \u2018boerte chino\u2019 ) . [ 8 ] in modern mongolia , the wolf is still seen as a good luck symbol , especially for males . in mongolian folk medicine , eating the intestines of a wolf is said to alleviate chronic indigestion , while sprinkling food with powdered wolf rectum is said to cure hemorroids . [ 9 ] mongol mythology explains the wolf\u2019s occasional habit of surplus killing by pointing to their traditional creation story . it states that when god explained to the wolf what it should and should not eat , he told it that it may eat one sheep out of 1 , 000 . the wolf however misunderstood and thought god said kill 1 , 000 sheep and eat one . [ 10 ] ( source : wolves in folklore , religion and mythology )\nthe wolf has enriched our culture through its presence in countless stories , as well as non - fictional works of nature writing . in a sand county almanac , 20th century american ecologist aldo leopold wrote an evocative account of an encounter with a wolf he shot :\nthe eurasian wolf alpha male and female mate between january and march . litters , usually consist of 6 pups which are born 7 weeks later in a den which has been dug among bushes or rocks . the male brings food back to the den , either by carrying it whole or by swallowing and then regurgitating it for the others to eat . as the pups grow , the mother and other members of the pack help to feed them .\nthe arctic wolf is a sub - species of the grey wolf and is native to the arctic regions of north america and greenland . because of the isolation of their native habitat , they are not threatened by hunting or habitat destruction like their southern relatives . however , industrial development ( mines , roads and pipeline construction ) is gradually encroaching on their native territory , and will most likely interfere with food supplies , in the future . the arctic wolf is the only sub - species of wolf that is not classified as threatened .\ndespite continuous historical distribution of the grey wolf ( canis lupus ) throughout eurasia , the species displays considerable morphological differentiation that resulted in delimitation of a number of subspecies . however , these morphological discontinuities are not always consistent with patterns of genetic differentiation . here we assess genetic distinctiveness of grey wolves from the caucasus ( a region at the border between europe and west asia ) that have been classified as a distinct subspecies c . l . cubanensis . we analysed their genetic variability based on mtdna control region , microsatellite loci and genome - wide snp genotypes ( obtained for a subset of the samples ) , and found similar or higher levels of genetic diversity at all these types of loci as compared with other eurasian populations . although we found no evidence for a recent genetic bottleneck , genome - wide linkage disequilibrium patterns suggest a long - term demographic decline in the caucasian population \u2013 a trend consistent with other eurasian populations . caucasian wolves share mtdna haplotypes with both eastern european and west asian wolves , suggesting past or ongoing gene flow . microsatellite data also suggest gene flow between the caucasus and eastern europe . we found evidence for moderate admixture between the caucasian wolves and domestic dogs , at a level comparable with other eurasian populations . taken together , our results show that caucasian wolves are not genetically isolated from other eurasian populations , share with them the same demographic trends , and are affected by similar conservation problems .\nwolves are social animals and live in family groups called packs . a typical wolf pack consists of an alpha pair and 3 to 9 of their offspring . larger wolf packs comprise two or more of these families , and can number up to 30 or more animals .\nthe wolf communicates in a number of ways , including body language , scent , and vocalizations such as growling , barking and whining .\ntaff tried to tranquilise the wolf after it was found outside the perimeter near the a361 , but said it was out of range .\nthe prince found himself lost until a white - wolf god led him out of the mountains , hence the shrine\u2019s connection with wolves .\n\u201cthus the grey wolf ( bozhurt ) became an omen of happy import among the ancient turks . the emblem ppeared on the standards of the huns and the ulghurs . the oguz branch of the turks was said to have been guided by a wolf on their migrations and in the early epic of oguz kagan , the latter is said to resemble a wolf physicall y . the wolf device does not seem to have been used as an emblem for some time after the turks became muslims\u2013probably because of religious scruples\u2013out it was revived by ataturk\u201d .\nthe truck\u2019s arrival spooked the wolf away and the security guard , who has declined media interviews , sprang out to provide first aid .\nwhere large carnivores have been restored - - such as wolves in yellowstone or eurasian lynx in finland - - ecosystems have responded quickly , said ripple .\ni am impressed with how resilient the yellowstone ecosystem is . it isn ' t happening quickly everywhere , but in some places , ecosystem restoration has started there .\nthe wolf is one of the most iconic carnivores , especially in spain . however , an unwarranted bad reputation kills hundreds of individuals a year . find out in this post more about this wonderful animal and the conservation efforts that are currently being made with the iberian wolf .\nnot everybody agrees . where humans were once united in their determination to eradicate the wolf , they are now sharply divided over its return .\nmost wolf subspecies live in separate areas in the wild , and have slight physical variations that reflect the different conditions in which they live .\nthe wolf\u2019s iucn red list conservation status is \u2018least concern\u2019 , and the world\u2019s wolf population is stable . however , wolves used to be present in many more parts of europe than they are now , and wolves are highly dependent on the areas that they do inhabit remaining undeveloped .\nsometimes referred to as the\ncommon wolf\n, this canine is to be found throughout much of russia and northern and eastern europe .\nunlike other species of wolf , the arctic wolf rarely comes into contact with humans and is not threatened by hunting or persecution . however , industrial development is a threat as an increasing number of mines , roads , and pipelines encroach on its territory and interrupt its food supply .\nwolf - headed warrior , vendel era bronze plate found on \u00f6land ( late 6th - century sweden ) spiedel , michael ( 2004 ) .\nusing data from the large carnivore initiative for europe , researchers looked at the occurrence of brown bears ( ursus arctos ) , eurasian lynx ( lynx lynx ) , gray wolves ( canis lupus ) and wolverines ( gulo gulo ) in every european country except for ukraine , belarus , russia , and very small countries such as andorra ."]}
{"id": 61, "summary": [{"text": "tomares romanovi , or romanoff 's hairstreak , is a butterfly of the family lycaenidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in armenia , azerbaijan , georgia , eastern turkey , northern iran , and kopet dagh mountains .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 28 \u2013 30 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the species inhabits calcareous grasslands and arid mountain steppes , usually dominated by tragacanth locoweeds .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it occupies elevation range from 1200 to 1600 m above sea level .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the butterfly flies from late april to mid-june depending on latitude and elevation .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the larvae feed on the astragalus species a. scharuhdensis and a. finitimus . ", "topic": 29}], "title": "tomares romanovi", "paragraphs": ["tomares romanovi - is a species with . . . - karen aghababyan | facebook\ntomares romanovi , or romanoff ' s hairstreak , is a butterfly of the family lycaenidae . it is found in armenia , azerbaijan , georgia , eastern turkey , northern iran , and kopet dagh mountains .\nsimilar species are : provence hairstreak or cardenillo , tomares ballus ( fabricius , 1787 ) it is found in the iberian peninsula , northern africa and along the mediterranean coast of provence , france .\nthe species is distributed in armenian highland , georgia , kopet - dagh . armenia is inhabited by nominate subspecies .\nthe species inhabits calcareous grasslands and arid mountain steppes , usually dominated by tragacanth locoweeds . host plant is astragalus finitimus , although for kopet dagh the astragalus schahrudensis is known . the species is specialized to feed on flowers of the host plant , and the female lays down the eggs on the flower buds .\nflight period lasts from mid april to mid june , depending on elevation , in single generation .\n. in the studied period it shows moderate decline ( p < 0 . 05 ) . the host plant probably suffers from overgrazing in two ways : directly and due to total degradation of habitat and erosion .\nit was evaluated for the red book of animals of armenia and was considered as vulnerable . at current some portions of the populations of the species are protected in khosrov forest state reserve , and gnishik community protected area . two populations of the species which have not been covered by arevik national park are included now in\npbas , also the significant portion of its population is included in gnishik pba . in their turn the mentioned pbas are in the process of being included in the network of emerald sites . continuation of the monitoring of the species is a necessary measure to track further dynamics of its populations . further grow of pba network and development of butterfly - watching with strong support of community service is another important conservation tool that can decrease the load on the grassland ecosystems and support in stabilization of population trend .\nstatus . a rare species . according to iucn criteria categorized as vulnerable vu b1ab ( iii ) + b2ab ( iii ) .\nbrief description . a small\u2013sized butterfly , the length of the forewing is 15 - 19 mm . the fround color of the wings is black with bright red spot on the discal part of forewings and on the anal part of hind wings . the underside of the hind wings is light green with metallic iridescence .\ndistribution in armenia . central and south armenia . recorded in the kotayk ( garni and geghadir villages , jrvezh settlement , mt . hatis ) , vayots dzor ( artavan village ) , ararat ( urtsalanj village ) , syunik ( surroundings of the shvanidzor village ) provinces and in khosrov forest reserve .\nhabitats . semi\u2013deserts , dry meadows , steppes , grasslands near the timberline at the altitudes of 1300\u20132200 m above sea level .\nbiological traits . flies in a single generation from mid - may to the end of july . pupae winter . the larvae develop in the flower buds of astragalus finitimus ( fabaceae ) .\npopulation size and its trends . abundance is rather great in places without human facilities , depends on the densities of the fodder plant .\nsuggested conservation measures . incorporation of species habitats to the reserve zone of arevik national park . application of selective effect insecticides in aircraft treatments against leaf - eating forest pests .\n( fabricius , 1787 ) it is found in the iberian peninsula , northern africa and along the mediterranean coast of provence , france .\nhabitat : dry rocky slopes with sparse vegetation , debris , beams , ravines .\nbehavior : usually sits on the soil or small stones , sometimes feeds on flowers , on favorit in spain are platycapnos spicata . males are territory - assertive , that is , they either fly up and chase anyone who dares to enter the territory , or they fly into the whirling\ndance - flight\naround each other high into the air in a sort of territory battle . females are less flying around , often seen on the flowers of nectary , or lay eggs on foodplants .\nflight season : depending on the height above sea level , the season is from the end of january until early may .\nfoodplants : caterpillars which feed on hairy canary clover , dorycnium hirsutum and different medicago species .\ndistribution : iberian peninsula , northern africa and along the mediterranean coast of provence , france .\nauthor & photographer : martin bjerg & arne lykke viborg . editor : lars andersen .\nanother name : caucasian spring copper . name in name in turkish : kafkasya gelincigi .\nbehavior : usually sits on the soil or small stones , sometimes feeds on flowers . males are territory - assertive , that is , they either fly up and chase anyone who dares to enter the territory , or they fly into the whirling\ndance - flight\naround each other high into the air in a sort of territory battle . females are less flying around , often seen on the flowers of nectary , or lay eggs on foodplants .\nflight season : depending on the height above sea level , the season is from the end of march until early june . caterpillars which feed on different astragalus species emerge one - two weeks earlier than those which feed on kopeechnik .\nfoodplants : astragal sverhuvolosisty , astragalus suprapilosus , astragal puzyristy , astragalus utriger , and sweetvetch / kopeechnik vetch , hedysarum candidum .\ndistribution : recorded in a few localities on coast mountains in south - eastern crimea , ukraine ( karadag nature reserve ) . georgia . grusia . khanlar . azerbaijan . turkey . syria . iraq and iran .\nauthor & photographer : morten s . m\u00f8lgaard & tom nygaard kristensen . editor : lars andersen .\nanother name : nogel ' s spring copper . name in turkish : anadolu gelincigi .\nbehavior : it is not very shy , flying low over the vegetation , sometimes taking off in high flight through the bushes or trees . sits mainly on foodplants and other herbaceous plants . males are territory - assertive , females are less flying around , often seen on the flowers to nectary . normally it does not fly very far away from habitats , but can be seen individually in a distance up to several kilometers away from the locality !\nflight season : flight season begins in the second week of may and until mid june .\ndistribution : dobrogea , romania\u0086 . recorded in a few localities on coastmountains in south - eastern crimea , ukraine . syria . lebanon . israel . turkey . georgia . armenia . kurdistan . iraq and iran .\nauthor & photographer : tom nygaard kristensen & morten s . m\u00f8lgaard . editor : lars andersen .\ncollins butterfly guide : the most complete field guide to the butterflies of britain and europe by tom tolman and richard lewington 2008 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncopyright \u00a9 andre gorodinski . the insects from the palaearctic region . web design by mrs . l . gorodinski .\nby creating an account , i agree to shutterstock ' s website terms , privacy policy , and licensing terms .\n\u00a9 2003 - 2018 shutterstock , inc . all rights reserved . made in nyc .\nsmall ( s ) has the shortest download time and is suitable for digital use .\nlarge ( l ) is suitable for large prints as well as digital use . it is the original image provided by the contributor .\nyou can redownload your image for free at any time , in any size .\neditorial content , such as news and celebrity images , are not cleared for commercial use . learn more on our support center .\nsign up to browse over million images , video clips , and music tracks . plus , get free weekly content and more .\n( we only support jpg and png images under 5mb and no larger than 4000px on either side at this time . )\narmenia , vayots dzor province , areni village , noravank gorge , 24 . v . 2010\nthe source code for the wiki 2 extension is being checked by specialists of the mozilla foundation , google , and apple . you could also do it yourself at any point in time .\nwould you like wikipedia to always look as professional and up - to - date ? we have created a browser extension .\nit will enhance any encyclopedic page you visit with the magic of the wiki 2 technology .\ni use wiki 2 every day and almost forgot how the original wikipedia looks like .\nof perfecting techniques ; in live mode . quite the same wikipedia . just better .\nthe wingspan is 28\u201330 mm . the species inhabits calcareous grasslands and arid mountain steppes , usually dominated by tragacanth locoweeds . it occupies elevation range from 1200 to 1600 m above sea level . [ 1 ] the butterfly flies from late april to mid - june depending on latitude and elevation .\nthe larvae feed on the astragalus species a . scharuhdensis and a . finitimus .\nthis page was last edited on 21 march 2018 , at 16 : 30 .\nbasis of this page is in wikipedia . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 unported license . non - text media are available under their specified licenses . wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation , inc . wiki 2 is an independent company and has no affiliation with wikimedia foundation .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more"]}
{"id": 66, "summary": [{"text": "archinemapogon yildizae is a moth of the tineidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by ko\u00e7ak in 1981 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in most of europe , except ireland , the benelux , the iberian peninsula and most of the balkan peninsula .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of birch woodlands .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the wingspan is 14 \u2013 21 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on wing from may to july .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on bracket fungi ( fomes or piptorus species ) growing on betula . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "archinemapogon yildizae", "paragraphs": ["a rare species , with a british distribution only in the central scottish highlands , although occurring elsewhere in europe and further east .\nthe larvae feed on bracket fungus , either fomes or piptorus which grows on birch ( betula ) .\nadults , though at large from may to july are generally only encountered as a result of rearing from larvae .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 06 - 15 21 : 44 : 48 page render time : 0 . 2157s total w / procache : 0 . 2551s\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nnotes : endangered ( proposed as a future red data book species ) in birch woodland in the scottish highlands . unlikely to be recorded in hampshire or on the isle of wight . wingspan 14 - 21 mm . larva feeds on bracket fungi growing on birch .\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15"]}
{"id": 67, "summary": [{"text": "prolibytherium ( \" before libya 's beast \" ) is an extinct artiodactyl ungulate native to early miocene north africa and pakistan , from around 16.9 to 15.97 million years ago .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the 1.80 metres ( 5 ft 11 in ) long creature would have superficially resembled an okapi or a deer .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "unlike these , however , prolibytherium displayed dramatic sexual dimorphism , in that the male had a set of large , leaf-shaped ossicones with a width of 35 centimetres ( 14 in ) , while the female had a set of slender , horn-like ossicones .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the taxonomic status of prolibytherium remains in flux .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "at one time , it was described as a relative of sivatherium ( as a precursor to \" libytherium maurusium \" ( s. maurusium ) ) .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "later , it would be regarded as a palaeomerycid , or either as a climacoceratid , or as a basal member of giraffoidea .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "with the discovery and study of a female skull in 2010 , prolibytherium is tentatively regarded as a climacoceratid . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "prolibytherium", "paragraphs": ["the back of the prolibytherium fusus skill . 4 marks the fused occipital condyles . from danowitz et al . , 2015 .\nmale ( a ) and female ( b ) forms of prolibytherium magnieri . p . fusus would have had similar ornaments . art by i . s\u00e1nchez .\nmeaning : prolibytherium means \u201cbefore libya\u2019s beast\u201d , coined by camille arambourg in 1969 for a different species , while fusus refers to the fused occipital condyles at the back of the skull .\ndanowitz , m . , domalski , r . , solounias , n . 2015 . a new species of prolibytherium ( ruminantia , mammalia ) from pakistan , and the functional implications of an atypical atlanto - occipital morphology a new species of prolibytherium ( ruminantia , mammalia ) from pakistan , and the functional implications of an atypical atlanto - occipital morphology a new species of prolibytherium ( ruminantia , mammalia ) from pakistan , and the functional implications of an atypical atlanto - occipital morphology . journal of mammalian evolution . doi : 10 . 1007 / s10914 - 015 - 9307 - 8\nthe taxonomic status of prolibytherium remains in flux . at one time , it was described as a relative of sivatherium ( as a precursor to\nlibytherium maurusium\n( sivatherium maurusium ) ) . later , it would be regarded as a palaeomerycid , or either as a climacoceratid , or as a basal member of giraffoidea . with the discovery and study of a female skull in 2010 , prolibytherium is tentatively regarded as a climacoceratid .\nin any list of weird fossil mammals , the regular set of ancient beasts are trotted out . there\u2019s always a brontothere . uintatherium often shows up . deinotherium isn\u2019t a surprise , either . and while these long lost mammals are indeed wonderful , there are plenty of critters that are just as strange . one of my favorites is prolibytherium .\ns\u00e1nchez , i . , quiralte , v . , morales , j . , azanza , b . , pickford , m . 2010 . sexual dimorphism of the frontal appendages of the early miocene pecoran prolibytherium arambourh , 1961 ( mammalia , ruminantia ) . journal of vertebrate paleontology . doi : 10 . 1080 / 02724634 . 2010 . 483555\nexactly what sort of beast prolibytherium was , no one knows for sure . the herbivore has been punted around the hoofed mammal tree a bit , and , for the moment , it seems closest to a group of extinct , deer - like mammals called climacoceratids . but one thing is for sure \u2013 this mammal wore some very bizarre headgear .\nthe 1 . 80 metres ( 5 ft 11 in ) long creature would have superficially resembled an okapi or a deer . unlike these , however , prolibytherium displayed dramatic sexual dimorphism , in that the male had a set of large , leaf - shaped ossicones with a width of 35 centimetres ( 14 in ) , while the female had a set of slender , horn - like ossicones .\nthe first species , named by camille arambourg from the 16 million year old rock of libya , had a massive , splayed appendage growing from between its eyes and over the back of the head . and as israel s\u00e1nchez and colleagues argued in 2010 , these ornaments differed between the sexes , with probable females having minimalist spikes that more or less present the framework on which the broader male palms are supported . and now melinda danowitz , rebecceca domalski , and nikos solounias have named a new species of this unusual mammal , extending the range of prolibytherium into asia and its span back three million years .\nthe new species , prolibytherium fusus , is only known from a 19 million year old braincase with the broad ornaments broken off . yet , aside from the fractured attachments for the appendages , the back of the skull shows that this species must have had heavy appendages like its geologically younger relative . the occipital condyles \u2013 the attachment sites between the back of the skull and the front of the neck \u2013 are fused and thickened , providing greater support along the midline for carrying all that extra bone around . and , danowitz and colleagues note , the reinforcement at the back of the skull might have had provided greater reinforcement for combat , too , although how these butterfly - faced mammals fought is so far left to our cenozoic imagination .\nthis article needs expanding . you can help improve this article by adding additional content .\nprolybitherium ( meaning\nbefore libya ' s beast\n) is a genus of artiodactyl ungulates native to early miocene north africa and pakistan , from around 16 . 9 to 15 . 97 million years ago .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\nhow much of the creature\u2019s body is known ? : a braincase with the cranial appendages broken off .\nhhw _ ` cel ` j ^ { \u0096\u008b } h [ zz\u008e\u0089nn\u0084\u0454 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.\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nparent taxon : palaeomerycidae according to d . r . prothero and m . r . liter 2007\nsee also carroll 1988 , mitchell and skinner 2003 and pickford et al . 2001\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages ."]}
{"id": 80, "summary": [{"text": "elachista unifasciella is a moth of the elachistidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found from sweden to the pyrenees , italy and greece and from great britain to russia and turkey .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 9 \u2013 10 millimetres ( 0.35 \u2013 0.39 in ) .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on wing from june to july in one generation per year .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on avenula pubescens , brachypodium sylvaticum , dactylis glomerata , holcus mollis and milium effusum .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they mine the leaves of their host plant .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "first , they create a long , somewhat blistered , slightly transparent corridor .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "later , they mine the basal leaves lying on the ground .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "they are light yellow with a light brown head .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "larvae can be found from autumn to the end of may . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "elachista unifasciella", "paragraphs": ["vingbredd 9\u201310 mm . en vackert , kontrastrikt tecknad gr\u00e4sminerarmal med brunsvarta framvingar , p\u00e5 mitten f\u00f6rsedda med ett kr\u00e4mf\u00e4rgat tv\u00e4rband som vidgar sig n\u00e5got mot bakkanten . fransarna \u00e4r vita vid spetsen utanf\u00f6r en svartaktig delningslinje . arten liknar ganska mycket lundskaftingminerarmal elachista gangabella , men denna art saknar de ljusa fransarna vid vingspetsen . denna karakt\u00e4r \u00e4r oftast sv\u00e5r att se , i synnerhet p\u00e5 slitna djur . arten \u00e4r avbildad av traugott - olsen & nielsen ( 1977 ) .\nnotes : rare ( proposed as a future red data book species ) on grassland in southern england , north to worcestershire . in hampshire known only from leckford , but not recorded in the county since 1986 . not recorded from the isle of wight to date . wingspan 9 - 10 mm . formerly lumped with e . obliquella and very similar to several other elachista species with worn females of e . bisulcella in particular frequently misidentified as this species . larva mines leaves of cock ' s - foot and false - brome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nif you have any good quality photographs and would like to contribute , please contact me by email at ian @ ukmoths . co . uk .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 06 - 16 14 : 23 : 03 page render time : 0 . 1530s total w / procache : 0 . 1905s\nden \u00e4r funnen i centraleuropa inklusive england . i danmark \u00e4r den funnen i ett brett band fr\u00e5n nord\u00f6stra sj\u00e4lland till s\u00f6dra jylland . dess nordgr\u00e4ns g\u00e5r genom sk\u00e5ne , d\u00e4r den har p\u00e5tr\u00e4ffats p\u00e5 flera platser . den rapporterades som ny f\u00f6r landet 1965 genom fynd i sk\u00e5ne , g\u00e4rdsl\u00f6v 20 . vi . 1964 ( i . svensson leg . ) d\u00e4r den fortfarande av allt att d\u00f6ma finns kvar . ca 1990 p\u00e5tr\u00e4ffades den ocks\u00e5 i b\u00f6keberg norr om svedala . arten \u00e4r lokal och i allm\u00e4nhet s\u00e4llsynt , men h\u00e4r och d\u00e4r kan den vissa \u00e5r antr\u00e4ffas i n\u00e5got st\u00f6rre numer\u00e4r .\nendast k\u00e4nd fr\u00e5n en handfull lokaler i sk\u00e5ne d\u00e4r den lever i m\u00f6rk lundskog . arten lever troligen p\u00e5 flera gr\u00e4sarter exempelvis hund\u00e4xing ( dactylis glomerata ) . fj\u00e4rilens milj\u00f6er \u00e4r i dagsl\u00e4get inte hotade och n\u00e5gon minskning har inte kunnat p\u00e5visas . dock \u00e4r utbredningsomr\u00e5det litet , antalet lokaler f\u00e5 och arten \u00e4r l\u00e4tt igenk\u00e4nlig , varf\u00f6r m\u00f6rkertalet f\u00f6rmodligen \u00e4r litet . antalet lokalomr\u00e5den i landet skattas till 5 ( 3 - 8 ) . utbredningsomr\u00e5dets storlek ( eoo ) skattas till 4600 ( 400 - 4600 ) km\u00b2 och f\u00f6rekomstarean ( aoo ) till 20 ( 12 - 32 ) km\u00b2 . - 2005 . det finns inga tecken p\u00e5 betydande populationsf\u00f6r\u00e4ndring . de skattade v\u00e4rdena som bed\u00f6mningen baserar sig p\u00e5 ligger alla inom intervallet f\u00f6r kategorin n\u00e4ra hotad ( nt ) . de skattade v\u00e4rdena f\u00f6r utbredningsomr\u00e5de och f\u00f6rekomstarea ligger under gr\u00e4nsv\u00e4rdet f\u00f6r starkt hotad ( en ) . detta i kombination med att utbredningsomr\u00e5det \u00e4r kraftigt fragmenterat och antalet lokalomr\u00e5den \u00e4r extremt f\u00e5 g\u00f6r att arten uppfyller kriterierna f\u00f6r kategorin n\u00e4ra hotad ( nt ) . ( b1a + 2a ) .\nbokskogsgr\u00e4sminerarmal finner man i bokskogar , som dess namn anger , helst i partier som \u00e4r omv\u00e4xlande beskuggade av tr\u00e4den . larven g\u00f6r l\u00e5ngstr\u00e4ckta minor i blad av hund\u00e4xing dactylis glomerata . i litteraturen anges ocks\u00e5 lundskafting brachypodium silvaticum som v\u00e4rdv\u00e4xt . larven lever i maj i minan d\u00e5 den f\u00f6rpuppar sig . fj\u00e4rilen kl\u00e4cks i mitten av juni och flyger ca en m\u00e5nad .\nmed g\u00e4llande lagar skyddas till stor del de sk\u00e5nska bokskogarna , men man b\u00f6r utse n\u00e5got eller ett par referensomr\u00e5den f\u00f6r att kunna f\u00f6lja artens utveckling .\nl\u00e4nsvis f\u00f6rekomst och status f\u00f6r bokskogsgr\u00e4smal baserat p\u00e5 sammanst\u00e4llningar och bed\u00f6mningar av gjorda fynd .\nbl\u00e5 punkter visar fynd registrerade i artportalen och \u00f6vriga databaser anslutna till lifewatch . kan inneh\u00e5lla observationer som inte \u00e4r validerade . kartan uppdateras var fj\u00e4rde vecka .\nemmet , a . m , et al . 1996 in the moths and butterflies of great britain and ireland . volume 3 . colchester , england .\ntraugott - olsen , e . & nielsen , e . schmidt , 1977 . the elachistidae ( lepidoptera ) of fennoscandia and denmark . fauna ent . scand . , vol . 6 . klampenborg .\nl\u00e4ngre texter , ut\u00f6ver kriteriedokumentation , har sammanst\u00e4llts av : bengt \u00e5 . bengtsson 2002 . \u00a9 artdatabanken , slu 2005 .\ni det avancerade verktyget kan man s\u00f6ka ut och f\u00e5 fram artlistor , t ex arter i ett visst l\u00e4n , i en viss biotop , substrat , som p\u00e5verkas av en hotfaktor , eller som \u00e4r knutna till en sk v\u00e4rdart , t ex tr\u00e4det alm . dessa kan \u00e4ven kombineras .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , knutna till alm , \u00e4r beroende av d\u00f6d ved och som finns i kronobergs l\u00e4n .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , lever i sm\u00e5vatten och som p\u00e5verkas negativt av igenv\u00e4xning .\ndefaultl\u00e4get i verktyget \u00e4r arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade 2015 och dessa \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga s\u00f6kfaktorer . under fliken r\u00f6dlistekategori kan man dock v\u00e4lja att \u00e4ven inkludera arter som inte \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade . om man v\u00e4ljer att inkludera icke r\u00f6dlistade arter beh\u00f6ver man vara medveten om att samtliga arter inte \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga faktorer . nedan en sammanst\u00e4llning av vad som \u00e4r komplett .\ndenna funktion anv\u00e4nds n\u00e4r du vill skapa din egen lista av arter att hantera . du kan t . ex . navigera mellan arterna i listan genom att klicka p\u00e5 deras namn . du kan ocks\u00e5 v\u00e4lja att anv\u00e4nda knappen \u201dj\u00e4mf\u00f6r arter\u201d f\u00f6r att se bilder , kartor och k\u00e4nnetecken i en j\u00e4mf\u00f6relsevy .\ndu kan komponera ditt eget urval av arter genom att klicka dig fram via sl\u00e4kttr\u00e4det och d\u00e4r v\u00e4lja arter eller artgrupper till din lista . ett annat s\u00e4tt att g\u00f6ra ditt urval \u00e4r att anv\u00e4nda fliken \u201dfiltrera\u201d , d\u00e4r du kan s\u00f6ka p\u00e5 olika egenskaper . ovanf\u00f6r listan med s\u00f6kresultatet finns en knapp \u201dl\u00e4gg i mitt urval\u201d .\nthe mit license copyright ( c ) 2014 - 2016 google , inc . urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\nthe mit license ( mit ) copyright ( c ) 2011 - 2015 twitter , inc permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright ( c ) 2008 - 2013 sprymedia limited urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright 2008 - 2015 martin wendt , urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\nthe mit license ( mit ) - urltoken copyright ( c ) steven sanderson , the knockout . js team , and other contributors urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright ( c ) 2009\u20132015 permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright 2005 - 2014 openlayers contributors . all rights reserved . redistribution and use in source and binary forms , with or without modification , are permitted provided that the following conditions are met : 1 . redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice , this list of conditions and the following disclaimer . 2 . redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice , this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and / or other materials provided with the distribution . this software is provided by openlayers contributors ` ` as is ' ' and any express or implied warranties , including , but not limited to , the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose are disclaimed . in no event shall copyright holder or contributors be liable for any direct , indirect , incidental , special , exemplary , or consequential damages ( including , but not limited to , procurement of substitute goods or services ; loss of use , data , or profits ; or business interruption ) however caused and on any theory of liability , whether in contract , strict liability , or tort ( including negligence or otherwise ) arising in any way out of the use of this software , even if advised of the possibility of such damage . the views and conclusions contained in the software and documentation are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as representing official policies , either expressed or implied , of openlayers contributors .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nin autumn the larva makes a long , somewhat blistered , slightly transparent corridor . in spring it mines the basal leaves that lie on the ground . these mines are swollen , clouded green , opaque , and the mined tips of the leaves are puckered and shrunken , filled with frass ( bladmineerders van europa ) .\nlarva : the larvae of moths have a head capsule and chewing mouthparts with opposable mandibles ( see video of a gracillarid larva feeding ) , six thoracic legs and abdominal legs ( see examples ) .\nrather thick , light yellow ; head light brown . see steuer ( 1973a ) for an illustration of the characteristic sclerites in the pronotum , prosternum , and anal shield ( bladmineerders van europa ) .\npupa : the pupae of moths have visible head appendages , wings and legs which lie in sheaths ( see examples ) .\nsee patocka ( 1999a ) and patocka and turcani ( 2005a ) ( bladmineerders van europa ) .\nadult : the adult is not illustrated in ukmoths ( check for update ) . the species is included in urltoken .\ndistribution in great britain and ireland : britain including durham , north hampshire , south essex and south northumberland ( nbn atlas ) .\ndistribution elsewhere : widespread in continental europe including austria , belgium , czech republic , danish mainland , estonia , european turkey , french mainland , germany , hungary , italian mainland , latvia , luxembourg , poland , ? romania , russia - central , slovakia and sweden ( karsholt and van nieukerken in fauna europaea ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhodges , r . w . et al . , eds . 1983 . check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . e . w . classey limited and the wedge entomological research foundation , london . 284 pp .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\ndistribution data for u . s . states and canadian provinces is known to be incomplete or has not been reviewed for this taxon .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\nall documents and related graphics provided by this server and any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server are provided\nas is\nwithout warranty as to the currentness , completeness , or accuracy of any specific data . natureserve hereby disclaims all warranties and conditions with regard to any documents provided by this server or any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , including but not limited to all implied warranties and conditions of merchantibility , fitness for a particular purpose , and non - infringement . natureserve makes no representations about the suitability of the information delivered from this server or any other documents that are referenced to or linked to this server . in no event shall natureserve be liable for any special , indirect , incidental , consequential damages , or for damages of any kind arising out of or in connection with the use or performance of information contained in any documents provided by this server or in any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , under any theory of liability used . natureserve may update or make changes to the documents provided by this server at any time without notice ; however , natureserve makes no commitment to update the information contained herein . since the data in the central databases are continually being updated , it is advisable to refresh data retrieved at least once a year after its receipt . the data provided is for planning , assessment , and informational purposes . site specific projects or activities should be reviewed for potential environmental impacts with appropriate regulatory agencies . if ground - disturbing activities are proposed on a site , the appropriate state natural heritage program ( s ) or conservation data center can be contacted for a site - specific review of the project area ( see visit local programs ) .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\nthere are 2 county records of 2 individuals from 2 different sites . first recorded in 1978 .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nfor the county , we have a total of 1 records from 1 sites . first recorded in 1991 .\nvc63 . warren vale , rawmarsh , 5 . 7 . 1991 ( heb ) ."]}
{"id": 85, "summary": [{"text": "aseptis susquesa is a moth of the noctuidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in arizona , california and baja california in mexico , at least as far south as ensenada .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of rocky areas in the mountain-desert transition zone and high desert .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 31.4 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are streaky medium-grey to dark brown-grey with streaks of warm light orange tan to yellow tan at the postreniform patch , in the fold , and in the large pointed claviform spot .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "a thin tan line parallels the margin near the anal angle .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the reniform and orbicular spots are outlined in black with paler peripheral and darker central scaling .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the distal forewing is streaky due to black veins and pale-grey scales and the transverse lines are obsolete .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are light whitish grey with brown-grey marginal shading and dark veins , darker in females .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing from late march to early june .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on artemisia californica and ericameria laricifolia .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they are dark green marked with white . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "aseptis susquesa", "paragraphs": ["this is the place for susquesa definition . you find here susquesa meaning , synonyms of susquesa and images for susquesa copyright 2017 \u00a9 urltoken\naseptis susquesa ( smith , 1908 ) includes as a synonym 9540 aseptis monica , zookeys , 527 : 85 .\nhere you will find one or more explanations in english for the word susquesa . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word susquesa and , of course , susquesa synonyms and on the right images related to the word susquesa .\nrevision of the genus aseptis mcdunnough ( lepidoptera , noctuidae , noctuinae , xylenini ) with a description of two new genera . . .\nmustelin , t . , l . g . crabo , 2015 . revision of the genus aseptis mcdunnough ( lepidoptera , noctuidae , noctuinae , xylenini ) with a description of two new genera , paraseptis and viridiseptis . in : schmidt bc , lafontaine jd ( eds ) contributions to the systematics of new world macro - moths vi . zookeys , 527 : 57 - 102 .\nmustelin , t . & l . g . crabo , 2015 . revision of the genus aseptis mcdunnough ( lepidoptera , noctuidae , noctuinae , xylenini ) with a description of two new genera , paraseptis and viridiseptis . in : schmidt bc , lafontaine jd ( eds ) contributions to the systematics of new world macro - moths vi . [ i ] zookeys [ i ] . 527 : 57\u2013102 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 527 . 9575 view and download pdf at zookeys here . cite : 1336553\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 28 may , 2013 - 12 : 10pm\njournal of the new york entomological society , vol . 7 ( 1 ) : 37 - 44 , 1899\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 9 july , 2018 - 11 : 11am\nsullivan j , quinter e ( 2014 ) a new apameine genus and species from the southern appalachian mountains , usa ( lepidoptera , noctuidae , noctuinae ) . zookeys 421 : 181 - 191 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 421 . 7727 full text here .\nthe lepidoptera of white sands national monument , otero county , new mexico , usa 1 . two new species of . . .\nfull title : the lepidoptera of white sands national monument , otero county , new mexico , usa 1 . two new species of noctuidae ( lepidoptera , noctuinae , agrotini ) abstract and full text pdf\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 13 december , 2013 - 10 : 05am\ncontributions toward a monograph of the noctuidae of temperate north america . revision of the species of mamestra .\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 4 august , 2013 - 12 : 46am\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 3 august , 2013 - 4 : 30pm\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 3 august , 2013 - 10 : 05am\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nbackyard 7 \u0097 five acres of moths southeastern arizona in the se . huachuca mountains , cochise county ( hereford district )\ncopyright \u00a92005 - 2009 computing for science and education institute . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence ."]}
{"id": 87, "summary": [{"text": "eccopisa is a genus of snout moths .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by zeller in 1848 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it contains the species e. effractella .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is found in most of europe , except fennoscandia , ireland and estonia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 14-16.5 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the larvae live in spun leaves of various deciduous trees . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "eccopisa", "paragraphs": ["type - species : eccopisa effractella zeller , 1848 . isis , leipzig : 648 .\nif you have any good quality photographs and would like to contribute , please contact me by email at ian @ ukmoths . co . uk .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 06 - 15 22 : 30 : 42 page render time : 0 . 2110s total w / procache : 0 . 2831s\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nlike most websites we use cookies . this is to ensure that we give you the best experience possible .\ncontinuing to use urltoken means you agree to our use of cookies . if you would like to , you can learn more about the cookies we use .\nwe\u2019d value your feedback on the tool . our survey takes only five minutes to complete .\nthe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available . when several references are cited , they may give conflicting information on the status . further details may be available for individual references in the distribution table details section which can be selected by going to generate report .\none or more of the features that are needed to show you the maps functionality are not available in the web browser that you are using .\nplease consider upgrading your browser to the latest version or installing a new browser .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nnotes : very rare immigrant ( less than 10 previous uk records ) to the south coast of england from central europe . one of unknown origin was recorded in the grounds of buckingham palace on 12 july 1995 , and a genuine migrant at dungeness , kent on 14 september 2006 , with no further records to date . not recorded in hampshire or on the isle of wight to date . wingspan 16 - 18 mm . distinctive nut - brown forewing and , in males , diagnostic indentation in costal edge of hindwing about one quarter along the wing , visible with a lens from below . no evidence of breeding in the uk .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nje ne saurais que trop vous conseiller l\u2019ouvrage du groupe d\u2019etude des invert\u00e9br\u00e9s armoricains sur les pyrales de la manche . a retrouver sur le site pour le commander .\ntype specimens : ? type status ? country : ? locality , ( ? depository ) . .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\nin continuing your browsing of this site , you accept the use of cookies to offer you suitable content and services and realize visits statistics . learn more about cookies .\n: angiospermivora regier , c . mitter , kristensen , davis , van nieukerken , rota , simonsen , k . t . mitte , kawahara , yen , cummings & zwick , 2015\n: euheteroneura regier , c . mitter , kristensen , davis , van nieukerken , rota , simonsen , k . t . mitte , kawahara , yen , cummings & zwick , 2015\nnational inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services ."]}
{"id": 89, "summary": [{"text": "the ross 's goose ( anser rossii ) is a north american species of goose .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "this goose breeds in northern canada , mainly in the queen maud gulf migratory bird sanctuary , and winters much further south in the continent in the southern united states and occasionally northern mexico .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "the plumage of this species is white except for black wing tips .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is similar in appearance to a white-phase snow goose but approximately 40 % smaller .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "other differences from the snow goose are that the bill is smaller in proportion to its body and lacks \" black lips \" .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the dark phase is extremely rare .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the ross 's goose is a rare vagrant to western europe , but it is commonly kept in wildfowl collections and so the true frequency of wild birds is hard to ascertain .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "escaped or feral specimens are encountered frequently , usually in the company of other feral geese such as canada goose , greylag goose and barnacle goose .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "however , individuals or small groups that seemed to be of natural origin have turned up in the netherlands and britain .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "this species is named in honor of bernard r. ross , a hudson 's bay company factor at fort resolution in canada 's northwest territories . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "ross ' s goose", "paragraphs": ["ross\u2019s goose is much smaller than a snow goose . it is about the size of a mallard .\nsimilar species : the snow goose , discussed above . note also that hybrids between snow goose and ross\u2019s goose are not rare .\nross ' s goose , chen rossii , and hybrids , in new york .\nhybrid and ross ' s goose , cayuga lake , seneca co . 2 march 2002 .\nross ' s goose , savannah mucklands , wayne co . , ny , march 2004 .\nthere is a very rare blue morph of ross\u2019s goose , which was only confirmed in 1971 .\nalthough ross ' s goose is usually smaller than snow goose , size in itself is not diagnostic . it is a good clue , however , and noticeably small birds in a flock should be looked at closely when searching for ross ' s . primary structural differences of ross ' s goose as compared to snow goose include :\nin missouri , most large goose flocks anywhere in the state often have a few ross\u2019s geese present .\nwe took these photos of a more typical ross ' s goose two days later on 13 march 2004 .\nvery rarely a ross ' s goose can be found that is dark - colored like a blue morph snow goose . these blue morph ross ' s geese are thought to be the result of hybridization with snow geese .\nross ' s goose is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthe plumage of ross ' s goose is typically very white and rarely attains the rusty staining which snow goose often does , particularly about the head and neck .\nross\u2019s goose hatchlings are able to leave the nest after just 24 hours , and are able to feed themselves and swim .\nross\u2019s goose has a rare blue colour morph , whose existence was not confirmed until as recently as 1971 ( 2 ) .\nrosss _ goose _ and _ canada _ goose _ 2 - 17 - 15 . jpg\nthe male ross\u2019s goose has wart - like swellings at the base of the bill , which are thought to be a status symbol .\nthe ross ' goose is a small goose , similar in appearance to the snow goose . like the snow goose , the ross ' goose has a light and dark morph , although the dark - morph ross ' goose is extremely rare . the light morph is white , and the dark morph is gray with a white head . both morphs have black primaries . the bill is small and lacks the ' grin - patch ' seen on the snow goose . juveniles are mostly gray .\nimage h is of a ross ' x snow goose hybrid showing intermediate head and bill characters . note the reduced bevelled gap between the mandibles as compared to snow goose and the darkish area at the base of the upper mandible from ross ' s goose . the bill is longer than that of ross ' s and the feathering at the base of the bill is intermediate between parent species .\na tiny white goose with black wingtips , the ross ' s goose is like a miniature version of the more abundant snow goose . it breeds in the central arctic and winters primarily in central california , but it is becoming more frequent farther east .\nross\u2019s goose has a rounded head , stubby bill , and short neck , and lacks the black \u201clipstick\u201d patch on the bill that snow geese have .\nimage d is a digiscoped shot showing 3 ross ' s geese followed by a snow goose along with canada geese . differences in size and structure between the ross ' s geese and snow are very apparent in this image . note the dark line before the eye in the rear pair of ross ' s which is retained juvenal plumage . juvenile ross ' s geese typically show far less duskiness to their plumage than juvenile snows , and a dark line before the eye is the most consistent plumage character suggesting immaturity in ross ' s goose and can be seen at a surprising distance even in flying birds .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - ross ' s goose ( chen rossii )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - ross ' s goose ( chen rossii )\ntitle =\narkive species - ross ' s goose ( chen rossii )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nross\u2019s goose is an uncommon migrant in missouri . as a winter resident , it is uncommon ( in the west ) to rare ( in the east ) .\nross\u2019s goose looks a lot like the snow goose and , like that species , has a white and a \u201cblue\u201d color pattern ( morph ) . like the snow goose , the white form of ross\u2019s goose is all white with dark primaries and gray primary coverts . the key to telling the two species apart is body size and bill shape and color . ross\u2019s goose is the size of a mallard and has a short neck and rounded head ; the pink bill is stubby and lacks the black \u201clipstick\u201d or \u201cgrinning\u201d patch . on close inspection , a blue - green warty patch saddles the upper bill near the base . the \u201cblue goose\u201d or dark morph is very rare . the voice is a high - pitched honking sound , similar to the snow goose\u2019s but higher and not as shrill .\npopulation apparently still increasing , as with some other arctic - nesting geese ( snow and white - fronted ) . ross ' s goose often hybridizes with snow goose , but evidently not enough to be genetically\nswamped\nby the snows .\nimage m shows a ross ' s and two snow geese . there is a noticeable size difference between this ross ' s and the snows and the structural differences are very apparent . as pertaining to the ross ' s goose , note the shorter , rounder body , shorter neck , less elongated head with vertical feathering at the bill base , and short stubby bill with no apparent dark gap between the mandibles .\nthe call of ross\u2019s goose is a sad , murmuring \u2018 mmmmm \u2019 or \u2018 uuuhhhh \u2019 , which is used for contact , especially when groups are in danger ( 2 ) .\nross ' s goose populations are relatively small , but appear to have increased since the 1990s . the species is not on the 2014 state of the birds watch list . back to top\nthe oldest known ross ' s goose was a female , and at least 22 years , 6 months old when she was shot in california in 1993 . she had been banded in 1972 in saskatchewan .\nin the identification guide to north american birds part 2 , pyle states the range in size of the gap along tomia in lesser snow goose as 7 - 12 mm wide and in hybrids as 4 - 9 mm wide . the gap between mandibles in ross ' s goose is narrower forming no or a thinner dusky stripe along tomia . many ross ' s geese show a slight gap between the mandibles .\nimage n is a closer crop for comparison of the structural differences between snow and ross ' s geese which are apparent in flight .\nimage l is closer crop of the hybrid and trailing snow goose showing differences in structure . the body and neck of the hybrid suggest ross ' s goose but the head and bill are clearly intermediate between the species . the dark gap between the mandibles can be seen better in this crop .\nin this shot the hybrid is on the right , and is quite obviously smaller than the snow geese . the ross ' s goose is to the left , just sticking its head out from behind the larger geese .\nas it is such an abundant species , there do not seem to be many threats to the future survival of ross\u2019s goose , although habitat loss , disease ( 5 ) and hybridisation with the snow goose ( chen caerulescens ) may affect population numbers in the future ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . 2015 . waterfowl population status , 2015 . washington , dc : u . s . department of the interior .\nrosss _ goose _ on _ lawn _ 2 - 17 - 15 . jpg\nprior to the 1950s the ross ' s goose was confined to well - defined breeding and wintering areas , with few seen as strays . since that time the species has been expanding eastward , both on the breeding and wintering grounds . the change in breeding distribution has resulted in more contact and subsequent hybridization with the snow goose .\nimage g is of a ross ' s goose showing head and bill detail . note the rounded and less elongated head as compared to snow goose along with the more vertical feathering at the bill base . also the stubbier bill with dark grayish base to the upper mandible and narrow gap between the mandibles which almost totally lack bevelling .\nthe breeding range of ross\u2019s goose has been made a federal migratory bird sanctuary , which offers it a small amount of protection ( 5 ) , although there are not currently known to be any other conservation measures in place for this abundant species .\nuncommon migrant . as winter resident , uncommon ( west ) to rare ( east ) . ross\u2019s goose is a gamebird in missouri . populations of ross\u2019s and snow geese have increased to a historically high level . as a result , they are overgrazing their arctic nesting range and degrading large areas of the tundra where other species nest . wildlife agencies have been trying to control the population size through various methods .\nimage c shows a ross ' x snow goose hybrid . note the intermediate head and bill characters including gap between mandibles and grayish base to the upper mandible .\nimage i is of a flock of snow geese as they might appear overhead . a closer look reveals 3 ross ' s geese and a hybrid in this flock .\nimage f is of a first cycle light morph snow goose showing head and bill detail .\nthe breeding range of ross\u2019s goose spreads throughout the canadian arctic . in winter , flocks mostly migrate to california , although congregations can also be found in texas and northern mexico ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) . the range of this species is thought to be spreading east ( 4 ) . there have been reports of vagrant ross\u2019s geese in the netherlands ( 2 ) ( 6 ) .\nryder , j . p . and alisauskas , r . t . ( 2013 ) ross\u2019s goose ( chen rossii ) . in : poole , a . ( ed . ) birds of north america online . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca . available at : urltoken\nross\u2019s geese forage in marshes , rivers , lakes , and crop fields , including cornfields and new winter wheat fields , for grains , roots , grasses , and aquatic vegetation .\nimage b shows a ross ' s goose . note the rounded and less elongated head and more vertical feathering at the base of the bill . the bill is short and stubby with almost no gap between the mandibles . note also the grayish base to the upper mandible .\nross\u2019s goose has an herbivorous diet , which consists of roots , leaves , stems , sedges , legumes and domestic grains ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . this species can be seen foraging on the ground individually , or may form larger groups ( 5 ) .\na migratory species , ross\u2019s goose leaves its breeding ground in mid - october and arrives in its overwintering range in late october . flocks begin to return to the breeding grounds in early march . while migrating , this species is highly gregarious and forms large flocks ( 5 ) .\nwe noticed two small white geese in with a massive snow goose flock on the west side of cayuga lake , offshore of seneca co . ( along with two small canada geese , now cackling geese ) . pete hosner , who had recently worked in the arctic as a field assistant on snow goose research , declared that the slightly larger bird with a more rounded bill / face margin would have been called a ross ' s x snow goose hybrid in their study area .\nthis pint - sized relative of the snow goose has been surrounded by mystery and surprise . explorers recognized it as a different bird as early as 1770 , but it was not described to science until 1861 ; its arctic nesting grounds were not discovered until 1938 . once thought to be very rare , or even on brink of extinction , its population has greatly increased in recent decades . not until the late 1970s was it discovered that ross ' s , like snow goose , can occur in a \u201cblue\u201d morph . blue ross ' s geese are still rarely detected .\nusually observed among groups of snow geese . occurs in marshes , sloughs , ponds , lakes , and reservoirs with aquatic vegetation . also forages in crop fields . more frequently seen in northwestern missouri , although most large goose flocks anywhere in the state often have a few ross\u2019s geese present .\nthe female ross ' s goose does all of the incubation of the eggs . the male stays nearby and guards her the whole time . the female covers the eggs with down when she leaves the nest . the down keeps the eggs warm while she is away and may help hide them from predators .\ntell congress and the department of the interior to uphold the country ' s most important bird protection law .\nj\u00f3nsson , j\u00f3n e . , john p . ryder and ray t . alisauskas . 2013 . ross ' s goose ( anser rossii ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .\nthe\nreal\nross ' s goose was tiny , with a very small , triangular bill . the posterior margin of the bill was very straight against the face , making a straight line , quite in contrast to the strong curve at the base of the snow geese ' s bills . it showed a dark green patch at the base of the bill and no sign of a dark grin patch at edge of the tomia .\nimage j is a crop of the 5 birds center - right in the image above , or in the front of the flock . this image approximates the look that one might have through the binocular or scope . the group is comprised of 3 snow geese and 2 ross ' s geese ( birds banked without shadows on their bellies ) . difference in size between the species is not apparent here but structural differences are very much so . note the shorter necks and more rounded , less elongated heads of the ross ' s . the more vertical line of feathering at the base of the smaller and stubbier bills of the ross ' s gives the appearance of having the face cut off at the front . from a distance in flight , the bill of ross ' s often virtually disappears and the vertical line at the front of the face is very apparent .\nimage k is also a crop of the same image showing birds in the lower left or at the rear of the flock . this group is comprised of 4 snow geese , a ross ' s ( bottom center ) and a hybrid ( second bird from top left ) . note the short neck , rounded head with vertical line of feathering at the bill base and short stubby bill of the ross ' s . this bird is also smaller than the others in this group . the hybrid shows a shorter , rounder body and shorter neck as well as a less elongated head than the snows , but the feathering at the bill base is convex lacking the vertically cut off look of ross ' s and is intermediate between the species . if one looks closely , there appears to be a relatively wide and dark gap between the mandibles which would not be as apparent at this distance in ross ' s .\nross ' geese are the smallest of the three varieties of white geese that breed in north america . the ross ' goose is a small white goose with black primary feathers . the bill is a deep reddish - pink with a paler nail and a variably bluish warty area over the base of the basal area . the legs and feet are rose - pink and the iris is dark brown . the sexes are dimorphic , with the female being 6 percent smaller than the male . the ross ' goose has a relatively short neck and lacks the black\ngrinning patch\nthat is typical of greater and lesser snow geese , for which it is often mistaken . ross ' geese may be distinguished from snow geese by their smaller size , more rapid wing beat and higher - pitched call .\nthe hybrid was small , but just a bit larger than the ross ' s goose . its bill was not quite so petit and triangular , but was still noticeably smaller and more triangular than that of a snow goose . the posterior margin of the bill was less curved than the snow geese , but was slightly curved . the base was dark green , but a dark line showed along the bill edge , much smaller than the grin patches of the snow geese , but visible .\nross\u2019s geese overwinter in the southern part of their range , including ( uncommonly ) missouri , and return north in spring to the arctic tundra to breed . there , they make simple scrapes on the ground and typically lay 2 to 6 eggs .\nduring the breeding season ross\u2019s goose is found in arctic tundra ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) , where it nests in open areas and on islands in shallow lakes ( 4 ) . in winter , large aggregations are found in agricultural fields and shallow wetlands ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) , using nearby reservoirs and lakes to roost ( 2 ) .\nross ' geese feed on grasses , sedges and small grains , particularly waste wheat and barley in the winter months .\nhistorically , ross\u2019s goose was threatened by hunting in its winter range , and this market drastically reduced wild populations and may have threatened this species with extinction . hunting became illegal in 1931 and the population has dramatically increased since ( 5 ) , causing north american authorities to change the law and allow hunting to resume , with the aim of reducing the population size by half ( 2 ) .\nimage e is of a dark morph snow goose showing head and bill detail . note the width of the bevelled gap between the mandibles .\nross ' s goose ( chen rossii ) is a regularly occurring and often overlooked migrant and winter resident in kentucky in small numbers and is usually found in the company of snow geese ( chen caerulescens ) . identification of these species is relatively straightforward based primarily on structural differences , particularly those of head and bill shape . hybrids of these species are sometimes encountered and are intermediate in structure between the two .\nross\u2019s goose ( chen rossii ) is a very small ( 4 ) , all - white goose , with black tips to its wings ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . the short , delicate bill is black - pink at the base , becoming brighter pink ( 3 ) towards the rounded tip ( 5 ) . the male has small , wart - like growths on the base of its bill , which become more prominent as it ages ( 5 ) . the distinctive legs are pink and the eyes are dark ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .\nthe population of ross ' geese was estimated at only 2 , 000 to 3 , 000 individuals in 1931 . protection from hunting has helped the ross ' goose population recover to a 1988 total of 188 , 000 breeding birds , although it is still listed as a species - of - concern on the partners in flight watch list . still on the increase , populations are now thought to be expanding their range greatly - - birds have been found farther east and west in recent years during migration . most nesting occurs within a refuge , and hunting is still prohibited , but loss of migration stopover and wintering habitat continues to threaten the ross ' goose .\nof course , it is not practical to believe that one would have time to scrutinize or identify every bird in every flock flying overhead , but with practice and good views , some ross ' s geese and hybrids can be identified in flight based on structural characters .\nthe arctic nesting grounds of the ross ' goose , not discovered until 1938 , consist of tundra , marshes , and ponds . in winter and during migration , these geese can be found in shallow lakes , fresh - water marshes , flooded fields , and other agricultural lands .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthe ross ' goose is a rare species , but is becoming more common in washington . you may occasionally find it mixed in with snow geese or other mixed - species flocks in the winter in the lowlands on both sides of the cascades , in both fresh - and saltwater habitats . flocks of up to 30 ross ' geese have become fairly regular in the spring and fall in far - eastern washington .\nthe female ross\u2019s goose is around six percent smaller than the male ( 5 ) , with very few wart - like growths on the base of its bill , a shorter neck and a flatter forehead . the juvenile is brown - grey on the head , back and breast , with darker flight feathers ( 2 ) . the bill and feet are grey in the juvenile , gaining their pink colouration as the individual ages ( 4 ) .\nimage a shows a first cycle light morph snow goose retaining some dusky juvenal plumage . note the elongated head and bill with wide bevelled gap between mandibles .\nross ' geese are among the first to leave the breeding grounds in canada . the california central valley is currently the main wintering area for ross ' geese , but increasing numbers are wintering in arkansas , louisiana , new mexico , texas and the north - central highlands of mexico .\nalmost exclusively plant - eaters , ross ' geese eat grasses , sedges , and grain . in the fall , they eat more seeds and grains than grasses .\nlutmerding , j . a . and a . s . love . longevity records of north american birds . version 2015 . 2 . patuxent wildlife research center , bird banding laboratory 2015 .\nthe vast majority of the population nests in the queen maud gulf migratory bird sanctuary in the central canadian arctic . they migrate to california ' s central valley , often in mixed flocks with other geese .\nross ' geese breed in the low arctic tundra , mainly near queen maud gulf , southern southampton island , the western coast of hudson bay and the sagavanirktok river delta in alaska . they usually nest in colonies mixed with lesser snow geese , making their nests on the ground in sparsely vegetated areas . female ross ' geese lay an average of 3 - 4 eggs .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nhybrids are best identified by intermediate head and bill characters such as bill size and shape , line of feathering at bill base , degree of bevelling or gap along tomia , and varying amounts of grayish at bill base which snow goose lacks .\nbetween late may and june mated pairs arrive at the breeding grounds and immediately establish a nesting territory . although ross\u2019s goose is thought to be monogamous , copulation with other individuals outside of the pair is also known to occur ( 2 ) . the female builds the nest during and after the territory establishment ( 5 ) . the nest is a shallow structure , with twigs , grass , moss and lichens in the outer layer and mostly down on the inner layer ( 2 ) . the female lays an average clutch of between 4 and 5 eggs ( 2 ) at the beginning of june ( 5 ) , which are laid at 36 - hour intervals ( 2 ) . the female incubates the eggs , while being guarded by the male ( 4 ) , and the eggs hatch between late june and july ( 5 ) . if the female leaves the nest , it will cover the eggs with a layer of down to keep the eggs warm and hide them from predators ( 4 ) . the young are able to leave the nest 24 hours after hatching , and can swim and feed themselves ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . for up to a year after birth , the young maintain an association with the adults ( 5 ) and may remain with them until the next breeding season . ross\u2019s goose reaches sexual maturity after 2 or 3 years , and lives for up to 14 years in the wild ( 2 ) .\nross ' geese are usually in flocks , often mixed with snow geese . their tendency to roost in tight flocks and be easily attracted to decoys may have made them vulnerable to market hunters , who had a significant impact on the population . these geese typically forage on the ground , wading or swimming in shallow water .\nfirst breeding at age of 2 or 3 years . courtship involves rapid head - dipping by both members of pair . breeds in colonies , usually associated with colonies of snow goose . nest site is often on island or shore of tundra lake , usually on edge of low thicket . the same site is often used for more than 1 season . nest is a bulky bowl of twigs , leaves , grass , moss , lined with down . female builds nest , beginning about the time the first egg is laid , continuing after incubation begins .\nross ' geese breed in colonies , starting in their second or third year . the nest is on an island or the shore of a tundra lake , often situated at the edge of a low thicket . the nest , built by the female after she lays her first egg , is a bulky pile of leaves , grass , and moss , depressed in the middle and lined with down . the female lays a total of 4 eggs and incubates them for about 3 weeks . the young leave the nest shortly after hatching . the parents lead the young to water and food , and the goslings feed themselves . the male stands guard and actively defends the young against predators . the young fledge at 40 to 45 days .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\naerc tac . 2003 . aerc tac checklist of bird taxa occurring in western palearctic region , 15th draft . available at : urltoken _ the _ wp15 . xls # .\nanser rossii ( del hoyo and collar 2014 ) was previously placed in the genus chen .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ndowny young come in two colors : yellow and gray . the two forms look identical once they get real feathers .\nbreeds on low arctic tundra , on islands in shallow lakes . winters in agricultural fields and shallow wetlands . back to top\nentirely vegetarian ; grasses , sedges , legumes , and domestic grains . back to top\ncovered with down and eyes open . leaves nest within 24 hours of hatching and has the ability to swim and feed .\nnorth american bird conservation initiative . 2014 . the state of the birds 2014 report . us department of interior , washington , dc , usa .\nsibley , d . a . ( 2014 ) . the sibley guide to birds , second edition . alfred a . knopf , new york , usa .\ntundra ( summer ) , marshes , grain fields , ponds . in summer on arctic tundra , especially flat tundra with mix of grassy areas and low matted thickets of dwarf birch or willow . in migration and winter , shallow lakes , freshwater marshes , flooded stubble fields , other agricultural lands .\nforages mainly by walking on land , or wading or swimming in shallow water . during migration and winter , feeds in flocks , usually with snow geese .\n4 , sometimes 2 - 6 , rarely 1 - 8 . dull white , becoming nest - stained . female does all incubating , usually 21 - 23 days . young : leave the nest shortly after hatching , following parents to water . both parents tend the young ; male is most active in defense against predators . young fledge in 40 - 45 days .\nleave the nest shortly after hatching , following parents to water . both parents tend the young ; male is most active in defense against predators . young fledge in 40 - 45 days .\nalmost entirely plant material . diet for most of year is mainly green grasses and sedges . on arrival on breeding grounds , before new growth is available , do much grubbing for roots . in fall migration , feeds more on seeds and grains of wild grasses or cultivated crops .\nmain population migrates from northwest territories to central california , traveling along a rather narrow route with traditional stopovers , especially in alberta and montana . in recent years , numbers wintering in new mexico and east of rockies have increased markedly . migrate in flocks , often mixed with snow geese , sometimes with other geese . strays appearing far out of range may have arrived by traveling with other species .\naudio \u00a9 lang elliott , bob mcguire , kevin colver , martyn stewart and others .\nspring migration has brought new occupiers to southeast oregon\u2014flocks of both birds and birders .\ntell congress to oppose a harmful rider that threatens sage - grouse and other wildlife .\nif you find the information on birdweb useful , please consider supporting seattle audubon . donate\nthe swans , geese and ducks are mid - sized to large birds most commonly found on or near water . most have plump bodies , long necks and short wings . most feed while on the water , diving or merely tilting their bodies so that their heads and necks are submerged to search for fish , plants and invertebrates . washington representatives of the order all belong to one family :\nthe waterfowl family is represented in washington by two distinct groups\u2014the geese and swans , and the ducks . whistling - ducks are also considered a distinct subfamily , and , although they have not been sighted in washington in many years , fulvous whistling - ducks have been recorded historically in washington and remain on the official state checklist . all members of the waterfowl family have large clutches of precocial young . they hatch covered in down and can swim and eat on their own almost immediately after hatching .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nimages depicting comparisons of and differences between the species and hybrids are shown below and all were obtained in kentucky . flight images were obtained on 2 february 2007 in fulton county , and the remainder were obtained in warren county between 2003 and 2009 .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nflight feathers the feathers at the end of the wing , involved in flight . herbivorous having a diet that comprises only vegetable matter . hybridisation cross - breeding between two different species or subspecies . incubate to keep eggs warm so that development is possible . legume a plant in the legume family ( leguminosae or fabaceae ) , which includes peas , beans , clover and alfalfa . leguminous plants produce seeds in pods ( legumes ) , and typically have root nodules containing symbiotic bacteria which are able to convert nitrogen from the air into nitrogen - containing compounds that benefit the plant . monogamous having only one mate during a breeding season , or throughout the breeding life of a pair . morph one of two or more distinct types of a given species , often distinct colour forms , which occur in the same population at the same time ( that is , are not geographical or seasonal variations ) . territory an area occupied and defended by an animal , a pair of animals or a group . tundra treeless , grassy plains characteristic of arctic and sub - arctic regions . they are very cold and have little rainfall . vagrant an individual found outside the normal range of the species .\ndel hoyo , j . and carboneras , c . ( 1992 ) handbook of the birds of the world . volume 1 : ostrich to ducks . lynx edicions , barcelona . available at : urltoken\nbrazil , m . ( 2009 ) birds of east asia . christopher helm publishers , london .\nflpa - images of nature pages green house wetheringsett stowmarket suffolk ip14 5qa united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 1728 861 113 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 1728 860 222 pictures @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nall pictures are \u00a9 jay and kevin mcgowan . they were taken with either an olympus d - 450 or an olympus d - 40 digital camera through a swarovski hd - 80 , ats 80 , or ats 65 spotting scope .\nthe two small geese may have been a mated pair . they stayed close together and allowed us to get a few photographs of them side - by - side . the differences are much more apparent when they are together .\nthe difference in curvature of the bill / face edge is apparent here , as is the difference in bill size and shape .\nnot the sharpest photo , but the one that shows the bill differences best .\njay took these photos of a slightly hybrid - looking bird on 11 march 2004 , amongst a tremendous flock of snow geese .\naverage weight : m 4 . 0 lbs . , f 3 . 6 lbs .\nfind local mdc conservation agents , consultants , education specialists , and regional offices .\nrosss _ geese _ and _ canada _ geese _ 2 - 17 - 15 . jpg\nas migrating geese fly overhead , they reassure us of the certainty of changing seasons . as the great conservationist aldo leopold wrote , \u201cone swallow does not make a summer , but one skein of geese , cleaving the murk of a march thaw , is the spring . \u201d\nas adults , and even more so as goslings and as eggs , geese are preyed on by a variety of predators . they influence the plant and animal communities in both summer and winter territories , and as they migrate , they play a role in every ecosystem they travel through .\nabout 350 species of birds are likely to be seen in missouri , though nearly 400 have been recorded within our borders . most people know a bird when they see one \u2014 it has feathers , wings , and a bill . birds are warm - blooded , and most species can fly . many migrate hundreds or thousands of miles . birds lay hard - shelled eggs ( often in a nest ) , and the parents care for the young . many communicate with songs and calls .\nwe protect and manage the fish , forest , and wildlife of the state . we facilitate and provide opportunity for all citizens to use , enjoy , and learn about these resources ."]}
{"id": 92, "summary": [{"text": "mosopia is a genus of moths of the noctuidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in south-east asia , including thailand , borneo and malaysia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the genus was first described by francis walker in 1866 from a specimen in the british museum .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the specimen walker describes was from penang in malaysia .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "walker gave mosopia megaspila as a type species .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "this species has a wingspan of 39 millimetres ( 1.5 in ) with a large distinctive black spot in the middle of each forewings ( hence the name megaspila , which means \" large spotted \" ) .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there are three other species classified under the mosopia genus . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "mosopia", "paragraphs": ["mosopia eudoxusalis ; [ poole ] ; [ mob17 ] , 59 , f . 138 , 154 , pl . 2\nmosopia megaspila walker , [ 1866 ] ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 34 : 1188 ; tl : penang\ngenus : mosopia walker , 1866 . list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . ( 34 ) : 1187 . [ bhl ]\ntype - species : mosopia megaspila walker , 1866 . list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . : 1188 . [ bhl ]\nmosopia kononenkoi holloway , 2008 ; moths of borneo 17 : 60 , f . 139 , 153 , pl . 2 ; tl : sabah , brumas\nmosopia megaspila ; holloway , 1976 , moths of borneo with special reference to mt . kinabalu : 40 ; [ poole ] ; [ mob17 ] , 58 , f . 142 , 152 , pl . 2\nmosopia pallidusalis holloway , 2008 ; moths of borneo 17 : 59 , f . 137 , 157 , pl . 2 ; tl : sarawak , gunong mulu nat . park , r . g . s . exped .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ntype specimens : holotype - male [ west malaysia ] : [ malaya ] , penang , ( bmnh , london ) . .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\nbertula sp . ; kononenko & pinratana , 2005 , moths of thailand 3 : pl . 1 , f . 33\ntrotosema sordidum butler , 1879 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 5 ) 4 ( 24 ) : 449 ; tl : near yokohama\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nlist of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum . supplement\nwalker , [ 1866 ] list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 31 : 1 - 322 ( [ 1865 ] ) , 32 : 323 - 706 ( 1865 ) , 33 : 707 - 1120 ( 1865 ) , 34 : 1121 - 1534 ( [ 1866 ] ) , 35 : 1535 - 2040 ( 1866 )\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nnomenclator zoologicus . a list of the names of genera and subgenera in zoology from the tenth edition of linnaeus , 1758 to the end of 2004 . digitised by ubio from vols . 1 - 9 of neave ( ed . ) , 1939 - 1996 plus supplementary digital - only volume . urltoken ( as at 2006 ) .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy ."]}
{"id": 93, "summary": [{"text": "the least weasel ( mustela nivalis ) , or simply weasel in the uk , is the smallest member of the genus mustela and of the family mustelidae ( as well as the smallest of the carnivora ) , native to eurasia , north america and north africa , though it has been introduced to new zealand , australia , malta , crete , bermuda , madeira island , the azores , the canary islands , sao tome , the falkland islands , argentina and chile .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is classed as being of least concern by the iucn , due to its wide distribution and presumed large population .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "least weasels from various parts of its range vary greatly in size .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the body is slender and elongated and the legs and tail are relatively short .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the colour varies geographically , as does the pelage type and length of tail .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the dorsal surface , flanks , limbs and tail of the animal are usually some shade of brown while the underparts are white .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the line delineating the boundary between the two colours is usually straight .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "at high altitudes and in the northern part of its range , the coat becomes pure white in winter .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "eighteen subspecies are recognised .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "small rodents form the largest part of the least weasel 's diet , but it also kills and eats rabbits , other mammals , and occasionally birds , birds ' eggs , fish and frogs .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "males mark their territories with olfactory signals and have exclusive home ranges which may intersect with or include several female ranges .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "least weasels use pre-existing holes to sleep , store food and raise their young .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "breeding takes place in the spring and summer , and there is a single litter of about six kits which are reared exclusively by the female .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "due to its small size and fierce nature , the least weasel plays an important part in the mythology and legend of various cultures . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "least weasel", "paragraphs": ["least weasel\nwildlife explorer . international masters publishers ab , 1998 , usa .\nthe least weasel has wide distribution and presumed large population , but no estimate of population size is available for this species . currently the least weasel is classified as least concern ( lc ) and their numbers today remain stable .\nthe white winter fur of the least weasel glows a bright lavender color when under ultraviolet light .\nto read more about weasel folklore and legends , check out the way of the weasel .\nthere are two species of weasels native to indiana : the long - tailed weasel ( mustela frenata ) and the least weasel ( mustela rixosa ) .\nthrough much of its european range , the least weasel overlaps with the somewhat larger but otherwise similar stoat .\nerratum to : origin and introduction history of the least weasel ( mustela nivalis ) on mediterranean a . . .\ndeep in the woods of the northeast asian deciduous forest roams the least weasel . its long slender body and sharp nails help this mammal hunt day and night . the least weasel is the smallest carnivore in the world . the least weasel ' s habitat consists of living in stone walls , hedges , farmland , and the woods . least weasels avoid deep forests , sandy deserts , and open spaces . male and female least weasels both have their own territory . females\nlechleitner , r . r . 1954 . least weasel in glacier national park . j . mammal . 35 : 594 .\nsundell , j . 2003 . reproduction of the least weasel in captivity : basic observations and the influence of food availability .\nfictional weasel characters created within the fandom include supermegatopia ' s weasel boy and tracy kazaleh ' s shadow and miniver .\nthe species can also be differentiated by their tail ; the long - tailed weasel has a black tipped tail , while the tip of least weasel ' s tail is brown in summer .\n= = predators and competitors = = the least weasel is small enough to be preyed upon by a range of other predators .\nweasels are the most characteristic members of the zoological family mustelidae , which itself is commonly called the\nweasel family\n. the least weasel is the smallest member of the zoological order carnivora .\nweasels are mammals in the genus mustela of the mustelidae family . originally , the name\nweasel\nwas applied to one species of the genus , the european form of the least weasel .\nthe least weasel has a variety of habitats including meadows , fields , brushy areas , and open woods . it avoids dense forests .\nbecause of its tiny size there is little commercial value in least weasel fur , though trapping one is thought to bring good luck .\nas rodent predators , least weasels help maintain rodent populations . this is especially important in the tundra ecosystem , where least weasels help keep lemming populations in check . bird species in new zealand , where least weasels were introduced , are negatively affected by weasel predation , especially ground - dwelling\n= = = predators and competitors = = = the least weasel is small enough to be preyed upon by a range of other predators .\nthe least weasel ' s diet consists of mice , rats , moles , small birds , bird ' s eggs , rabbits , and poultry . the least weasel ' s claws and sharp teeth help this animal to catch their prey . the least weasel is the smallest carnivore in the world . it can kill prey up to 5 times its own size . the least weasel ' s predators are large hawks and owls . this animal benefits our environment because it kills rodents to keep the population low . one way a least weasel helps itself survive in its environment is its coat and how it changes to blend in with the snow . the least weasel is not endangered but more of them are dying because the loggers are pushing them out of their home . this animal has basically no predators but because of its short life span its not overpopulated .\nwhat ' s in a name ? the least weasel ( mustela nivalis ) is the smallest member of the weasel genus , mustela and indeed the smallest living carnivore . in britain it is known simply as the weasel , and this is the original use of the word .\nleast weasels are effective rodent predators . by preying on rodents , which can transmit disease , eat economically valuable crops , and cause extensive property damage , humans directly benefit both economically and health - wise from least weasels . trappers are also able to benefit from least weasels caught in traps set for larger animals . least weasel pelts are not very valuable in canada , but some weasel pelts are used as lining and trim on coats and mittens .\nphylogeographic variation in two mustelines , the least weasel mustela nivalis and the ermine m . erminea of japan , based on mitochondrial dna control region sequences\nnamed the least weasel ( mustela nivalis ) for its small size among weasels , it is still a proficient hunter throughout much of the northern hemisphere .\neconomic value the fur of the least weasel is seldom taken and is so small that it is of little or no value in the fur trade .\nthere are three species of weasels in minnesota , the short - tailed weasel ( mustela erminea ) , the long - tailed weasel ( mustela ( renata , and the least weasel . all belong to a family of mostly long , narrow\ntube - shaped\nanimals in the family mustelidae .\nin winter the coat of the least weasel turns entirely white . though soft , the fur lacks the silky elegance of the short - tailed weasel , or ermine , whose coat was coveted by native americans and european royalty .\nin english - language popular culture in particular , the term ' weasel ' is associated with devious characters . a cartoon shown on cartoon network is entitled ' i am weasel ' , whose main character is a weasel . two pok\u00e9mon are based on the weasel , buizel and floatzel .\nbeyond the\ntrue weasels\ncomprising mustela , the name weasel also is used for various species in other genera in mustelidae , notably the patagonian weasel ( lyncodon patagonicus ) , the libyan striped weasel ( poecilictus libyca ) , and the white - naped weasel ( poecilogale albinucha ) .\nstromberg , m . r . 1981 . new record of the least weasel in wyoming . prairie nat . 13 ( 2 ) : 45 - 46 .\nconstitute much of a least weasel\u2019s diet in more southern populations ; almost 100 percent of a weasel ' s diet is made up of rodents if they are abundant . when rodents are scarce , least weasels will also feed upon birds\u2019 eggs , lizards , amphibians , small fish , and invertebrates . rodents , especially\nthe least weasel , leads a solitary lifestyle except for when breeding . though the least weasel is sometimes visible in the daytime , it\u2019s most active at night . both male and female least weasels defend their territories from others of the same sex , according to the minnesota department of natural resources . a single least weasel ' s territory can span up to 24 . 3 hectares , which they establish by giving off pungent odors from their anal glands . when threatened the least weaselit produces a loud , harsh chirp or screech , and assumes a\nweasel war dance\n. this dance is characterized by leaps , twists , barks , and arching of the back . when it\u2019s with a mate or summoning young ones , it least weasels may produce a low trill . the least weasel is the world ' s smallest carnivore , and is preyed upon by such other , larger predators as snakes , hawks , owls , foxes , coyotes , and house cats .\nto cite this page for personal use : \u0093least weasel\u0094 . [ online ] . natural history notebooks . canadian museum of nature . last updated ( web site consulted\nthe fur of the least weasel fluoresces ( glows ) in ultraviolet light . weasels have voracious appetites , and the least weasel eats about 30 percent of its weight each day . because weasels have a high surface area to weight ratio , they conserve body heat in winter by curling into a ball and lowering their metabolism .\n= = = territorial and social behaviours = = = the least weasel has a typical mustelid territorial pattern , consisting of exclusive male ranges encompassing multiple female ranges .\nnewell , toni lynn .\nmustela nivalis ( least weasel ) : narrative\n, urltoken m . _ nivalis $ narrative . html ( 12 / 02 )\ncomparative phylogeography of the endemic japanese weasel ( mustela itatsi ) and the continental siberian weasel ( m . sibirica ) , revealed by complete mitochondrial genome sequences\nin addition to the better known species , there are a large number of exotic and obscure weasel species such as mustela sibirica ( the kolinsky , or siberian weasel ) and poecilogale albinucha ( the north african striped weasel ) .\nthough a ruthless hunter , the least weasel does play an important role in its surroundings . its feverish hunting reduces rodent population which benefits nearby agricultural fields . there is also no need to worry about overpopulation , especially in indiana . historical trapping , habitat loss and land development has kept the least weasel population small in our state for many years . the least weasel has a short lifespan , but it is also a species of special concern in the state as it is very rare . today , least weasels are only found in the grassy fields or marshes of northern indiana .\nin the northern arctic regions , are vitally important for weasel reproductive success . least weasel reproduction is tightly interconnected with lemming abundance , as there are not many other prey species for northern populations of least weasels . northern populations of weasels cycle more apparently than those found in southern populations due to the strong food requirements placed upon lemmings , which also undergo population cycling ; however , least weasel populations naturally peak and subside , even with alternative food sources available , like populations in more southern regions .\n, and other birds of prey , such as falcons , eagles , and hawks . least weasels may also be preyed upon by other larger weasel species , such as\nas a small carnivore , the least weasel ' s main food sources are small rodents , such as mice , bank voles , and field voles . in a day , a least weasel can eat 1 to 1\u00bd mice , totaling more than half of its own body weight . still , the least weasel is an opportunistic predator that will also eat small fish , birds , insects , lizards , and birds ' eggs . when the least weasel encounters its prey , it swiftly grabs it by the back of the head , and bites through its skull in quick succession . after about 30 seconds , the prey dies . after eating to its fill , least weasels store excess food in their burrow , to ensure that they have food for the future .\n: the least weasel appears restricted to the northeast and north - central portions of the state . it is found most commonly in meadows and grasslands , reaching its greatest grasslands , reaching its greatest abundance in marshy areas , and is least common in woodlands .\nbreeding interval least weasels breed one to three times per year , depending on prey density .\nleast weasels are effective rodent predators . by preying on rodents , which can transmit disease , eat economically valuable crops , and cause extensive property damage , humans directly benefit both economically and health - wise from least weasels . trappers are also able to benefit , albeit not strongly , from least weasels caught as bycatch in traps set for larger fur - bearers . least weasel pelts do not have substantial economic value in canada , but some weasel pelts are used as lining and trim on garments such as luxury coats and mittens .\ndon ' t let his size fool you ! watch the least weasel take down his prey in this clip from the secret life of predators on the national geographic channel .\nhenttonen h . 1987 . the impact of spacing behaviour in microtine rodents on the dynamics of the least weasel & # x2014 ; a hypothesis . oikos 50 : 366\u2013370 .\ncharacteristics the least weasel is considerable smaller , with a very short tail , and males may measure up to 8 inches in length , while females measure about 6 inches .\nthe least weasel may have three to ten young , but averages five which may be born at any time of the year but most frequently are born in late winter .\nmcdonald , r . a . 2013 . mustela nivalis least weasel ( common weasel ) / mustela subpalmata egyptian weasel . in : j . kingdon and m . hoffmann ( eds ) , the mammals of africa . volume v : carnivores , pangolins , equids and rhinoceroses , pp . 85 - 87 . bloomsbury publishing , london .\nthe coat of the least weasel , as with all weasels , will turn white in the winter . least weasels are found only in the northern part of the state and are more likely to turn completely white . species found in warmer climates will stay partially brown .\nmore general myths about the weasel are equally unkind to the poor little creature .\nthe kamaitachi (\nsickle weasel\n) is a supernatural japanese weasel which moves too fast to be seen and attacks by cutting its victims with a sickle .\nblomquist l . , muuronen p . and rantanen v . 1981 . breeding the least weasel in helsinki zoo . zoologische garten n . f . , jena 51 : 363\u2013368 .\nleast weasels are very aggressive and will defend their territory , attacking much bigger animals when necessary .\nmost interesting about the least weasel is that it is the smallest carnivore . it is amazing that something so small can kill something so much bigger than it can . its habitat and biome , the northeast asian deciduous forest , is endangered . the least weasels are fleeing from their homes and drowning in oceans trying to get away from the loggers . if we try to preserve the northeast asian deciduous forest we can help the least weasel from being extinct .\nmontana field guides , least weasel .\nurltoken . montana natural heritage program & montana fish , wildlife and parks , n . d . web . 11 feb . 2013 .\nlength : the short - tailed weasel measures seven to 14 inches . the long - tailed weasel is slightly larger , about 16 inches , and has a longer tail .\nthe weasel pre - breeding season population is estimated to be 450 , 000 adults .\nindividuals adopting weasel persona characters include cargo , micole , sebkha , and silent red .\nswanson , e . , and p . o . fryklund . 1935 . the least weasel in minnesota and its fluctuation in numbers . the american midland naturalist 16 : 120 - 126 .\nwhile they are not considered rare in north america , least weasels are more common in europe and asia , and are not globally threatened . as a whole , populations of least weasels are considered stable .\nand other livestock , there is little proof to suggest that least weasels prey upon any domestic livestock .\nleast weasels , as highly - skilled rodent predators , play an important role in maintaining or initiating cycles in rodent populations . rodent cycling is a vital component of the tundra ecosystem and specialized predators , such as least weasels , are helpful for keeping lemming populations in check . bird species in new zealand , where least weasels were introduced , are negatively affected by weasel predation , especially ground - dwelling\nthe long - tailed weasel is larger in size with males ranging anywhere from 14 to 16 inches long and weighing 3 to 7 ounces . least weasel males range from 8 to 9 inches long and weigh about 2 ounces . males of both species are larger than the females .\nthe least weasel ' s range in north america stretches from alaska southeast through canada and into the northcentral and northeastern united states , probably including the entire state of minnesota ( hazard 1982 ) . however , most records of this species in minnesota come from the northwestern portion of the state . once considered secure in the state , only one least weasel has been recorded in minnesota since 1967 despite extensive survey work in suitable habitats . competition from ermines ( mustela erminea ) , a related and more common weasel , may be a contributing factor to the rarity of least weasels . other factors which may pose a threat to this species include habitat and prey loss , poisoning , and predation . the least weasel was listed as a special concern species in minnesota in 1996 .\nsome people say the weasel is enchanted . some say it is very unlucky to destroy a weasel . here is a story i heard which was told to me as true .\nthe least weasel mustela nivalis and the ermine m . erminea of japan are considered relicts of the last glacial period . to study phylogeographic variation in these mustelines , fragments of the [ \u2026 ]\nremember the open spaces under roof rafters and check for holes where siding has rotted\u2014any opening big enough for a rat will give easy access to a least weasel , smallest of all true carnivores .\ntaxonomic status and origin of the egyptian weasel ( mustela subpalmata ) inferred from mitochondrial dna .\nlong , a . charles , weasel world book # 21 2000 by world book inc .\nthe least weasel becomes sexually mature at 3 - 4 months . their mating seasons are spring and summer with a gestation period lasting from 35 - 37 days . the least weasel has 3 - 10 babies , weighing 0 . 04 to 0 . 06 ounces , and are wrinkled , pink and naked . they have no abilities . the mother raises the young by herself while the father leaves right after mating . the baby least weasels are weaned at four to five weeks and the mother hunts for them until they are 4 weeks old . at that time the training of adulthood begin s . the least weasels are fully independent at 12 weeks old , at which time they leave their family . the least weasel ' s interval is its den and it is mostly solitary . these mammals live up to 2 years in the wild and up to 10 years in captivity . least weasels are active day and night .\nand other avian livestock , there is little proof to suggest that least weasels prey upon any domestic livestock .\nleast weasels , like many other weasel species , are able to kill prey much larger than themselves , then store the remains . least weasels mostly hunt rodents , if they are available , almost 100 percent of their diet will be made up of rodents , however , they will not overlook an easy meal .\none employee thought he had the answer . in 1953 , roger m . latham wrote a letter to the journal of mammalogy [ pdf ] , announcing a \u201csimple method for identification of least weasel . \u201d\nhow often does reproduction occur ? least weasels breed one to three times per year , depending on prey density .\nleast weasels and stoats looks very alike but can be told apart by the stoat\u2019s tail having a black tip .\ntaxonomic status and origin of the egyptian weasel ( mustela subpalmata ) inferred from mitochondrial . . .\nmi ' kmaq legends about two weasel - women who married stars , and their subsequent travels .\nthe egyptian weasel ( mustela subpalmata ) is a small mustelid with a distribution restricted to the lower nile valley and the nile delta . traditionally considered a subspecies of the least weasel ( m . nivalis ) , it is currently recognized as a separate species based on morphology . here we present the first genetic assessment of the taxonomic status of the egyptian weasel by comparing . . . [ show full abstract ]\nall three species can be found state - wide , but the least weasel is the least abundant , especially in northeastern minnesota . weasels can be found anywhere that their main prey , mice , are found . typical habitats are grasslands , woodlots , and brush piles . weasels can also be found in firewood piles and garages .\nthe egyptian weasel ( mustela subpalmata ) is a small mustelid with a distribution restricted to the lower nile valley and the nile delta . traditionally considered a subspecies of the least weasel ( m . nivalis ) , it is currently recognized as a separate species based on morphology . here we present the first genetic assessment of the taxonomic status of the egyptian weasel by comparing mitochondrial dna ( cytochrome b gene and control region ) sequences to those of least weasels from the western palearctic , with a focus on the mediterranean region . our results provide no evidence to support the view that the egyptian weasel is genetically distinct from the least weasel , as we found that , for both cytochrome b and control region , haplotypes were shared between the two taxa . specifically , the cytochrome b and control region haplotypes detected in the egyptian weasel were also present in m . nivalis from turkey and malta , two populations genetically analysed here for the first time . our results suggest that the egyptian weasel is distinct from the least weasel populations currently living in the maghreb , which were inferred to be the result of an earlier colonization of north africa , but the genetic data alone do not allow us to determine whether the egyptian weasel is native or introduced . nevertheless , the observed genetic patterns , together with the weasel fossil record in israel and the unique commensal lifestyle of the egyptian weasel , are consistent with the hypothesis that the egyptian population is a relict of past range expansion from the levant into egypt . we suggest that the large size and characteristic sexual dimorphism of the egyptian weasel are likely to represent ecotypic variation , but genomic studies are required to clarify the extent of its functional genetic divergence .\nnyholm , e . 1972 . weasel . pp . 187 - 199 in l siivonen , ed .\nthe weasel ( mustela nivalis ) is the smallest member of the mustelid family and britains smallest carnivore .\nthe long - tailed weasel is of economic importance , as many are taken by trappers each year .\nit\u2019s really very fascinating so for those of you who\u2019d like to know more about weasel & taboo and the origins of the word \u2018weasel\u2019 in many different languages , you can read the pdf file here .\nsexual maturity begins from 3 to 4 months for the female least weasel when food is plentiful . females sexually mature more rapidly , while males achieve maturity at around 8 or 9 months , according to animal diversity . breeding may occur all year round , though incidences of mating are less frequent during the winter . both sexes of least weasels will mate with multiple partners . males and females defend their territory when mating , but afterwards the male will leave to look for other females\nin heat\n. the least weasel ' s gestation period lasts about 35 days , after which the female gives birth to on average to 4 to 5 kits per litter . according to animal diversity , the least weasel ' s lifespan is 1 to 2 years in the wild , significantly shorter than many other carnivores .\nin zoological use\nweasel\non its own is now more usually applied to the genus , and in north america it is used as a common name for a number of species . however , most literary references to weasels are in fact to the least weasel . the sinister weasels of the wind in the willows , for example , are mustela nivalis , and so is the weasel that goes\npop\nin the nursery rhyme .\ngeneral description : weasels are small , elongated predators that are brown in the summer , but that turn white in the winter . the short - tailed and long - tailed weasels have a black - tipped tail , while the least weasel is completely white . during spring and fall , as they change color , weasel fur appears blotchy .\nit is impossible to catch a weasel asleep ; and it is bad luck if one crosses your path and appears near your home making its distinctive squeaking sound . the scots have a strange myth about a weasel funeral \u2013 the story was from the museum of lead mining ( ! ) , which seems surprising , to say the least !\nnorth american ranges like alaska , canada , and the northern united states , as well as much of eurasia , are where the least weasel population are naturally found , with other population being introduced elsewhere , including parts of the southern hemisphere . in these ranges , the least weasel lives in meadows , grasslands , marshy areas , pastures , stubble field habitats , and mouse - infested barns . it inhabits burrows dug by moles and gophers , or hollow logs where the former cannot be found . on the international union for conservation of nature\u2019s ( iucn ) 2008 red list , the least weasel was classified as a species of\nleast concern\namong threatened species . according to the iucn , its population is stable , with its primary threats today being poisoning with rodenticides and change in agriculture practices within their home ranges .\nfor the klamanth people of oregon , mink is a mythological hero and weasel is his troublesome younger brother .\nthe least weasel occupies most of canada with the exception of the maritimes , southern quebec and ontario , the arctic and central and coastal british columbia . it has broad circumpolar distribution through europe , north africa , asia and north america .\nweasel wrath : least weasels are highly solitary , and even mating does not occur without a fight . females can breed several times in a year when food is plentiful . perhaps because of their small size , least weasels have an even greater reputation for ferocity than the other weasels , and there are many references to them in the popular cultures of different countries .\ndubbed a \u201chair - trigger mousetrap with teeth\u201d by one biologist , the least weasel is a specialized predator whose diet is mainly mice and small voles . it eats insects and ground - nesting birds , but only if other prey is scarce .\nthe taxonomy of least weasel mustela nivalis was reviewed by abramov and baryshnikov ( 2000 ) , who considered egpytian weasel m . subpamata to be a distinct species , a treatment followed here . tonkin weasel m . tonkinensis and sichuan weasel m . russelliana , here treated as distinct species following groves ( 2007 ) , were included as part of m . nivalis by abramov and baryshnikov ( 2000 ) ( and in previous versions of its red list assessment ) . a weasel population found in taiwan in the late 20th century and considered by its finders to be a new species allied to stoat m . erminea is here considered , following abramov ( 2006 ) to be part of m . nivalis .\ntaxonomic status and origin of the egyptian weasel ( mustela subpalmata ) inferred from mitochondrial dna . - pubmed - ncbi\nshort h . l . 1961 . food habits of a captive weasel . journal of mammalogy 42 : 273\u2013274 .\nthe weasel\u2019s bloodlust is instinctual and triggered by movement . even on a full belly , a weasel will kill anything that moves and looks like prey . and to the tenacious weasel , pretty much everything looks like prey . tiny weasels have been seen killing and carrying off animals twice , four times , and even 10 times their size .\nchildren ' s book illustrating a blackfoot legend about how weasel retrieved the warm spring wind from a powerful bear .\nthreats include incidental poisoning with rodenticides ( sheffield and king 1994 ) and persecution . least weasel prefers open agricultural habitats , which are declining owing to changes in agricultural practices ( rural abandonment ) in parts of europe , as open fields undergo succession .\nthe least weasel is a small mammal with a huge appetite . its sharp teeth and claws can take down animals larger than its own diminutive size . small rodents are preferred prey , but will chase down rabbits , birds , frogs and insects when necessary .\nleast weasels are predominantly carnivores , they mostly eat small rodents like mice and voles but also eat birds , frogs , fish and eggs .\nweasels are relatively small , nimble mammals that are members of the mustelidae family , which also includes long - bodied animals such as wolverines , ferrets , badgers and certain skunk species . there are three weasel species that call north america home , the most prevalent being the long - tailed weasel . below are a few interesting weasel facts you might not know .\nweasels feed on small mammals , and in former times were considered vermin since some species took poultry from farms , or rabbits from commercial warrens . certain species of weasel and ferrets , have been reported to perform the mesmerizing weasel war dance , after fighting other creatures , or acquiring food from competing creatures . in folklore at least , this dance is particularly associated with the stoat .\na\ufeffccording to blackfoot legend , the weasel is the bravest of animals , a hunter bold out of all proportion to his size . modern scientists agree , as every feature of these graceful and lightning - fast little animals seems designed to make them the perfect predator . this is especially true of the least weasel , the smallest of three weasels found in montana and the world\u2019s smallest carnivore .\nthere is a very interesting article called \u201cold prussian moazo \u2018mother\u2019s sister\u2019 , mosuco \u2018weasel\u2019 & related words\u201d by krzystof tomasz witczak .\nthe least weasel also has a long , slender , muscular body with short legs . the head is small , with beady eyes , small ears and a pointed nose . they move with quick movements and a graceful , bounding gait . all three weasels change color with the seasons , and there is no color difference between the sexes . all the senses are well developed in the weasel .\nin historical times , least weasel was used as a house animal ( to preserve food from small rodents ; masseti 1995 ) as well as for food , fur and even traditional medicine , as is still the case in morocco ( lebarbenchon et al . 2010 ) .\nthe weasel is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 7 ) , and a species of conservation concern by the uk biodiversity action plan , although not a priority species . listed under appendix iii of the bern convention ( 3 ) .\nthe least weasel is a mouse - sized weasel with a long slender body , short brown or white legs , and a tiny , streamlined head . it has short round ears , beady eyes , and a snout ending in whiskers . the least weasel ' s fur can be all white , or brown with a white streak stretching from its chin to its rump , while the tail is brown . fur color changes can occur , often going from brown to white during winter , according to the missouri department of conservation . the length of the males , including their tails , is up to 10 inches , and they weigh from 2 . 1 to 3 . 2 ounces , according to the illinois department of natural resources . females are up to 9 inches in length , and weigh 1 . 2 to 2 . 5 ounces . the least weasel ' s paws have 5 clawed toes suitable to its carnivorous , predatory lifestyle .\nbritish popular - culture references to weasels are generally specifically to the common or least weasel . for example , alan lloyd ' s novel kine , about a fictional war in the english countryside between weasels and the invasive species mink , depicts the latter as sadistic , voracious invaders , giants in comparison to the weasels ; in american usage , both species would be kinds of weasel . similarly , in kenneth grahame ' s popular story the wind in the willows the villains are the weasels and the stoats , again two species of weasel in american usage . here everyday usage reflects the original european use of the word weasel for a single species .\nusually burn energy the fastest and have the most active lifestyles , so it is no surprise that the least weasel , the miniature among mustelids , consumes roughly half its body weight each day\u2014equal to about two deer mice and a vole . as with other weasels , adult females may be half the size of adult males , and they mature much more rapidly ; females are sexually mature at four months , males at eight months . females produce two litters each year , unlike the larger , slower - breeding ermine and long - tailed weasel . in the north , the fur of the least weasel turns from brown to white in winter , camouflaging them in the snow .\nthis species is mainly solitary , except during breeding season . least weasels may be active during the day but do most of their hunting at night .\none day , the windigo captures a traveler . he sends the terrified man out to find sticks for his own cook fire . along the way , the man encounters a weasel and begs it desperately for help . the man returns to the monster with the weasel hidden in his clothing . as they approach , the weasel rushes at the windigo and climbs into his anus . the windigo begins to look quite ill , and soon falls down dead : the tiny , brave weasel has eaten his heart from within .\nsimilar species : much smaller than the short or long - tailed weasel . both short and long - tailed weasels have a blac\n\u201cit was discovered , \u201d he wrote , \u201cthat the fur of the least weasel would fluoresce under ultra - violet light , producing a vivid lavender color . the fur of the other two species remained a dull brown \u2026 thus , identification is positively and simply made , immediately . \u201d\nleast weasels , being highly - skilled predators of rodents , play an vital role in initiating or maintaining cycles in rodent populations , an important part of the tundra ecosystem , where specialized predators , like least weasels , play a role to keep lemming populations in check . in new zealand , on the contrary , where least weasels have been introduced , bird species are negatively affected by predation by this species , especially brown kiwis , which live on the ground .\nspecies , have a reputation for killing prey much larger than themselves , then caching the remains . least weasels are highly specialized rodent predators and as such , they rely heavily upon rodent species for food . least weasels are , however , opportunistic feeders and will not overlook an easy meal , such as carrion .\nheidt g . a . , petersen m . k . and kirkland g . l . j . 1968 . mating behavior and development of least weasels (\nthe german word for the least weasel , mauswiesel , refers to its tiny size . males are no more than 7 inches long , including the tail , and females rarely exceed 5 inches . both sexes are brown above with white underparts , coloration similar to that of montana\u2019s two other weasels , the short - tailed and long - tailed ( the latter with cream underparts ) . unlike its cousins , the least lacks a black tail tip .\nking c . m . 1980 . population biology of the weasel mustela nivalis on british game estates . holarctic ecology 3 : 160\u2013168 .\nweight : the short - tailed weasel weighs only two to five ounces , while its long - tailed cousin weighs about seven ounces .\na purse made from a weasel\u2019s skin will never want for money ; but the purse must be found , not given or made .\nthe least weasel is the smallest of all weasels , averaging 157 - 190 mm ( 6 . 2 - 7 . 5 in . ) in total length and weighing 40 - 56 g ( 1 . 4 - 2 . 0 oz . ) ( hazard 1982 ) . it has a long body and neck with short limbs , a short tail , and a narrow , flattened head . in the summer , least weasels are brown on the back and whitish with occasional brown flecks underneath . in winter , they are entirely white in northern latitudes , where snow is common , but remain brown in southern latitudes ( sheffield and king 1994 ) . the least weasel resembles other weasel species , but it is smaller and has a proportionately shorter tail than the ermine and the long - tailed weasel ( mustela frenata ) . its tail is less than 25 % of the length of its head and body and lacks the black tip characteristic of ermines and long - tailed weasels ( sheffield and king 1994 ) . the pelage of least weasels will fluoresce under uv light , while that of ermines and long - tailed weasels will not ( hazard 1982 ; svendsen 1999 ) .\nleast weasels have long , slender bodies with short limbs , a long neck and a flat , narrow head . they have large black eyes and large round ears . this species has five fingers with sharp claws . their fur is a milk - chocolate brown with white on the under parts . northern populations have a white winter coat and brown summer coat . the least weasel is less than 10 inches long and only weighs one to three ounces .\nlatham\u2019s glow - in - the - dark - weasel trick thereby entered the canon of weasel facts . even today , you can find numerous sources claiming that least weasels glow under uv light . there\u2019s just one problem : his method has never been validated . nobody has ever reproduced his attempts . still , it\u2019s possible that mustela nivalis glows in the dark . given everything else we know about weasels , it wouldn\u2019t be surprising .\nin the mennock pass recently , a driver observed a dead weasel , killed by a passing car , being lifted and carried off the road by a number of other weasels . this story was confirmed by a villager who had heard of a similar tale in the 1930\u2019s where the night watchman at the wanlockhead smelt mills had watched several weasels remove a dead female and bury her in a \u2018weasel grave\u2019 nearby . on investigation , the watchman and the local gamekeeper , found the body of the weasel buried alongside a number of other weasel skeletons .\nthe coexistence of two very similar species , stoat and least weasel , has puzzled many researchers . from their ecology it is expected that they do not coexist , not locally at least , and still they seem to do . we reviewed the specific hypotheses proposed to explain their coexistence and related these to general theories of competitive coexistence . to test these conjectures , we studied the habitat selection of least weasels and stoats on landscape and on local scale . the study was performed during the winters , the most critical season , in years 1986\u20132001 in northern norway . stoats were usually more numerous than least weasels . stoats showed preference for productive areas both at the landscape and at the habitat scale and appeared stereotypic in their habitat selection . least weasels were more generalized and flexible in their habitat selection . contrary to results reported in many studies , least weasel did not react to the presence of stoats and were not excluded from the areas with stoats . we suggest that in the conditions of northernmost fennoscandia , the two species exhibit a variant of classical competitive coexistence . both species have a shared preference for rodents , but the access to exclusive alternative prey in stoats allows their coexistence with least weasels , which are more efficient predators on rodents . we suggest that more attention should be paid on survival resources , exploited during times of low resource density , when studying the coexistence between close competitors .\nsvendsen , g . e . 1999 . the least weasel ( mustela nivalis ) . pages 173 - 174 in d . e . wilson and s . ruff , editors . the smithsonian book of north american mammals . smithsonian institution press in association with the american society of mammalogists , washington .\nweasels were plentiful in pennsylvania in the early 1950s , but they weren\u2019t welcome . after the pennyslvania game commission offered a bounty for every weasel pelt , they found themselves inundated with fur . the region was home to three weasel species , but once the weasel ' s tail had been removed , the pelts all looked pretty much the same . so how could they figure out which species a pelt belonged to ?\nmore random weasel bits . . . weasel deep , old magic of the dark , warrior balance of the light , teach that evil lies within , never in the day or night . stealth , silent observation this totem is a difficult power totem to have . it is a rare gift and great ability . weasel medicine can teach you to find out secrets through the power of silent observation . most weasel people are loners , graceful , solitary and silent . they are very intelligent . people do not see their power immediately and often underestimate them . weasel totem will awaken your innate ability for observation . trust your own instincts and you will avoid trouble and pursue your goals to greatest success . use your weasel medicine to observe what or who needs attention and offer assistance in your quiet or discreet way . re : urltoken\nthe least weasel is mostly found in the northeast asian deciduous forest , which covers korea , eastern asia , japan , china , and russia . least weasels can range in this area from 30 degrees to 47 degrees north latitude and 110 degrees east fahrenheit to 145 degrees east fahrenheit in longitude . the northeast asian deciduous forest has warm summers and cold winters . it is home to many mammals and birds but is currently threatened because of loggers chopping down trees .\nfood weasels prey on small rodents such as mice , rats , voles , hares , rabbits , and chipmunks . they also take shrews , birds , birds eggs , frogs , bats , insects , earthworms and may occasionally kill domestic chickens . the least weasel depends almost exclusively on mice for food .\nalthough they are fierce predators , helping to control rodent populations , least weasels are also victims of predators , including the long - tailed weasel . hawks , owls , foxes , coyotes , housecats , and snakes also eat them . internal and external parasites also feed on them\u2014albeit on a smaller scale .\ngood luck weasel : traditional inuit lore held the least weasel in great respect because of its pugnacious nature , and the capture of one was regarded as an omen of good luck . in classical and medieval european mythology , it is sometimes said that the only thing which can kill a basilisk is a weasel , though it would be killed in the conflict as well . the earliest record of this claim is in pliny ' s naturalis historia , book 8 , par . 33 . it was repeated by isidore of seville in his etymologiae , and subsequently by many medieval bestiarists .\nmuch smaller than the short - or long - tailed weasel . both short - and long - tailed weasels have black tip on tail .\nking , c . , k . griffiths , e . murphy . 2001 . advances in new zealand mammalogy 1990\u20132000 : stoat and weasel .\ncats , owls , foxes and birds of prey will all try to kill weasels , although a weasel will fight hard to defend itself .\n: voles , deer mice , and harvest mice make up the majority of the least weasel ' s diet . moles are sometimes eaten and shrews may be attacked by inexperienced individuals or when other prey are unavailable . insects are also eaten when encountered . small ground - nesting birds such as sparrows are occasionally captured . when small mammals are scarce , birds may be hunted intensively . it is estimated that least weasels require approximately half their body weight in food per day .\n2 . if the animal is domestic , insist that the offending animal be penned and observed for at least 10 days to see if it gets sick or dies .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - weasel ( mustela nivalis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - weasel ( mustela nivalis )\ntitle =\narkive species - weasel ( mustela nivalis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nbecause of its size and very active lifestyle of hunting , mating and burrowing , the least weasel must eat roughly between 40 - 60 % of its body weight every day . however , its appetite to kill is far more voracious than the amount it actually needs to survive . least weasels are known to take prey in quantities larger that it can consume . though it will stockpile any overkill in nearby burrows , the surplus is often left to rot as they prefer fresh meat .\nin the northern arctic area , are very important for breeding success . the population sizes of least weasels found in northern areas cycle due to the population sizes of lemmings .\nthe minnesota biological survey has targeted this species for many years , and has located only a single individual despite intense trapping activities . a sub - adult female was captured in a live trap in 2006 on a privately owned native prairie tract in murray county . prior to this capture , no specimens of this species had been collected in minnesota since 1967 . while it seems that least weasel populations have fluctuated historically in minnesota ( swanson and fryklund 1935 ) , the low level of observations is troubling . more research is needed to determine the extent of least weasel distribution in minnesota and the ecological requirements necessary to ensure this species ' survival .\nnaturally , these gambits do not always work out in the weasel\u2019s favor , hence the term \u201croulette . \u201d ( on a related note , a weasel ' s lifespan is a mere 1 to 2 years in the wild , for obvious reasons . ) but when they do ? watch out .\noriginally , the name\nweasel\nwas applied to one species of the genus , the european form of the least weasel ( mustela nivalis ) . early literary references to weasels , such as their common appearances in fables , refer to this species rather than to the genus as a whole , reflecting what is still the common usage in britain . in technical discourse , however , as in american usage , the term\nweasel\ncan refer to any member of the genus , or to the genus as a whole . of the 16 extant species currently classified in the genus mustela , ten have\nweasel\nin their common name . among those that do not are the stoat or ermine , the two species of mink , and the polecats or ferrets .\nweasels , stoats , and even domesticated ferrets all perform a hilarious \u201cweasel war dance\u201d when they\u2019ve got their prey cornered . scientists aren\u2019t totally sure why they do this . one theory is that the weasel\u2019s wacky twisting , hopping , and darting around distracts , confuses , or even hypnotizes prey animals . in one case , researchers concluded that a number of rabbits killed by stoats had actually \u201cdied of fright\u201d after being subjected to the weasel war dance .\nrecognized as a species separate from least weasel ( mustela nivalis ) by van zyll de jong ( 1992 ) , reig ( 1997 ) , abramov and baryshnikov ( 2000 ) , baryshnikov et al . ( 2003 ) , wozencraft ( 2005 ) , nyakatura and bininda - emonds ( 2012 ) , and mcdonald ( 2013 ) .\n: because it is small and secretive the least weasel is rarely found throughout its range . its presence in kansas has been suspected for many years , but the first specimen from the state was not collected until march 1964 near marysville in marshall county . longevity of this small mammal is one or two years in the wild .\nreig , s . 1997 . biogeographic and evolutionary implications of size variation in north american least weasels ( mustela nivalis ) . canadian journal of zoology 75 : 2036 - 2049 .\nin summer , least weasels leave little sign , but watch for playful youngsters romping near a nest . in winter , look for a trail of twin prints in the snow ."]}
{"id": 99, "summary": [{"text": "coleophora seriphidii is a moth of the coleophoridae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in turkestan and kirgizstan .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the larvae feed on the leaves of artemisia turanica .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they create a silky case which is broader in the central part .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "there are five or six stripes extending along the case .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "these are quite uniformly arranged , straight , narrow and barely perceptible at places .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the valve is three-sided .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the length of the case is 4.5 \u2013 5 mm and it is brownish-gray in color , with brown longitudinal stripes .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the case of young larvae is almost white however .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "larvae can be found from the end of april to may .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "fully fed larvae estivate and hibernate . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "coleophora seriphidii", "paragraphs": ["this is the place for seriphidii definition . you find here seriphidii meaning , synonyms of seriphidii and images for seriphidii copyright 2017 \u00a9 urltoken\nhere you will find one or more explanations in english for the word seriphidii . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word seriphidii and , of course , seriphidii synonyms and on the right images related to the word seriphidii .\ncoleophora - species dictionary - global : ispot nature - your place to share nature . ispot is a website aimed at helping anyone identify anything in nature . once you ' ve registered , you can add an observation to the website and suggest an identification yourself or see if anyone else can identify it for you .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\nthere are no photos of this species on the website yet . you can offer your photo by logging into your account\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\n[ 85 ] urltoken ( insecta . pro previous version / c\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430\u044f \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u044f insecta . pro )\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more"]}
{"id": 103, "summary": [{"text": "channa is a genus of fish in the family channidae , commonly known as snakehead , native to asia .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "this genus contains 35 scientifically described species , but the most well known are probably the northern snakehead ( channa argus ) and the giant snakehead ( channa micropeltes ) .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "these species have a wide natural distribution extending from iran in the west , to china in the east and parts of siberia in the far east .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "they are one of the most common staple food fish in cambodia , thailand , vietnam and other southeast asian countries , where they are extensively cultured .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "apart from their importance as a food fish , snakeheads are also consumed as a therapeutic for wound healing as well as reducing post-operative pain and discomfort and collected for the international aquarium pet trade .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the diets of various species of channa include fish , frogs , snakes , rodents , birds and insects .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they have a labyrinth organ , which allows them to breathe air for short periods , and they use this adaptation to travel across land in the event that their habitat becomes inhospitable .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the taxonomy of the genus channa is incomplete and a comprehensive revision of the family has not been performed .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "a phylogenetic study in 2010 has also indicated the likelihood of the existence of undescribed species of channids in southeast asia .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "in june 2011 , the malabar snakehead channa diplogramma from peninsular india was shown to be a distinct species , 146 years after its initial description and 134 years after it was synonymised with c. micropeltes , establishing it is an endemic species of peninsular india .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the study also suggested that the species shared a most recent common ancestor with c. micropeltes , around 9.52 to 21.76 mya .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "in assamese it is called goroi .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "in malayalam it is called varal or braal . ", "topic": 16}], "title": "channa", "paragraphs": ["channa sp . true blue picture credited to amiidae of arofanatics refer to channa stewerti profile .\nthere are two genera ( channa , parachanna ) containing 34 species ( 31 channa and three parachanna ) , although the diversity is much greater and several undescribed species , particularly from india \u2014 for example , channa sp . ' lal cheng ' and channa sp . ' kerala five stripe ' \u2014 have already reached the aquarium trade .\nchanna pardalis is a newly described , gorgeous snakehead . it was discovered in northeastern india and is known by aquarists as\nchanna sp . meghalaya leopard .\nnow it ' s got a formal name .\nthe new snakehead species is described in the latest publication of the journal of threatened taxa . here is a video of a reported rare channa pardalis ( aka\nchanna sp . meghalaya leopard\n) in captivity :\nso excited to try this recipe out ( with dairy free butter , though ! ) ! looks amazing . and i love channa masala . a lot .\nreported as very aggresive to its own kind and others , said to share the same temprement of other channa most closley related . i . e aurantimaculata and stewarti\nscientific name : channa panaw common name : panaw snakehead maximum size : at least 17 cm / 7 inches origin : ayeyarwaddy and sittang river basins , myanmar temperament : predatory company : channa panaw should only be kept with fish larger than 2 / 3 of the species size . water parameters : temperature mainly sub - tropical but range extends into tropical , temp 18 - 28 c ph around ph 5 - 6 and enjoys cover / shade feeding : channa panaw should be fed live food .\nthis channa is very rarly aggresive toward other fish or its own kind outside of breeding time , it is often said to be one of the more passive snakeheads .\nscientific name : channa orientalis common name : ceylon snakehead maximum size : 10 cm / 4 inches origin : southwestern sri lanka temperament : predatory company : channa orientalis should not be kept with fish smaller than 2 / 3 of the species size . water parameters : temperature - tropical species likes softer water but has been bred several times is different ph levels 22 - 28\u02dac / 72 - 82\u02daf ; ph 6 - 7 . 5 feeding : channa orientalis ( ceylon snakehead ) accepts live and frozen food .\nx factor hopeful amrick channa has a secret television past , having already appeared on the voice , come dine with me and ant and dec ' s saturday night takeaway .\nchanna masala is one of those dishes that i always think sounds delicious , but never make . i really need to get some spices so i can give it a try .\nto do list : make channa masala this sunday . thanks for the awesome recipe . i\u2019m just now starting to really like indian food so i will definitely be making this !\nchanna aurantimaculata so allways insist on a picture of the actual fish before handing over any of your hard earned cash , there is allway someone waiting to realive you of it .\nlooove indian food , especially channa masala . i usually don\u2019t put so much effort into it though . i just throw a bunch of stuff together and call it a meal . \ud83d\ude09\njustification : channa punctata is a widespread species with no known major widespread threats , and no evidence as yet that it is a species complex . the species is assessed as least concern .\nhamilton ( 1822 ) described ophiocephalus marulius from river ganges , which is now placed in the genus channa . the group has been studied recently by li et al . ( 2006 ) .\nscientific name : channa melasoma common name : black snakehead maximum size : 30 cm / 12 inches environment : freshwater streams , prefers to be shaded temperament : aggressive company : channa melasoma should not be kept with species smaller than the snakeheads . water parameters : temperature - found from tropical to sub - tropical 18 - 28\u02dac ; ph 5 - 5 . 3 has a distinct preference for still waters urltoken\nthere is also another snakehead sometimes referred to as blue bleheri , for some time it was thought that they may have been the same species , they are now described separately and named channa sp . assam .\ni just made this last night . this is the best channa masala recipe ever . ever ! it beats one i\u2019ve been using because it\u2019s all about cooking down the tomato paste . so yummy ! thank you !\nx factor hopeful amrick channa has a secret television past and has already appeared on the voice and come dine with me along with other shows . . . and is even the ' face of sainsbury ' s '\noh man , i totally have to make this recipe sometime this weekend . i really enjoy amy\u2019s organic channa masala , so hopefully this one will be as equally good or even better . thanks for sharing , jenna ! \ud83d\ude42\nthe sun online can reveal that amrick channa , a dance track performer from kent , is no stranger to the reality show circuit , and even brags that he is a\ntv personality\non websites offering personal appearances .\ni love your channa masala recipe ! i was lucky enough to write down your old one when it was still posted on the blog . i think this one is a variation of that one and can\u2019t wait to make this version .\ntank size : one of the advantages of channa bleheri is its small size and peacefulness . these snakeheads can be kept in a relatively small aquarium . 36 & # 8221 ; for a pair , groups can be kept in larger setups .\nwater parameters : coming from the assam region channa bleheri have a winter temp of 19 c and summer temp of 22 - 28 c / 72 - 82 f ; they prefer the cooler side of that range , ph 6 - 7 . 5 ,\ni just made this for dinner and it was delicious : ) thanks for this , jenna ! i\u2019ve made channa masala with a spice blend before but this was better . i hope to see more indian recipes\u2026i may have to make your chicken tikka masala next .\nnow this is the first very important step . you must execute patience and grace or your channa masala will suffer indefinitely . you are to let the onions caramelize . this will take about 15 minutes and you probably will get very nervous and antsy while the onions cook because if they burn\u2026 . you lose .\ndefinitely going to try this . i love your pictorial recipes - keep them coming ! i had an amy\u2019s frozen meal for lunch today - coincidentally , it was the mattar paneer with channa masala ! when you make this do you serve it with anything ? such as over rice or maybe just naan on the side ?\nthank you sooo much for this recipe ! ! ! ! i had channa masala for the first time last week while in orlando on vacation . it was an amy\u2019s frozen dinner , and i loved it . i have been wanting to make it ever since , and now i have the perfect recipe ! cannot wait to try this !\nonly known breeding sucsess is reported by a german aquarist , from this we know they are mouthbrooders and also egg feeders , practice spawning can be whitnessed year round but activity hightens as tempretures drop for winter , we belive the trigger tempreture to be around 20deg , as with all channa you are best to start out with a group and let the fish pair up for them selves .\ntowards there own kind they are amoung one of the nastiest channa around , they simply can not stand each other unless they have formed a pair , even then fights can break out at the drop of a hat and they are capable of infliction great damage on each other , strangly when mixed with other fish they seam to ignore all but the smallest fish , if they dont see it as food they are useally ok .\nprice is no object for true snakehead lovers , with mark - ups for rare specimens rivaling those of dragonfish . the barca snakehead ( channa barca ) pictured above , became one of the most expensive aquarium fish when the first individuals imported into the uk were going at \u00a35 , 000 apiece . the price has since dropped to about \u00a31 , 500 , as seen at aquarama 2009 in singapore , but that\u2019s still a hefty outlay !\nscientific name : channa baramensis common name : barama snakehead maximum size : 22 cm / 9 inches origin : northern , brunei and borneo introduced range : not known at this time temperament : temperament is said to resemble that of its closest relative channa melasoma , whom we know to not tolerate other fish very well and can be quite aggresive amoung its own kind company : best kept in a species tank and ideally as part of a bonded pair water parameters : temperature 22 - 25\u02dac / 72 - 77\u02da f ; ph 6 . 5 \u0096 8 . 0 feeding : like most channa can be trained to take most of the going food , but keep diet varied or the fish can become addicted to a certain food aquarium set up : in nature this fish is found in blackwater swamps , and this should be replicated in the aquarium , softer water is a must and the use of aquatic peat would be recomended . being a fairly aggresive fish the tank should be sized to take this into consideration , although only reaching 9 inches i would recommend a tank of around 4ft as a minimum reproductive habits : not reported in the aquarium suspect similar to melasoma . eggs probably prone to fungas if water is too hard other notes : extremely rare fish and hardly seen in the trade . picture credited to michael lo\nas one of the most popular dishes in the world , both in and out of india and pakistan , channa masala ( or chana masala , chole masala , or chholay , depending on where you ' re from ) \u2014chickpeas cooked in a spicy and tangy tomato - based sauce\u2014is the kind of dish that stirs passions in the recipe - writing community . my version might not taste like your grandmother ' s , but i promise that it tastes damn good .\nchanna micropeltes is endemic to the western ghats , india and has an eoo of about 10 , 350 km 2 and an aoo of about 800 km 2 and based on the major threats to the species from targeted fishing , agricultural expansion , dams and pollution , the species is found in up to 7 - 10 locations . so , this species qualifies for vulnerable status , despite it still requiring further research and moderate conservation measures as its habitat is in decline and it is a victim of targeted mortality in most of its range outside protected areas .\nas with all member of the group channide , you are best to sart out with a group of 6 or more fish , from this a pair shoud form , when a pair has formed it is advisable to swiftly remove all other fish from the aquarium , gachua are mouthbrooders in the male sex , and take excelant care of there young , one a a very few channa that will breed in tanks without plant cover , breeding has triggered by long periods without water change then a large change with fresh cooler water seems to initiate a spawning responce .\naquarium setup : the aquarium should be well planted with open areas to swim in . make sure hiding places are provided . all snakeheads breath air and can suffocate if they are prevented from reaching the surface to breath . a secure top should be in place as they are excellent jumpers . channa bleheri are excellent escape artists and can escape from the very smallest of holes . do not underestimate their escaping abilities . they can survive for sometime out of water as long as their lungs don & # 8217 ; t dry out but the impact from the height of the tank to the floor may cause injury they cannot recover from .\nmixes quite well with other fish as long as its basic needs are catered for , avoid overly aggresive fish and fish small enough to be seen as food , fish that have been tried and tested include angles , rainbow fish and some of the more docile cichlids , please bare in mind that if you keep this fish with other the chance of breeding will be greatly reduced as the gachua sometimes do not see the other tank inhabitants as a threat and any fry are swiftly eaten by other tank mates , avoid useing plecos that are easly bred because if they breed the channa will eat the babies and there bristles can get stuck in the channas mouth .\nremains the single most sought after channa available in the hobby , there is still only a few in captivity , pairs being even rarer with only one confirmed pair and another pair rummored to exsist . the price of this fish varies greatly depending on supply and demand , i have seen for sale at \u00a35000 for a pair down to \u00a3600 for a single fish , the average price for a single fish is between \u00a32000 and \u00a32500 , no doubt now that we know where about to look for theese fish more and more will become available and prices will hopefully fall ( anyone remember the days when red tailed catfish fetched over \u00a3400 ? , yes iam showing my age lol )\nsnakeheads are oddball fish equipped with air - breathing organs , thus able to breath air from the surface of the water . some species remain relatively small , but some get very large ; the c . paradalis holotype measured only 13cm ( 5 inches ) , but it likely has an adult size circa 25cm ( 10 inches ) . all channa are territorial and prolific predators , so they can not be kept with fish that will are small enough to eat ( ideally kept with fish no smaller than half its size ) . more importantly , they are illegal to acquire , import or trade across state lines in the united states because the entire genus is recognized by the us fish and wildlife department as a highly invasive fish .\nchanna mereya is soul of ae dil hai mushkil music album . here is the full video of karan johar ' s favorite song in the album , the lyrics are given by amitabh bhattacharya , music by pritam and sung by arijit singh join the conversation - # channamereya music - pritam lyrics - amitabh bhattacharya singer - arijit singh sound design - sunny m . r , dj phukan music programmers - sunny m . r . , arijit singh mix & master - shadab rayeen @ newedge assistant - abhishek sortey recording engineers - ashwin kulkarni , himanshu shirlekar , kaushik das vocal conductor - akashdeep sengupta & kaushik das production manager - supriti banerjee musicians accoustic guitar - roland electric & bass guitar - roland & amandeep dholak - iqbal azad , sanjiv sen sarangi - ghulam ali khan shehnai - omkar dhumal backing vocals - keshia braganza , gwen dias banner - dharma productions and fox star studios audio on sony music entertainment india pvt . ltd ( c ) 2017 sony music entertainment india pvt . ltd . subscribe : vevo - urltoken . . . like us : : facebook : urltoken follow us : twitter : urltoken g + : urltoken\nscientific name : channa stewartii common name : golden snakehead assamese snakehead maximum size : 30cm approx 11inches although varients reported larger origin : endemic to brahmaputra ( upper , middle , lower ) river basin of india and bangladesh , ganges river basin from southern nepal southeastward . in southern nepal , it occurs in the kamala , bagmati , koshi , gandaki , and karnali river basins introduced range : not known at this point temperament : often sited as one of the more aggresive snakeheads , they belong to the same group as aurantimaculata and barca and have the same sort of temperament , company : as a sub - tropical species tankmates should be chosen to suit , if this fish takes a dislike to any tankmate it will swiftly kill them , even its own kind are not tolerated very well , and this fish is probably best left to the more experianced channa keeper in a well though out species tank water parameters : temperature 18 - 24c ranges from warm temperate to sub - tropical ; ph 6 - 7 . 5 feeding : this snakehead will accept all the usual fare , feeds well on insects worms , frozen foods , market shrimp and prawn also bits of fish breeding : start out with small group and allow them to chose there own pair , this fish is mouthbrooder in the male sex , they are very good parents and fry should be left with parent until upto 10cm in lenght tank : even though this is a dwarf species you can not get away with a small tank , in small tanks they will fight constantly and that will result in many deaths , as always floating cover is needed to feel secure and the tank should contain many hiding places and be well planted , this is another species that really does prefer older tank water and live plant will help keep nitrates under control in such tanks aswell as providing much needed cover and hiding spots for the fish and breaking up the line of sight notes : this fish is offered from time to time in the more specialised stores and from time to time on order lists , although they have become harder to obtain in recent years , because of the colouring of this fish and the relative small size , especially of some of the newer varients , this fish often comands a high price .\nfreshwater snakehead fishes ( channidae ) provide an interesting target for phylogenetic analysis for the following reasons , their unusual biology , potential for cryptic diversity and availability of a good fossil record . here , a multi - locus molecular phylogeny was constructed and calibrated using two fossil dates to estimate divergence times within the family . sampling aimed to explore interspecific divergence of channa species across southeast asia and intra - specific variation where species possessed natural geographical ranges that were extensive . results contradict divergence times estimated previously independently from single locus mitochondrial data or the fossil record and suggest that after divergence from african taxa 40\u201350 ma , evolution of asian snakeheads has been heavily influenced by multiple broad scale dispersal events across india and southeast asia . a similar pattern of divergence within multiple clades suggests that west\u2013east dispersal was limited for many taxa during the miocene . deep intra - specific divergence was inferred for c . striata , indicating that long historical periods of isolation ( \u223c8 ma ) have not resulted in the evolution of reproductive isolation within this species . results support suggestions that c . marulia like fishes in northern cambodia may constitute an undescribed species , and that indian c . diplogramma warrants taxonomic recognition as being distinct from southeast asian c . micropeltes , with the two taxa last sharing a common ancestor in the mid - to late - miocene .\nsing along to the soulful channa mereya . lyrics have been beautifully crafted by amitabh bhattacharya and the song has been brought to life by none other than pritam . arijit singh has voiced the track and the video stars ranbir kapoor and anushka sharma .\nae dil hai mushkil\nis a story about unrequited love . the journey of three characters - ayan ( ranbir ) , alizeh ( anushka ) & saba ( aishwarya ) written & directed by karan johar releasing this diwali , on 28th october , 2016 hear it on saavn - urltoken join the conversation - # channamereya music - pritam lyrics - amitabh bhattacharya singer - arijit singh sound design - sunny m . r , dj phukan music programmers - sunny m . r . , arijit singh mix & master - shadab rayeen @ newedge assistant - abhishek sortey recording engineers - ashwin kulkarni , himanshu shirlekar , kaushik das vocal conductor - akashdeep sengupta & kaushik das production manager - supriti banerjee musicians accoustic guitar - roland electric & bass guitar - roland & amandeep dholak - iqbal azad , sanjiv sen sarangi - ghulam ali khan shehnai - omkar dhumal backing vocals - keshia braganza , gwen dias banner - dharma productions and fox star studios audio on sony music entertainment india pvt . ltd . ( c ) 2016 sony music entertainment india pvt . ltd . subscribe : vevo - urltoken like us : facebook : urltoken follow us : twitter : urltoken g + : urltoken\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\ndoctoring up store - bought garam masala with additional spices produces a flavor that ' s both complex and suited to the dish .\ngrinding the garlic in lemon juice helps prevent it from turning too sharp and pungent , while still allowing its aroma to shine .\ncombine garlic , ginger , chilies , 1 tablespoon lemon juice , and 1 / 2 teaspoon kosher salt in a mortar and pestle or in the small work bowl of a food processor and pound or process until a fine paste is produced . set aside .\nheat oil or ghee in a large saucepan or dutch oven over medium - high heat until shimmering . all at once , add mustard seed and cumin . they will sputter and spit for a few seconds . as soon as they are aromatic ( about 15 seconds ) , add onion all at once , along with baking soda . cook , stirring frequently , until onions start to leave a brown coating on bottom of pan , 3 to 4 minutes . add 1 tablespoon water , scrape up browned bits from pan , and continue cooking . repeat this process until onions are a deep brown , about 10 minutes total .\nimmediately add garlic / ginger / chili paste all at once and stir to combine . add coriander , black pepper , turmeric , and 1 teaspoon garam masala . stir until fragrant , about 30 seconds . add tomatoes and crush them using a whisk or potato masher . add drained , rinsed chickpeas and cilantro , reserving a little cilantro for garnish . add 1 / 2 cup water .\nbring to a simmer , cover with lid slightly cracked , and reduce heat to maintain a gentle bubbling . cook , stirring occasionally , until liquid has reduced into a thick stew and spices have melded , about 30 minutes .\nstir in remaining garam masala and lemon juice . season to taste with salt . serve with rice and / or naan , sprinkling additional cilantro on top .\nj . kenji l\u00f3pez - alt is the chief culinary advisor of serious eats , and author of the james beard award - nominated column the food lab , where he unravels the science of home cooking . a restaurant - trained chef and former editor at cook ' s illustrated magazine , his first book , the food lab : better home cooking through science is a new york times best - seller , the recipient of a james beard award , and was named cookbook of the year in 2015 by the international association of culinary professionals .\nhe ' s currently raising a daughter by day , writing his second book by night ( now with 10 % more science ! ) , and is working on wursthall , a beer hall in downtown san mateo which will be open by the end of 2017 .\npost whatever you want , just keep it seriously about eats , seriously . we reserve the right to delete off - topic or inflammatory comments . learn more in the comment policy section of our terms of use page .\nif you see something not so nice , please , report an inappropriate comment .\ni love indian food . i had it for the first time when i was in culinary school , living in orlando , and i\u2019ve been rather obsessed ever since . for some reason ( like most things ) indian food never tastes as good when you make it yourself . i see that as a challenge .\nfirst , heat up about two tbsp of butter in your cast iron skillet .\nyes , butter . don\u2019t try to substitute this out because its crucial to the finished product . i\u2019m watching you .\ntoss well so the onions are thoroughly coated with the good stuff . your heat should be at medium right now .\nand then add about three tbsp of tomato paste . i have a secret when it comes to tomato paste . i freeze it .\ni dare you to show me a person who uses the whole can of tomato paste in any one recipe that they make . usually they use about two or three tablespoons and the rest goes in the trash . my method is to scoop the extra paste from the can into a little plastic baggie and then freeze . when you need a tablespoon just break off what you need ( it melts quickly ) and throw it in frozen to your recipe . bang !\nnow i need to talk for a second about this step because if the onions were number one most crucial , the tomato paste is a close second . this is the base of all the flavor for the whole dish right now and most people mess it up . but not you because in a second you will be a pince champ ( pronounced pinc - ay ) . all pince really means is to cook the tomato paste down , thus intensifying the flavors immensely . no pince = bland and boring . this is important .\nonce you add the tomato paste to the pan , stir so that all the onions are coated well .\nflatten down everything on the bottom of the pan , crank the heat to more of a high / medium and set away . that\u2019s right , you heard me , step away from the stove . to properly pince means you need to let the tomato paste cook and brown up a bit . this is going to burn off all the sugar in the tomato and leave you with a really intense delicious flavor .\nafter a few minutes a crust will start to appear on the bottom of your pan . no , you did not burn anything . you did good ! also , it will start to smell like pizza . there\u2019s just no other way i can describe this . you\u2019ll know what i mean when you do it .\nmine turned out super duper extreme spicy because i used 1 / 2 tsp cayenne . i don\u2019t recommend this if you are sane , which clearly i am not . i will probably stir some plain yogurt in it before i serve it tonight or else i might not make it .\nin a large cast iron skillet , heat the butter . once melted , add the onions and cook for about 15 minutes on medium low heat , or until golden brown .\nonce the onions have caramelized , add the garlic , ginger and jalapeno and stir well . cook for about two minutes or until it starts to smell like heaven on earth .\nadd the tomato paste and pince , using above photos as an example . this is very important and if you don\u2019t do it right your dish is pretty much doomed . no pressure .\nadd the coriander , cumin , cayenne and tumeric and stir well . then add the diced tomatoes , chickpeas and garam masala .\ncook for about five minutes or until the chickpeas have heated through . finish with a squeeze of lemon and top with plain yogurt and cilantro if desired !\ni don\u2019t use tomato paste but i do use a few more spices so the flavour probably evens out somewhere in the middle .\nmine is always spicy to the extreme as well : i don\u2019t seed my jalapenos . because i am mental .\ni\u2019ve always wanted to make indian food at home but have been scared ! this post definitely encouraged me .\nhomemade indian is always so much better if you use whole spices ( whole coriander and cumin seeds , etc ) , toast them first , then grind them yourself . i know it\u2019s kind of a pain and more time consuming , but it is that much more delicious . also , i add my spices in with my onions which makes it that much more fragrant . and if you love the heat , which i know you do , use whole chiles ! so spicy , so delicious .\nthis is great ! i had one bad experience with indian food when i was trying to be brave ( and at the time i wasn\u2019t a vegetarian ) and open my taste buds a little bit and i have been scared ever since . however , since discovering food blogs it seems like you can find good , healthy , vegetarian options . i have seen this on other food blogs before but always from a restaurant so thanks for doing a homemade version ! i will for sure try this soon !\nthank you for this wonderful step by step recipe post . i can not wait to try it at home ! !\nlooks delicious and i totally agree about the caramelization of the onions . gives it so much flavor !\nyum \u2013 thanks for the recipe and the tips . also great idea re : the tomato paste ! ! clever ! ! ! i hope to try this recipe soon !\ndid you love it ? it looks so good . i , too , am obsessed with indian food . my kids and i made naan the other day and it was pretty good , but not as good as the naan from my fave restaurant . i\u2019m definitely going to try this recipe . thanks so much ! \ud83d\ude42\nyum i have actually been looking for this exact recipe for some time now ! & your technique tips are great because otherwise i would be clueless ! however , i do have a question . you say to use butter , but is the final product different if you use oil instead ? i am really not a butter fan ( i know , crazy ! ) so i never have it in my house . thanks ! \ud83d\ude42\none word : ghee . it\u2019s not indian food unless it\u2019s made with ghee .\nor if you can\u2019t find ghee , clarified butter\u2026 also , if you want to go the ghee way , for vegetarians / vegans you can get vegetable based ghee , but i know many places in india i\u2019ve visited use oil instead . but they also fry the spices in with the onions to get them really aromatic \ud83d\ude09\nyep , i agree on the frying of spices in the pan with the onions . or even better , before anything else goes in , you \u201ctoast\u201d the spices in the pan . it really heightens and deepens the flavor . i didn\u2019t know there was vegetarian ghee - i have to check that out !\noh my dear goodness\u2026i realize it\u2019s not the most profound thing ever done , but i still think you are a genius for freezing tomato paste . seriously . i guarantee you no one has ever used the full can in a recipe . and then it sits , lonely and most likely rotting , in your fridge\u2026or the trash can . i freeze just about everything else to buy myself time\u2026why have i never frozen tomato paste ! ? ahhhhhhh thank you .\nawesome , jenna ! i will have my own kitchen soon , and i totally plan on making this \u2013 and your turkey chili ! thanks for the great recipes . \ud83d\ude42\nwhen i moved into my last apartment , what i missed the most was not the dishwasher ( i lived alone ) but the disposal . those things are great !\nthis looks really good , i love indian food and keep wanting to make it myself , maybe this weekend ? check your grocery store . i keep tomato paste in a tube . it\u2019s great for using a little bit . the only thing i ever use a whole can for is my tomato sauce , otherwise , it goes to waste , which is why i keep a tube on hand .\nthis looks so good ! ! i love indian food , but ive never considered making it from scratch . it always seemed too hard ! i usually buy some type of pre mixed spice packet .\nlove the step by step with pix . that will be fun when later do as video , too . both a great idea . thanks for the recipe , which sounds very healthy . freezing the tomato paste a terrific idea . will make tomorrow night as went for a gonzo walk / hike around carmel and found a homemade / gourmet noodle shop\u2026so making a pasta recipe they suggested tonight . both sound yum .\ni agree that olive , canola oil or even earth balance make good substitutes if you don\u2019t do dairy , butter , animal products , etc . !\ncooking lesson # 3\u2026 . son loves indian food , he will be so proud of my cooking talents on this one , lol\u2026 . .\nwhat a great walk - through for this lovely indian dish . totally making this soon . \ud83d\ude00\nooh , i\u2019ve wanted to try this recipe for such a long time and this is probably the most straightforward and simple - to - follow version i\u2019ve seen . i\u2019m saving this for a great day of cooking !\ni also find it funny that i have almost all of the exact spices you used in the same brands and everything , haha .\nand i like to freeze my tomato paste in an ice cube tray in 1 tbsp servings and then pop them out and put them in a bag , that way they\u2019re little pre - measured cubes that work well in recipes . \ud83d\ude42\namote ` tomato paste in a tube will last forever in your refridge ! you can get this at any grocery store . use what you need and refridge the rest \ud83d\ude42\ni really like the tip on how to keep the tomato paste ! i always hate to waste it and have tried to put it in tubberware but it always goes bad . so i will def be fallowing your tip from no on !\nthanks for posting this . i can\u2019t wait to see more of these in the future . unfortunately , i can\u2019t get a lot of these ingredients in japan . next time !\ni love this little series . i\u2019ve never had indian food but definitely want some and may try this recipe . keep them coming ! \ud83d\ude42\nsweeeeet ! thanks so much for the step by step ; i\u2019ve been wanting to delve into making my own indian food , but sadly i was scared . and freezing tomato paste ? why didn\u2019t my pea sized brain think of that ?\nthanks for this ! i looooove indian food ( but i have to admit that the naan is a big part of that love affair ! ) and agree , it is never as good at home\u2026i look forward to trying this recipe out with your tips . i\u2019ve never even heard of a \u201cpince\u201d so perhaps that has been the missing ingredient in my recipes , since pretty much all indian includes tomato paste !\ni admit ive always been nervous about making indian food because i hate curry , but i have to admit , this looks awesome . your instructions are great , and this will definitely be making an appearance !\ni\u2019ve never tried any time of indian food before , but i\u2019m really interested and i totally want to make this . is it a one dish wonder , or do you serve it with some sort of side ?\nyou could take pictures of an old banana and a roll of foil and tell a story about how you once climbed a tree and i\u2019d probably still find it interesting . everything you make looks ballin outta control . i am inspired to whip up some indian and i thank you very kindly .\nthank you for sharing again ! i am so happy . your recipe is the best .\nmmm , that looks so good . totally craving indian now . i don\u2019t eat it enough , but my tummy is always happy when i do !\nyum ! ! i am hungry right now and these pics and descriptions just made my tummy growl ! haha ! i have to try this recipe for sure . i love ginger . i am off to find something to eat that tastes half as good as your meal looks ! \ud83d\ude42\nhey jenna \u2013 love the blog . real quick \u2013 i\u2019m indian , and have been around true indian cooking my entire life and we never use butter ! ! always oil , and always a little ! butter is a no no , unless you own your own restaurant where everything is packed full of calories and fat !\nthis is like taking lessons from the master chef . i have most of those ingredients already . i just need to buy some of the spices .\ngreat that you\u2019re getting all settled into your new place ! i\u2019m impressed you have a recipe up so quickly\u2026and one so thorough at that ! i\u2019ve never had indian food\u2026never had the opportunity or knew where to start . this recipe sounds doable and delicious ! i\u2019m bookmarking it now . thanks for sharing ! !\ni love this \u201cwhat\u2019s cooking tonight\u201d series . it\u2019s very informative and i appreciate all the details and pictures . i think i prefer photo to video . keep it up !\ni really love these how - to posts ! your chana masala looks delicious .\nit looks soooo delicious . i love indian food but find it very intimidating to make at home . this recipe seems doable and i love your detailed step by step directions . thanks .\nlooks fantastic . and with your instructions , doable even for a non - cook like me . i think i\u2019ll give it a try . thanks so much !\ni\u2019ve never had indian food , but this recipe intrigues me . i go back and forth on vegetarianism \u2014 i suppose that makes me a flexitarian , but why impose labels ? this non - meat recipe sounds easy enough to throw together and is healthy too . even if i use real butter , we\u2019re talking about 2 tablespoons distributed through a dish that probable makes six servings . how many servings does this make ? i suppose the final product freezes well too ?\nthis is such a great post ! you\u2019re pictures came out so pretty and i love the narrative that you added with the instructions . maybe this will finally convince to like chickpeas in non - hummus form !\ni love indian food too and i can never get it to taste as good at home . thanks for the recipe , i\u2019ll have to give it a shot \ud83d\ude42\nthis . looks . amazing ! i have always wanted to attempt both indian and thai recipes at home\u2026but haven\u2019t out of fear of completely butchering the amazing balance of flavors that those cultures achieve . mmmm . this looks amazing \u2013 i\u2019m totally saving this recipe ! !\nooh ! i have been wanting to learn to make some indian food ! this is perfect . i am excited to try this . great post : - ) .\nlove your step by step posts . know what else i love ? the fact that i\u2019ll be freezing tomato paste from now on . genius !\ni freeze my tomato paste too ! love that . and you know what is even better ? i am currently living in malta ( south of sicily ) w / my in - laws and they sell tomato paste by the tube ( like a tube of toothpaste ) . it\u2019s awesome b / c you just squirt out what you need !\nthank you so much for the recent tutorials ! i love this addition to the blog .\nbravo . i had not really been enjoying some of the posts recently , but this one made up for it . i really like the step - by - step instructions . indian and thai food are definitely types of cuisine that i have never been able to duplicate at home . i am looking forward to trying this one . thanks !\nthis sounds sooo good , jenna ! i\u2019m going to have to make this . and thanks for the tip about the tomato paste\u2026i always hate throwing away a whole can of it when i only use a tablespoon . i don\u2019t know why i never thought of freezing it .\nwoohoo ~ this is definetely going to be a weekend meal . i didn\u2019t know you posted this . i\u2019m glad i went back through your posts to find the banana pancake recipe ( which is also on the weekend menu ) on which i stumbled across this one . and i like your new \u201cwhat\u2019s cooking tonight\u201d series . cheers !\ni love these posts ! cooking is so intimidating to me , so i greatly appreciate the step - by - step breakdown . thanks jenna \ud83d\ude42\nthis is so good ! ! ! i just made it and i will be making it again and again ! thank you for the detailed instructions\u2026 . . as i have never cooked this before and it really helped !\ni will definitely be making this next week ! your turkey chilli was the best turkey chilli i\u2019ve ever made , even my fussy fianc\u00e9 liked it which is saying something , haha .\ni\u2019ve never tried making indian food before but i do think it\u2019s delicious . it just seems so daunting but this makes it seem so much easier . thanks jenna !\ni love your new cooking series \u2013 fun ! i used to always freeze my tomato paste until i discovered that whole foods sells tubes of it that you can keep in the fridge ( just like on food network ! ) you just squeeze as much as you need and keep in in the fridge . the best part \u2013 they are only $ 0 . 99 each ! ! ! check them out \ud83d\ude42\nthank you so much for this post . i love indian food and have always been terribly disappointed when i\u2019ve tried to make it at home . i followed your lead last night and we had a delicious meal at my house . the detailed instructions and images really helped . i look fwd to seeing more of these kinds of recipes on your blog . now i know i can cook indian food at home . thanks again !\ni made this tonight and it was awesome ! my first attempt at indian , too . thanks !\ni finally got around to making this . thank you ! the pictures really help those of us who haven\u2019t been to culinary school understand thinks like \u201ccarmelize\u201d or \u201cpince . \u201d your blog makes recipes so easy to get right instead of just crossing your fingers !\ni love the website - i first saw it yesterday , and i already have half a dozen recipes i must try .\nthis looks delicious , but as much as i try to like chickpeas , i just can\u2019t . obviously it\u2019ll be a different dish without chickpeas , but does anyone have any substitutes for them ? i would love to try these flavors without chickpeas .\njenna \u2013 someone in our household ( not mentioning any names but it\u2019s not me \u2013 your dad will know who it is ) can\u2019t eat many onions . i can get away with sneaking a few into recipes but it looks like onions are an important part of this recipe . will it turn out bad if i don\u2019t use as many ? ? ? thanks \u2013 can\u2019t wait to try this one !\nawww i was totally going to swap out the butter since my body can\u2019t digest it , but you caught me ! i\u2019ll just keep drooling over the pictures instead . \ud83d\ude42\ni made this tonight and it was amazing ! had to sub the tomato paste for tomato sauce but it still came out so so tasty . thank you for the step by step instructions !\ni make chana masala at home all the time , too \u2013 it\u2019s such an easy \u201cpantry meal\u201d . i use a higher tomato to chickpea ratio though , mainly to up the veggie ( erm , fruit ) content and i like it soupier . plus more spices instead of a jalapeno since i often make this when there\u2019s not much fresh stuff in the fridge ( hence , no jalapenos ) .\nthank you so much for this recipe ! ! ! i made it for dinner tonight and my boyfriend and i loved it ! it will definitely become a staple around here .\ni made this recipe for the second time tonight and loved it again ! i\u2019m a novice when it comes to cooking but i could definitely handle this . it came out great and i\u2019ll have some fabulous take - to - work lunches this week ! thanks so much for sharing .\ni would recommend adding a pinch of sugar or tamarind as well to balance the acidity from the tomatoes .\nyour recipes are extremely entertaining and the step by step photos are so helpful ! i always wish more cookbooks had those so i knew what my progress was like as i struggle through . love your blog !\ndear jenna , i love , love you but sometimes you forget to tell me when to add ingredients , like sea salt in this case . i actually make your recipes , so i hope you will comment !\nthanks for the recipe , jenna ! i\u2019m always looking for good vegetarian recipes with protein . keep up the great work ! \ud83d\ude42\ni didn\u2019t even put any cayenne , just the jalapeno was spicy enough for me . and i didn\u2019t have any plain yogurt but i stirred in cottage cheese instead . very good !\nlove indian food , but i\u2019ve never made it myself . that is , until tonight . this was so good ! and now that i have the spices , i\u2019ll have to make it again . ( after reading other people\u2019s comments , i want to try mixing spices in with the onions . ) and after making this , i totally get what you\u2019re saying about the dish smelling like pizza after pinceing !\ni love this dish . i made it a couple of months ago and haven\u2019t been able to stop thinking about it\u2026 and tonight i\u2019m going to make it for a vegetarian friendly dinner party i\u2019m making . it\u2019s by far the best chickpea recipe i\u2019ve ever made . thanks ! !\nrecipe looks great ! i found tomato paste in a tube in my local \u2018designer\u2019 market\u2026 . sure beats the can !\ni have now made this twice , and i can officially say that i\u2019m obsessed . i blogged about it once too : urltoken\ni\u2019m eating this right now \ud83d\ude42 it was my first ever attempt at homemade indian and it will be in my rotation now ! thanks .\ni love the idea of freezing the tomato paste ! i am guilty of throwing away so many cans . i\u2019ve been meaning to find the tube of paste that keeps it fresh and you can squeeze but i always seem to forget . this is much easier . thank you !"]}
{"id": 110, "summary": [{"text": "manduca pellenia is a moth of the family sphingidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is known from mexico , belize , guatemala , nicaragua , costa rica , panama , colombia and ecuador .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the wingspan is 107 \u2013 126 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the underside of the abdomen is shaded with brown scales , especially in the male .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "there are heavy , discal , black patches found on the forewing upperside with , forming a band .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is probably one generation per year in costa rica with adults on wing from september to november .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they feed on flower nectar .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on solanum hayesii and cestrum megalophyllum . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "manduca pellenia", "paragraphs": ["manduca pellenia ( herrich - sch\u00e4ffer , 1854 ) = pellenia ( herrich - sch\u00e4ffer , 1854 ) .\nmanduca pellenia , female , upperside . guatemala , izabal dpt . , morales sierra de caral , finca firmeza\nmanduca pellenia , female , underside . guatemala , izabal dpt . , morales sierra de caral , finca firmeza\ntransferred to manduca by d ' abrera , [ 1987 ] , sphingidae mundi : 26 .\nfamily : sphingidae , latreille , 1802 subfamily : sphinginae , latreille , [ 1802 ] tribe : sphingini , latreille , 1802 genus : manduca hubner , 1807 . . . . . . . . . . . species : pellenia herrich - schaffer , 1854\ni believe the specimen to the right from yasuni , ecuador , september 7 , 2002 - 2 : 06 am , courtesy of steve graser is m . pellenia , but it could also be m . scutata scutata .\nantenna almost as stout as in manduca sexta . abdomen underside shaded with brown scales , especially in the male . foretarsus with 1st segment externally with 4 or 5 moderately long spines and numerous small ones above them . no pulvillus . forewing upperside with discal , black , pubescent patches heavy , forming a band that is strongly angled near vein m3 ; the oblique , black apical line and the posterior part of the black postdiscal line both very heavy ; submarginal zigzag line creamy buff rather than white ; the cells between veins m3 and cup more or less russet between the discal band and postdiscal line . cate\n( wing span : ( 107 - 126 mm ) ) , flies in\ntropical america\n, given as the specimen type locality . the moth can be found in\nin costa rica there is probably only one generation annually with moths on the wing in from september until november .\nfemales call in the males with a pheromone released from a gland at the tip of the abdomen . adults nectar at flowers .\n. pages are on space rented from bizland . if you would like to become a\nplease send sightings / images to bill . i will do my best to respond to requests for identification help .\nshow appreciation for this site by clicking on flashing butterfly to the left . the link will take you to a page with links to many insect sites .\njune 1 , 2015 , 1675m , 109mm , courtesy of terry stoddard , id by bill oehlke .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nthis system is free software released under gnu / gpl 3 . 0 - portal version 1 . 0\nthis work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial - sharealike 3 . 0 united states license .\n( bopisduval 1875 ) wingspan 135 - 140mm . please choose from drop tab .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken"]}
{"id": 112, "summary": [{"text": "adamussium is a monotypic genus of bivalve molluscs in the large family of scallops , the pectinidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the antarctic scallop ( adamussium colbecki ) is the only species in the genus though its exact relationship to other members of the family is unclear .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is found in the ice-cold seas surrounding antarctica , sometimes at great depths .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "adamussium colbecki is a large , slow-growing scallop that lives on the seabed .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the shell consists of a pair of ribbed calcareous valves which enclose the soft body and are joined by a ligament at a hinge .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it feeds on microscopic green algae and is sometimes present in great numbers .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it is able to move around by flapping its valves and to dart backwards to escape threats .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the species is an important member of the antarctic seabed community as the upper valve often acts as a substrate for seaweeds , sponges and other organisms .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "in addition , juveniles bind themselves by threads to the upper valve of older shells , using these as a base for several years as they grow .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the adult scallops have been used in research to study the accumulation of heavy metals in marine organisms . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "adamussium", "paragraphs": ["saving by freezing ? oxygen consumption rates of adamussium colbecki in a latitudinal context .\nproductivity and age of the antarctic scallop ( adamussium colbecki ) in the ross sea .\nkaryology of the antarctic scallop adamussium colbecki , with some comments on the karyological evolution of pectinids .\ncharacterization of superoxide dismutases in the antarctic scallop adamussium colbecki . | iris universit\u00e0 degli studi di padova\nworms - world register of marine species - adamussium colbecki ( e . a . smith , 1902 )\nwe next demonstrated that adamussium shells were almost pure carbonate and therefore can be used as a caco 3 biomass proxy . mean caco 3 biomass from adamussium varied from 4987\u20136806 kg ha - 1 at our localities . the mean caco 3 biomass per hectare for both cibicides and adamussium was not significantly different across our localities .\nantarctic scallop - adamussium colbecki ( e . a . smith , 1902 ) - overview - encyclopedia of life\norganophosphate - resistant forms of acetylcholinesterases in two scallops - - the antarctic adamussium colbecki and the mediterranean pecten jacobaeus .\nkaryology of the antarctic scallop adamussium colbecki , with some comments on the karyological evolution of pectinids . - pubmed - ncbi\noxidative responsiveness to multiple stressors in the key antarctic species , adamussium colbecki : interactions between temperature , acidification and cadmium exposure .\norganophosphate - resistant forms of acetylcholinesterases in two scallops - - the antarctic adamussium colbecki and the mediterranean pecten jacobaeus . - pubmed - ncbi\noxidative responsiveness to multiple stressors in the key antarctic species , adamussium colbecki : interactions between temperature , acidification a . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nnearshore population characteristics of the circumpolar antarctic scallop adamussium colbecki ( smith , 1902 ) at terra nova bay ( ross sea ) / marco nigro .\nin situ video recordings allowed the analysis of the swimming behaviour of adamussium , providing evidence of the role of such behaviour as an escape reaction to predators .\nec , explorers cove ; bos , bay of sails ; hg , herbertson glacier ; top and bottom refer to top and bottom valves of adamussium colbecki .\na . attached cibicides . b . cibicides traces . c . attached cibicides with traces pooled . top = top valves ; bot = bottom valves of adamussium colbecki .\npresents results of scuba diving studies of distribution , density and size structure of population of adamussium colbecki in north - west ross sea carried out in summer season of 1991 - 92 .\npresents results of scuba diving studies of distribution , density and size structure of population of adamussium colbecki in north - west ross sea carried out in summer season of 1991 - 92 . 650 07\nparasitism could have arisen accidently in c . antarcticus as a result of the thin shell of adamussium . given enough time to bioerode the shell , cibicides could penetrate to the shell interior . for example , closely related cibicidids living on thicker carbonate substrates , like c . refulgens [ 69 ] and the more distantly related c . lobatulus , bioerode but are not parasites [ 52 , 64 ] . if c . antarcticus lives for two years or longer , its bioerosive activities could completely penetrate the thin shell of adamussium . the uptake of nutrients and minerals would be beneficial to cibicides in antarctic environments where conditions are similar to the deep sea . further studies are needed to address cibicides bioerosion rates and whether they use caco 3 from adamussium , as well as determine whether adamussium populations are affected by large populations of cibicides .\na . isolution lite image showing polygons that were used to measure exterior resting trace and interior borehole diameter . b . sectors on adamussium shell that were used to examine the spatial distribution of cibicides bioerosion traces .\nbioturbation by the common antarctic scallop ( adamussium colbecki ) and ophiuroid ( ophionotus victoriae ) under multi - year sea ice : ecologic and stratigraphic implicationsantarctic epifauna bioturbationk . h . broach et al . | palaios | geoscienceworld\nmany animals simply live on top of the sediment surface , where they can move around in search of food . these include starfish , sea cucumbers , worms , crustaceans and bivalves such as the antarctic scallop adamussium colbecki .\nbioerosion is considered a form of parasitism when it contributes to weakening mollusc shells [ 68 ] . boreholes of cibicides and associated bioerosion traces could negatively affect adamussium . considering that adamussium \u2019s shell is ~ 0 . 70 mm thick , cibicides etchings and boreholes could weaken the shell , making it more susceptible to predators . increased shell permeability also enhances dissolution . additionally , there is a physiological cost for the scallop because it forms blisters in response to c . antarcticus boreholes , although not all complete boreholes were associated with blisters ( sew personal observation ) . shell weakening , increased dissolution and the physiological expense of shell repair could all be added costs of high cibicides populations on adamussium .\nnext , we wanted to compare caco 3 biomass density across localities . this was calculated using the number of attached cibicides and adamussium at each locality and multiplying each species by its mean caco 3 biomass . cibicides and adamussium mean biomass estimates per locality were plotted with 95 % cis to determine if there were significant differences among localities . we expected that scallop biomass would not differ among localities but cibicides biomass would be variable because of variation in population size .\nwe examined the relationship between the parasitic foraminifer cibicides antarcticus and its host , the antarctic scallop adamussium colbecki , which live in the coldest waters on earth near the freezing point of seawater ( - 1 . 97 \u00b0c ) . both species are circum - antarctic in distribution . epibenthic adamussium is considered a major ecosystem engineer because of its large population size , often covering 100 % of the seafloor with densities up to 90 m - 2 in some locations [ 16 \u2013 20 ] .\npaul arthur berkman ,\necology of the circumpolar antarctic scallop , { \\ it adamussium colbecki \\ / } ( smith , 1902 )\n( 1988 ) . dissertations and master ' s theses ( campus access ) . paper aai8913018 . urltoken\nn , abundance of trace types pooled from six adamussium valves representing explorers cove and bay of sails localities ; frequency , frequency of occurrence ( out of total trace types pooled ) ; sd , standard deviation ; diameter refers to the outer bioerosion trace diameter .\nad ansell , r cattaneo - vietti , and m chiantore , swimming in the antarctic scallop adamussium colbecki : analysis of in situ video recordings : antarctic science [ antarct . sci . ] , vol . 10 , no . 4 , pp . 369 - 375 , 1998 .\nthe mean caco 3 biomass density is depicted with 95 % cis . localities are explorers cove ( ec ) , bay of sails ( bos ) and herbertson glacier ( hg ) . a . caco 3 biomass density for attached cibicides . b . caco 3 biomass density for adamussium .\na canapa , m barucca , a marinelli , and e olmo , molecular approach to the systematics of the antarctic scallop adamussium colbecki : italian journal of zoology [ ital . j . zool . ] , vol . 66 , no . 4 , pp . 379 - 382 , 1999 .\nwe calculated the annual caco 3 production for cibicides and adamussium because annual biomass production reveals ecosystem productivity [ 4 ] . to calculate yearly production , we had to determine the turnover rate of cibicides and adamussium and then convert their caco 3 biomass to yearly production . we estimated that the turnover rate was two years for cibicides and 20 years for adamussium . cibicides two - year turnover was based on experimental arrays deployed at ec in austral summer 2008 ( sew personal observation ) . the experimental arrays had clean adamussium shell pieces encased within plankton - mesh bags . when the arrays were retrieved two years later ( 2010 ) , adult cibicides were attached to the shell pieces . juveniles were also observed within a cibicides test in 2008 , indicating that they are released during austral summer . as a consequence , propagules may have entered the mesh bags in austral summer 2008 , likely growing to their largest size within two years . additionally , a survivorship analysis based on size classes generated from cibicides biomass revealed that it has a type i curve , exhibiting high juvenile survivorship with mortality increasing with age ( s1 fig ) . adamussium \u2019s lifespan is thought to be 20 years based on growth - band analysis and mark - recapture estimates [ 54 \u2013 57 ] . therefore , caco 3 production per year was calculated based on the mean caco 3 biomass per m 2 for each species divided by their turnover rates and then converted to kg ha - 1 yr - 1 .\nkyle h . broach , molly f . miller , samuel s . bowser ; bioturbation by the common antarctic scallop ( adamussium colbecki ) and ophiuroid ( ophionotus victoriae ) under multi - year sea ice : ecologic and stratigraphic implications . palaios ; 31 ( 6 ) : 280\u2013290 . doi : urltoken\ncibicides antarcticus ( formerly c . refulgens in antarctica ) is a facultative parasite . it bores a hole through adamussium valves with its pseudopods and assimilates 14 c - labeled amino acids from the extrapallial cavity [ 13 , 20 ] . this cavity , which is located between the shell of the mollusk and the mantle , contains fluid that is compositionally different from that of seawater , and is often enriched in calcium ions and amino acids [ 13 \u2013 14 ] . parasitism is thought to occur in 50 % of cibicides populations at explorers cove , based on observations from five adamussium valves [ 13 ] . however , a systematic examination of c . antarcticus populations and parasitism using a larger sample size of adamussium from different antarctic localities has not been conducted . if cibicides also suspension feeds and grazes on diatoms [ 13 ] , it would be important to document the contribution of parasitism to its trophic behavior .\nwe next estimated the caco 3 biomass of adamussium . first , we had to determine if their shells were mostly pure carbonate before using them for caco 3 biomass estimates . four top valves from ec were cleaned of epibionts , washed with di water , dried , powdered and subjected to the loss on ignition method [ 53 ] . the shells yielded a mean organic carbon content of 0 . 010g c org ( sd = 0 . 001g ; 0 . 03 wt % c org ) indicating that adamussium shells are primarily caco 3 . valve weights were then used as a proxy for caco 3 biomass .\n59 - - zoology . 592 - - invertebrata . 594 . 1 - - lamellibranchiata : adamussium colbecki . h2 - - zoology : invertebrates . ( * 7 ) - - antarctic regions . ( * 762 ) - - victoria land . ( * 80 ) - - southern ocean . ( * 881 ) - - ross sea .\ncibicides percentage is based on the amount of caco 3 it produces out of the total cibicides and adamussium biomass at each locality . localities are explorers cove ( ec ) , bay of sails ( bos ) and herbertson glacier ( hg ) . a . caco 3 biomass contributed by attached cibicides . b . yearly production of caco 3 by attached cibicides .\nto determine if attached cibicides were alive or dead on scallop valves , ssb tethered a live adamussium with 118 cibicides living on the top valve in 2005 at 21 m at ec . video of tethered adamussium was taken using a jvc model vn - c30u steerable camera mounted in a custom - built underwater housing from magee scientific company , berkeley , ca . the top valve was retrieved a year later and fixed with 3 % formalin , slightly decalcified , stained with 0 . 1 % rose bengal , and examined using a zeiss smz - 2t stereomicroscope equipped with a spot model 29 . 2\u20131 . 3mp color camera . attached cibicides were counted from photographs and their spatial positions were compared to pre - deployment positions .\nwe thank alice chapman for the field collections of adamussium colbecki and for maintaining the rats sampling programme during the course of this study . d . p . acknowledges with thanks nerc studentship no . gt04 / 97 / 272 / mas . maria - chiara chiantore ( universit\u00e0 di genova ) and two anonymous referees are thanked for their insightful comments on the manuscript .\nparasites have heterogeneous distributions in host populations that can be spatially structured [ 70 ] . spatial distributions of cibicides on adamussium valves could reveal preferred settlement sites that maximize food capture . if suspension feeding is important , cibicides ought to attach where feeding currents are higher presumably near the scallop\u2019s aperture . for example , fossil foraminifera preferentially encrust brachiopod apertures , presumably to take advantage of their feeding currents [ 71 ] . however , c . antarcticus is thought to have random distributions on adamussium valves [ 51 ] , suggesting that water currents generated by the scallop are not important . we found that cibicides traces were significantly more common in the center region of adamussium \u2019s top valves . we also found that center sectors had more parasitic boreholes than the outer sectors . rarely were complete boreholes found outside of these sectors . more trace populations are likely in the center sectors because they represent some of the oldest regions of the shell , allowing more time for several cibicides generations to accumulate . furthermore , these sectors are located over the muscle , gill and gonadal tissue , and perhaps parasitic cibicides are targeting those tissues .\ncibicides populations were similar at 9 m and 18 m for all localities except bos , which had significantly higher attached cibicides populations at 18 m . this difference could result from the patchy nature of foraminiferal distributions on adamussium valves [ 26 ] . it could also result from shallow water disturbance , possibly from anchor ice . anchor ice occurs to water depths of ~ 33 m in antarctica , but recent research suggests that anchor ice can occur at much deeper depths [ 62 \u2013 63 ] . anchor ice grows on sediment and benthic organisms [ 62 ] . if adamussium valves were affected by anchor ice at bos 9 m , we suggest that this could reduce cibicides populations . differences in recruitment patterns , predation , or other factors could also account for the reduced populations at bos 9 m .\nthe number of attached cibicides is reported in the numerator and the number of bioerosion traces is reported in the denominator ( attached cibicides / bioerosion traces ) . the frequency of occurrence within parentheses depicts the number of either attached cibicides or bioerosion traces for each locality divided by the total pooled for all localities . the mean shell area for the antarctic scallop adamussium colbecki was used to determine the mean density of cibicides .\neven though the caco 3 biomass contribution of cibicides and adamussium is considerable , the ross sea has very little carbonate in the sedimentary record , a direct result of high primary productivity [ 73 ] . although increased primary productivity contributes to high diversity in this region , carbonate skeletons are rarely preserved in the sediment . high acidic porewaters resulting from benthic respiration induced by primary productivity is inimical to carbonate preservation [ 37 , 73 ] . thus , carbonate production by adamussium , cibicides , and other carbonate organisms are recycled quickly back into the ross sea once they are buried , which could , in part , maintain the supersaturated levels of caco 3 in this region . this should not preclude work on carbonate producers , as we need to estimate the amount of carbonate produced by the high diversity of ross sea organisms to improve carbonate budgets in this region .\nchiantore m . , cattaneo vietti r . , elia l . , guidetti m . & antonini m . ( 2002 ) . reproduction and condition of the scallop adamussium colbecki , the sea - urchin sterechinus neumayeri and the sea - star odontaster validus at terra nova bay ( ross sea ) : different strategies related to inter - annual variations in food availability . polar biology , 25 , 4 , pp . 251 - 255 .\nr cattaneo - vietti , m * chiantore , and g albertelli , population structure and ecology of the antarctic scallop adamussium colbecki ( smith , 1902 ) at terra nova bay ( ross sea , antarctica ) : ecology of marine molluscs . , jul 1997 , pp . 15 - 24 , scientia marina ( barcelona ) [ sci . mar . ( barc . ) ] , vol . 61 , no . suppl . 2 .\nthe facultative parasite cibicides antarcticus and its antarctic scallop host adamussium colbecki are major components of antarctic ecosystems , yet we know little about their populations . we found that cibicides had large populations on adamussium that varied by locality but not generally with water depth . the largest total cibicides population , represented by attached individuals and bioerosion traces , occurred at ec . the ec locality has multiannual sea ice , distinguishing it from bos and hg where sea ice melts out every year . periodic pulses of sea ice algae could sustain the large populations at ec . cibicides is a parasite but it also supplements its diet by suspension feeding and grazing on diatoms [ 13 ] . suspension feeding might be more common in younger individuals , because adults are more commonly parasitic . however , even parasitic cibicides suspension feed and graze on diatoms [ 13 ] . future work using stable nitrogen isotopes could shed light on cibicides trophic relationships .\nthe cis were used to determine if the mean number of cibicides were significantly more or less common by shell sector . cis were calculated using one - sample t - tests and the t - statistic is reported for each test . trace type refers to cibicides ontogenetic stages represented by their bioerosion traces . trace types range from t1 ( initial recruits that etch the shell surface ) to t4 ( parasitic adults that made complete boreholes in adamussium valves ) .\ncibicides antarcticus etches resting traces on the shell surface of adamussium [ 13 ] . as cibicides grows , it enlarges the trace and penetrates to the interior tissues of the scallop . as a result , the ontogenetic stages of cibicides are recorded in these bioerosion traces as well as the development of parasitism . we categorized these ontogenetic stages and used them as a proxy for cibicides population structure . based on these traces , populations at ec represent recently attached cibicides , while those on bos shells represent slightly older populations . large cibicides , presumably adults , always had complete or incomplete boreholes . therefore , differences in the parasite load among the localities could also be a function of a population structure skewed toward adult cibicides . we propose that these trace categories can be used to examine the evolutionary history of the host - parasite relationship in recent death or fossil assemblages of adamussium when cibicides is no longer attached to the shell .\ncibicides and adamussium likely contribute considerable caco 3 to antarctic communities where they occur . the annual caco 3 production for adamussium ranges from 249\u2013340 kg ha - 1 yr - 1 and with cibicides , adds 286\u2013372 kg ha - 1 yr - 1 of caco 3 to our antarctic localities . our estimates are conservative considering that c . antarcticus also lives on other hard substrates and its actual caco 3 production could be far greater . both these species are circum - antarctic in distribution , although we know little about their populations except for a few localities in western mcmurdo sound . based on our localities , they could potentially add 5 . 94 x 10 9 kg ha - 1 yr - 1 of caco 3 to the ross sea ( assuming an areal extent of 1 . 87 x 10 7 ha ) . future studies need to address their caco 3 biomass at other localities to bracket their contributions to the carbonate budget of the ross sea .\nit is essential to distinguish between living and dead populations of cibicides for population analysis and carbonate estimates . an in situ experiment by ssb showed that attached cibicides represent living individuals . this finding is in agreement with preliminary observations that > 98 % of attached cibicides on other adamussium shells were living based on staining with celltracker green ( ssb personal observation ) . therefore , attached cibicides represent living individuals and their traces represent former populations of cibicides that are no longer attached to the shell .\nadamussium jonkersi sp . nov . is described from the late oligocene destruction bay formation , wrona buttress area , king george island ( south shetlands ) , west antarctica . the unit , characterized by volcanic sandstone , is a shallow marine succession deposited in a moderate - to high - energy environment . the thin - shelled pectinids , collected from the lower part of the unit , are preserved mostly as complete valves . shell thickness , sculpture pattern and umbonal angle suggest a free - living , inactive swimming life habit .\na . live adamussium deployed at ec in 2005 with attached cibicides . arms from a sea star can be seen behind the scallop , contributing to the scallop\u2019s death . b . top valve retrieved after one year and stained with rose bengal that stains living tissue pink . inset : slightly decalcified cibicides showing rose bengal - stained cytoplasm in living individuals . arrow in a and b point to the three cibicides that are figured in inset . scale bar is 20 mm for a and b ; inset scale bar is 1 mm .\ncibicides antarcticus and adamussium colbecki are major components of antarctic ecosystems . we demonstrated that these species both contribute considerable amounts of caco 3 to our antarctic localities , potentially adding 5 . 94 x 10 9 kg ha - 1 yr - 1 of caco 3 to the ross sea . because of their large caco 3 contributions , they should be considered in southern polar food webs and ecosystem modeling . if we wish to better understand the global carbon and caco 3 cycle , we also need to incorporate these species in antarctic carbonate budgets .\nscanning electron micrographs are depicted in a - b , and light photomicrographs are depicted in c - e . a . attached cibicides with agglutinated feeding tubes and an initial resting trace ( trace type 1 ) etched by a cibicides ( arrow ) . b . attached cibicides cut in half to reveal the etched upper calcite layer of adamussium representing trace type 2 . c . trace type 2 with multiple small holes . d . trace type 3 with an incomplete borehole . e . trace type 4 with a complete borehole representing parasitic cibicides .\nthe endemic antarctic scallop adamussium colbecki is reported on a wide variety of substrates : in shallow waters it was found byssally attached to rocks ( stockton , 1984 ) , while , deeper it was found free - living on sandy , gravelly and also silt - sandy bottoms , at the surface or recessed within the sediments ( berkman , 1990 ) . juveniles , were found byssally attached to adults valves and the remain attached during the swimming bout ( cattaneo - vietti et al . , 1997 ; ansell et al . , 1998 ; chiantore et al . , 2000 )\nadamussium colbecki is one of the most well - studied antarctic molluscs . however , information on its growth rate is currently based on estimates from mark and recapture experiments and from growth - ring analyses . this paper provides the first estimates of the growth pattern of this scallop throughout a year , for individuals maintained under both natural field and laboratory conditions . results show size - related differences in growth rate , both in the field and in aquaria , with scallops in terra nova bay growing faster than those kept in aquaria . growth performances were lower than those reported in the literature .\ntop valves had the largest cibicides populations compared to bottom valves . bottom valves have smaller populations because part of the valve rests on the seafloor , limiting cibicides settlement . frequent valve clapping by adamussium likely increases abrasion on bottom valves reducing foraminifera populations [ 28 , 60 ] . moreover , top valves are elevated above the sediment - water interface . cibicides species tend to live on elevated surfaces where increased water flow enhances suspension feeding [ 61 ] . valve clapping also stirs up fine seafloor sediment that could facilitate suspension feeding in c . antarticus that live on top valves [ 51 ] .\nlastly , we quantified the contribution that attached cibicides makes to the total caco 3 biomass produced by the species pair at each locality and on an annual basis . caco 3 biomass contribution ( % ) was calculated by dividing cibicides caco 3 biomass by the total biomass from each species for each locality . similarly , cibicides annual caco 3 biomass contribution ( % ) was calculated by dividing cibicides yearly caco 3 production by adamussium + cibicides yearly caco 3 production . we expected that cibicides would contribute less to the total host - parasite biomass and yearly carbonate production because of the differences in size between cibicides and its host .\ncibicides antarcticus etches permanent traces into adamussium shells [ 13 ] . we categorized these traces into four ontogenetic stages ranging from new recruits to parasitic adults . these stages were then used to examine population structure , spatial distribution , and parasitism in cibicides . within this framework , traces can be used in modern and fossil communities as an important life history proxy for cibicides when it is no longer attached to the shell . moreover , because c . antarcticus and a . colbecki have a fossil record extending to the pliocene in antarctica [ 30 \u2013 31 ] , these traces provide an evolutionary archive for the development of the host - parasite relationship .\nwe estimated the mean caco 3 biomass for c . antarcticus and its host adamussium for our localities . we first showed that cibicides had a caco 3 biomass that ranged from < 0 . 001 to 0 . 690 mg , with a mean of 0 . 226 mg . this mean is an order of magnitude higher than that reported for non - parasitic cibicidoides lobatulus from polar waters near kosterfjord , southwestern sweden ( 0 . 0187 mg in [ 52 ] ) . unfortunately , caco 3 biomass is not reported for other parasitic foraminifera , so we cannot compare our estimates . at our antarctic localities , cibicides caco 3 biomass varied from 47\u201373 kg ha - 1 .\ncibicides and their bioerosion traces were counted on adamussium valves under a binocular / stereomicroscope at 200 - 750x . selected cibicides and traces were examined with a scanning electron microscope ( sem ) . to determine if cibicides populations increased with increasing scallop area , attached cibicides data were analyzed using a generalized linear model ( glm ) with quasipoisson for over - dispersed count data [ 48 ] . welch two - sample t - tests and multiple sample chi - squared tests were run with cibicides and traces separately and then pooled to ascertain significant differences between localities , valve type , and depth . all statistics were performed in r at alpha = 0 . 05 unless otherwise specified [ 49 ] .\nlaboratory experiments were carried out in order to assess filtering and biodeposition rates , averaging , at + 1 \u00b0c temperature , 11 h \u22121 g \u22121 ( dw soft tissues ) and 5\u20136 mg dwg dw \u22121 day \u22121 , respectively . this allowed estimation of the c org flux , through biodeposition by a . colbecki , which is about 21 mg cm \u22122 day \u22121 under in situ conditions . on the basis of organic matter flux and laboratory estimates of adamussium feeding activity , it was possible to assess the important role of the scallop in coupling the energy flux from the water column to the sea bed , processing about 14 % of total carbon flux from the water column to the sediments , with an assimilation efficiency of 36 % .\nbioerosion traces made by c . antarcticus not only provide a record of the parasite load , but also reveal information about its population structure , recruitment patterns , and spatial distributions . four cibicides bioerosion traces were documented on adamussium shells from ec and bos . these traces represent ontogenetic stages from newly attached individuals that had just started to etch the shell ( t1 ) to parasitic adults with complete boreholes ( t4 ) . overall , early stage traces ( t1 - t2 ) were more common than later stage traces ( t3 - t4 ) at both localities , indicating that cibicides populations represent mostly younger individuals . we concur with alexander and delaca\u2019s [ 13 ] conclusions that adult c . antarcticus are parasitic , because incomplete and complete boreholes only occurred with larger individuals .\ncibicides contributes a non - trivial amount of caco 3 to the host - parasite relationship and represents contributions from younger individuals . cibicides mean caco 3 biomass represents 1 . 0\u20132 . 3 % of the total caco 3 biomass produced by cibicides and adamussium combined . these estimates are similar to biomass contributions for soft - bodied parasites of metazoans ( crabs , polychaetes , bivalves , birds ) from subtropical to warm - temperate estuaries [ 4 ] . additionally , cibicides caco 3 biomass at ec and bos represents mostly young individuals . a survivorship curve using biomass revealed that cibicides has a type i curve , indicative of low juvenile mortality and increasing mortality with age . most benthic foraminifera have a type iii curve characterized by high juvenile mortality with few surviving to adulthood [ 72 ] .\nthe unexploited antarctic scallop , adamussium colbecki , has a circumpolar distribution across the continental shelf from 0 to nearly 1 500 m . during the 1986 austral summer a . colbecki was sampled with scuba to a depth of 30 m at new harbor , in the southwestern ross sea . quadrat collections revealed nearshore scallop densities up to 65 m \u22122 with biomasses approaching 2 kg m \u22122 . mark and recapture experiments showed that a . colbecki grew an order of magnitude more slowly than temperate scallop species and analyses of shell growth bands indicated that it may live up to 20 years . size frequency comparisons with earlier studies in the same area suggested that this scallop population has intermittent recruitment and is quite stable . estimates of yield per recruit indicate that relatively low levels of fishing pressure could cause the new harbor scallop population to collapse .\npopulation differences among the localities could be related to the host\u2019s age : the older the scallop , the longer cibicides can accumulate on the shell , thereby increasing population size . the size of adamussium is used as an age equivalent [ 55 , 57 ] . if we compared our shell sizes to a von bertalanffy growth equation generated by [ 56 ] , the approximate age for ec and bos scallops would be ~ 15 years and ~ 12 years for hg . if these age estimates are correct , the total cibicides population ( attached cibicides + traces ) should be similar between ec and bos with a smaller population at hg . that was not the case : ec had significantly higher total populations than bos . the results from the glm also revealed that attached cibicides populations did not increase with shell area despite hg and bos having slightly smaller and larger shells , respectively . other factors must be contributing to cibicides population dynamics .\nadamussium were collected from two depths ( 9 m , 18 m ) at each locality in november 2008 . scallops were haphazardly collected by divers ( i . e . , the nearest scallop bed that was closest to the dive site ) . valves of similar size were targeted to control for surface area that could affect cibicides abundance . five top ( left ) and five bottom ( right ) valves were randomly chosen from each depth for a total of 20 valves per locality . valve length , width , shell area , and weight were measured . mean shell height was similar for ec and bos ( ec : n = 20 , mean = 8 . 30 cm , sd = 0 . 30 ; bos : n = 20 , mean = 8 . 68 cm , sd = 0 . 38 ) ; valves from hg were slightly smaller ( n = 20 , mean = 7 . 11 cm , sd = 0 . 42 ) .\nthe scallop adamussium colbecki can be profitably used for monitoring antarctic coast environments but its utility would be increased if chemical analysis of pollutants were integrated with data on their biological effects . since oxidative stress is a common pathway of toxicity induced by xenobiotics , a biochemical characterization was carried out on the antioxidant system of this species and baseline data collected for future assessment of the anthropogenic impact in this remote area . the digestive gland and gills were investigated for the levels of glutathione and the activity of several glutathione - dependent and antioxidant enzymes : glutathione reductase , glyoxalase i , glyoxalase ii , glutathione s - transferases , se - dependent and se - independent glutathione peroxidases , catalase , superoxide dismutase . moreover , the total oxyradical scavenging capacity ( tosc ) against three potent oxidants was also measured in the microsomal and cytosolic fraction of the digestive gland . the dataset also contain measurements of the seasonal variations of the susceptibility to oxidative stress during the spring and summer months .\nstandard metabolic rates of the endemic antarctic scallop , adamussium colbecki ( smith , 1902 ) , were measured in austral summer and under simulated winter conditions . average mass - specific metabolic rates were significantly different between\nsummer\n( 151 . 17\u00b145 . 06 \u00b5l o 2 g - 1 h - 1 ) and\nwinter\n( 106 . 52\u00b139 . 65 \u00b5l o 2 g - 1 h - 1 ) animals . the overall metabolic rates of a . colbecki are comparable to those of other antarctic bivalve species , but well below those of temperate scallop species . data for 24 scallop populations ( 13 species ) from different latitudes give no evidence for elevated metabolic rates in a . colbecki as suggested by the concept of\nmetabolic cold adaptation\n. a world - wide comparison of metabolic rate and overall growth performance of scallops indicates that in the antarctic scallop the energetic advantage of low basal metabolism does not counterbalance the disadvantage of the prolonged seasonal period of food shortage .\nin terra nova bay , the scallop adamussium colbecki ( mollusca bivalvia ) constitutes large beds up to 70\u201380m in depth , reaching high values of density ( 50\u201360 ind m \u22122 ) and biomass ( 120 g m \u22122 dw soft tissues ) . its population structure and biometrics have been studied during the summer of 1989 / 90 , 1993 / 94 , 1994 / 95 and 1995 / 96 . the population of a . colbecki was studied in terms of abundance values and of size frequency distribution ( modal length class : 70\u201375 mm ) . the growth rate of this species was assessed by x - ray methods and averaged 8 mm year \u22121 . biometrical measures were performed in order to assess the influence of the summer increase in food supply on the life cycle of the scallop , showing a strong coupling between food supply and gonad development . on the basis of the gonadosomatic index values ( gsi ) and of the occurrence of planktonic larvae some speculations are made on the reproductive behaviour of this scallop .\nthe biology and ecology of the antarctic scallop adamussium colbecki has been investigated on the west side of mcmurdo sound , antarctica , principally at explorers cove , during the austral summer of 1981\u20131982 . this conspicuous benthic invertebrate exhibits highest densities , 85 individuals m - 2 , in shallow ( 4 to 6 m ) water . densities decrease to 20 m - 2 at 30 m . biomass levels are highest in shallow water , 1 600 g wet wt m - 2 . provisional growth information suggests that 8 cm individuals are about 12 yr old . mortality is apparently caused chiefly by a hyposaline lens of seawater , which forms under the sea ice during the summer melt ; predators do not appear to be important . high biomass levels and a short generation time suggest that a . colbecki is an important species in a very productive community on the west side of mcmurdo sound . the shallow benthos of explorers cove is an important exception to the generalization that antarctic ecosystems are dominated by indigestible filter - feeders .\nthe bivalve adamussium colbecki is an endemic antarctic pectinid that can be locally abundant in nearshore habitats , sometimes as the dominant species . however , its distribution around the antarctic continent is rather puzzling , because it has a disjunct distribution , only occurring at some shallow , nearshore sites . furthermore , there are some records of living specimens from the deeper shelf . in order to understand the biogeography of this circum - antarctic species , we critically reviewed literature data on its distribution , comparing the available habitat information for those sites that have the most conspicuous populations of a . colbecki . we identified some major types of environments suitable for this species ; these environments , notwithstanding an apparent dissimilarity ( e . g . , in the trophic conditions ) , all share a good level of environmental \u201cstability\u201d . in shallow , nearshore areas , these environments are represented by calm hydrographical settings with permanent or persistent sea - ice coverage , while on the shelf , by areas with infrequent iceberg scouring without structured communities of suspension feeders .\nquasi - monthly samples of the antarctic pectinid bivalve adamussium colbecki were examined to determine the gametogenic pattern and periodicity . both female and male gametogenic patterns show a very distinct seasonal development , with the initiation of gametogenesis in october and spawning in late september and early october of the following year . the duration of the gametogenic cycle is unusually short for antarctic benthos , being 12 months . reproductive effort ( ratio of gonad mass to total tissue mass ) is significantly higher in males than females , and males are ready to spawn earlier in the austral winter than females . the digestive gland also shows a strong seasonal cycle but develops earlier than the gonad . we propose that energy from the spring bloom is stored in the digestive gland before being transferred to the gonads . gonad size , digestive - gland size and , to a lesser extent , adductor - muscle size , are related to adult size in most samples . the length of the gametogenic cycle suggests that reproduction in a . colbecki is more pectinid than antarctic .\ncaco 3 biomass density was calculated in two steps . first , the total number of attached cibicides on top valves was divided by the total shell area for each locality , yielding the mean number of cibicides per cm 2 . second , the mean number of cibicides per cm 2 was multiplied by the mean cibicides biomass to provide a conservative estimate of caco 3 biomass that was then converted to kg ha - 1 . the mean carbonate biomass density for adamussium was calculated by dividing the total shell caco 3 weight by the total shell area for each locality and converted to kg ha - 1 . mean caco 3 biomass density for both species was plotted with 95 % cis to determine if there were significant differences among localities . we then wanted to determine how much caco 3 cibicides contributes to the host - parasite relationship by examining its percent contribution [ after 4 ] . this percent was calculated using the mean biomass estimate divided by the host + parasite biomass ( in kg ha - 1 ) for each locality .\nthe bivalve adamussium colbecki is an endemic antarctic pectinid that can be locally abundant in nearshore habitats , sometimes as the dominant species . however , its distribution around the antarctic continent is rather puzzling , because it has a disjunct distribution , only occurring at some shallow , nearshore sites . furthermore , there are some records of living specimens from the deeper shelf . in order to understand the biogeography of this circum - antarctic species , we critically reviewed literature data on its distribution , comparing the available habitat information for those sites that have the most conspicuous populations of a . colbecki . we identified some major types of environments suitable for this species ; these environments , notwithstanding an apparent dissimilarity ( e . g . , in the trophic conditions ) , all share a good level of environmental\nstability\n. in shallow , nearshore areas , these environments are represented by calm hydrographical settings with permanent or persistent sea - ice coverage , while on the shelf , by areas with infrequent iceberg scouring without structured communities of suspension feeders .\ntraces revealed differences in recruitment patterns at the two antarctic localities . ec had mostly newly attached individuals ( t1 ) , while bos had significantly more of the next stage trace ( t2 ) that had small holes etched into the shell surface . ec also had more adults ( t3 and t4 ) than bos , but the difference was not significant . the variation in trace population structure suggests differences in cibicides reproduction and recruitment between ec and bos . perhaps sea ice algae and their associated nutrients facilitate higher reproductive rates for cibicides at ec . fluxes in sea ice nutrients could also contribute to higher population turnover at ec , which could account for the higher number of traces at this locality . cibicides also encrusts seafloor glacial erratics at ec and also occurs in sediments although these are likely dead individuals [ ssb personal observation ] . the population structure of cibicides on glacial erratics needs to be compared to those on adamussium valves . if population structure and test size are similar among these different substrates , then parasitism may not be that important for cibicides .\nwe first examined living cibicides populations and their bioerosion traces on adamussium across three antarctic marine localities from western mcmurdo sound in the ross sea : explorers cove , bay of sails and herbertson glacier . explorers cove is well known for its foraminifera [ 21 \u2013 25 ] . unlike the other localities , it has multiannual sea ice with partial melt outs since 1991 [ 26 ] . it is also situated at the mouth of the taylor dry valley , part of the largest ice - free region in antarctica [ 27 ] . bay of sails and herbertson glacier experience annual sea ice and are adjacent to glaciated terrane [ 26 , ssb and sew personal observations ] . microalgae and microbes associated with sea ice are a major food resource for arctic and antarctic organisms [ 28 \u2013 29 ] . foraminifera populations are higher at explorers cove than bay of sails , and this difference could be related to sea ice algae [ 26 ] . if so , then parasitism should be rare at explorers cove because suspension feeding and grazing would be more important trophic strategies .\nlysosomal and antioxidant responses were investigated in the antarctic scallop adamussium colbecki exposed under laboratory conditions to metals as well as in specimens transplanted from a pristine area to the bay receiving the discharges of the italian base . exposure to copper and mercury resulted in a significant reduction of lysosomal membrane stability and in the appearance of severe morphological alterations varying from the presence of enlarged lysosomes to the loss of lysosomal structures . more limited effects were observed in pb - exposed scallops . moreover , laboratory exposures to cu and hg greatly depleted the levels of total glutathione and the activities of catalase and glutathione s - transferases were significantly reduced . more variable were the responses of glutathione peroxidases while superoxide dismutase remained almost constant . the interaction between lysosomal alterations and antioxidant defences is discussed and the results interpreted in view of the extreme environmental conditions for the antarctic organisms . the results obtained from the transplantation experiment indicated only very limited effects on scallops translocated near the effluents of the italian base suggesting that the biological impact of the base should not have major deleterious consequences on benthic marine communities .\nbody size , geographical distribution , and biomass make adamussium colbecki ( smith , 1902 ) one of the most conspicuous bivalve species in the antarctic . based on samples collected in austral summer 1999 / 2000 in terra nova bay , the annual formation of shell growth bands visible on x - ray photographs was verified by stable isotope analysis . a general von bertalanffy growth function was fitted to size - at - age data of 25 individuals ( h ? = 108 . 86 mm , k = 0 . 114 year ? 1 , t0 = ? 0 . 367 , d = 1 . 284 ) . somatic production calculated from mass - specific growth rates was 234 . 6 kj m ? 2 year ? 1 . gonadal productivity amounted to 70 . 92 kj m ? 2 year ? 1 . annual somatic and gonad production - to - biomass ratios ( p / b ) were 0 . 199 and 0 . 052 , respectively . according to its consumption and production , a . colbecki is likely to play a significant role in the trophic web of terra nova bay .\nthe antarctic scallop , adamussium colbecki ( smith , 1902 ) , is relevant to several areas of ecology . a . colbecki has a circumpolar distribution from 3 to nearly 1500 meters depth and can be used to compare nearshore and deep sea habitats . the antarctic scallop has abundant nearshore populations which remain unexploited and are valuable in the development of living resource conservation strategies . at new harbor , antarctica , the size frequency distribution and biomass of a . colbecki have remained relatively unchanged during this decade and may provide a basis for assessing the stability of this population . seasonal meltwater production from the sea ice and glaciers surrounding new harbor can influence the growth , recruitment , movement and survival of a . colbecki during the austral summer . the relative zonation of a . colbecki populations along with other antarctic nearshore benthic assemblages , may be related to changes in the volume of meltwater produced along the continental margin of antarctica over time scales from hundreds to thousands of years . a . colbecki may be a relict species in the southern ocean and a window into the evolution of the antarctic benthos . ^\nkaryotype , location of the nucleolar organiser region ( nor ) and heterochromatin presence and composition were studied in the antarctic scallop adamussium colbecki smith , 1902 . the karyotype exhibits 2n = 38 chromosomes with 11 pairs of metacentrics , 5 of submetacentrics , one subtelocentric and two telocentrics . ag - nor , cma ( 3 ) , da / mm and nor - fish evidenced paracentromeric nors on the short arm of 2nd pair chromosomes . digestion with three restriction endonucleases followed by sequential staining with giemsa , cma ( 3 ) and dapi evidenced on all chromosomes centromeric heterochromatin positive for both dapi and cma ( 3 ) . in situ hybridisation analysis showed the presence of an at - rich satellite dna in the centromeric heterochromatin of several chromosomes . a mosaicism was detected in the germinal cell lines of one specimen , as in six of the 20 plates examined the set had 37 chromosomes with a missing pair of telocentrics and an unpaired metacentric . comparison of the chromosome sets of all the pectinids studied to date and comparison with a phyletic tree obtained from molecular mitochondrial genes studies yielded good agreement between karyotype morphology and taxonomic classification .\nthe escape swimming performance of the antarctic scallop , adamussium colbecki , was measured in animals acclimated for 6 weeks to \u22121 , 0 or 2\u00b0c and tested at \u22121 . 5 to + 1 . 5\u00b0c . clap duration and swimming velocity were significantly related to temperature , but were not affected by acclimation , demonstrating no phenotypic plasticity . comparisons of the mean swimming velocity of a . colbecki with the published data for temperate and tropical species showed little evidence for evolutionary compensation for temperature , with all data fitting to a single exponential relationship with a q 10 of 2 . 08 ( 0\u201320\u00b0c ) . the contraction kinetics of the isolated fast adductor muscle of a . colbecki were determined and the times to 50 % peak tension and 50 % relaxation had q 10 s ( 0\u20134\u00b0c ) of 3 . 6 and 4 . 7 , respectively . the q 10 of the overall relationship for pooled time to peak twitch data for four scallop species was 2 . 05 ( 0\u201320\u00b0c ) . field studies revealed low mobility and poor escape performance in wild a . colbecki . a combination of thermodynamic constraints , reduced food supply , and lower selective pressure probably explains the low levels of swimming performance seen in a . colbecki .\nalternatively , a higher total population of cibicides at ec could be related to sea ice cover . ec was the only locality with persistent sea ice cover , lasting at least a decade prior to our study , whereas sea ice melts out every year at bos and hg . sea ice algae are strongly tied to sea ice cover , often reaching concentrations up to hundreds of mg m - 3 [ 30 ] . sea ice and its associated microbial communities provide nutrients for antarctic benthic organisms during austral summer and winter [ 30 \u2013 31 ] . as a result , antarctic benthic communities are strongly affected by sea ice algae distribution , as well as water column and benthic primary productivity [ 38 , 46 ] . in a study on trophic associations , a . colbecki and the echinoid sterechinus neumayeri had delta 15 n signatures indicative of a diet rich in sea ice algae and benthic detritus at ec . at terra nova bay , where sea ice melts out every year , adamussium fed on phytoplankton and sterechinus fed on benthic seaweeds [ 58 ] . additionally , studies in the bering sea have shown that a loss of sea ice leads to a decrease in benthic biomass and a shift towards pelagic ecosystems [ 59 ] . these results suggest that fluctuations in annual sea ice are related to the strength of trophic interactions . larger total cibicides population at ec could be linked to increased nutrients from sea ice algae , enhancing suspension feeding and grazing in this species ."]}
{"id": 120, "summary": [{"text": "the oak titmouse ( baeolophus inornatus ) is a passerine bird in the tit family paridae .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the american ornithologists ' union split the plain titmouse into the oak titmouse and the juniper titmouse in 1996 , due to distinct differences in song , preferred habitat , and genetic makeup .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the oak titmouse is a small , brown-tinged gray bird with small tuft or crest .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the face is plain , and the undersides are a lighter gray .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "sexes are similar , as there is very little to no sexual dimorphism .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this species lives year-round on the pacific slope , resident from southern oregon south through california west of the sierra nevada to baja california , but its range surrounds the central san joaquin valley .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it prefers open woodlands of warm , dry oak and oak-pine at low to mid-elevations but can also be found in forests as long as adequate oak trees are present .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the oak titmouse will sleep in cavities , dense foliage or birdhouses .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "when roosting in foliage , the titmouse chooses a twig surrounded by dense foliage or an accumulation of dead pine needles , simulating a roost in a cavity .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "it forms pairs or small groups , but does not form large flocks .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "it may join mixed-species flocks after breeding season for foraging .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "pairs stay together after the breeding season .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "oak titmice eat insects and spiders , and are sometimes seen catching insects in mid air .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they will also take berries , acorns , and some seeds .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "this species forages on foliage , twigs , branches , trunks , and occasionally on ground , sometimes hanging upside down to forage , and hammering seeds against branches to open them .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "oak titmice are attracted to feeders with suet , peanut butter and sunflower seeds .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the song of the oak titmouse is a series of repeated whistled notes of three to seven syllables , with first syllable higher in pitch than the following one .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the call is a scratchy tsicka-dee-dee .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the oak titmouse builds its nest in a woodpecker hole , a natural cavity , or a nest box , using grass , moss , mud , hair , feathers , and fur .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "it breeds from march into july , with peak activity in april and may , laying 3 \u2013 9 eggs , usually 6 \u2013 8 .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the female is the primary incubator , with incubation taking 14 \u2013 16 days .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "young are altricial and are tended by both parents in nest for 16 \u2013 21 days .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "parents continue to tend to young for another three to four weeks after they leave the nest .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the oak titmouse and juniper titmouse appear almost identical , but differ in voice as well as range .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the oak titmouse has a browner back than the juniper titmouse .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the oak titmouse gives a repeated series of three to seven syllables , each comprising one low and one high note , while the juniper titmouse song consists of a series of rapid syllables on the same note .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "ranges overlap only in a small area in california .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the tufted titmouse , which does not overlap in range , has whiter belly , rusty flanks , and black on the forehead . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "oak titmouse", "paragraphs": ["the oak titmouse mates for life , and pairs defend year - round territories .\nprimary management goals should be to preserve pine - oak woodlands to provide suitable nesting and foraging habitat for the oak titmouse .\nfurther research and monitoring is needed to gather more information specifically on the oak titmouse requirements .\nthe oak titmouse uses a variety of tree species . at san joaquin experimental range 60 % of the excavated cavities were in blue oak (\nthe oak titmouse\u2019s species name , inornatus , means \u201cplain , \u201d appropriately for this very drab - plumaged bird . taxonomists used to lump the oak titmouse with the juniper titmouse , referring to both as the plain titmouse . though the two sister species look very similar , the juniper titmouse sings differently and lives mainly among not oaks but junipers . their ranges overlap only in extreme northern california .\ndetected on 96 bbs routes throughout california during the time period 1980 - 1996 . ( data from that time period includes both oak titmouse and juniper titmouse . ) more specifically , the oak titmouse was recorded on 50 routes in the california foothills 1980 - 1996 . ( sauer 1997 )\noak titmouse is found west of the desert divides in southern california , southeast from santa barbara and ventura counties .\nthe proliferation of the european starling , may pose an indirect threat to the oak titmouse . ( purcell 1995 )\nonce classified with the juniper titmouse as a subspecies of the aptly named plain titmouse , the oak titmouse is easily separable from other timice species except the juniper . its lack of field marks is , ironically , an important field mark . polytypic . length 5\n.\nthe expansion of the european starling should be monitored to determine their effects on other cavity nesting species including the oak titmouse .\none of the oak titmouse\u2019s vocalizations is a peter peter peter song , which is apparently equivalent to the similar song of the tufted titmouse . the song\u2019s pattern , of high - frequency notes followed by low - frequency notes , is seen across the titmouse and chickadee family .\nthe oldest oak titmouse on record was at least 9 years old when it was recaught and rereleased during banding operations in california .\nthe oak titmouse sleeps in cavities or in dense foliage . when roosting in foliage , the titmouse chooses a twig surrounded by dense foliage or an accumulation of dead pine needles , simulating a roost in a cavity .\neditor ' s note : as originally published by bna , this account combined oak titmouse and juniper titmouse into a single account because most of the work on which it was based considered the two species conspecific (\nplain titmouse\n) . systematic revision of the plain titmouse complex separated these species ( see systematics ) , which will be treated in separate accounts when this account is revised .\nnondescript save for its crest , the oak titmouse might not wow many bird watchers at first sight . but these vocal , active birds characterize the warm , dry oak woods from southern oregon to baja california\u2014they\u2019re \u201cthe voice and soul of the oaks , \u201d according to one early naturalist . mates pair for life , and both partners noisily defend their territory year - round . the oak titmouse and the nearly identical juniper titmouse of the great basin were once treated as a single species , the plain titmouse .\nand a distinctive dark\nbib\non the throat and\ncap\non the head . except for one titmouse species ( the bridled titmouse ) , that has a\nin its pursuit of insects and plant materials , the oak titmouse forages at a rate of about 40 food - catching attempts every 15 minutes .\nas plain as a bird can be , marked only by a short crest , the oak titmouse nonetheless has personality . pairs or family parties travel about the woods together , exploring the twigs for insects and calling to each other frequently . until recently , this bird and the juniper titmouse were regarded as one species under the name of plain titmouse .\nrequires oak and pine - oak woodlands with adequate natural or excavated cavities for nesting and sufficient canopy cover for foraging and roosting .\noak titmouse : this species is a resident from southern oregon south along the pacific coast and to inland areas of california south to the northern baja peninsula . its preferred habitats include live oaks and deciduous growth , including oak woodlands , streamside cottonwoods , forest edges , and oak - juniper woodlands .\nthe bill is small and black , and legs and feet are gray . weak , fluttering flight . a recently formed species , and along with the juniper titmouse , was known as the plain titmouse until 1996 .\ndixon , k . l . 1949 . behavior of the plain titmouse . condor 51 : 110 - 136 .\nin the south bay area the oak titmouse is found in the canyon bottoms of the diablo range and over most of the lower portions of the santa cruz mountains . ( sibley 1952 )\n, oak titmice prefer a woodland habitat in which oaks predominate . ( grinnell and miller , 1944 ) in marin county oak titmice occupy woodlands , oak savannah , open broad - leaved evergreen forests , and riparian woodlands . the open broad - leaved evergreen forest must be spacious , have oaks , and be on south - facing slopes . ( shuford 1993 ) oak and pine - oak woodland , arborescent chaparral , oak - riparian associations . ( aou 1998 )\nhabitat is one major concern in the conservation of the oak titmouse . the loss of dead standing trees , live trees with dead limbs or diseased trees reduces the number of cavities available for nesting .\ncommon . year - round : primarily oak and pine - oak woodlands on the pacific slope . vagrant : casually reported east of its usual limits in california .\nwhereas the oak titmouse is found primarily in oak or oak - pine ( quercus - pinus ) woodlands of the pacific slope , the juniper titmouse inhabits juniper ( juniperus ) and pi\u00f1on - juniper woodlands of the intermountain region . both species are sedentary , nest in natural or woodpecker - excavated cavities , and mate for life . pair bonds form during the first year , and both sexes defend territories year - round . thus , unlike many other parids , these titmice generally do not form winter flocks . clutches typically contain 6\u00bf7 unmarked eggs .\nthe oak titmouse mates for life , and pairs defend year - round territories . most titmice find a mate in their first fall . those that do not are excluded from territories and must live in marginal habitat until they find a vacancy .\ndeclining in california because of losses in its preferred oak habitat , primarily by encroaching suburban and agricultural development , although disease could become a new threat with the appearance of sudden oak death syndrome .\nthe oak titmouse requires an elevated niche , where it forages foliage , twigs , branches , and trunks . it is occasionally seen foraging on the ground . it\u2019s foraging methods include gleaning , hammering hard seeds , chipping bark , and sometimes hovering . ( block 1990 )\n) , and 5 % in snags . of the natural cavities used as nest sites 47 % were in blue oak , 48 % in live oak and 3 % in snags . ( purcell and verner 1995 )\nthe closely related juniper titmouse is slightly larger , paler , and grayer , but similarly plain . the two are best separated by range ; they are sedentary and are sympatric only in a small area of northern california . no other titmouse poses a problem ; they can be identified by conspicuous differences in plumage on head or flanks .\nroberts , r . c . 1986 . preserving oak woodland bird species richness : suggested guidelines from geographical ecology . .\n) primarily on the foliage in april and on the reproductive parts in may . during march they foraged in live oak (\nof the 2 species , the oak titmouse in california has been the subject of most studies of natural and life history information , including pairing , territoriality , survivorship , dispersal , molt , and nesting and foraging behavior ( price 1936 , dixon 1949 , 1956 , 1962 , davis et al . 1973 , block 1989 ) . physiologic studies , on the other hand , have concentrated on the juniper titmouse in utah ( cooper 1997 ) and arizona ( weathers and greene 1998 ) . vocalizations and vocal behavior have been studied in both the oak titmouse in california ( dixon 1969 ) and the juniper titmouse in arizona ( gaddis 1983 , johnson 1983 , 1987a ) . other studies involving both species have focused on behavioral or ecologic interactions with sympatric congeners in california ( dixon 1954 ) and arizona ( dixon 1950 , gaddis 1987 ) , respectively . for the future , studies that use a comparative approach to assess differences between these 2 species in aspects of the annual cycle , and in thermoregulation and energetics , should prove especially valuable .\nthe oak titmouse has a large range , reaching up to roughly 170 , 000 square kilometers . this bird can be found in mexico and the united states where it prefers a variety of habitats . it appears in urban areas as well as subtropical and tropical shrub lands as well as forested areas . the global population of this species is estimated to be around 900 , 000 individual birds . currently , it is not believed that the population trends for this bird will soon approach the minimum levels that could suggest a potential decline in population . due to this , population trends for the oak titmouse have a present evaluation level of least concern .\nmore information about the breeding requirements of the oak titmouse is essential in forming management recommendations . the literature concerning this species is primarily related to genetic variation and does not adequately address breeding biology . more direct studies of breeding biology and habitat requirements are suggested . nest monitoring is one method that would be helpful in assessing the status and needs of this species .\noak titmice flit between branches and trees , flying with a shallow undulating motion . they tend to feed among the woody twigs in the lower canopies of oaks and other trees . they form pair bonds in their first year and mate for life . both sexes defend territories year - round , meaning they don\u2019t flock in the winter the way many other titmice and relatives do . when defending against an intruding member of its species , the oak titmouse raises its crest , quivers its wings , and scolds . oak titmice are hunted by mammals , snakes , and other birds , including western scrub - jays , steller\u2019s jays , western screech - owls , northern pygmy - owls , and accipiter hawks . oak titmice will mob predators , often joining forces with other small birds . back to top\noak titmice live mostly in warm , open , dry oak or oak - pine woodlands . many will use scrub oaks or other brush as long as woodlands are nearby . they live in a restricted range , from southwest oregon to northwest baja california , with another population in the cape district of south baja california . in a few areas they use habitats without oaks . in extreme northern california , oak titmice live in western juniper woodlands ( the only part of their range where they overlap with the juniper titmouse ) . on san benito mountain in central california they live in open pine forests . in the mountains of northwest baja , they live in pinyon pine woodland . at the eastern edge of their range , they live in pinyon or california juniper mixed with joshua trees . back to top\nthe oak titmouse is one of the most common birds in oak woodlands of california , but populations have declined by close to 2 % per year between 1966 and 2014 , resulting in a cumulative decline of 57 % , according to the north american breeding bird survey . partners in flight estimates a global breeding population of 500 , 000 , with 89 % living in the u . s . and 11 % in mexico . the species rates a 14 out of 20 on the continental concern score . oak titmouse is a u . s . - canada stewardship species and is on the 2014 state of the birds watch list , which lists bird species that are at risk of becoming threatened or endangered without conservation action . the decline of this species is linked to the increase in california ' s population during the twentieth century ( from 1 . 5 million to more than 30 million people ) , which has increased pressures on oak woodlands from activities such as timber harvesting , clearing for agriculture , and urban and suburban development . an estimated 80 percent of california\u2019s remaining oak woodlands are privately owned , so landowners can play a crucial role in conservation of this unique habitat . back to top\nthe oak titmouse eats seeds and other plant materials as well as insects and other invertebrates , particularly in warmer months . it eats acorns , pine seeds , oats , thistle seeds , poison oak berries , oak and willow catkins , leaf buds , galls , berries , and cultivated cherries . its invertebrate diet includes leafhoppers , treehoppers , plant lice , aphids , scales , caterpillars , beetles , ants , wasps , flies , and spiders . the oak titmouse gleans its prey from bark and foliage , usually less than 30 feet off the ground . it uses its stout bill to peck and probe crevices , chip away bark , and pull apart leaf galls , flowers , acorns , curled dead leaves , and lichens in search of prey . it may also forage on the ground itself , taking its food to an elevated perch with good visibility before eating it ( or storing it to retrieve later ) . for large food items , it holds the item against a branch with its foot and pulverizes it with its bill . occasionally it catches insects out of the air . back to top\nto see oak titmice , visit oak forests of the pacific slope between southern oregon and baja california , especially around the central valley of california . look for the drab birds as they flit energetically from tree to tree in search of food , and listen for them calling or singing noisily from a high perch .\nblock , w . m . and m . l . morrison . 1986 . conceptual framework and ecological considerations for the study of birds in oak woodlands .\nbetween 1989 and 1990 oak titmice were abundant during searches both east and northeast of shasta valley , approximately 15 - 25 individuals per morning . ( cicero 1996 )\ndata censusing both the oak and juniper titmice showed a 1 . 9 % decline per year throughout california ( p < . 05 ) 1980 - 1996 and a 1 . 6 % annual decline in the california foothills population of oak titmice during 1966 - 1996 ( p = . 06 ) . ( sauer , 1996 )\nkleintjes , p . k . and d . l . dahlsten . 1992 . a comparison of three techniques for analyzing the arthropod diet of plain titmouse and chestnut - backed chickadee . journal of field ornithology 63 ( 3 ) : 276 - 285 .\noak woods , pinyon - juniper ; locally river woods , shade trees . along pacific seaboard , occurs most commonly in oak woodland , including areas where oaks meet streamside trees or pines ; also in well - wooded suburbs , rarely in coniferous forest in mountains . in the interior , also occurs in some woodlands dominated by pine or juniper .\nblock , w . m . 1990 . geographic variation in foraging ecologies of breeding and nonbreeding birds in oak woodlands . studies in avian biology 13 : 264 - 269 .\nwilliams , p . l . and w . d . koenig . 1980 . water dependence of birds in a temperate oak woodland . auk 97 : 339 - 350 .\nthe reduction of habitat loss can be achieved by increasing the number of dead standing oak species , especially important are live trees with dead limbs and diseased trees in which the heartwood decays . these trees should remain standing for use by cavity - nesting birds . a canopy cover of 40 - 70 % should be the objective when thinning oak woodlands .\nthe distribution of the oak titmouse is complex and discontinuous in california . they are absent from the extreme northwest coastal region , and portions of extreme north - central california , from the cascades - sierra axis . this species is also not found in the san joaquin valley , lowlands of eastern and south eastern deserts , as well as a few coastal areas in southern california . otherwise found in suitable habitat throughout the state . ( small 1994 )\nverner , j . and l . v . ritter . 1988 . a comparison of transects and point counts in oak - pine woodlands of california . condor 90 : 401 - 419 .\nverner , j . and l . v . ritter . 1985 . a comparison of transects and point counts in oak - pine woodlands of california . condor 87 : 47 - 68 .\ntietje , w . d . and j . k . vreeland . 1997 . vertebrates diverse and abundant in well - structured oak woodland . california agriculture 51 ( 6 ) : 8 - 14 .\nwilson , r . a . , p . manley and b . r . noon . 1990 . covariance patterns among birds and vegetation in a california oak woodland . in proc . , symposium on oak woodlands and hardwood rangeland management ( davis , ca oct . 31 - nov 2 1990 ) . ] usda for . serv . gen . tech . rep . , psw - 126 , p . 126 - 135 .\nd . post fledging biology of offspring : oak titmice remain in a family group after the young have fledged , often moving away from the nest to an area of the territory infrequently used . ( dixon 1949 )\ncaptured 34 oak titmice during the breeding seasons 1997 and 1998 at the east park reservoir . 1997 - 6 females with brood patches , 26 hatch year birds ; 1998 \u2013 1 female with brood patch ( prbo data )\npurcell , k . l . and j . verner . life history traits and nest site characteristics of open - and cavity - nesting birds in oak - pine woodlands . dissertation for the university of nevada , reno .\nduring 1996 \u2013 1998 field season oak titmice were banded at the lower sacramento river preserve . number of females caught with brood patches were : 3 in 1996 , 2 in 1997 , and 1 in 1998 . ( prbo data )\nhertz , p . e . , j . v . remsen , jr . , and s . i . zones . 1976 . ecological complementarity of three sympatric parids in a california oak woodland . condor 78 : 307 - 316 .\ncounter - singing with another individual in oak - sycamore riparian habitat . a probable third individual was seen entering , but not exiting , a sycamore cavity . high pass filter ( 2000hz , 6db roll off ) , amplified ( 20db ) .\naigner , p . a . , w . m . block , and m . l . morrison . 1998 . effect of firewood harvesting on birds in a california oak - pine woodland . j . wildl . manage . 62 ( 2 ) : 485 - 497 .\nthe paridae in north america are woodland birds , the chickadees occurring in both deciduous and coniferous forests throughout much of the continent and the titmice residing in forest and scrub habitats . most species of titmice reside in the west and a few are associated with oak dominated woodlands .\ngardali , t , g . r . geupel , and g . ballard . 1996 . songbird census in brewer ' s oak forest in the mendocino national forest : results from the 1996 field season . unpublished report of the point reyes bird observatory to the mendocino national forest service .\nverner , j . , k . l . purcell , and j . g . turner . 1997 . bird communities in grazed and ungrazed oak - pine woodlands at the san joaquin experimental range . usda forest service gen . tech . rep . psw - gtr - 160 . 381 - 390 .\nwithin their restricted range oak titmice visit feeders with sunflower seeds and other birdseeds , particularly when tree cover is nearby . they prefer seeds on raised trays or tubes rather than ground feeders . find out more about what this bird likes to eat and what feeder is best by using the project feederwatch common feeder birds bird list .\noak and juniper titmice are common residents of warm , dry woodlands in the western united states , extreme northern mainland mexico , and northwestern and southern baja california . until recently , these taxa were regarded as a single species in the genus parus : plain titmouse ( parus inornatus ) . a comprehensive analysis of geographic variation in the species complex ( cicero 1996 ) , along with genetic evidence of relationships within the family ( sheldon et al . 1992 , slikas et al . 1996 ) , has led to their reclassification as sibling species in the genus baeolophus ( american ornithologists ' union 1997 ) . although similar in appearance , the 2 species are distinguished by a suite of morphologic , colorimetric , genetic , vocal , and ecologic traits ( cicero 1996 ) . they are discussed here in a combined treatment , however , in order to describe and compare distinctive features of each species .\nziener , d . c . , w . laudenslayer , jr . , k . mayer and m . white , eds . 1990 . california\u2019s wildlife , vol . 2 , california department of fish and game , sacramento , ca . 732 pp . return to : cpif oak plan main page point reyes bird observatory copyright 1999 prbo at prbo dot org\nno season - specific information . in general 43 % animal and 57 % vegetable . ( dixon 1949 ) the animal food is made up of true bugs , caterpillars , beetles , wasps , ants , spiders , and other insects . vegetable food contains cultivated fruits and grains , wild fruits , seeds and nuts , leaf galls , oak and willow catkins , and leaf buds . ( dixon 1949 )\noak titmice often take up residence in nest boxes ; consider putting up a nest box to attract a breeding pair . make sure you put it up well before breeding season . attach a guard to keep predators from raiding eggs and young . find out more about nest boxes on our attract birds pages . you ' ll find plans for building a nest box of the appropriate size on our all about birdhouses site .\nthe female selects the nest site , but the male goes with her as she roams across their breeding territory to inspect sites . she chooses a cavity in a tree up to 40 feet off the ground , preferring natural cavities over woodpecker - excavated ones . sometimes she may partially excavate the nest herself in soft or rotten wood , or further excavate an existing cavity . occasionally oak titmice nest in stumps , fenceposts , pipes , eaves , or holes in riverbanks . they will also use nest boxes .\nthe female takes charge of building the nest , taking 4\u201310 days to finish it . the male accompanies her while she gathers material and he feeds her when she is inside the cavity . nests are made of grass , moss , hair , and feathers , and may also contain shredded bark , wool , straw , twigs , plant fibers , rope , string , oak blossoms , snakeskin , sycamore seed balls , rootlets , leaves , and wood chips . the nest may be reused in later years , either by the same pair or a different one .\nlutmerding , j . a . and a . s . love . longevity records of north american birds . version 2015 . 2 . patuxent wildlife research center , bird banding laboratory 2015 .\nnorth american bird conservation initiative . 2014 . the state of the birds 2014 report . us department of interior , washington , dc , usa .\nsauer , j . r . , j . e . hines , j . e . fallon , k . l . pardieck , jr . ziolkowski , d . j . and w . a . link . the north american breeding bird survey , results and analysis 1966 - 2013 ( version 1 . 30 . 15 ) . usgs patuxtent wildlife research center 2014b . available from urltoken\nsibley , d . a . ( 2014 ) . the sibley guide to birds , second edition . alfred a . knopf , new york , usa .\nvery common in parts of its range , but surveys suggest declining numbers in recent decades .\nforages by hopping about in branches and larger twigs of trees , sometimes hanging upside down , searching for insects among the foliage and on the bark . opens nuts and acorns by holding them with feet and pounding with bill . comes to bird feeders for seeds or suet .\nusually 6 - 7 , sometimes 3 - 9 . white , sometimes lightly dotted with reddish brown . incubation is by female only , 14 - 16 days . young : both parents bring food to nestlings . young leave nest about 16 - 21 days after hatching .\nboth parents bring food to nestlings . young leave nest about 16 - 21 days after hatching .\ninsects , nuts , seeds . feeds mainly on insects , including many caterpillars , beetles , true bugs , leafhoppers , aphids , scale insects , and many others , as well as some spiders . also eats acorns , weed seeds , and sometimes berries or small fruits .\npairs or family groups may defend territories all year . nest site ( selected by female ) is usually in hole in tree , sometimes hole in stump , fence post , or pole . may be natural cavity or old woodpecker hole . in rotten wood , both members of pair may work to enlarge small cavities for their use . also will use nest boxes , and sometimes crevices in buildings or other cavities . nest has foundation of grass , weeds , moss , bark fibers , and lining of soft material such as feathers or animal hair .\na harsh , fussy see - dee - dee or chick - a - dee - dee .\naudio \u00a9 lang elliott , bob mcguire , kevin colver , martyn stewart and others .\ntuftit _ 7 . tiska - say - sayampothercalls _ flle _ 1 . mp3\ntuftit _ 8 . see - see - seecalls _ flle _ 1 . mp3\ntell congress to oppose a harmful rider that threatens sage - grouse and other wildlife .\ntell congress and the department of the interior to uphold the country ' s most important bird protection law .\nthe bird is a drab brownish or grayish brown color overall , but is paler below . it has a short crest .\nfour subspecies , one restricted to baja california ; variation is weak and clinal . the northernmost subspecies , inornatus , from oregon to south - central california , has medium brownish gray or olive - brown upperparts , pale gray underparts with pale brown tinge on flanks , and a short bill . the affabilis found in southwestern california is notably larger , has darker gray - brown or olive - brown upperparts , flanks washed in dusky brown , and a longer bill . the mohavensis , restricted to the little san bernardino mountains in san bernardino and riverside counties , is smaller , paler , and grayer than the affabilis .\ncall : a hoarse tsick - a - deer . song : a series of clear , whistled sets of alternating high and low notes , such as peter peter peter or teedle - ee teedle - ee , with many variations .\nthe diet is varied , and the birds are known to cache food . both species are highly vocal , and individuals are most commonly recognized by their chatterlike calls which males and females utter throughout the year . males may sing infrequently during the nonbreeding season , with singing intensity increasing toward spring . vocalizations are directed primarily toward intraspecific defense of territories .\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nthe female is primarily responsible for nest construction ; during this time , the male is increasingly attendant to her , feeding her inside the cavity and accompanying her while she gathers nest material .\nthe nest is primarily built of grass , moss , hair , and feathers .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 cornell university cornell lab of ornithology 159 sapsucker woods rd ithaca , ny 14850 tel : 800 . 843 . 2473\nrecorded at the boundary between a residential neighborhood and an open area with hills covered with native chaparral . recorded at a distance of 5 - 8 meters . here playback consisted of playing a recording of the bird i had obtained only 3 minutes earlier .\nequipment : sony pcm - m10 recorder and a sennheiser mke - 400 microphone . edits to the file : trimmed at both ends .\nrecorded in a deep canyon with coast and canyon live oaks , willows , bigleaf maple , california bay , california sycamore , and bigcone douglas - fir . the canyon often has a creek but on this date it was dry . the bird was recorded at distances of 7 - 10 meters as it moved in the upper canopy above me .\nequipment : sony pcm - m10 recorder and a sennheiser me67 microphone . edits to the file : trimmed at the end .\npine creek rd off sunrise hwy , cleveland national forest . san diego co , california\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nm . flannery , point reyes bird observatory , 4990 shoreline hwy . , stinson beach , ca 94970 .\nhistorical references : the following historical references were all obtained from grinnell and miller , 1944 .\nfound in western california below 3000ft , from mendocino county and head of sacramento valley south to santa barbara and tulare counties . populations were located in the northwest coast region , cahto and covelo , mendocino county ; northernmost around the head of the sacramento valley , tower house and baird station , shasta county .\neasternmost found at nevada city , nevada county ; yosemite valley , mariposa county ; three rivers , tulare county .\nrecorded presence in shasta valley , siskiyou county , and the valley of south fork of the trinity river , western trinity county ; three definite localities : near bogus at 2500 ft , siskiyou county ; at the caves , 11 miles northeast of weed ; and at 1 mile west of hyampom , trinity county .\nthe extreme eastward point of sighting are palmdale , in northern los angeles county ; also found at campo , san diego county .\npopulations in hesperia , san bernadino county ; cactus flat and quail spring , north and east of the san bernadino mountains .\nsacramento county : identified as a breeder at cosumnes river preserve . ( lynes pers . comm1999 )\ndetected during the breeding seasons 1997 and 1998 at the east park reservoir . ( prbo data )\nin 1997 and 1998 recorded as a known breeder at the lower sacramento river project . ( prbo data )\ncounted at the tejon ranch , kern county and the california and blodgett forest research station , el dorado county . ( block and morrison 1987 )\nbay delta bioregion : recorded during point counts 1995 - 1998 at cosumnes river preserve . ( prbo data )\nbay delta bioregion : recorded 8 females with brood patches in 1995 , and 3 in 1998 at cosumnes river preserve . ( prbo data )\nnests were located in 1986 and 1987 at the university of california hopland field station in mendocino county for a study on covariance patterns among birds and vegetation . ( wilson , et al 1991 )\neast park reservoir : 3 nests found in 1997 , 1 in1998 . ( prbo data )\nlower sacramento river project produced 8 nests in 1995 and 1 in 1998 . ( prbo data )\nin 1996 - 1998 a mean number of 5 nests were found at the cosumnes river preserve . ( prbo data )\nsan luis obispo co . : breeding at camp roberts military base ( tietje and vreeland 1997 )\nmadera co . : territories were mapped on san joaquin experimental range . ( verner , et . al . 1997 )\narea censuses conducted 1986 and 1987 at the university of california hopland field station in mendocino county . ( wilson , et al 1991 )\nbetween 1990 \u2013 1992 population densities west of clear lake through the modoc plateau ranged from 1 - 3 pair per day at doris and red rock valley and 4 - 7 pair per day west - northwest of lava beds national monument . ( cicero 1996 )\n3 - 4 pair per day found at walker pass , kern county during studies conducted 1989 - 1991 . ( cicero 1996 )\nmojave bioregion : only a few birds were sighted at white - inyo mountains , inyo county , black rock canyon , joshua tree monument during 4 visits 1989 - 1991 . ( cicero 1996 )\nbreeds in interior of eastern marin county , including the hills around novato . rare and local on the point reyes peninsula .\nfound in 1998 at bear valley visitor center , point reyes national seashore during unofficial search . ( humple pers . comm 1999 )\nmean territory size of 6 . 3 acres with a range of 3 . 3 - 12 . 5 acres in alameda county . ( dixon 1949 ) in san mateo county mean territory size was 2 . 0 acres . ( hertz\ne . extent of wintering in ca : year - round resident , defends territory throughout the year . ( verner and boss 1980 )\nmaterials used to form a nest within the cavity are grass , hair , moss , feathers , shredded bark , cotton and / or wool , straw , plant down or blossoms , twigs , twine or string , plant fibers , rootlets , snakeskin , wood chips , and leaves . the nest lining is made up primarily of soft material such as hair and / or feathers . ( cicero 1996 )\n) . within season foraging changes were due to plant phenology . ( hejl and verner 1990 )\non san joaquin experimental range on two 29 . 7 - ha plots there was a mean number of 14 . 1 territories on the ungrazed plot and 19 . 6 territories on the grazed plot . ( verner et . al 1997 ) at camp roberts military base in san luis obispo county there were recorded 46 . 1 territories per 100 acres . ( tietje and vreeland 1997 )\nb . mating system : monogamous with adults permanently paired . pair formation occurs in young birds in early fall soon after the family unit breaks up . ( dixon 1949 )\nc . delayed breeding ( where are immature birds ? ) : no information .\ne . post breeding social behavior ( mixed species flocks , or simply migrate away ? ) : they occasionally form mixed - species flocks during the nonbreeding season . ( ehrlich\nvi . clutch size : variable clutch size with a mean of 6 . 75 . ( dixon 1949 ) at san joaquin experimental range the mean clutch size was 5 . 81 . ( purcell 1995 ) range of 3 - 9 eggs , usually 6 - 8 . ( ziener 1990 )\nviii . . incubation period : 14 - 16 days . ( dixon 1949 )\nvix . . nestling period : approximately three weeks . ( dixon 1949 ) the san joaquin experimental range reported a mean 41 day nestling period . ( purcell 1995 )\nxii . who tends the young : both parents tend young . ( dixon 1949 )\nc or above ) based on fisher water - dependence categories in williams and koenig , 1980 .\nxiv . wintering ground needs and distribution : same as on the breeding grounds .\nb . height of nest : ranges from 3 \u2013 32 ft . ( verner and boss 1980 )\na . canopy cover : at camp roberts military base 40 - 70 % canopy cover . a dense tree canopy is important for this foliage gleaner . ( tietje and vreeland 1997 )\nc . average shrub cover : 27 % shrub cover at camp roberts . ( tietje and vreeland 1997 )\ng . ground cover : 20 % downed woodcover , 28 % unvegetated groundcover . ( tietje and vreeland 1997 )\nk . snags : snags with natural or excavated holes were used only 8 % of the time at the san joaquin experimental range . ( purcell and verner 1995 )\nsuffers depredation from the usual predators of passerines , namely small mammals and hawks . ( ziener 1990 ) western scrub jay may depredate eggs and nestlings . ( bent 1946 )\nvii . other : the protocalliphorid blowfly larvae are parasites of secondary cavity nesters as they lay their eggs in the additional material used to line the nest cavity . a high rate of parasitism was recorded in nests at san joaquin experimental range . ( purcell and verner 1995 )\nii . productivity measure ( s ) : the san joaquin experimental range study of cavity nesters reported a mayfield estimate of nesting success of 62 % in natural cavities and 60 % in nest boxes . ( purcell 1995 )\niii . survivorship : two - thirds of the birds fledged did not survive until the next breeding season . ( dixon 1949 )\naccording to dixon ( 1949 ) dispersal is gradual and restricted , 4 of the 7 birds recorded established territories in their natal area the following season . the median distance of dispersal was approximately 600 meters . ( dixon 1949 )\na list of other species that would benefit from management of the target species .\nrecommend methods that will address immediate needs as well as those most appropriate to monitor how effective the proposed management recommendations will be .\n( from subspecies , trend , local extirpations , state and federal lists , etc . )\nexperiencing a 1 . 9 % decline per year throughout california ( p < . 05 ) 1980 - 1996 and a 1 . 6 % annual decline in the california foothills 1966 - 1996 ( p = . 06 ) . ( sauer , 1996 )\nthe significant decline since 1980 of this species requires further study to determine future conservation goals .\nthe objective is to prevent further decline in this species and to increase suitable habitat .\namerican ornithologists\u2019 union . 1983 . check - list of north american birds . 7\nbalda r . p . 1975 . the relationship of secondary cavity nesters ' snag densities in western coniferous forests . usda forest service wildlife habitat technical bulletin 1 , 37p . southwestern region , albuquerque , nm .\nbent , a . c . 1064 . life histories of north american jays , crows , and titmice . dover publications , inc . , new york , ny .\nproc . , symposium on multi - use management of california ' s hardwood resources [ san luis obispo , ca , nov . 12 - 14 , 1986 ] usda for . serv . gen . tech . rep . , psw - 100 , p . 163 - 173 .\ndebenedictis , p . 1993 . a desert barrier . birding 25 : 437 - 438 .\ndixon , k . l . 1954 . some ecological relations of chickadees and titmice in central california . condor 56 : 113 - 124 .\nehrlich , p . r . , dobkin , d . s , and d . wheye . 1988 . the birder ' s handbook : a field guide to the natural history of north american birds . simon and schuster press , ny .\ngeupel , g . , g . ballard , and a . king . 1997 . songbird monitoring on the cosumnes river preserve : results of the 1995 field season . unpublished report . point reyes bird observatory , stinson beach , ca .\ngeupel , g . , g . ballard , n . nur , and a . king . 1997 . population status and associations of songbirds along riparian corridors of the lower sacramento river : results from 1995 field season and summary of results 1993 - 1995 . unpublished report . point reyes bird observatory , stinson beach , ca .\ngeupel , g . , and g . ballard 1995 . status and distribution of the landbird avifauna along riparian corridors of the sacramento river national wildlife refuge : results of the 1994 field season . unpublished report . point reyes bird observatory , stinson beach , ca .\ngeupel , g . , n . nur , g . ballard , and a . kiener . 1996 . monitoring nests of songbirds and their associated vegetation in montane meadows of the san bernardino national forest , results of the 1992 - 1995 field seasons . unpublished report to the usfs . point reyes bird observatory , stinson beach , ca .\ngrinnell , j . and a . h . miller . 1944 . the distribution of the birds of california . artemesia press , lee vining , ca .\nhejl , s . j . , j . verner . 1990 . within - season and yearly variations in avian foraging locations . studies in avian biology 13 : 202 - 209 .\nking , a and g . geupel . 1997 . songbird response to revegetation along the sacramento river : results from 1996 field season . unpublished report . point reyes bird observatory , stinson beach , ca .\nmartin , t . e . and p . li . 1992 . life history traits of open - vs . cavity - nesting birds . ecology 73 ( 2 ) : 579 - 592 .\nmcclelland , b . r . , s . s . friswell , w . c . fischer , and c . h . halvorson . 1979 . habitat management for hole - nesting birds in forests of western larch and douglas - fir . j . forestry 77 : 480 - 483 .\nohmann , j . l . , w . c . mccomb , and a . a . zumrawi . 1994 . wildl . soc . bull . 22 : 607 - 620 . .\npurcell , k . 1995 . reproductive strategies of open - and cavity - nesting birds . dissertation for university of nevada , reno .\npurcell , k . l . j . verner and l . w . orange . 1997 . a comparison of the breeding ecology of birds nesting in boxes and tree cavities . auk 114 ( 4 ) : 646 - 656 .\nrobertson , d . and c . tenet ( eds . ) 1993 . atlas of breeding birds of monterey county . monterey peninsula audubon society .\nproc . , symposium on multi - use management of california ' s hardwood resources [ san luis obispo , ca , nov . 12 - 14 , 1986 ] usda for . serv . gen . tech . rep . , psw - 100 , p . 190 - 196 .\nsauer , j . r , j . e . hines , g . gough , i . thomas , and b . g . peterjohn . 1997 . the north american breeding bird survey results and analysis . version 96 . 4 patuxtent wildlife research center , laurel , md .\nsheldon , f . h . and f . b . gill . 1996 . a reconsideration of songbird phylogeny , with emphasis on the evolution of titmice and their sylvioid relatives . systematic biology 45 ( 4 ) : 473 - 495 .\nsibley , c . s . 1952 . the birds of the south san francisco bay region . unbound copy available at the point reyes bird observatory library .\nsilkas , b . , f . h . sheldon , and f . b . gill . 1996 . phylogeny of titmice ( paridae ) : i . estimate of relationships among subgenera based on dna - dna hybridization . journal of avian biology 27 : 70 - 82 .\nsmall , arnold . 1994 . california birds : their status and distribution . ibis publishing co . vista , ca . 342 pp .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\n( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22711978a111066495 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nsong is a series of evenly - pitched , rapid series of 3 - 7 whistled syllables .\nunlike other members of the family , they do not form flocks in winter .\na group of titmice are collectively known as a\nbanditry\nand a\ndissimulation\nof titmice .\nthe passeriformes ( pronounced pas - ser - i - for - meez ) is a large taxonomic order composed of one hundred eighteen families of birds and includes the predatory shrikes , curious nuthatches and the friendly titmice and chickadees .\nthere are fifty - five species in eight genera in the paridae ( pronounced par - uh - dee ) , a family mostly restricted to the northern hemisphere and the one in which the chickadees and titmice are found .\nthere are twelve species of paridae in two genera that occur in north america with two distinct groups ; the plump , confiding chickadees and the crested titmice .\nthe paridae are mostly known for their friendly behavior . these small birds seem to have little fear of people in wild situations and black - capped and carolina chickadees will readily become tame enough to take seed from an open hand .\nsmall birds with short wings and medium - sized tails , the chickadees have short , stubby bills that give them a large - headed look . the titmice are similar in shape but have slightly larger bills and crests . both groups have strong feet adapted to an arboreal lifestyle that includes hanging upside down on small branches .\npattern somewhat like a chickadee , titmice are mostly gray with dark inquisitive eyes that stand out on their plain faces .\nalthough some black - capped chickadees that breed in canada are short distance migrants to milder climes , these are the exception as most members of the paridae brave the winter even in the boreal zones .\nmembers of the paridae are social , vocal birds that frequently forage in mixed feeding flocks and are quick to give the alarm when a predator is sighted . both chickadees and titmice forage in trees and bushes with chickadees often hanging upside down when inspecting twigs for hidden arthropods . both groups of paridae also readily feed on seeds and nuts .\ntitmice and chickadee species are doing well throughout north america and no members of this family are threatened with extinction .\nthe gray - headed chickadee is one of the hardiest of bird species in north america . this non - migratory bird spends lives year round in central alaska ; a range that also makes it one of the least seen birds by north american birders .\n\u00a9 2002 - 2013 urltoken all rights reserved . mitch waite group . no part of this web site may be reproduced without written permission from mitch waite group . privacy policy\nthe front part of the head consisting of the bill , eyes , cheeks and chin ."]}
{"id": 122, "summary": [{"text": "the black-bellied storm petrel ( fregetta tropica ) is a species of seabird in the family oceanitidae .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is found in antarctica , argentina , australia , bouvet island , brazil , chile , falkland islands , french polynesia , french southern territories , madagascar , mozambique , new zealand , oman , peru , saint helena , s\u00e3o tom\u00e9 and pr\u00edncipe , solomon islands , south africa , south georgia and the south sandwich islands , uruguay , and vanuatu .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "they are usually black with a white band over the rump .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "a white under the wings and on the flanks .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "there is a broad black stripe runs down the center of the belly , but may be broken or absent altogether sometimes .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they have long legs , so that the feet can be seen beyond the tail in flight .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the legs and feet are black .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "they are silent mostly at sea .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "noises can be seen on the breeding colonies , birds on the ground give a drawn-out shrill whistle . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "black - bellied storm petrel", "paragraphs": ["black - bellied storm - petrel , first records for madeira and the canary islands .\nnobody uploaded sound recordings for black - bellied storm - petrel ( fregetta tropica ) yet .\nblack - bellied storm petrel . adult in flight , ventral . at sea off campbell island , april 2013 . image \u00a9 phil battley by phil battley\nthe diet of black - bellied storm petrel is poorly known , but includes crustaceans , small fish and squid taken from the surface of the water .\nsouthey , i . 2013 [ updated 2018 ] . black - bellied storm petrel . in miskelly , c . m . ( ed . ) new zealand birds online . urltoken\na medium - sized black - and - white storm petrel , black above with a white band over the rump , white under the wings and on the flanks , a broad black stripe usually running down the centre of the belly which may be broken or absent altogether . large and very bulky for a storm petrel , they have long black legs so the black feet can be seen beyond the tail in flight .\nsimilar species : the most commonly seen black - and - white storm petrel around new zealand is wilson\u2019s storm petrel which is smaller and entirely black underneath ( though with a similar white band over the rump ) and has yellow webs on the black feet . off the northern new zealand coast new zealand storm petrel is a smaller , more slightly built bird that is white , not solidly black under the tail . the white belly of new zealand storm petrel is characteristically and obviously streaked . the white - bellied storm petrel is rarely seen away from subtropical water and is very difficult to distinguish . it is a little smaller with shorter legs that do not extend beyond the tail . they usually have a clean white belly but the birds breeding on lord howe island may be darker , with varying amounts of smudgy black on the belly and under - wing , some birds being entirely black .\ntoday , during our zino ' s petrel pelagic expedition in oceanodroma a black bellied storm - petrel fregetta tropica was seen and photographed briefly . this bird didn ' t stay with us more than one minute flying over the slick . during this trip great shearwater puffinus gravis , european storm - petrel hydrobates pelagicus and wilson ' s storm - petrel oceanites oceanicus were seen .\nneither black - bellied storm - petrel nor white - bellied storm - petrel has been positively identified in the northeast atlantic . there are three sight records of unidentified fregettas in the northeast atlantic . all three descriptions in our opinion suggest white - bellied birds . records fall in the period mid - august to mid - december : about 500 miles north of cape verde mid - august 1986 , off norfolk ( uk ) 10th december 2007 , and in the severn estuary ( uk ) 25th november 2009 . we include the norfolk sighting having read the description , although it was judged \u2018not proven\u2019 to be a fregetta storm - petrel by british birds rarities committee .\n( excerpt from multimedia id guide to north atlantic storm - petrels & bulwer ' s petrel , bob flood & ashley fisher , urltoken )\nvoice : black - bellied storm petrels are silent at sea ; on the breeding colonies , birds on the ground give a drawn - out shrill whistle .\nblack - bellied storm petrels are black with a white band over the rump , and with white under the wings and on the flanks . a broad black stripe usually runs down the centre of the belly but it may be broken or absent altogether . they are large and very bulky for a storm petrel and have long legs so that the feet can be seen beyond the tail in flight . the legs and feet are black .\n19\u00b75\u201321 cm ; 43\u201363 g ; wingspan 43\u201346 cm . near - black storm - petrel with toes projecting slightly beyond tail tip , white uppertail - coverts , most of . . .\nafter breeding , black - bellied storm petrels migrate to tropical and sub - tropical seas . they travel north in may and june and south in october and november .\nblack - bellied storm petrels are pelagic seabirds that feed over the continental shelf and the very deep water beyond . they are usually solitary but may gather into small groups .\nin the new zealand region they are something of a mystery . although not uncommon at sea , black - bellied storm petrels are poorly known on land . few ornithologists have been on breeding colonies when they are active , as they breed during the autumn after most research expeditions have departed . in fact the eggs of the black - bellied storm petrel have been seen three times only in the new zealand region \u2013 in 1929 and 2018 \u2013 and chicks have never been seen .\nthe black - bellied storm - petrel has a circumpolar distribution from islands of the scotia archipelago , through the southern indian ocean to the antipodes islands ( new zealand ) . outside the breeding season it migrations north into the subtropical and tropical zones of the atlantic , indian and pacific oceans , regularly occurring north up to the equator ( del hoyo et al . 1992 ) .\nblack - bellied storm petrels are often seen gliding close to the surface of the water with the wings held horizontally or about 45\u00b0 up , kicking with one foot , the other trailing and may cut the water by dropping a foot to leave an obvious wake .\nblack - bellied storm petrels are poorly known in the new zealand region , but the local population has been estimated at 50 , 000 to 100 , 000 pairs . tens of thousands of pairs were estimated as being on the main antipodes island and colonies on the auckland islands are thought to be larger .\ncarboneras , c . , jutglar , f . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . black - bellied storm - petrel ( fregetta tropica ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nblack - bellied storm petrels are found throughout the southern ocean , where they breed on many subantarctic islands , and may sometimes be seen off the southern new zealand coast during the breeding season . after breeding they migrate to tropical seas south of the equator , hence the scientific name which was based on birds taken just south of the equator in the atlantic .\nblack - bellied storm petrels nest in colonies , in cavities among loose rocks or excavated burrows in soil and peat . they are monogamous and pair bonds appear to be maintained until one partner dies . the only known nests with eggs found in new zealand were found on adams island , auckland islands on 1 february 1929 . the eggs were in two tiny burrows about 45 cm long , in a nest of dry fine grass .\non the auckland islands , black - bellied storm petrels breed on outlying islands in the absence of exotic mammalian predators and are likely to have been exterminated from campbell island and the main auckland island by norway rats and cats respectively . on the main antipodes island they co - occur with mice , but no nests with eggs or chicks have been found , and so it is not known if the storm petrels are able to breed successfully . the actual colonies there may be restricted to the smaller mouse - free islands of the group , some of which have never been landed on .\nmolecular evidence revealed that traditional grouping of all storm - petrels in a single family was paraphyletic # r # r ; precise relationships at higher levels within this order are still disputed , but storm - petrels now generally split into two families , comprising \u201csouthern\u201d oceanitidae and \u201cnorthern\u201d hydrobatidae # r .\nblack - bellied storm petrels are highly pelagic birds that feed close to or beyond the continental shelf . in summer the birds feed in the southern ocean , spread between the ross sea in the south and as far north as the southern coasts of new zealand . locally they breed on the auckland and antipodes islands ( with eggs recorded from adams , rose and enderby islands in the auckland islands ) . as yet no nests have been found on the antipodes islands and it has been suggested that the active colonies are on the smaller islands of the group , with mice not allowing successful breeding on the main island .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nturbott , e . g . 1990 . checklist of the birds of new zealand . ornithological society of new zealand , wellington .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nbrooke ( 2004 ) estimated the global population to number around 500 , 000 individuals . trend justification : the population is suspected to be in decline owing to predation by invasive species .\nthis species rarely associates with land , except when breeding , and may be associated with cool currents where its diet appears to consist of squid and small fish ( data lacking ) . its breeding season begins in november , forming loose colonies on bare rocky slopes , in thick vegetation or peat of offshore islands or stacks . it lays one egg in burrows or rocky crevices ( del hoyo et al . 1992 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nheather , b . d . ; robertson , h . a . 1996 . the field guide to the birds of new zealand . viking , auckland .\nimber , m . j . ; bell , b . d . ; bell , e . a . 2005 . antipodes islands birds in autumn 2001 . notornis 52 : 125 - 132 .\nmarchant , s . ; higgins , p . j . ( eds ) 1990 . handbook of australian , new zealand and antarctic birds . vol . 1 , ratites to ducks . oxford university press , melbourne .\ntaylor , g . a . 2000 . action plan for seabird conservation in new zealand . part b : non - threatened seabirds . threatened species occasional publication no . 17 , biodiversity recovery unit , department of conservation , wellington .\ntennyson , a . ; taylor , r . ; taylor , g . ; imber , m . ; greene , t . 2002 . unusual bird records from the antipodes islands in 1978 - 1995 , with a summary of other species recorded at the island group . notornis 49 : 241 - 245 .\ndull white with a few dull reddish - brown markings at the larger end .\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : fregetta tropica . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nin past , often lumped with f . grallaria ; relationships between these two are complicated and confused , especially at tristan da cunha and gough i ; proposed race melanoleuca ( tristan da cunha ) may be invalid or may be referable to f . grallaria . considerable individual variation in plumage tends to obscure geographical variation in this complex ; most forms described as races are usually ascribed to f . grallaria . monotypic .\ntropical and subtropical major oceans ; circumpolar breeding , from islands of scotia arc through s indian ocean to antipodes is . possible presence at tristan da cunha and gough i requires confirmation .\ntwo main vocalizations , both usually given from within or close to nest - sites ( it is currently . . .\nmarine and highly pelagic , rarely approaching land except near colonies ; may be associated with . . .\nsquid , crustaceans and small fish recorded during breeding season , with diet at south georgia estimated at 90 % crustacea and 10 % fish ( by . . .\nmost complete studies on signy i ( south orkneys ) , the crozets and south shetlands . return to colonies starts sept ( prince edward is , crozet . . .\nduring breeding season is mainly found s of antarctic polar front . post - breeding , migrates n into . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . widespread , with total population estimated at c . 100 , 000\u2013150 , 000 breeding pairs and c . 500 , 000 individuals , broken down as . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nan individual in flight among the waves , on the ocean ( 50 % speed ) .\na bird flying low over the ocean seen from a boat well off the coast .\njosep del hoyo , greg baker , john gregory , gus yaki , aviceda .\nchristophe gouraud , phillip edwards , jordi sargatal , markus lilje , dusan m . brinkhuizen , neilhughes , julien baudat - franceschi , nick talbot , tony palliser , les george , ben lascelles , tomas grim .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 294 , 111 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nan informative website about birdwatching and madeira wildlife developed by wind birds naturalists and tour leaders to madeira visitors .\njoin madeira wildlife monthly newsletter . all the updates on your email every month .\n\u00a9 2004 - 2018 wind birds , lda . contact faq privacy terms \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 wind birds\u2122 is a trademark of wind birds , lda cc by - nc - nd 4 . 0\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\ncompiled by worthy , t . h . ; holdaway , r . n . ; tennyson , a . j . d . , king , c . m . ; roberts , c . d . ; bell , b . d . ; fordyce , r . e . ; nicol , r . s . ; worthy , t . h . ; paulin , c . d . ; hitchmough , r . a . ; keyes , i . w . ; baker , a . n . ; stewart , a . l . ; hiller , n . ; mcdowall , r . m . ; holdaway , r . n . ; mcphee , r . p . ; schwarzhans , w . w . ; tennyson , a . j . d . ; rust , r . ; macadie , i . 24 : phylum chordata : lancelets , fishes , amphibians , reptiles , birds , mammals , living and recently extinct birds . in : new zealand inventory of biodiversity volume 1 .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 4cc578eb - d15e - 4288 - ad1f - 42cc2d89edf3\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : e7a37d20 - f0b0 - 446d - 8508 - 0c35d55b432b\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 0f85170e - 5051 - 4e7a - a975 - 2af4f84b8465\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 312170\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nthis recording is not modified . this bird was regularly seen and heard calling from bellow one of the chilean camp buildings in the evenings / nights .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict ."]}
{"id": 124, "summary": [{"text": "a sea louse ( plural sea lice ) is a member of a family of small crustaceans within the order siphonostomatoida , the caligidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "there are around 559 species in 37 genera , including approximately 162 lepeophtheirus and 268 caligus species .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "sea lice are marine ectoparasites ( external parasites ) that feed on the mucus , epidermal tissue , and blood of host marine fish .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "this article focuses on the genera lepeophtheirus and caligus which parasitize marine fish , in particular those species that have been recorded on farmed salmon .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "lepeophtheirus salmonis and various caligus species are adapted to saltwater and are major ectoparasites of farmed and wild atlantic salmon .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "several antiparasitic drugs have been developed for control purposes .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "since l. salmonis is the major sea louse of concern and is the best understood in the areas of its biology and interactions with its salmon host , this review will focus on this species .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "caligus rogercresseyi has become a major parasite of concern on salmon farms in chile , and studies are under way to gain a better understanding of the parasite and the host-parasite interactions .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "recent evidence is also emerging that l. salmonis in the atlantic has sufficient genetic differences from l. salmonis from the pacific , suggesting that atlantic and pacific l. salmonis may have independently co-evolved with atlantic and pacific salmonids , respectively . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "sea louse", "paragraphs": ["sea trout are highly susceptible to sea louse infestations , with susceptibility decreasing with distance from marine salmon farms .\nmorton a . b , williams r . first report of a sea louse ,\nthis is a colour photograph of a sea louse ( ' natatolana woodjonesi ' ) .\nmixture toxicity effects of sea louse control agents in daphnia magna . - pubmed - ncbi\na marine cousin of the wood - louse , the speckled sea louse is commonly found on sandy beaches along the coasts of western europe .\nsea louse abundance over time on atlantic salmon on named salmon farms in the discovery islands .\ntowards selective breeding of atlantic salmon for sea louse resistance : approaches to identify trait markers .\nwild salmon fishing interests indirectly by reducing overall sea louse numbers \u2013 a significant political issue .\nsea - louse parasites on juvenile wild salmon in the broughton archipelago , british columbia , canada .\nmordue aj , birkett ma . a review of host finding behaviour in the parasitic sea louse ,\nireland - irish scientists have had promising results in the search for a vaccine against sea louse .\njohnson sc , blaylock rb , elphick j , hyatt kd . disease induced by the sea louse (\n, a southern hemisphere sea louse affecting farmed fish . plos pathogens 10 ( 10 ) : e1004494 .\nbeck engineering develops a ground breaking method for reducing the sea lice infestation in the salmon breeding industry . photo sequence of laser targeting a sea louse .\na review of host finding behaviour in the parasitic sea louse , lepeophtheirus salmonis ( caligidae : copepoda ) .\nthe tiny sea louse hit two of the world\u2019s biggest producers as norway and scotland both reported severe problems .\naquaporin family genes exhibit developmentally - regulated and host - dependent transcription patterns in the sea louse caligus rogercresseyi .\ndeltamethrin and cypermethrin are a pyrethroids used in sea louse control . deltamethrin is the active ingredient in alphamax\u00ae .\nfraser nl . sea - cage aquaculture , sea lice , and declines of wild fish .\nsea trout salmo trutta a sea going fish of which a freshwater form is brown trout .\ntowards selective breeding of atlantic salmon for sea louse resistance : approaches to identify trait markers . - pubmed - ncbi\nhelgesen ko , bravo s , sevatdal s , mendoza j , horsberg te . deltamethrin resistance in the sea louse\nsea - louse parasites on juvenile wild salmon in the broughton archipelago , british columbia , canada . - pubmed - ncbi\n\u201cthe project will have important implications as to what the most efficient sea louse control strategies are for scotland and ireland . \u201d\na picture of the sea louse that plague salmon . photograph : getty images , eleanor cunningham , pablo rojas / ucd .\nsalmon are reared in cages in sea lochs . thousands of fish grow and fatten in these inshore waters . no surprise , perhaps that they can fall prey to parasites - among them , the sea louse , a marine cousin of the wood louse .\na review of host finding behaviour in the parasitic sea louse , lepeophtheirus salmonis ( caligidae : copepoda ) . - pubmed - ncbi\naquaporin family genes exhibit developmentally - regulated and host - dependent transcription patterns in the sea louse caligus rogercresseyi . - pubmed - ncbi\nevidence for the induction of key components of the notch signaling pathway via deltamethrin and azamethiphos treatment in the sea louse caligus rogercresseyi .\nmarine harvest canada ( mhc ) is the only salmon farm company to report sea louse average abundance ; raw sea louse data were not reported publicly at the time of our study . we used average caligus clemensi abundance and l . salmonis motile abundance provided online to estimate sea louse trends on six mhc farms in the discovery islands during 2007\u20132008 ; sea louse data were not provided for the other 12 farms operating in the region . for periods without reported information , we calculated average abundance using the previous and subsequent values .\norr c . estimated sea louse egg production from marine harvest canada farmed atlantic salmon in the broughton archipelago , british columbia , 2003\u20132004 .\nwild salmonids and sea louse infestations on the west coast of scotland : sources of infection and implications for the management of marine salmon farms .\nsea louse management has evolved considerably in recent years , but there are concerns about the reliance on a handful of key medicines . although there have been notable improvements in louse management strategies in recent years , challenges remain if wild salmon and sea trout stocks are to be effectively protected . the use of wrasse may be an important option in integrated louse management regimes .\nsea lice on a juvenile salmon . the sea louse on the back of the salmon is a fully mature , motile , adult female , and thus the most lethal . photo courtesy of alexandra morton .\nthe researchers have been studying the behaviour of the speckled sea louse , examples of which were collected from a beach near bangor in north wales .\ndespite this , and being removed from its natural environment , the speckled sea louse continued to swim every 12 . 4 hours for many days .\norr c . estimated sea louse egg production from marine harvest canada farmed atlantic salmon in the broughton archipelago , british columbia , 2003 - 2004 .\nidentification and functional expression of a glutamate - and avermectin - gated chloride channel from caligus rogercresseyi , a southern hemisphere sea louse affecting farmed fish .\nlife cycle of the salmon louse lepeophtheirus salmonis ( redrawn from johnson , 1998 ) .\nattached louse is encapsulated by the coho ( milky white mass on the fin ) .\nthe parameter for sea louse - induced mortality of chum salmon , c , was not significantly different from zero for all forms of the sea louse covariate , l a , t + 1 ( equation ( 2 . 1 ) ) . ( likelihood ratio tests with the null model showed no improvement with the inclusions of the sea louse covariate . results for different age - at - return scenarios are provided in the electronic supplementary material , table s4 . )\nin association with industry , an extensive database has been established on measurements of sea louse counts on farmed atlantic salmon for the years 1996 to 2000 from 33 scottish fish farms . these data include extensive counts on the sea louse species , lepeophtheirus salmonis , at various stages of the life cycle and in particular the chalimus and mobile stages . there has been considerable speculation as to what factors might affect the abundance of sea lice , much of which is based on limited evidence . our analyses show that there is tremendous variation in sea louse infestation patterns from year to year , whereas stock type , geographical region and coastal exposure do not appear to affect mean levels of abundance . in contrast , treatments lead to pronounced cycles of sea louse infestation with peaks and troughs at 3 - week intervals , and these interventions are important if the sea louse levels on fish are to be controlled . there was no evidence of water temperature affecting the mean annual abundance of sea louse infestation .\nmolecular characterization and knock - down of salmon louse ( lepeophtheirus salmonis ) prostaglandin e synthase .\njakob e , sweeten t , bennett w , jones srm . development of the salmon louse\nand in whole - body louse homogenate . j parasitol . 2000 ; 86 : 1199\u2013205 .\nevidence for the induction of key components of the notch signaling pathway via deltamethrin and azamethiphos treatment in the sea louse caligus ro . . . - pubmed - ncbi\ndeltamethrin resistance in the sea louse caligus rogercresseyi ( boxhall and bravo ) in chile : bioassay results and usage data for antiparasitic agents with references to norwegian conditions .\njones s , kim e , bennett w . early development of resistance to the salmon louse ,\nsurveillance of the sensitivity towards antiparasitic bath - treatments in the salmon louse ( lepeophtheirus salmonis ) .\nwinning norwegian - german anti - louse system cleans up farmed salmon ; unusual job for jenoptik .\nfraser nl ( 2009 ) sea - cage aquaculture , sea lice , and declines of wild fish . cons biol 23 : 599\u2013607 .\nfor salmon and sea trout , the burden of sea lice is now recognized as a strong predictor of mortality in areas with farms .\nwild salmonids and sea louse infestations on the west coast of scotland : sources of infection and implications for the management of marine salmon . . . - pubmed - ncbi\ndeltamethrin resistance in the sea louse caligus rogercresseyi ( boxhall and bravo ) in chile : bioassay results and usage data for antiparasitic agen . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nthe sea lice spread to migrating juvenile wild salmon , resulting in the highest numbers of sea lice observed on wild salmon in a decade .\nthe present invention relates to sea lice , more particularly to an apparatus and method for the localization and removal of sea lice from fish .\nresponse of the sea louse lepeophtheirus salmonis infestation levels on juvenile wild pink , oncorhynchus gorbuscha , and chum , o . keta , salmon to arrival of parasitized wild adult pink salmon\nthe life stages of lepeophtheirus salmonis , the sea louse most commonly found on salmon . their life cycle is 7 - 8 weeks . image from university of prince edward island .\ni think there is mounting evidence that this species of sea louse that everyone ' s ignoring . . . this species could have real impacts on our wild sockeye .\n) . upon sampling , each louse was individually snap - frozen in liquid nitrogen for gene expression profiling .\nincreased understanding of all aspects of the biology of sea lice , which has led to better tools for identification of sea lice , is facilitating the development of increasingly effective integrated louse management strategies and may lead to the development of an effective vaccine in future .\n) , which are sympatric with the juvenile salmon . juvenile salmon begin marine life without sea lice infections because sea lice rapidly die in fresh water (\nfirstly , the speckled sea - louse evolved many millions of years before mammals and represents a simplified model system that we can use to help understand the clocks of more complex animals .\nthe covariate l a , t + 1 is an estimate of parasite exposure for populations in area a and year t + 1 when juvenile chum salmon from brood year t enter the ocean and migrate past salmon farms . we investigated two different forms of this covariate ( see the electronic supplementary material , table s2 ) . first , we summed the number of adult female sea lice in april on all farmed salmon in the vicinity of the juvenile salmon migration route ( see the electronic supplementary material , figure s1 ) . for years 2000\u20132002 , some of these salmon farms did not report sea louse abundances , and so we estimated these abundances under four different scenarios ( f 1 \u2013f 4 [ 18 ] ) . the second form of the covariate was the average number of attached sea lice ( copepodid , chalimus and motile stages ) per juvenile wild pink and chum salmon [ 31 ] . owing to the absence of data for sea louse abundances on farmed and wild salmon in the 1990s [ 24 , 31 ] , brood years 1990\u20131998 for the farm sea louse covariates and 1990\u20131999 for the wild sea louse covariate were excluded from the analysis . we tested the significance of the sea louse covariate using a likelihood ratio test with the null model c = 0 indicating no correlation between sea louse abundance and chum salmon productivity . we performed a retrospective power analysis to determine our power to detect an effect of sea lice if an effect indeed existed . details on how we calculated the sea louse covariates and the power analysis are provided in the electronic supplementary material .\nthis story was corrected on 31 march . it previously suggested that all norwegian fjords were on the north sea coast . many are on the norwegian sea .\nmolecular characterization and knock - down of salmon louse ( lepeophtheirus salmonis ) prostaglandin e synthase . - pubmed - ncbi\nand their results suggest that the fish do not simply reject the louse , but actually might be killing them .\nthe diminutive speckled sea louse ( eurydice pulchra ) boasts two body clocks , one for night and day and another for the ebb and flow of the tide , according to research published today .\nthe scottish salmon industry has decided to commission new research after calling into question sepa\u2019s decision to cut back on the use of the sea louse treatment emamectin benzoate ( slice ) by 60 percent .\nmorton a , routledge r , peet c , ladwig a . sea lice (\n2011 study says wild salmon sea lice linked to b . c . fish farms\nis the estimated mortality of chum salmon due to sea lice . residual variation ,\nthe team behind a project that aims to improve the health of farmed sea bass and sea bream in the mediterranean has launched an discussion forum on sparicotylosis today .\nnmbu school of veterinary science , sea lice research centre , oslo , norway .\natlantic salmon salmo salar , the fish farmed in cages in scottish sea lochs .\nemamectin benzoate an avermectin therapeutant sold as slice\u00ae for the control of sea lice .\nsouth skye lochs sea lochs : loch scavaig , loch slapin and loch eishort .\nmorphology and pathology of the ectoparasitic copepod , nicotho\u00eb astaci ( \u2018lobster louse\u2019 ) in the european lobster , homarus gammarus .\n] . furthermore , coevolution of the pacific louse subspecies with pacific salmon for between 4 . 6 and 11 ma [\na method for stable gene knock - down by rna interference in larvae of the salmon louse ( lepeophtheirus salmonis ) .\nsurveillance of the sensitivity towards antiparasitic bath - treatments in the salmon louse ( lepeophtheirus salmonis ) . - pubmed - ncbi\ncharacterization of a novel rxr receptor in the salmon louse ( lepeophtheirus salmonis , copepoda ) regulating growth and female reproduction .\nlepeophtheirus salmonis , a type of sea louse specific to salmonids ( salmon , trout and char ) , is a natural parasite of saltwater salmon , and is present in all sea areas in the northern hemisphere . the salmon louse is the commonest parasite in farmed salmon , and is a persistent problem in the fish farming industry . the scale of the problem has increased substantially with the growing prevalence of fish farming . the more farmed fish there are in the sea , the more \u201chosts\u201d there are for the lice to attach themselves to . and that means more louse eggs spreading in the water .\norr c ( 2007 ) estimated sea louse egg production from marine harvest canada farmed atlantic salmon in the broughton archipelago , british columbia , 2003 - 2004 . n am j fish manage 27 : 187\u2013197 .\nwhat i hope is that we could start considering this species of sea louse that actually infects our wild juvenile sockeye salmon when making parasite management decisions on salmon farms along the sockeye migration route .\notherwise known as lepeophtheirus salmonis , the distant cousin of the wood louse feed on the blood and tissue of the salmon .\ninclude a th2 - type response at the louse - salmon interface . dev comp immunol . 2015 ; 48 : 178\u201391 .\nbravo s , treasurer j , sepulveda m , lagos c . effectiveness of hydrogen peroxide in the control of caligus rogercresseyi in chile and implications for sea louse management . aquaculture . 2010 ; 303 : 22\u20137 .\ncostello m . j . ecology of sea lice parasitic on farmed and wild fish .\nmany factors including breed , location and immune status will affect susceptibility to sea lice .\nto sea lice infection . this parameter distinguishes our model from the original model of revie\npike aw , wadsworth sl . sea lice on salmonids : their biology and control .\nstingray optical delousing systems have to date been installed at 24 locations in three countries . overall results from all locations show lower louse abundance . by continuously reducing adult sea louse numbers , a preventative effect on louse build up is observed . to date over 30 000 tons of laser treated fish have been harvested with no signs of ill effects due to the treatment . generally , fish welfare is expected to be improved through less handling of the animals and reduced treatment interventions .\nthere were dozens of c . clemensi louse on each of those fish , but those figures wouldn ' t have triggered treatment .\nsince there are no vaccines available to protect against aquatic parasites , researchers are using successful terrestrial parasite vaccines as a model for sea louse vaccine development . one of the most successful anti - parasite vaccines to date is the tickgard\u2122 vaccine , which utilises a gut - derived protein from ticks to protect cattle from infestation ( willadsen et al , 1995 ) . several vaccine trials using sea louse homologues of tick antigens have been performed with some success .\nslcr - sea lice research centre , institute of marine research , 5817 bergen , norway .\nlegend : all morphometric and abiotic values represent the mean , except sea lice infection rates .\nkrkosek m . sea lice and salmon in pacific canada : ecology and policy . front .\ngottesfeld as , proctor b , rolston ld , carr - harris c . sea lice ,\nlarval abundance in a sea loch on the west coast of scotland between 2002 and 2006 .\nslcr - sea lice research center , institute of marine research , 5817 bergen , norway .\nsea lice research centre , department of biology , university of bergen , bergen , norway .\nsea lice belong to the copepod family , and are found naturally throughout the northern hemisphere .\ndichlorvos\u00ae an organophosphate ( very nasty compounds ) previously used in the control of sea lice .\ningvarsd\u00f3ttir a , birkett m , duce i , genna rl , mordue w , pickett j , et al . semiochemical strategies for sea louse control : host location cues . pest manag sci . 2002 ; 58 : 537\u201345 .\nsalmon farms do have measures to monitor and control one species of sea louse , but nearly all the lice found on this study ' s juvenile salmon were a different species \u2014 which isn ' t targeted in current measures .\nthe differing host responses to the salmon louse suggest that there are also host - specific parasite responses . behavioural studies indicate a preference of\nthe fall of 2014 did have a healthy return of adult pink salmon , bringing sea lice into near - shore waters where they could infect farmed salmon . high ocean temperatures during winter months then likely accelerated sea - louse development , enabling populations to grow quickly and reach higher numbers than they would under normal ocean temperatures .\nlaser delousing efficiency on a commercial scale has been tested in a long term trial in norway against delousing efficiency of cleanerfish . in 15 weeks of trial , one anti - louse treatment per pen could be avoided through the use of the stingray laser . overall sea louse abundance was lower in laser pens ( 21 % ) and adult female louse abundance was lowered by 8 % , on top of avoiding 50 % of anti - louse treatments in the trial period . the treatment intervention period , i . e . the time span between required treatments , has been increased from 6 . 5 weeks to 11 . 5 weeks ( figure 2 ) .\nbiological control has also been investigated , in a search for feeder species such as wrasse ( natural predator ) which may decrease louse numbers .\na method for stable gene knock - down by rna interference in larvae of the salmon louse ( lepeophtheirus salmonis ) . - pubmed - ncbi\ncharacterization of a novel rxr receptor in the salmon louse ( lepeophtheirus salmonis , copepoda ) regulating growth and female reproduction . - pubmed - ncbi\ninclude a th2 - type response at the louse - salmon interface . dev comp immunol . 2015 ; 48 ( 1 ) : 178\u201391 .\nl . ) in the norwegian sea and adjacent areas . ices j mar sci 57 : 955\u2013964\ncanada - sea lice found in the pacific ocean are very different genetically from sea lice in the atlantic ocean , a study team co - led by a university of victoria researcher has found .\nbravo s . sea lice in chilean salmon farms . aquaculture . 2003 ; 23 : 197\u2013200 .\nregulators by offering a product to reduce the use of current costly and controversial sea lice controls .\nhelgesen ko , horsberg te . single - dose field bioassay for sensitivity testing in sea lice ,\nstingray marine describes optical delousing thus : \u201coptical sea lice treatment s a concept within the aquaculture ( fish - farming ) industry that has developed from an amazing idea into a concrete reality . by combining camera vision , advanced software and laser treatment , we can remove even an individual sea louse from the fish in a gentle and efficient way .\nmorphology and pathology of the ectoparasitic copepod , nicotho\u00eb astaci ( \u2018lobster louse\u2019 ) in the european lobster , homarus gammarus . | ed pope - urltoken\n\u2018they are everywhere now , and just a few can kill a fish\u2019 \u2026 the lepeophtheirus salmonis , or the common salmon louse . photograph : alamy\nstingray marine solutions as ( sms ) has designed a novel delousing method using a platform called the\nstingray\n. the need for a continuous , non - invasive , technological solution has been recognized to control the sea louse situation on farmed atlantic salmon ( salmo salar ) ( aaen , et al . , 2015 ) . in norway a sea louse control guidelines are based on the number of sea lice in the adult female stage which infect a fish . this\ntrigger level\nis fixed at 0 . 5 adult female lice per fish . the stingray platform aims at keeping louse levels below this trigger level , which , when exceeding , will require an anti - louse treatment to be carried out . the platform is a vision based system which optically identifies sea lice , lepeophtheirus salmonis , on farmed salmon . lice are removed through a guided laser pulse ; a method referred to as optical delousing . the stingray system detects and targets all stages from pre - adult i \u2640 and pre adult ii \u2642 up to adult male and adult female , thus creating a top - down control of the louse life cycle .\nthis , the researchers argue , provides incontrovertible evidence that the speckled sea louse possesses two separate and independent body clocks , the circadian which follows the night and day cycle , and the tidal clock which runs on a 12 . 4 hour cycle .\na juvenline sockeye salmon with sea lice . a new study says treatment by the b . c . salmon farmers ' association doesn ' t target the c . clemensi species of louse , although the authors say it should . ( alexandra morton )\nbjorn pa , finstad b . the physiological effects of salmon lice infection on sea trout post smolts .\nbeck engineering develops a ground breaking method for reducing the sea lice infestation in the salmon breeding industry .\nthe stingray laser platform has been proven effective at controlling and slowing sea louse recruitment on farmed atlantic salmon in commercial operations . the system is autonomous and automated , effectively reducing work required for fish farmers . a reduction of louse abundance as well as a reduction of treatment interventions was observed in the trial , leading to improved animal welfare , better louse control and lower costs . the system can be used alongside any other treatment types , but is currently consider one of the gentlest delousing methods available ( sv\u00e5sand , et al . , 2016 ) .\nthe characteristics of the transcriptomic response to atlantic salmon suggest increased parasite fitness . host blood is a main dietary component of the adult female salmon louse [\nmixed - effects modelling showed some variation in results depending on louse species . position relative to farms was consistently significant in all models for total abundance of\nbecause farm - source sea lice accounted for 98 % of the variability in wild salmon sea lice prevalence from 2002 to 2009 and sea lice were sometimes common on farmed atlantic salmon during the 1990s , farm - source sea lice probably infested juvenile pink salmon many years before they were first examined for sea lice in 2001 ( 1 ) . as evidence , we show that sea lice were abundant on farm fish in 2000 ( fig . 1 ) . before 2000 , farm fish sea lice were usually not quantified , but infestations were common enough that sea lice treatment options were investigated in the early 1990s ( 28 ) , and publicly available records confirm that those treatments were used as early as 1996 ( figure 25 at urltoken ) . no evidence exists to indicate that sea lice are not moving through net cages in both directions between farm and wild fish ( 16 ) , and net cages have not changed over the past two decades .\na new species of chondracanthus ( cyclopoida : chondracanthidae ) parasitic on deep - sea dibranchus spon . . .\n) salmon . pathog : wild farmed fish sea lice . ellis horwood ; 1993 . p . 68\u201382 .\nsea lice attach themselves to salmon and feed on them , killing or rendering them unsuitable for dinner tables .\nno reviews were found for optical delousing ( optical sea lice treatment ) . be the first to review !\nheumann j , carmichael s , bron je , tildesley a , sturm a . molecular cloning and characterisation of a novel p - glycoprotein in the salmon louse\nholm h , santi n , kj\u00f8glum s , perisic n , skugor s , evensen \u00f8 . difference in skin immune responses to infection with salmon louse (\nthe sea louse generation time is around 8 - 9 weeks at 6\u00b0c , 6 weeks at 9\u00b0c and 4 weeks at 18\u00b0c . the lifespan of the adult under natural conditions has not been determined but under laboratory conditions , females have lived for up to 210 days .\ningvarsd\u00f3ttir a ; birkett ma ; duce i ; genna rl ; mordue w ; pickett ja ; wadhams lj ; mordue aj , 2002 . semiochemical strategies for sea louse control : host location cues . pest management science , 58 ( 6 ) : 537 - 545 .\nsea lice ( family caligidae ) are among the most notorious pests affecting cultured marine fishes . the best - known representatives of this group are those infesting caged salmonids . sea lice infestations in salmon farms in . . .\nthe prediction of higher sea louse abundance on chum salmon ( figure 4 b ) was supported by data from a long - term monitoring programme of sea lice on juvenile salmon in the broughton archipelago . we found higher average numbers of copepodid and chalimus sea lice on juvenile chum salmon than on pink salmon caught in the same sample ( see the electronic supplementary material , table s5 ) . numbers of motile sea lice did not differ significantly between host species , but motiles are known to move among hosts in search of mates [ 49 ] or when their host is attacked by a predator [ 50 ] .\nhwa tk , 1965 . studies on the life cycle of a fish louse ( caligus orientalis gussev ) . acta zoologica sinica , 17 : 48 - 63 .\nthe price of salmon is set to leap because of tiny sea lice that are decimating stocks around the world .\ntwo species of sea lice off that live off the west coast are c . clemensi and l . salmonis .\nkrkosek m , lewis ma , volpe jp . transmission dynamics of parasitic sea lice from farm to wild salmon .\nmackinnon bm ( 1998 ) host factors important in sea lice infections . ices j mar sci 55 : 188\u2013192 .\nl . , post - smolts on a west of ireland sea site . j fish dis 31 : 913\u2013920 .\ngrant an . medicines for sea lice . pest manag sci . 2002 ; 58 ( 6 ) : 521\u20137 .\n) . ectoparasites exist in all salinity levels from fresh water to sea water and affect many different fish species .\nglover et al . ( 2004 ) found that the strain of atlantic salmon also influenced louse burdens : individuals of the wild dale strain , when kept in tanks with four other stocks and then challenged with l . salmonis , had significantly lower louse density than did two other stocks ( wild vosso and farm 2 strains ) .\ngrayson th ; john rj ; wadsworth s ; greaves k ; cox d ; roper j ; wrathmell ab ; gilpin ml ; harris je , 1995 . immunization of atlantic salmon against the salmon louse : identification of antigens and effects on louse fecundity . journal of fish biology , 47 ( suppa ) : 85 - 94 .\ncaligid sea lice are ectoparasites causing major disease problems in industrial salmon farming . sea louse control currently relies widely on parasiticides . among non - target species , crustaceans are particularly susceptible to salmon delousing agents . drug combinations have recently been suggested for sea louse control ; however , no information is available on the non - target effects of such mixtures . to obtain first insights into combination effects of salmon parasiticides , acute toxicity tests with the crustacean model species daphnia magna were conducted . four compounds , including two organophosphates and two pyrethroids , were tested individually and in all pair - wise combinations at one fixed concentration ratio . for most combinations , observed toxicities were close to predictions assuming concentration additivity . however , deltamethrin and cypermethrin showed greater than predicted combination effects , while the inverse was observed for deltamethrin and malathion . the results demonstrate combination effects of anti - sea louse agents and suggest that predictions based on concentration additivity are in most cases protective .\ncitation : price mhh , proboszcz sl , routledge rd , gottesfeld as , orr c , reynolds jd ( 2011 ) sea louse infection of juvenile sockeye salmon in relation to marine salmon farms on canada ' s west coast . plos one 6 ( 2 ) : e16851 . urltoken\nglover ka ; hamre la ; skaala o ; nilsen f , 2004 . a comparison of sea louse ( lepeophtheirus salmonis ) infection levels in farmed and wild atlantic salmon ( salmo salar l . ) stocks . aquaculture , 232 ( 1 / 4 ) : 41 - 52 .\nthere was no evidence of reduced productivity of chum salmon populations exposed to sea louse infestations on farmed salmon ( see the electronic supplementary material , figures s2 and s3 ) . the model fit was not improved by including a sea louse covariate ( table 1 ) . populations exposed to salmon farms showed no obvious declines in productivity associated with either the expansion of salmon farming ca 1990 or sea louse infestations ( 1999\u20132005 ; figure 1 ) . these results were consistent across all age - at - return scenarios that we considered ( see the electronic supplementary material , table s4 ) . we found significant covariation among populations within our study region in each year , within populations , conservation units and within management area each year , as indicated by an improvement of the model when all random effects were included ( see the electronic supplementary material , figure s4 ) .\nsea lice are the most common parasite on farmed salmon , and the biggest health issue for the industry . for a number of years , oral and bath treatments have been used to combat sea lice . our monitoring of sea lice shows that their numbers are increasing noticeably , and that in some cases they are developing resistance to the favoured treatment .\njohnson s . c , kent m . l . sea lice . in : kent m . l , editor .\nvariation of atlantic salmon families ( salmo salar l . ) in susceptibility to the sea lice lepeophtheirus salmonis and caligus elongatus\nmarty gd , saksida sm , quinn tj . relationship of farm salmon , sea lice , and wild salmon populations .\ntully o , gargan p , poole wr , whelan kf . spatial and temporal variation in the infestation of sea trout\nthe scottish spca has elected ronnie soutar , head of veterinary services at scottish sea farms , as its new chairperson .\ncostello mj ( 2006 ) ecology of sea lice parasitic on farmed and wild fish . trends parasitol 22 : 475\u2013483 .\nthis research has been funded by the research council norway , sfi - sea lice research centre , grant number 20351 .\ncitation : lhorente jp , gallardo ja , villanueva b , caraba\u00f1o mj , neira r ( 2014 ) disease resistance in atlantic salmon ( salmo salar ) : coinfection of the intracellular bacterial pathogen piscirickettsia salmonis and the sea louse caligus rogercresseyi . plos one 9 ( 4 ) : e95397 . urltoken\nthe ability of the sea louse to immunomodulate its host offers another source of potential vaccine candidates . it is believed that , like ticks , the lice secrete immunomodulatory proteins which adapt the salmon\u2019s immune response for the parasite\u2019s benefit . it is possible that these could be exploited for vaccine development .\nprotein was significantly overexpressed in the feeding salmon louse transcriptome , and most highly by parasites feeding on atlantic salmon . saposin - like proteins ( saplips ) have been described from\n: characterization of prostaglandin e ( 2 ) in secretory products of the salmon louse by rp - hplc and mass spectrometry . exp parasitol . 2004 ; 107 : 5\u201313 .\nsea lice are the most common parasite on farmed salmon , and the biggest health issue for the industry . for a number of years , oral and bath treatments have been used to combat sea lice . our monitoring of sea lice shows that their numbers are increasing noticeably , and that in some cases they are developing resistance to the favoured treatment .\nsea lice can latch on to salmon , eat their skin and blood , and cause infections . anglers and conservation groups highlight the deadly menace these sea lice can pose to wild salmon stocks as they move to and from their spawning grounds .\nthe sea louse ( lepeophtheirus salmonis ) is a globally acknowledged challenge for salmon farming operations and a considerable amount of resources are being expended to manage this pest . chemo - therapeutants and animal husbandry practices have been traditionally used to keep these parasites under control , but there are now signs that sea lice may be becoming resistant to many of the chemicals that are being used and recent studies have shown that some of these chemicals are lethal to non - target organisms . consequently , many non - chemical alternative treatments for sea lice controls are being tested such as predators ( cleanerfish ) , traps ( either physical or biological ) and physical exclusion devices ( nets , electrical fields ) . one of the more promising techniques being developed to remove sea lice from captive salmon is the use of warm water . recent canadian innovations have developed a warm water shower which appears to remove all attached stages of sea lice and also prevents the detached sea lice individuals from being returned to the ocean . this project aims to develop protocols for the best application of the warm water shower technique to safely and effectively remove sea lice from atlantic salmon , including an understanding of the mechanism involved in sea lice removal using warm water . results of the project are expected to provide the required information for ongoing modification of the commercial sea lice warm water shower device , as well as inform sea lice management strategies .\nthe sea louse ( lepeophtheirus salmonis and caligus elongatus ) is known to significantly impact farmed salmonids ( salmon ) worldwide . there is growing concern that sea lice populations may be further amplified and transmitted through the presence of intermediate hosts near salmon farms . it has been suggested that non - salmonid species could be acting as sea lice reservoirs for future infections and / or could act as predictors for infection rates in wild and farmed fish in subsequent years . atlantic salmon aquaculture in the coast of bays region of newfoundland and labrador has rapidly expanded , but very little is known on the basic ecology and seasonal cycles of sea lice within the bays . however , many species of marine fish are known to frequent the areas around cage sites , which could be contributing to sea lice infections .\nwe raise them on a special fish food . initially we were concerned that they might not adapt to a sea lice diet , but we found that when they have a choice , they prefer the sea lice every time . when wrasse are mixed with salmon , the stocking level is 2 % - so one wrasse can protect fifty salmon from sea lice .\nmaldonado - aguayo w , ch\u00e1vez - mardones j , gon\u00e7alves at , gallardo - esc\u00e1rate c . cathepsin gene family reveals transcriptome patterns related to the infective stages of the salmon louse\nin spring of 2015 , a team of u of t ecologists led by postdoctoral researchers andrew bateman and stephanie peacock found that more than 70 per cent of fish the team sampled in the strait ' s broughton archipelago had at least one sea louse : the highest prevalence of such parasites since 2005 .\nmortality rates for juvenile pink oncorhynchus gorbuscha and chum o . keta salmon infested with sea lice lepeophtheirus salmonis in the broughton archipelago\ncostello mj ( 2006 ) ecology of sea lice parasitic on farmed and wild fish . trends in para 22 : 475\u2013483 .\ncostello mj . ecology of sea lice parasitic on farmed and wild fish . trends parasitol . 2006 ; 22 : 475\u201383 .\nlepeophtheirus salmonis , commonly known as sea lice or salmon lice , are marine copepods that infest salmon and trout . sea lice feed on host epidermis , musculature and blood , causing damage to host surface tissues that can lead to osmoregulatory stress [ 8 ] , expose hosts to secondary infections [ 9 ] and cause host behavioural changes [ 6 ] or death [ 10 , 11 ] . sea louse infestations may also have ecological impacts on wild salmon , particularly juveniles , as infested individuals have compromised schooling [ 6 ] and swimming abilities [ 12 , 13 ] and may be unable to complete migrations or evade predators [ 6 ] . juvenile salmon experience very high predation rates during early marine life [ 14 , 15 ] , suggesting that the effects of parasitism on predator\u2013prey interactions may be important for evaluating the consequences of sea louse infestations on salmon population dynamics .\nhowever , what has emerged as a larger issue in this commingling of species is the increase in sea lice l . salmonis found on juvenile wild salmon migrating through areas near salmon farms , whose crowded conditions provide an ideal breeding ground for sea lice .\nnagasawa k , 2004 . sea lice , lepeophtheirus salmonis and caligus orientalis ( copepoda : caligidae ) , of wild and farmed fish in sea and brackish waters of japan and adjacent regions : a review . zoological studies , 43 : 173 - 178 .\ninfection with the sea louse c . rogercresseyi , as a secondary pathogen , reduces the resistance of atlantic salmon to the pathogen p . salmonis . resistance to coinfection of piscirickettsia salmonis and caligus rogercresseyi in atlantic salmon is a heritable trait . the absence of a genetic correlation between the resistance to single infection and that to coinfection indicates that different genes control these processes . further studies are necessary to investigate the effects of coinfection when the sea louse is the primary pathogen . it is clear that coinfection of different pathogens and resistance to coinfection needs to be considered in future research on salmon farming , selective breeding and conservation .\nannual changes in the population size of the salmon louse lepeophtheirus salmonis ( copepoda : caligidae ) on high - seas pacific salmon ( oncorhynchus spp . ) , and relationship to host abundance\nwe acknowledge constructive discussion with members of the salmon louse research centre ( slrc ) and institute of marine research , in particular the assistance on data analysis from mette skern - mauritzen .\nalso in 2015 , individual salmon farms did not coordinate anti - louse treatments , with some farms delaying treatment until just prior to the time when juvenile salmon migrate past farms . as a result , sea lice from those farms could have spread to adjacent farms , hampering area - wide control of the outbreak .\nhelgesen ko , bravo s , sevatdal s , mendoza j , horsberg te . deltamethrin resistance in the sea louse caligus rogercresseyi ( boxhall & bravo ) in chile : bioassay results and usage data for antiparasitic agents with references to norwegian conditions . j fish dis . 2014 ; 37 ( 10 ) : 877\u201390 .\npike aw , wadsworth sl ( 2000 ) sea lice on salmonids : their biology and control . adv para 44 : 234\u2013337 .\nlarval abundance in a sea loch on the west coast of scotland between 2002 and 2006 . dis aquat org 81 : 109\u2013117 .\nslcr - sea lice research centre , department of biology , university of bergen , thorm\u00f8hlensgt . 55 , 5008 bergen , norway .\npike aw , wadsworth sl ( 1999 ) sea lice on salmonids : their biology and control . adv parasitol 44 : 223\u2013337 .\nslcr - sea lice research center , department of biology , university of bergen , thorm\u00f8hlensgt . 55 , 5008 bergen , norway .\nsedimentation the cause of smothering ( on the sea bed ) by particulate matter e . g . fish farm fall - out .\nparasites are generally considered a villainous guild , causing host morbidity and mortality . however , we hypothesized that in certain situations , the net effect of parasitism on hosts may be nullified or possibly positive when considering indirect effects of parasites on predator\u2013prey interactions within a multi - host community . for communities of juvenile salmon , the physiological impact of sea louse parasitism has been well studied [ 8 ] , and both pink and chum salmon in captivity show decreased survival with as few as one attached sea louse [ 10 , 11 ] . multi - year studies of pink salmon population abundance data indicate that the net impact of sea louse infestations on pink salmon is probably negative [ 18 ] , suggesting that direct parasite - induced mortality translates to reduced productivity of affected populations for pink salmon . however , our analysis of chum salmon population abundance data suggests the existence of an ecological mechanism that confers resilience to chum salmon populations despite the direct effects of infestations on host individuals . indirect ecological effects of sea lice on salmon predator\u2013prey interactions may be a key determinant of host survival . sea louse parasites are known to increase the susceptibility of juvenile pink and chum salmon to predation [ 6 ] and coho predators prefer to consume pink salmon over chum salmon [ 28 ] . if infestations intensify predation on pink salmon , this may partially release chum salmon from predation , offsetting direct mortality costs of parasites on chum salmon .\nljungfeldt ler , espedal pg , nilsen f , skern - mauritzen m , glover ka . a common - garden experiment to quantify evolutionary processes in copepods : the case of emamectin benzoate resistance in the parasitic sea louse lepeophtheirus salmonis . bmc evol biol . 2014 ; 14 . artn 108 pmid : wos : 000338310800001 .\n. we recorded sea surface salinity and temperature during each sampling event in both regions using a ysi - 30 sct meter . fish were immediately frozen and labeled for subsequent laboratory analyses in which individual fish were thawed and assayed for sea lice using a dissecting microscope . species of motile ( i . e . , sub - adult and adult ) stages of sea lice were directly identified by morphology\nnonlinear changes in host capture rates and survival with sea lice are also worth consideration . studies of the physiological impact of sea louse infestation on salmonid smolts indicate thresholds in louse abundance below which the impact is negligible [ 45 ] . however , for studies of juvenile pink and chum salmon , the presence of thresholds depends on the size of the host [ 8 ] . for salmon less than 0 . 5 g in weight , a single sea louse can reduce swimming performance [ 13 ] , trigger measurable physiological changes [ 26 ] and cause mortality [ 10 ] . however , as juvenile salmon grow and develop scales , they can survive low levels of infestation with little effect . our study focuses on juvenile salmon in the first two to three months of their migration when they are the primary prey for coho salmon predators . during this period , they are mostly below the 0 . 5 g threshold [ 8 ] . in the absence of more detailed studies of nonlinear effects of sea lice on such small hosts , we continued with the assumption of linear increases in host mortality and capture rates with the number of attached sea lice . we explored sigmoidal responses in the electronic supplementary material , but the main results were unchanged .\nneemco has developed , in collaboration with a variety of institutions , a control of ectoparasites of farmed fish . the initial work has focused on the sea louse ( lepophtheirus salmonis ) which is the scourge of farmed salmon in scotland and other countries where the fish are farmed . riddance\u2122 is administered by inclusion in the diet .\ntadiso tm , krasnov a , skugor s , afanasyev s , hordvik i , nilsen f . gene expression analyses of immune responses in atlantic salmon during early stages of infection by salmon louse (\ntadiso tm , krasnov a , skugor s , afanasyev s , hordvik i , nilsen f . gene expression analyses of immune responses in atlantic salmon during early stages of infection by salmon louse (\nwe have demonstrated a potential role of open net - pen salmon farms in transmission of sea lice to wild juvenile sockeye salmon . most juvenile sockeye assessed for sea lice originated either in the fraser or skeena watershed , thus providing a novel comparison of sea louse infection between canada ' s largest sockeye rivers . moreover , our genetics results demonstrate a major migration corridor past farms for fish that originated in the fraser river , a complex of populations that have been the subject of concern due to declining productivity since the early 1990s , and a collapse in 2009 followed by a substantial rebound in 2010 .\nkrkosek m ( 2010 ) sea lice and salmon in pacific canada : ecology and policy . front . ecol environ 8 : 201\u2013209 .\nfirst found in the uk five years ago , both are becoming more prevalent in uk fish farms with experts blaming rising sea temperatures .\nkrko\u0161ek m , lewis m . a , volpe j . p . transmission dynamics of parasitic sea lice from farm to wild salmon .\n\u201cgetting sea lice at such an early age affects young salmons ' health and their ability to fend off predators , \u201d says peacock .\nboxaspen k . a review of the biology and genetics of sea lice . ices j mar sci . 2006 ; 63 : 1304\u201316 .\ncostello mj ( 2009 ) the global economic cost of sea lice to the salmonid farming industry . j fish dis 32 : 115\u2013118 .\ndepartment of biology , sea lice research centre , university of bergen , bergen , norway . sussie . dalvin @ imr . no .\nstrategic considerations of moving aquaculture production to open sea sites are associated with the horizon beyond 2020 though there are implications for 2020 targets .\nmustafa a ; speare dj ; daley j ; conboy ga ; burka jf , 2000 . enhanced susceptibility of seawater cultured rainbow trout , oncorhynchus mykiss ( walbaum ) , to the microsporidian loma salmonae during a primary infection with the sea louse , lepeophtheirus salmonis . journal of fish diseases , 23 ( 5 ) : 337 - 341 .\nby analogy with other species of nematodes and insects , it is thought that mls act on sea louse through irreversible binding to \u03b3 - aminobutyric acid and glucl channels , causing paralysis leading to death . ivermectin resistance has been associated with mutations in glucl leading reduced ml - sensitivity in c . elegans and d . melanogaster [ 37 ] \u2013 [ 39 ] . this mechanism has not been explored in sea lice as glucl channels have not been identified molecularly in these species .\nbailey rje , birkett m , ingvarsd\u00f3ttir a , luntz jm , mordue w , shea bo , et al . the role of semiochemicals in host location and non - host avoidance by salmon louse (\njones m , sommerville c , wootten r . reduced sensitivity of the salmon louse , lepeophtheirus salmonis , to the organophosphate dichlorvos . j fish dis . 1992 ; 15 ( 2 ) : 197\u2013202 ."]}
{"id": 135, "summary": [{"text": "eudonia luminatrix is a moth in the crambidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by meyrick in 1909 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in new zealand .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 19 \u2013 22 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are deep ochreous-brown , streaked with blackish on the veins .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the first and second lines are white , edged posteriorly with black suffusion .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are whitish-fuscous tinged with brassy-yellowish .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the discal spot , postmedian line and terminal fascia are fuscous .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults have been recorded on wing in october and november . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "eudonia luminatrix", "paragraphs": ["vad betyder eudonia ? h\u00e4r finner du 2 definitioner av eudonia . du kan \u00e4ven l\u00e4gga till betydelsen av eudonia sj\u00e4lv\neudonia \u00e4r ett sl\u00e4kte av fj\u00e4rilar som beskrevs av gustaf johan billberg 1820 . enligt catalogue of life ing\u00e5r eudonia i familjen crambidae , men enligt dyntaxa \u00e4r tillh\u00f6righeten ist\u00e4llet fami [ . . ]\nhave a fact about eudonia eremitis ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for eudonia eremitis ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\neudonia - species dictionary - global : ispot nature - your place to share nature . ispot is a website aimed at helping anyone identify anything in nature . once you ' ve registered , you can add an observation to the website and suggest an identification yourself or see if anyone else can identify it for you .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nagain indebted for the material of these notes to the energetic assistance of my valued correspondents , mr . g . v . hudson , of wellington , and mr . a . philpott , of invercargill .\nl . neur\u00e6 , philp . ( trans . n . z . inst . , 1904 , 330 ) , is a synonym of this species . mr . philpott kindly sent me two examples of his species , himself suggesting that it might be identical with my phaula , and this is undoubtedly the case .\nmr . hudson sent me several examples of this species from the thames district . it is common and widely distributed in eastern australia , where it is undoubtedly native ; it has not been hitherto recorded from new zealand , and may perhaps have only recently succeeded in introducing itself . the species of this genus are strong and bold fliers , and can cross wide seas .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 32\u201337 mm . head and thorax whitish - ochreous , partially sprinkled with brown - reddish ; thorax with an irregular transverse anterior reddish - fuscous or dark - fuscous line . abdomen whitish - ochreous sprinkled with brown - reddish , with a bar of blackish suffusion on apex of second segment , and sometimes a double dorsal series of blackish dots . forewings triangular , costa posteriorly moderately arched , apex obtuse , termen bowed , oblique , strongly waved ; pale brownish - ochreous , with numerous waved ferruginous - brown stri\u00e6 , tending to be somewhat marked with black on veins and costa ; median band somewhat paler through obsolescence of stri\u00e6 , limited by groups of stri\u00e6 more distinctly marked with black , anterior curved , posterior rounded - prominent beneath costa and in middle , latter prominence suffused with blackish ; an oblique subapical patch of darker brown suffusion , its upper edge defined and running from above median prominence to apex : cilia pale ochreous mixed with brown - reddish , basal half sprinkled with dark fuscous . hindwings with termen rounded , irregularly waved - dentate ; colour and stri\u00e6 as in forewings , but prominences of median band nearly obsolete ; a blackish discal dot ; cilia as in forewings .\ninvercargill , common on flowers of senecio in march ( philpott ) ; two specimens . much like gobiata , from which it may be certainly distinguished by the much more strongly waved termen of both wings ; gobiata is also rather smaller , whiter - irrorated , with straighter stri\u00e6 , lower half of anterior margin of median band and oblique streak from apex forming distinct black lines . i formerly quoted butler ' s name erroneously as a synonym of gobiata .\nhaving received two fine specimens from mr . philpott , i am satisfied it is a good species , and readily distinguished from beata by the colour of the hindwings .\nnotoreas fulva , huds . ( lythria fulva , huds . , trans . n . z . inst . , 1904 , 357 . )\naccording to two \u2640 specimens communicated by mr . hudson , this species is a true notoreas .\nchristchurch , otira gorge , dunedin , invercargill ; from january to march , and in july ; seven specimens . i have possessed examples of this species for a long time , but did not feel sure of their status , the species being a very variable one , and allied to other variable species ; having now , however , received four very fine specimens from mr . philpott , i am satisfied that it is a good species . mr . philpott writes that it is usually confused in collections with productata ; it is , however , nearer melinata , from which it differs by the much longer antennal pectinations , less rounded termen of forewings , distinct and unusually straight white posterior fascia ,\nhindwings of \u2642 not tinged with fuscous towards base , and other details . s . productata is also very variable , but easily distinguished by different from of median band , of which the posterior margin is obtusely angulated rather above middle ; in fact , all the allied species could be distinguished by the form of the posterior margin of median band , which is different in each .\ns . humillima , huds . , is a synonym of this species , according to specimens sent me by mr . philpott , by request of mr . hudson .\nlake tekapo ; one specimen ( hudson ) . allied to s . asaleuta , but very distinct .\ninvercargill , common in november ( philpott ) ; three specimens . belongs to the cleodoralis group ; not very like any new zealand species , but probably related to the tasmanian plagiotis and its allies .\ninvercargill , in october and november ; five specimens ( philpott ) . rather variable in the development of the black and white scales . a distinct species , somewhat intermediate between legnota and epicremna .\n\u2642 . 17\u201318 mm . head and thorax ferruginous - brown , face prominent , flattened - conical ; edge of collar and a spot on shoulders whitish . palpi 3 \u00bd , brown mixed with dark fuscous , whitish towards base beneath . antenn\u00e6 dark fuscous , pubescent - ciliated ( \u00bd ) . abdomen dark grey . forewings elongate , gradually dilated , costa slightly arched , apex obtuse , termen little rounded , rather oblique ; bright ferruginous - brown ; a slender median longitudinal rather irregular ochreous - whitish streak from base to termen , terminal fifth attenuated and tending to be obsolescent : cilia slaty - grey . hindwings dark - grey ; cilia pale - grey , basal third slaty - grey . under - surface dark - grey , hindwings sometimes with very slender indistinct median streak of whitish suffusion ; costal edge of hindwings whitish - yellowish ; all cilia whitish - grey .\ninvercargill , in january ( philpott ) ; two specimens . very close to heteranthes from mount cook , but that species is darker , median streak of forewings whiter , broader , more regular , forewings on under - surface with dorsum suffused with white , hindwings on under - surface with costa suffused with white towards base , and well - marked white median streak , cilia white towards base . possibly more extensive material may show this to be a local form of heteranthes , but at present it seems better to treat them as distinct .\n\u2642 . 16 mm . head , palpi , and thorax ferruginous - brown , face - rounded - prominent ; palpi 4 , whitish towards base beneath . antenn\u00e6 dark fuscous , pubescent - ciliated ( \u00be ) . abdomen rather dark fuscous . forewings elongate , broader than in saristes , costa gently arched , apex obtuse , termen straight , rather oblique , rounded beneath ; ferruginous - brown ; a moderate regular white median longitudinal streak from base to termen , somewhat edged with fuscous suffusion towards middle : cilia pale grey , with darker basal shade , on costa whitish except near apex , with a white bar on terminal extremity of median streak . hindwings dark fuscous ; cilia whitish , basal third fuscous . under - surface dark grey , forewings much suffused with yellowish towards costa and termen , on dorsum broadly whitish - yellowish , hindwings with costa rather broadly pale ochreous - yellowish , with veins suffusedly streaked with pale yellowish , especially on a median streak , all cilia whitish .\ninvercargill ( hudson ) ; one specimen . distinguished from the preceding by the broader forewings ; rather longer palpi and antennal ciliations , white costal cilia , extensive yellowish suffusion of under - surface , and other details .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 17\u201320 mm . head , palpi , and thorax ochreous - brown , in \u2640 with a broad dorsal white stripe extending through crown and thorax , face somewhat rounded - prominent ; palpi 4 , whitish beneath and more or less above , especially in \u2640 . antenn\u00e6 dark fuscous , in \u2642 simply ciliated ( \u2153 ) . abdomen rather dark fuscous , more or less whitish on segmental margins posteriorly . forewings elongate , gradually dilated , costa hardly arched , apex obtuse , termen straight , rather oblique , rounded beneath ; ochreous - brown ; a moderate white median longitudinal streak from base to termen , slightly broadest in middle , in \u2642 more or less edged beneath with dark - fuscous suffusion , in \u2642 broadly edged with dark - fuscous suffusion on both margins except towards base above ; in \u2640 a narrow irregular white suffused subcostal streak , and broad dorsal or subdorsal white streak narrowed towards base ; in \u2642 a slender white streak along upper part of termen above median streak , in \u2640 a broader undefined patch of white suffusion : cilia in \u2642 pale grey , with a white basal streak on upper half of termen , in \u2640 almost wholly white . hindwings rather dark fuscous , with a broad costal streak of whitish - ochreous suffusion from base to \u2153 ; cilia whitish - ochreous , in \u2642 more or less greyishtinged , and with a grey basal line . under - surface wholly light ochreous - yellowish , forewings somewhat infuscated ; cilia ochreous - whitish .\ninvercargill , in december ; three specimens taken by myself , and three others received from mr . philpott . i have hitherto confused this species with \u00e6thonellus , and recorded it under that name , but now see it to be distinct . \u00e6thonellus , which is known from mount hutt only , has the costal edge of forewings ochreous - whitish , no white streak on upper part of termen or in cilia , hindwings without the pale - yellowish costal patch , but with cilia clear pale - yellowish except basal line , under - surface of forewings suffused with grey except towards costa and on a median streak , of hindwings partly greyish between veins . in five of the seven species of this group\u2014viz . , \u00e6thonellus , auliste\u015b , saristes , heteranthes , and antimorus \u2014the antenn\u00e6 of \u2642 are pubescent - ciliated\u2014that is , clothed with short pubescence over their whole surface , but with a row of somewhat longer cilia on one side ; in the other two\u2014 melitastes and heliotes \u2014they are glabrous ( devoid of pubescence ) , but simply ciliated on one side .\ndescribed ( trans . ent . soc . lond . , 1902 , 278 ) from the chatham islands ; but mr . philpott has now sent me two specimens from invercargill\u2014a very interesting record . it is allied to falcatalis , but smaller and darker , and distinguished by the prominent angulation of termen of second segment of forewings ( in falcatalis the margin is somewhat bent but not angulated ) , and the principal dorsal scale - tuft of hindwings being hardly beyond the middle , whereas in falcatalis it is much broader and is considerably beyond the middle .\n\u2642 . 18 mm . head white mixed with dark reddish - fuscous , frontal tuft moderately long . palpi brownish irrorated with dark fuscous . antenn\u00e6 grey , above with a blackish line . thorax whitish irrorated with dark reddish - fuscous , metathorax suffused with black and edged with white . abdomen dark reddish - fuscous sprinkled with whitish , and mixed with blackish on sides towards middle . legs reddish - fuscous sprinkled with white , tibi\u00e6 and tarsi banded with white and dark fuscous . forewings cleft from beyond \u00be , segments broad , termen of first sinuate , of second bowed in middle ; reddish - fuscous closely irrorated with whitish and sprinkled with dark fuscous , anterior \u00be transversely strigulated with white , especially towards dorsum ; costal edge suffused with dark fuscous and strigulated with white ; a triangular black blotch on costa at \u2154 , its apex produced and extending to before lower angle of cleft , edged posteriorly by a fascia of brownish - ochreous suffusion crossing base of both segments , followed by a broader fascia of dark - fuscous suffusion , edged posteriorly by an even whitish line parallel to termen : cilia grey , on costa dark fuscous with a white spot before apex , on termen whitish towards base with a sharply marked even black basal line throughout , on dorsum mixed with black scales , forming a tolerably even line posteriorly , at \u2154 with a flat black scale - tooth preceded and followed by whitish patches . hindwings cleft firstly from middle , secondly from \u00bc , segments moderately broad , termen of second subsinuate ; grey ; cilia light grey , on dorsum mixed with black scales throughout , with a moderate elongate - triangular black scale - projection beginning at \u2157 .\nwellington ; one specimen ( hudson ) . allied to falcatalis and \u00e6olodes , but differs from both in the strong black entire line at base of terminal cilia of forewings . the species of this genus require careful discrimination , and probably more remain to be found in the mountains ; their larv\u00e6 are usually attached to composit\u00e6 ( feeding variously on the flowers or leaves , or in the stems ) , and should be looked for .\n\u2640 . 14 mm . head , palpi , and thorax ochreous . abdomen grey . forewings elongate , gradually dilated , costa moderately arched , apex obtuse , termen somewhat sinuate , rather oblique ; ferruginous - ochreous , irregularly mixed with white ; costa and dorsum shortly strigulated with blackish ; a large trapezoidal blotch of partial blackish suffusion extending over costal half of wing from base to near middle , posteriorly formed by upper part of central fascia ; a rounded - triangular blackish spot on dorsum before tornus ; a curved leaden - metallic stria from \u2158 of costa to tornus , forming posterior\nmargin of ocellus , anterior margin silvery - whitish , ocellus limited above by a triangular blackish spot , and containing two or three undefined black dashes : cilia ferruginous - ochreous , with a blackish basal line ( imperfect ) . hindwings with vein 4 absent ; rather dark grey ; cilia grey , with darker basal shade .\n\u2642 . 15 mm . head and palpi grey ; palpi moderate , terminal joint very short . antennal ciliations 1 . thorax reddish - ochreous , somewhat mixed with grey . abdomen rather dark grey . forewings elongate - triangular , costa gently arched , fold occupying basal \u2156 , apex obtuse , termen slightly rounded , rather oblique ; reddish - fuscous , suffusedly strigulated with light yellow - ochreous ; costal fold strigulated with blackish ; several dark ferruginous - brown dots on dorsum ; a wedge - shaped ochreous patch mixed with dark reddish - fuscous and towards costa with orange , resting on costa from \u2157 to \u2158 , its apex touching termen above tornus , preceded and followed by undefined bands of grey - whitish suffusion : cilia reddish - fuscous , tips whitish - yellowish . hindwings with 6 and 7 stalked ; rather dark grey ; cilia grey - whitish , with grey basal line .\n\u2642 . 12 mm . head , palpi , and thorax brown mixed with dark fuscous ; palpi under 2 , whitish - ochreous towards base ; antennal ciliations 2 . abdomen dark fuscous . forewings elongate - oblong , costa anteriorly moderately arched , apex obtuse , termen slightly rounded , somewhat oblique ; dark purplish - fuscous , irregularly strigulated with blackish - fuscous ; a narrow blackish - fuscous fascia from middle of costa to \u00be of dorsum , slightly curved , somewhat expanded towards costa ; the dark strigulation tends to form two or three spots towards apex : cilia dark fuscous , towards tips paler and somewhat mixed with orange - ochreous . hindwings dark fuscous , more blackish posteriorly ; cilia grey mixed with bronzy , with blackish - grey basal shade , tips more whitish . forewings beneath with a short longitudinal coppery - orange streak beneath upper margin of cell before middle of wing .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 8\u20139 mm . head and thorax brown , sometimes suffused with ferruginous - reddish . palpi brownish , paler towards base . abdomen dark grey . forewings elongate , narrow , costa slightly arched , apex obtuse , termen very obliquely rounded ; 3 absent , 7 present ; in \u2642 with narrow costal fold towards base ; varying from ochreous - brown or dark brown tinged with ochreous to bright ferruginous , sometimes sprinkled with - black , termen always suffused with ferruginous ; in \u2642 a more or less indicated streak of ochreous or pale - ochreous suffusion running from base through disc to below middle and thence curved upwards to costa before apex , sometimes distinct and marked at \u2154 with a whitish spot , sometimes almost obsolete : cilia brown . hindwings dark grey ; cilia grey .\ninvercargill , abundant on short vegetation on sandhills in march ( philpott ) ; four specimens . this species differs from all the others of the genus\nin the possession of a costal fold in \u2642 , but is otherwise so nearly allied that it is clearly unnecessary to separate it generically . the genus is separated from all others by the neuration .\nthis species , previously included by me in proselena , is properly referable to eurythecta , having the same neuration as the preceding . i am much indebted to mr . philpott for calling my attention to the actual structure , and thus enabling me to correct my original error of observation . it may , however , be regarded as the most primitive of the five known species of the genus , and the affinity with proselena is real .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 17\u201318 mm . head , palpi , and thorax fuscous irrorated with whitish , head paler and more ochreous - tinged ; palpi irrorated with blackish on inferior half . abdomen ochreous - grey - whitish . forewings elongate , narrow , costa moderately arched , apex obtuse , termen nearly straight , rather strongly oblique ; fuscous irrorated with ochreous - whitish ; a small pale brownish - ochreous basal patch , suffused with fuscous on costa , limited by an inwardly oblique black line resting externally on a ridge of raised scales ; beyond this a dark fuscous blotch from costa reaching half across wing , its posterior angle touching a large tuft of blackish scales below fold surrounded with pale brownish - ochreous suffusion ; immediately beyond this a small round ochreous spot strongly edged with blackish in disc at \u2153 , a blackish dot above this , and another at \u2156 above middle of disc ; an irregular light ochreous spot in disc at \u2154 , followed by some blackish scales ; an angulated series of blackish dots running from a dark spot on costa beyond \u2154 to dorsum before tornus : cilia grey irrorated with whitish . hindwings grey - whitish , slightly ochreous - tinged posteriorly ; cilia ochreous - grey - whitish .\ninvercargill , in january ; two specimens ( philpott ) . allied to ioph\u00e6a , but readily distinguished by the black line limiting the pale basal patch , the whitish hindwings , and other differences .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 12\u201313 mm . head and thorax ochreous - grey - whitish . palpi whitish , second joint tinged with greyish - ochreous beneath , terminal joint shorter than second , with blackish anterior line . antenn\u00e6 whitish , sprinkled with dark grey . abdomen grey mixed with ochreous - whitish , in \u2642 suffused with pale ochreous towards base . forewings lanceolate , acute ; light ochreous - brown , suffusedly irrorated with whitish , tending to leave a more or less clear median longitudinal streak of ground - colour ; a blackish mark on fold towards base ; discal stigmata rather large , black , approximated , plical represented by a dark fuscous or brown cloud , very obliquely before first discal , sometimes extending upwards towards costa ; several cloudy blackish or dark fuscous dots on posterior part of costa and termen : cilia whitish , partially tinged with ochreous or fuscous , with an indistinct blackish median line . hindwings 1 , light grey ; cilia ochreous - grey - whitish .\ninvercargill , common in december at new river ( philpott ) ; three specimens . quite distinct from any other .\n\u2642 . 18 mm . head whitish - ochreous sprinkled with fuscous . palpi whitish - ochreous , second joint and a median band of terminal joint irrorated with dark fuscous , terminal joint unusually short , about half second . antenn\u00e6 pale ochreous suffusedly ringed with dark fuscous , uniformly pubescent - ciliated . thorax whitish - ochreous suffused with brownish and irrorated with dark fuscous . abdomen grey , segments dorsally banded with golden - ferruginous . forewings elongate , costa gently arched , apex round - pointed , termen very obliquely rounded ; ochreous - whitish , closely irrorated with brown ; a triangular brownish patch above dorsum towards base , limited posteriorly by a fine inwardly oblique blackish line terminating beneath in a conspicuous raised black dot above \u2156 of dorsum , preceded by some whitish suffusion ; discal stigmata large , round , brown , edged with a few black scales ; a small blackish spot on dorsum at \u2158 , whence proceeds a sinuate line of scattered blackish scales near termen , angulated in middle and continued to costa at \u2158 , where it is somewhat dilated and preceded by a spot of whitish suffusion ; a bar of brown suffusion from second discal stigma to tornus : cilia ochreous - whitish tinged with brown and irrorated with fuscous , at tornus with a grey bar preceded by whitish suffusion . hindwings light grey ; cilia ochreous - whitish suffused with pale greyish .\ninvercargill , in october ; one specimen ( philpott ) . superficially much like b . griseata , but really abundantly distinct when examined in detail ; the unusually short terminal joint of palpi and pubescent - ciliated antenn\u00e6 are notable structural characteristics ; the large brown discal stigmata are also a salient point .\n\u2642 . 17 mm . head whitish - ochreous . palpi whitish - ochreous , second joint suffusedly irrorated with dark fuscous , terminal joint nearly as long as second , with dark fuscous subapical ring . antenn\u00e6 whitish - ochreous spotted with dark fuscous , simply ciliated . thorax whitish - ochreous mixed with light brownish . abdomen grey , dorsally banded with ferruginous . forewings elongate , rather narrow , costa gently arched , apex obtuse , termen rounded , rather strongly oblique ; whitish - ochreous suffusedly mixed with ochreous - brown ; base of costa suffused with dark fuscous ; first discal stigma represented by a short oblique linear black mark , followed by whitish suffusion , second round , whitish , partially edged with black , plical black , rather obliquely beyond first discal ; a suffused blackish dot on dorsum towards tornus ; some fuscous suffusion towards costa at \u2154 , and towards apex and termen ; between these are indications of an angulated suffused whitish - ochreous subterminal line , most distinct towards costa : cilia whitish - ochreous , with a light fuscous sub - basal shade . hindwings light grey ; cilia whitish - grey .\ninvercargill , in december ; one specimen ( philpott ) . also belongs to the griseata group , but quite distinct by the character of the stigmata and subterminal line .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 23 mm . head and thorax whitish - ochreous , in \u2642 more brownishtinged . palpi whitish - ochreous , externally with a few scattered dark - fuscous scales . antenn\u00e6 whitish - ochreous , obscurely ringed with dark fuscous .\nabdomen whitish - ochreous , in \u2642 more brownish , dorsally suffused with brassy - golden except on margins of segments . forewings elongate , costa moderately arched , apex obtuse , termen very obliquely rounded ; whitish - ochreous , with a few scattered dark - fuscous scales , in \u2642 mostly suffused with brownish except on dorsal streak ; a broad pale dorsal streak from base to tornus , upper edge prominent near base , where there is a tuft of scales , and about middle of dorsum ; some dark - fuscous suffusion extending above this streak from base to \u2157 of disc , and thence upwards to costa ; stigmata round , whitish - ochreous , edged with dark fuscous , plical obliquely beyond first discal ; an angulated dark - fuscous line or series of dots from \u2158 of costa to tornus : cilia ochreous - whitish , in \u2642 irrorated with grey , basal third barred with fuscous . hindwings very pale whitish - ochreous ; a cloudy round fuscous discal spot ; apex and lower half of termen suffused with fuscous irroration ; cilia ochreous - whitish , round apex and on lower half of termen with a suffused fuscous shade .\nwellington ; two specimens ( hudson ) . differs from both the other described species in having the wings of \u2640 fully developed , and formed quite as in \u2642 ; the pale dark - edged stigmata are also characteristic .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 16\u201317 mm . head and thorax rather dark fuscous , somewhat sprinkled with whitish , forehead with conical horny projection . palpi dark fuscous , somewhat whitish - sprinkled , terminal joint with two whitish bands . anten\u00e6 grey - whitish spotted with dark fuscous . abdomen dark fuscous , two basal segments dorsally amber - coloured . forewings rather narrowly elongate - oblong , costa rather arched towards base and apex , apex obtuse , termen almost straight , oblique ; dark fuscous , partially tinged with ochreous - brown , slightly whitish - sprinkled ; some variable irregularly scattered black dashes and dots in disc , plical stigma represented by a blackish tuft of scales , second discal by a transverse black mark ; three very ill - defined transverse fasci\u00e6 or lines of whitish suffusion , first at \u00bc , straight , moderately broad , second median , straight , very indistinct , third at \u00be , narrow , curved , representing subterminal line : cilia fuscous mixed with dark fuscous . hindwings dark fuscous , somewhat lighter anteriorly ; cilia grey , with dark fuscous basal shade .\nwellington ; two specimens ( hudson ) . distinct by its relatively small size and dark colouring .\ni have recently ( proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . , 1907 , 54\u201368 ) recast the limits of this genus and its near allies , from extended material . the new zealand species are now classified as follows : \u2014\nconopomorpha , meyr . middle tibi\u00e6 not thickened , posterior tibi\u00e6 with bristly hairs .\nmacarostola , meyr . middle tibi\u00e6 not thickened , scales sometimes expanded at apex only , posterior tibi\u00e6 smooth - scaled .\ngracilaria , hw . middle tibi\u00e6 thickened with dense scales , more or less rough beneath , posterior tibi\u00e6 smooth - scaled .\n\u2640 . 12 mm . head yellow - whitish , sides of crown reddish - ochreous . palpi yellow - whitish , terminal joint ferruginous - tinged near base . antenn\u00e6 white ringed with blackish , basal joint whitish - ferruginous . thorax ferruginous - ochreous , with a yellow - whitish dorsal stripe . abdomen rather dark grey , beneath yellow - whitish . legs whitish , anterior and middle femora and tibi\u00e6 mixed with ferruginous - ochreous and sprinkled with black , tips of tarsal joints blackish . forewings elongate - lanceolate , costa moderately arched posteriorly , apex acute ; deep ochreous - yellow , more orange towards dorsum , with a strong purple gloss , strewn throughout except beneath fold with very numerous suffused yellow - whitish dots separated by small dots and strigul\u00e6 of dark fuscous scales ; three moderate brassy - yellow - whitish spots on dorsum : cilia ochreous - whitish . hindwings rather dark grey ; cilia grey .\nmount holdsworth , 3 , 000 ft . ; one specimen ( hudson ) . very distinct .\nfinding that phryganostola , which only differed from glyphipteryx by the rough projecting scales or tuft of second joint of palpi , appeared to be an artificial division , which separated nearly allied species , i have suppressed it , including all the species in glyphipteryx .\n\u2640 . 14 mm . head , antenn\u00e6 , thorax , and abdomen dark fuscous , patagia shining bronze . palpi black , second joint without tuft , with three white rings , terminal joint with two white stripes . forewings elongate , rather narrow , costa gently arched , apex round - pointed , termen hardly sinuate , rather strongly oblique ; bright golden - bronze ; five variably oblique narrow violet - silvery - metallic partly black - edged streaks from costa , first short , slightly before middle , second angulated , reaching half across wing , third short , fourth longer , rather dilated apically , fifth running to termen beneath apex ; an erect similar streak from tornus , terminating in a black mark just beyond apex of second costal streak , and a short streak from termen below middle ; a small blackish apical spot : cilia grey , basal half bronzy , with a silvery dot on subapical streak , on costa with white bars on streaks . hindwings blackish - grey ; cilia dark grey .\ninvercargill , in january ; one specimen ( philpott ) . resembles transversella , but without the pale longitudinal streak , the silvery streaks differently formed , the second angulated , third shorter than fourth ( in transversella longer than fourth ) , and otherwise distinct .\nunder the names of derogatella , walk . , and melichrysa , meyr . , treated as synonymous , i have hitherto confused two distinct species , which can now be distinguished under these two names ; both are common .\ncharacterized by its dull brownish - ochreous ground - colour , tendency to confusion of the white markings , so that anterior half of wing is sometimes wholly suffused with white , plentiful black strigulation , the ante - median white fascia broadly dilated towards costa , shortly angulated above middle , posterior part of disc confusedly mixed with white and black scales , and presence of distinct black sub - basal line in terminal cilia .\nmasterton , wellington , christchurch , invercargill ( and , according to walker , auckland ) , from december to march .\ncharacterized by clear yellow - ochreous ground - colour , well - defined and separate white black - edged markings , ante - median white fascia very acutely angulated in middle , and absence of black line in terminal cilia .\nwhangarei , auckland , nelson , dunedin , invercargill , in december and january . my original description clearly included both species , but the name ( meaning \u201choney - golden\u201d ) is a relative definition of this one , and i now limit it in that sense .\n\u2642 . 13\u201314 mm . head , palpi , thorax , and abdomen rather dark fuscous . antenn\u00e6 dark fuscous , ciliations 4 . forewings elongate , costa gently arched , apex obtuse , termen very obliquely rounded ; 6 present ; whitish - fuscous , strewn with cloudy dark - fuscous strigul\u00e6 ; a moderately broad slightly oblique dark - fuscous median fascia ; a cloudy dark - fuscous spot on costa at \u00be ; the confluence of the strigul\u00e6 tends to form suffused spots in disc towards apex , and along termen : cilia whitish - fuscous , with dark - fuscous ante - median shade and indistinct bars on basal third . hindwings with 6 present ; grey ; cilia grey .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\ni / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation ."]}
{"id": 142, "summary": [{"text": "the plymouth red-bellied turtle ( pseudemys rubriventris bangsi ) , sometimes called the plymouth red-bellied cooter , the first freshwater turtle in the us to be listed as endangered , by the united states fish and wildlife service was found only in plymouth county , massachusetts before the state began trying to establish populations in other areas .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "current thinking is that they are not a full subspecies and that they belong in synonymy under pseudemys rubriventris or northern red-bellied cooter .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "nevertheless , it is well recognized that the plymouth red-bellied turtle extends the range of the northern red-bellied cooter by 30 \u2013 40 percent .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "in 1983 , massasoit national wildlife refuge was established to help conserve the plymouth red-bellied turtle .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this turtle gets its name from its reddish plastron or undershell .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "they have flattened or slightly concave vertebral scutes with a red bar on each marginal scute .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "their upper shell or carapace ranges from brown to black .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "an arrow-shaped stripe runs atop head , between the eyes , to their snout .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "adults are 10 \u2013 16 inches ( 25 \u2013 41 cm ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "males have elongated , straight claws on the front feet .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "it lives in the plymouth pinelands of the massachusetts and spends most of its time in freshwater ponds .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "in spring and summer , the females nest in sand while the males look for food .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "females lay 5 \u2013 17 eggs at a time .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the incubation of the eggs takes 73 to 80 days , and the eggs hatch at around 25 \u00b0c ( 77 \u00b0f ) .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "hatchlings are about 32 millimetres ( 1.3 in ) long .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "eggs and young turtles are prey to skunks , raccoons , birds , and fish .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "their natural lifespan is 40 to 45 years .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the population had been reduced to 200 \u2013 300 turtles by the 1980s .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "by 2007 , there were estimated to be 400 \u2013 600 breeding age turtles across 20 ponds .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "this is due to overhunting by its natural predator the skunk and pollution from herbicides dumped into streams and ponds .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "loss of habitat , as a result of filling in ponds to create houses is also a major issue . ", "topic": 4}], "title": "plymouth red - bellied turtle", "paragraphs": ["(\nspecies turtle , red - bellied , plymouth\n, 1996 ;\nplymouth rebelly turtle habitat model\n, 2001 ; ernst , et al . , 1994 )\n1996 .\nspecies turtle , red - bellied , plymouth\n( on - line ) . accessed march 19 , 2003 at urltoken .\nglenn , c . r . 2006 .\nearth ' s endangered creatures - plymouth red - bellied turtle facts\n( online ) . accessed\nthe plymouth red - bellied turtle is thought to be limited to about 17 ponds and one river site in plymouth county , massachusetts . the total number of breeding individuals is believed to be about 300 .\nthe plymouth red - bellied turtle prefers deep , permanent ponds with nearby sandy areas for nesting , and surrounding vegetation of pine barrens or mixed deciduous forest .\nplymouth red - bellied turtle .\nbeacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nwikipedia article copyright notice : this article is licensed under the gnu free documentation license . it uses material from the wikipedia article\nplymouth red - bellied turtle\n.\nplymouth red - bellied turtle .\nbeacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . 1985 .\nplymouth red - bellied turtle recovery plan .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service , newton corner , massachusetts .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . 1994 .\nplymouth red - bellied turtle recovery plan , second revision .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service , newton corner , massachusetts .\nred - bellied turtles are considered endangered according to the endangered species act of 1973 . the subspecies\npseudemys rubriventris bangsi is the scientific name for the common named plymouth red - bellied cooter . these turtles can be found in deep ponds , lakes , streams , rivers , and marshes . they mostly live in freshwater .\n2001 .\nplymouth rebelly turtle habitat model\n( on - line ) . usfws gulf of maine watershed habitat analysis . accessed march 19 , 2003 at urltoken .\neastern red - bellied turtles act as both predator and prey . their prey include crayfish , snails , fish , and tadpoles . predators of\nthe plymouth red - bellied turtle is believed to be a subspecies of the eastern red - bellied turtle ( pseudemys rubriventris ) . some biologists argue that the subspecies only exists because of a taxonomic error , and that the plymouth red - bellied turtle is only an isolated population of the eastern red - bellied turtle . nevertheless , the subspecies is classified as endangered throughout its entire range in massachusetts . the eastern red - bellied turtle is a shy pond turtle species . adults grow from 10 to 15 inches in length . their carapaces are brown to black with flat scutes . their heads are arrow - like in shape with stripes that run between the eyes and to the nose . the plastron ( undershell ) is reddish in color , giving the red - bellied turtle its name . males have long claws on their front feet . eastern red - bellied turtles can be found in deep ponds , lakes , streams and rivers . they can often be found basking not too far from the water . diet consists of snails , slugs , crayfish , tadpoles , and aquatic plants . mating occurs in the spring , and nesting from june to july . females lay from 8 to 20 eggs , and the hatchlings emerge 10 to 15 weeks later . the young turtles sometimes remain in the nest throughout the winter . in massachusetts , these turtles are said to be very vulnerable ( as eggs and young turtles ) to predation by skunks , raccoons , birds , and fish , and the population was reduced to 200 to 300 turtles in the 1980s . conservation efforts include preservation of the turtles habitat and protection of the nests . there are also several head start programs in place in massachusetts to help raise hatchlings until they are able to survive on their own .\npseudemys rubriventris bangsi , also known as the plymouth red - bellied turtle , or the northern red - bellied cooter , has been listed as endangered and protected under the endangered species act of 1973 since april 2 , 1980 ( 3 ) . until recently , the turtle was classified taxonomically as a subspecies due to differences in shell morphology ( 4 ) . when it was later found that this species showed no difference in morphology or genetics from the mid - atlantic red - bellied turtles pseudemys rubriventris ( 4 ) , the national wilderness institute filed a petition in 1997 asking that pseudemys rubriventris bangsi be removed from the endangered species list due to taxonomical error at the time of listing ( 2 ) .\neat the hatchlings and eggs . red - bellied turtles escape predators by burying themselves in the mud , swimming aggressively , or by withdrawing into their shells .\nthe northern red - bellied cooter ( pseudemys rubriventris pop . ) is endemic to ponds in eastern massachusetts [ 1 ] . it formerly occurred in a patchy distribution in most of the state ' s coastal counties including essex , middlesex , plymouth , barnstable , and dukes . the only non - coastal county with a historical record is worcester . today it occurs only in plymouth county .\nroy mcdiarmid ( pers . comm . , june 2001 ) indicates that current thinking is that the massachusetts populations previously referred to as pseudemys rubriventris bangsi babcock , 1937 ( plymouth red - bellied turtle ) , which are listed as endangered by the us fish & wildlife service , are not a full subspecies ; they belong in synonymy under p . rubriventris ( leconte , 1830 )\nin 1983 , the massasoit national wildlife refuge was established to help conserve the plymouth red - bellied turtles . at the current moment , measures are being taken to preserve the turtle ' s habitats and protecting of the nests . there are many\nhead start\nprograms in massachusetts to help raise the hatchlings until they are big and strong enough to survive on their own .\ntable 1 : number and locations of hs hatchlings in plymouth county , ma from 1984 - 2006 ( 3 ) .\nat maturity , the plymouth red - bellied turtle , pseudemys rubriventris bangsii , achieves a carapace ( upper shell ) length of up to 12 in ( 31 cm ) . the carapace is typically black to deep mahogany with reddish vertical bars , but color and patterning vary widely . the male undershell ( plastron ) is pale pink , overlaid with a dark mottling . the female under - shell is a brilliant coral red . the upper jaw is notched and displays distinct cusps .\narchaeological evidence suggests that this species occurred in a fairly restricted area of eastern massachusetts defined by ipswich , concord , and martha ' s vineyard . a closely related subspecies , the red - bellied turtle ( pseudemys rubriventris rubriventris ) , ranges from north carolina to southern new jersey .\nred - bellied turtles were economically important to humans in the colonial times as a source of food and trade . today , their shells make decorative art . doctors have an interest in the workings of the turtles ' hearts and have performed operations recorded in scientific journals . red - bellied turtles also help control the population of hyacinth , an invasive aquatic plant .\nthe carapace of the red - bellied turtle can measure from 10 \u2013 16 in and is dark brown or black in color ( 1 , 3 ) . the scutes ( modified scales ) on the carapace are flat and nearly concave ( 1 ) . there is also a red bar on the marginal scutes . the name red - bellied comes from the reddish color of the plastron , which is also accompanied by dark markings ( 1 ) . sexual dimorphism is evident at 5 to 7 years ( 3 ) with males having long , straight claws on front limbs ( 1 ) .\nother negative impacts on this turtle include incidental mortality from highway traffic , occasional shooting , and use as pets . another threat could arise in the future if pond levels were subject to extensive draw downs as might occur if the plymouth aquifer were tapped as a water source for metropolitan areas . such draw downs could affect the turtle ' s food supply as well as cover .\nred - bellied turtles are diurnal reptiles , spending most of their days basking on logs and swimming . they are most active from april to october . during winter , when water is covered with ice ,\neastern redbelly turtle\n( on - line ) . enature . accessed 03 / 19 / 03 at urltoken .\nthe turtles hibernate in mud at the bottoms of rivers during the winter time . the description of a red - bellied turtle , as you can see , is a brown / black carapace and concave scutes . each scute has a red bar and there is a stripe on the head . scutes are lightly marked and the males have straight claws on front feet . dimensions are 10 - 15 inches . these turtles breed during june and july . there are 8 - 20 eggs in a clutch , dimension of egg is 1 inch . time period it takes to hatch is 10 - 15 weeks , but sometimes they don ' t hatch until the following year . their natural lifespan is 40 - 45 years . the red - bellied turtle gets its name from its reddish plastron .\nthe loss of federal protections and the associated recovery plan could have resulted in drastic population declines . in 1996 , there was new criteria for which a species could be considered endangered ; this was beneficial to protecting the plymouth red - bellied turtle ( 3 ) . the 1996 disjunct / discrete population segment policy allows populations to be considered on their own for extinction risks if there is significant reproductive isolation ( 3 ) . this lack of interbreeding with the rest of the species could be due to physiological , behavioral , ecological and / or physical factors ( 3 ) . in the case of pseudemys rubriventris bangsi , the nearest population is approximately 250 miles south ; this significant isolation distance may have existed for hundreds of years ( 3 ) . isolation and the lack of any migratory evidence have led to the plymouth red - bellied turtle being granted the status of a discrete population segment , under which it maintains its endangered designation under the endangered species act ( 3 ) . many recommend that the name bangsi be retained , even though it is no longer an official subspecies . some experts claim that the extinction of the plymouth population would result in a 40 % reduction in the range of the species ( 3 ) .\nto counter habitat loss , the nature conservancy included several turtle ponds in its land registry program in massachusetts . under this system , landowners voluntarily agreed to avoid activities on their lands that would harm the turtle . this voluntary program provided the nucleus for the establishment of a permanent federal wildlife refuge in 1986 . the refuge includes all turtle ponds known to be inhabited and others that were once inhabited .\n3 . michael j . amaral . northern red - bellied cooter ( pseudemys rubriventris ) 5 - year review : summary and evaluation may 3 , 2007 u . s . fish and wildlife service new england field office concord , new hampshire urltoken\n5 . aquatic oxygen consumption by wintering red - bellied turtles terry e . graham ; robert w . guimond journal of herpetology , vol . 29 , no . 3 . ( sep . , 1995 ) , pp . 471 - 474 .\nthe carapaces of adult red - bellied turtles are on average 26 to 32 cm in length . the carapace is a mahogany black color with red lines running dorso - ventrally . they have a serrated front upper - jaw . the head is brown and arrow - shaped with a yellow line that extends between the eyes and snout . a series of consecutive thick and thin yellow bands come off the anterior of the eye and travel laterally down the neck . this species exhibits sexual dimorphism . the plastrons of male red - bellied turtles are light pink . they have long , straight claws on their feet and an anal opening that extends beyond the shell . the females are larger than the males with brighter red plastrons containing gray borders . the hatchlings of\nthe greatest threat to this turtle is its limited distribution . many of the habitat ponds are within an area of only 1 , 500 acres ( 607 hectares ) . in the early 1980s , plymouth county experienced a development boom . pondshore land , in particular , was considered prime for residential development . the massachusetts wetlands protection act provided some protection against alteration of turtle pond habitats . but even when ponds were left intact by construction , houses and roads eliminated nesting and basking sites .\neastern red - bellied turtles inhabit large freshwater lakes , rivers , ponds , and creeks . most of these waters are fast moving , deep - bodied , and contain a muddy bottom where the water depth ranges from 2 - 3 . 5 m . occasionally ,\nfemale eastern red - bellied turtles dig a nest cavity 10 cm wide by 10 cm deep in the sand in early june or july . this nest cavity is found in a well - insulated area 90 m from the water , and 1 m above pond level .\nthere are currently 20 ponds in plymouth county massachusetts , a region in southeastern massachusetts experiencing increasing land development , that are inhabited by pseudemys rubriventris bangsi ( 3 ) . the ponds are land - locked coastal plain ponds fed by groundwater , springs and connected by an underground aquifer ( 3 ) . as much as 50 % of the population inhabits federal pond , which is owned and utilized by federal furnace cranberry company ( 3 ) . plymouth county is being developed quickly and the cranberry company has been reviewing development opportunities which could endanger the turtle even more ( 3 ) . although southeastern massachusetts cranberry agriculture draws nearly 3 . 5 billion gallons of water per year from local surface waters , red - bellied turtles have a better chance of continuing their existence by depending on the same water as cranberry growers than sharing their ponds with residential development .\nturtle taxonomy working group [ van dijk , p . p . , j . iverson , a . rhodin , h . shaffer , and r . bour ]\nwhen listed as an endangered species , the taxon was called the\nplymouth red - bellied turtle\nand was considered a subspecies ( pseudemys rubriventris bangsi ) [ 1 ] . the subspecies has since been invalidated , but the 1994 federal recovery plan explains that as an ecologically and geographically distinct population , it still qualifies as an endangered species . the nearest individuals of the southern population are 250 miles away in southern new jersey . the northern population is also unique in only being found naturally in ponds . the southern population is often riverine . the taxon ' s status as an endangered species will be reviewed in 2006 in response to a delisting petition [ 2 , 5 ] .\nbrowne , r . , a . haskell , c . griffin , j . ridgeway . 1996 . genetic variations among populations of the redbelly turtle ( pseudemys rubriventris ) .\n[ 1 ] u . s . fish and wildlife service . 1994 . plymouth redbelly turtle ( pseudernys rubriventris ) recovery plan , second revision . u . s . fish and wildife service , hadley , massachusetts . 48 pp . [ 2 ] amaral , m . 2006 . personal communication with michael amaral , u . s . fish and wildlife service , concord , nh , february 7 , 2006 . [ 3 ] amaral , m . 2006 . released northern red - bellied cooters , 1985 - 2003 . spreadsheet provided by michael amaral , u . s . fish and wildlife service , concord , nh , february 7 , 2006 . [ 4 ] french , t . 2006 . personal communication with tom french , massachusetts natural heritage and endangered species program , westborough , ma , february 7 , 2006 , and february 8 , 2006 . [ 5 ] gordon , r . 1997 . petition to remove the ' plymouth redbelly turtle ' ( ' pseudemys rubriventris bangsi ' ) from the list of endangered and threatened wildlife and plants . national wilderness institute , february 3 , 1997 .\nhibernate in the mud at the bottom of rivers . red - bellied turtles are not territorial . they are shy and wary of humans and predators and swim rapidly and bury themselves in the mud when scared . numerous individuals frequently inhabit the same rocks or logs while sunbathing . however , aggression over basking spots between\nthere is a dispute over the correct genus of the eastern redbelly turtle . some choose to use pseudemys while others use chrysemys . oftentimes , chrysemys is used only for painted turtles .\npredation by raccoons , skunks , and widemouth bass is also considered a serious threat to the turtle population . raccoons and skunks dig out nests and eat the eggs , while bass snatch turtle hatchlings from the water before the shells have a chance to harden . to counter this threat , researchers under the direction of the massachusetts natural heritage and endangered species program began locating turtle nests and fencing sites to exclude predators . at the time of fencing , several eggs are removed from each nest , then hatched and raised in a collaborative captive breeding program .\nspans the mid - atlantic coastal waters of the usa from new jersey to north carolina . this includes areas east to the potomac river and west to w . virginia . there is a disjunctive population of eastern red - bellied turtles in massachusetts , as well as a small , introduced population in long island , new york .\nlay eggs under 10 cm of sand . the young emerge as hatchlings after 73 to 80 days and quickly make their way to the nearest water source , where they will develop into adults . hatchlings are typically between 29 and 36 mm in plastron length . eastern red - bellied turtles reach sexual maturity after 5 to 9 years .\nare found in brackish water at the mouths of rivers . they surround themselves with aquatic vegetation , rocks , and logs for basking in the sun . eastern red - bellied turtles become terrestrial for short periods of time while laying eggs in june or july . they show little evidence of migration and often occupy the same habitat year - round .\nred - bellied turtles are omnivores that feed on snails , plants , worms , tadpoles , crayfish , and insect larvae . these turtles are endangered throughout massachusetts . their population had been reduced to 200 - 300 turtles by 1980s . by 2007 , there were estimated to be about 400 - 600 breeding age turtles across 20 ponds . reasons for endangerment are overhunting . skunks , raccoons , birds , and fish eat the turtle ' s eggs and hatchlings . their habitat is threatened by draining of the wetlands . another major issure to endangerment is loss of habitat by filling in ponds with houses .\nhatchlings are held over the winter , during which time they develop at a rate five times faster than those remaining in the wild . by spring , these young turtles are able to resist predation and are released into the turtle ponds .\npseudemys rubriventris bangsi must cope with harsh winters that are not experienced by mid - atlantic populations of pseudemys rubriventris ( 3 ) . winter research utilizing scuba has observed plymouth red - bellied turtles sleeping exposed on the bottom of ponds as opposed to being burrowed in the mud . this occurs despite ponds being completely frozen ( 5 ) . pseudemys rubriventris bangsi has also been observed making small jaw movements to draw in water for buccopharyngeal gas exchange ( 3 , 5 ) . other observations included more movement under ice cover than previously thought . radio - telemetry showed movements of 7 . 6 m per week , although during some weeks they remained motionless ( 5 ) . these underwater movements increased to 36 m per week after ice melt ( 5 ) .\nthe term is used in the 1994 iucn red list of threatened animals to refer collectively to species categorized as endangered ( e ) , vulnerable ( v ) , rare ( r ) , indeterminate ( i ) , or insufficiently known ( k ) and in the 1996 iucn red list of threatened animals to refer collectively to species categorized as critically endangered ( cr ) , endangered ( en ) , or vulnerable ( vu ) .\nthe headstart program is at the core of the recovery plan for the plymouth red - bellied turtle . due to high predation , one of the main strategies in the recovery plan is to protect nests and take hatchlings from the wild . the hatchlings are raised in captivity in 84\u00baf water and fed a head of romaine lettuce per day until they grow to be much larger than their non - headstarted counterparts . this strategy allows turtles to reach a size large enough to avoid much of the predation that threatens them in the wild . studies have shown that carapace lengths of 66 - 95 mm and 296 mm increase survival rates to high levels ( 6 ) . sometimes the headstarted turtles are six times larger than they would be if they had been left in the wild as a hatchling ( 6 ) . the first headstarted turtles were taken in 1984 and released in 1985 . since then , 2725 turtles have been headstarted through this recovery effort ( 3 ) . headstarted turtles , along with having a higher survival rate , also reach sexual maturity sooner ( 3 ) .\nproduce one clutch of eggs yearly containing 8 to 22 eggs . hatching occurs in 73 to 80 days . the hatchlings emerge from august to october . if late nesting occurs , hatchlings do not emerge before the winter . eggs incubated on natural sand are larger and have a better chance of survival than eggs incubated in artificial settings . due to the loss of natural habitats , female red - bellied turtles sometimes lay eggs in homeowner ' s yards . females try to return to the same nesting sights every year .\n4 . robert a . browne ; n . alison haskell ; curtice r . griffin ; jeffrey w . ridgeway genetic variation among populations of the redbelly turtle ( pseudemys rubriventris ) copeia , vol . 1996 , no . 1 . ( feb . 2 , 1996 ) , pp . 192 - 195 .\nthe primary management objective for this turtle is to restore and maintain self - sustaining populations . reclassification to threatened status could occur if the species increases to at least 15 self - sustaining populations with 600 breeding - age individuals . delisting will be considered when numbers increase to 1 , 000 breeding - age turtles in 20 or more self - sustaining populations ( in ponds , lakes and possibly rivers ) . in addition to the population targets , maintenance of sufficient habitat to allow long - term survival of the population and an understanding of the turtle ' s life history and habitat requirements sufficient for management purposes , will be required to meet the full recovery objective .\nthe main threats to the plymouth population are habitat loss , altered habitat , and high predation ( 3 ) . ponds that previously had sunny shores ideal for egg incubation now are surrounded by a closed canopy due to intentional suppression of forest fires that use to occur naturally due to native american fires and lightning ( 3 ) . cooler temperatures in the shade have resulted in loss of nesting habitat and an unequal sex ratio as described above ( 3 ) .\nduring the incubation period , and in the first few years of life , pseudemys rubriventris bangsi experiences very high predation . nest predation , which can be as high as 100 % for nests that are not protected at federal pond , is carried out by crows , red fox , skunks , raccoons and coyotes , while hatchlings are preyed on by largemouth bass ( micropterus salmoides ) , chain pickerel ( esox niger ) , snapping turtles , great blue heron and bull frogs ( rana catesbeiana ) ( 3 , 6 ) . analysis of the stomach contents of bull frogs provides evidence that they are one of the main predators of hatchlings ( 6 ) . the survival rate of hatchlings is thought to be very low . similar freshwater turtles , such as blanding\u2019s turtle , may have a hatchling survival rate of only 1 % ( 3 ) . it is difficult to study the survival rate using the current shell notch identifying technique , because the notches are no longer discernable when the turtles are recaptured as adults ( 3 ) .\ndue to the loss of historic populations , increasing shoreline and between - pond development , and increased predation pressure , the northern red - bellied cooter was placed on the endangered species listed and granted critical habitat in 1980 [ 1 ] . twelve occupied ponds were known at the time . three additional populations , including federal pond , were discovered in subsequent years . federal pond was and is the largest population . an active\nheadstarting\nprogram introduced the cooter to ten additional ponds and two rivers by 2005 [ 2 , 3 , 4 ] . all nests discovered each year are caged to protect the eggs and hatchlings from predators ( about 95 % of uncaged nests suffer predation ) [ 2 ] . when hatching is complete , 50 % of the hatchlings are released into the same pond and 50 % are moved to headstarting facilities which raise them to a size that is less vulnerable to predation . the headstarted turtles are reintroduced to the same or new sites . between 1985 and 2005 , the program released over 2 , 500 turtles [ 3 , 4 ] . headstarted turtles were first documented to breed in the wild in 2000 [ 5 ] .\nthis turtle is primarily aquatic , preferring small ponds but is occasionally found on land near the water . it is most active from late march to october . in the winter it rests on the pond bottom beneath the ice in an inactive state similar to hibernation , known as brumation . it feeds on aquatic vegetation , crayfish , and other small pond fauna . in late spring and early summer , the female selects a nesting site in sandy soil close to the pond . after scooping a hole , she deposits 10 - 17 eggs , which incubate between 73 and 80 days . hatchlings are only about 1 in ( 2 . 5 cm ) long . hatchlings may emerge from nests to enter ponds in late summer , or overwinter in the nest chamber and emerge the following spring . females reach sexual maturity in 8 - 15 years ; males may mature earlier .\n- - natureserve explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50 , 000 plants , animals and ecological communtities of the u . s and canada . natureserve explorer provides in - depth information on rare and endangered species , but includes common plants and animals too . natureserve explorer is a product of natureserve in collaboration with the natural heritage network .\nitis reports - - itis ( the integrated taxonomic information system ) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants , animals , fungi , and microbes of north america and the world .\nfws digital media library - - the u . s . fish and wildlife service ' s national digital library is a searchable collection of selected images , historical artifacts , audio clips , publications , and video .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nrange depth 2 to 3 . 5 m 6 . 56 to 11 . 48 ft\nhave an orange plastron and a green carapace covered with light green markings . the skin is light green as well . a possible subspecies ,\nof massachusetts , has a greater height ( by 2 . 4 times ) due to a more domed carapace .\nhas never been observed . scientists know mating does occur in shallow water in the fall or spring . with regards to a closely related species ,\n, the male pursues the female and sniffs her tail after the female releases a pheromone . in the following mating ritual , he then swims above and in front of her in the water and rapidly strokes her face with his claws . if a female\naccepts his advances , the male then swims behind the female , mounting her for copulation .\n. they frequent the same rocks and logs while sunbathing and often sit on top of each other . regarding\n, a closely related species , females communicate by the emission of pheromones and males by tactile contact and a mating dance .\n. juveniles are herbivorous and adults are omnivorous . laboratory hatchlings can be fed brine shrimp\n. lawn mowers frequently kill turtles resting in grass . housing developments around rivers and ponds result in loss of nesting sights .\ninclude bullfrogs , skunks , raccoons , wading birds , crows , and mice . eastern redbelly turtles play an important role in the middle of the food chain . they also are responsible for controlling the population of hyacinth , an invasive plant .\nis considered threatened by the lacey act . this makes it illegal to import , export , transport , sell , or buy any part of the animal , dead or alive . the environmental protection agency is responsible for maintaining water treatment plants that do not harm the turtles . main causes of endangerment include expanding housing developments and a loss of nesting sights , pollutants , pesticides , and predation on eggs and hatchlings . the u . s . fish and wildlife service enacted a plan in 1985 to protect existing populations , to prevent hunting of the turtles , to collect eggs to hatch in captivity , and to educate the local public on the turtles .\nkelly clark ( author ) , university of michigan - ann arbor , phil myers ( editor ) , museum of zoology , university of michigan - ann arbor .\nliving in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nan area where a freshwater river meets the ocean and tidal influences result in fluctuations in salinity .\nhaving a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment ; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature .\nthe state that some animals enter during winter in which normal physiological processes are significantly reduced , thus lowering the animal ' s energy requirements . the act or condition of passing winter in a torpid or resting state , typically involving the abandonment of homoiothermy in mammals .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nreproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .\nmany forms .\na species is polymorphic if its individuals can be divided into two or more easily recognized groups , based on structure , color , or other similar characteristics . the term only applies when the distinct groups can be found in the same area ; graded or clinal variation throughout the range of a species ( e . g . a north - to - south decrease in size ) is not polymorphism . polymorphic characteristics may be inherited because the differences have a genetic basis , or they may be the result of environmental influences . we do not consider sexual differences ( i . e . sexual dimorphism ) , seasonal changes ( e . g . change in fur color ) , or age - related changes to be polymorphic . polymorphism in a local population can be an adaptation to prevent density - dependent predation , where predators preferentially prey on the most common morph .\nreferring to something living or located adjacent to a waterbody ( usually , but not always , a river or stream ) .\none of the sexes ( usually males ) has special physical structures used in courting the other sex or fighting the same sex . for example : antlers , elongated tails , special spurs .\nthat region of the earth between 23 . 5 degrees north and 60 degrees north ( between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle ) and between 23 . 5 degrees south and 60 degrees south ( between the tropic of capricorn and the antarctic circle ) .\na terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .\na grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .\na terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5\u00b0 n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .\n2004 .\npseudemys rubriventris\n( on - line ) . natureserve explorer . accessed march 19 , 2003 at urltoken .\n1999 .\npseudemys concinna\n( on - line image ) . accessed april 06 , 2003 at urltoken .\n2003 .\npseudemys rubriventris study\n( on - line ) . jug bay wetlands sanctuary . accessed march 19 , 2003 at urltoken .\nto cite this page : clark , k . 2004 .\npseudemys rubriventris\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\npseudemys rubriventris bangsi has a life expectancy of 40 to 45 years and does not reach sexual maturity until 15 to 20 years in age ( 3 ) . females dig terrestrial nests near ponds and lay one to two clutches per year , although one is more typical ( 3 ) . the incubation period is 73 to 80 days and the temperature required is 25\u00bac ( 3 ) . sex determination of the offspring is dependent on temperature , with cooler temperatures producing more males ( 3 ) . due to closed forest canopies at nesting areas , an increasing percentage of nests are lacking the required sunlight needed to produce females . in boot pond , this has resulted in a reported ratio of 21 males to every eight females . this unequal sex ratio is limiting to the effective size of the population ( 3 ) .\nthe mid - atlantic populations of pseudemys rubriventris live in different habitats compared to their northern disjuncts . they inhabit rivers , creeks , interconnected pond habitats , and / or brackish water ( 3 ) . while pseudemys rubriventris bangsi have to travel in upland areas to migrate to another pond , the mid - atlantic population of pseudemys rubriventris can travel huge distances by water ( 3 , 4 ) . not only do they have different pressures in the winter , they also have different dispersal strategies and associated food webs ( 3 ) .\nthere is very little habitat protected for these turtles . crooked pond is protected in the massasoit national wildlife refuge , and east head pond is in the myles standish state forest , but a neighboring cranberry grower holds the water rights ( 3 ) . there is a nesting beach protected on island pond and gunner\u2019s pond , but the entire pond is not protected ( 3 ) .\nthe recovery plan lists the criteria necessary for changing the esa status from endangered to threatened as having 600 breeding adults in 15 or more self - sustaining populations of 50 or more turtles . delisting the turtles would require 1000 breeders in 20 self - sustaining populations . the current population estimates suggest that there may be between 400 and 600 breeders in the current population in 20 ponds , but only 10 of these ponds contain more than 20 breeders , and very few are protected ponds . these populations , as you can see from table 1 , have received many turtles through the headstart program . it is not known how the population would respond if the headstart program was stopped . even if the population goals are met in the near future , the sustainability goal of the populations may not be met for some time . in order for the populations to be self - sustainable , a solution to the low survival of hatchlings in the wild is needed .\n6 . size related survival of headstarted redbelly turtles ( pseudemys rubriventris ) in massachusetts alison haskell ; terry e . graham ; curtice r . griffin ; jay b . hestbeck journal of herpetology , vol . 30 , no . 4 . ( dec . , 1996 ) , pp . 524 - 527 .\nthis great blue heron was filmed and photographed on an apr\u00e8s work canoe paddle at jacob\u2019s pond in norwell , ma . the great blue heron has great size and stature at 4\u2019 tall . i highly recommend this pond for anyone looking to see wildlife by canoe or kayak .\ndespite the heron being so large , it easily takes off from the water and doesn\u2019t seem to care that it\u2019s 6\u2019 wide wingspan is pushing though tree branches . they wait motionless on their stick - like legs in the water or slowly stalk their prey before they ambush them . they swallow their prey whole , rather that be fish , frogs , or even rodents . you may find that they show up at your backyard koi pond so beware . .\nthere is no sexual dimorphism , meaning that the males and females look the same . their backs and wings are a bluish - grey . their neck is brownish - cream and has a scruffy appearance . their face is white . they\u2019ve got two black stripes above their eyes , and the middle of their crown is white .\nthis bird can be found around freshwater or brackish water habitats all over new england and into atlantic canada . the great white heron in florida was thought to be a separate species , but it is now accepted that they are the same species with different coloration .\ni hope that all of you can also add the great blue heron to your own species list . please visit urltoken and click on blue heron to add your own sightings to our range maps or tell us about them in our comment section . check our other pages on species from around new england and atlantic canada .\nnew england and atlantic canada is home to various beautiful oak tree species . with a little effort , one can learn to identify the difference among these by the leaf shapes .\nwhile an active head start program has introduced turtles to several new ponds and the river site , and has significantly increased the number of turtles in other ponds , the turtles take years to reach breeding status . it is therefore premature to evaluate the ultimate success of this effort .\nthe potential for recovery is reasonable if nest predation can be prevented and if head starting of young is done on a larger scale than in the past . due to the limited range of this species , delisting may not be possible . reclassification may be possible by the year 2000 , if ongoing recovery efforts continue to be successful .\ngraham , t . e . 1984 .\npseudemys rubriventris predation .\nherpetology review 15 : 19 - 20 .\nurltoken gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the modern language association ( mla ) , the chicago manual of style , and the american psychological association ( apa ) .\nwithin the \u201ccite this article\u201d tool , pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style . then , copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list .\nbecause each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article , urltoken cannot guarantee each citation it generates . therefore , it\u2019s best to use urltoken citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publication\u2019s requirements and the most - recent information available at these sites :\nmost online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers . therefore , that information is unavailable for most urltoken content . however , the date of retrieval is often important . refer to each style\u2019s convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates .\nin addition to the mla , chicago , and apa styles , your school , university , publication , or institution may have its own requirements for citations . therefore , be sure to refer to those guidelines when editing your bibliography or works cited list .\nthis article is only an excerpt . if it appears incomplete or if you wish to see article references , visit the rest of its contents here .\nwant to help save endangered species , but don ' t have a lot of money to donate ? there are actually a lot of creative ways you can help endangered species , even if you are an individual and not a funded organization . we ' ve put together a list of ways you as an individual can help save endangered species .\nlist of all endangered animals . list of all endangered plants . list of all endangered species ( animals & plants ) . by species group ( mammal , birds , etc ) . . . united states endangered species list . browse by country , island , us state . . . search for an endangered species profile .\nare you inspired by endangered animals ? check out our games and coloring pages ! more to come soon .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nchamberlain wifi garage door opener chamberlain garage door opener home depot chamberlain myq garage door opener reset .\ntarget bed sheets queen target bed sheets queen for dimensions of fancy elegant target bed sheets queen size .\nkitchen items list large size of list of kitchen items best small kitchen appliances to have must have kitchen kitchen items list of indian .\nhome desk furniture desk for office at home modern home office furniture small contemporary desk for at home office furniture ideas ikea .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndue to the difficulty of censusing the species , quantitative population trend data have not been gathered [ 2 ] . however , species experts are in agreement that the number of occupied sites and the number of individuals has increased in size since 1980 , primarily due to the headstarting program and to a lesser extent natural reproduction [ 2 , 4 ] . the 1994 federal recovery plan requires a total of at least 600 breeding - age turtles distributed among at least 15 self - sustaining populations for downlisting to be considered [ 1 ] . delisting will require at least 1 , 000 breeding - age turtles in 20 or more self - sustaining populations ."]}
{"id": 144, "summary": [{"text": "the sangihe shrikethrush or sangihe whistler ( coracornis sanghirensis ) is a species of bird in the family pachycephalidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is endemic to sangihe island in indonesia .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "originally , the sangihe shrikethrush was described in the genus pinarolestes , and has been classified by some authorities as belonging to the genera dendrocincla .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it was re-classified from the genus colluricincla to coracornis in 2013 .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "alternate names include the large tyrannine woodcreeper , sahengbalira shrike-thrush and sangir whistler . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "sangihe shrikethrush", "paragraphs": ["select an image : 1 . sangihe whistler 2 . sangihe whistler 3 . sangihe whistler 4 . sangihe whistler 5 . sangihe whistler\nthe sangihe shrikethrush ( colluricincla sanghirensis ) is a species of bird in the pachycephalidae family . it is endemic to sangihe island in indonesia . its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests . it is threatened by habitat loss . . . .\nneedless to say , ross , michael kearns and i were coming to sangihe with a few targets in mind , but not really knowing if seeing them was even a possibility or if they were already gone , never to be seen by anyone ever again . we knew a few were still plausible so we were hopeful for those but had pretty much already written off the likes of sangihe whistler ( aka sangihe shrikethrush ) , sangihe golden bulbul and sangihe white - eye .\n\u201csangihe is one part of an endemic bird area that includes a number of species / forms of birds that have the unfortunate distinction of being incredibly rare and threatened , with a number critically endangered species on sangihe itself : cerulean paradise flycatcher , sangihe shrikethrush , and sangihe white - eye . the forms of dwarf kingfisher and golden bulbul that occur on sangihe are also most likely at the edge of extinction as well , the former not having been recorded for a number of years , and the latter only rarely recorded . \u201d\nwith transfer of morningbird to pachycephala from colluricincla the nominate race of sooty shrikethrush reverts to the senior name tenebrosa ( rothschild , 1911 ) from umbrina ( reichenow , 1915 ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - sangihe shrike - thrush , ventral view\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - sangihe shrike - thrush , ventral view\ntitle =\narkive photo - sangihe shrike - thrush , ventral view\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nit\u2019s a pretty bleak outlook already but unfortunately this sentiment isn\u2019t exactly accurate as the sangihe white - eye that he mentions as \u201ccritically endangered\u201d is already extinct .\nsangihe is a small island located north of sulawesi and just south of the philippines . it is among the northernmost islands in indonesia . our ferry from manado to sangihe left port at 7pm and we arrived at our destination at 3 : 30am , a full hour and a half earlier than we expected . i must admit i was somewhat sluggish to want to move at this hour ( especially after some early morning starts the last few days ) and we didn\u2019t officially leave the ship and get on the road until a full 45 minutes later . we found a taxi driver to take us to the town of tomako where we were staying at a homestay known as rainbow losmen , run by the brother of one of the only people on sangihe who is fighting to keep the forest intact . wesley pangimangen is knowledgeable and passionate about the remaining tracts of forest and is one of the only people who knows the trail up the mountain where the birds might still be around . the top of the mountain , where it is most inconvenient to farm , is the only place that forest remains on the island of sangihe .\ngareth knass , an english birder who visited the area in 2014 does a great job explaining the situation on sangihe in his recent trip report . because i don\u2019t think i could do a better job of saying it myself , i\u2019ll include an excerpt from that report detailing the sad condition of this particular island\u2019s birdlife .\noriginal forest on sangihe has been almost completely converted to agriculture . the largest habitat tract in which the species has been observed is a mere 225 - 340 ha in size , and is undergoing clearance by shifting cultivators in its lower reaches . in 2009 , it was reported that new government initiatives to plant alien tree species were resulting in the clearance of native forest ( sykes 2009 )\nthe outlook for endemic wildlife found on the small island of sangihe appears to be quite grim . several species have gone extinct and several others are teetering on the brink of extinction . stop . think about this for a second \u2013 there are unique living creatures that currently call our blue planet home that will soon no longer exist . gone . forever . naturally we wanted to see them before they meet this sad , sad fate .\nour short trip to sangihe had been extremely successful , but also very sobering . it\u2019s great to see such rare birds , but also depressing to see what little habitat they have left . wesley informed us that the forest that we birded was still privately owned and despite his efforts to convince them otherwise , the people would rather chop it down \u2013 it was not protected . unfortunately most of the birds we saw in the past two days won\u2019t be around for much longer .\naustralasia : south americangihe island . colluricincla sanghirensis is endemic to the island of sangihe , north of sulawesi , indonesia , where it was only known from one historical specimen collected in the late 19th century until its rediscovery in 1995 . it occurs on the mountains gunung sahendaruman and gunung sahengbalira , where the total population is likely to be extremely low ( possibly under 100 birds ) given the tiny area of remaining habitat . in 2009 , reports suggested that numbers of this species were in serious decline owing to forest loss\nthis species is currently known from only one locality , where habitat is declining in extent and quality such that its tiny population must certainly be dwindling . because of this alarming situation it is classified as critically endangered . original forest on sangihe has been almost completely converted to agriculture . the largest habitat tract in which the species has been observed is a mere 225 - 340 ha in size , and is undergoing clearance by shifting cultivators in its lower reaches . in 2009 , it was reported that new government initiatives to plant alien tree species were resulting in the clearance of native forest . at first , planting was restricted to areas below 500 m ; however , more recent reports indicate that planting is now taking place at higher elevations , in areas at 700 - 900 m . having a montane distribution that is close to the maximum altitude within its range , this species is potentially susceptible to climate change\nthe hike was technically difficult with having to navigate over mud but it was super straightforward and we gained another 350m in elevation in only about 2 km ! we are often used to climbing in elevation only to go back down and have to climb again , or have to hike a long distance at a gradual climb so the fact that we could get to the crest of the mountain in just 90 minutes was perfect , even if we had to do so via a rather treacherous trail . when we reached 730m in elevation we heard sangihe golden bulbul calling off in the distance . seriously ? just like that ? ross played tape and we had the birds respond by calling again but never had a sighting . this was great news in that one of the birds we thought might be gone was clearly still around ! it also meant that since we now knew the bird was in fact around , we would definitely have to put in a proper amount of effort to see it\u2026\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nh & m 4 : 239 . od had two different spellings . h & m 4 action as first reviser . affects species and subspecies .\nh & m 4 : 241 . original spelling . affects species and subspecies .\nh & m 4 : 167 . unsettled nomenclature . usually attributed to ( vieillot , 1820 ) with spelling caerulescens . predated by ( temminck , 1807 ) with spelling coerulescens but the latter published without a description . in the absence of a consensus , we follow the prevailing usage .\nh & m 4 : 56 . restore s . roseogrisea . taxonomic status of s . risoria , referable to domestic barbary dove , relative to wild african collared dove unsettled . ( cf iczn opinion 2215 ) .\nh & m 4 : 58 . od spelled with one \u201ci\u201d . emended spelling based on internal information . affects species and subspecies .\nh & m 4 : 79 . original spelling . affects species and subspecies .\nc . amabilis ( ramsay , ep , 1875 ) has precedence over c . aureicincta ( layard , el , 1875 ) . h & m 4 : 379\nnew genus name required for gynmoglaux which is a junior synonym of gymnasio which is referable to megascops nudipes . aou 54th supplement 2013 . auk 130 : 563 .\nfollows correction of original spelling of genus . auk 130 : 566 . aou 54th supplement . 2013 .\nrevert spelling of ptilogonys to the original spelling ptiliogony s . auk 130 : 566 . aou 54th supplement . 2013 .\nchange spelling of species name to melanorhamphos in accordance with article 82 . 2 of the code ( scon / iou petition to iczn , case no . 3630 , schodde pers . comm ) .\nolsson et al 2013b . transfer to pellorneidae [ change accompanies p . burnesii ( 3 . 4 ) ]\ngutturalis ( r\u00fcppell , 1835 ) has priority over levalliantoides ( smith , a , 1836 ) when the two are considered conspecific as treated here . h & m 4 .\ncrested pitohui is related to crested bellbird and rufous - naped warbler . reassign to ornorectes in incertae sedis ; possibly separate to oreoicidae ( j\u00f8nsson et al 2008 , dumbacher et al 2008 , norman et al 2009 , j\u00f8nsson et al 2010 , tif )\nphylloscopus maforensis ( meyer , ab , 1874 ) has priority over frequently used p . poliocephalus ( salvadori , 1876 ) as the species epithet for island leaf warbler .\nchange species epithet for cory\u2019s shearwater with split of scopoli\u2019s shearwater ( c . diomedea ) .\npayne ms , tebb et al 2008 , rheindt et al ms . ssp aeruginosus reassigned from rusty - breasted cuckoo to moluccan cuckoo . c . aeruginosus salvadori , 1878 has priority over c . heinrichi stresemann , 1931 .\nc . dorsti is a junior synonym of c . guinea . dowsett - lemaire , borrow & dowsett 2005\njohansson et al 2008a . the basal passeroid branches can not yet be accepted as fully resolved , thus , it is unclear whether promeropidae and arcanatoridae are together or represent two independent basal branches . each of them go further back in time than almost any other extant lineage in the passerida \u2026 which would argue for accepting them as two families ( jon fjelds\u00e5 , july 2012 )\nmassmann 2012 . sacc # 521 . chlorospingus flavopectus ( lafresnaye , 1840 ) has priority over chlorospingus ophthalmicus ( du bus de gisignies , 1847 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nrozendaal , f . g . ; lambert , f . r . 1999 . the taxomonic and conservation status of pinarolestes sanghirensis oustalet 1881 . forktail 15 : 1 - 13 .\n17 cm . medium - sized , drab , thrush - like passerine . olive - brown above , more chestnut on shoulders and lower back . paler brownish below , more rufous on belly . strong black bill and legs .\nis larger , more olive - green above , yellow on throat and belly .\nloud drongo - like song of c . 10 second phrases containing much repetition . also soft , lisping\ncritically endangered b1ab ( ii , iii , v ) + 2ab ( ii , iii , v ) ; c2a ( i , ii ) ver 3 . 1\nthis species is currently known from only one locality , where habitat is declining in extent and quality such that its tiny population must certainly be dwindling . because of this alarming situation it is classified as critically endangered .\n, where it was only known from one historical specimen collected in the late 19th century until its rediscovery in 1995 . it occurs on the mountains gunung sahendaruman and gunung sahengbalira , where the total population is likely to be extremely low ( possibly under 100 birds ) given the tiny area of remaining habitat . a survey in 2004 estimated the population to be between 56 - 205 ( birdlife indonesia 2007 ) and a 2009 survey estimated between 92 - 255 individuals ( burung indonesia 2009 ) . in 2009 , reports suggested that numbers of this species were in serious decline owing to forest loss ( sykes 2009 )\nthe population size is likely to be extremely low ( possibly fewer than 100 birds ) given the tiny area of remaining habitat . it is estimated to be between 92 - 255 individuals in total and so is placed in the band 50 - 249 mature individuals .\nthis species is suspected to be declining owing to on - going forest loss within its restricted range . in 2009 , reports suggested that numbers of this species were in serious decline owing to forest clearance ( sykes 2009 ) .\nit is resident in lower montane forest between 600 m and 750 m , occurring singly , and perhaps more frequently in small groups , in the middle and upper forest storeys , and also in dense rattan undergrowth . one boulder - strewn slope where birds were observed in 1996 was dominated by huge ginger - like plants ( possibly zingiberaceae ) , and in an area with a high density of large\nof\nprotection forest\non gunung sahengbalira as a wildlife reserve , although this process was due to take 2 - 3 years . the wildlife conservation society has also worked on the island since 2007 trying to promote sympathetic land use and development by villages surrounding gunung sahengbalira ( n . brickle\nconduct further surveys for the species in remaining forest patches on the island ( e . g . gunung awu ) . ensure effective protection of habitat on gunung sahendaruman . support proposals for the rapid gazetting of remaining forest on gunung sahengbalira as a strict nature reserve . continue education programmes emphasising the value of forest cover to water retention and the benefits of sound farming practices on already cleared slopes . encourage forestry staff to establish a permanent presence on the island . lobby against government initiatives that encourage the clearance of native forest for plantations of exotic tree species .\n( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22724568a118587064 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 290 , 143 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\ndistribution maps should be very cautiously looked at . they do not provide with precise location but only give an idea of species global distribution . distribution areas are geopolitical ; as a consequence the whole of a country is selected if a species is only located in one single place . for more precise distribution areas please go to iucn site ( see link above ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nrarest bird in the world : the cone - billed tanager , the mystery .\natlapetes blancae , 8 years later , still not found . wish or species ?\nmedium - sized , drab , thrush - like passerine . olive - brown above , more chestnut on shoulders and lower back . paler brownish below , more rufous on belly . strong black bill and legs . similar spp . golden bulbul ixos affinis platenae is larger , more olive - green above , yellow on throat and belly .\nit is resident in lower montane forest between 600 m and 750 m , occurring singly , and perhaps more frequently in small groups , in the middle and upper forest storeys , and also in dense rattan undergrowth . one boulder - strewn slope where birds were observed in 1996 was dominated by huge ginger - like plants ( possibly zingiberaceae ) , and in an area with a high density of large pandanus sp . palms .\none bird was seen to pass an insect to another , presumably young bird ( head pattern slightly different from other birds ) , november . no other data .\northoptera are taken . the stomach of the single specimen collected in 1985 contained small black and dark brown chitinous insect remains . birds were seen feeding among epiphytic fern fronds and other canopy vegetation , but also keeping close to the ground in slowmoving contour - following parties , with birds turning dead leaves amongst the leaf - litter , foraging on bark and vines , and often gleaning from leaves and mosses .\nenter your email address to follow this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email .\nmadagascar \u2013 bemanevika \u2013 the best day of birding of our lives ( seriously . )\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is affected by global climate change . to learn about climate change and the species that are affected , visit our climate change pages .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nrozendaal , f . g . & lambert , f . r . ( 1999 ) the taxonomic and conservation status of pinarolestes sanghirensis oustalet 1881 .\nmoved to coracornis following j\u00f8nsson , k . a . , r . c . k . bowie , r . g . moyle , l . christidis , j . a . norman , b . w . benz & j . fjelds\u00e5 ( 2010 ) historical biogeography of an indo\u2010pacific passerine bird family ( pachycephalidae ) : different colonization patterns in the indonesian and melanesian archipelagos . \u2012 journal of biogeography 37 : 245\u2010257 ."]}
{"id": 158, "summary": [{"text": "eudryas brevipennis is a moth in the noctuidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in idaho , utah and california .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of wetlands .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is 14 \u2013 16 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are white and the hindwings are bright yellow .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "both are edged in red-brown .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing in summer .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on oenothera and epilobium species . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "eudryas brevipennis", "paragraphs": ["eudryas brevipennis is a moth in the noctuidae family . it is found in idaho , utah and california . the habitat consists of wetlands .\nthe identical male and female genitalia of the california and intermountain populations of eudryas brevipennis suggest strongly that they are the same species despite the differences in wing pattern and the 700 kilometer gap that separates them . a single specimen from modesto , california in the cnc resembles subspecies bonneville more than other california populations . eudryas should be sought in riparian habitats in the area between california and the range of eudryas brevipennis bonneville to see if this subspecies has a larger range than is known currently . there is no barcode data for either subspecies of eudryas brevipennis .\neudryas brevipennis bonneville occurs near large rivers and lakes in the northern intermountain region . most specimens have been collected near the snake river in south - central idaho .\neudryas brevipennis stretch , 1872 , illustrations of the zygaenidae and bombycidae of north america , 1 : 151 , pl . 7 , figs . 3 , 4 . new synonomy\neudryas grata and eudryas unio are similar , but do not occur in the west . xerociris wilsonii is also superficially similar , but is restricted to texas and neighboring states .\neudryas brevipennis , including the utah populations , is considered to be conspecific with eudrya unio by poole on the website nearctica . com . these taxa differ in the structure of the genitalia of both sexes indicating that they are distinct species . the identical male and female genitalia of the california and intermountain populations of eudryas brevipennis suggest strongly that they are the same species despite the differences in wing pattern and the 700 kilometer gap that separates them . a single specimen from modesto , california in the cnc resembles subspecies bonneville more than other california populations . eudryas should be sought in riparian habitats in the area between california and the range of eudryas brevipennis bonneville to see if this subspecies has a larger range than is known currently . there is no barcode data for either subspecies of eudryas brevipennis .\nthe moth flies during late spring and summer and has been collected from late may through early august . the early stages are unknown . california populations of eudryas brevipennis feed on the willowherb epilobium ciliatum raf . and evening primroses ( oenothera spp . ) ( comstock and dammers 1938 ) , all in the evening primrose family ( onagraceae ) . it is likely that eudryas brevipennis bonneville utilizes similar plants in this family .\neudryas brevipennis , including the utah populations , is considered to be conspecific with eudrya unio by poole on the website nearctica . com . these taxa differ in the structure of the genitalia of both sexes indicating that they are distinct species .\nmale genitalia of erebidae and noctuidae . ventral or right aspect of aedeagus is shown . 32 cycnia oregonensis tristis crabo , paratype , usa , wa , thurston co . , plumb ( ventral aspect ) 33 drasteria parallela crabo & mustelin , paratype , usa , wa , klickitat co . , simcoe butte 34 drasteria convergens mustelin , usa , ca , mono co . , lee vining 35 drasteria divergens ( behr ) , usa , or , baker co . , burnt river canyon 36 eudryas brevipennis bonneville shepard & crabo , paratype , usa , id , twin falls co . , buhl 37 eudryas unio ( h\u00fcbner ) , usa , ma , norfolk co . , ponkapoag bog .\nmale genitalia of erebidae and noctuidae . ventral or right aspect of aedeagus is shown . 32 cycnia oregonensis tristis crabo , paratype , usa , wa , thurston co . , plumb ( ventral aspect ) 33 drasteria parallela crabo & mustelin , paratype , usa , wa , klickitat co . , simcoe butte 34 drasteria convergens mustelin , usa , ca , mono co . , lee vining 35 drasteria divergens ( behr ) , usa , or , baker co . , burnt river canyon 36 eudryas brevipennis bonneville shepard & crabo , paratype , usa , id , twin falls co . , buhl 37 eudryas unio ( h\u00fcbner ) , usa , ma , norfolk co . , ponkapoag bog .\nfigures 32\u201337 . male genitalia of erebidae and noctuidae . ventral or right aspect of aedeagus is shown . 32 cycnia oregonensis tristis crabo , paratype , usa , wa , thurston co . , plumb ( ventral aspect ) 33 drasteria parallela crabo & mustelin , paratype , usa , wa , klickitat co . , simcoe butte 34 drasteria convergens mustelin , usa , ca , mono co . , lee vining 35 drasteria divergens ( behr ) , usa , or , baker co . , burnt river canyon 36 eudryas brevipennis bonneville shepard & crabo , paratype , usa , id , twin falls co . , buhl 37 eudryas unio ( h\u00fcbner ) , usa , ma , norfolk co . , ponkapoag bog .\nfemale genitalia of erebidae and noctuidae . ventral aspect . 45 drasteria parallela crabo & mustelin , usa , ca , siskiyou co . , deadfall meadow 46 drasteria convergens mustelin , usa , ca , mono co . , lee vining 47 drasteria divergens ( behr ) , usa , baker co . , burnt river canyon 48 eudryas brevipennis bonneville shepard & crabo , paratype , usa , id , twin falls co . , kimberly 49 eudryas unio ( h\u00fcbner ) , usa , wi , st . croix co . , s18 springfield township 50 resapamea diluvius crabo , paratype , usa , wa , adams co . , washtucna 51 resapamea passer ( guen\u00e9e ) , usa , wa , douglas county , 3 mi . ese of orondo 52 fishia nigrescens hammond & crabo , paratype , usa , or , jefferson co . , warm springs .\nfigures 45\u201352 . female genitalia of erebidae and noctuidae . ventral aspect . 45 drasteria parallela crabo & mustelin , usa , ca , siskiyou co . , deadfall meadow 46 drasteria convergens mustelin , usa , ca , mono co . , lee vining 47 drasteria divergens ( behr ) , usa , baker co . , burnt river canyon 48 eudryas brevipennis bonneville shepard & crabo , paratype , usa , id , twin falls co . , kimberly 49 eudryas unio ( h\u00fcbner ) , usa , wi , st . croix co . , s18 springfield township 50 resapamea diluvius crabo , paratype , usa , wa , adams co . , washtucna 51 resapamea passer ( guen\u00e9e ) , usa , wa , douglas county , 3 mi . ese of orondo 52 fishia nigrescens hammond & crabo , paratype , usa , or , jefferson co . , warm springs .\nseveral taxonomic issues in the moth families erebidae and noctuidae are addressed for northwestern north america . drasteria parallela crabo & mustelin and cycnia oregonensis tristis crabo in the erebidae and eudryas brevipennis bonneville shepard & crabo , resapamea diluvius crabo , resapamea angelika crabo , resapamea mammuthus crabo , fishia nigrescens hammond & crabo , and xestia perquiritata orca crabo & hammond in the noctuidae are described as new . the following new synonyms are proposed : chytolita petrealis grote with herminea morbidalis guen\u00e9e ; gortyna columbia barnes & benjamin and gortyna ximena barnes & benjamin with gortyna obliqu a harvey ; and hydroecia pallescens smith with hydroecia medialis smith . the type locality of gortyna intermedia barnes & benjamin is restricted to lundbreck , municipality of crowsnest pass , alberta , canada .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nthe information below is based on images submitted and identified by contributors . range and date information may be incomplete , overinclusive , or just plain wrong .\nhover over black occurrence boxes to see number of images submitted . log in to make states , months and boxes clickable .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ndata and apps idaho fish and wildlife information system bringing information to bear on the management and conservation of fish , wildlife , and plants in idaho .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\n1 corresponding author . adjunct faculty , dept . of entomology , washington state university , pullman , washington , usa ; 724 - 14 st . , bellingham , washington 98225 - 6302 usa\n5 research faculty , dept . of entomology , washington state university ; 6420 barabanoff rd . , nelson , bc v1l 6y1 , canada\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license 3 . 0 ( cc - by ) , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\na website devoted to the macromoths ( excluding the geometridae ) of the pacific northwest was recently created by a team that includes the authors of the current paper . the pacific northwest ( pnw ) is defined as all of idaho , oregon , and washington and the western part of montana in the united states and all of british columbia in canada . this site , called pacific northwest moths ( urltoken ) , has been available to the public since july 2012 . the internet format\u2013as opposed to a book or journal article\u2013lends itself to continuous updating of things such as additional species , range extensions and life histories . however , it is not an appropriate format for taxonomic work intended for a larger audience , nor does it satisfy the requirements for the description of new taxa .\nwe are aware of several undescribed species of erebidae and noctuidae in the pacific northwest ( pnw ) . three of these are described here so that they can be included on the website .\nthe thorough vetting of pnw moth collections that was part of the website work confirmed that three superficially distinctive populations of previously named moths are isolated segregates . these are sufficiently different to warrant recognition as subspecies , a taxonomic category that we reserve for populations that are both geographically isolated and differ significantly in appearance from other populations of their species . three subspecies are named in this paper .\none of the new pnw species is in the genus resapamea varga & ronkay ( noctuidae ) . this presents an opportunity to name two additional species in this genus even though they are from parts of western north america outside the pnw .\na large number of taxonomic changes in the superfamily noctuoidea have recently been advanced in a new check list for north america north of mexico ( lafontaine and schmidt 2010 ) and in the first update to this list ( lafontaine and schmidt 2011 ) . additional synonyms to those published by these authors were discovered during the website work , usually because a pnw species is known by more than one name . the new synonyms that are discussed in this paper are in the genera chytolita grote ( erebidae ) and hydraecia guen\u00e9e ( noctuidae ) .\nthe genus hydraecia is represented by hydraecia perobliqua hampson and the hydraecia obliqua species - group in the pnw . the number of species in the latter group is confusing to collectors , with seemingly more names than species . an attempt by the senior author to revise it in the late 1990s was never published because of difficulties in assigning species boundaries using standard morphological methods . more recent dna data allows many of these issues to be resolved . the pnw species hydraecia obliqua ( harvey ) and hydraecia medialis smith are discussed and illustrated herein , and the type locality of the third north american species in the species - group , hydraecia intermedia ( barnes & benjamin ) , is restricted .\nthis paper is arranged in check list order following lafontaine and schmidt ( 2010 ) .\ngenitalia were prepared using standard methods for inflating the male vesica and female bursa ( lafontaine 2004 ) . terminology for wing markings and anatomy also follows lafontaine ( op . cit . ) except in drasteria h\u00fcbner ( erebidae ) where they are modified from metlevski and zolnerowich ( 2009 ) . the term ductus bursae is used herein for the entire length of the tube connecting the ostium bursae to the corpus bursae . metlevski and zolnerowich ( op . cit . ) divide this structure into two parts\u2013the ductus bursae and antrum\u2013restricting the use of ductus bursae to the anterior sclerotized portion . in resapamea , a stout process extending dorsad from the base of the sacculus is herein named the basal saccular process . this structure was called the clavus by zilli et al . ( 2005 ) , a term that is potentially confusing because the term clavus has been used previously for a rod - like sensory organ with apical setae located adjacent to the base of the valve in some noctuid genera ( forbes 1954 , lafontaine 2004 ) .\nthe sequence of the 658 base pair \u201cbarcode\u201d region of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase c subunit 1 ( hereafter called co1 or barcode ) were obtained from the barcodes of life initiative through the courtesy of dr . j . donald lafontaine . only pre - existing data were used during this study . the barcode sequences were compared using phylograms constructed using the kimura - 2 - parameter distance model as implemented on the bold systems website ( ratnasingham and hebert 2007 ) .\nusnm national museum of natural history ( formerly united states national museum ) , washington , d . c . , usa\nfamily erebidae leach , [ 1815 ] . subfamily arctiinae leach , [ 1815 ] . tribe arctiini leach , [ 1815 ]\nholotype male , usa , washington , thurston county , [ wa ] dnr rocky prairie , 4 . 2 mi . n of tenino at plumb , 46 . 92\u00b0n , 122 . 85\u00b0w , 75 m . , 20 . vi . 1998 , l . g . crabo leg . / barcodes of life # cncnoctuoidea12243 . cnc . paratypes 8 males . usa . washington . thurston county : plumb , n of tenino , tnc rocky prairie , elev 50 m . , 46 . 92\u00b0n , 122 . 85\u00b0w , 26 . vi . 1990 , l . g . crabo leg . ( 1 male ) ; [ same locality and collector ] , 24 . vii . 1996 ; puget trough prairie ( 1 male ) ; rocky prairie , 12 . vii . 1982 , don frechin leg . ( 1 male ) ; [ same location data and collector as holotype ] , 4 . vi . 1998 ( 1 male ) ; 20 . vi . 1998 ( 1 male ) ; 24 . vii . 1998 ( 1 male ) ; wa dnr mima mounds state natural area , 46 . 907\u00b0n , 123 . 049\u00b0w , 240\u2019 [ 73 m . ] , 4 . vi . 1998 , l . g . crabo leg . , mounded prairie ( 1 male ) ; mima prairie , thurston county glacial heritage site , 46 . 86\u00b0n , 123 . 04\u00b0w , 120\u2019 [ 37 m . ] , 10 . vii . 1998 , d . grosboll leg . , prairie ( 1 male ) . cnc , lgcc , wsu .\nthe name is from the latin tristis meaning sad , a reference to the gray color of this moth and the weather in its western washington distribution .\nis distinguished by the uniform medium gray color of both wings . the nominate subspecies of\n) , found elsewhere in north america , has lighter yellow - cream to grayish - cream forewings with lighter veins and nearly white hindwings .\n( drury ) , an eastern north american tiger moth that occurs west to the eastern great plains . these moths are easily distinguished by locality .\nthis subspecies is restricted to gravel prairies south of puget sound , washington . these prairies were created by the outwash from the vashon lobe of the pleistocene glaciation , and might have been maintained as open prairies by burning by native humans to promote the growth of camas lilies ( camassia spp . , liliaceae ) as a food source . the moth is associated with dogbane ( apocynum spp . , apocynaceae ) , the known foodplant of camassia oregonensis elsewhere in north america ( tietz 1972 ) . this is almost certainly the larval foodplant of camassia oregonensis tristis , although this has not been confirmed . this moth flies during june and july .\ncycnia oregonensis is found in a large part of north america , occurring from coast to coast and from the border with mexico north to central saskatchewan and nova scotia ( covell 1984 , ferguson et al . 2000 ) . this range includes much of the pnw , including western oregon and the area east of the cascade range as far north as south - central british columbia . throughout most of its range it is nearly uniform in color and pattern . cycnia oregonensis tristis is limited to a small area near olympia , washington and is the only known population of this species in washington west of the cascades . it is distinctly grayer and less patterned than all other populations , but has an identical co1 barcode sequence .\nthe type specimen of euchaetes oregonensis stretch was collected by lord walsingham on a trip through oregon during 1871\u20131872 ( stretch 1872\u2013 [ 1874 ] ) . comparison of his itinerary ( essig 1941 ) with the flight period of the moth suggests strongly that it was collected in the southwestern corner of the state between roseburg and the california border . cycnia oregonensis tristis is separated from the closest west - side populations in western oregon by 225 kilometers . all of the specimens of camassia oregonensis oregonensis examined from near the likely type locality are similar to those from elsewhere in north america .\nthe puget prairies where camassia oregonensis tristis flies are inhabited by several other distinctive lepidoptera with limited distributions , including the noctuid moth apamea inordinata olympia crabo and several uncommon butterflies .\nchytolita petrealis grote 1880 : 219 . type locality : [ usa ] , ohio , illinois , syn . n .\nchytolita fulicalis smith 1907 : 143 . type locality : [ usa ] , tennessee , syn . rev .\nzanclognatha punctiformis smith 1895 : 37 . type locality : [ usa ] , district of columbia , syn . rev .\ntwo species of chytolita grote have until now been recognized for north america ( lafontaine and schmidt 2010 ) : chytolita morbidalis ( guen\u00e9e ) and chytolita petrealis grote . both species names have at various times been used for material collected in the pnw ; however , only a single species with slight variation in size and darkness exists in this region . material from eastern north america , the type specimens of the available names , and material previously submitted for co1 sequencing were therefore examined to attempt to elucidate the correct name for the pnw species . it was found that there is virtually no variation in barcodes in this genus despite the fact that the sample is diverse and includes larger light - colored specimens identified as chytolita morbidalis and smaller dark ones submitted as chytolita petrealis from a large portion of eastern north america . the two previously recognized species have been described as \u201cidentical in pattern\u201d ( forbes 1954 ) and were only distinguished by size and darkness without structural differences . the dark small forms known as chytolita petrealis are from swamps and acid bogs ( forbes op . cit . ) and are consistent with an ecophenotype . this evidence indicates that chytolita petrealis grote is a synonym of herminea morbidalis guen\u00e9e .\nthe two syntypes of herminea morbidalis guen\u00e9e could not be located and might be lost ; however , the original description is sufficient to identify the species and associate it with the genus chytolita based on features of the labial palpus and the presence of an accessory cell on the forewing . a neotype designation is not necessary since there is only one chytolita species in north america .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 1fa8c27b - 2159 - 41ca - bcf5 - 246f99b9f8b5\nthe name refers to the parallel lines across the pale medial area of the forewing of this species . this name perpetuates the geometry references of the related species drasteria divergens ( behr ) and drasteria convergens mustelin .\n) , a species that occurs to the south of its range in california as far north as mono county . both have a medial line comprised of distinct parallel components , but the dorsal hindwing of\n) , which is similar in size and has a similarly colored orange hindwing . they can be distinguished without dissection by the pattern of the medial areas of both wings . the forewing medial line of\nhas a single broader medial line . on the hindwing , the discal spot of\nis nearly rectangular and the veins between it and the postmedial line are dark and contrasting . the discal spot of\nis joined broadly to the postmedial line giving it a long curved c - shape and the adjacent veins are orange . they also differ in other features of the maculation , including a smoother subterminal line in\nby the nearly equal lengths of the two claspers and more rounded valvulae . in\n) the right clasper is longer and more slender than the left and the posterodorsal valvulae are angular .\nin which it is long and narrow . in the vesica , the posteriorly - directed process arising from the glove - like diverticulum on the left side of the dorsal vesica is conical in\n( ratio of width : length 0 . 87 and 0 . 7 , respectively ) .\ndrasteria parallela is found in the cascade mountains of washington , the klamath and siskiyou mountains of southwestern oregon and northern california , and the northern sierra nevada in california . it is most commonly collected on exposed ridges in forests at middle elevations . it flies during july . the early stages and foodplant are unknown . barcodes suggest a close relationship of drasteria parallela and drasteria convergens to drasteria howlandii ( grote ) , which feeds on eriogonum michaux ( polygonaceae ) ( powell and opler 2009 ) .\nthe barcode of a single sample of this species from plumas county , california ( boldsystems sample id : cncnoctuoidea7767 ) differs by 1 . 3 % from that of drasteria convergens from mono county , california .\nfamily noctuidae latreille , 1809 . subfamily agaristinae herrich - sch\u00e4ffer , [ 1858 ]\nholotype male , usa , idaho , [ twin falls county ] , twin falls , 10 . vii . 1953 , j . r . douglass leg . / database # cnc lep 00094168 / genitalia cnc slide # 15232 male . cnc . paratypes 5 males , 5 females . usa . idaho . gooding county : wendell , 3500\u2019 [ 1067 m . ] , 25 . vii . 1965 , r . e . miller leg . ( 1 female ) ; power county : massacre rocks s [ tate ] p [ ark ] , 4290\u2019 [ 1308 m . ] , 42 . 679\u00b0n , 112 . 987\u00b0w , 17 . vii . 2010 , j . & s . shepard leg . ( 1 male ) ; twin falls county : buhl , 3500\u2019 [ 1067 m . ] , 29 . vi . 1961 , r . e . miller leg . ( 1 male ) ; kimberly , 1 mi . e . , 10 . vii . 1970 , a . c . antonelli collector ( 1 female ) ; twin falls [ 42 . 57\u00b0 , - 114 . 47\u00b0 ] , 10 . vii . 1953 , j . r . douglas leg . ( 1 male ) ; [ same locality and collector ] , 7 . vii . 1945 ( 1 male ) , 9 . viii . 1945 ( 1 female ) , 12 . vii . 1952 ( 1 female ) , [ same locality and collector ] , 3700\u2019 [ 1128 m . ] , 25 . v . 1953 ( 1 male ) ; [ same locality ] , 15 . vi . 1959 , k . e . gibson leg . , genitalia cnc slide # 16535 ( 1 female ) . cnc , jhs , wfbm .\nthe species name is derived from lake bonneville . this glacial lake covered much of utah and southern idaho during the late pleistocene epoch . the distribution of this moth is in the lake bonneville basin and along its historic flood path along the snake river .\nno other pacific northwest noctuid is likely to be confused with this brightly colored moth .\n) by the width of the dark marginal borders of both wings and darkness of the discal spots . the red - brown hindwing marginal band is relatively narrow and mottled in\nis wider and uniformly darker . the reniform spot and hindwing discal spot are both black in\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : b5ed782b - 3a1f - 4404 - 92d8 - dbeb0f415656\nmale genitalia of noctuidae . ventral aspect of aedeagus is shown . distal uncus of fig . 41 is inset . 38 resapamea diluvius crabo , paratype , usa , wa , grant co . , potholes 39 resapamea passer ( guen\u00e9e ) , usa , wa , douglas co . , 5 km ese of orondo 40 resapamea angelika crabo , holotype , usa , nv , elko co . , angel lake 41 resapamea mammuthus crabo , holotype , canada , yt , old crow 42 resapamea hedeni ( graeser ) , russia , magadan oblast , tenkinsky district , stokovyi 43 fishia nigrescens hammond & crabo , paratype , usa , or , klamath co . , 6 mi . se of klamath falls 44 xestia perquiritata orca crabo & hammond , paratype , usa , wa , clallam co . , neah bay .\ndune habitat of resapamea diluvius at potholes , grant county , washington , showing the likely foodplant rumex venosus in flower during may .\nholotype male . usa , washington , grant county : potholes , 1110\u2019 [ 338 m . ] , 46 . 982\u00b0n , 119 . 451\u00b0w , 23 . v . 2001 , l . g . & e . k . crabo leg . / database # cnc lep 00094165 . cnc . paratypes 80 males , 25 females . usa . oregon . sherman county : biggs , 1 vi 1960 , s . g . jewett ( 1 female ) ; biggs junction , 28 iv 1959 , s . g . jewett ( 1 male ) . washington . adams county : sand hills near washtucna , 9 mi . n . of kahlotus , 46 . 78\u00b0n , 118 . 53\u00b0w , 445 m . , 22 . v . 1999 , l . g . crabo leg . , sand dunes ( 1 male , 1 female ) ; irrigation exper . sta . basin unit [ 47 . 008\u00b0 , - 118 . 567\u00b0 ] , 30 . v . 1963 , e . c . klostemeyer leg . ( 1 male ) ; franklin county : white bluffs ferry , 46 . 675\u00b0n , 119 . 449\u00b0w , 25 . iv . 2002 , strenge / zack leg . ( 1 male ) ; grant county : [ same data as holotype ] ( 30 males , 10 females ) ; [ same locality as holotype ] , 1095\u2019 [ 334 m ] , 1 . vi . 2002 , crabo & troubridge leg . ( 9 males , 2 females ) ; [ same locality and date as previous ] , barcodes of life cnclep70179 ( 1 male ) ; stable dunes s of moses lake , 21 . v . 1994 , j . troubridge leg . ( 1 male ) ; road c se at the potholes , [ same coordinates as holotype ] , 19 . v . 2001 , j . troubridge leg . ( 32 males , 9 females ) ; [ same locality and date as previous ] , barcodes of life cnclep70181 ( 1 female ) ; potholes , 1095\u2019 [ 334 m . ] , 46 . 989\u00b0n , 119 . 425\u00b0w , 4 . vi . 2005 , e . k . & l . g . crabo leg . ( 1 male , 1 female ) ; vantage , 46\u00b054 ' n , 119\u00b056 ' w , 22 . iv . 1998 , j . troubridge leg . ( 2 males ) . cnc , csuc , jhs , jtt , lgcc , osac , tmc , wsu .\nthe name is derived from the latin diluvium meaning deluge or flood . the columbia basin where this moth occurs in washington was scoured repeatedly by cataclysmic floods at the end of the ice age .\n, which comes in a range in colors and patterns that includes dark brown , reddish brown , dull light yellow brown , or a mixture of light - and dark - brown forms .\non both wings , with a more streaky pattern distal to the cell due to pale - gray veins . a few specimens of\nare dark gray under magnification but do not contrast with the ground color ) . most specimens of\nhave the streaky pattern accentuated by black between the veins in the distal subterminal area and terminal area across the width of the wing . in\n, black scaling on the distal wing is uncommon , and is usually limited to the area distal to the cell and in the fold . finally , white or cream in the lateral reniform spot is typical in\n: absent , darker yellow or tan if limited to the lateral portion , or filling the entire spot . habitat association with dunes and early flight period are also characteristic of\nis found in a variety of wetland and agricultural habitats and usually flies later in the summer with a peak during late june and july .\n, especially relative to the width of the valve , and the anal margin is more rounded . in the vesicas , the diverticulum bearing a ridge of spines ( cock\u2019s comb ) on the ventral surface is positioned slightly closer to the base in\nthis species occurs in the columbia basin in washington and northern oregon . specimens from dunes in northern nevada and the northern great plains have been examined but the limits of its distribution are not well known .\n) based on their close association with this plant in the columbia basin . this rue is abundant on the dunes where\n) and the moth has not been found in columbia basin dune systems from which the plant is absent . some other\nadults fly from late april to early june . no specimens have been found at the type locality during summer or fall , although resapamea passer occurs there during the summer . resapamea diluvius is local but is often abundant where it occurs .\nthe co1 sequences of resapamea diluvius and resapamea passer are nearly uniform within each species but differ from each other by over 3 . 5 % .\nhadena hulstii grote , hadena morna strecker , and hadena virguncula smith are considered to be synonyms of mamestra passer guen\u00e9e ( lafontaine and schmidt 2010 ) . all were described from colorado . the holotype of hadena hulstii could not be located and is presumed lost ( lafontaine jd pers . comm . 2012 ) . the holotypes of the other two were examined ( hadena virguncula from a photograph ) to exclude the possibility that they refer to resapamea diluvius .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 0f672160 - b1c9 - 4a79 - aedc - 0a01c47f6f0d\nholotype male . usa , nevada , elko county , angel lake ( s side ) , sw of wells , light trap , 1\u20132 . viii . 2003 , james k . & eleaner adams leg . / database # cnc lep 00094166 . cnc . paratype female . usa , nevada , elko county , rt 231 , 11 mi sw wells [ angel lake ] , 23 july 2001 , j . troubridge / cncnoctuoidea6305 . jtt .\nspecies due to the combination of large size , even dark red - brown forewing color , small or absent orbicular spot , and narrow reniform spot with well - demarcated thin black outline and prominent cream to light orange filling . it is most likely to be confused with\nhas a slightly broader distal uncus , a more v - shaped inferior juxta , and a larger and more angular basal saccular process . in the vesica , the ridge of spines with a sclerotized base ( cock\u2019s comb ) adorning a ventral diverticulum is smaller than in\nthis species is only known from the vicinity of angel lake in the east humboldt range of northeastern nevada . the habitat is sedge meadows along tributaries of angel creek . these meadows appear to lack rumex but harbor dense stands of an iris ( iris spp . , iridaceae ) which might be the larval foodplant . the early stages of resapamea angelika are unknown . the few known specimens have been collected during late july and early august .\nthe co1 sequence of the female paratype differs from those of all other north american resapamea , including resapamea passer and resapamea innota , by over 3 . 4 % .\nthe holotypes of luperina innota smith , type locality wyoming , yellowstone park , and luperina enargia barnes & benjamin , type locality california , tulare county , monachee meadows , were examined from photographs to ensure that neither name is referable to resapamea angelika . these specimens are superficially very similar to each other and may represent the same species . somewhat variable resapamea populations resembling these types are found at mid - elevations in a large portion of the western united states and require further study to determine the number of species that are involved . because of this , we feel that it is premature to consider resapamea innota and resapamea enargia to be synonyms .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 5d5927c7 - 717d - 4dc4 - b855 - 37389c705002\nholotype male . canada , yukon territory , old crow , 5 . vii . 1983 , r . j . cannings leg . / malaise trap . forest edge on s - facing bluff / database cnc lep 0094163 / slide luperina male er8824 . cnc . paratypes none .\nthe name is derived from the genus of the wooly mammoth\u2013 mammuthus . it is befitting of the moth because its beringian distribution and relatively large size for the genus . it is a noun in apposition .\nin north america due to its northerly distribution and orange - tan color . it is superficially similar to\n) , which occurs in asia and might also occur in alaska ( see remarks , below ) . the male genitalia of these species differ in the shape of the distal uncus . it is truncated in\ndiscussed in this paper in lacking the subbasal diverticulum and medial cornuti . it differs from that of\n\u2013 antenna of male nearly filiform , with slight constriction at base of each segment , covered ventrally by short fine cilia . antenna of female unknown . scape orange tan , with dorsal tuft . eye rounded , smooth . labial palp covered laterally by short flat tan scales , lengthening to a brush - like fringe on ventral surface of first two segments . frons smooth , covered in narrow orange - tan scales . top of head covered in long narrow orange - tan scales .\n\u2013 vestiture of collar , thorax , and tegula long , narrow , apically notched orange - tan scales , appearing medium - dark orange - tan [ central thorax of holotype partially mildewed ] . legs light tan ; with three ventral rows of spiniform setae on basitarsus and four irregular rows on other tarsal segments .\n\u2013 forewing length : male 21 . 5 mm . forewing with a mixture of tan , orange - tan , gray - tan , light - gray , brown - gray , and gray scales , appearing medium - dark orange tan , grayer near anterior and posterior margins and darker gray - brown in terminal area ; veins near costa , distal to postmedial line , and near posterior margin gray but not strongly contrasting ; an ill - defined dark mark in medial area distal to lower reniform spot . basal , antemedial , and postmedial lines faint , ill - defined dark gray with adjacent light orange tan . basal line only evident near costa . antemedial line evident on costa and posterior to claviform spot , forming an oblique dark mark on costa and a zigzag line from claviform spot to posterior margin . medial line absent . postmedial line very faint , ill - defined , smooth , strongly oblique toward base anterior to reniform spot , straight and parallel to outer margin lateral to spot , and slightly angled and concave toward base below spot to meet posterior margin at a right angle . subterminal line light orange tan , faint , undulating ; preceded by a faint indistinct shade of dark gray that is strongest opposite cell and in fold . terminal line thin , dark gray . orbicular spot round , outlined by ill - defined faint gray and filled with light orange tan . reniform spot moderately large , kidney shaped with strong lateral indent , dark gray along medial and lateral sides and open anteriorly and posteriorly , filled with cream , slightly grayer at posterior end . claviform spot black , ill defined , strong anteriorly and weak posteriorly , narrow , filled with ground color . fringe gray tan , with a lighter tan base and gray medial line . hindwing light gray tan with gray suffusion , very faint postmedial line , marginal band , terminal line , veins , and chevron - shaped discal spot . hindwing fringe slightly lighter than hindwing ground color .\n) . tegumen with large penicillus lobes . juxta shield shaped , 0 . 5 \u00d7 as high as wide , with v - shaped ventral margin . valve s - shaped , 5 . 5 \u00d7 as long as wide ( measured at mid - valve ) , widest at base and cucullus , mid - section 2 / 3 as wide as base and tapering slightly to narrow neck at base of cucullus ; stout sclerotized knob - like basal saccular process extending dorsolaterally from base to just dorsal to costal attachment of valve , medial margin of this process irregular and apex rounded . sacculus reaching 2 / 3 of distance to costal margin and extending distally to mid - valve . clasper a smooth ridge . ampulla short , round . digitus a weak ridge , partially covered by medial cucullus . cucullus well developed with rounded apical and anal ends , 2 \u00d7 as wide as mid - valve ; mesial surface covered by fine setae ; corona of stout curved setae , dorsal half partially double . aedeagus tubular , 3 . 6 \u00d7 as long as wide , with short linear extension onto ventral vesica bearing a loose row of very small spines . vesica 0 . 7 \u00d7 as long as aedeagus , bent 135\u00b0 toward right at base to project anteriorly and toward right , basal two - thirds bulbous and distal half tapering , with a single conical membranous diverticulum on anterior side of distal vesica projecting anteriorly and a subapical posterior patch of variable - sized spine - like cornuti directed basad .\nthis species is known only from the type locality at old crow , yukon territory . the habitat is described as forest edge on a south - facing hillside on the specimen label . the holotype was collected during early july . the early stages are unknown .\nadults of noctuidae . 21 hydraecia obliqua ( harvey ) , male , usa , ca , sonoma co . , bodega bay dunes 22 hydraecia obliqua ( harvey ) , male , usa , wa , island co . , deception pass state park 23 hydraecia obliqua ( harvey ) , male , usa , or , lane co . , s fork mckenzie river near cougar reservoir 24 hydraecia medialis smith , male , usa , wa , douglas co . , jameson lake 25 hydraecia medialis smith , male , usa , or , grant co . , south fork john day river 26 hydraecia medialis smith , male , canada , bc , princeton , hayes creek 27 fishia nigrescens hammond & crabo , male paratype , usa , or , klamath co . , 6 mi . se of klamath falls 28 fishia nigrescens hammond & crabo , male holotype , usa , nv , lander co . , 3 mi . w of kingston 29 fishia yosemitae ( grote ) , male , usa , or , lake co . , deep creek w of adel 30 xestia perquiritata orca crabo & hammond , male paratype , or , [ lincoln co . ] , newport 31 xestia perquiritata partita ( mcdunnough ) , male , wa , pend oreille co . , salmo mountain .\ngortyna obliqua harvey 1876 : 53 . type locality : [ usa ] , california , [ mendocino ] . note : gortyna obliqua was described from a single specimen . poole ( 1989 ) states that the holotype is in the bmnh . this appears to be incorrect because all harvey type material , including that in the bmnh , was examined by barnes and benjamin ( 1924 ) who concluded that a specimen in the amnh labeled \u201cmendocino , california / 4410 / no . 10703 collection hy . edwards / apamea obliqua . harv . \u201d is the type .\ngortyna ximena barnes and benjamin 1924 : 160 . type locality : [ usa ] , california , truckee . syn . n .\ngortyna columbia barnes and benjamin 1924 : 161 . type locality : [ canada ] , b [ ritish ] c [ olumbia ] , saanich district . syn . n .\nmore than a decade ago , prior to the availability of mitochondrial dna , the senior author conducted a study of the genus hydraecia guen\u00e9e focusing on the western north american species related to hydraecia obliqua ( harvey ) , herein referred to as the hydraecia obliqua species - group for convenience . these moths occur over a large area spanning the pacific coast to the great plains west to east and british columbia , alberta , and saskatchewan to southern california , northeastern arizona , and northern new mexico north to south . this study included examination of all primary types , assembling over 600 specimens from most large institutional and many private north american collections , and examination of over 60 genitalia preparations . the conclusion was that hydraecia intermedia ( barnes & benjamin ) , known only from the holotype from fort calgary , is distinct but that all other populations in the species - group exhibit nearly continuous clinal variation in maculation and genitalia to form a circle of races ( rasenkranz ) from california , across montana , and ending in the montane forests of the southwest . this work was accepted for publication but was withdrawn because of the author\u2019s concern that somewhat distinctive populations on the pacific coast and in the southwest might be different species from the widespread intervening population but that the genitalia structure lacked differences sufficient for resolving the species .\nsince then , barcodes have demonstrated a consistent 2 % difference between populations from near the pacific coast ( northern california , washington , and british columbia ( n = 6 ) ) and those from farther inland ( colorado , washington , wyoming , alberta , and british columbia ( n = 7 ) ) that along with slight differences in maculation suggest that they are best treated as distinct species . the western species is hydraecia obliqua and the eastern one is hydraecia medialis smith .\noccurs east to the sierra nevada in california and the crest of the cascade range in oregon and washington . it occurs continuously on the coast north to southwestern british columbia , with a disjunct northern population at terrace , british columbia . its forewing is warm orange brown , varying considerably in darkness from dark brown on the california coast (\n) , and pale yellow brown in the sierra nevada . the hindwing is pale with a yellow tint , usually with dark veins and a gray suffusion in the submarginal area . the forewing pattern is similar to that of\nan area of possible intergradation between hydraecia obliqua and hydraecia medialis in oregon is discussed under hydraecia medialis .\nhydroecia medialis smith 1892 : 251 . type locality : [ usa ] , colorado .\nhydroecia pallescens smith 1899 : 25 . type locality : [ canada ] , alberta , calgary . syn . n .\nand usually lacks a slight bend in or near the fold that is found commonly in that species . the hindwing ground color is variable , most commonly off - white , but lacks a yellow tint . gray scaling on the hindwing varies from absent to covering the entire wing . when present on the distal portion , it often forms a band to the outer margin , whereas in\nfrom forests tend to be darker than those from open sage steppe habitats , especially in southern british columbia and western montana . its northern limit in the pnw is at 100 mile house in south - central british columbia .\nspecimens of hydraecia medialis from the great plains are similar to those in the pnw but tend to be more uniform with dull gray - tan color , smooth lines , and less contrast between the antemedial and medial areas on the inner third of the forewing . populations from the southern rocky mountains have a similar pattern to those from the great plains but are more colorful and variable , with gray or red - brown individuals and paler gray - white subterminal areas . those from utah and arizona are red brown , darkest in arizona .\nas mentioned under hydraecia obliqua , the barcodes of hydraecia obliqua and hydraecia medialis differ by 2 % . a third barcode haplotype differing from both of these by slightly more than 2 % exists for a single specimen of hydraecia medialis from wyoming ( boldsystems sample id : cncnoctuoidea6703 ) . this specimen is superficially indistinguishable from two other wyoming specimens with barcodes that match those of other hydraecia medialis and this haplotype is therefore interpreted as a dna polymorphism rather than evidence of a cryptic species .\na discussion of hydraecia intermedia \u2013known only from the holotype\u2013is warranted in this section because its type locality of fort calgary suggests that it should be sympatric with hydraecia medialis near present - day calgary in southwestern alberta . its forewing is warm yellow brown unlike those of hydraecia medialis , with markings that are more like those of hydraecia obliqua than hydraecia medialis . structurally , its digitus is shorter and more bluntly rounded than those of all other populations in the hydraecia obliqua species - group ( n = 45 ) . the following discussion regarding its type locality is contributed by b . c . schmidt :\nthe holotype of hydraecia intermedia resembles the single specimen of hydraecia obliqua in the cnc from terrace in west - central british columbia . this locality is far north of the continuous distribution of hydraecia obliqua , which ends near vancouver , british columbia . this specimen is structurally similar to other hydraecia obliqua populations , not hydraecia intermedia . all british columbia hydraecia obliqua species - group specimens from east of the cascade mountains and british columbia coast ranges are typical hydraecia medialis , including from cranbrook which is the closest locality to the crowsnest pass locality of hydraecia intermedia . nonetheless , it is interesting to speculate that hydraecia intermedia could be an eastern population of hydraecia obliqua . we retain hydraecia intermedia as a species because of the structural differences between it and hydraecia obliqua , and because there are no records of similar specimens in central british columbia between terrace and crowsnest pass .\nalthough the present reduction of this species - group to three species\u2013 hydraecia intermedia , hydraecia medialis , and hydraecia obliqua \u2013is best supported by the available data there are two remaining issues that cannot be solved with the information at hand . a large series of specimens from the east slope of the cascades at camp sherman , jefferson county , oregon at osac show possible intergradation between hydraecia obliqua and hydraecia medialis , with some specimens that are difficult to assign to either species . this raises the possibility that the original hypothesis that hydraecia obliqua and hydraecia medialis are the same species could be correct despite the different barcodes in coastal and interior populations . barcode or other dna data from this population might help to elucidate its significance but is not available .\nsimilarly in the southwest , at the other end of the rasenkranz , more dna samples from colorado , utah , and arizona would be helpful to exclude the presence of an undiscovered species amongst the colorful populations that occur there . of these , a dusky red - brown population from east - central arizona is the most distinctive .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : b23f75ca - e5ea - 4891 - aefc - 19c4de6035cd\nholotype male . [ usa ] , nevada , lander co . , 3 mi w of kingston , kingston cr . , 7150\u2019 [ 2179 m . ] , 30 . ix . 2000 , laurence l . crabtree leg . / database for noctuoidae [ sic ] 14832 / genitalia cnc # 15215 / barcodes of life project , leg removed , dna extracted . cnc . paratypes 7 males , 1 female . usa . california . mono county : dunes ne of mono lake , 23 . ix . 1995 , r . robertson leg . barcodes of life noctuoidea 14834 ( 1 male ) ; [ same data as previous ] , barcodes of life noctuoidea 14833 ( 1 male ) ; riverside county : pinyon crest , 4000\u2019 [ 1219 m ] , 5 . xi . 1966 , r . h . leuschner leg . genitalia slide cnc 15223 ( 1 male ) . oregon . deschutes county : cline falls state park , j . c . miller coll . , larva 25 . v . 1995 on chrysothamnus nauseosus , pupa 19 . vi . 1995 , adult 28 . ix . 1995 ( 1 male ) ; grant county : john day fossil bed n . m . , sheep rock unit u . c . , 2 . x . 2003 , u . s . natl . park service leg . ( 1 male ) ; jefferson county : warmsprings , 27 . x . [ 19 ] 52 , s . g . jewett jr . ( 1 female ) ; lake county : hwy . 20 at glass butte , 23 . x . 2009 u . s . d . a ( 1 male ) ; klamath county : 6 mi . se of klamath falls , 14 . x . 1964 , kenneth goeden , blk . light trap ( 1 male ) . cnc , osac .\nthe type series is restricted to california , nevada , and oregon . two additional specimens from mt . lemmon highway , pima county , arizona at the cnc are excluded from the type series .\nthe name is derived from the latin niger meaning black or dusky . it refers to the forewing color of the moth .\nspecies by the charcoal - gray forewing without warm brown or reddish shades . other western north american species are either much lighter gray (\nin the male genitalia , the valve of fishia nigrescens can be told from that of fishia yosemitae by the shape of the digitus . in fishia nigrescens the two prongs of the bifid digitus are unequal in length with a long dorsal and short ventral process . in fishia yosemitae these processes are shorter and of similar length .\nthe female genitalia of fishia nigrescens differ from those of fishia yosemitae in the shape of the left posterior projection of the corpus bursae , blunter and more conical in fishia nigrescens and rounder in fishia yosemitae . the bursa of fishia nigrescens has five signa whereas that of fishia yosemitae has three , lacking two small signa at the anterior end .\nfishia nigrescens occurs in central and eastern oregon , nevada , eastern california , and arizona . its flight season is late fall , usually during october . the habitat is sage steppe , often in open juniper forest in oregon . a specimen of this species was reared from rabbitbrush ( ericameria nauseosa ( pallas ex pursh ) g . l . nesom & baird ) ( asteraceae ) in oregon . the larva was collected in may , pupated in june , and emerged in late september of the same year . it was described as green with a white lateral band ."]}
{"id": 164, "summary": [{"text": "dichomeris chalcophaea is a moth in the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by meyrick in 1921 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in australia , where it has been recorded from queensland .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 10 \u2013 11 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are rather dark bronzy-fuscous , obscurely irrorated grey-whitish .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the stigmata is cloudy , obscure , dark fuscous , the discal approximated , the second transverse , the plical rather obliquely before the first discal .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "there is a distinct angulated thick dark coppery-fuscous line from three-fourths of the costa to the tornus , edged anteriorly by a faint line of whitish irroration .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the apical edge is coppery-bronze .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are fuscous . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "dichomeris chalcophaea", "paragraphs": ["vad betyder dichomeris ? h\u00e4r finner du 2 definitioner av dichomeris . du kan \u00e4ven l\u00e4gga till betydelsen av dichomeris sj\u00e4lv\ndichomeris \u00e4r ett sl\u00e4kte av fj\u00e4rilar som beskrevs av h\u00fcbner 1818 . dichomeris ing\u00e5r i familjen st\u00e4vmalar .\ndichomeris - species dictionary - global : ispot nature - your place to share nature . ispot is a website aimed at helping anyone identify anything in nature . once you ' ve registered , you can add an observation to the website and suggest an identification yourself or see if anyone else can identify it for you .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnb : the taxon name search is for single names only . for example , to locate dysodia vitrina flammata warren , 1904 you should enter flammata only .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\n80x5 - 240x3 - 240x4 - 320x1 - 320x2 - 320x3 - 640x1 - 640x2 set display option above . click on images to enlarge .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\nhtml public\ni / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nunderlying maps using digital map data \u00a9 norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola\u2122 2018 . \u00a9 james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data \u00a9 nola\u2122 2018"]}
{"id": 170, "summary": [{"text": "littorina scutulata is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family littorinidae , the winkles or periwinkles .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "this species lives lower on rocks than does l. planaxis , and migrates up and down rocks with the tide .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it crawls out of tidepools at night .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "often , it hides at low tide in cracks or barnacle shells .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the waves on both sides of the foot are out of phase with one another ( ditaxic ) .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it feeds mainly on diatom films , microscopic algae , lichens , etc. , and will also feed on pelvetia , ulva , and other larger algae .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "l. scutulata breeds in all seasons except summer .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "eggs are laid underwater , individually packaged in flattened capsules within a sausage-shaped gelatinous mass coiled in a spiral and holding over 2000 eggs .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "its eye anatomy is similar to that of the land snail helix aspera .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "in oregon , over 10 % of individuals harbor parasitic flukes.leptasterias hexactis feeds on this snail .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "it is distributed from kodiak island , alaska , to bahia de tortuga , baja california . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "littorina scutulata", "paragraphs": ["dana campbell marked\nfile : littorina scutulata 2881 . jpg\nas trusted on the\nlittorina scutulata gould , 1849\npage .\ndana campbell set\nfile : littorina scutulata 2881 cropped . jpg\nas an exemplar on\nlittorina scutulata gould , 1849\n.\ndana campbell marked\nfile : littorina scutulata 2881 cropped . jpg\nas trusted on the\nlittorina scutulata gould , 1849\npage .\nlittorina _ scutulata _ 2881 . jpg : walter siegmund . derivative work : wsiegmund\nfield observations on the feeding habits of littorina scutulata gould and l . sitkana philippi ( gastropoda , prosobranchia ) of southern vancouver island ( british columbia , canada )\nfield observations on the feeding habits of littorina scutulata gould and l . sitkana philippi ( gastropoda , prosobranchia ) of southern vancouver island ( british columbia , canada ) | springerlink\n( of littorina lepida gould , 1849 ) reid , d . g . ( 1996 ) . systematics and evolution of littorina . the ray society . 463p . [ details ]\nthe microdistribution of littorina scutulata and l . sitkana on the rocky shores of vancouver island can be related to their feeding characteristics . their gut contents , studied with light and fluorescence microscopy , showed that both species are opportunistic herbivores . however , l . scutulata can feed on the sparse epi - and endolithic microflora of the supralittoral zone , while l . sitkana is confined to special microenvironments , with abundant epilithic growth .\nty - jour ti - the role of behavior in determining the intertidal zonation of littorina planaxis philippi , 1847 , and littorina scutulata gould , 1849 t2 - the veliger . vl - 10 ur - urltoken pb - california malacozoological society . cy - berkeley , ca : py - 1967 sp - 42 ep - 54 sn - 0042 - 3211 au - bock , carl e au - johnson , richard e er -\nreid , d . g . ( 1996 ) . systematics and evolution of littorina . the ray society . 463p . [ details ]\n@ article { bhlpart93434 , title = { the role of behavior in determining the intertidal zonation of littorina planaxis philippi , 1847 , and littorina scutulata gould , 1849 } , journal = { the veliger . } , volume = { 10 } , copyright = { in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder . } , url = urltoken publisher = { berkeley , ca : california malacozoological society . 1958 - } , author = { bock , carl e and johnson , richard e } , year = { 1967 } , pages = { 42 - - 54 } , }\n< mods xmlns : xlink =\nurltoken\nversion =\n3 . 0\nxmlns : xsi =\nurltoken\nxmlns =\nurltoken\nxsi : schemalocation =\nurltoken urltoken\n> < titleinfo > < title > the role of behavior in determining the intertidal zonation of littorina planaxis philippi , 1847 , and littorina scutulata gould , 1849 < / title > < / titleinfo > < name > < namepart > bock , carl e < / namepart > < / name > < name > < namepart > johnson , richard e < / namepart > < / name > < typeofresource > text < / typeofresource > < genre authority =\nmarcgt\n> < / genre > < note type =\ncontent\n> 10 < / note > < relateditem type =\nhost\n> < titleinfo > < title > the veliger . < / title > < / titleinfo > < origininfo > < place > < placeterm type =\ntext\n> berkeley , ca : < / placeterm > < / place > < publisher > california malacozoological society . < / publisher > < / origininfo > < part > < detail type =\nvolume\n> < number > 10 < / number > < / detail > < extent unit =\npages\n> < start > 42 < / start > < end > 54 < / end > < / extent > < date > 1967 < / date > < / part > < / relateditem > < identifier type =\nuri\n> urltoken < / identifier > < accesscondition type =\nuseandreproduction\n> in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder . < / accesscondition > < / mods >\n\u200breferences carefoot , t . littorina plena ( gould , 1849 ) in klinkenberg , brian . ( ed . ) e - fauna bc : electronic atlas of the fauna of british columbia . lab for advanced spatial analysis , department of geography , university of british columbia , vancouver . accessed 2015 - 10 - 30 . harbo , r . m . ( 1997 ) shells & shellfish of the pacific northwest . madeira park , bc : harbour publishing . p . 200 . lamb , a . , and hanby , b . ( 2005 ) . marine life of the pacific northwest [ electronic version ] . madeira park , bc : harbour publishing . authors and editors of page beatrice proudfoot and kelly fretwell ( 2015 )\nreid , d . g . ( 1989 ) . the comparative morphology , phylogeny and evolution of the gastropod family littorinidae . philosophical transactions of the royalsociety of london , series b . 324 : 1 - 110 . [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nperiwinkle with height decidedly greater than the diameter , spire usually has 4 whorls , aperture is purplish inside but has no white band inside the aperture . shell has no umbilicus , columella is narrow . shell height to 1 . 5 cm , shell is dark brown , purple , or black , often with lighter bands or a checkerboard pattern of whitish areas .\nhow to distinguish from similar species : l . sitkana has a diameter almost equal to the height , has spiral ridges .\noften aggregate in the very high intertidal , inside tidepools or on the bare rock . photo by dave cowles at little corona del mar , ca march 2005\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\n, has been introduced within the past few years likely via imports for the shellfish trade . except for this one , which is large in size and easy to distinguish , the other 4 indigenous species are difficult to separate out . however , if you are keen to learn the different species you can check out\nin a snail ' s odyssey website . all indigenous species are relatively small in size , live in the high reaches of the intertidal zone , and feed on various seaweeds , including diatoms .\nwinkle - picking\nconnoisseurs from the atlantic coast of north america or europe and disappointed at the small sizes of our local species may be gratified to learn that their big , tasty favourites have been located on several vancouver beaches . thus far these introductions are restricted in numbers but , judging from the success of\nin colonizing most of the east coast and lately the west coast ( from california north to washington , and now present in b . c . ) , chances are they are here to stay . the 5 species differ in their reproductive modes , with\nproducing several small eggs in capsules that are spawned into the ocean . the eggs hatch into swimming larvae that feed for several weeks on phytoplankton and then settle out onto rocky shorelines . the other species\nalso encapsulate their eggs , but do so singly and deposit them directly onto the substratum . the embryos of these 2 species feed on yolk and emerge from their capsules as crawl - away juveniles . you can learn more about life cycles and reproductive behaviour at\nin the odyssey website . for protection from predatory birds , fishes , and crabs , these small snails mostly have only their shells to rely on . however , for protection from drying they have an unusual strategy . if you look carefully on pilings around the shore on a dry day you may see\nattached on its shell edge by a blob of mucous glue . the operculum is similarly glued shut , and the animal can survive like this for many days until once again wetted by spring tides or waves . within a few moments of wetting , the snail pops out and crawls off to find food .\nbc ministry of environment : bc species and ecosystems explorer - - the authoritative source for conservation information in british columbia .\nrecommended citation : author , date . page title . in klinkenberg , brian . ( editor ) 2017 .\n[ efauna . bc . ca ] . lab for advanced spatial analysis , department of geography , university of british columbia , vancouver . [ accessed :\ndisclaimer : the information contained in an e - fauna bc atlas pages is derived from expert sources as cited ( with permission ) in each section . this information is scientifically based . e - fauna bc also acts as a portal to other sites via deep links . as always , users should refer to the original sources for complete information . e - fauna bc is not responsible for the accuracy or completeness of the original information .\ncastenholz , r . w . , 1961 . the effect of grazing on littoral diatom populations . ecology 42 : 783\u2013794 .\n( gastropoda : prosobranchia ) as they relate to resource partitioning . veliger 23 : 333\u2013338 .\n( gray ) sur la gr\u00e9ve de roscoff . cah . biol . mar . 18 : 499\u2013505 .\nsacchi , c . f . , a . occhipinti ambrogi & d . voltolina , 1981 . recherches sur le spectre trophique compar\u00e9 de\n( gray ) ( gastropoda , prosobranchia ) sur la gr\u00e9ve de roscoff . cas de populations vivant au milieu d ' algues macroscopiques . cah . biol . mar . 22 : 83\u201388 .\nsacchi , c . f . & d . voltolina , 1987 . recherches sur l ' ecologie compar\u00e9e des littorines ( gastropoda , prosobranchia ) dans l ' ile de vancouver . atti soc . ital . sci . nat . 128 : 209\u2013234 .\nsteneck , r . s . & l . watling , 1982 . feeding capabilities and limitations of herbivorous molluscs : a functional group approach . mar . biol . 68 : 299\u2013319 .\nidentification this species is distinguished by a checkered white pattern on a dark brown to black - purple shell . in some individuals , however , this pattern is absent . the height of the shell ( up to 15 mm ) is greater than the diameter , giving the shell a more slender appearance . the interior of the shell is somewhat purple , and some individuals have orange bands with white markings on the exterior of the shell . similar species the checkered periwinkle is similar to the sitka periwinkle ( l . sitkana ) \u2013 another common intertidal grazer . however , sitka periwinkles have a squatter shell shape , lack the white checkered pattern , and often have pronounced spiral ridges on the exterior of the shell .\ncheckered periwinkles . note the obvious white markings on the exterior of the shell . photo by jenn burt .\nhabitat and range \u200bthis species inhabits rocky shorelines in sheltered waters from northern alaska to southern oregon . its range also includes japan and siberia . it migrates within the intertidal zone as the tide fluctuates , often aggregating in moist , shady bedrock crevices during low tide . this species is also known to occupy tidepools during the day . intriguing information this species feeds primarily on diatoms , microalgae , some species of macroalgae , and lichens using its rasping radula . the checkered periwinkle is able to survive long periods without moisture by attaching itself to the substrate using a glue - like mucus . this essentially seals the operculum shut to preserve moisture until the next high tide or wave re - moistens the substrate . \u200bthis species reproduces throughout the whole year except summer . eggs are deposited underwater in unique egg capsules that are enveloped in a coiled , sausage - like gelatinous mass . larvae of this species are pelagic , and feed on phytoplankton for several weeks before settling .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nturgeon , d . d . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , w . k . emerson , w . g . lyons , w . pratt , et al .\nturgeon , d . d . , j . f . quinn , jr . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , f . g . hochberg , w . g . lyons , et al .\ncommon and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks , 2nd ed .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nthe race rocks taxonomy is a collaborative venture originally started with the biology and environmental systems students of lester pearson college uwc . it now also has contributions added by faculty , staff , volunteers and observers on the remote control webcams .\nbiodivlibrary july is # nationalblueberrymonth ! the w . a . cox nursery co . of mississippi ' s 1920s catalog proclaimed # blueberries to\u2026 urltoken\nbiodivlibrary @ jzed _ trees @ kew _ laa awesome ! we ' re so honored to have this treasure in # bhlib . thanks @ kew _ laa ! now we can enjoy p\u2026 urltoken"]}
{"id": 173, "summary": [{"text": "the tawny nurse shark ( nebrius ferrugineus ) is a species of carpet shark in the family ginglymostomatidae , and the only extant member of the genus nebrius .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is found widely along coastlines in the indo-pacific , preferring reefs , sandy flats , and seagrass beds from very shallow water to a depth of 70 m ( 230 ft ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "with a cylindrical body and a broad , flattened head , the tawny nurse shark is quite similar in appearance to the nurse shark ( ginglymostoma cirratum ) of the atlantic and east pacific , from which it can be distinguished by its pointed-tipped dorsal fins and narrow , sickle-shaped pectoral fins .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the maximum recorded length of the tawny nurse shark is 3.2 m ( 10 ft ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "nocturnal in habits , the tawny nurse shark tends to spend the day resting in piles of two dozen or more individuals inside caves or under ledges .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "at night , it is an active-swimming predator that uses a powerful suction force to extract prey from inside holes and crevices .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the diet of this species consists mainly of octopus , though they also take other invertebrates , small bony fishes , and rarely sea snakes .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it is aplacental viviparous , meaning the embryos hatch from egg capsules inside the mother .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is the only carpet shark in which the embryos are oophagous , feeding on eggs produced by the mother while inside the uterus .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "the litter size may be as small as one or two , based on the large size of near-term embryos .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "compared to the nurse shark , the tawny nurse shark has a more placid disposition and will often allow divers to touch and play with it .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "however , it should be accorded respect due to its powerful jaws and sharp teeth .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this species is caught by commercial fisheries across most of its range for meat , fins , liver oil , leather , and fishmeal .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it is also esteemed as a game fish off queensland , australia , and is known for its habit of spitting water in the faces of its captors .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has assessed the tawny nurse shark as vulnerable , with subpopulations in several areas already diminished or extirpated . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "tawny nurse shark", "paragraphs": ["australia : tawny shark , spitting shark , rusty shark , rusty catshark , sleepy shark , madame x .\nen - tawny nurse shark , fr - requin nourrice fauve , sp - gata nodriza atezada .\nsmall fish and invertebrates are among the prey items of the tawny nurse shark . photo \u00a9 klaus jost\nfao names : en \u2013 tawny nurse shark ; fr \u2013 requin nourrice fauve ; sp \u2013 gata nodriza atezada .\n' other\u2019 species are tawny nurse , blacktip reef , tiger , scalloped hammerhead and great hammerhead .\noverview of various pacific coral reef sharks , notably the blacktip reef shark , gray reef shark , and nurse shark .\nfive new species of pedibothrium ( tetraphyllidea : onchobothriidae ) from the tawny nurse shark , nebrius ferrugineus , in the pacific ocean .\ntawny nurse sharks are gray - brown to brown in color along the dorsal surface . photo \u00a9 doug perrine\nthere are 5 species of tapeworms documented in the spiral intestines of the tawny nurse shark taken from the waters off australia and french polynesia .\nthe tawny nurse shark is ovoviviparous , with females giving birth to up to eight live young that have hatched within the uterus ( 4 ) .\nfive new species of pedibothrium ( tetraphyllidea : onchobothriidae ) from the tawny nurse shark , nebrius ferrugineus , in the pacific ocean . - pubmed - ncbi\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - tawny nurse shark ( nebrius ferrugineus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - tawny nurse shark ( nebrius ferrugineus )\ntitle =\narkive species - tawny nurse shark ( nebrius ferrugineus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe tawny nurse shark has a more calm disposition compared to other nurse sharks and adventurous scuba divers have been known to touch them . a few non - fatal attacks have been recorded . these occurred when they were being \u2018handled\u2019 by divers . due to their large size and strength , the tawny nurse shark should be regarded as potentially dangerous and treated with respect .\nthis nurse shark found in the indo - pacific region should not be confused with the nurse shark ( ginglymostoma cirratum ) of the atlantic and eastern pacific oceans . although at first glance these two species closely resemble each other , on closer inspection the tawny nurse shark can be easy distinguished by the pointed apices of its pectoral , dorsal , and anal fins as well as its narrowly falcate pectoral fins . the tawny nurse shark is also a more active swimming species than g . cirratum .\nwith their cylindrical body and broad , flattened head , the tawny nurse shark is quite similar in appearance to the nurse shark ( ginglymostoma cirratum ) but can be distinguished by its pointed - tipped dorsal fins and narrow , sickle - shaped pectoral fins .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive video - tawny nurse shark feeding on and investigating dead turtle\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive video - tawny nurse shark feeding on and investigating dead turtle\ntitle =\narkive video - tawny nurse shark feeding on and investigating dead turtle\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe movie opens with footage of zebra sharks , but moves on to show tawny shark behaviour and feeding .\nteshima , k . , m . toda , y . kamei , s . uchida and m . tamaki . 1999 . reproductive mode of the tawny nurse shark .\nparasites there are five species of tapeworms ( pedibothrium sp . ) documented from the spiral intestines of the tawny nurse shark taken from the waters off australia and french polynesia .\ngiven that tawny nurse shark pups are born at an average length of between 40 to 60cm , it was clear that these large females were pregnant by their distinctively bulging stomach . the tawny nurse shark is the only member of the carpet shark family which exhibits intrauterine cannibalism ; once the pups have used up their yolk supply , they will feed on other eggs within the uterus .\nthe biology of the nurse shark , ginglymostoma cirratum , off the florida east coast and the bahama islands .\npredators there are no species that regularly prey on nurse sharks . however some larger sharks are known to feed occasionally on nurse sharks found in the atlantic ocean . remains of nurse sharks have been found in lemon shark and tiger shark stomachs , and attacks on nurse sharks by bull sharks and great hammerhead sharks have been observed on this closely related species .\n\u2026the wobbegongs ; and ginglymostomatidae , the nurse sharks . one species of nurse shark , ginglymostoma cirratum , reaches a length of more than 4 metres ( 13 feet ) . \u2026\noften used as an attractive display animal in aquaria , the tawny nurse shark is a tough , hardy shark that easily adapts to captivity . it is kept at public aquaria facilities throughout europe , japan , singapore , and the united states .\nresponding to a related posting , [\ni believe that the name nurse shark comes from some place in the south pacific where they called it a plurse shark . the name was then slurred into nurse shark .\n] , i had the following thoughts .\nverification of multiple species of pedibothrium in the atlantic nurse shark with comments on the australasian members of the genus .\nthe tawny has a cylindrical body with a broad , flattened head , with a squarish snout and tiny eyes . they are quite similar in appearance to the nurse shark that is found in the atlantic and east pacific . the tawny nurse shark has a couple of features that distinguish them from other nurse sharks . the most obvious is their sickle shaped pectoral fins . the less apparent anatomical difference , unless a diver touches the shark , is their soft skin . their greek name \u2018nebrius\u2019 can be translated to \u2018skin of a fawn . \u2019\nwithin the first few days of surveying in chagos , our fish and benthic surveyors have had multiple encounters with large and often pregnant tawny nurse sharks ( nebrius ferrugineus ) .\na tawny nurse shark ( nebrius ferrugineus ) lies in a small cave on a reef in raja ampat , indonesia . this beautiful region is known for its prolific marine life and world class scuba diving and snorkeling .\ninhabiting the waters above the continental shelves in most warm and temperate regions\u2014which is sometimes referred to as the gray nurse shark .\ntawny nurse sharks can reach a maximum length of 10 . 4 feet ( 320 cm ) . born at 15 . 7 up to 23 inches ( 40 - 60 cm ) .\ntawny nurse shark ( nebrius ferrugineus ) scientific name : nebrius ferrugineus , higher classification : nebrius , rank : species , kingdom : animalia , phylum : chordata , class : chondrichthyes , subclass : elasmobranchii , order : orectolobiformes , family : ginglymostomatidae , genus : nebrius , type : fish , * * the tawny nurse shark ( nebrius ferrugineus ) is a species of carpet shark in the family ginglymostomatidae , and the only extant member of the genus nebrius . it is found widely along coastlines in the indo - pacific , preferring reefs , sandy flats , and seagrass beds from very shallow water to a depth of 70 m ( 230 ft ) . with a cylindrical body and a broad , flattened head , the tawny nurse shark is quite similar in appearance to the nurse shark ( ginglymostoma cirratum ) of the atlantic and east pacific , from which it can be distinguished by its pointed - tipped dorsal fins and narrow , sickle - shaped pectoral fins . the maximum recorded length of the tawny nurse shark is 3 . 2 m ( 10 ft ) . more info : urltoken\na tawny nurse shark ( nebrius ferrugineus ) attracted to a dive light during a feeding session for tourism in the northern ari atoll of the republic of maldives . currently the republic of maldives has completely banned shark fishing in the country to conserve their population and maintain shark tourism which attracts a large number of tourists each year . it has been studied in several locations that a living shark could yield much larger revenue throughout their lifetime than a dead one at fish markets . currently tawny nurse shark is listed as vulnerable in the iucn red list of endangered species . photo : \u00a9 sirachai arunrugstichai\ntawny nurse sharks have few natural predators if humans are not included . if they are unfortunate , they may fall prey to other sharks such as bull sharks , great hammerheads and tiger sharks .\nthey have short small mouths with fan - shaped serrated teeth . the tawny nurse shark ' s name was presumably derived from its ability to suck up prey using a powerful sucking motion with its throat , just like a baby being nursed .\nthe mating season runs from late june to the end of july . nurse sharks are\nduring day lies motionless unless closely harassed . will bite if provoked . nurse sharks are opportunistic and become regular visitors to shark feeds .\ntawny nurse sharks are ovoviviparous ( aplacental viviparous ) . young feed inside the uterus on large infertile yolky eggs . litter size is uncertain , one to four , depending upon competition in the uterus .\nthis shark ' s narrow range and limited dispersion as well as low reproductive rates make it especially susceptible to the effects of overfishing . reef habitats and local food webs have been damaged from dynamiting and poisoning in portions of its range , further increasing the tawny nurse shark ' s vulnerability . there have been reports of local extinctions in waters around india and the gulf of thailand due to increased fisheries catch along with destruction of habitat . at this time , the tawny nurse shark is still abundant off of australia where fishing impact is much less .\nthis nurse shark is quite docile , allowing itself to be touched by divers , however there are a few non - fatal attacks on humans attributed to this species . due to its strong jaws and sharp cutting teeth , the tawny nurse shark should be regarded as potentially dangerous and treated with respect . it is a favorite species for observation by ecotourists in waters off thailand and the solomon islands .\nthe tawny nurse shark is widely distributed across the indian and west and central pacific oceans , ranging from the red sea , east africa and the arabian gulf to southern japan , south through indonesia to australia ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 5 ) .\nit is worth noting in passing that the nurse shark of the central and western south pacific and indian oceans is not the familiar ginglymostoma cirratum of the atlantic and eastern pacific , but the tawny nurse shark , nebrius ferrugineus ( = n . concolor ) . although the nurse and tawny sharks superficially resemble one another , the latter is readily distinguished from the former by the pointed apices of its pectoral , dorsal , and anal fins , narrowly falcate pectoral fins , and laterally compressed teeth in the sides of the jaw . these differences have long been regarded as evidence that these orectoloboid sharks warrant different genera .\nsome aquariums have tried to exhibit much larger sharks , such as the white shark and whale shark .\na sickle - fin lemon shark takes a tuna head from a shark handler . photograph : tom vierus\nage of association between the nurse shark , ginglymostoma cirratum , and tapeworms of the genus pedibothrium ( tetraphyllidea : onehobothriidae ) : implications from geography .\na comparison of mode of attachment and histopathogenicity of four tapeworm species representing two orders infecting the spiral intestine of the nurse shark , ginglymostoma cirratum .\nthe common atlantic nurse shark is generally a light tan to dark brown colour . juveniles may be a dark gray with small black spots that are lost as the animal grows . nurse sharks possess two dorsal fins and an anal fin . in\nnurse sharks are able to respire while stationary by pumping water through their mouths and out gills .\npossibly , some bygone observer watched a shark giving birth to live young and thought the shark was giving nurse . possibly the use of the word sprang from the old notion that a shark would protect its young by taking them into its mouth .\nneed a unique gift idea ? consider an annual whale shark adoption to help fund our whale shark study .\nthe international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) is a global union of states , governmental agencies and non - governmental organisations in a partnership that assesses the conservation status of species . the tawny nurse shark is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list .\nthe tawny nurse shark is heavily fished commercially . the meat is used as fishmeal , its liver is rendered for oil and vitamins , and fins are sought for the oriental sharkfin trade . their skin is thick and \u2018hide - like\u2019 , and is used for the manufacture of purses .\na new species of pedibothrium ( cestoidea : tetraphyllidea ) from the short - tail nurse shark , pseudoginglymostoma brevicaudatum ( elasmobranchii : orectilobiformes ) from southwest madagascar .\nfishes ( including surgeonfishes and siganids ) . while foraging the tawny shark moves along the bottom and explores depressions , holes and crevices in reefs . when it detects prey it places its small\nrecords of these sharks biting their tormentors , and clamping tightly onto them . because of its size and strength , the tawny shark should be regarded as potentially dangerous and treated with respect .\na blacktip reef shark cruises over the reef at the shark reef marine reserve , fiji . photograph : tom vierus\nlockenloia sanguinis n . gen . , n . sp . ( nematoda : dracunculoidea ) from the heart of a nurse shark , ginglymostoma cirratum , in florida .\nnurse sharks are sometimes preyed upon by other sharks , such as tiger ( galeocerdo cuvier ) and lemon sharks ( negaprion ) . most nurse shark species are not well studied , but ecologists suspect that human activity has caused the populations of some nurse sharks to shrink . for example , populations of tawny nurse sharks ( n . ferrugineus , which often rest in caves and under reef escarpments ) near thailand are thought to have decreased as a direct result of blast fishing and through pestering by divers , whereas shorttail nurse sharks ( p . brevicaudatum , which inhabit the western indian ocean ) are declining because of a combination of habitat destruction , fishing , and capture as bycatch ( being accidentally caught by anglers ) .\nthe tawny nurse shark is a large shark with a broad flattened head , snout rounded or truncated . mouth in front of eyes with long nasoral grooves . nostrils with barbels . small spiracles behind eyes . small gill slits , two spinless dorsal fins . precaudal tail much shorter than head and body . unpatterned , juveniles will have a few dark spots .\nthis is a continental and insular shelf species restricted to a narrow band of shallow water from intertidal waters to depths of up to 70 m ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the tawny nurse shark lives on or near the bottom in lagoons , or close to coral and rocky reefs ( 2 ) . like other nurse sharks , this species uses crevices and caves for shelter ( 5 ) .\nadults and juveniles feed on a wide diversity of benthic marine invertebrates including cephalopods , crustaceans , and sea urchins . the tawny nurse shark also feeds on small fishes including surgeonfish , queenfish and rabbitfish , as well as occasionally sea snakes . during its search for prey , this nurse shark swims along the bottom and explores holes and crevices along reefs . upon detection of prey , it uses suction to draw out - of - reach prey items into its mouth with great force .\nthe nurse shark has two rounded dorsal fins , rounded pectoral fins , an elongated caudal fin , and a broad head . nurse sharks are brownish . adults can grow up to 4 . 3 m ( 14 ft ) and weigh up to 330 kg ( 730 lb ) .\nnurse sharks range in length from about 75 centimeters for the short tail nurse shark to 4 meters in length for the other types of nurse sharks . the average weight of a 240 centimeter long nurse shark is 330 pounds . they are generally dark in color or have dark scattered spots along their bodies . they have broad heads , no grooves around the outer edge of their nostrils , and relatively fat or stout bodies and tails . their anal fins are slightly behind their second dorsal fins and just in front of their caudal fins . anal fins are absent in some families of sharks .\nteshima , k . , y . kamei , m . toda and s . uchida . 1995 . reproductive mode of the tawny nurse shark taken from the yaeyama islands . okinawa . japan with comments on individuals lacking the second dorsal fin . bull . seikai nat . fish . res . inst . , ( 73 ) : 1\u201312 .\nthe most remarkable feature of the tawny nurse shark is probably its curious ability to change colour between grey and sandy brown depending on the colour of its surroundings ( 3 ) . the tawny nurse shark is uniformly grey to tan - brown on its upper surfaces , paling slightly on the belly ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . juveniles can be distinguished from adults by the presence of small dark spots on the skin ( 4 ) . this large shark has a broad , flattened head with a squarish snout and tiny eyes ( 3 ) . there are two angular dorsal fins close to the tail , the pectoral fins curve backwards , and the long , narrow tail has a large upper lobe and almost no distinct lower lobe ( 4 ) ( 5 ) .\ngrillotia similis ( linton , 1908 ) comb . n . ( cestoda : trypanorhyncha ) from nurse sharks in the florida keys .\nnurse sharks prefer to dwell near the sea floor in the warm , shallow waters of the western atlantic and eastern pacific oceans .\nhowever , since nurse sharks attain lengths in excess of ten feet they are far too large to be kept in home aquaria .\nthe tawny nurse shark was first described as scyllium ferrugineum by lesson ( 1831 ) . however this name was later changed to the currently valid scientific name of nebrius ferrugineus ( lesson 1831 ) . synonyms include ginglymostoma concolor r\u00fcppell 1837 , ginglymostoma ferruginea lesson 1831 , ginglymostoma ferrugineum lesson 1831 , ginglymostoma muelleri g\u00fcnther 1870 , ginglymostoma rueppellii bleeker 1852 , nebrius concolor r\u00fcppell 1837 , nebrius doldi smith 1953 , nebrius macrurus garman 1913 ) , nebrodes concolor ogilbyi whitley 1934 , nebrodes macrurus garman 1913 , and scymnus porosu s ehrenberg 1871 . the genus name nebrius originates from the greek\nnebris , - idos\n, meaning skin of a fawn . the species name , ferrugineus , is derived from latin , referring to the brown coloration of this shark . the tawny nurse shark is a member of the family ginglymostomtidae .\nhe fijian shark culture and mythology is one which deeply appeals to me . the shark is revered by many fijians , and legend has it that\ntawny nurse sharks are quite commonly encountered by divers . you may see them lying on a sandy floor or huddled together in their favourite cave or crevice during the day , or witness them hunting on a night dive . nurse sharks are easily recognised by their elongated caudal fin ( tail ) and barbels ( thin , fleshy , whisker - like organs on the lower jaw in front of the nostrils that sense taste and touch ) .\nour improved understanding of shark behavior has led to scientists abandoning the term \u201cshark attack\u201d altogether , replacing it with \u201chuman - shark interactions , \u201d or \u201cshark bites . \u201d it is important to realize that shark bites are extremely rare . you are 75 times more likely to be struck by lightning and 33 times more likely to be bitten by a dog than you are to be killed by a shark . but before you go swimming , you still need to know how to behave if you see a shark .\nenglish language common names are tawny nurse shark , giant sleepy shark , madame x , nurse shark , rusty catshark , rusty shark , sleepy shark , spitting shark , and tawny shark . other common names include aarau ( kumak ) , bagea ( ro ) rodo ( gela ) , b\u00e1koa ( kirabati ) , brun nursehaj ( danish ) , chlarm ( khmer ) , cucut buta ( malay ) , endormi ( french ) , gata nodriza atezada ( spanish ) , geelbruine verpleegsterhaai ( dutch ) , hiu bisu ( jawa ) , hiu gedebong ( bali ) , hiu gedok ( bali ) , ma ' o rohoi ( tahitian ) , moemoeao ( samoan ) , moron ( malayam ) , nadammiyaru ( malayam ) , nek aarau ( kumak ) , nidammiyaru ( mahl ) , paab ( carolinian ) , pating ( tagalong ) , requin dormeur ( french ) , requin nourrice ( french ) , requin nourrice fauve ( french ) , requin - dormeur fauve ( french ) , reuse - vaakhaai ( afrikaans ) , rohoi ( tahitian ) , sunera ( marathi ) , and tubar\u00e3o - de - leite tostado ( portuguese ) .\nnurse sharks live in warm waters . they range from the eastern pacific ocean , eastern and western atlantic ocean to the indian ocean .\nthe teeth of nurse sharks are always sharp and effective because new rows of teeth develop constantly to replace older , worn down teeth .\nthe scientific name for the nurse shark sounds like something bilbo baggins might have said to summon elves to his rescue : ginglymostoma cirratum . actually the name is a mix of greek and latin and means\ncurled , hinged mouth\nto describe this shark ' s somewhat puckered appearance .\nsize , age , and growth the maximum reported size of the tawny nurse shark is 10 . 5 feet ( 320 cm ) total length ( tl ) . the sex of this specimen caught in indonesian waters is unspecified . maturity is reached by males at lengths of approximately 7 . 4 feet ( 225 cm ) tl and by females around 7 . 6 feet ( 230 cm ) tl .\nnurse sharks are commonly caught in small - scale local fisheries in some parts of its range , and are incidentally captured in many coastal fisheries ( 1 ) ( 2 ) . its tough , thick hide makes good leather , the flesh is consumed by humans and used for fishmeal , and oil is extracted from the liver ( 2 ) . the nurse shark is also captured for the aquarium trade , and is occasionally the target of spear fishermen ( 1 ) . as the nurse shark grows slowly and matures late , this exploitation can cause populations to decline rapidly and recover slowly ( 6 ) . the threat of overexploitation is compounded by the impact of humans on the coastal and reef habitats of the nurse shark ( 1 ) ( 6 ) . coral reefs are a particularly vulnerable habitat , being impacted by pollution , sedimentation , global climate change and disturbance from tourism ( 1 ) . extreme population reductions have already been recorded in the southern western atlantic , and it is possible that the nurse shark is declining , unnoticed , in other areas where there is a lack of data ( 1 ) . for this reason , the world conservation union ( iucn ) has classified the nurse shark as data deficient ( 1 ) .\nthere are now more than 10 , 000 shark pictures and sections on shark evolution , biology , and conservation . there is a large library of reviewed shark books , a constantly updated shark taxonomy page , a monster list of shark links , and deeper in the site there are numerous articles and stories about shark encounters . elasmodiver is now so difficult to check for updates , that new information and pictures are listed on an elasmodiver updates page that can be accessed here :\non one occasion , a large individual swam directly over our fish transect line , giving us a good estimate of the length which was close to 3m ( the maximum recorded length of the tawny nurse shark is 3 . 2 m ) . several of these large females have been observed swimming with the company of a single juvenile ( ~ 1 m ) which may be a year old pup of hers .\n. nurse sharks can reach a length of 4 . 3 m ( 14 ft ) and a weight of 330 kg ( 730 lb ) .\ntawny nurse sharks are found on sandy flats , rocky and coral reefs , seagrass beds , bottom substrate in lagoons and in the surf zone . they have been known to be in depths that range from intertidal water that barely covers their body , up to 70m . however , they are most frequently found between 5 - 30m .\nanother tactic used by this species is brute force . a 3m tawny nurse shark was filmed extracting a speared fish from under a coral head by wedging its body under the bommie and lifting its head and body to raise the entire coral structure ! the shark continued this behaviour until it was able to get close enough to suck the fish from the coral head . the bommie was estimated to weigh in excess of 450 kilogrammes ! dive the world obviously does not condone the tactics used by the film maker , however it does illustrate the strength and tenacity of this shark .\npartial response plot for generalised linear models of log - transformed total shark abundance ( a - c ) and grey reef shark abundance ( d - f ) .\n, the ancient shark god , provides protection for the people when at sea .\nwhysharksmatter talks about sharks and shark week on dr . kiki ' s science hour\non the shark dive you will be able to experience the breathtaking sight of up to eight species of sharks : blacktip reef sharks , whitetip reef sharks , grey reef sharks , silvertip sharks , tawny nurse sharks , sicklefin lemon sharks , bull sharks and the occasional tiger shark . in addition , you can also encounter giant groupers , maori wrasse , rainbow runners , giant trevally , java morays , eagle rays and more than 400 species of tropical reef fish , as documented by our 2010 census .\nthe origin of the name\nnurse shark\nis unclear . it may come from the sucking sound they make when hunting for prey in the sand , which vaguely resembles that of a nursing baby . or it may derive from an archaic word , nusse , meaning cat shark . the most likely theory though is that the name comes from the old english word for sea - floor shark : hurse .\nnurse sharks are frequently encountered by divers , and most encounters are without incident . since nurse sharks are slower - moving fishes and are relatively tolerant of human beings , recreational divers seeking the thrill of a ride may grab them by the tail or by the dorsal fin . such encounters often end with a shark bite . once the bite is established , nurse sharks are reluctant to let go , and many small sharks either have been killed to remove them from the human victim or have been \u201cworn\u201d to a hospital for removal and treatment . bites can be severe because of the crushing power of their strong jaws . most attacks attributed to nurse sharks are provoked by humans , according to the international shark attack file maintained by the florida museum of natural history at the university of florida .\ndiving with sharks , often in combination with food baiting / provisioning , has become an important product of today\u2019s recreational dive industry . whereas the effects baiting / provisioning has on the behaviour and abundance of individual shark species are starting to become known , there is an almost complete lack of equivalent data from multi - species shark diving sites . in this study , changes in species composition and relative abundances were determined at the shark reef marine reserve , a multi - species shark feeding site in fiji . using direct observation sampling methods , eight species of sharks ( bull shark carcharhinus leucas , grey reef shark carcharhinus amblyrhynchos , whitetip reef shark triaenodon obesus , blacktip reef shark carcharhinus melanopterus , tawny nurse shark nebrius ferrugineus , silvertip shark carcharhinus albimarginatus , sicklefin lemon shark negaprion acutidens , and tiger shark galeocerdo cuvier ) displayed inter - annual site fidelity between 2003 and 2012 . encounter rates and / or relative abundances of some species changed over time , overall resulting in more individuals ( mostly c . leucas ) of fewer species being encountered on average on shark feeding dives at the end of the study period . differences in shark community composition between the years 2004\u20132006 and 2007\u20132012 were evident , mostly because n . ferrugineus , c . albimarginatus and n . acutidens were much more abundant in 2004\u20132006 and very rare in the period of 2007\u20132012 . two explanations are offered for the observed changes in relative abundances over time , namely inter - specific interactions and operator - specific feeding protocols . both , possibly in combination , are suggested to be important determinants of species composition and encounter rates , and relative abundances at this shark provisioning site in fiji . this study , which includes the most species from a spatially confined shark provisioning site to date , suggests that long - term provisioning may result in competitive exclusion among shark species .\nnurse sharks live off of sandy beaches , mud and sand flats , and from the intertidal zone on coral and rocky reefs to depths of 70 meters .\nfurther information on gymnorhynchus isuri ( trypanorhyncha : gymnorhynchidae ) from the shortfin mako shark .\nreefquest centre for shark research text and illustrations \u00a9 r . aidan martin copyright | privacy\n) . the term ' nusse ' or ' nurse ' was later extended to describe any large fish , especially a shark . although the spanish and dutch had been poking about the south pacific since about 1520 and 1642 , respectively , the english didn ' t begin exploring this region in earnest until 1768 , with the first voyage of captain james cook . therefore , english use of the term ' nurse ' to refer to a shark predates earliest british contact with south pacific islanders .\ni would suggest that the etymology of the term ' nurse shark ' is pretty much as traced by lineaweaver and backus ( 1970 ) \u2014 see my post of 1 / 24 / 98 for a discussion . use in english of the name ' nuse ' or ' nurse - fish ' dates back to the 1550 ' s , when it was apparently used for what we now know as the spiny dogfish (\nthey are hardy and thrive in captivity which unfortunately sees them kept in aquariums across the globe , where they are often handfed . they can be feisty when on the end of a fishing line and have been known to \u2018spit\u2019 water in the faces of their hunters . tawny nurse sharks are one of the few species of shark to produce sound . when threatened , and out of their natural aquatic environment , they make grunting sounds between \u2018spitting\u2019 streams of water .\nreproduction the tawny nurse shark has an aplacental viviparous ( ovoviviparous ) mode of reproduction . there is no embryonic nourishment from the placental structure within the mother ' s uterus ; the embryos feed off yolk contained within the egg case in which it grows . it appears that the tawny nurse shark practices oophagy on relatively large , cased nutritive eggs and is the first orectoloboid known to have uterine cannibalism . however , it is unknown if the fetuses of this species eat on other fetuses ( adelphophagy ) . in captivity , females lay cased eggs on the bottom substrate but these do not develop and may be nutritive and unfertilized . due to the confusion caused by the appearance of free eggs , this species was at one time considered to be oviparous . this species gives birth to litters of up to 8 pups , each measuring approximately 15 . 8 - 23 . 6 inches ( 40 - 60 cm ) in length at birth .\nreproductive modes of elsmobranchs . shark news 9 : 1 - 3 ( june 1997 ) .\norders out of chaos - molecular phylogenetics reveals the complexity of shark and stingray tapeworm relationships .\nwhale shark ( rhincodon typus ) biology and ecology : a review of the primary literature .\nnurse sharks have been observed resting on the bottom with their bodies supported on their fins , possibly providing a false shelter for crustaceans which they then ambush and eat .\nwhale sharks are not the only sharks you can expect to see around exmouth . reef sharks , mainly white tip reef sharks , are regular sightings at many dive sites , particularly on the navy pier . last summer there were over 20 whitetip sharks at the site , with up to 10 all reposing on the sand in one small area . quiet approach and observation allows divers to get within metres of these sharks ; often the first and closest underwater encounter with sharks for many of our divers . other sharks we have recorded seeing include grey nurse , tawny nurse , grey shark , oceanic white tip , bronze whaler and cat sharks .\nfor any shark diver , the species which are regular visitors to the reef come close to nirvana . to get an idea of how diverse the area is , of shark and man , a recent film by david diley , not only tells the story of the srmr but is a stunning showcase of the reef\u2019s most regular visitors , including white - tip reefs , black - tip reefs , grey reefs , tawny nurse , sickle - fin lemons , silver - tip reefs , tigers , and \u2013 the species most consider to be the main attraction \u2013 bull sharks .\nlittle has been documented about the life of young tawny nurse sharks . large females have been observed in the chagos archipelago ( about 500 km south of the maldives ) in the company of a single juvenile ( less than 1m long ) which may be a year old pup of hers . juveniles are known to rest on their pectoral fins , which are rolled under their bodies . it is thought that the space under the bodies of these predators may be mistaken for a home by a shelter - seeking fish or shrimp , unfortunately for the poor unsuspecting individual they become the tawny ' s next meal .\ntawny nurse sharks have barbels , powerful jaws and sharp comb - like teeth that overlap . they have approximately 30 rows of teeth in their upper jaw and 27 rows in their lower jaw . they range in colour from yellowish , reddish , to greyish brown on top , and off - white on their belly . there are no ridges present on the body . their caudal fin ( tail like ) is moderately long , measuring over a \u00bc of the total length of the shark .\na common description of the origin of the name nurse shark suggests that the sound they make when feeding at the surface resembles a nursing animal . however , the name is likely derived from the word nusse , a middle english form of the word nurse . nusse may have originated from the slurring of the middle english word huss , which was itself used in the 1500s to describe cat sharks or other large fish that were probably sharks .\nfor these reasons , responding to shark bites ( fatal or non - fatal ) by wishing all sharks dead , spreading panic or actually hunting down and killing sharks is irresponsible and unwise . instead , we should think like achmat hassiem , a south african shark attack survivor and adorned paralympian . he became a shark conservationist after his right leg was bitten off by a great white shark .\nnurse sharks eat a variety of foods . their diet includes small fishes , shrimps , octopus , sea snails , crabs , lobsters , squid , sea urchin , and corals .\noccurring along continental and insular shelves , the tawny nurse shark resides at depths ranging from the intertidal to depths of at least 230 feet ( 70 m ) but more commonly from 16 - 98 feet ( 5 - 30 m ) . it is observed on or near the bottom substrate in lagoons , sandy areas in close proximity to reefs , off sandy beaches , and along the outer edges of coral and rocky reefs . although this species is primarily nocturnal , it is sometimes active during daylight hours . it often hides in caves and crevices as well as in more exposed areas , this nurse shark has even been observed piled across or on top of each other in aggregations . it has a limited home range , returning to the same area every day after foraging for prey items .\nthe nurse shark inhabits inshore tropical and subtropical waters , where it is found at depths of less than one meter down to 130 metres ( 2 ) . it is frequently found on rocky and coral reefs , and in channels between mangroves keys and sand flats ( 2 ) .\nmean depth of observation differed between species , with five species ( tawny nurse , tiger , white tip reef , black tip reef and grey reef ) observed predominantly on shallow sites ( < 40 m ) and three species ( silvertip , scalloped and great hammerheads ) observed mainly on deeper sites . 95 % confidence intervals for the mean depths indicate that the two groups occupied significantly different depth ranges ( fig 4 ) .\nin the present study , we evaluate data from the shark reef marine reserve , a multi - species shark feeding site in fiji [ 16 ] , [ 17 ] . up to eight different species of sharks can be encountered at shark reef , namely bull sharks carcharhinus leucas , whitetip reef sharks triaenodon obesus , blacktip reef sharks carcharhinus melanopterus , tawny nurse sharks nebrius ferrugineus , silvertip sharks carcharhinus albimarginatus , sicklefin lemon sharks negaprion acutidens , c . amblyrhynchos and g . cuvier . since 2003 , parts of shark reef have been declared as a no - take zone that is visited 3 to 4 times per week by a single dive operator [ 17 ] . previous research from this site has shown that the number of c . leucas , the numerically dominant species at the shark reef marine reserve , increased over the years , but decreased over the course of a calendar year [ 9 ] , [ 16 ] . in 2006 , a competitor dive operator started to conduct shark feeding dives on the neighbouring lake reef ( fig . 1a ) , mostly on the same days and times when dives on shark reef take place .\nthe whale shark , rhincodon typus , is a livebearer : 300 embryos found in one \u2018megamamma\u2019 supreme .\nit wouldn\u2019t have occurred to me that the lack of females featured in shark week was an issue until i started a non - profit to fund shark research . at events , i met young girls that were being told by other kids that , \u201conly boys like sharks\u201d and being discouraged from following their passion . i realized that if your only experience with shark research / conservation is shark week \u2013 like it is for most kids \u2013 you may believe that shark science is a career only for men . the reality is , shark science is comprised of many women who live every week like it\u2019s shark week . i wanted to find a way to connect the two groups , and so the gills club was born !\nthe nurse shark is included as a vulnerable species in the official list of endangered animals in brazil , fisheries are managed within united states ' waters , and the colombian government is considering a ban on the nurse shark fishery along with an extensive habitat protection campaign ( 1 ) . however , in regions outside of the western atlantic , the lack of data makes it difficult to assess the status of populations , and subsequently to implement appropriate conservation measures . measures recommended include the regulation of spear - fishing and the marine ornamental fish trade , compulsory release of incidentally caught sharks , and the establishment of no - fishing areas encompassing mating and breeding grounds ( 1 ) . countries should be motivated to take action to prevent over - fishing of the nurse shark as it is likely to be far more valuable alive for dive - tourism than as fisheries products ( 6 ) .\nnocturnal by nature , the tawny nurse shark is most commonly seen during the day resting in caves or under ledges . by night , these predators use their large pharynx as a powerful suction pump to rapidly suck in reef organisms from inside holes and crevices . food of this shark includes corals , crabs , lobsters and other crustaceans , sea urchins , and reef fish including surgeonfish ( acanthuridae ) , queenfish ( carangidae ) and rabbitfish ( siganidas ) . these sharks may be one of the few animals that specializes in preying upon octopus , which may explain the timid nature of the abundant octopus we have observed hiding in reef crevices .\nsince the 1950s lemon sharks and the common atlantic nurse shark have been used in experiments to test the ability of sharks to learn . experiments performed in the 1960s showed that nurse sharks could be trained to respond to a sound signal from a bell and could remember the training after a several - month break between training sessions . other experiments conducted by the u . s . navy showed that they could be trained to retrieve a ring thrown into a pool by a trainer .\n' plurse ' sounds rather like an example of the pidgin english widely spoken throughout much of melanesia , suggesting the possibility that it was the south pacific islanders who slurred the english word ' nurse ' and that ipso facto the english term for the shark in question predates the south pacific one .\nthe geographical range of the tawny nurse shark ranges includes waters off of south africa , mozambique , mauritius , seychelles , chagos archipelago and madagascar to red sea , maldives , persian gulf , india , malaysia , indonesia , singapore , thailand , viet nam , china , taiwan ( province of china ) , japan ( ryukyu islands , southern honshu ) , philippines ( luzon ) , papua new guinea , australia ( western australia , northern territory , and queensland ) , new caledonia , new ireland , samoa , palau , marshall islands , and tahiti .\na new genus and species of tetraphyllidean cestode from the spadenose shark , scoliodon laticaudus , in malaysian borneo .\nattachment site specificity and the tapeworm assemblage in the spiral intestine of the blue shark ( prionace glauca ) .\nyour last resort if you actually get bitten would be to defend yourself by punching or kicking at the shark\u2019s nose or clawing at its eyes and gills , then exiting the water as soon as the shark retreats .\nwith all of the improvements promised for 2015\u2019s shark week , i do hope that rich ross plays close attention to this blog and that 2016 will feature the much more diverse and exciting reality of modern shark science .\nthe tawny nurse shark resides in inshore waters that are heavily fished and is often captured in demersal trawls , gill nets , and baited hook and line throughout much of its range outside of australia . in australian waters , this species is taken in small numbers as bycatch in gillnets and meshing . off queensland , australia it is fished recreationally as a big game fish and are prized as powerful fighters . the flesh is marketed as fresh or dried salted for human consumption while the fins are shipped to the asian shark fin market . its liver may also be utilized for vitamins and oil , the offal processed into fishmeal , and the thick hide used for leather .\nthis has been described as a much more docile species than its close relative , ginglymostoma cirratum , and apparently usually allows humans to touch and play with it without biting . however , there are a few non - fatal attack records of these sharks biting their tormentors , and clamping tightly onto them . because of its size and strength , the tawny shark should be regarded as potentially dangerous and treated with respect . this is a tough , hardy shark that readily survives in captivity .\nthey are thought to take advantage of dormant fish which would otherwise be too fast for the sharks to catch ; although their small mouths limit the size of prey items , the sharks have large throat cavities which are used as a sort of bellows valve . in this way nurse sharks are able to suck in their prey with a short , violent influx of water . nurse sharks are also known to consume\nmaximization of evolutionary trends for placental viviparity in the spadenose shark , scoliodon laticaudus . env . biol . fish .\na new species of calliobothrium ( tetraphyllidea : onchobothriidae ) from the whiskery shark , furgaleus macki , in australia .\neffects of large - scale anthropogenic development on juvenile lemon shark ( negaprion brevirostris ) populations of bimini , bahamas .\nnamed the best shark dive in the world by diving legends ron and valerie taylor , the fiji shark dive has been experienced by countless diving icons , professional photographers and cameramen , industry professionals and clients alike . this is the original and unmatched product featuring fiji\u2019s unique and highly experienced crew of shark divers \u2013 much copied but never equalled !\nin order to determine changes in species composition and relative abundances at the shark reef marine reserve , we asked the following questions : 1 ) did species composition and / or encounter rates change over time at the shark reef marine reserve ? 2 ) are there seasonal and / or long - term changes in relative abundance of the different shark species at the feeding site ? 3 ) does the presence of a competitor operator conducting shark feeds at a nearby reef have an effect on shark abundance at the shark reef feeding site ? in answering these questions , our results provide baseline data on the long - term trends in relative abundance and seasonal cycles , and help elucidate whether the numbers of the eight species of sharks visiting the shark reef marine reserve changed over the years . additionally , our data provide important fisheries - independent information on shark populations that can supplement long - term monitoring and serve for conservation purposes .\nvery little is known about most shark mating rituals , and the same holds true for the nurse shark . the atlantic nurse shark has been observed mating on the ocean floor . in general , the male inseminates the female with his claspers ( these are located between the male ' s pelvic fins ) . during mating he turns his claspers foward and inserts one into the female and transfers his sperm . nurse sharks can be either oviparous or ovoviparous . in oviparous organisms the eggs develop and hatch on the outside of the body . the pups , as baby sharks are called , hatch out of a leathery protective covering with the yolk attached and stay on the ocean floor until they fully mature . in ovoviparous creatures the eggs develop on the inside of the body and hatch within or immediately after extrusion by the parent . the yolk of these pups are hatched inside the uterus before the pups are developed , and they too have leathery eggs . these sharks have from 20 - 30 pups at a time . nurse sharks grow about 13 centimeters in length and 2 - 3 kilograms a year . they do not reach sexually maturity until they are from 15 to 20 years old .\nto help divers find the best places to encounter the different species of sharks and rays that live in shallow water but it has slowly evolved into a much larger project containing information on all aspects of shark diving and shark photography .\nthe tawny shark embryos are oophagous , unique among carpet sharks , meaning that while they are still inside the mother\u2019s uterus they feed on eggs produced by the ovary . generally 1 to 4 pups are born ( however up to 8 live young have been recorded ) and each measures about 40 cm . juveniles can be distinguished from adults by the presence of small dark spots on their skin ."]}
{"id": 180, "summary": [{"text": "rana is a genus of frogs commonly known as the holarctic true frogs , pond frogs or brown frogs .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "members of this genus are found through much of eurasia , north america , central america , and the northern half of south america .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "many other genera were formerly included here .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "these true frogs are usually largish species characterized by their slim waists and wrinkled skin ; many have thin ridges running along their backs , but they generally lack \" warts \" as in typical toads .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they are excellent jumpers due to their long , slender legs .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the typical webbing found on their hind feet allows for easy movement through water .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "coloration is mostly greens and browns above , with darker and yellowish spots . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "rana ( genus )", "paragraphs": ["( rana toro ) , en ambientes precordilleranos de la provincia de san juan , argentina . ' '\nthis species is very adaptable with minimal threats except for pollution and invasive species such as rana catesbeiana ( iucn 2006 ) .\nrana clamitans bronze frog , green frog ( r . c . melanotus ) , bronze frog ( r . c . clamitans ) subgenus : aquarana\nmatsui , t . , and matsui , m . ( 1990 ) . ' ' a new brown frog ( genus\nrana areolata crawfish frog , southern crawfish frog ( r . a . areolatus ) , northern crawfish frog ( r . a . circulosus ) subgenus : pantherana\ntaxonomic notes : this species was placed in the genus lithobates by frost et al . ( 2006 ) . however , yuan et al . ( 2016 , systematic biology , doi : 10 . 1093 / sysbio / syw055 ) showed that this action created problems of paraphyly in other genera . yuan et al . ( 2016 ) recognized subgenera within rana for the major traditional species groups , with lithobates used as the subgenus for the rana palmipes group . amphibiaweb recommends the optional use of these subgenera to refer to these major species groups , with names written as rana ( aquarana ) catesbeiana , for example .\nche j . , pang j . f . , zhao e . m . , matsui m . , zhang y . p . ( 2007 ) . ' ' phylogenetic relationships of the chinese brown frogs ( genus rana ) inferred from partial mitochondrial 12s and 16s rrna gene sequences . ' '\ncase , s . m . ( museum of vertebrate zoology and departments of zoology and biochemistry , university of california , berkeley , california 94720 ) 1978 . biochemical systematics of members of the genus rana native to western north america . syst . zool . 27 : 299\u2013311 . \u2014few supraspecific groups have been defined in north american ranids and the informal groupings which are recognized are often poorly characterized . two biochemical methods , starch gel electrophoresis and microcomplement fixation , have been used in an examination of the evolutionary relationships among western north american frogs of the genus rana . both the electrophoretic and albumin comparisons indicate that the rana boylii species group presently includes two very different evolutionary lineages . rana aurora , r . boylii , r . cascadae , r . muscosa , and r . pretiosa are all members of one lineage allied to r . temporaria of europe . a mexican species traditionally included in this group , r . tarahumarae , is most closely related to other members of the genus that occur in mexico and is part of a larger lineage that also includes r . pipiens . frogs found in eastern north america diverged from western european frogs in mid - eocene ; estimates of divergence time are consistent with the hypothesis that separation of these lineages coincided with the end of a land connection between europe and north america . the catesbeiana , pipiens , and tarahumarae groups diverged from each other in the oligocene . western north american rana diverged from a eurasian ancestor in the oligocene and radiated in this area to form the five members of the boylii group .\na116 . van der meijden , a . , r . boistel , j . gerlach , a . ohler , m . vences & a . meyer ( 2007 ) : molecular phylogenetic evidence for paraphyly of the genus sooglossus , with the description of a new genus of seychellean frogs . \u2013 biological journal of the linnean society 91 : 347 - 359 .\nmueses - cisneros , j . j . and ball\u00e9n , g . ( 2007 ) . ' ' un nuevo caso de alerta sobre posible amenaza a una fauna nativa de anfibios en colombia : primer reporte de la rana toro (\npereyra , m . o . , baldo , d . , and krauczuc , e . r . ( 2006 ) . ' ' la \u2018\u2018rana toro\u2019\u2019 en la selva atl\u00e1ntica interior argentina : un nuevo problema de conservaci\u00f3n . ' '\na99 . glaw , f . & m . vences ( 2006 ) . phylogeny and genus - level classification of mantellid frogs . \u2013 organisms diversity and evolution 6 : 236 - 253 . ( pdf )\nmatsui , m . , bassarukin , a . m . , kasugai , k . , tanabe , s . and takenaka , s . ( 1994 ) . ' ' morphological comparisons of brown frogs ( genus\nprevious species lists may refer to this frog as rana palmipes ( guyer and donnelly 2005 ) . savage ( 2002 ) and guyer and donnelly ( 2005 ) follow the systematic treatment of hillis and de s\u00e3\u00a1 ( 1988 ) , in separating the two species based on morphology .\na67 . l\u00f6tters , s . , e . la marca & m . vences ( 2004 ) : redescriptions of two toad species of the genus atelopus from coastal venezuela . \u2013 copeia 2004 : 222 - 234 . ( pdf )\na192 . jovanovic , o . & m . vences ( 2010 ) : skeletochronological analysis of age structure in populations of four species of malagasy poisonous frogs , genus mantella . \u2013 amphibia - reptilia 31 : 553 - 557 . ( pdf )\na101 . vejarano , s . , m . thomas & m . vences ( 2006 ) : comparative larval morphology in madagascan frogs of the genus guibemantis ( anura : mantellidae ) . \u2013 zootaxa 1329 : 39 - 57 . ( pdf )\n> green frogs ( rana clamitans ) defend calling territories against intrusion by other males by kicking , bumping , and biting . the south american nest - building hylid , hyla faber , has a long , sharp spine on the thumb with which males wound each other when wrestling . the small central american dendrobates\u2026 \u2026\na349 . vences , m . , v . sarasola - puente , e . sanchez , f . amat & j . s . hauswaldt ( 2017 ) : diversity and distribution of deep mitochondrial lineages of the common frog , rana temporaria , in northern spain . \u0096 salamandra 53 : 25\u009633 . ( pdf )\na34 . vences , m . , m . puente , s . nieto & d . r . vieites ( 2002 ) : phenotypic plasticity of anuran larvae : environmental variables influence body shape and oral morphology in rana temporaria tadpoles . \u2013 journal of zoology , london 257 : 155 - 162 . ( pdf )\na83 . vences , m . , f . andreone & f . glaw ( 2005 ) : a new microhylid frog of the genus cophyla from a transitional forest in northwestern madagascar . \u2013 african zoology 40 : 143 - 149 . ( pdf )\na312 . segev , o . , a . rodriguez , s . hauswaldt , k . hugemann & m . vences ( 2015 ) : flatworms ( schmidtea nova ) prey upon embryos of the common frog ( rana temporaria ) and induce minor developmental acceleration . \u0096 amphibia - reptilia 36 : 155\u0096163 . ( pdf )\nmatsui , m . , shimada , t . , liu , m . z . , manyati , m . , khomsue , w . , and orlov , n . ( 2006 ) . ' ' phylogenetic relationships of oriental torrent frogs in the genus\na94 . vences , m . , f . andreone & d . r . vieites ( 2005 ) : new treefrog of the genus boophis tschudi 1838 from the northwestern rainforests of madagascar . \u2013 tropical zoology 18 : 237 - 249 . ( pdf )\na20 . vences , m . , p . gal\u00e1n , a . palanca , d . r . vieites , s . nieto & j . rey ( 2000 ) : summer microhabitat use and diel activity cycles in a high altitude pyrenean population of rana temporaria . \u2013 herpetological journal 10 : 49 - 56 . ( pdf )\na318 . k\u00f6hler , j . , f . glaw , m . pabijan & m . vences ( 2015 ) : integrative taxonomic revision of mantellid frogs of the genus aglyptodactylus ( anura : mantellidae ) . \u0096 zootaxa 4006 : 401 - 438 . ( pdf )\na104 . vejarano , s . , m . thomas & m . vences ( 2006 ) : comparative tadpole morphology in three species of frogs of the genus spinomantis ( amphibia : mantellidae ) . \u2013 contributions to zoology 75 : 99 - 108 . ( pdf )\na384 . dittrich , c . , a . rodr\u00edguez , o . segev , s . drakulic , h . feldhaar , m . vences & m . - o . r\u00f6del ( 2018 ) : temporal migration patterns and mating tactics influence size - assortative mating in rana temporaria . behavioral ecology 29 : 418 - 428 . ( pdf )\na16 . vences , m . , n . piqu\u00e9 , a . lopez , m . puente , c . miramontes , d . rodriguez ( 1999 ) : summer habitat population density and size classes of rana temporaria in a high altitude pyrenean population . \u2013 amphibia - reptilia 20 ( 4 ) : 440 - 443 . ( pdf )\na308 . miralles , a . , f . glaw , f . m . ratsoavina & m . vences ( 2015 ) : a likely microendemic new species of terrestrial iguana , genus chalarodon , from madagascar . \u0096 zootaxa 3946 : 201 - 220 . ( pdf )\na137 . wollenberg , k . c . , f . andreone , f . glaw & m . vences ( 2008 ) : pretty in pink : a new treefrog species of the genus boophis from north - eastern madagascar . \u2013 zootaxa 1684 : 58 - 68 .\na23 . mausfeld , p . , m . vences , a . schmitz & m . veith ( 2000 ) : first data on the molecular phylogeography of scincid lizards of the genus mabuya . \u2013 molecular phylogenetics and evolution 17 : 11 - 14 . ( pdf )\na11 . vences , m . , a . hille & f . glaw ( 1998 ) : allozyme differentiation in the genus mantella ( amphibia : anura : mantellinae ) . \u2013 folia zoologica 47 ( 4 ) : 261 - 274 . ( pdf , low resolution )\na48 . vences , m . , k . grossenbacher , m . puente , a . palanca & d . r . vieites ( 2003 ) : the cambal\u00e8s fairy tale : elevational limits of rana temporaria ( amphibia : ranidae ) and other european amphibians revisited . \u2013 folia zoologica 52 ( 2 ) : 189 - 202 . ( pdf )\na45 . veith m . , m . vences , d . r . vieites , s . nieto - roman & a . palanca ( 2002 ) : genetic differentiation and population structure within the spanish common frogs ( rana temporaria complex ; ranidae , amphibia ) . \u2013 folia zoologica 51 ( 2 ) : 307 - 318 . ( pdf )\na174 . vallan , d . , m . vences & f . glaw ( 2010 ) : forceps delivery of a new treefrog species of the genus boophis from eastern madagascar ( amphibia : mantellidae ) . \u2013 amphibia - reptilia 31 : 1 - 8 . ( pdf )\na133 . k\u00f6hler , j . f . glaw & m . vences ( 2007 ) : a new green treefrog , genus boophis tschudi 1838 ( anura mantellidae ) , from arid western madagascar : phylogenetic relationships and biogeogeographic implications . \u2013 tropical zoology 20 : 215 - 227 .\na175 . gal\u00e1n , p . , a . - k . ludewig , j . kmiec , s . hauswaldt , m . cabana , r . ferreiro , m . vences ( 2010 ) : low mitochondrial divergence of rediscovered southern relict populations of rana temporaria parvipalmata in spain . \u2013 amphibia - reptilia 31 : 144 - 148 . ( pdf )\na283 . orozco - terwengel , p . , f . andreone , e . louis jr . & m . vences ( 2013 ) mitochondrial introgressive hybridization following a demographic expansion in the tomato frogs of madagascar , genus dyscophus . \u2013 molecular ecology 22 : 6074\u20136090 . ( pdf )\na193 . rasolonjatovo hiobiarilanto , t . , r . - d . randrianiaina , j . glos , a . strau\u00df & m . vences ( 2010 ) : description of ten tadpoles in the genus boophis from madagascar . \u2013 zootaxa 2694 : 1 - 25 . ( pdf )\na161 . rocha , s . , m . vences , f . glaw , d . posada & d . j . harris ( 2009 ) : multigene phylogeny of malagasy day geckos of the genus phelsuma . \u2013 molecular phylogenetics and evolution 52 : 530 - 537 . ( pdf )\na110 . aliabadian , m . , m . kaboli , r . prodon , v . nijman & m . vences ( 2007 ) : phylogeny of palearctic wheatears ( genus oenanthe ) - congruence between morphometric and molecular data . \u2013 molecular phylogenetics and evolution 42 : 665 - 675 .\na64 . grosjean , s . , m . vences & a . dubois ( 2004 ) : evolutionary significance of oral morphology in the carnivorous tadpoles of tiger frogs , genus hoplobatrachus ( ranidae ) . \u2013 biological journal of the linnean society 81 : 171 - 181 . ( pdf )\na253 . lehtinen , r . m . , f . glaw , f . andreone , m . pabijan & m . vences ( 2012 ) : a new species of putatively pond breeding frog of the genus guibemantis from madagascar . \u2013 copeia 2012 : 648 - 662 . ( pdf )\na383 . vences . m . , j . r . rasoloariniaina & j . c . riemann ( 2018 ) : a preliminary assessment of genetic divergence and distribution of malagasy cave fish in the genus typhleotris ( teleostei : milyeringidae ) . \u0096 zootaxa 4378 : 367 - 376 . ( pdf )\na375 . rakotoarison , a . , m . d . scherz , f . glaw & m . vences ( 2017 ) : rediscovery of frogs belonging to the enigmatic microhylid genus madecassophryne in the anosy massif , south - eastern madagascar . \u0096 salamandra 53 : 507 - 518 . ( pdf )\na167 . glaw , f . , j . k\u00f6hler & m . vences ( 2009 ) : a distinctive new species of chameleon of the genus furcifer ( squamata : chamaeleonidae ) from the montagne d ' ambre rainforest of northern madagascar . \u2013 zootaxa 2269 : 32 - 42 . ( pdf )\na126 . grosjean , s . , j . glos , m . teschke , f . glaw & m . vences ( 2007 ) : comparative larval morphology of madagascan toadlets of the genus scaphiophryne : phylogenetic and taxonomic inferences . \u2013 zoological journal of the linnean society 151 : 555 - 576 .\na325 . vences . m . , o . jovanovic , g . safarek , f . glaw & j . k\u00f6hler ( 2015 ) : a new arboreal frog of the genus guibemantis from the southeast of madagascar ( anura : mantellidae ) . \u0096 zootaxa 4059 : 569 - 580 . ( pdf )\na162 . jovanovic , o . , j . glos , f . glaw , r . - d . randrianiaina & m . vences ( 2009 ) : comparative larval morphology in madagascan frogs of the genus mantella ( amphibia : mantellidae ) . \u2013 zootaxa 2124 : 21 - 37 . ( pdf )\na55 . andreone , f . , g . aprea , m . vences & g . odierna ( 2003 ) : a new frog of the genus mantidactylus from the rainforests of north - eastern madagascar , and its karyological affinities . \u2013 amphibia - reptilia 24 : 285 - 303 . ( pdf )\na225 . raharivololoniaina , l . , o . verneau , p . berthier , m . vences & l . du preez ( 2011 ) : first monogenean flatworm from a microhylid frog host : kankana , a new polystome genus from madagascar . \u2013 parasitology international 60 : 465 - 473 . ( pdf )\na176 . vences , m . , f . glaw , j . k\u00f6hler & k . c . wollenberg ( 2010 ) : molecular phylogeny , morphology and bioacoustics reveal five additional species of arboreal microhylids of the genus anodonthyla from madagascar . \u2013 contributions to zoology 79 : 1 - 32 . ( pdf )\na113 . greenbaum , e . , a . m . bauer , t . r . jackman , m . vences & f . glaw ( 2007 ) : a phylogeny of the enigmatic madagascan geckos of the genus uroplatus ( squamata : gekkonidae ) . \u2013 zootaxa 1493 : 41 - 51 . ( pdf )\na100 . raharivololoniaina , l . , s . grosjean , n . rasoamampionona raminosoa , f . glaw & m . vences ( 2006 ) : molecular identification , description and phylogenetic implications of the tadpoles of 11 species of malagasy treefrogs , genus boophis . \u2013 journal of natural history 40 : 1449 - 1480 .\na28 . kosuch , j . , m . vences , a . dubois , a . ohler & w . b\u00f6hme ( 2001 ) : out of asia : mitochondrial dna evidence for an oriental origin of tiger frogs , genus hoplobatrachus . \u2013 molecular phylogenetics and evolution 21 : 398 - 407 . ( pdf )\na229 . veith , m . , a . baumgart , a . dubois , a . ohler , p . gal\u00e1n , d . r . vieites , s . nieto - rom\u00e1n & m . vences ( 2012 ) . discordant patterns of nuclear and mitochondrial introgression in iberian populations of the european common frog ( rana temporaria ) . \u2013 journal of heredity 103 : 240 - 249 . ( pdf )\na194 . du preez , l . h . , l . raharivololoniaina , o . verneau & m . vences ( 2010 ) : a new genus of polystomatid flatworm ( monogenea : polystomatidae ) without free - swimming life stage from the malagasy poison frogs . \u2013 zootaxa 2722 : 54 - 68 . ( pdf )\na35 . schaefer , h . - c . , m . vences & m . veith ( 2002 ) : molecular phylogeny of malagasy poison frogs , genus mantella ( anura : mantellidae ) : homoplastic evolution of colour pattern in aposematic amphibians . \u2013 organisms diversity and evolution 2 : 97 - 105 . ( pdf )\na324 . scherz , m . d . , b . ruthensteiner , d . r . vieites , m . vences & f . glaw ( 2015 ) : two new microhylid frogs of the genus rhombophryne with superciliary spines from the tsaratanana massif in northern madagascar . \u0096 herpetologica 71 : 310 - 321 . ( pdf )\na256 . lemme , i . , m . erbacher , n . kaffenberger , m . vences & j . k\u00f6hler ( 2013 ) : molecules and morphology suggest cryptic species diversity and an overall complex taxonomy of fish scale geckos , genus geckolepis . \u2013 organisms diversity and evolution 13 : 87 - 95 . ( pdf )\na21 . glaw , f . , m . vences & v . gossmann ( 2000 ) : a new species of mantidactylus from madagascar , with a comparative survey of internal femoral gland structure in the genus ( amphibia : ranidae : mantellinae ) . \u2013 journal of natural history 34 : 1135 - 1154 . ( pdf )\na227 . kaffenberger , n . , k . c . wollenberg , j . k\u00f6hler , f . glaw , d . r . vieites , & m . vences ( 2012 ) : molecular phylogeny and biogeography of malagasy frogs of the genus gephyromantis . \u2013 molecular phylogenetics and evolution 62 : 555 - 560 . ( pdf )\na216 . pabijan , m . , p . - s . gehring , j . k\u00f6hler , f . glaw & m . vences ( 2011 ) : a new microendemic frog species of the genus blommersia ( anura : mantellidae ) from the east coast of madagascar . \u2013 zootaxa 2978 : 34 - 50 . ( pdf )\na210 . miralles , a . , a . p . raselimanana , d . rakotomalala , m . vences & d . r . vieites ( 2011 ) : a new large and colorful skink of the genus amphiglossus from madagascar revealed by morphology and multilocus molecular study . \u2013 zootaxa 2918 : 47 - 67 . ( pdf )\na296 . scherz , m . d . , b . ruthensteiner , m . vences & f . glaw ( 2014 ) : a new microhylid frog , genus rhombophryne , from northeastern madagascar , and a re - description of r . serratopalpebrosa using micro - computed tomography . \u2013 zootaxa 3860 : 547 - 560 . ( pdf )\na221 . randrianiaina , r . d . , k . c . wollenberg , t . rasolonjatovo hiobiarilanto , a . strau\u00df , j . glos & m . vences ( 2011 ) nidicolous tadpoles rather than direct development in malagasy frogs of the genus gephyromantis . \u2013 journal of natural history 45 : 2871 - 2900 . ( pdf )\na222 . k\u00f6hler , j . , f . glaw , g . m . rosa , p . - s . gehring , m . pabijan , f . andreone & m . vences ( 2011 ) : two new bright - eyed treefrogs of the genus boophis from madagascar . \u2013 salamandra 47 : 207 - 221 . ( pdf )\na135 . jackman , t . r . , a . m . bauer , e . greenbaum , f . glaw & m . vences ( 2008 ) : molecular phylogenetic relationships among species of the malagasy - comoran gecko genus paroedura ( squamata : gekkonidae ) . \u2013 molecular phylogenetics and evolution 46 : 74 - 81 . ( pdf )\na274 . klages , j . , f . glaw , j . k\u00f6hler , j . m\u00fcller , c . a . hipsley & m . vences ( 2013 ) : molecular , morphological and osteological differentiation of a new species of microhylid frog of the genus stumpffia from northwestern madagascar . \u2013 zootaxa 3717 : 280 - 300 . ( pdf )\na115 . glaw , f . , z . t . nagy , m . franzen & m . vences ( 2007 ) : molecular phylogeny and systematics of the pseudoxyrhophiine snake genus liopholidophis ( reptilia , colubridae ) : evolution of its exceptional sexual dimorphism and descriptions of new taxa . \u2013 zoologica scripta 36 : 291 - 300 . ( pdf )\na128 . nagy , z . t . , f . glaw , f . andreone , m . wink & m . vences ( 2007 ) : species boundaries in malagasy snakes of the genus madagascarophis ( serpentes : colubridae sensu lato ) assessed by nuclear and mitochondrial markers . \u2013 organisms diversity & evolution 7 : 241 - 251 . ( pdf )\na235 . randrianiaina , r . d . , a . strau\u00df , j . glos & m . vences ( 2012 ) : diversity of strongly rheophilous tadpoles of malagasy tree frogs , genus boophis ( anura , mantellidae ) , and identification of new candidate species via larval dna sequence and morphology . \u2013 zookeys 178 : 59 - 124 . ( pdf )\na121 . glaw , f . , j . k\u00f6hler , p . bora , n . h . c . rabibisoa , o . ramilijaona & m . vences ( 2007 ) : discovery of the genus plethodontohyla ( anura : microhylidae ) in dry western madagascar : description of a new species and biogeographic implications . \u2013 zootaxa 1577 : 61 - 68 .\na5 . ziegler , t . , m . vences , f . glaw & w . b\u00f6hme ( 1997 ) : genital morphology and systematics of geodipsas boulenger , 1896 ( reptilia : serpentes : colubridae ) , with description of a new genus . \u2013 revue suisse de zoologie 104 ( 1 ) : 95 - 114 . ( pdf , low resolution )\ntwo subspecies are recognized , based on morphological differences among larvae and adults ( goin and netting , 1940 ; bragg , 1953 ) . southern crawfish frogs ( rana a . areolata ) occur from east - central texas east through central and northern louisiana and southern arkansas , and north into southeastern oklahoma . northern crawfish frogs ( rana a . circulosa ) occur in the northern and eastern portions of the species distribution . sympatry between the subspecies occurs in the tallgrass prairie region between the canadian and arkansas rivers in oklahoma , and in southern arkansas ( bragg , 1953 ; conant and collins , 1998 ) . the similarity of r . areolata to the related florida gopher frog\u2013dusky gopher frog ( r . capito \u2013 r . sevosa ) complex may contribute to inaccurate distribution records ( mount , 1975 ; martof et al . , 1980 ; altig and lohoefener , 1983 ; dundee and rossman , 1989 ; young and crother , 2001 ) . rana areolata , r . capito , and r . sevosa are distinct species ( goin and netting , 1940 ; hillis et al . , 1983 ; hillis , 1988 ; young and crother , 2001 ) and allopatrically distributed , although they are only separated by a narrow region in south - central mississippi and central louisiana ( dundee and rossman , 1989 ; conant and collins , 1998 ) , where morphologically intermediate animals were noted by neill ( 1957d ) .\na98 . chiari , y . , p . orozco - terwengel , m . vences , d . r : vieites , a . sarovy , j . e : randrianirina , a . meyer & e . louis jr . ( 2006 ) : genetic identification of units for conservation in tomato frogs , genus dyscophus . \u2013 conservation genetics 7 : 473 - 482 .\na153 . randrianiaina , r . - d . , l . raharivololoniaina , c . preuss , a . strau\u00df . f . glaw , m . teschke , j . glos , n . raminosoa & m . vences ( 2009 ) : descriptions of the tadpoles of seven species of malagasy treefrogs , genus boophis . \u2013 zootaxa 2021 : 23 - 41 . ( pdf )\na288 . glaw , f . , c . kucharzewski , z . t . nagy , o . hawlitschek & m . vences ( 2013 ) : new insights into the systematics and molecular phylogeny of the malagasy snake genus liopholidophis suggest at least one rapid reversal of extreme sexual dimorphism in tail length . \u2013 organisms , diversity and evolution 14 : 121 - 132 . ( pdf )\na197 . randrianiaina , r . d . , a . strau\u00df , j . glos , f . glaw & m . vences ( 2011 ) : diversity , external morphology and \u2018reverse taxonomy\u2019 in the specialized tadpoles of malagasy river bank frogs of the subgenus ochthomantis ( genus mantidactylus ) . \u2013 contributions to zoology 80 : 17 - 65 . ( pdf ) ( pdf high resolution )\na178 . rocha , s . , h . r\u00f6sler , p . - s . gehring , f . glaw , d . posada , d . j . harris & m . vences ( 2010 ) : phylogenetic systematics of day geckos , genus phelsuma , based on molecular and morphological data ( squamata : gekkonidae ) . \u2013 zootaxa 2429 : 1 - 28 . ( pdf )\na37 . vences , m . , f . andreone , f . glaw , j . kosuch , a . meyer , h . - c . schaefer & m . veith ( 2002 ) : exploring the potential of life - history key innovation : brook breeding in the radiation of the malagasy treefrog genus boophis . \u2013 molecular ecology 11 : 1453 - 1463 . ( pdf )\nmales call from floating vegetation , or the shore , both day and night but more frequently at night during the breeding season ( savage 2002 ) . the advertisement and territorial call consists of a complex series of squalls and chortles , with the variability of noises giving the impression that several species are present at the same time ( guyer and donnelly 2005 ) . the call may even be reminiscent of sounds produced by rubbing a hand across an inflated balloon ( guyer and donnelly 2005 ) . this frog also gives a high - pitched , single - note alarm call sounding like a ' yip ' while leaping toward safety , and a captured individual may give prolonged , high - pitched calls while being handled by its captors ( guyer and donnelly 2005 ) . the call given by this frog at la selva , costa rica is similar to that of taylor ' s leopard frog ( rana taylori , formerly rana pipiens ) and its relatives ( guyer and donnelly 2005 ) .\na122 . wohltmann , a . , l . du preez , m . - o . r\u00f6del , j . k\u00f6hler & m . vences ( 2007 ) : endoparasitic mites of the genus endotrombicula ewing , 1931 ( acari : prostigmata : parasitengona : trombiculidae ) from african and madagascan anurans , with description of a new species . \u2013 folia parasitologica 54 : 225 - 235 . ( pdf )\na226 . ohler , a . , k . c . wollenberg , s . grosjean , r . hendrix , m . vences , t . ziegler & a . dubois ( 2011 ) : sorting out lalos : description of new species and additional taxonomic data on megophryid frogs from northern indochina ( genus leptolalax , megophryidae , anura ) . \u2013 zootaxa 3147 : 1 - 83 . ( pdf )\na158 . franzen , m . , j . jones , a . p . raselimanana , z . t . nagy , n . d ' cruze , f . glaw & m . vences ( 2009 ) : a new black - bellied snake ( pseudoxrhophiinae : liophidium ) from western madagascar , with notes on the genus pararhadinaea . \u2013 amphibia - reptilia 30 : 173 - 183 . ( pdf )\na7 . glaw , f . , m . vences & w . b\u00f6hme ( 1998 ) : systematic revision of the genus aglyptodactylus boulenger , 1919 ( amphibia : ranidae ) , and analysis of its phylogenetic relationships to other madagascan ranid genera ( tomopterna , boophis , mantidactylus , and mantella ) . \u2013 journal of zoological systematics and evolutionary research 36 ( 1 ) : 17 - 37 . ( pdf )\nin contrast , parasites are not a major cause of mortality . this frog has relatively few parasites in comparison to other species of frogs , despite its aquatic lifestyle which favors the life cycle of gorgoderina and many other digeneans . studies have reported only 25 helminth species parasitizing rana vaillanti including several species of gorgoderina : g . attenuata , g . diaster , g . parvicava , and g . megacetabularis . the site of infection is the urinary bladder ( ramirez et al . 1998 ; mata - l\u00e3\u00b3pez et al . 2005 ) .\na376 . miralles , a . , a . macleod , a . rodr\u00edguez , a . iba\u00f1ez , g . jim\u00e9nez - uzcategui , g . quezada , m . vences & s . steinfartz ( 2017 ) : shedding light on the imps of darkness : an integrative taxonomic revision of the gal\u00e1pagos marine iguanas ( genus amblyrhynchus ) . \u0096 zoological journal of the linnean society 181 : 678 - 710 . ( pdf )\na278 . ratsoavina , f . m . , n . r . raminosoa , e . e . louis jr . , a . p . raselimanana , f . glaw & m . vences ( 2013 ) : an overview of madagascar\u2019s leaf tailed geckos ( genus uroplatus ) : species boundaries , candidate species and review of geographical distribution based on molecular data . \u2013 salamandra 49 : 115 - 148 . ( pdf )\na270 . vences , m . , j . s . hauswaldt , s . steinfartz , o . rupp , a . goesmann , s . k\u00fcnzel , p . orozco - terwengel , d . r . vieites , s . nieto - roman , s . haas , c . laugsch , m . gehara , s . bruchmann , m . pabijan , a . - k . ludewig , d . rudert , c . angelini , l . j . borkin , p . - a . crochet , a . crottini , a . dubois , g . f . ficetola , p . gal\u00e1n , p . geniez , m . hachtel , o . jovanovic , s . n . litvinchuk , p . lymberakis , a . ohler , n . a . smirnov ( 2013 ) : radically different phylogeographies and patterns of genetic variation in two european brown frogs , genus rana . \u2013 molecular phylogenetics and evolution 68 : 657 - 670 . ( pdf )\na recent genetic study of gopher frog ( rana capito ) populations across the current geographic distribution ( mississippi\u2013north carolina ) by young and crother ( 2001 ) indicated that the mississippi population was genetically distinct . young and crother ( 2001 ) therefore elevated the mississippi population to specific status by resurrecting rana sevosa goin and netting ( 1940 ; dusky gopher frog ) , because this population is the only one remaining in the historical geographic range of rana sevosa ( louisiana to mobile county , alabama ) as described by goin and netting ( 1940 ) . assigning the population discovered in baldwin county , alabama , after the publication of goin and netting ( 1940 ) to r . sevosa or r . capito is difficult because this population was not included in their study and has since become extinct . netting and goin ( 1942a ) assigned this population to r . sevosa based on the then known distribution of r . sevosa ( louisiana to mobile county , alabama ) and r . capito ( florida to north carolina ) . however , populations later discovered in counties proximate to baldwin county were included in the genetic study of young and crother ( 2001 ) and were not genetically distinct from all other populations sampled east of the mobile bay ( thus remaining r . capito ) . based on this evidence , we assign the baldwin county population to r . capito ( as indicated by the geographic range maps ) and note the inherent uncertainty . it currently is not possible to determine the location of the contact zone between r . sevosa and r . capito , but the extensive mobile basin creates a logical barrier to dispersal and thus probably separates the two species .\nc . larvae / metamorphosis . larvae hatch within 7\u201315 d after oviposition and metamorphose in 63\u201375 d in the field ( bragg , 1953 ; johnson , 1987 ; busby and brecheisen , 1997 ) . hatching occurs in 7\u201310 d and metamorphosis in 80\u201395 d in the laboratory ( m . redmer , personal observations ) . parris and semlitsch ( 1998 ) demonstrated that crawfish frogs have an average larval period of 65 d when reared in artificial ponds , and that this increases to an upper limit of 90 d when reared with larvae of other rana species . larvae feed primarily on phytoplankton and algae ( bragg , 1953 ; parris and semlitsch , 1998 ) . larvae reach up to 63 mm in length before metamorphosing and are distinguishable from other rana larvae by having a relatively narrow interruption between the two halves of the inner row of upper labial teeth ( smith et al . , 1948 ; bragg , 1953 ) and by a series of dermal pits along the lateral line ( bragg , 1953 ; dundee and rossman , 1989 ) . newly metamorphosed individuals are 30 mm in svl and weigh 2\u20133 g ( wright and myers , 1927 ; smith , 1961 ; parris and semlitsch , 1998 ) .\na287 . vences , m . , e . sanchez , j . s . hauswaldt , d . eikelmann , a . rodr\u00edguez , s . carranza , d . donaire , m . gehara , v . helfer , s . l\u00f6tters , p . werner , s . schulz & s . steinfartz ( 2014 ) : nuclear and mitochondrial multilocus phylogeny and survey of alkaloid content in true salamanders of the genus salamandra ( salamandridae ) . \u2013 molecular phylogenetics and evolution 73 : 208 - 216 . ( pdf )\nk . interspecific associations / exclusions . crawfish frogs may be excluded from larval communities containing plains leopard frogs ( rana blairi ) or southern leopard frogs ( r . sphenocephala ) because of weak interspecific competitive ability ( parris and semlitsch , 1998 ) . they may breed syntopically with northern cricket frogs ( acris crepitans ) , american toads ( bufo americanus ) , cope\u2019s gray treefrogs ( hyla chrysoscelis ) , eastern gray treefrogs ( h . versicolor ) , spring peepers ( pseudacris crucifer ) , western chorus frogs ( p . triseriata ) , plains leopard frogs , green frogs ( r . clamitans ) , and southern leopard frogs ( wright and myers , 1927 ; busby and brecheisen , 1997 ; m . j . p . , personal observation ) .\n1 . historical versus current distribution . dusky gopher frogs ( rana sevosa ) are endemic to the coastal plain of louisiana ( saint tammany , tangipahoa , and washington parishes ) , mississippi ( hancock , harrison , jackson , and pearl river counties ) , and southwestern alabama ( mobile county ; goin and netting , 1940 ; netting and goin , 1942a ; altig and lohoefener , 1983 ; dundee and rossman , 1989 ) . they were last documented in louisiana in 1967 , although they are now thought to be extirpated ( r . thomas , personal communication ) . populations from historical localities in mobile county , alabama , are also thought to be extinct ( mount , 1990 ; m . bailey , personal communication ) . one population was found in mississippi ( harrison county ) following extensive surveys of historical localities and suitable habitat in the late 1980s , but none has been found since ( g . johnson , personal communication ) .\nrana vaillanti is semiaquatic , found either at the water ' s edge on land , resting in shallows , or floating among vegetation with only its green head emerging ( savage 2002 ) . it is active throughout the year both during day and night ( ramirez et al . 1998 ) . when startled , if it is on land , it will escape into the water to swim a short distance to a hiding spot on the bottom of the lake ( leenders 2001 ) or under floating vegetation ( savage 2002 ) . this frog is a sit - and - wait predator with a diverse diet of mainly sedentary prey , including a high proportion of invertebrates such as insects ( coleopterans , odontates and areneids ) and spiders , but also including birds , fish , and conspecifics ( ramirez et al . 1998 ) . it forages on the shoreline of the lake , leaping with hind legs completely extended ( guyer and donnelly 2005 ) .\na377 . rakotoarison , a . , m . d . scherz , f . glaw , j . k\u00f6hler , f . andreone , m . franzen , j . glos , o . hawlitschek , t . jono , a . mori , s . h . ndriantsoa , n . rasoamampionona raminosoa , j . c . riemann , m . o . r\u00f6del , g . m . rosa , d . r . vieites , a . crottini & m . vences ( 2017 ) : describing the smaller majority : integrative taxonomy reveals twenty - six new species of tiny microhylid frogs ( genus stumpffia ) from madagascar . \u0096 vertebrate zoology 67 : 271 - 398 . ( high - resolution pdf - 75 mb ) ( low - resolution pdf - 15 mb )\nk . interspecific associations / exclusions . dusky gopher frogs inhabit the burrows of gopher tortoises , gopherus polyphemus ( allen , 1932 ; wright and wright , 1949 ) and small mammals ( richter et al . , 2001 ) . amphibian species currently known to breed in the same pond as dusky gopher frogs , although not necessarily during the same season , include mole salamanders ( ambystoma talpoideum ) , southern cricket frogs ( acris gryllus ) , southern toads ( bufo terrestris ) , eastern narrow - mouthed toads ( gastrophryne carolinensis ) , green treefrogs ( hyla cinerea ) , pine woods treefrogs ( h . femoralis ) , barking treefrogs ( h . gratiosa ) , squirrel treefrogs ( h . squirella ) , spring peepers ( pseudacris crucifer ) , southern chorus frogs ( p . nigrita ) , ornate chorus frogs ( p . ornata ) , green frogs ( rana clamitans ) , southern leopard frogs ( r . sphenocephala ) , and eastern spadefoot toads ( scaphiopus holbrookii ; allen , 1932 ; g . johnson and s . c . r . , personal observations ) .\nk . interspecific associations / exclusions . in new jersey , green frogs and carpenter frogs ( r . virgatipes ) breed in the same lakes and have overlapping breeding seasons , calling site preferences , and vocal repertoires ; they also exhibit generally similar territorial behaviors ( wells , 1977 , 1978 ; given , 1987 , 1990 ) . nevertheless , given ( 1990 ) shows that carpenter frogs are less territorial but more aggressive than are green frogs in these breeding aggregations . working in west virginia , pauley and barron ( 1995 ) observed that green frogs breed in the same ponds as leopard frogs , pickerel frogs , and bullfrogs , but only american bullfrogs have an overlapping breeding season with green frogs . in northern minnesota , green frogs commonly occur with mink frogs ( rana septentrionalis ; oldfield and moriarty , 1994 ) . however , mink frogs usually inhabit floating vegetation in deeper water while green frogs are found along the edges of the water . this habitat partitioning reduces interspecific competition for food ( fleming , 1976 ) . minton ( 1972 ) reports two cases of male green frogs in amplexus with leopard frogs , once with a male and once with a female .\n1 . historical versus current distribution . crawfish frogs ( rana areolata ) have a disjunct distribution , with populations localized in areas of suitable habitat . the distribution forms an arc that encircles the eastern , northern , and western boundaries of the ozark plateau , from western indiana and southern illinois , west through south - central iowa , central and southwestern missouri , southeastern kansas , eastern oklahoma , and eastern texas , and from extreme western kentucky south along the mississippi drainage to central mississippi , and across southern arkansas and northwestern louisiana ( wright and myers , 1927 ; goin and netting , 1940 ; bailey , 1943 ; bragg , 1953 ; smith , 1961 ; altig and lohoefener , 1983 ; garrett and barker , 1987 ; johnson , 1987 ; dundee and rossman , 1989 ; conant and collins , 1998 ; young and crother , 2001 ) . they are also present in a narrow band along the arkansas river valley in central arkansas ( s . trauth , arkansas state university , personal communication ) . crawfish frogs are absent from the ozark plateau in missouri and arkansas and the mississippi river delta in arkansas and mississippi ( r . altig , mississippi state university , personal communication ) .\nrana vaillanti is a large frog with males reaching 67 - 94 mm and females 76 - 125 mm in snout - vent length ( savage 2002 ) . the head is longer than wide , with a pointed snout . the tympanum is large , and exceeds or is equal to the eye diameter . fingers are unwebbed but have a lateral ridge , and also have slightly swollen tips . finger i is longer than finger ii . subarticular tubercles are present under fingers but no supernumerary , plantar , or accessory palmar tubercles are present . the thenar tubercle is elongated and the palmar tubercle is cordate to bifid . on the hindlimb , a weak tarsal ridge is present . toes have expanded tips and are fully webbed , with oblong subarticular tubercles . the inner metatarsal tubercle is present and elongate , but the outer metatarsal tubercle is lacking . dorsal surfaces on this frog are covered with white - tipped denticles , particularly between the two prominent dorsolateral folds . the shank bears longitudinal rows of white - tipped denticles on the dorsal surface . ventrally most surfaces are smooth , but the underside of the tarsus is denticulate . males have paired rounded vocal slits and paired internal subgular vocal sacs , as well as yellowish nuptial excrescences on the dorsolateral surface of the thumb and forearm ( savage 2002 ) .\n1 . historical versus current distribution . the range of green frogs ( rana clamitans ) encompasses most of the eastern united states , from the canadian border south to the gulf of mexico . green frogs occur almost everywhere east of a line drawn from central minnesota south through central iowa , southeast through missouri ( excluding the northwestern corner ) , and south through central oklahoma and eastern texas ( conant and collins , 1998 ) . green frogs are absent from the southern half of florida , from much of central illinois ( a distribution smith [ 1961 ] termed puzzling ) , and from half a dozen scattered counties in north - central arkansas . geographic isolates occur in western iowa , northern utah , and in several locations in the state of washington ( stebbins , 1985 ; leonard et al . , 1993 ) . two subspecies are recognized , northern green frogs ( r . c . melanota ) and bronze frogs ( r . c . clamitans ) . they have distributions that are roughly separated along a line from southeastern oklahoma arcing northeast through missouri to southern illinois , then arcing south through western tennessee , and east through northeastern mississippi , northern alabama , and central georgia , and northeast through central south carolina and extreme southeastern north carolina ( conant and collins , 1998 ) . mecham ( 1954 ) discusses the geographic variations of the morphologic features throughout the range , and arndt ( 1977 ) reports a blue variant from delaware . green frogs have been introduced in the states of washington and utah , and in western iowa .\ni . breeding migrations . breeding occurs in late winter to early spring : late february to early may in northern regions , january to early april in southern regions ( bragg , 1953 ; smith , 1961 ; garrett and barker , 1987 ; johnson , 1987 ; dundee and rossman , 1989 ; busby and brecheisen , 1997 ) . immigration begins after rainfall has filled temporary ponds and a saturation has occurred ( smith et al . , 1947 ; busby and brecheisen , 1997 ) . ambient air temperatures of 10\u201312 \u02dac ( minimum 8 \u02dac ) are critical to initiate and maintain breeding activity ( smith et al . , 1948 ; bragg , 1953 ; busby and brecheisen , 1997 ; m . r . , unpublished data ) . some claim that for breeding , crawfish frogs require the most restrictive moisture and temperature conditions of any north american rana ( smith et al . , 1947 ) , but others cite flexibility in reproductive behavior ( bragg , 1953 ; busby and brecheisen , 1997 ; m . r . , unpublished data ) . males migrate to temporary ponds 5\u20136 d prior to the arrival of females ( smith et al . , 1948 ) . breeding occurs explosively , with most reproduction occurring in a short period of intense chorusing at the beginning of the breeding season , although calling and periodic reproductive activity may persist for 22\u201355 d ( smith et al . , 1948 ; busby and brecheisen , 1997 ) . in marginal habitats or in smaller populations , reproduction may not occur every year ( thompson , 1915 ; m . j . p . , personal observations ) .\no . predators . no records of predation on adults or juveniles exist , but predators would be similar to those of other gopher frogs , and other ranid frogs ( e . g . , snakes , birds , and mammals ; jensen and richter , this volume ) . caddisfly ( trichoptera ) larvae are known to prey on eggs and larvae ( richter , 2000 ) . no other documentation of larval predation exists , but potential predators include those of other gopher frogs , and those observed in glen\u2019s pond feeding on southern leopard frog eggs and larvae\u2014dragonfly naiads ( odonata ) , backswimmers ( hemiptera ) , giant water bugs ( hemiptera ) , predaceous diving beetles ( coleoptera ) , fish , salamanders , snakes , turtles , and birds ( jensen and richter , this volume ; s . c . r . , personal observations ) . p . anti - predator mechanisms . dusky gopher frogs inflate their bodies and cover their eyes when harassed or grasped by potential predators ( s . c . r . , personal observations ) , as is known for crawfish frogs ( rana areolata ; altig , 1972a ) , a sister species . this behavior in dusky gopher frogs is coupled with a milky secretion having a distinct musky odor and bitter taste , which exudes from the dorsal warts ( dickerson , 1906 ; goin and netting , 1940 ; s . c . r . , personal observations ) . the secretion is composed of a variety of peptides that have a wide range of bioactive properties , some of which are thought to be associated with predator deterrence ( c . graham , s . c . r . , p . flatt , and c . shaw , unpublished data ) .\n* will not find nomina inquirenda ; use basic search ( above ) for that purpose .\nwill find all uses of\nhyl . . .\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hylarana , hyla , hylidae , hylinae , hylaedactyla .\nwill find all uses of\n. . . hyla\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hyla , hylidae , plectrohyla , ptychadena hylaea , adenomera hylaedactyla\nwill find all records that contain stand - alone uses of hyla : e . g . , hyla , hyla arenicolor\ninterprets this as\nlithobates or pipiens\nso will find the union of all records that contain either\nlithobates\nor\npipiens\n: e . g . , lithobates omiltemanus , hylorana pipiens\ninterprets this as\nlithobates and pipiens\nso will return all records that have the character string\nlithobates pipiens\nanywhere within a record : e . g . , all members of the lithobates pipiens complex .\ncopyright \u00a9 1998 - 2018 , darrel frost and the american museum of natural history . all rights reserved .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\n( family ranidae ) found in ponds , streams , and other bodies of fresh water in the northeastern united states . the green frog is 5 to 10 cm ( 2 to 4 inches ) long and green to brownish in colour . the back and legs are characteristically spotted or blotched .\n) , is found in such places as swamps and streamsides of the southeastern united states . it is brown above and grows to about 8 . 5 cm ( 3 . 3 inches ) . its call , like that of the green frog , is a sharp , twanging note . the european marsh , pool , and edible frogs are also known as green frogs .\nranidae , , family of wide - ranging frogs of the order anura , containing several genera and more than 600 species . representatives occur on every continent except antarctica . members of this group are referred to as the true frogs . although most are aquatic or semiaquatic , a few ranids are ground\u2026\nfrog , any of various tailless amphibians belonging to the order anura . used strictly , the term may be limited to any member of the family ranidae ( true frogs ) , but more broadly the name frog is often used to distinguish the smooth - skinned , leaping anurans from squat , warty , hopping ones , which are\u2026\nanura , one of the major extant orders of the class amphibia . it includes the frogs and toads , which , because of their wide distribution , are known by most people around the world . the name frog is commonly applied to those forms with long legs and smooth , mucus - covered skins , toad being used for a\u2026\namphibian , ( class amphibia ) , any member of the group of vertebrate animals characterized by their ability to exploit both aquatic and terrestrial habitats . the name amphibian , derived from the greek amphibios meaning \u201cliving a double life , \u201d reflects this dual life strategy\u2014though some species are\u2026\nwe welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles . you can make it easier for us to review and , hopefully , publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind .\nencyclop\u00e6dia britannica articles are written in a neutral objective tone for a general audience .\nyou may find it helpful to search within the site to see how similar or related subjects are covered .\nat the bottom of the article , feel free to list any sources that support your changes , so that we can fully understand their context . ( internet urls are the best . )\nyour contribution may be further edited by our staff , and its publication is subject to our final approval . unfortunately , our editorial approach may not be able to accommodate all contributions .\nour editors will review what you ' ve submitted , and if it meets our criteria , we ' ll add it to the article .\nplease note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors , and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed .\nhorse , ( equus caballus ) , a hoofed , herbivorous mammal of the family equidae . it comprises a single species , \u2026\ndog , ( canis lupus familiaris ) , domestic mammal of the family canidae ( order carnivora ) . it is a subspecies\u2026"]}
{"id": 184, "summary": [{"text": "dichomeris quercicola is a moth in the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by meyrick in 1921 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in northern india , mongolia , transbaikalia , south-eastern siberia , china ( beijing , shaanxi , hunan , jiangxi ) , korea and japan .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 17 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are light yellow-ochreous with a narrow grey streak on the basal fourth of the costa .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the stigmata is blackish , the discal approximated , the plical somewhat before the first discal .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "there is an oblique interrupted grey streak crossing the disc between the plical and first discal stigmata and there is a very irregular transverse line across the second discal from an elongate spot on the costa .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "some irregular grey irroration and suffusion is found towards the costa and dorsum except anteriorly , and in the disc posteriorly .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is also an irregular grey streak along the termen .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are whitish-grey , with the veins and apex grey .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on quercus species and lespedeza cyrtoborysa . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "dichomeris quercicola", "paragraphs": ["dichomeris quercicola meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 433 ; tl : punjab , kangra\ndichomeris quercicola ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30 ; ponomarenko , 1998 , far east . ent . 67 : 13\nvad betyder dichomeris ? h\u00e4r finner du 2 definitioner av dichomeris . du kan \u00e4ven l\u00e4gga till betydelsen av dichomeris sj\u00e4lv\ndichomeris \u00e4r ett sl\u00e4kte av fj\u00e4rilar som beskrevs av h\u00fcbner 1818 . dichomeris ing\u00e5r i familjen st\u00e4vmalar .\ndichomeris acmodeta ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 12\ndichomeris agorastis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13\ndichomeris albula ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13\ndichomeris apicispina ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris apludella ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris bifurca ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 15\ndichomeris bomiensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris bucinaria ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris consertella ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris cuprea ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris cuspis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris diffurca ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris fareasta ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris fuscahopa ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris fuscanella ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris gansuensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris hodgesi ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris jiangxiensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris lativalvata ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris lespedezae ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris lutilinea ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris manticopodina ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris menglana ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris millotella viette , 1956 ; nat . malgache 8 ( 2 ) : 212\ndichomeris minutia ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris mitteri ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 27\ndichomeris molybdoterma meyrick , 1933 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 12 ) : 353\ndichomeris ningshanensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 27\ndichomeris nivalis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 27\ndichomeris paulianella viette , 1956 ; nat . malgache 8 ( 2 ) : 213\ndichomeris polygona ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29\ndichomeris polypunctata ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29\ndichomeris qingchengshanensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30\ndichomeris quadratipalpa ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30\ndichomeris quadrifurca ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30\ndichomeris sexafurca ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 31\ndichomeris shenae ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 31\ndichomeris spicans ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris spuracuminata ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris stasimopa meyrick , 1937 ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 3 ) : 94\ndichomeris strictella ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris synergastis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris tersa ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris varifurca ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 34\ndichomeris violacula ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 34\ndichomeris wuyiensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 34\ndichomeris yuebana ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 34\ndichomeris yunnanensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 35\ndichomeris zymotella viette , 1956 ; nat . malgache 8 ( 2 ) : 215\ndichomeris junisonensis matsumura , 1931 ; 6000 illust . insects japan . - empire : 1082\ndichomeris acritopa meyrick , 1935 ; mat . microlep . fauna chin . prov . : 72\ndichomeris dolichaula meyrick , 1931 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 2 - 4 ) : 67\ndichomeris loxonoma meyrick , 1937 ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 4 - 5 ) : 123\ne . a . beljaev . a new subspecies of the pseudopanthera macularia l . ( lepidoptera : geometridae , ennominae ) from south siberia . - far eastern entomologist , 1997 , 51 : 1 - 7 . abstract . seven species new for science : helcystogramma flavilineolella sp . n . , h . claripunctella sp . n . , acanthophila beljaevi sp . n . , a . kuznetzovi sp . n . , a . silvestrella sp . n . , neofacul - ta taigana sp . n . and faristenia nemoriella sp . n . are described . acanthophila qinlingensis ( li et zheng ) , dichomeris aomoriensis park et hodges , d . obscura li et zheng are recorded for the first time from russia and acompsia cinerella ( cl . ) , helcystogramma ineruditum ( meyr . ) and dichomeris quercicola meyr . are firstly mentioned from primorskii krai . key words : lepidoptera , gelechiidae , taxonomy , distribution .\ndichomeris nyingchiensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 254\ndichomeris fuscahopa li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 242\ndichomeris fuscusitis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 243\ndichomeris gansuensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 247\ndichomeris hodgesi li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 232\ndichomeris jiangxiensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 244\ndichomeris junisonis [ sic ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris yunnanensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 254\ndichomeris cuspis park , 1994 ; insecta koreana 11 : 19 ; tl : gangweon prov . , korea\ndichomeris derasella ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 19 ; [ fe ]\ndichomeris fareasta park , 1994 ; insecta koreana 11 : 15 ; tl : gangweon prov . , korea\ndichomeris lamprostoma ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23 ; [ fe ]\ndichomeris mitteri park , 1994 ; insecta koreana 11 : 17 ; tl : gangweon prov . , korea\ndichomeris praevacua ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 :\ndichomeris strictella park , 1994 ; insecta koreana 11 : 11 ; tl : gangweon prov . , korea\ndichomeris acritopa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 12\ndichomeris adelocentra ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13\ndichomeris albiscripta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13\ndichomeris allantopa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13\ndichomeris amphichlora ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13\ndichomeris ampliata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris anisospila ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris antiloxa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris antisticta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris asodes ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 15\ndichomeris barymochla ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 15\ndichomeris brachygrapha ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris brachyptila ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris caerulescens ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris cellaria ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris centracma ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris ceponoma ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris charonaea ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris chartaria ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris chinganella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris chlanidota ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris cinnabarina ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris citharista ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris clarescens ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris cocta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris contentella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris corniculata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris crepitatrix ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris deceptella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 19\ndichomeris deltoxyla ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 19\ndichomeris diacrita ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 19\ndichomeris dicausta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 19\ndichomeris doxarcha ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris eridantis ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris eucomopa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris excoriata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris ferrata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris ferruginosa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris frenigera ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris fungifera ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris geochrota ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris horoglypta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris ignorata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris illicita ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris illucescens ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris imbricata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris immerita ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris indiserta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris intensa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris isoclera ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris leptosaris ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris leucothicta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 24\ndichomeris levigata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 24\ndichomeris lissota ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 24\ndichomeris litoxyla ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 24\ndichomeris lupata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris macroxyla ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris malachias ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris malacodes ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris melanortha ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris melitura ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris mesoglena ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris metatoxa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris metuens ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris microdoxa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris microsphena meyrick , 1921 ; zool . meded . leyden 6 : 166 ; tl : java , buitenzorg\ndichomeris oceanis ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 27\ndichomeris olivescens ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 28\ndichomeris ostracodes ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 28\ndichomeris pelitis ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 28\ndichomeris petalodes ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 28\ndichomeris planata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29\ndichomeris polyaema ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29\ndichomeris praealbescens ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29\ndichomeris procrossa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29\ndichomeris pseudometra ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30\ndichomeris ptychosema ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30\ndichomeris sciodora ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 31\ndichomeris semnias ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 31\ndichomeris siranta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 31\ndichomeris summata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris synclepta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris tephroxesta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris testudinata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris tetraschema ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris thyrsicola ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris toxolyca ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris traumatias ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris uranopis ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris viridella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 34\ndichomeris indigna ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 54 ( note )\ndichomeris ceratomoxantha ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 63 ( note )\ndichomeris adelocentra meyrick , 1920 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 10 ) : 305 ; tl : java , butenzorg\ndichomeris albula park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 22 ; tl : taipei co . , taiwan\ndichomeris baccata meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 621 ; tl : brazil , teff\u00e9\n= dichomeris bisignella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris brachygrapha meyrick , 1920 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 10 ) : 305 ; tl : assam , khasis\ndichomeris bucinaria park , 1996 ; tinea 14 ( 4 ) : 230 ; tl : pintung co . , taiwan\ndichomeris chalcophaea meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 434 ; tl : queensland , brisbane\ndichomeris fida meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 620 ; tl : brazil , para\ndichomeris fusca park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 49 ; tl : taichung co . , taiwan\ndichomeris fuscalis park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 16 ; tl : taipei co . , taiwan\ndichomeris harmonias meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 16 ) : 504 ; tl : china , shanghai\ndichomeris horiodes meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 620 ; tl : brazil , parintins\ndichomeris horoglypta meyrick , 1932 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 7 ) : 202 ; tl : hasimoto , japan\ndichomeris ingloria meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 621 ; tl : peru , lima\ndichomeris leptosaris meyrick , 1932 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 7 ) : 202 ; tl : hokkaido , japan\ndichomeris leucothicta meyrick , 1919 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 8 ) : 235 ; tl : bombay , dharwar\ndichomeris lucrifuga meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 620 ; tl : brazil , para\ndichomeris lutivittata meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 434 ; tl : queensland , brisbane\ndichomeris mesoctenis meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 434 ; tl : queensland , brisbane\ndichomeris mesoglena meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 619 ; tl : coorg , pollibetta\ndichomeris metuens meyrick , 1932 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 7 ) : 201 ; tl : seneng , java\ndichomeris ochthophora meyrick , 1936 ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 2 ) : 46 ; tl : taihoku , formosa\ndichomeris orientis park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 36 ; tl : kaohsiung co . , taiwan\ndichomeris praevacua meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 16 ) : 504 ; tl : china , shanghai\ndichomeris saturata meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 621 ; tl : brazil , obidos\ndichomeris sciodora meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 16 ) : 504 ; tl : assam , khasis\ndichomeris symmetrica park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 20 ; tl : taitung co . , taiwan\ndichomeris syndias [ sic , recte syndyas ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris thermodryas meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 621 ; tl : peru , iquitos\ndichomeris trilobella park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 42 ; tl : pingtung co . , taiwan\ndichomeris anisospila meyrick , 1934 ; dt . ent . z . iris 48 : 34 ; tl : guangdong , china\ndichomeris argentaria meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 304 ; tl : barberton\ndichomeris cotifera meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 303 ; tl : barberton\ndichomeris cuprea li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 237 ; tl : shaanxi\ndichomeris exsecta meyrick , 1927 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 12 ) : 354 ; tl : rhodesia , mazoe\ndichomeris ignorata meyrick , 1921 ; zool . meded . leyden 6 : 165 ; tl : java , preangor , 5000ft\ndichomeris melanortha meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 16 ) : 510 ; tl : bombay , poona\ndichomeris monorbella viette , 1988 ; bull . soc . ent . fr . 93 ( 3 - 4 ) : 104\ndichomeris squalens meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 282 ; tl : british guiana\nresupina omelko , 1999 ; keys ins . russian far east 5 ( 2 ) : 107 ; ts : dichomeris okadai moriuti\ndichomeris tactica meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 5 ) : 152 ; tl : ecuador , huigra , 4500ft\ndichomeris acrolychna meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 112 ; tl : brazil , para\ndichomeris allantopa meyrick , 1934 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 16 - 17 ) : 512 ; tl : nilambur , madras\ndichomeris alogista meyrick , 1935 ; mat . microlep . fauna chin . prov . : 72 ; tl : hunan , china\ndichomeris brachymetra meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 620 ; tl : peru , chosica , 2800m\ndichomeris brachyptila meyrick , 1916 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 19 ) : 584 ; tl : upper burma , myitkyina\ndichomeris ceponoma meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 5 ) : 151 ; tl : coorg , dibidi , 3500ft\ndichomeris davisi park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 35 ; tl : taiwan , taipei co . , sirin\ndichomeris ellipsias meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 114 ; tl : peru , iquitos\ndichomeris lushanae park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 22 ; tl : taiwan , taipei co . , sozan\ndichomeris moriutii ; li , zhen , kendrick & sterling , 2010 , shilap revta lepid . 38 ( 149 ) : 73\ndichomeris physocoma meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 9 ) : 286 ; tl : sierra leone , mabang\ndichomeris procyphodes meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 115 ; tl : brazil , parintins\ndichomeris rhodophaea meyrick , 1920 ; in alluaud & jeannel , voyage afr . orientale , ins . l\u00e9p . 2 : 73\ndichomeris simaoensis ; li , zhen , kendrick & sterling , 2010 , shilap revta lepid . 38 ( 149 ) : 74\ndichomeris stratigera meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 111 ; tl : brazil , parintins\ndichomeris subdentata meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 113 ; tl : brazil , santarem\ndichomeris testudinata meyrick , , 1934 ; dt . ent . z . iris 48 : 34 ; tl : guangdong , china\ndichomeris thalamopa meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 112 ; tl : brail , t\u00e9ffe\ndichomeris xanthodeta meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 305 ; tl : three sisters\ndichomeris zonata ; li , zhen , kendrick & sterling , 2010 , shilap revta lepid . 38 ( 149 ) : 74\ndichomeris liui li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 234 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris qinlingensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 235 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris aequata meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 282 ; tl : british guiana , bartica\ndichomeris agathopa meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 85 ; tl : rhodesia , umtali\ndichomeris anisacuminata li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 231 ; tl : china , jiangxi\ndichomeris antizyga meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 303 ; tl : barberton , pretoria\ndichomeris aphanopa meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 83 ; tl : rhodesia , umtali\ndichomeris apicispina li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 241 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris asteropis meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 83 ; tl : rhodesia , umvuma\ndichomeris attenta meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 84 ; tl : rhodesia , umvuma\ndichomeris bifurca li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 251 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris bodenheimeri ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16 ; [ afromoths ]\ndichomeris bomiensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 238 ; tl : china , xizang\ndichomeris cachrydias meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 283 ; tl : british guiana , mallali\ndichomeris decusella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 19 ; [ afromoths ]\ndichomeris diffurca li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 253 ; tl : fujian , china\ndichomeris eustacta meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 84 ; tl : rhodesia , umtali\ndichomeris excepta meyrick , 1914 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 9 ) : 279 ; tl : nyassaland , mt . mlanje\ndichomeris hylurga meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 83 ; tl : rhodesia , salisbury\ndichomeris impigra meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 305 ; tl : barberton , haenertsburg\ndichomeris indiserta meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 9 ) : 285 ; tl : malay states , kuala lumpur\ndichomeris lativalvata li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 248 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris manticopodina li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 239 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris menglana li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 257 ; tl : yunnan , china\ndichomeris ningshanensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 245 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris nivalis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 249 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris opsonoma meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 281 ; tl : british guiana , bartica\ndichomeris pladarota meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 84 ; tl : rhodesia , umtali\ndichomeris polygona li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 243 ; tl : sichuan , china\ndichomeris qingchengshanensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 245 ; tl : sichuan , china\ndichomeris quadratipalpa li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 238 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris quadrifurca li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 252 ; tl : fujian , china\ndichomeris sexafurca li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 249 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris shenae li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 246 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris spicans li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 247 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris spuracuminata li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 230 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris stromatias meyrick , 1918 ; ann . transv . mus . 6 ( 2 ) : 23 ; tl : zululand , nkwaleni\ndichomeris tersa li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 241 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris varifurca li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 250 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris violacula li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 237 ; tl : gansu , china\ndichomeris wuyiensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 255 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris xestobyrsa meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 82 ; tl : rhodesia , salisbury\ndichomeris yuebana li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 236 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris obscura li & zheng , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 223 ; tl : fengxian , shaanxi , 1600m\ndichomeris angustiptera li & zheng , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 228 ; tl : fengxian , shaanxi , 1600m\ndichomeris acrogypsa turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 168 ; tl : queensland , rosewood\ndichomeris aculata ; ponomarenko & ueda , 2004 , trans . lepid . soc . japan 55 ( 3 ) : 147 ( note )\ndichomeris ampliata meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 175 ; tl : khasis\ndichomeris cirrhostola turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 169 ; tl : queensland , adavale\ndichomeris deltaspis ; ponomarenko & ueda , 2004 , trans . lepid . soc . japan 55 ( 3 ) : 155 ( note )\ndichomeris excoriata meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 174 ; tl : khasis\ndichomeris ferrata meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 174 ; tl : khasis\ndichomeris ferrogra li & wang , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 225 ; tl : mengla , yunnan , 630m\ndichomeris ferruginosa meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 173 ; tl : khasis\ndichomeris heteracma meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 622 ; tl : brazil , teff\u00e9 ; peru , iquitos\ndichomeris instans meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 619 ; tl : peru , iquitos ; brazil , teff\u00e9\ndichomeris lividula park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 57 ; tl : taiwan , hualien co . , pianau - col\ndichomeris oleata meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 305 ; tl : barberton , three sisters\ndichomeris ostracodes meyrick , 1916 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 19 ) : 583 ; tl : upper burma , lashio , 3000ft\ndichomeris petalodes meyrick , 1934 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 16 - 17 ) : 512 ; tl : nilambur , madras , india\ndichomeris pleuroleuca turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 169 ; tl : queensland , eidsvold\ndichomeris ptychosema meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 175 ; tl : khasis\ndichomeris rectifascia li & zheng , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 220 ; tl : kangxian , gansu , 800m\ndichomeris simaoensis li & wang , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 221 ; tl : simao , yunnan , 325m\ndichomeris summata meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 172 ; tl : khasis\ndichomeris varronia busck , 1913 ; ins . inscit . menstr . 1 ( 7 ) : 89 ; tl : kitty , british guiana\ndichomeris ventosa meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 304 ; tl : barberton , three sisters\ndichomeris zonata li & wang , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 222 ; tl : simao , yunnan , 325m\ndichomeris tostella ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 72 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ]\ndichomeris amphicoma meyrick , 1912 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1911 ( 4 ) : 695 ; tl : brazil , santos\ndichomeris antisticha meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 9 ) : 285 ; tl : costa rica , vulkan irazu , 4000ft\ndichomeris fluitans meyrick , 1920 ; ann . s . afr . mus . 17 ( 4 ) : 284 ; tl : natal , howick\ndichomeris litoxyla meyrick , 1937 ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 4 - 5 ) : 123 ; tl : yakovlevka , primorkii krai , russia\ndichomeris nessica walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 95 ; tl : panama , la chorrera\ndichomeris taiwana park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 48 ; tl : taiwan , nantou co . , sunmoon lake , 760m\ndichomeris zomias meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 283 ; tl : british guiana , bartica and mallali\ndichomeris hirculella busck , 1909 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 11 ( 2 ) : 89 ; tl : east river , connecticut\ndichomeris clarescens meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 174 ; tl : maskeliya , ceylon\ndichomeris dysorata turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 170 ; tl : new south wales , syndey\ndichomeris elegans park , 2001 ; insecta koreana 18 ( 4 ) : 308 ; tl : taiwan , pingtung co . , kenting park , 50m\ndichomeris jugata walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 97 ; tl : mexico , tabasco , teapa\ndichomeris mengdana li & zheng , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 227 ; tl : mengda , xunhua , qinghai , 2240m\ndichomeris miltophragma meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 115 ; tl : brazil , para , obidos , parintins\ndichomeris ptilocompa meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 113 ; tl : brazil , teff\u00e9 ; peru , jurimaguas\ndichomeris substratella walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 93 ; tl : mexico , tabasco , teapa\ndichomeris vadonella viette , 1955 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . 123 : 108 ; tl : ne . madagascar , maroantsetra , ambodivoangy\ndichomeris xerodes walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 100 ; tl : mexico , tabasco , teapa\n= dichomeris setosella ; sattler , 1973 , bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent . ) 28 ( 4 ) : 221\ndichomeris glenni clarke , 1947 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 49 ( 7 ) : 187 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris aomoriensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14 ; ponomarenko , 1998 , far east . ent . 67 : 12\ndichomeris ardesiella walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 96 ; tl : mexico , vera cruz , cordova\ndichomeris arotrosema walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 95 ; tl : mexico , vera cruz , atoyac\ndichomeris asodes meyrick , 1939 ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 89 ( 4 ) : 54 ; tl : telawa , java\ndichomeris erixantha ; meyrick , 1921 , ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 83 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ afromoths ]\ndichomeris eucomopa meyrick , 1939 ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 89 ( 4 ) : 54 ; tl : telawa , java\ndichomeris loxospila ; [ nhm card ] ; li , zhen , kendrick & sterling , 2010 , shilap revta lepid . 38 ( 149 ) : 77\ndichomeris lypetica walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 91 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft\ndichomeris crepitatrix meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 173 ; tl : n . coorg , 3500ft\ndichomeris dignella walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 91 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft\ndichomeris excavata busck , 1914 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 47 ( 2043 ) : 18 ; tl : porto bello , panama\ndichomeris hexasticta walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 94 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft\ndichomeris imbricata meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 175 ; tl : n . coorg , 3500ft\ndichomeris lutea park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 59 ; tl : taiwan , nantou co . , meifeng , 30km s tayuling , 2200m\ndichomeris lutilinea ponomarenko & park , 1996 ; korean j . appl . ent . 35 ( 2 ) : 118 ; tl : chuncheon , kangweon prov .\ndichomeris metrodes meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 172 ; tl : hambantota , ceylon ; bombay\ndichomeris olivescens meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 175 ; tl : kandy and maskeliya , ceylon\ndichomeris thalpodes meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 111 ; tl : brazil , para ; peru , r . napo\ndichomeris tristicta busck , 1914 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 47 ( 2043 ) : 17 ; tl : trinidad river , panama\ndichomeris melanophylla ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 114 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ]\ndichomeris angulata ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 14 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris bulawskii ponomarenko & park , 1996 ; korean j . appl . ent . 35 ( 2 ) : 114 ; tl : 27km sw slavjanka , primorskii krai\ndichomeris fusca ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 60 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 49\ndichomeris linealis ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 83 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 24\ndichomeris lividula ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 83 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 24\ndichomeris lushanae ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 86 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris lutea ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 86 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris ochreata ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 102 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 27\ndichomeris taiwana ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 135 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris trilobella ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 141 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris illusio hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 101 , pl . 2 , f . 38 ; tl : hastings , florida\ndichomeris imitata hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 104 , pl . 3 , f . 5 ; tl : devers , texas\ndichomeris angulata park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 43 ; tl : taiwan , nantou co . , leinhauchi forest station , 15km sw puli , 750m\ndichomeris aprica ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 15 ; li & sattler , 2012 , zootaxa 3373 : 57\ndichomeris enoptrias ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris hoplocrates ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris issikii ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris ochreata park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 32 ; tl : taiwan , nantou co . , mei - feng , 30km s tayuling , 2200m\ndichomeris pyrrhoschista ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30\ndichomeris sciritis ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 31 ; li & sattler , 2012 , zootaxa 3373 : 57\ndichomeris synergastis ponomarenko & park , 1996 ; korean j . appl . ent . 35 ( 2 ) : 116 ; tl : yong - in , kyunggi prov .\ndichomeris viridescens ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 34\ndichomeris offula hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 117 , pl . 3 , f . 21 ; tl : ithaca , new york\ndichomeris crepida hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 118 , pl . 3 , f . 22 ; tl : mcclellanville , south carolina\ndichomeris santarosensis hodges , 1985 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 87 ( 2 ) : 456 ; tl : santa rosa national park , guanacaste , costa rica\ndichomeris nenia hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 40 , pl . 4 , f . 2 ; tl : bandera co . , texas\ndichomeris hypochloa walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 102 , pl . 3 , f . 23 ; tl : mexico , sonora\ndichomeris caia hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 62 , pl . 4 , f . 7 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris laetitia hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 88 , pl . 2 , f . 22 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris aleatrix hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 91 , pl . 2 , f . 27 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris furia hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 93 , pl . 2 , f . 30 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris baxa hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 105 , pl . 3 , f . 10 ; tl : presidio of monterey , california\ndichomeris cinnamicostella ; walsingham , 1911 , biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 103 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris costalis busck , 1914 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 47 ( 2043 ) : 18 ; tl : tabogilla i . and porto bello , panama\ndichomeris habrochitona walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 102 , pl . 3 , f . 26 ; tl : panama , tabernilla\ndichomeris carycina ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 43 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris caryophragma ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 43 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris diacnista ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 43 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris lypetica ; [ nhm card ] ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 54 ( note ) ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris tactica ; [ nhm card ] ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 60 ( note ) ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris latescens ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 63 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris siren hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 64 , pl . 4 , f . 9 ; tl : henson creek , oxon hill , maryland\ndichomeris vindex hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 83 , pl . 2 , f . 9 - 10 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris gleba hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 87 , pl . 2 , f . 18 - 20 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris legnotoa hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 101 , pl . 4 , f . 10 ; tl : largo , pinellas co . , florida\ndichomeris mimesis hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 101 , pl . 2 , f . 39 ; tl : salmon , anderson co . , texas\ndichomeris simulata hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 104 , pl . 3 , f . 4 ; tl : canadian , hemphill co . , texas\ndichomeris percnopolis walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 93 , pl . 3 , f . 11 ; tl : guatemala , zapote , 2000ft\ndichomeris renascens walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 96 , pl . 3 , f . 14 ; tl : mexico , tabasco , teapa\ndichomeris xuthostola walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 101 , pl . 3 , f . 18 ; tl : mexico , tabasco , teapa\ndichomeris sylphe hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 58 , pl . 1 , f . 22 ; tl : archbold biological staion , lake placid , florida\ndichomeris ardelia hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 62 , pl . 4 , f . 8 ; tl : archbold biological station , lake placid , florida\ndichomeris kimballi hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 71 , pl . 1 , f . 30 ; tl : archbold biological staion , lake placid , florida\ndichomeris aglaia hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 85 , pl . 2 , f . 15 ; tl : lake placid , florida , archbold biological station\ndichomeris anisacuminata ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14 ; li , zhen , kendrick & sterling , 2010 , shilap revta lepid . 38 ( 149 ) : 74\ndichomeris argigastra walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 99 , pl . 3 , f . 16 ; tl : mexico , vera cruz , atoyac\ndichomeris autometra ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 15 ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 )\ndichomeris crambaleas ; [ nhm card ] ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris melanota walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 94 , pl . 3 , f . 13 ; tl : mexico , vera cruz , cordova\ndichomeris okadai ; [ nhm card ] ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 28\ndichomeris prensans meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 111 ; tl : brazil , para , parintins , manaos ; peru , iquitos ; british guiana , bartica\ndichomeris sciastes walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 90 , pl . 3 , f . 10 ; tl : mexico , vera cruz , atoyac\ndichomeris gausapa hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : pl . 1 , f . 8 ; tl : madera canyon , 4880 ' , santa rita mts , arizona\n= dichomeris acuminata ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 34\ndichomeris solatrix hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 48 , pl . 1 , f . 15 ; tl : pe\u00f1a blanca canyon , santa cruz co . arizona\n= dichomeris punctidiscella ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 56 ; [ nhm card ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 36\ndichomeris copa hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 92 , pl . 2 , f . 28 ; tl : snyder heights 1100 ' , ithaca , new york\ndichomeris achne hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 87 , pl . 2 , f . 34 ; tl : parker is . , highlands co . , florida\ndichomeris euprepes hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 110 , pl . 4 , f . 11 ; tl : big black mnts , letcher co . , kentucky\ndichomeris carinella walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 99 , pl . 3 , f . 20 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft\ndichomeris fuscusitis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21 ; zhao , park , bae & li , 2017 , zootaxa 4273 ( 2 ) : ( 216 - 234 )\ndichomeris intensa meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 173 ; tl : maskeliya and puttalam , ceylon ; cuddapah , 4000ft , n . coorg\ndichomeris leucostena walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 94 , pl . 3 , f . 12 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft\ndichomeris blanchardorum hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 43 , pl . 1 , f . 10 - 11 ; tl : laguna atascosa , cameron co . , texas\ndichomeris gnoma hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 106 , pl . 3 , f . 11 ; tl : shingle creek road , keremeos , british columbia , canada\ndichomeris mercatrix hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 110 , pl . 3 , f . 15 ; tl : mclean bogs reserve , tompkins co . , new york\ndichomeris bulawskii ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16 ; ponomarenko & ueda , 2004 , trans . lepid . soc . japan 55 ( 3 ) : 151 ( note )\ndichomeris diva hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 57 , pl . 1 , f . 21 ; tl : 1 mi s patagonia , santa cruz co . , arizona\ndichomeris fistuca hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 68 , pl . 1 , f . 25 ; tl : wedge plantation , mccellanville , charleston co . , south carolina\ndichomeris atomogypsa ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 72 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 15\ndichomeris alphito hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 88 , pl . 2 , f . 21 ; tl : madera canyon , 4880 ' , santa rita mts , arizona\ndichomeris pelta hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 99 , pl . 2 , f . 36 ; tl : wedge plantation , mcclellanville , charleston co . , south carolina\ndichomeris acrochlora ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 112 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 12\ndichomeris sybilla hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 121 , pl . 3 , f . 24 ; tl : madera canyon , 4880 ' , santa rita mts , arizona\ndichomeris evitata walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 99 , pl . 3 , f . 15 ; tl : panama , volcan de chiriqui , 2000 - 3000ft\ndichomeris harmonias ; [ nhm card ] ; park , 1991 , ann . hist . - nat . mus . hung . 83 : 121 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris xanthoa hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 102 , pl . 3 , f . 2 ; tl : ft . niobrara national wildlife refuge , cherry co . , nebraska"]}
{"id": 186, "summary": [{"text": "the tabulate corals , forming the order tabulata , are an extinct form of coral .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they are almost always colonial , forming colonies of individual hexagonal cells known as corallites defined by a skeleton of calcite , similar in appearance to a honeycomb .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "adjacent cells are joined by small pores .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "their distinguishing feature is their well-developed horizontal internal partitions ( tabulae ) within each cell , but reduced or absent vertical internal partitions ( septae ) .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they are usually smaller than rugose corals , but vary considerably in shape , from flat to conical to spherical .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "around 300 species have been described .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "among the most common tabulate corals in the fossil record are aulopora , favosites , halysites , heliolites , pleurodictyum , sarcinula and syringopora .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "tabulate corals with massive skeletons often contain endobiotic symbionts , such as cornulitids and chaetosalpinx .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "like rugose corals , they lived entirely during the paleozoic , being found from the ordovician to the permian .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "with stromatoporoidea and rugose corals , the tabulate corals are characteristic of the shallow waters of the silurian and devonian .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "sea levels rose in the devonian , and tabulate corals became much less common .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "they finally became extinct in the permian \u2013 triassic extinction event . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "tabulata", "paragraphs": ["university of california museum of paleontology , 1994 , introduction to the tabulata : urltoken ( 4 / 12 / 00 ) .\nwhat made you want to look up tabulata ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\nhill , dorothy , 1981 , coelenterata , anthozoa , subclasses rugosa and tabulata ; in , treatise on invertebrate paleontology , coelenterata , supplement 1 ( rugosa and tabulata ) , part f , v . 1 - 2 , teichert , c . , ed . : boulder , colorado and lawrence , kansas , geological society of america and the university of kansas , 762 p .\nanimals found as fossils in ordovician to jurassic marine rocks ( 488 million to 146 million years old ) . tabulata is characterized by the presence of interior platforms , or tabulae , and by a general lack of vertical walls , or septa . colonial masses of these tabulate corals sometimes\ntaxonomic classification : corals belong to the kingdom animalia , phylum cnidaria , class anthozoa , subclass zoantharia . the subclass is divided into six orders , two of which - - the rugosa and tabulata - - are common kansas fossils . most living and post - paleozoic fossil corals belong to a third order , the scleractinia , the earliest fossils of which are from the triassic period , 14 million years after the end - permian mass extinction .\ntabulates , subclass or order tabulata , are extinct corals of anthozoans . tabulates , unlike rugosans , were always colonial organisms . they have simple calcareous skeleton , colonies consisting of prismatic or tube - like corallites communicating by mural pores or pore channels or tunnels . polyps lived inside corallites as chambers with base - like tabulae below and septal spines or laminar septa on sides protruding from the corallite wall . tabulate corals are taxonomically complicated because of their simplicity . favositids are characterized by closely packed corallites with mural - pores and their morphology is so variable that it differs even within a colony . heliolitids are more complicated because of their coenenchymal tissue between corallites , which consists of tiny tubes - tubuli or wavy dissepiments . halysitids are similar with having often coenenchyme , but their corallites are enclosed into ranks of various shape and size . syringoporids form fasciculate colonies consisting of tubes having little space around and being connected by pore tunnels . auloporids are reptant forms encrusting other organisms , as a small horny network .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\ntabulate corals occurred in the ordovician period of america and siberia , much earlier than in baltoscandia . the first appearances of tabulates lyopora , eoflecheria , saffordophyllum and protaraea in baltica are known from the level of the oandu stage . estonia is rich in ordovician and silurian tabulates , which are easy to find in localities of hiiumaa , vormsi and saaremaa . quarries in mainland are nice places to observe tabulates in their living position .\ntabulates are large , but their finer taxonomy is observed only from peels and thin - sections . normally pair of thin - sections is made from transverse and vertical directions of colony growth . peel is an acetate replica from the polished and etched surface of the colony cut . thin - sections are thin pieces of colonies , clued to glass and grinded down until 50 microns . their scanned and photographed images are investigated later by using different software .\ntabulates are sessile organisms which preferred only shallow seas and are not mush useful in stratigraphy . they were spread on ancient oceans sporadically or formed bioherms or biostromes . together with strtomatoporoids , rugosans and other fossils in the same community , they are informative in palaeoecology . sedimentological processes are readable also from the shape and growth details of such organisms .\n. new endobiotic cornulitid and cornulites sp . aff . cornulites celatus ( cornulitida , tentaculita ) from the katian of vormsi island , estonia\n. 10th international symposium on fossil cnidaria and porifera . excursion b2 : lower paleozoic geology and corals of estonia . excursion guidebook\n. morphological variation of the tabulate coral paleofavosites cf . collatatus klaamann , 1961 from the silurian of the bagovichka river localities , podolia ( ukraine )\n. heliolitine corals of the upper douro formation ( upper silurian ) , canadian arctic islands .\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under cc by - nc licence .\ntabulate corals were common from the ordovician to the permian . very recently , a lower\n, has been found in south australia ; it appears to be a tabulate coral , although this is not absolutely certain . if it is a true tabulate , this find extends the history of tabulate corals considerably . ( sorauf and savarese , 1995 )\n, as seen on this large specimen . most tabulates were colonial , with some forming substantial reefs .\n, went extinct at the end of the permian , about 245 million years ago , victims of the heaviest mass extinction ever .\nsource : sorauf , j . e . and savarese , m . 1995 . a lower cambrian coral from south australia . palaeontology 38 ( 4 ) : 757 - 770 .\ngibraltar remains , neanderthal fossils and associated materials found at gibraltar , on the southern tip of spain . the gibraltar limestone is riddled with natural caves , many of which were at times occupied by neanderthals during the late pleistocene epoch ( approximately 126 , 000 to 11 , 700 years\u2026\ntriassic period , in geologic time , the first period of the mesozoic era . it began 252 million years ago , at the close of the permian period , and ended 201 million years ago , when it was succeeded by the jurassic period . the triassic period marked the beginning of major changes that were to take\u2026\njurassic period , second of three periods of the mesozoic era . extending from 201 . 3 million to 145 million years ago , it immediately followed the triassic period ( 251 . 9 million to 201 . 3 million years ago ) and was succeeded by the cretaceous period ( 145 million to 66 million years ago ) . the morrison\u2026\nkabwe cranium , fossilized skull of an extinct human species ( genus homo ) found near the town of kabwe , zambia ( formerly broken hill , northern rhodesia ) , in 1921 . it was the first discovered remains of premodern homo in africa and until the early 1970s was considered to be 30 , 000 to 40 , 000 years\u2026\npaleozoic era , major interval of geologic time that began 541 million years ago with the cambrian explosion , an extraordinary diversification of marine animals , and ended about 252 million years ago with the end - permian extinction , the greatest extinction event in earth history . the major divisions\u2026\nwe welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles . you can make it easier for us to review and , hopefully , publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind .\nencyclop\u00e6dia britannica articles are written in a neutral objective tone for a general audience .\nyou may find it helpful to search within the site to see how similar or related subjects are covered .\nat the bottom of the article , feel free to list any sources that support your changes , so that we can fully understand their context . ( internet urls are the best . )\nyour contribution may be further edited by our staff , and its publication is subject to our final approval . unfortunately , our editorial approach may not be able to accommodate all contributions .\nour editors will review what you ' ve submitted , and if it meets our criteria , we ' ll add it to the article .\nplease note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors , and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed .\nanimal , ( kingdom animalia ) , any of a group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms ( i . e . , as distinct from\u2026\ncorrections ? updates ? omissions ? let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article ( requires login ) .\nif you prefer to suggest your own revision of the article , you can go to edit mode ( requires login ) .\nour editors will review what you\u2019ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article .\nthis page was last edited on 16 june 2017 , at 15 : 51 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\n152 , 260 species and infraspecific names are in the database , 20 , 704 images , 58 , 813 bibliographic items , 390 , 023 distributional records .\nplease note that there have been many changes within algaebase - there will be a number of links that may have changed .\nsite \u00a9 1996 - 2018 m . d . guiry . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nlike the rugose corals , the tabulate corals are entirely palaeozoic and are similar in range . they occur as colonial forms only , and usuallly have small corallites . there are generally no septae , or they are very small ; the construction is simpler than in other coral orders .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndescription : corals are simple animals that secrete skeletons made of calcium carbonate . they are close relatives of sea anemones and jellyfish and are the main reef builders in modern oceans . corals can be either colonial or solitary .\nas fossils , corals are found worldwide in sedimentary rocks . based on these fossils , we know that the corals began their long evolutionary history in the middle cambrian , over 510 million years ago . in kansas , they are fairly common in pennsylvanian and permian rocks , deposited from about 315 to 250 million years ago .\ncorals are simple animals , characterized by their radial symmetry and lack of well - developed organs . the polyp , the soft part of the coral , is essentially a small digestive sack made up of an inner and outer wall , separated by a gelatinous layer ( see diagram ) . the mouth , surrounded by stinging tentacles , forms an opening through which food enters and waste products are expelled . the hard external skeleton is secreted by the polyp ' s outer wall . these calcium carbonate structures are the part of the animal most likely to be preserved as a fossil .\na , generalized drawing of a coral polyp ; b , cross section of simple polyp .\nshows the structure of the hard parts that protected the individual polyps and formed the framework of the colony . the drawing shows the pores on the surface , from which the polyps extended their tentacles to feed ; the photographed specimen is from the\ndouglas county ( drawing by al kamb , ku natural history museum , invertebrate paleontology ) .\ncorals live attached to the seafloor and feed by trapping small animals with their tentacles . they reproduce both sexually and asexually . budding , a kind of asexual reproduction , occurs when the parent polyp splits off new polyps . evidence of budding can be seen in fossil corals .\nmodern corals inhabit deep - water environments as well as shallow reefs . based on evidence from the rocks , scientists have determined that the pennsylvanian and permian corals of kansas lived in warm , shallow , sunlit waters where the bottom was firm enough to offer a secure point of attachment .\nalthough corals are the main reef builders in modern oceans , not all corals build reefs . in addition to the corals , which are called framework organisms , other organisms contribute to the formation of reefs . for example , modern reefs are inhabited by binding organisms ( such as encrusting algae ) and filler organisms ( such as snails , bivalves , and sponges ) , whose skeletons fill in the spaces in the reef after death .\ntwo groups of corals were important inhabitants of the pennsylvanian and permian seas - - tabulate and rugose corals . tabulate corals were exclusively colonial and produced calcium carbonate skeletons in a variety of shapes : moundlike , sheetlike , chainlike , or branching . tabulate corals get their name from horizontal internal partitions known as tabulae . some tabulate corals were probably reef builders ( but not in kansas ) .\na common characteristic of rugose corals , from which they get their name , is the wrinkled appearance of their outer surface . ( rugose comes from the latin word for wrinkled . ) rugose corals may be either solitary or colonial . because solitary rugose corals are commonly shaped like a horn , these fossils are sometimes called horn corals .\nboth tabulate and rugose corals died out in the major extinction that occurred at the end of the permian period , roughly 250 million years ago . this extinction marked the end of the paleozoic era . the corals that inhabited the post - paleozoic seas differ significantly from the earlier corals . because of this , many specialists argue that these later corals may not be closely related to the paleozoic corals .\ntabulate and rugose corals are common in eastern kansas . rugose corals are especially common in the beil limestone member of the lecompton limestone in the vicinity of sedan , kansas .\nboardman , richard s . , cheetham , alan h . , and rowell , albert j . , 1987 , fossil invertebrates : boston , blackwell scientific publications , 713 p .\nclarkson , e . n . k . , 1979 , invertebrate palaeontology and evolution , 3rd edition : london , chapman and hall , 434 p .\nfortey , richard , 1999 , life - - a natural history of the first four billion years of life on earth : new york , knopf , 346 p .\njohnson , kirk b . , and stuckey , richard k . , 1995 , prehistoric journey - - a history of life on earth : boulder , colorado , denver museum of natural history and roberts rinehart publishers , 144 p .\nmoore , raymond c . , lalicker , cecil g . , and fischer , alfred g . , 1952 , invertebrate fossils : new york , mcgraw - hill book co . , 766 p .\nstanley , george d . , jr . , and fautin , daphne g . , 2001 , the origins of modern corals : science , v . 291 , p . 1913 - 14 .\nuniversity of california museum of paleontology , 1994 , introduction to the scleractinia : urltoken ( 4 / 12 / 00 ) .\nuniversity of newcastle , department of geology , 1998 , rugose and tabulate corals : urltoken ( dec / 24 / 03 ) .\ntext by liz brosius , kansas geological survey . drawing of rugose coral at top of page by alan kamb , ku natural history museum , invertebrate paleontology . other illustrations by jennifer sims , kansas geological survey ; photographs by john charlton , kansas geological survey .\nkansas geological survey updated april 26 , 2005 website terms of use comments to webadmin @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken / extension / fossils / coral . html\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\na review of the cactus bugs of the genus chelinidea with the description of a new species ( hemiptera : coreidae ) herring j . l . 1980 . proc . ent . soc . wash . 82 : 237 - 251 .\nthe principal cactus insects of the united states . hunter et al . 1912 . usda bureau of entomology bulletin . 71 pp .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nlove words ? you must \u2014 there are over 200 , 000 words in our free online dictionary , but you are looking for one that\u2019s only in the merriam - webster unabridged dictionary .\nthe story of an imaginary word that managed to sneak past our editors and enter the dictionary .\ntake this quiz and discover 12 words for things you didn ' t know had words ."]}
{"id": 190, "summary": [{"text": "the shovelnose sea catfish ( arius subrostratus ) , also called the short-nosed catfish or the marine catfish , is a species of sea catfish in the family ariidae .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it was described by achille valenciennes in 1840 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is a non-migratory species which inhabits tropical marine and brackish waters in the indo-western pacific region , including indonesia , india , pakistan , the philippines and thailand .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it dwells at a depth range of 0 to 20 m ( 0 to 66 ft ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it reaches a maximum ng length of 39.5 cm ( 15.6 in ) , while commonly reaching a total length of 12 cm ( 4.7 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the diet of the shovelnose sea catfish includes detritus , polychaete worms , diatoms , algal weeds , and various crustaceans .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it has been recorded spawning between the months of january-april and september-october in india .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "males incubate the eggs in their mouths .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the shovelnose sea catfish is of commercial value to fisheries ; it is mostly marketed fresh . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "shovelnose sea catfish", "paragraphs": ["the etiology of s . algae infections to freshwater fish ( tiger shovelnose catfish ) is unknown . 2 according to literature , s . algae could cause an infection to both marine animals 3 and freshwater fish . based on the gross findings and histopathology , this tiger shovelnose catfish was diagnosed with fibrinous serositis caused by s . algae infection .\nthe shovelnose catfish can be recognised by its forked tail , wide mouth and truncate snout . it usually has a smaller eye than the similar looking silver cobbler , ariopsis midgleyi * .\nuse the table to access images and fact sheets of the ariid fishes on the site . these include the forktail catfishes , salmon - catfishes and sea catfishes .\nthese fish are not aggressive . people stung by catfish are usually fishing or bathing when they make contact with a catfish , usually by stepping on it or handling the fish after it has been caught .\nopt for yellow snapper or domestic catfish to get the same texture as orange roughy in your recipes .\nstick with domestic , farm - raised catfish . it ' s responsibly farmed and plentiful , making it one of the best fish you can eat . or , try asian carp , an invasive species with a similar taste to catfish that ' s out - competing wild catfish and endangering the great lakes ecosystem .\nboth salt - and fresh - water catfish are dangerous . each has three spines and a stinging apparatus .\nshewanella algae is a gram - negative , rod - shaped , motile bacillus with a single polar flagellum . s . algae is found in warm marine environments throughout the world , and is isolated from seawater . 1 the tiger shovelnose catfish ( pseudoplatystoma tigrinum ) is the member of the genus pseudoplatystoma and the family pimelodidae which belongs to the class actinopterygii . pseudoplatystoma species are all large , boldly striped or spotted catfishes , they are familiar due to their distinctively marked color patterns . 2 here we described the histopathologic lesions of fibrinous peritonitis caused by s . algae in tiger shovelnose catfish .\nmild - tasting wild - caught asian or atlantic sea bass is a good , seafood - watch recommended alternative to red snapper , or look for the farm - raised version , marketed as barramundi .\ncatfish are often found in muddy rivers , lakes , and on beaches in tropical , subtropical , and temperate waters .\nif you really love caviar , opt for fish eggs from american lake sturgeon or american hackleback / shovelnose sturgeon caviar from the mississippi river system ; check out california caviar which sources only sustainably harvested fish eggs .\n3 . mulvany e , lawler df , evans rh . peritonitis secondary to multiple , full - thickness jejunal wall perforations in a california sea lion . pmmc case rep mar mamm pathol . 2010 ; 1 : 1\u20139 .\nmedically reviewed by avrom simon , md ; board certified preventative medicine with subspecialty in occupational medicine references : jama . com . catfish stings .\ncatfish are a distinctive type of fish that have whiskers protruding from the area around the mouth . they also have external spines near their fins .\n\u201cthese guys have to stay on the list , \u201d says cufone . \u201cif there\u2019s nothing else to pay attention to , know this : imported fish are almost never inspected for filth . \u201d nearly 90 percent of the catfish imported to the u . s . comes from vietnam , where use of antibiotics that are banned in the u . s . is widespread . ( antibiotic use is also a problem with imported shrimp ) . furthermore , the two varieties of vietnamese catfish sold in the u . s . , swai and basa , aren ' t technically considered catfish by the federal government and therefore aren ' t held to the same inspection rules that other imported catfish are .\na male , tiger shovelnose catfish raised in hanwha aqua planet jeju was submitted to the pathology department of veterinary medicine , jeju national university . necropsy was performed and visceral organs were fixed with 10 % neutral buffered formalin and prepared into paraffin sections and stained with hematoxylin & eosin for light microscopy . fibrinous materials of visceral surface were aseptically collected for bacterial culture , and were inoculated on sheep blood agar and anaerobically incubated for 48 h at 37\u00b0c . isolated bacteria were confirmed using vitek 2 system .\n2 . buitrago - su\u00e1rez ua , burr bm . taxonomy of the catfish genus pseudoplatystoma bleeker ( siluriformes : pimelodidae ) with recognition of eight species . zootaxa . 2007 ; 1512 : 1\u201338 .\npain associated with a catfish sting may be relieved with one to two acetaminophen ( tylenol ) every four hours and / or one to two ibuprofen ( motrin , advil ) every six to eight hours .\nchilean sea bass , the commercial name for patagonian toothfish , was nearly fished to commercial extinction , are still considered a fish to avoid . fish stocks are in such bad shape that the nonprofit greenpeace estimates that , unless people stop eating this fish , the entire species could be commercially extinct within five years . food and water watch ' s guide notes that these fish are high in mercury , as well .\nproblems associated with our eating too many sharks happen at all stages of the food chain , says cufone . for one , these predatory fish are extremely high in mercury , which poses threats to humans . but ocean ecosystems suffer , too .\nwith fewer sharks around , the species they eat , like cownose rays and jellyfish , have increased in numbers ,\ncufone says .\nand the rays are eating\u2014and depleting\u2014scallops and other fish .\nthere are fewer of those fish in the oceans for us to eat , placing an economic strain on coastal communities that depend on those fisheries . shark have long lives , they mature late , and they only have one pup at a time . sometimes they are cut up and sold as sea scallops , says cufone . plus , \u201cif you see sea scallops that are a uniform size and shape , you may be looking at shark . \u201d shark - finning is illegal in the u . s . , but its practice in other areas is causing devastation in shark - populations worldwide .\noral antibiotics are usually recommended for catfish stings that become infected . antibiotics should be taken if infection develops for at least five days after all signs of infection have resolved . potential drug allergies should be checked prior to starting any antibiotic . a doctor can recommend the appropriate antibiotic . some antibiotics can cause sensitivity to the sun , so a sunscreen ( at least spf 15 ) is also recommended for use with such antibiotics .\ngrossly , the catfish had severe damage on the fin and tail . a turbid , sticky , dark - red fluid was found in the abdominal cavity . histopathologically , diffuse fibrinous peritonitis in the serosa of the spleen and kidney was observed . diffuse , fibrinous epicarditis was presented in the heart . large amount of the intra - lesional bacterial colonies were adhere on the serosa of the spleen , kidney , and pericardium of the heart . in bacterial examination , gram - negative rod shaped bacterial colonies were successfully isolated from blood agar plate . the isolated bacteria were mucoid colonies with \u03b2 hemolysis on blood agar . these bacteria were confirmed as s . algae by the vitek 2 system .\ngreek , arios , areios = dealing with mars , warlike , bellicose ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; brackish ; demersal ; non - migratory ; depth range 0 - 20 m ( ref . 43081 ) . tropical\nindo - west pacific : pakistan east to thailand then south to the philippines and indonesia .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 39 . 5 cm ng male / unsexed ; ( ref . 43081 ) ; common length : 12 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 3290 )\nfound in marine waters , as well as estuaries and tidal rivers , at times burrowed in the soft mud of the mangroves . feed mainly on invertebrates . males incubate the eggs in the buccal cavity ( ref . 43081 ) . the sharp dorsal and pectoral fin spines can inflict painful wounds . also caught with dipnets and set bagnets . sold mostly fresh .\njayaram , k . c . , 1984 . ariidae . in w . fischer and g . bianchi ( eds . ) fao species identification sheets for fishery purposes . western indian ocean fishing area 51 . vol . 1 . fao , rome . pag . var . ( ref . 3290 )\n) : 27 . 4 - 29 . 3 , mean 28 . 7 ( based on 1689 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00871 ( 0 . 00545 - 0 . 01393 ) , b = 2 . 95 ( 2 . 82 - 3 . 08 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 8 \u00b10 . 31 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( fec = 25 - 35 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate to high vulnerability ( 52 of 100 ) .\nvalenciennes in cuvier & valenciennes , 1840b : 62 . type locality : malabar , india . holotype : mnhn 1190 .\ncountries : pakistan , india , sri lanka , thailand , singapore , indonesia and philippines .\nmaterial examined : usnm 297119 ( 2 al , 271 - 300 mm tl ) , sri lanka , negombo , ceylon .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis species is endemic to australia , occurring from the roper river , northern territory to cape york peninsula , queensland . its distribution is disjunct from that of the silver cobbler , which occurs in more westerly drainages including the victoria , katherine , daly , ord and kimberley as well as northern waterways such as the alligator river .\nimmerse the affected area in water as hot as is tolerable usually relieves pain from a sting .\n\u00a92018 webmd , inc . all rights reserved . emedicinehealth does not provide medical advice , diagnosis or treatment . see additional information .\n1 college of veterinary medicine , jeju national university , jeju , korea ; 2 aqua planet jeju , hanhwa hotel & resort co . , ltd . , jeju , korea\n1 . holt hm , gahrn - hansen b , bruun b . shewanella algae and shewanella putrefaciens : clinical and microbiological characteristics . clin microbiol infect . 2005 ; 11 : 347\u2013352 .\nwon - hee hong aqua planet jeju hanhwa hotel & resort co . , ltd . jeju , korea\nsorry , we just need to make sure you ' re not a robot . for best results , please make sure your browser is accepting cookies .\nthis dirty dozen list is made up of the least sustainable , or even toxic , species .\nit was not long ago that americans rarely thought about where their food came from , let alone the impacts of their choices . these days it\u2019s increasingly important to know not only what you\u2019re eating and where it\u2019s come from . from food co - ops , farmers markets , and community supported agriculture ( csa ) , to whole aisles ( and grocery stores ) devoted to natural , organic , local and sustainable produce\u2014americans and legal protections have quickly evolved to begin averting the worst problems of industrial agriculture . so though the journey to a healthy sustainable terrestrial food system is far from over , it is well underway .\nseafood , however , is more slippery . \u201cthat\u2019s because it\u2019s the \u2018last of the buffalo hunters , \u201d when it comes to seafood says joe lasprogata , vice president of samuels and son seafood co . \u201cthe oceans are in some ways the last source of truly wild products , and we need to be careful with those . \u201d samuels and son sponsors sustained seas , an organization dedicated to promoting sustainable fisheries via labeling and education . part of the reason fisheries are in trouble is that consumers didn\u2019t know the impacts of their choices .\nlasprogata says , \u201cfor way too long there\u2019s been this surprising attitude : fishermen believed that fisheries belonged to them , and that has led to collapse , over and over again . there was no care , no stewardship . but fisheries can absolutely be sustainable . \u201d that confusion has continued to spill over into consumer behavior , since some people still make fish - buying decisions based on taste , price , and texture\u2014rather than perceived sustainability , according to a recent study on british columbian consumer habits .\nbut it\u2019s extremely important to think about where the fish comes from , because those factors affect not only your health , but also the future of wild fish stocks , which we and countless other species depended on for our survival . \u201cthere are lots of ways to identify a so - called \u201cdirty dozen\u201d of fish , and it\u2019s crucial to be aware of overfishing , pollution , and bycatch , \u201d says marianne cufone .\ncufone is the executive director of recirculating farms coalition , an organization dedicated to creating local land - based produce and fish systems using hydro - and aquaponics , small local systems that avoid the problems of open - water fish farms and industrial agriculture altogether , where the fish waste fertilizes fresh produce . the former director of the fish program of food and water watch , cufone\u2019s mission is redirecting consumers toward healthy , sustainable fish - eating . she laughs , saying , \u201ci get a lot of texts from my friends asking me which fish are okay to eat . \u201d\ncufone stresses that consumers can begin with a list of the 12 worst fish , or a \u201cfishy dozen\u201d\u2014compiled with help from experts .\n( like what you ' re reading ? sign up for our newsletter to get health insights , clever kitchen tricks , gardening secrets , and more\u2014delivered straight to your inbox . )\namong the recommendations for shark alternatives are pacific halibut and atlantic mackerel . ( and when shopping for scallops , avoid cookie - cutter perfect ones . )\n\u201ccod on the list breaks my heart , \u201d she says . \u201cbecause it\u2019s a new england staple and we all love to support our fisherman . but cod had the worst season in 2016 in years , with serious catch depletion . \u201d atlantic cod stocks collapsed in the mid - 1990s and are in such disarray that the species is now listed as one step above endangered on the international union for conservation of nature ' s red list of threatened species .\nthe good news , if you love fish ' n ' chips ( which is nearly always made with cod ) , is that pacific cod stocks are still strong and are one of food and water watch ' s best fish picks .\naccording to cufone , tuna is bad news all around . \u201cwe are eating it to death , \u201d she says . atlantic and pacific bluefin , albacore , yellowfin\u2026they are all to be avoided . canned tuna is one of the most consumed fish in the u . s . , and that\u2019s depleting the fisheries . ( here are 4 canned fish you should avoid at all costs . )\nfor your tuna salad , substitute tinned sardines ( they\u2019re seafood watch recommended , and are one of the healthiest fish you can eat ) or even organic tinned chicken , such as wild planet organic roasted chicken breast .\ncaviar from beluga and wild - caught sturgeon are susceptible to overfishing , but the species are also being threatened by an increase in dam building that pollutes the water in which they live . all forms of caviar come from fish that take a long time to mature , which means that it takes a while for populations to rebound\u2014any wild caviar is to be avoided , says cufone .\nthis popular fish from the gulf of mexico is just starting to recover from overfishing . \u201ci worry about it a lot , \u201d says cufone . \u201ceven though it\u2019s not recovered , the federal government agreed to reopen recreational red snapper fishing recently . these fish have long been on the trouble list . \u201d\nthese fish are very popular and considered a delicacy , but you can get the same texture and feel with u . s . hook - and - line\u2013caught haddock .\norange roughy has been so overfished that many restaurant chains still refuse to serve it . further , it tends to be high in mercury levels . it is a long lived fish , that takes ten to twenty years to reach maturity\u2014which means populations take a long time to recover , and fish tend to accumulate toxins like mercury of lengthy time periods . even if you see orange roughy for sale , or labeled as \u201csustainably harvested\u201d avoid it . the marine stewardship council does not certify it , and its fisheries are not considered it well managed .\neel remains problematic too . most consumers see it in sushi , but it is often high in pcbs and mercury , and eel populations are too often overharvested . it is also sold as yellow or silver eel .\nif you like the taste of eel , opt for atlantic - or pacific - caught squid instead .\nthe thing about imported king crab is that it comes mainly from russia where there are no protections and the fishery is being overharvested . if you know for sure that your crab is actually from alaska , says cufone \u201cyou\u2019re okay . \u201d that\u2019s because these crabs are actually two different critters . true alaskan king crab from alaska , is a protected us fishery that\u2019s well managed , and stocks are healthy . but the \u201cimported alaskan king crab\u201d is not actually alaskan , it\u2019s the unprotected crab from russia .\nwhen you shop for king crab , whatever the label says , ask whether it comes from alaska or if it ' s imported . approximately 70 percent of the king crab sold in the u . s . is imported , so it ' s important to make that distinction and go domestic .\nopen water , farmed atlantic salmon fisheries contribute to pollution and interspecies mixing . \u201cif you can find terrestrially farmed atlantic salmon , that\u2019s typically better farming management , \u201d says cufone . farmed salmon is also where you\u2019re most likely to encounter genetically engineered salmon . ( here\u2019s how to choose the best salmon at the grocery store )\nwild caught pacific salmon generally have less of the problems than atlantic . and wild caught salmon from alaska is even better , since those populations are the most robust . when it comes to flavor , wild salmon is where it\u2019s at . as one of the healthiest fish you can eat , it ' s higher in omega - 3 fatty acids ( which can help fight seasonal allergies , among many other things ) and also packs less saturated fat than farmed . it\u2019s also a sustainable seafood : the alaskan salmon fishery\u2014america\u2019s main source of wild salmon\u2014is managed to ensure the plentiful return of wild fish in the future . varieties to look out for are king , sockeye , pink , keta and coho salmon .\nbasically , they\u2019re extremely smart . \u201cthis is an ethics case that i\u2019d put in the same category as eating dolphins and whales , \u201d says cufone . \u201cit\u2019s become increasingly hard to talk about eating octopus because we\u2019ve learned so much about their intelligence and abilities . \u201d\nthe list will change because we\u2019ve entered an era where fisheries information is fluid . what might be the worst thing to eat now because of severe depletion could rebound and be a sustainable fishery a few years down the road with proper management . to know if your choices are healthy\u2014for themselves and the fishery itself\u2014it\u2019s useful to know where to go to get that information when you\u2019re standing in front of the fish counter .\nblue ocean\u2019s \u201cfish phone\u201d app \u2014 carl safina is the founder of the blue ocean institute and safina center , and author of many important books on the oceans and animals . his organization wanted to make it easy for consumers to decide which fish to eat . all you need to do is text the word fish followed by the species you want to know about , to 30644 ( so , for instance , fish shrimp , or fish bluefin ) . in less than 10 seconds you\u2019ll have valuable info in the palm of your hand about the fish in question .\nmonterey bay aquarium\u2019s seafood watch \u2014 a respected and increasingly well - known resource for consumers , businesses and chefs around the country , to help them make healthy choices for the oceans .\nthe marine stewardship council \u2014 \u201can international non - profit organization established to address the problem of unsustainable fishing and safeguard seafood supplies for the future . the msc uses a blue label and fishery certification program to contribute to the health of the world\u2019s oceans . \u201d\nnoaa fisheries stock status updates \u2014 for those who want useful , regularly updated science info and detailed specs on various fisheries tracked by the us government , this is your go to .\ngood housekeeping participates in various affiliate marketing programs , which means we may get paid commissions on editorially chosen products purchased through our links to retailer sites ."]}
{"id": 196, "summary": [{"text": "kootenichela deppi is an extinct arthropod described from the middle cambrian of the kootenay national park , canada .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it belongs to the \" great appendage arthropods \" .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "kootenichela appears to be the sister taxon of worthenella , from cladistic analysis .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the species name deppi comes from the actor johnny depp , after his role as edward scissorhands in the film of the same name .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "david legg , the discoverer of kootenichela , said : \" when i first saw the pair of isolated claws in the fossil records of this species i could not help but think of edward scissorhands .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "even the genus name , kootenichela , includes the reference to this film as ' chela ' is latin for claws or scissors .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "in truth , i am also a bit of a depp fan and so what better way to honour the man than to immortalise him as an ancient creature that once roamed the sea ? \" kootenichela appears to be a primitive arthropod .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it has an elongated body composed of at least 29 segments of similar shape and appearance .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "on the head , there are large eyes supported by stalks and an appendage resembling an antenna .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the appendages bound to the trunk are poorly sclerotised .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "it was approximately 4 centimetres ( 1.6 in ) long .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "most prominent are the claw-like , spinose cephalic appendages , which seem to suggest affinities with the \" great appendage \" arthropods . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "kootenichela", "paragraphs": ["this 505 - million - year old extinct arthropod was named kootenichela deppi for actor johnny depp .\nthe 505 - million - year - old fossil , named kootenichela deppi , is a distant ancestor of lobsters and scorpions .\nthe latest species to be named after hollywood royalty is a 505 - million - year old extinct arthropod now called kootenichela deppi for actor johnny depp .\nthe 505 million - year - old ' kootenichela deppi ' - a nod to lead actor johnny depp - is an ancestor of lobsters and scorpions .\n\u201cjust imagine it : the prawns covered in mayonnaise in your sandwich , the spider climbing up your wall and even the fly that has been banging into your window and annoyingly flying into your face are all descendants of kootenichela deppi . current estimates indicate that there are more than one million known insects and potentially 10 million more yet to be categorized , which potentially means that kootenichela deppi has a huge family tree , \u201d dr legg said .\ndr legg believes that kootenichela deppi would have been a hunter or scavenger . its large edward scissorhands - like claws with their elongated spines may have been used to capture prey , or they could have helped it to probe the sea floor looking for sea creatures hiding in sediment .\n\u201cwhen i first saw the pair of isolated claws in the fossil records of this species i could not help but think of edward scissorhands . even the genus name , kootenichela , includes the reference to this film as \u2018 chela \u2019 is latin for claws or scissors . in truth , i am also a bit of a depp fan and so what better way to honour the man than to immortalize him as an ancient creature that once roamed the sea ? \u201d explained dr legg , who has described kootenichela deppi in a paper published in the journal of paleontology .\nkootenichela deppi belongs to a group known as the \u2018great - appendage\u2019 arthropods , or megacheirans , which refers to the enlarged pincer - like frontal claws that they share . the \u2018great - appendage\u2019 arthropods are an early relation of arthropods , which includes spiders , scorpions , centipedes , millipedes , insects and crabs .\neven the genus name , kootenichela , includes the reference to this film as \u2018chela\u2019 is latin for claws or scissors . in truth , i am also a bit of a depp fan and so what better way to honour the man than to immortalise him as an ancient creature that once roamed the sea ? \u201d\neven the genus name , kootenichela , includes the reference to this film , as ' chela ' is latin for claws or scissors ,\nlegg added .\nin truth , i am also a bit of a depp fan and so what better way to honour the man than to immortalise him as an ancient creature that once roamed the sea ?\nkootenichela deppi lived in very shallow seas , similar to modern coastal environments , off the cost of british columbia in canada , which was situated much closer to the equator 500 million years ago . the sea temperature would have been much hotter than it is today and although coral reefs had not yet been established , the creature would have lived in a similar environment consisting of sponges .\nkootenichela deppi was about 1 . 5 inches ( 4 cm ) long with an elongated trunk for a body and millipede - like legs , which it used to scuttle along the sea floor with the occasional short swim . it also had large eyes composed of many lenses like the compound eyes of a fly . they were positioned on top of movable stalks called peduncles to help it more easily search for food and look out for predators .\n\u201cwhen i first saw the pair of isolated claws in the fossil records of this species i could not help but think of edward scissorhands . even the genus name , kootenichela , includes the reference to this film as \u2018chela\u2019 is latin for claws or scissors . in truth , i am also a bit of a depp fan and so what better way to honour the man than to immortalise him as an ancient creature that once roamed the sea ? \u201d\na scientist has discovered an ancient extinct creature with scissor hand - like claws in fossil records and named it in honour of a movie star .\nthe 505 million year old fossil called kooteninchela deppi ( pronounced koo - ten - ee - che - la depp - eye ) , which is a distant ancestor of lobsters and scorpions , was named after the actor johnny depp for his starring role as edward scissorhands - a movie about an artificial man named edward , an unfinished creation , who has scissors for hands .\nkooteninchela deppi is helping researchers to piece together more information about life on earth during the cambrian period when nearly all modern animal types emerged .\nkooteninchela deppi lived in very shallow seas , similar to modern coastal environments , off the cost of british columbia in canada , which was situated much closer to the equator 500 million years ago . the sea temperature would have been much hotter than it is today and although coral reefs had not yet been established , kooteninchela deppi would have lived in a similar environment consisting of sponges .\nthe researcher believes that kooteninchela deppi would have been a hunter or scavenger . its large edward scissorhands - like claws with their elongated spines may have been used to capture prey , or they could have helped it to probe the sea floor looking for sea creatures hiding in sediment .\nkooteninchela deppi was approximately four centimetres long with an elongated trunk for a body and millipede - like legs , which it used to scuttle along the sea floor with the occasional short swim .\nit also had large eyes composed of many lenses like the compound eyes of a fly . they were positioned on top of movable stalks called peduncles to help it more easily search for food and look out for predators .\nthe researcher discovered that kooteninchela deppi belongs to a group known as the \u2018great - appendage\u2019 arthropods , or megacheirans , which refers to the enlarged pincer - like frontal claws that they share . the \u2018great - appendage\u2019 arthropods are an early relation of arthropods , which includes spiders , scorpions , centipedes , millipedes , insects and crabs .\ndavid legg adds : \u201cjust imagine it : the prawns covered in mayonnaise in your sandwich , the spider climbing up your wall and even the fly that has been banging into your window and annoyingly flying into your face are all descendants of kooteninchela deppi . current estimates indicate that there are more than one million known insects and potentially 10 million more yet to be categorised , which potentially means that kooteninchela deppi has a huge family tree . \u201d\nin the future , david legg intends to further his research and study fossilised creatures from the ordovician , the geological period that saw the largest increase in diversity of species on the planet . he hopes to understand why this happened in order to learn more about the current diversity of species on earth .\narticle text ( excluding photos or graphics ) available under an attribution - noncommercial - sharealike creative commons license .\nphotos and graphics subject to third party copyright used with permission or \u00a9 imperial college london .\ncomment on prostate cancer ultrasound treatment as effective as surgery or radiotherapy : thank you for your comments . i ' ve sent you both some more detailed information about the procedu\u2026\ncomment on new type of photosynthesis discovered : light has been here for earth for very , very long time . i am surprised that c ' phyll would be the onl\u2026\ndr david legg , a paleontologist with the department of earth science and engineering at imperial college london , has discovered an ancient creature with scissor hand - like claws and named it after the actor johnny depp for his portrayal of edward scissorhands in the 1990 film about an artificial man who has scissors for hands .\nbibliographic information : david legg . 2013 . multi - segmented arthropods from the middle cambrian of british columbia ( canada ) . journal of paleontology 87 ( 3 ) : 493 - 501\njuvenile australopithecus climbed trees , 3 . 32 - million - year - old foot fossil shows\n\u00a9 2011 - 2018 . sci - news . com . all rights reserved . | back to top\ncelebrity names will be preserved for posterity in film reels , heaps of tabloid magazines and taxonomy textbooks , too .\na fossil of the organism , a distant ancestor of lobsters and scorpions , has pinchers that recalled edward scissorhands , the misunderstood monster played by depp in the eponymous 1990 tim burton movie , according to the researcher who named it . [ starstruck : species named after celebrities ]\nwhen i first saw the pair of isolated claws in the fossil records of this species i could not help but think of edward scissorhands ,\ndavid legg , who studied the creature as part of his doctorate research at the imperial college london , said in a statement .\nthe fossil was found in kootenay national park in british columbia , canada , which would have been much closer to the equator 500 million years ago , during the cambrian period .\nlegg believes kooteninchela deppi , which measured just 1 . 5 inches ( 4 centimeters ) in length , would have scuttled across the sand in a shallow sea environment , hunting or scavenging for food . its large claws have elongated spines , which may have been used to capture prey or probe the seafloor for meals hiding under the sediment .\nit also had large , fly - like eyes with many lenses nestled atop movable stalks to look out for food and avoid predators , the researcher said .\ndepp is far from the first celebrity to get a taxonomic tribute . from beyonce to arnold schwarzenegger to roy orbison , the rich and famous have sometimes had entire species named after them , an honor once reserved for scientists .\nkooteninchela deppi is a primitive relative of today ' s arthropods , a group that includes spiders , scorpions , centipedes , millipedes , insects and crabs .\njust imagine it : the prawns covered in mayonnaise in your sandwich , the spider climbing up your wall and even the fly that has been banging into your window and annoyingly flying into your face are all descendants of kooteninchela deppi ,\nlegg added .\nhis description of the species was published this month in the journal of paleontology .\nfollow megan gannon on twitter and google + . follow us @ livescience , facebook & google + . original article on live science .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nfull reference : d . legg . 2013 . multi - segmented arthropods from the middle cambrian of british columbia ( canada ) . journal of paleontology 87 ( 3 ) : 493 - 501\nsmarter homes are better for the planet . here ' s how to get on board\nan ancient species has been named after edward scissorhands because of the shape of its claws .\nan artist ' s impression has been released of the newly - discovered creepy - crawly by imperial college london .\nits fossilised remains show it had sharp claws , triggering comparisons with the 1990 film .\nthe animal would have lived in shallow seas similar to modern coastal environments off the coast of british columbia in canada .\nphd student david legg said :\nwhen i first saw the pair of isolated claws in the fossil records of this species i could not help but think of edward scissorhands .\nget top stories and blog posts emailed to me each day . newsletters may offer personalized content or advertisements . learn more\nthank you for signing up ! you should receive an email to confirm your subscription shortly .\nwe urge you to turn off your ad blocker for the telegraph website so that you can continue to access our quality content in the future .\nella mai \u2013 boo ' d up ( remix ) ft . nicki minaj & quavo\nby using ifunny you agree to our privacy policy . we and our partners operate globally and use cookies , including for analytics ."]}
{"id": 198, "summary": [{"text": "the cuban bullfinch ( melopyrrha nigra ) is a songbird species of the monotypic genus melopyrrha .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "sometimes classified in the bunting and american sparrow family ( emberizidae ) , more recent studies have shown it to be part of the tanager family ( thraupidae ) .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "therein , it belongs to the lineage of tholospizan \" finches \" , which also includes the famous darwin 's finches .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is found in the cayman islands , there only on grand cayman , and cuba .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical moist montane forests , and heavily degraded former forest .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is not considered a threatened species by the iucn . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "cuban bullfinch", "paragraphs": ["cuban bullfinch is an inquisitive species . he / she will seek you out . i recorded this song on the mastic trail and was met by multiple cuban bullfinch . it seemed that everytime i rested that quietly a cuban bullfinch would chek me out .\nrising , j . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . cuban bullfinch ( pyrrhulagra nigra ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nioc world bird list ( v 5 . 3 ) , website ( version 5 . 3 )\ngill , f . , and d . donsker , eds . 2015 . ioc world bird list ( v 5 . 3 ) . available at urltoken [ accessed 04 september , 2015 ]\nzoonomen - zoological nomenclature resource , 2015 . 02 . 01 , website ( version 01 - feb - 15 )\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nauthors : xochitl ay\u00f3n g\u00fcemes , edwin ruiz rojas , and eduardo e . i\u00f1igo - elias\nay\u00f3n g\u00fcemes , x . , e . ruiz rojas , and e . e . i\u00f1igo - elias ( 2013 ) .\n) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .\ntreated in melopyrrha in hbw ( see genus pyrrhulagra ) . usually considered conspecific with p . taylori . monotypic .\ncuba ( including some larger cays in sabana - camag\u00fcey archipelago , cayo saet\u00eda , and cayo cantiles and cayo arenoso in los canarreos archipelago ) and i of pines .\n14\u201315 cm ; male 9\u201318\u00b74 g , female 10\u00b72\u201318\u00b73 g , unsexed 9\u201322 g . small , dark finch with curved bill and white band on edge of wing . . . .\nsong ( given from male atop a low tree ) a thin melodious trill that ascends or descends in pitch , . . .\nsemi - deciduous , evergreen and open woodland , second growth , coastal vegetation ( including . . .\nfeeds on insects , seeds and fruit . incidental observations during breeding season in w cuba recorded birds taking fruit (\nseason mar\u2013aug , usually until jul , with display noted from jan . both pair members construct a large spherical bulky mass with . . .\nnot globally threatened . currently considered near threatened . restricted - range species : confined to the cuba eba . population size has not been quantified . reasonably common . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nnewly constituted subfamily ( \u201cdome - nesting tanagers\u201d ) that includes nectarivores , seed - eaters and insectivores , with a high proportion of insular species ( including \u201cdarwin\u2019s finches\u201d ) , all of them with the exception of coereba treated in emberizidae in hbw ; all build covered or domed nests with side entrances .\nthis name ( type portoricensis ) has priority over melopyrrha # r ( type nigra ) , which in hbw was used for a single species ( nigra ) .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\ngreg baker , josep del hoyo , eduardo tejeda lima , pascal vagner , adolfo arag\u00fc\u00e9s .\ndavid lingard , holger teichmann , hal and kirsten snyder , dusan m . brinkhuizen , ken havard , yvonne stevens , dubi shapiro , greg baker , petemorris .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nestablished status : species were formerly present in florida , but are no longer present .\n3 seen in 2 years , unknown if it is an escaped caged bird or a vagrant .\nrobertson , w . b . , and g . e . woolfenden . 1992 . florida bird species : an annotated list . florida ornithological society , gainesville , florida , usa .\nfwc facts : some snook can change sex from male to female . as a result , larger and older specimens are more likely to be female .\nflorida fish and wildlife conservation commission \u2022 farris bryant building 620 s . meridian st . \u2022 tallahassee , fl 32399 - 1600 \u2022 ( 850 ) 488 - 4676\npursuant to section 120 . 74 , florida statutes , the fish and wildlife conservation commission has published its 2017 agency regulatory plan .\nunder florida law , e - mail addresses are public records . if you do not want your e - mail address released in response to a public records request , do not send electronic mail to this entity . instead , contact this office by phone or in writing .\ntomeguin de la tierra - galltio de canto - tiaris olivacea cantando , yellow faced grassquit singing .\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 297 , 682 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken"]}
{"id": 206, "summary": [{"text": "agonopterix rotundella is a moth of the depressariidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in most of europe , except the fennoscandia and most of the balkan peninsula .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 14 \u2013 17 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on wing from september to may , overwintering as an adult .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on daucus carota and laserpitium gallicum .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they initially mine the leaves of their host plant .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the mine has the form of a small , irregular full depth corridor .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "older larvae vacate their mines and continue feeding among spun leaves .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "larvae can be found from june to august .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "they are green with darker length lines and a brownish black head . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "agonopterix rotundella", "paragraphs": ["valter jacinto marked\nborboleta noturna / / moth ( agonopterix rotundella )\nas trusted on the\nagonopterix rotundella\npage .\ntwo new species of agonopterix ( depressariidae , lepidoptera ) from europe . - pubmed - ncbi\nwingspan c . 15 mm . a relatively uniform - looking agonopterix , with buffish forewings broken by two or three black dots and occasional scattered blackish scales . the specific name rotundella refers to the rather rounded termen of the forewing .\nthe species agonopterix tripunctaria sp . nov . and agonopterix medelichensis sp . nov . are described . a . tripunctaria , previously misidentified as agonopterix nodiflorella ( milli\u00e8re , 1866 ) , was recognized as specifically different by the distinctive male genitalia . 19 specimens have been examined , dna - barcoding yielded full 658 bp fragment of coi from two specimens and a 639 bp sequence from a third , confirming the impression of a rather isolated species . specimens from italy , slovenia , croatia and greece had been checked , among them one reared from ferulago campestris . a . medelichensis was misidentified as agonopterix rotundella ( douglas , 1846 ) in nhmv ; its male genitalia are erroneously depicted as a . rotundella in hannemann ( 1953 ) and ( 1995 ) . 20 specimens have been examined , from one a 555 bp fragment of coi was obtained , confirming that it is not closely related to a . rotundella . specimens from austria , italy , hungary , slovakia , croatia and greece have been checked , among them one reared from trinia glauca , which had been misidentified as a . hippomarathri . a report of a . rotundella from russia also belongs to this species .\nenter the name or part of a name you wish to search for . the asterisk character * can be used as wildcard . e . g . ' papilio * ' . keep in mind that the search is only based on the full taxon name .\nwe are still having problems with the search feature . unfortunately we cannot give a timeline when the advanced search will be fixed .\nthe id resolving service for stable taxon ids is currently under maintenance . meanwhile , please use the name search in order to find the taxon page .\nmuseum f\u00fcr naturkunde leibniz - institut f\u00fcr evolutions - und biodiversit\u00e4tsforschung invalidenstr . 43 10115 berlin germany e - mail : fauna - eu ( at ) mfn - berlin . de website : urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nnotes : nationally scarce ( na ) on downland and coastal cliffs in england and wales , from cornwall to kent , northwards along the western coast as far as cheshire ; the isle of man , yorkshire and northumberland ( mbgbi vol 4 part 1 ) ; uncommon in wales and scotland . very rare on the isle of wight , with just 13 records prior to the present century ; however , increased recording since 2010 has turned up single records in most years . not recorded from hampshire to date . wingspan 14 - 17 mm . larva mines leaves of wild carrot , subsequently living within a leaf - roll .\nthe adult lives from september to may , overwintering among low vegetation . it will come to light positioned near its habitat .\nthe larva feeds , june to august , on wild carrot ( daucus carota ) , from a thickly folded leaf sewn with white silk . it appears to prefer short plants in full sun on coastal downs and cliffs in england , wales , southern scotland and ireland . recorded inland in the past , it now appears to be confined to coasts .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 06 - 15 22 : 07 : 58 page render time : 0 . 3103s total w / procache : 0 . 3577s\nin modern times only recorded from friston and holywell although more widespread in the victorian era . the larvae feed on wild carrot ( pratt , 2011 ) . nationally , adults fly from september to may ( mbgbi ) .\na maximum of five species may be selected . the data for each species can be then viewed on the same page . tick the box below to select this species .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nfirst for dumfries & galloway was found at an unknown site by person unknown prior to 2001 ( mogbi data ) .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nmag . peter buchner , scheibenstra\u00dfe 335 , 2625 schwarzau am steinfeld , austria . ; email : buchner . 324 @ tele2 . at .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nfor the county , we have a total of 1 records from 1 sites . first recorded in 1986 .\nvc61 . south landing , flamborough , 13 . 5 . 1986 det . heb ( ase ) ."]}
{"id": 207, "summary": [{"text": "bucculatrix polymniae is a moth in the bucculatricidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from kentucky and ohio .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 6 \u2013 7 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are brown , darkest brown between the silvery streaks .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are grey .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults have been recorded on wing from march to april and from july to september in three generations per year .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on polymnia uvedalia .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they mine the leaves of their host plant .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "larvae of the first generation mine only in the lowest pair of leaves .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "larvae of the second generation can be found in august and the third generation feeds in october and overwinters in the pupal stage .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the mine is winding , with a fine central line of frass .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "pupation takes place in a white cocoon . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "bucculatrix polymniae", "paragraphs": ["bucculatrix polymniae is a moth in the bucculatricidae family . it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from kentucky and ohio . the wingspan is about 6\u20137 mm . the forewings are brown , darkest brown between the silvery streaks . the hindwings are grey . adults have been recorded on wing from march to april and from july to september . . .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\nas part our commitment to scholarly and academic excellence , all articles receive editorial review .\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from project gutenberg are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en"]}
{"id": 210, "summary": [{"text": "symmetrischema capsica , the pepper flowerbud moth , is a moth in the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by bradley and povoln\u00fd in 1965 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found mexico , the west indies , the caribbean ( trinidad and tobago ) and the south-eastern united states , where it has been recorded florida and texas .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is 3-3.5 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are ash-gray , mottled with dark gray and yellowish-orange and with two or three grayish-black longitudinal dashes .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are gray .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed in the flower buds of capsicum annuum and physalis species . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "symmetrischema capsica", "paragraphs": ["ecology and natural control of symmetrischema capsica bradley & povolny ) a pest of peppers ( capsicum spp . )\necology and natural control of symmetrischema capsica bradley & povolny ) a pest of peppers ( capsicum spp . )\necology and natural control of symmetrischema capsica bradley & povolny ) a pest of peppers ( capsicum spp . ) [ 1981 ]\necology and natural control of symmetrischema capsica bradley & povolny ) a pest of peppers ( capsicum spp . ) [ trinidad ]\nbiology and description of stages of symmetrischema capsica ( bradley and povolny ) [ a pest of peppers ( capsicum spp . ) ] .\nbiology and description of stages of symmetrischema capsica ( bradley and povolny ) [ a pest of peppers ( capsicum spp . ) ] .\nbiology and description of stages of symmetrischema capsica ( bradley and povolny ) [ a pest of peppers ( capsicum spp . ) ] . [ 1979 ]\nspecies symmetrischema capsicum - pepper flowerbud moth - hodges # 2032 - bugguide . net\ngnorimoschema capsica bradley & povoln\u00fd , 1965 ; bull . ent . res . 56 ( 1 ) : 58 ; tl : lesser antilles\nsymmetrischema inexpectatum povoln\u00fd , 1967 ; acta ent . mus . natn . pragae 37 : 60\nsymmetrischema capsicivorum povoln\u00fd , 1973 ; acta ent . bohemoslov . 70 : 209 ; tl : peru , lambayeque\nsymmetrischema kendallorum blanchard & knudson , 1982 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 84 ( 3 ) : 628 ; tl : texas , nueces co . , north padre island\nsymmetrischema striatellum ; powell & povoln\u00fd , 2001 , holarctic lepidoptera 8 ( suppl . 1 ) : 13 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 27\nsymmetrischema ( gnorimoschemini ) ; [ sangmi lee ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 27 ; landry & roque - albelo , 2010 , revue suisse zool . 117 ( 4 ) : 730 , 699 ( list )\nsymmetrischema escondidella landry , 2010 ; revue suisse zool . 117 ( 4 ) : 730 , 699 ( list ) ; tl : galapagos , santa cruz , est . cient . charles darwin , el barranco , s 00\u00b044 . 291 ' , w 90\u00b0 18 . 107 ' , 22m\nsymmetrischema capsicum can be separated from other species in this tool by the lack of a dark band on the posterior margin of the prothoracic shield , the trisetose l group on a9 , the rounded head , pale thoracic legs , the eastern united states distribution and the host being pepper or physalis . the legs of p . operculella are pigmented .\nsymmetrischema tangolias ; hodges & becker , 1990 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 92 ( 1 ) : 84 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ] ; powell & povoln\u00fd , 2001 , holarctic lepidoptera 8 ( suppl . 1 ) : 12 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 27\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nadults are about 3 . 0 - 3 . 5 mm in forewing length . they are ash gray , mottled with dark gray and yellowish - orange with two or three grayish - black longitudinal dashes from median to preapex . the labial palpus is upturned . the hindwing is gray without hair - pencils in males . the abdomen has hair - pencils arising laterally from near the base of the eighth sternum in males . the male genitalia have a hood - shaped uncus with small lateral stubs , sagittate gnathos , valva short and thin with spatulate apex , and phallus with a short lateral process without numerous fine spines at the tip . females have an ostium with strongly sclerotized sclerites , with the caudal margin very slightly undulate , a stout funnel - shaped antrum leading into a very short ductus bursae , the colliculum well developed , and signum absent .\nthe prothoracic shield is uniformly brown or black . the line joining setae l1 and s2 is tangent to or passing through stemma i . the lateral setae of abdominal segment 9 are in a nearly vertical line . the legs are pale .\nthis species is superficially similar to keiferia gudmanella ( walsingham ) , but it differs by the hindwing not having hair - pencils in males of s . capsicum , whereas males of k . gudmanella have hair - pencils arising from near base of costa of the hind wing . also it can be differentiated by the male genital characters : the uncus is hood - shaped with small lateral stubs in s . capsicum , whereas the uncus is sickle - shaped in k . gudmanella .\neggs are laid on the youngest shoots near flower buds . after eclosing , larvae enter the bud . pupation is in the ground or debris but outside the flower bud in pepper . pupation in physalis occurs inside the fruit .\nnative to the west indies . usa ( florida , texas , in states bordering the gulf of mexico ) , mexico , west indies , caribbean ( trinidad , tobago ) .\n= ; landry & roque - albelo , 2010 , revue suisse zool . 117 ( 4 ) : 730\nphthorimaea altisona meyrick , 1917 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1917 ( 1 ) : 46 ; tl : peru , huancayo , 10650ft\nardeola ( meyrick , 1931 ) ( phthorimaea ) ; j . linn . soc . lond . ( zool . ) 37 : 280\nphthorimaea atrifascis meyrick , 1917 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1917 ( 1 ) : 45 ; tl : peru , chosica , 2800ft\nborsaniella ( k\u00f6hler , 1939 ) ( gnorimoschema ) ; an . soc . cient . argent . 128 : 370\ngnorimoschema cestrivora clarke , 1950 ; j . wash . acad . sci . 40 : 288 , f . 4 - 4d ; tl : tucuman , argentina\nchelaria conifera meyrick , 1916 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 19 ) : 582 ; tl : ecuador , huigra , 4500ft\ngnorimoschema fercularia meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 16 ) : 492 ; tl : texas , fort davis ( 5000ft ) , alpine ( 5000 - 8000ft )\ninsertum povoln\u00fd , 1988 ; revta inst . cienc . nat ecol . 1 : 77\nlarva on physalis virginiana var . spathulaefolia blanchard & knudson , 1982 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 84 ( 3 ) : 630\ngnorimoschema lectulifera meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 16 ) : 493 ; tl : texas , fort davis and alpine , 5000ft\nphthorimaea loquax meyrick , 1917 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1917 ( 1 ) : 45 ; tl : peru , chosica , 2800ft\ndepressaria pallidochrella chambers , 1872 ; can . ent . 4 ( 7 ) : 126 ; tl : kentucky\neucatoptus striatella murtfeldt , 1900 ; can . ent . 32 ( 6 ) : 163\nlarva on ( berries ) solanum nigrum murtfeldt , 1900 , can . ent . 32 ( 6 ) : 164\nperu , new south wales , . . . , california . see [ maps ]\n= ; hodges & becker , 1990 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 92 ( 1 ) : 84 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ] ; powell & povoln\u00fd , 2001 , holarctic lepidoptera 8 ( suppl . 1 ) : 12 ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 27\n= ; hodges & becker , 1990 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 92 ( 1 ) : 84 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ] ; powell & povoln\u00fd , 2001 , holarctic lepidoptera 8 ( suppl . 1 ) : 12 ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 28\nlarva on ( for _ gnorimoschema tuberosella ) solanum tuberosum busck , 1931 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 33 ( 3 ) : 60 , solanum nigrum powell & povoln\u00fd , 2001 , holarctic lepidoptera 8 ( suppl . 1 ) : 13\ngelechia ( teleia ? ) ventralella zeller , 1877 ; horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 348 , pl . 4 , f . 116\nsangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nzeller , 1877 exotische microlepidopteren horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 3 - 493 , pl . 1 - 6\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nthis translation tool is powered by google . fao is not responsible for the accuracy of translations .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nlarvae feed in the flower buds of capsicum annuum l . ( cayenne pepper ) , physalis spp . ( groundcherry ) .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\ncopyright \u00a9 new earth online . content from external sites are the property of their respective owners where stated .\nconservation status where available has been identified by the iucn red list of threatened species ."]}
{"id": 219, "summary": [{"text": "parambassis ranga , commonly known as the indian glassy fish , indian glassy perch or indian x-ray fish , is a species of freshwater fish in the asiatic glassfish family ambassidae of order perciformes .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is native to an area of south asia from pakistan to malaysia .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the indian glassy fish has a striking transparent body revealing its bones and internal organs ; the male develops a dark edge to the dorsal fin .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the fish grows to a maximum overall length of 80 mm ( 3.1 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it occurs in standing water , especially in impoundments , and it breeds prolifically during the rainy season .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the species feeds on crustaceans , annelid worms , and other invertebrates .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it is , in turn , prey for larger fish , including snakeheads ( family channidae ) .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the indian glassy fish is not important as a food fish for humans , but is very common in the aquarium trade .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "formerly classified as chanda ranga , the species is also known as the indian glassfish , indian glass perch , and siamese glassfish . ", "topic": 27}], "title": "parambassis ranga", "paragraphs": ["glassfish under the acropora . pesci vetro sotto un acropora . ( parambassis ranga ) by omar flumignan\nour first encounter with dyed fish was back in the late 1980s . thousands of artificially coloured glassfish , parambassis ranga ( formerly chanda ranga ) were imported into the uk .\na . k . a . , parambassis ranga - - seen at the california academy of sciences in golden gate state park , san francisco .\ngiant glassfish ( parambassis gulliveri ) , darwin , northern territory , australia . by michael j barritt\nglass fish ( parambassis ranga ) at the sydney aquarium . this type of fish is often sold in pet stores with neon stripes painted on them . they are much more attractive in their natural state .\nconsidered valid as pseudambassis ranga ( hamilton , 1822 ) by eschmeyer and fricke ( 2012 ) .\nmacro of a tiny glass fish a . k . a . indian glassy fish ( scientific name : parambassis ranga ) . this one measured only a mere 1 . 2 centimeters from head to tail . the fish was laid on a glass bowl that ' s pretty old , hence all the scratches .\nambassis ranga : day , 1878 ; day , 1889 ; shaw and shebbeare , 1937 ; ahmad , n . 194 ; bhuiyan , 1964 .\nspecies name : parambassis ranga synonym : ambassis alta , ambassis barlovi , ambassis notatus , ambassis ranga , chanda ranga , pseudambassis notatus , pseudambassis ranga common names : glassfish , indian glassfish family : ambassidae order : perciformes class : actinopterygii max . size : 8 cm / 3 inches environment : fresh water origin : asia . pakistan , india , bangladesh , myanmar , thailand , and malaysia . temperament : peaceful , timid company : other small peaceful fish . water parameters : ph 7 . 0 - 8 . 2 , temperature 20 - 30\u00b0c / 68 - 86\u00b0 f aquarium setup : parambassis ranga ( indian glassfish ) can be kept in small aquariums . decorate aquarium with free areas to swim in the middle and heavily planted areas around the sides . use rocks to create caves and hiding places . fish are easier to keep healthy if a small amount of salt is added to the water . feeding : accepts most foods including flakes . breeding : easy . raising the temperature and conducting water changes may trigger spawning . eggs are laid on broad leaved plants . the fry can be hard to raise .\nthe indian glassfish ( parambassis ranga ) is a lovely and unusual fish , that has been in the hobby / industry for many years . unfortunately , most of the indian glassfish that you will see in local fish stores are the \u201cpainted\u201d or \u201cdyed\u201d ones , which should be avoided like the plague ; more on that later , i assure you .\nthe humphead glassfish tetra or the parambassis pulcinella come from the rivers and streams of myanmar and thailand . it apparently was not scientifically described till 2003 . i haven ' t found why it has a hump though .\nnonetheless , this fish does best when kept in a dark , thickly planted tank alongside neons , cardinals , and other small , blackwater fish . while this fish resembles parambassis lala , the males are distinguished by their elongated dorsal and anal fin rays .\nno fewer than three species are imported as common or indian glassfish , and in general , no attempt is made by the retailers to separate them . fortunately , all require much the same conditions to do well . the only difference between them is size \u0096 at 3cm / 11 / 3\nwhen fully grown , the smallest species , parambassis lala , is less than half the size of the largest , p . ranga . the third , p . siamensis , is somewhere between the two , averaging 5 - 6cm / 2\n- 21 / 4\n.\nthis fish is found in the clear streams , beels and canals . most abundant found during rainy season . it feeds on larvae and pupae of mosquito ( bhuiyan , 1964 ) . iqbal , et . al . ( 1995 - 96 ) also described about feeding habit of chanda ranga .\nglassfish can be susceptible to fungal infections , and keeping them in slightly brackish water can prevent this . however , adding salt is not essential , and in the case of species that are strictly confined to freshwater , such as g . filamentosa and parambassis pulcinella , keeping them in brackish water over the long term will probably do more harm than good .\nbesides being muddled up by importers and retailers , glassfish have laboured under a variety of scientific names . older books consign all of them to the genus chanda , and many people still refer to them as such . more recently they were moved to another genus , ambassis , and this name remains common in literature . finally , some of the glassfish were divided up between two new genera , pseudambassis and parambassis .\niqbal , s . m . , mortuza , m . g . , parween , s . and hossain , m . a . 1995 - 1996 . length - weight relationship and condition factor of chanda nama ( hamilton ) and chanda ranga ( hamilton ) . rajshahi university studies ( part - b ) . 23 - 24 : p . 238 - 242 .\nthe situation is still far from resolved , but the three species of interest here are all in parambassis . thankfully , recent aquarium books , magazines and web sites tend to describe these fish under this name . as if the fact that you could have any one of three difficult - to - tell - apart species of glassfish in your tank wasn ' t enough , things get even more complicated when it comes to settling on their ideal water conditions .\nomnivorous ( with preference for proteins ) : in the wild , this species feeds on crustaceans , earth worms and other invertebrates . in aquaria , p . ranga does best on a mix of live and frozen foods , including bloodworm , tubifex , brine shrimp , mysis shrimp and insect larvae such as glassworm . flake foods are also eagerly accepted , but shouldn ' t be fed exclusively . feed small amounts once or twice daily .\nit is not inconceivable that a combination of the brackish myth , the susceptibility of the painted fish to disease and the fact that this is quite a short - lived species have given rise to the commonly held belief that this fish is hard to keep . in reality , it is a pretty and peaceful species , well - suited to many community tanks . one final point to note is that there are several other species in the genus which are often imported as p . ranga , as they look very similar . the most common of these are p . lala and p . siamensis . lala can be distinguished by it\u2019s small ( 1 1 / 2\u2033 ) adult size and the presence of three vertical bars behind it\u2019s eye . ranga has a dark area behind the eye , whilst siamensis has no patterning here . p . siamensis is also a more elongate fish than the other 2 species .\npreviously known as chanda ranga , the common name of this species arose because it\u2019s translucent skin means that the bone structure and internal organs are clearly visible . for many years it has been artificially injected with luminous dyes on fish farms in asia and then sold as \u201cpainted\u201d glass fish or \u201cdisco fish\u201d . this abhorrent act involves injecting the fish repeatedly with a large needle and most fish do not survive more than a few months afterwards . whilst painted fish of this and other species are still available in many countries , protracted campaigning has seen them virtually removed from uk stores .\nthere are two fish commonly referred to in the trade as glassfish ; the chanda ranga , and the chanda baculis . of these two southeast asian fish , the one most commonly used for painting would be the latter , chanda baculis . and true , in and of itself , this is no spectacular fish . obviously it\u2019s got to be an easy catch for importers in the confines of its natural range , india , myanmar and thailand . i would speculate the initial fascination with this fish was its transparent body . you could see right inside , organs , bones , and everything . neat !\nbrackish or freshwater : because this fish is found in both slightly brackish and freshwater conditions , the fishkeeper may choose to replicate either habitat ( however more fish are found in freshwater distributions . ) it ' s recommended to ask the seller whether the fish has been kept in brackish or freshwater . in this way , if a change from brackish to freshwater needs to be made , it can be done gradually and without harm to the fish . clean , well - oxygenated water heated consistently to 68 \u2013 86\u00b0f ( 20\u00b0c - 30\u00b0c ) best replicates riverine and lacustrine habitats p . ranga is native to .\np . ranga is peaceful and shy and should not be combined with vigorous or aggressive species . the choice of tankmates is also governed by the type of water in which it is being kept . in freshwater conditions , it can be kept with barbs , livebearers , smaller rainbowfish , loaches and many other small tropicals . in the brackish aquarium , mollies , bumblebee gobies and chromides are all possibilities . the indian glass fish is a shoaling species and will not do well if kept singly or in pairs . aim for a group of at least 6 . males do become somewhat territorial when spawning but physical damage is rare .\nmany books suggest that in an aquarium , p . wolffii does not grow any bigger than the ' dwarf ' species like p . ranga . this appears to be the result of confusion over which species was actually imported , with p . siamensis often being sold as p . wolffii . recent imports of p . wolffii have brought them in at around 10cm / 4\n, and it is probably safe to say that if looked after well , these fish will continue to grow . in other words , this species shouldn ' t be bought on the hope that it will stay small if kept in a small aquarium .\nglassfish have a reputation for being delicate and tricky to keep \u0096 is this because brackish water is harmful to them ? most likely not since p . lala and p . ranga are found in brackish water , albeit rarely . of the three , only p . siamensis is entirely restricted to freshwater . adding too much salt may stress them over the long term , and these fish certainly don ' t need strongly brackish conditions like scats or monos . a specific gravity of 1 . 005 or less is probably safe , which means that these fish could be mixed with bumblebee gobies , pipefish and other fish that do well in slightly brackish conditions .\nbody length is comparatively short from other chanda species and body is deeply compressed . head is also short and compressed and the snout is sharp . lateral line is partly distinct and partly absent . lower jaw is longer than the upper jaw . caudal forked . in shape and colour this fish resembles chanda nama but it is rather deeper in the body and shorter in length than the chanda nama . the chief distinction is in teeth which are all small in chanda ranga . the general body colour transparent yellowihs white . outer edge of both dorsals , anal and caudal tinged black . in young specimens which are locally known as \u201clal chanda\u201d the body is brightly coloured with red and yellow . dorsals , anal and caudal scarlet is red . first dorsal and pelvic black tipped . the morphological description of this species is quite similar to rahman ( 2005 ) , bhuiyan ( 1964 ) , yadav ( 1997 ) and talwar and jhingran ( 2001 ) .\ngreek , para = near + greek , ambassis , anabasis = climbing up ( ref . 45335 )\nfreshwater ; brackish ; demersal ; ph range : 7 . 0 - 8 . 0 ; dh range : 9 - 19 ; potamodromous ( ref . 51243 ) . tropical ; 20\u00b0c - 30\u00b0c ( ref . 1672 ) ; 38\u00b0n - 1\u00b0n\nasia : pakistan , india , bangladesh , myanmar , thailand , malaysia ( ref . 4833 ) and nepal ( ref . 9496 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 8 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 1479 )\nfound in sluggish and standing water . a common species proliferating in impoundments . most abundant during the rainy season . feeds on invertebrates ( ref . 12693 ) , worms and crustaceans ( ref . 7020 ) . breeds everywhere during the rains . builds a nest and guards its young . rare in markets and often found in the aquarium trade ( ref . 12693 ) . aquarium keeping : in groups of 5 or more individuals ; minimum aquarium size 60 cm ( ref . 51539 ) .\nroberts , t . r . , 1994 . systematic revision of tropical asian freshwater glassperches ( ambassidae ) , with descriptions of three new species . nat . hist . bull . siam soc . 42 : 263 - 290 . ( ref . 10429 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01479 ( 0 . 00728 - 0 . 03004 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 86 - 3 . 22 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 \u00b10 . 39 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . fec = 500 . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 20 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : the species is common or uncommon fish throughout its range and no threat recognized recently , it is assessed as least concern .\nthe species has an enormous range , from pakistan ( north west frontier province , punjab , sinh and azad kashmir ; mirza 2002 ) , the nepalese terai , india ( most of india , including the ganges drainage , the western ghats rivers , and chilka lake in orissa ; ( talwar and jhingran 1991 ) to the ayeyarwaddy and sittaung drainages in myanmar . records of the species from the salween basin in myanmar and thailand ( where it has also been recorded from the pai river , mai hong song province , and songkhla in peninsular thailand ) probably refer to other species ( c . vidthayanon pers . comm . 2012 ) . introduced elsewhere ( e . g . , japan ) .\ncommon in suitable habitats throughout its range , less common in middle reaches and tributaries of the salween in thailand .\nthere is little fishery interest , though it is sometimes mixed with small foodfishes . this species is rarely found in the aquarium trade .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nindia , pakistan , nepal , bangaldesh , myanmar , thailand , malaysia , cambodia , japan .\na dark substrate will help to make this shy species less nervous and encourage it to display its best colours . provide cover by planting some areas of the tank densely , along with some floating vegetation . rocks and driftwood can also be used . the fish can live in both freshwater and slightly brackish conditions .\nmales have blue edging to the dorsal and anal fins and are a slightly deeper yellow on the body than females . these differences are more apparent when the fish are breeding , as the colours become more intense . the swim bladder ( which is clearly visible ) has a pointed back edge in males .\nnot too difficult , although the fry are difficult to raise . provide the fish with a heavily planted aquarium of around 30\u2033 x 12\u2033 x 12\u2033 . stock it with 6 - 8 adult fish . it is an advantage if the tank is situated so that it recieves direct sunlight in the morning . condition the group with a high quality , varied diet . during this period , maintain them at a temperature of around 70 - 75\u00b0f . a ph around neutral should be fine .\nwhen the fish are inbreeding condition ( look for an intensifying of the colours of the males , and round bellies on the females ) , perform a large water change with warmer water ( around 80 - 84\u00b0f ) in the evening . the fish should spawn the following morning . each pair may deposit up to 200 eggs , and these will be found amongst the vegetation , stuck to plant leaves and stems . the adult fish can be removed at this point .\nthe eggs are very sensitive to fungussing and the entire tank should be dosed with a weak solution of methylene blue , or similar , in order to prevent this . they will hatch in around 24 hours and will be seen hanging from the plants . they become free swimming in another 3 - 4 days . they are quite difficult to raise , as they do not actively seek food . instead they wait for morsels to drift by . we suggest feeding quite heavily with brine shrimp nauplii and creating a slow current in the tank . regular small water changes will be required in order to keep the water conditions perfect .\nnow to dispel a myth about glass fish . according to most resources ( including the majority of internet sites ) , this species requires the addition of salt to its water to keep it at it\u2019s best , often stating that it is susceptible to fungal infections when kept in freshwater . this is simply not true . whilst the fish can indeed be acclimatised to mildly brackish water ( and are found in brackish conditions in some of their habitats in nature ) , it is found most often in freshwater . additionally , many of these freshwater habitats actually contain quite soft , acidic water . when purchasing this fish , ask your dealer what conditions they are being kept in . if they are in freshwater , don\u2019t be tempted to add salt to the tank when you get home , as there is no need .\nthis page will give a completely detailed profile of the selected fish , from a to z . the profiled fish will be chosen randomly by badman , and will come from the complete genre of tropical fish . new profiles are added on a regular basis . if you would like to submit a profile for the site please contact me . don ' t forget to let us know you experiences with this fish by filling out the\ncomment form . this profile was written by bunny an active contributor to the site .\nthese beautiful and delicate fish have the distinction of being so transparent that their bones and internal organs can be easily seen . when kept in groups of 6 or more , their timid personalities are replaced by bold and curious natures . they can be easily kept in freshwater , and also have the option of being kept in very mild brackish environment .\nschool of 6 : 25 gallons ( 94 . g liters ) or larger .\n1 \u20131 . 010 ( can be kept in very mild brackish or freshwater . )\nasia : pakistan , india , bangladesh , myanmar , thailand , malaysia in rivers , lakes , standing water and reservoirs ; both brackish and freshwater .\nthis delicate fish is deep - bodied and laterally compressed . fins are long and rounded with the exception of two separate , pointed dorsal fins ; caudal fin is moderately long and forked . back is arched . mouth is small and dorsally - located . forehead is indented slightly . eyes are relatively large .\nbody and fins are primarily silvery transparent with a pale amber to green iridescence . spine and other bones and internal organs are clearly visible . dorsal and anal fins of males are edged in greyish - blue . when males are in spawning condition , their amber color intensifies and fins may display a coral color proximally .\nindian glassy fish have often been sold as having been\ndyed\nor\npainted ,\na process by which numerous injections of colored dye are made into the fish ' s transparent tissue to make them more brightly colored . the process is cruel , far from painless , opens the fish up to opportunistic diseases such as fin rot , ich and lymphocystis , and has been shown to shorten their lives considerably ( from 6 months instead of their natural lifespan of approximately 5 \u2013 8 years . )\nplease remember that the following comments are personal experiences and may or may not apply to your setup . use them as guide to help better understand your fish , like us all individuals will behave differently under different circumstances .\nfrom : carol h date : 10 / 01 / 2015 timid fish ? ha ! i bought six and placed them in a 75 gallon tank that also contained a male betta i was quarantining because he was a bully . the glass fish took very little time to school together and promptly start following the betta , even taking a nip at his tail ! i tried to distract them with frozen bloodworms , and they left off . however , the betta began avoiding them whenever possible , staying under the powerful filter current that he had such a hard time swimming under . it ' s true the glass fish swim away when i approach the tank , but they are bold and curious otherwise . and they are positively rapacious when i feed them . unfortunately , they seem picky . they don ' t care for brine shrimp or freeze dried tubifex , and never notice pellets whether they float or sink . they also won ' t scavenge the bottom , even if there ' s juicy bloodworms on it . even the betta isn ' t so picky !\nprivacy policy | contact badman ' s tropical fish copyright \u00a9 all rights reserved . reproduction of any portion of this website ' s content is forbidden without written permission .\noops ! it appears that you have disabled your javascript . in order for you to see this page as it is meant to appear , we ask that you please re - enable your javascript !\nd 1 . vi - vii , d 2 . i / 12 - 15 , p 1 . i / 9 - 12 , p 2 . i / 5 , a . iii / 14 - 15 .\nd 1 . vii / 8 , d 2 . i / 13 - 15 , p 1 . 11 , p 2 . 6 , a . iii / 14 - 16 ( shafi and quddus , 1982 ) .\nd . vii + i 11 - 14 , p 1 . i 11 - 12 , p 2 . i 5 , a . iii 13 - 15 ( talwar and jhingran , 2001 ) .\nbreeding time of this species is may - october . it breeds in confined water ( talwar and jhingran , 2001 ) .\nthis species is popular small indigenous species of fish of bangladesh . most of them are taken for drying in northern region of bangladesh . it is very much famous food in rural bangladesh . good source of nutrition but low price in the market . though it is small and bony people like it as food ( rahman , 2005 ) .\nahmad ( 1943 ) states that the fish breeds freely in confined water . in confinement , on an average it feeds on about 120 larvae and pupae of mosquito a day during the first few days but this number continues to decrease as time passes .\nahmad , n . 1943 . \u201cfauna of lahore . 5 fishes of lahore . \u201d bull . dep . zoo1 punjub univ . lahore . pp . 253 - 374 .\nbhuiyan , a . l . 1964 . fishes of dacca . asiatic soc . pakistan , publ . no . 13 , dacca . pp . 101 - 102 .\nday , f . 1878 . fishes of india . william dowson and sons . , london . p . 51 .\nday , f . 1889 . fishes . fauna . brit . india . william dowson and sons . , london . 1 - 2 : p . 484 .\nhamilton , f . 1822 . fishes of the ganges . archibald constable and company , edinburgh . pp . 113 - 114 .\nmenon , a . g . k . 1974 . fishes of the himalayan and indo - gangetic plains . inland fisheries society of india sp . publ . 1 . p . 136 .\nrahman , a . k . a . 2005 . freshwater fishes of bangladesh . the zoological society of bangladesh , dhaka . pp . 340 - 341 .\nshafi , m . and quddus , m . m . a . 1982 . bangladesher matshya sampad ( in bengali ) . dhaka . pp . 268 - 269 .\nshaw , g . e . and shebbeare , e . o . 1937 . fishes of northern bengal . j . royal asiat . soc . bengal science . p . 110 .\ntalwar , p . k . and jhingran , a . g . 2001 . inland fishes of india and adjacent countries . oxford and ibh publishing co . pvt . ltd . new delhi . 2 : pp . 805 - 806 .\nyadav , b . n . 1997 . fish and fisheries . daya publishing house , calcutta . p . 320 .\nex - student , department of fisheries , university of rajshahi , rajshahi - 6205 , bangladesh . more . . .\nthis site uses akismet to reduce spam . learn how your comment data is processed .\nlicense . you may use any content ( of this site ) only non - commercial purpose with proper citation under the same license at your own caution . | the contents and opinions expressed herein are those of the author ( s ) and do not necessarily reflect the views of bdfish . |\nnative fish : north - west glassfish ( ambassis sp . ) , finniss river catchment , northern territory\nmale has a pointed swimbladder , whereas females ' are rounded . males also have blue edging on the dorsal and anal fins and have slightly deeper yellow colouration on the body than females . these colours are at their most vibrant when the fish are spawning .\nin a freshwater set up . male indian glassfish can become territorial when spawning but physical damage is rare . males can be identified by their pointed swim bladder , whereas females have a more rounded one , a slight yellow tinge to their bodies and a blue edging on their dorsal and anal fins . the males ' colors are much more vibrant when they are in spawning condition .\nwill not live on flake alone , and live and frozen foods should be offered regularly .\nthis is not actually a brackish water species despite popular belief and does best in freshwater that is slightly acidic to slightly alkaline , ph 6 . 5 to 7 . 5 . should be provided areas of cover in the from of plants and other d\u00e9cor .\n. these fish traditionally have a transparent high - sided body with visible skeleton . if they are found with any hint of unnatural looking colour , they have been dyed and should not be purchased .\nthis page was last edited on 13 december 2017 , at 02 : 57 .\ncontent is available under creative commons attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license unless otherwise noted .\nfreshwater ; brackish ; demersal ; ph range : 7 . 0 - 8 . 0 ; dh range : 9 - 19 ; potamodromous ( ref . 51243 ) . tropical ; 20\u00b0c - 30\u00b0c ( ref . 1672 ) , preferred ? ; 38\u00b0n - 1\u00b0n\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nobviously named for its translucent flesh , the glassfish is an interesting , slightly odd addition to the right aquarium . glassfish are a schooling fish , and prefer to be kept in groups of five or more . they can be kept in smaller numbers , but they will be shy and will spend much of their time hiding . even when kept in larger numbers , they tend to not be aggressive , though they can get to be very bold and energetic .\nglassfish have a reputation for being difficult to keep alive , but this belief largely stems from the myth that they require brackish water to survive . in nature , these fish live in standing water such as bodies created from dammed mountain streams , not estuaries or other areas of brackish water . if they are kept in true freshwater , they seem to be fairly hardy fish , no more difficult to keep than many tetras .\ni am currently unaware of the difficulty of breeding glassfish in the aquarium . in the wild , they breed prolifically during the rainy season . if the tank ' s water temperature is raised to 85\u00b0 and the fish are fed a healthy diet of high protein food , they may be induced to breed in an aquarium .\none particular note about glassfish is that , due to their transparent flesh , they are often injected with fluorescent dye . the result is a glassfish with fluorescent dots floating in its body . most of these fish do not survive the dyeing process , and those that do are four times as likely to develop certain viral infections as undyed glassfish . for more information on this , check out the article on dyed fish .\nto induce spawning they need slightly brackish water conditions with elevated temperatures . they may place eggs on plant leaves . raising the fry is another story all together . considered difficult .\na few specimens could likely be kept in a species - only 10g . 20g and at least five glassfish is preferable .\nmany . would likely make excellent dither fish in groups of five or more . would also make good\ntarget\nfish for species that get aggressive during mating . glassfish are very fast swimmers , and also seem to be playful . obviously , avoid predators large enough to eat the glassfish . purely aggressive tank mates may not be the best choice , though glassfish may do well in a tank with semi - aggressive fish and plenty of hiding places .\npage includes symptoms , diagnosis and treatment info . only painted glassfish seem to be particularly susceptible to any particular disease . painting seems to encourage ich and fin rot immediately after paining , and makes the fish more likely to develop lymphocystis , a viral infection that causes white cysts on the body and fins , throughout its life .\nfrozen or fresh , mostly carnivorous diet . generally do not eat dry food , according to several sources . that being said , i have fed my glassfish nothing but flakes and freeze - dried bloodworms , and they are always eager to eat .\nsupposedly mid to bottom . this may be a result of lethargy induced by brackish water . in purely freshwater tanks , they range across the entire depth of the aquarium .\n\u00a9 urltoken - providing tropical fish tank and aquarium information for freshwater fish and saltwater fish keepers . sitemap | aquarium fish sitemap | aquarium fish dictionary | privacy policy | contact us\nif you do , and you would like to get more interaction with aquarium hobbyists ( i . e . aq members ) , aq can automatically read your rss feeds and post your new blog entries as aq threads . this should encourage more views and interaction . aq will of course preserve the links back to your blog .\nto aq by using categories / labels / tags , so no need to worry that non - aquarium related posts gets here .\nwe hope you have found aq to be useful and informative . membership on aq is free . if you have not already done so ,\nindefinite ban of shrimp sales on aq w . e . f . from monday 20th aug 2012\nwe have decided to disallow the sales , giving and trading of shrimp through aq from monday , 20th aug 2012 onwards until further notice .\nthis will appear once only per visit to aq . if aq is down , go to our facebook page for status updates .\nneale monks explains how to keep the many varieties of glassfish on sale at specialist aquatic shops . here is an extract of the complete article .\nglassfish are a regular fixture in tropical fish stores , though often not for the right reasons .\nfor many years they were almost always imported as ' disco fish ' , with fluorescent paints injected into their bodies to create brightly coloured fish that appealed to inexperienced fishkeepers .\nhowever pretty these disco fish might be , the process of dyeing is known to harm their health , as well as being cruel and unnecessary . in particular , dyed glassfish are significantly more likely to contract lymphocystis than undyed fish .\nsince 1996 , practical fishkeeping has encouraged retailers not to stock these dyed fish , and disco fish are now far less frequently offered for sale than before . a knock - on effect has been that glassfish have slipped off the radar as far as many fishkeepers are concerned , and finding them can sometimes be tricky .\nwhich is a pity as undyed glassfish have a subtle beauty that is easily overlooked when kept with brightly coloured , showier fish like fancy livebearers and neon tetras .\ntraditionally these were viewed as brackish fish , and most books suggest adding an amount of salt to their aquarium . however , collectors say these fish are found primarily in freshwater habitats , sometimes even soft and acidic ones .\nhowever , the ideal water conditions are much more like those of other south - east asian freshwater fish : a neutral ph , not too hard , a steady but not overbearing water current , and plenty of oxygen . although not fussy about water chemistry , glassfish can be awkward when it comes to feeding . they rarely , if ever , accept flake , and even some frozen foods are rejected .\nmy glassfish don ' t show any interest in frozen bloodworm or mosquito larvae , though they enjoy both as live food . frozen lobster eggs , by contrast , are readily accepted and make an inexpensive and convenient staple food . frozen lobster eggs are sometimes difficult to find \u0096 look for them in stores specialising in marine invertebrates since they ' re primarily used to feed corals and giant clams . each egg is tiny , but they ' re rich in fat and protein , and the glassfish seem to go wild for them , darting about , snapping up the eggs .\na newcomer to the hobby is the hump - head glassfish , p . pulcinella . only discovered in 2003 , it has already become something of a staple and while expensive , is relatively easy to obtain . a classic oddball , this fish not only retains the silvery transparency of the smaller glassfish species , but also sports a spectacular nuchal hump .\nmales have more strongly developed humps than females , and by any standards , these are extraordinary fish . p . pulcinella is a schooling fish , and given that this species grows to around 20cm / 8\n, it is obviously best suited to a large aquarium . not much is known about the health of this fish in captivity , but since the fish normally inhabits fast - flowing waters , good filtration and plenty of oxygen are probably crucial to long - term health .\nin terms of social behaviour , p . pulcinella is a bit problematic . as with many schooling fish , there is a definite pecking order within the group and if too few are kept , dominant specimens will harass weaker individuals . you probably want to keep at least six specimens , ideally ten or more . if you only have the option of keeping three or four specimens , the safest approach is to keep just a single male in the tank , on the assumption that the most aggressive fish within a school tend to be the males .\nanother giant glassfish is p . wolffii . like p . pulcinella , it is an inhabitant of fresh , not brackish , water and is very widely distributed in slow - moving rivers throughout south - east asia . an adult p . wolffii is an impressive fish despite not being particularly transparent , with sturdy , spiny fins and a rather menacing face !\nthese fish probably have most appeal to those with an interest in oddball predators , which these most definitely are . at an adult length of 20 / 8\ncm , it can easily swallow fish as large as platies and small barbs . on the other hand , it is completely peaceful with gouramis , catfish and barbs of comparable size .\nby far the most infrequently imported glassfish , though many would say also the most beautiful , is gymnochanda filamentosa .\nthis fish is an inhabitant of acidic , blackwater streams similar to those associated with discus , though it does tolerate hard or slightly brackish water surprisingly well .\nof all the glassfish , this species is generally considered the most delicate , and it is best left to advanced hobbyists .\nkeeping glassfish generally presents no problems once the fish are settled in and feeding properly . the main problem is that many fish may not have eaten much over the weeks that they have been in the fish shop .\nsince glassfish usually refuse flake or dried foods , if they have not been provided with live or frozen foods , they can quickly become weak and disease prone . ask the retailer what the glassfish have been fed on : if the answer is flake food , you can assume that the fish will be underweight and will need to be looked after especially well once you bring them home .\nthey are not particularly disease - prone , though whitespot can be a problem . some glassfish , most notably gymnochanda filamentosa , do not have any scales on their bodies and are in fact very sensitive to skin parasites . fortunately , glassfish respond well to commercial whitespot treatments .\nglassfish are generally not aggressive , and the smaller species prefer to be kept with quiet tankmates . persistently aggressive species like the larger cichlids , pufferfish and some of the sharks and loaches are bad choices , even for the larger species of glassfish . on the other hand , the small species get along very well with small community fish , and since they are fast - moving midwater fish , they manage to keep out of the way of territorial dwarf cichlids like microgeophagus ramirezi and pelvicachromis pulcher .\nin short , glassfish are ideal for the peaceful community , much misunderstood over the years , but beginning to be truly appreciated by those looking for something a bit different .\n* this thread is an item from practical fishkeeping magazine website ' s articles rss feed , brought to you by courtesy of aq ' s rss feed poster robot . *\npowered by vbulletin\u00ae version 4 . 2 . 5 copyright \u00a9 2018 vbulletin solutions inc . all rights reserved .\nindian glassfish are found in nature , as the first name of the fish suggests , in the region of india and other countries such as pakistan and malaysia . as the second name would indicate , the indian glassfish has a totally transparent body \u2013 \u201cclear as glass . \u201d all of the bones can be clearly seen , as can the organ sac and some individual organs . the fish has a slightly yellowish cast to the body overall , but it is the fact that the body is transparent that really defines the fish .\nindian glassfish have had a bad reputation as being a difficult fish to keep . most of this is because of a myth that has been powerful in the aquarium hobby / industry for many years that indian glassfish require salt in their water ; often it is erroneously stated that they require \u201cbrackish\u201d water . a small amount of salt is fine for almost any fish . keeping a freshwater fish in brackish water will , in fact , lead to their difficulty in keeping . please note : this topic of whether indian glassfish require salt in their water , or even brackish water , is somewhat controversial . i base my statement that they do not need salt on talking with suppliers in the far east , and on my own experience . i freely acknowledge that others take the \u201cthey need salt\u201d point of view .\nonce we have established that the indian glassfish does not need salt in its water , the other water parameters it requires are very simple to achieve , as they are wide ranges . ph should be in the range from 6 . 5 to 7 . 5 , with moderate hardness . they do well at a wide temperature range from 70 to 85 degrees f . indian glassfish do best in schools of five or more fish , and they like to have some thickets of plants where they can hide . they can be a bit nippy toward each other , but will usually not bother any other tank mates . indian glassfish are not , however , above eating any small tetra or other fish that can fit into their mouth .\nfor regular feeding they initially may require frozen , freeze - dried or live brine shrimp , mysis shrimp or bloodworms , but usually they will accommodate to dry prepared foods as they become accustomed to their surroundings . when you buy your indian glassfish it is a good idea to ask the local fish store what they are eating \u2013 and ask them to feed the indian glassfish before you purchase them .\nindian glassfish are typical egg scatterers , although they are not frequently bred by hobbyists . this may be because of the reputation that these fish have for being difficult to keep , let alone breed . or it may simply be because there are so many other interesting fish to devote your tanks , time and money to getting to breed . if you do successfully breed indian glassfish i am sure that your local fish store would be pleased to buy the babies from you when they are up to a reasonable size .\nunfortunately , the original form of indian glassfish ( how they are in nature ) are not what is seen most often in local fish stores . instead , what many stores offer are the \u201cpainted\u201d or \u201cdyed\u201d indian glassfish , which they sell under various names . these fish are the natural indian glassfish that has either been injected with dyes in small spots in a pattern on the fish , or where the entire fish has been dyed some horrific purple , green or other color .\nthis is a painted indian glass fish . these are injected with a dye and should be avoided . photo by quatermass / wikipedia\nif my bias is coming through on this issue \u2013 good ! i feel very strongly that painted and dyed fish have no place in our hobby / industry . many store owners who i know well , and respect , carry painted and dyed fish . their argument is \u201cif i don\u2019t carry painted glassfish my customers will go to joe\u2019s fish store to buy them . \u201d sorry , but i do not buy that line of reasoning . there are , in fact , many stores who will have nothing to do with painted or dyed fish , and their business are thriving . please \u2013 do not buy painted or dyed fish of any kind , including when fish with a tattooed heart on them are available around valentine\u2019s day . please note : painted and dyed fish must be distinguished from the glofish \u2013 the brightly colored zebra fish , tetras and other fish that are being produced by the industry . glofish are a genetic variation ( albeit with a gene for the colors introduced from a different animal ) , and i have no problem with them at all . in fact , glofish have probably brought more kids into the hobby than we can imagine , and that is a good thing , and i don\u2019t think they are any different from fancy goldfish or guppies , that bear little semblance to the wild fish , but were achieved by the breeders\u2019 art \u2013 not women in indonesia injecting fish with dyes .\nnatural indian glassfish are terrific fish , and they are not at all as difficult to keep as they have the reputation for . painted and dyed fish \u2013 be they indian glassfish , black tetras or any other fish \u2013 should not be encouraged . i will end by relating something that i saw a couple of years ago when i was wholesaling and delivering fish . i was dropping off the fish order for a good store ( one that has been in business many years , where the owners and staff all really know fish ) . a woman asked the owner if she could have two of the painted glassfish . the owner said of course , but he wanted her to know that the colors would fade in six weeks or so . the woman\u2019s response was \u201coh , i don\u2019t expect them to live that long ! \u201d\nperhaps this burned my disapproval for painted and dyed fish deeper into my mind \u2013 as it is surely not what we want to hear from anyone keeping tropical fish .\nkeep the natural indian glassfish \u2013 and please do not keep the painted or dyed ones . in fact , please tell any store that carries them that you do not approve of this practice .\nfor this , my inaugural piece for the conscientious aquarist , i have to go back to where it all started . i don\u2019t mean genesis . i don\u2019t mean the ice age . i don\u2019t even mean the frameless aquarium . and what do i mean by\nit ?\nit ,\nis what i believe is the causal effect that should have opened our eyes to the fact that we need to start looking into the role within the hobby we have to take as hobbyists . in this case , i believe , is the appearance / emergence of \u201cpainted\u201d glassfish . now i hear you hollering out , \u201coh , come on glass , ( no pun intended , or maybe there is ) there have been worse problems to deal with before that . what about releasing oscars and piranha into floridian waters ? what about cyaniding philippine coral reefs ? what about this , what about that ? \u201d they are all legitimate concerns . ( especially the \u201cwhat about thats\u201d )\nwhat i\u2019m talking about here is when the envelope was pushed way too far . once we started accepting dyed fish into our hobby , we\u2019d done just went too dang far . i can\u2019t help but imagine some seedy fish exporter looking over his bottom line , exclaiming , \u201cwe\u2019re just not selling enough glassfish . . . we must sell more glassfish ! \u201d in an effort to make 3 more cents a day , some cerebral little boy meekly shimmies over to the fishlord and mumbles , \u201cwe should paint them , sir . \u201d\nthe boy , a little stronger in voice articulates , \u201cwe should paint them sir . . . bright colors , then people would buy them\u201d .\nthe fishlord twirls his feathery beard , and shouts , \u201ceveryone , stop what you\u2019re doing ! \u201d the little boy smiles , sensing a full loaf of bread for dinner tonight .\nthe fishlord kicks him in the rear , sends him away boisterously glowering , \u201cmind your manners , you little impish slug . how dare you make my idea your own ! now git . you\u2019re fired\u201d\nyes , i have a way of letting my imagination run away with me , but you do get a glimpse of the picture here , don\u2019t you ? so let\u2019s talk about the \u201cglassfish\u201d before the world of fluorescence brandished it\u2019s nasty brush on the scaly canvas .\ni must admit when i re - entered the hobby , post - childhood around 1986 , my eyes fell upon a tank labeled \u201cpainted glassfish\u201d . they were transparent with a spinal stripe , colored either pink , or yellow , or orange , or blue , or purple , or green . wow ! they were pretty neat . i wondered why i never saw them as a kid . i woulda bought a bunch of them . i asked the store employee if they were real . it was a dumb question and i got a dumber answer . \u201cuh , yeah they\u2019re real . all the fish here are real . \u201d"]}
{"id": 221, "summary": [{"text": "orbicella is a genus of stony corals in the merulinidae family .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the orbicella species complex comprises three sister species , namely orbicella faveolata , orbicella annularis and orbicella franksi , all of which are shallow-water , zooxanthellate species and are native to the tropical western atlantic ocean , the caribbean sea and the gulf of mexico .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "these corals are ubiquitous in the caribbean .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "their similar colony morphologies misled scientists to historically lump them into a single species , montastraea annularis , which included three morphotypes \u201c bumpy \u201d , \u201c columnar \u201d and \u201c massive \u201d .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "these growth forms were believed to arise as a response to abiotic factors ( e.g. , depth , light availability ) .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this taxonomic classification was challenged by further ecological , reproductive , genetic , and morphologic evidence , which led to the re-description of three separate species , montastraea faveolata ( massive ) , m. annularis ( columnar ) and m. franksi ( bumpy ) .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "a taxonomic revision published in 2012 established that the \u201c montastraea annularis species complex \u201d formed a separate clade now in the genus orbicella with three species names ( o. faveolata , o. annularis , o. franksi ) .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "o. annularis and o. faveolata are commonly called the boulder star coral and the mountainous star coral , respectively . ", "topic": 16}], "title": "orbicella", "paragraphs": ["variety orbicella annularis var . guineensis gravier , 1909 accepted as orbicella annularis ( ellis & solander , 1786 ) ( synonym )\nlong - term changes in symbiodinium communities in orbicella annularis in st . john , us virgin islands\ntable 1 . sequence overview , statistics , and gene expression in healthy and wpd affected samples of orbicella faveolata .\nsupplementary data 7 . differentially abundant bacterial gene functions ( fdr < 0 . 1 ) between healthy and diseased orbicella samples .\nuntil recently orbicella was classified as part of the montastrea family . you can still find this coral listed as montastrea faveolata , however , the current description is orbicella . you may still find this coral listed as montastrea especially in older printed coral guides .\nthere are three species of orbicella . o . faveolata , o . annularis , and o . franksi . don\u2019t worry if you can\u2019t tell the three apart just yet . if this is your first time trying to identify orbicella , instead focus on identifying the polyps and corallites . once you\u2019re a master at spotting orbicella , start trying to notice the difference between the three species .\nthis orbicella colony lives inside a shallow valley around 42 feet ( 14m ) deep , further down the valley you can find smaller colonies . the\nwhat made you want to look up orbicella ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\norbicella is an important reef - building species . once the coral dies , the skeleton becomes live rock where other species can attach . throughout most of the caribbean , colonies can be a few inches across to several feet wide and high , but here in tela , orbicella colonies have grown to epic proportion .\norbicella faveolata is an important reef - building coral that forms large mountainous colonies . juvenile corals are rather mundane , while adult colonies can grow to an impressive size .\ns2 fig . photochemical efficiency , measured as yield ( f v / f m ) of orbicella faveolata fragments infected with black band disease over the 16 day experiment .\nsupplementary data 2 . orbicella faveolata holobiont polya + transcriptome assembly ( 67 , 593 genes , min : 200 bp , max : 5212 bp , n50 : 656 bp ) .\nfigure 1 . overview of transcriptional response and affected biological processes in the orbicella faveolata coral holobiont in white plague disease . the number of differentially expressed eukaryotic and differentially abundant bacterial genes are shown for each holobiont compartment .\nsupplementary data 4 . eukaryotic differentially expressed genes ( fdr < 0 . 1 ) between healthy and diseased orbicella faveolata samples . fungal retroelement - and antioxidant - associated genes in the \u201cother\u201d compartment are indicated in bold .\norbicella grows by encrusting . a new colony can start from a single polyp which grows outward from the base . you can see a slightly lighter color on the growing edge of the colony where new polyps are emerging .\nhere the orbicella coral has found the ideal habitat . it is protected from storms , and has room to grow slowly without much competition . with each new polyp the colony grows stronger with no signs of slowing down .\nat this point , tiny orbicella colonies can be transplanted back to the reef . as they grow their skeletons add a considerable mass to the reef , and over time they can help stabilize loose rocks or decaying reef structure .\nsupplementary data 9 . dgge - pcr gel image of symbiodinium its2 profiles for healthy ( hh ) and wpd - affected ( dd ) orbicella faveolata coral specimens . diagnostic bands are marked with the symbiodinium clade type and indicate the algal symbionts for these samples .\nthe common name for this coral is mountainous star coral because of it\u2019s size and that it creates characteristic peaks and ridges like a mountain . polyps are small usually 5mm across . when polyps are retracted orbicella corallites have tiny grooves giving it a star like appearance .\nthis phenomenon of big old orbicella colonies is not unique to tela as other large colonies of star coral have been document in the caribbean . the difference with this colony is that it\u2019s still intact and has not sustained any visible sign of bleaching or storm damage .\ncitation : muller em , leporacci nm , macartney kj , shea ag , crane re , hall er , et al . ( 2017 ) low ph reduces the virulence of black band disease on orbicella faveolata . plos one 12 ( 6 ) : e0178869 . urltoken\norbicella faveolata ( mountainous star coral ) is a common coral found in the caribbean . for the most part , colonies are a rather drab brown , green or gray color . you won\u2019t find this coral in any psychedelic colors and it\u2019s easy to overlook this unassuming species .\nsupplementary data 3 . orbicella faveolata holobiont polya + transcriptome annotation ( 67 , 593 genes ) . blastx matches ( < 1e \u22125 ) in swissprot ( 14 , 887 ) and trembl ( additional 5751 ) databases annotated 20 , 638 genes ( 30 . 5 % ) .\norbicella grows into thick hardy colonies which make the ideal candidate for fragmentation and coral restoration . small 15 - 20mm fragments can be cut from adult colonies using a diamond band saw . these fragments can be glued onto ceramic frag plugs and grown in saltwater until they double or triple in size .\norbicella is coral which could be overlooked . from a few meters away you might think this coral is just a rock , or simply consider it as part of the reef . divers are often more focused on looking for fish , turtles , rays , and eels than trying to describe coral .\nsettlement of orbicella faveolata planulae ( mean % settled per chamber \u00b1 1 s . e . ) in cultures deployed at each experimental reef site ( n = 6 , pooled results from two trials ) . letters above bars indicate significant differences ( p < 0 . 01 ) between values based on tukey\u2019s hsd test .\n( of orbicella annularis var . guineensis gravier , 1909 ) gravier , c . ( 1909 ) . madr\u00e9poraires des \u00eeles san thom\u00e9 et du prince ( golfe de guin\u00e9e ) . annales de l ' institut oc\u00e9anographique de monaco . 1 ( 2 ) , 1 - 28 , pls . 1 - 9 . [ details ]\nthe giant orbicella coral in tela is over 23 feet ( 7m ) wide and 13 feet ( 4m ) high . the only explanation for this imposing colony is that it has been living here for a very long time . one scientist who visited tela , dr . judith lang , estimated this colony was here before columbus arrived in honduras .\nthe coral reef in tela honduras is dominated by never ending ridges of thin agaricia coral , and to eke out a living , any competing species have to adopt a strength in numbers approach for survival . a lone colony of orbicella would quickly loose its position on the reef to the relatively quick growing agaricia , so sticking together to form a giant colony is the way to go .\nthis large coral is located inside a shallow valley between two coral ridges between the mushroom and aldrid dive site . the top of the coral is at 32 feet ( 10m ) and the bottom of the coral around 46 feet ( 14m ) deep . the coral is protected inside this channel and as you swim through the area you can find smaller colonies of orbicella around half the size living in the same valley .\naurantimonas coralicida and thalassomonas loyana were independently confirmed as wpd pathogens in different coral species and geographic locations ( denner et al . , 2003 ; thompson et al . , 2006 ) . however , recent surveys of colonies showing wpd signs failed to identify either bacterial pathogen ( pantos et al . , 2003 ; barash et al . , 2005 ; sunagawa et al . , 2009 ; c\u00e1rdenas et al . , 2012 ; roder et al . , 2014a ) . roder et al . ( 2014a ) recently described similar bacterial profiles in two coral genera ( porites and pavona ) that exhibited wpd - like signs in thailand . subsequent comparisons to caribbean samples ( orbicella faveolata and orbicella franksi ) suggest a conserved disease microbiome across oceans ( roder et al . , 2014b ) , supporting a view that bacterial community changes are likely a result of opportunistic bacteria induced by environmental stressors that compromise coral immunity ( lesser , 2007 ) . in addition to ongoing studies targeting bacterial community changes during wpd progression ( sunagawa et al . , 2009 ; c\u00e1rdenas et al . , 2012 ; roder et al . , 2014a , b ) , a recent metagenomic survey of orbicella annularis found distinct viral communities associated with healthy , wpd - affected , and bleached samples ( soffer et al . , 2014 ) . but causation still remains elusive and few studies have addressed coral holobiont response to disease . using a combination of 16s and cdna microarrays , closek et al . ( 2014 ) found an increase in microbial diversity in yellow band disease ( ybd ) - infected colonies and reduced expression of defense - and metabolism - related genes in the coral host orbicella faveolata [ formerly monstastraea faveolata ( budd et al . , 2012 ) ] .\nclosek , c . j . , sunagawa , s . , desalvo , m . k . , piceno , y . m . , desantis , t . z . , brodie , e . l . , et al . ( 2014 ) . coral transcriptome and bacterial community profiles reveal distinct yellow band disease states in orbicella faveolata . isme j . 8 , 2411\u20132422 . doi : 10 . 1038 / ismej . 2014 . 85\nthe large blue rectangles represent the 27 c raceway treatments and the large red rectangles represent the 30c raceway treatments . the small black rectangles represent the 5 gallon glass aquaria that each contain a single colony of orbicella faveolata ( green circles ) infected with black band ( black circles ) . the color within each aquaria represents the different ph treatmtents ; green represents 8 . 1 ph and the peach represents 7 . 7 ph . the distribution of ph treatments were randomly distributed among tanks . each aquaria also contained a heater to maintain temperature within the tank and a powerhead to maintain water flow .\nin addition to increasing water temperatures , there is a predicted decrease in oceanic ph under future climate change scenarios [ 20 ] . the impact of decreasing ph on black band disease dynamics is unknown . the objectives of the present study were to i ) quantify the effects of temperature and ph on the virulence of black band disease infecting orbicella faveolata , ii ) determine whether different temperature and ph conditions changed the photochemical efficiency of the coral - host symbiosis , and iii ) characterize the change in bacterial communities within the coral host as well as the black band bacterial consortium under different ph and temperature conditions .\nblack band is a deadly coral disease found worldwide , which may become more virulent as oceanic conditions continue to change . to determine the effects of climate change and ocean acidification on black band disease virulence , orbicella faveolata corals with black band were exposed to different temperature and ph conditions . results showed a significant decrease in disease progression under low ph ( 7 . 7 ) conditions . low ph also altered the relative abundance of the bacterial community of the black band disease consortium . here , there was a significant decrease in roseofilum , the cyanobacterium that typically dominates the black band mat . these results indicate that as oceanic ph decreases so may the virulence of a worldwide coral disease .\nthe present investigation expands the bioinformatic resources available for the study of orbicella faveolata and its physiological responses to stress and disease . the reference transcriptome generated here was annotated with gene ontologies , kegg orthologies , and kegg pathways . immune cell development , migration , and intracellular microbial sensing pathways were emphasized to highlight aspects of the coral immune system that remain poorly characterized to date . phylogenetic and domain architecture analyses revealed several new members of the wnt and dicer - like protein families , and pathway analysis revealed significant coverage of gene sets for notch , nod - like receptor , and rig - like receptor pathways . together , the results of this work provide new bioinformatic data for o . faveolata and an in - depth analysis of evolutionarily conserved aspects of the coral innate immune system .\nglowing corals : like a forest canopy , the branched corals can scatter and absorb light at multiple levels . in this study , branching corals scattered light over such a large area that the researchers could not measure it with their detector . coral colonies that form flat structures ( not shown ) , such as echinopora lamellosa , also have high scattering . like solar panels , flat structures allow coral to maximize absorption of light coming from above ; they also permit scattering of light among the colony\u2019s polyps . this inter - polyp light sharing also occurs in coral species that form massive colonies , which have moderate scattering . the phaceloid corals have low scattering ; their thick , upright walls prevent them from sharing light among polyps . ( branched coral : pocillopora damicornis ; massive coral : orbicella faveolata ; phaceloid coral : eusmilia fastigiata )\nmap depicting proportions of symbiodinium b ( blue colours ) , c ( yellow ) and d ( black ) types , and combinations ( stripes ) hosted by orbicella annularis populations at 33 sites ( identified with letters ; see table 1 for site information ) across the caribbean and the bahamas . only dominant types ( or combinations of types ) are represented ; unk = unknown type . pie chart size reflects colony sample size ( minimum 11 , maximum 24 , total n = 632 ) , numbers in parentheses indicate proportion of total colonies that each type was dominant in . more blue ( clade b ) is apparent in the northwest , with more mixed assemblages dominated by clade c ( yellow ) in the southeast . inset : pie chart representing clade types found hosted by o . annularis for the entire wider caribbean area .\n2014 levitan , d . r . , w . boudreau , j . jara and n . knowlton . long - term reproductive consequences of bleaching stress on the caribbean corals of the orbicella ( formerly montastraea ) annularis species complex . marine ecology progress series 515 : 1 - 10 [ pdf ] . 2012 fogarty , n . d . , m . lowenberg , m . n . ojima , n . knowlton and d . r . levitan . asymmetric conspecific sperm precedence in relation to spawning times in the montastraea annularis species complex ( cnidaria : scleractinia ) . journal of evolutionary biology 25 : 2481 - 2488 [ pdf ] . 2012 fogarty , n . d . ; s . v . vollmer , and d . r . levitan . weak prezygotic isolating mechanisms in threatened caribbean acropora corals . plos one 7 : e30486 [ pdf ] . 2011 levitan , d . r . , n . d . fogarty , j . jara , k . e . lotterhos , and n . knowlton . genetic , spatial , and temporal components of precise spawning synchrony in reef building corals of the montastraea annularis species complex . evolution 65 :\nthe physiological performance of a reef - building coral is a combined outcome of both the coral host and its algal endosymbionts , symbiodinium . while orbicella annularis \u2014a dominant reef - building coral in the wider caribbean\u2014is known to be a flexible host in terms of the diversity of symbiodinium types it can associate with , it is uncertain how this diversity varies across the caribbean , and whether spatial variability in the symbiont community is related to either o . annularis genotype or environment . here , we target the symbiodinium - its2 gene to characterize and map dominant symbiodinium hosted by o . annularis at an unprecedented spatial scale . we reveal northwest\u2013southeast partitioning across the caribbean , both in terms of the dominant symbiont taxa hosted and in assemblage diversity . multivariate regression analyses incorporating a suite of environmental and genetic factors reveal that observed spatial patterns are predominantly explained by chronic thermal stress ( summer temperatures ) and are unrelated to host genotype . furthermore , we were able to associate the presence of specific symbiodinium types with local environmental drivers ( for example , symbiodinium c7 with areas experiencing cooler summers , b1j with nutrient loading and b17 with turbidity ) , associations that have not previously been described .\ncoral populations , and the productive reef ecosystems they support , rely on successful recruitment of reef - building species , beginning with settlement of dispersing larvae into habitat favourable to survival . many substrate cues have been identified as contributors to coral larval habitat selection ; however , the potential for ambient acoustic cues to influence coral settlement responses is unknown . using in situ settlement chambers that excluded other habitat cues , larval settlement of a dominant caribbean reef - building coral , orbicella faveolata , was compared in response to three local soundscapes , with differing acoustic and habitat properties . differences between reef sites in the number of larvae settled in chambers isolating acoustic cues corresponded to differences in sound levels and reef characteristics , with sounds at the loudest reef generating significantly higher settlement during trials compared to the quietest site ( a 29 . 5 % increase ) . these results suggest that soundscapes could be an important influence on coral settlement patterns and that acoustic cues associated with reef habitat may be related to larval settlement . this study reports an effect of soundscape variation on larval settlement for a key coral species , and adds to the growing evidence that soundscapes affect marine ecosystems by influencing early life history processes of foundational species .\nthe present study was conducted in the outdoor wetlab facilities at mote tropical research laboratory ( trl ) in summerland key , florida from july 10 th 2013 to july 26 th 2013 , for a total of 16 days . prior to the onset of the experiment , thirty two fragments of orbicella faveolata , each approximately 10 x 10 cm in size , were collected from the florida keys national marine sanctuary coral rescue nursery ( permit : fknms - 2013 - 095 ) , where corals are held and maintained for scientific purposes . corals were transported to trl immediately after collection , individually placed within five gallon tanks , and allowed to acclimate for three days . to conduct artificial inoculations of black band disease , samples of active black band mats were collected from naturally existing infections on o . faveolata at wonderland reef ( 24 . 54794 n 81 . 45700 w ) using individual sterile plastic blunt - tip 60 ml syringes while on scuba . the black band disease samples were stored in a cooler maintained at ambient seawater temperature and transported back to the laboratory for immediate inoculations . coral fragments were wounded by scraping away tissue from a single polyp of each o . faveolata colony with a sterile razor blade . each coral was infected by placing ~ 0 . 03 grams of the black - band mat directly onto the wound site .\nactualmente las tres especies aqu\u00ed mencionadas montastrea annularis , franski , y faveolata son asignadas com\u00fanmente al g\u00e9nero orbicella . las colonias son masivas y grandes , la superficie usualmente sirve de soporte a peque\u00f1os mont\u00edculos y protuberancias . los c\u00e1lices son peque\u00f1os ( alrededor de 5 mm de di\u00e1metro ) y est\u00e1n regularmente separados cubriendo toda la superficie de la colonia . normalmente presenta una coloraci\u00f3n caf\u00e9 p\u00e1lida , pero puede ser brillante , verde fluorescente sobre caf\u00e9 oscuro . las caracter\u00edsticas que distinguen a las 3 especies de montrastraea con peque\u00f1os c\u00e1lices son : m . annularis - colonias densamente agrupadas , con n\u00f3dulos o columnas separados y superficies lisas e irregulares . normalmente los bordes no presentan crecimiento . m . franksi \u2013 la superficie presenta protuberancias dispersas , las cuales consisten de p\u00f3lipos prominentes e irregulares \u2013 el color moteado se asocia a las protuberancias . la forma general es de l\u00e1minas y mont\u00edculos abultados e irregulares . los bordes de crecimiento presentan tanto c\u00e1lices grandes como peque\u00f1os . m . faveolata \u2013 colonias masivas con proyecciones orientadas hacia el exterior , las cuales normalmente se observan dispuestas en l\u00edneas que corren a lo largo de los lados de las colonias pero sin n\u00f3dulos o columnas separados . la pared de los coralitos es vertical en comparaci\u00f3n con la forma de \u2018volc\u00e1n\u2019 de las otras dos especies . los c\u00e1lices en los bordes de crecimiento se encuentran separados de manera regular .\nclimate change - driven coral disease outbreaks have led to widespread declines in coral populations . early work on coral genomics established that corals have a complex innate immune system , and whole - transcriptome gene expression studies have revealed mechanisms by which the coral immune system responds to stress and disease . the present investigation expands bioinformatic data available to study coral molecular physiology through the assembly and annotation of a reference transcriptome of the caribbean reef - building coral , orbicella faveolata . samples were collected during a warm water thermal anomaly , coral bleaching event and caribbean yellow band disease outbreak in 2010 in puerto rico . multiplex sequencing of rna on the illumina gaiix platform and de novo transcriptome assembly by trinity produced 70 , 745 , 177 raw short - sequence reads and 32 , 463 o . faveolata transcripts , respectively . the reference transcriptome was annotated with gene ontologies , mapped to kegg pathways , and a predicted proteome of 20 , 488 sequences was generated . protein families and signaling pathways that are essential in the regulation of innate immunity across phyla were investigated in - depth . results were used to develop models of evolutionarily conserved wnt , notch , rig - like receptor , nod - like receptor , and dicer signaling . o . faveolata is a coral species that has been studied widely under climate - driven stress and disease , and the present investigation provides new data on the genes that putatively regulate its immune system .\nwhite plague disease ( wpd ) is implicated in coral reef decline in the caribbean and is characterized by microbial community shifts in coral mucus and tissue . studies thus far have focused on assessing microbial communities or the identification of specific pathogens , yet few have addressed holobiont response across metaorganism compartments in coral disease . here , we report on the first metatranscriptomic assessment of the coral host , algal symbiont , and microbial compartment in order to survey holobiont structure and function in healthy and diseased samples from orbicella faveolata collected at reef sites off puerto rico . our data indicate holobiont - wide as well as compartment - specific responses to wpd . gene expression changes in the diseased coral host involved proteins playing a role in innate immunity , cytoskeletal integrity , cell adhesion , oxidative stress , chemical defense , and retroelements . in contrast , the algal symbiont showed comparatively few expression changes , but of large magnitude , of genes related to stress , photosynthesis , and metal transport . concordant with the coral host response , the bacterial compartment showed increased abundance of heat shock proteins , genes related to oxidative stress , dna repair , and potential retroelement activity . importantly , analysis of the expressed bacterial gene functions establishes the participation of multiple bacterial families in wpd pathogenesis and also suggests a possible involvement of viruses and / or phages in structuring the bacterial assemblage . in this study , we implement an experimental approach to partition the coral holobiont and resolve compartment - and taxa - specific responses in order to understand metaorganism function in coral disease .\nthere was no significant difference in the bacterial community of the coral tissue / mucus among the different treatments suggesting that the change in black band virulence under low ph conditions cannot be explained by the bacterial community of the host . one particular treatment , the high temperature and control ph treatment , however , did separate out distinctly from the other three treatments within the nmds biplot . an examination of the major bacterial classes show decreased levels of rhodobacters under the high temperature and control ph treatment with a concomitant increase in clostridiales and flavobacteria . rhodobacters have been associated with tissue - loss diseases within corals [ 34 ] . for example , an increase in rhodobacter bacteria was detected within samples of the coral disease white plague on orbicella faveolata , but was also found within healthy corals indicating a potential increase of opportunistic commensals under certain conditions [ 35 ] . high levels of alphaproteobacteria were also detected within two different coral species showing signs of white plague , diploria strigosa and siderastrea siderea , which was primarily the result of increased abundances of rhodobacters [ 36 ] . alternatively , some genera of rhodobacters , such as roseobacter , have been identified as beneficial bacteria , important for the settlement and general health of the coral host [ 37 ] . however , within the present study roseobacter was found in low abundances within the corals sampled regardless of the treatment condition . within the present study , a reduction of rhodobacters only under high temperature and control ph conditions may suggest sensitivity to temperature , which is then mitigated under low ph conditions .\nin conjunction with transcriptomic alterations implicated in antiviral defense and phage interaction in wpd , we also observed expression of genes associated with retroelement ( i . e . , retrotransposons and retrons ) activity across multiple compartments . although previously detected in heat stressed corals and healthy / wpd metagenomes ( desalvo et al . , 2008 ; garcia et al . , 2013 ) , we resolved differential expression of genes involved in retroelement regulation to associations with coral , fungal , and bacterial members of the orbicella holobiont . tdrd9 is an atpase / dexh - type helicase involved in germline defense in hydra and higher eukaryotes ( shoji et al . , 2009 ; lim et al . , 2014 ) and its downregulation has been shown to increase line - 1 retrotransposon expression and demethylation , leading to male sterility ( shoji et al . , 2009 ) . our data corroborate these findings , where repression of a tdrd9 homolog in the coral compartment was noted along with meiotic arrest and spermatogenic impairment signatures in response to wpd ( supplementary data 4 ) suggesting deleterious impacts on coral development and reproductive capacity of diseased coral colonies . additionally , increased line - 1 expression induces innate antiviral responses in several human autoimmune diseases ( madigan et al . , 2012 ; volkman and stetson , 2014 ) . given the upregulation of ddx60 in diseased corals , we cannot rule out that wpd may inadvertently promote coral immune detection of these endogenous retroelements . another possibility is that ddx60 is sensing complementary viral dna , which is produced by some rna viruses that harness retrotransposon reverse transcriptase during line - 1 expression in infected human cells ( shimizu et al . , 2014 ) , but further inquiry is necessary to confirm this mechanism in an invertebrate system .\ndana , j . d . ( 1846 - 1849 ) . zoophytes . united states exploring expedition during the years 1838 - 1842 . lea and blanchard , philadelphia . 7 : 1 - 740 , 61 pls . ( 1846 : 1 - 120 , 709 - 720 ; 1848 : 121 - 708 , 721 - 740 ; 1849 : atlas pls . 1 - 61 ) . [ details ]\nhoeksema , b . w . ; cairns , s . ( 2018 ) . world list of scleractinia .\nbudd , a . f . , fukami , h . , smith , n . d . & knowlton , n . 2012 . taxonomic classification of the reef coral family mussidae ( cnidaria : anthozoa : scleractinia . zoological journal of the linnean society 166 : 465\u2013529 . [ details ]\nhuang d , benzoni f , fukami h , knowlton n , smith nd , budd af ( 2014 ) taxonomic classification of the reef coral families merulinidae , montastraeidae , and diploastraeidae ( cnidaria : anthozoa : scleractinia ) . zoological journal of the linnean society 171 : 277\u2013355 . [ details ]\nellis , j . ; solander , d . ( 1786 ) . the natural history of many curious and uncommon zoophytes , collected from various parts of the globe . systematically arranged and described by the late daniel solander . 4 . ( benjamin white & son : london ) : 1 - 206 , pls 1 - 63 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of montastraea faveolata ( ellis & solander , 1786 ) ) ellis , j . ; solander , d . ( 1786 ) . the natural history of many curious and uncommon zoophytes , collected from various parts of the globe . systematically arranged and described by the late daniel solander . 4 . ( benjamin white & son : london ) : 1 - 206 , pls 1 - 63 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of montastraea faveolata ( ellis & solander , 1786 ) ) cairns , s . d . ; hoeksema , b . w . & van der land , j . ( 2007 ) . as a contribution to unesco - ioc register of marine organisms . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of montastraea faveolata ( ellis & solander , 1786 ) ) cairns , s . d . , jaap , w . c . , and j . c . lang . 2009 . scleractinia ( cnidaria ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 333\u2013347 in felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . [ details ]\n( of montastraea faveolata ( ellis & solander , 1786 ) ) weil e , knowlton n ( 1994 ) a multi character analysis of the caribbean coral montastraea annularis ( ellis and solander , 1786 ) and its two sibling species , m . faveolata ( ellis and solander , 1786 ) and m . franski ( gregory , 1895 ) . bulletin of marine science 55 : 151\u2013175 . [ details ]\n( of montastraea faveolata ( ellis & solander , 1786 ) ) humann p , deloach n ( 2002 ) reef coral identification florida caribbean bahamas . new world publications , jacksonville , florida , pp . 1 - 287 . [ details ]\nthe in - situ growth rate of the reef coral montastrea annularis on a reef at jamaica , w . indies was determined for a 1 - year period using alizarin red - s staining techniques . growth rate is correlated with water depth and growth form . the flattened growth form of m . annularis allows for continued rapid increase in colony surface area at low light intensities . the geomorphology of jamaican reefs may in part be controlled by the population ecology of m . annularis .\nthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .\nbarnes , d . j . : the structure and formation of growth ridges in scleractinian coral skeletons . proc . r . soc .\ndana , j . d . : corals and coral islands , 398 pp . new york : dodd mead & co . 1890\ngoreau , t . f . : the physiology of skeleton formation in corals . i . a method for measuring the rate of calcium deposition by corals under different conditions . biol . bull . mar . biol . lab . , woods hole\n\u2014 : calcium carbonate deposition by coralline algae and corals in relation to their roles as reef - builders . ann . n . y . acad . sci .\ngoreau , t . f . and w . d . hartman : boring sponges as controlling factors in the formation and maintenance of coral reefs .\n: mechanisms of hard tissue destruction , pp 25\u201354 . ed . by r . f . songnnaes . washington ( publs am . ass . advmt sci . 75 ) 1963\ngoreau , t . f . and l . s . land : fore reef morphology and depositional processes , north jamaica . reef symp . , spec . publs 44th a . meet . , soc . econ . paleont , miner . , calgary , canada ( 1973 )\n: marine ecology , vol . 1 . environmetal factors , pt 1 . pp 95\u2013102 . ed . by o . kinne . london : wiley - interscience 1970\nkawaguti , s . : on the physiology of reef corals . 2 . the effect of light on color and form of reef corals . palao trop . biol . stn stud .\n\u2014 and d . sakamoto : the effect of light on the calcium deposition of corals . bull . oceanogr . inst . taiwan\nkinzie , r . a . : the zonation of west indian gorgonians . bull . mar . sci .\nlang , j . c . : interspecific aggression within the scleractinian reef corals , 80 pp . ph . d . thesis , yale university 1970\nlewis , j . b . , f . axelsen , i . goodbody , c . page and g . chislett : comparative growth rates of some reef corals in the caribbean . manuscr . rep . mar . sci . cent . mcgill univ .\nloya , y . : community structure and species diversity of hermatypic corals at eilat , red sea . mar . biol .\nmanton , s . and t . a . stephenson : ecological surveys of coral reefs . scient . rep . gt barrier reef exped .\npearse , v . b . and l . muscatine : role of symbiotic algae ( zooxanthellae ) in coral calcification . biol . bull . mar . biol . lab . , woods hole\nporter , j . w . : patterns of species diversity in caribbean reef corals . ecology\nlamark in relation to submarine radiance distribution , 72 pp . utrecht : durkkerij , elinkwijk 1967\nshinn , e . a . : coral reef recovery in florida and the persian gulf . , spec . rep . envirl conserv . dep . shell oil co . 1\u20139 ( 1972 )\nstephenson , t . a . and a . stephenson : growth and asexual reproduction in corals . scient . rep . gt barrier reef exped .\nvandermeulen , j . h . , n . d . davis and l . muscatine : the effects of inhibitors of photosynthesis on zooxanthellae in corals and other marine invertebrates . mar . biol .\nvaughan , v . w . : the geological significance of the growth rate of the floridian and bahamian shoal - water corals . j . nat . acad . sci .\n: treatise on invertebrate paleontology . part f , the coelenterata , pp 328\u2013444 . ed . by r . c . moore . lawrence : geological society of america & university of kansas 1956\nwood - jones , f . : on the growth forms and supposed species in corals . proc . zool . soc . lond . 1\u2013518 ( 1907 )\nyonge , c . m . : the biologoy of reef - building corals . scient . rep . gt . barrier reef exped .\n\u2014 : the nature of reef - building ( hermatypic ) corals . bull . mar . sci .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nzoological journal of the linnean society ( journal , magazine , 1969 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : zoological journal of the linnean society publisher : london [ etc . ] : academic press , 1969 - isbn / issn : 0024 - 4082 oclc : 1039250275\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nzoological journal of the linnean society / linnean society of london . ; london [ etc . ] : academic press , 1969 -\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nguide to scientific products , instruments and services : science innovation ; meeting abstracts ( journal , magazine , 1992 ) [ worldcat . org ]\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : guide to scientific products , instruments and services : science innovation ; meeting abstracts publisher : washington , dc : assoc . , 1992 - 1993 . isbn / issn : 0036 - 8075 oclc : 183350662\nadd tags for\nguide to scientific products , instruments and services : science innovation ; meeting abstracts\n.\n( of montastraea annularis ( ellis & solander , 1786 ) ) ellis , j . ; solander , d . ( 1786 ) . the natural history of many curious and uncommon zoophytes , collected from various parts of the globe . systematically arranged and described by the late daniel solander . 4 . ( benjamin white & son : london ) : 1 - 206 , pls 1 - 63 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of montastrea annularis ( ellis & solander , 1786 ) ) ellis , j . ; solander , d . ( 1786 ) . the natural history of many curious and uncommon zoophytes , collected from various parts of the globe . systematically arranged and described by the late daniel solander . 4 . ( benjamin white & son : london ) : 1 - 206 , pls 1 - 63 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of heliastrea annularis ( ellis & solander , 1786 ) ) ellis , j . ; solander , d . ( 1786 ) . the natural history of many curious and uncommon zoophytes , collected from various parts of the globe . systematically arranged and described by the late daniel solander . 4 . ( benjamin white & son : london ) : 1 - 206 , pls 1 - 63 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of madrepora annularis ellis & solander , 1786 ) ellis , j . ; solander , d . ( 1786 ) . the natural history of many curious and uncommon zoophytes , collected from various parts of the globe . systematically arranged and described by the late daniel solander . 4 . ( benjamin white & son : london ) : 1 - 206 , pls 1 - 63 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of astrea annularis ( ellis & solander , 1786 ) ) ellis , j . ; solander , d . ( 1786 ) . the natural history of many curious and uncommon zoophytes , collected from various parts of the globe . systematically arranged and described by the late daniel solander . 4 . ( benjamin white & son : london ) : 1 - 206 , pls 1 - 63 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nverrill , a . e . ( 1864 ) . list of the polyps and corals sent by the museum of comparative zoology to other institutions in exchange , with annotations . bulletin of the museum of comparative zoology . 1 : 29 - 60 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of montastraea annularis ( ellis & solander , 1786 ) ) cairns , s . d . ; hoeksema , b . w . & van der land , j . ( 2007 ) . as a contribution to unesco - ioc register of marine organisms . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of montastraea annularis ( ellis & solander , 1786 ) ) cairns , s . d . , jaap , w . c . , and j . c . lang . 2009 . scleractinia ( cnidaria ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 333\u2013347 in felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . [ details ]\n( of montastraea annularis ( ellis & solander , 1786 ) ) weil e , knowlton n ( 1994 ) a multi character analysis of the caribbean coral montastraea annularis ( ellis and solander , 1786 ) and its two sibling species , m . faveolata ( ellis and solander , 1786 ) and m . franski ( gregory , 1895 ) . bulletin of marine science 55 : 151\u2013175 . [ details ]\n( of montastraea annularis ( ellis & solander , 1786 ) ) humann p , deloach n ( 2002 ) reef coral identification florida caribbean bahamas . new world publications , jacksonville , florida , pp . 1 - 287 . [ details ]\n( of heliastrea annularis ( ellis & solander , 1786 ) ) verrill , a . e . ( 1864 ) . list of the polyps and corals sent by the museum of comparative zoology to other institutions in exchange , with annotations . bulletin of the museum of comparative zoology . 1 : 29 - 60 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of astrea annularis ( ellis & solander , 1786 ) ) verrill , a . e . ( 1864 ) . list of the polyps and corals sent by the museum of comparative zoology to other institutions in exchange , with annotations . bulletin of the museum of comparative zoology . 1 : 29 - 60 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of montastrea annularis ( ellis & solander , 1786 ) ) veron jen . ( 2000 ) . corals of the world . vol . 1\u20133 . australian institute of marine science and crr , queensland , australia . [ details ]\na multi - character analysis of the caribbean coral montastraea ann . . . : ingenta connect\nthe bulletin of marine science is dedicated to the dissemination of high quality research from the world ' s oceans . all aspects of marine science are treated by the bulletin of marine science , including papers in marine biology , biological oceanography , fisheries , marine affairs , applied marine physics , marine geology and geophysics , marine and atmospheric chemistry , and meteorology and physical oceanography .\ningenta . article copyright remains with the publisher , society or author ( s ) as specified within the article .\nwebsite makes use of cookies so as to keep track of data that you have filled in .\neven divemasters and instructors will tend to know the perfect hideouts where to spot these critters , while not being able to name a handful of coral species . i myself was guilty of this which is what inspired me to write about coral identification .\nthe coral diaries series is a list of corals we have seen while diving around the world . we\u2019ve created this series so that you can learn more about corals , and how to identify them on the reef . we encourage you to send us your coral pictures and leave a comment in the section below to learn more about the interesting species you\u2019ve found while diving .\nnicole ( nikki ) helgason is a padi dive instructor with ten years of professional dive experience . nicole has taught scuba diving and managed dive centers around the world . nicole has a bachelors degree in coastal geography from the university of victoria and is passionate about coral reefs .\nit\u2019s hard to imagine just how big this colony is without seeing it for yourself and colonies like that can help shine a spotlight on these important reef building corals .\nlove words ? you must \u2014 there are over 200 , 000 words in our free online dictionary , but you are looking for one that\u2019s only in the merriam - webster unabridged dictionary .\nthe story of an imaginary word that managed to sneak past our editors and enter the dictionary .\ntake this quiz and discover 12 words for things you didn ' t know had words .\nprior to 1994 , the wide variability exhibited in the appearance of montastraea annularis was attributed to the different environmental conditions in which it occurs ( 3 ) . however , scientists have since discovered that it actually comprises a species complex that can be divided into three distinct species : the type specimen , m . annularis , together with two newly described species , m . faveolata and m . franksi ( 1 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .\nlike other colony - forming corals , colonies of m . annularis are composed of numerous small polyps , which are soft - bodied animals , related to anemones . each polyp bears numerous tentacles that direct food into a central mouth , where it is digested in a sac - like body cavity . one of the most remarkable and ecologically important features of corals is that the polyps secrete a hard skeleton , called a \u2018corallite\u2019 , which over successive generations contributes to the formation of a coral reef . the coral skeleton forms the bulk of the colony , with the living polyp tissue comprising only a thin veneer ( 4 ) . in m . annularis , the colonies are formed by long , thick columns , with only the top parts supporting living tissue . the colour of the living colonies is usually golden brown to tan , but sometimes appears grey or green ( 3 ) .\nlike many coral species , m . annularis is zooxanthellate , which means that its tissues contain large numbers of single - celled algae called zooxanthellae . the coral and the algae have a symbiotic relationship , in which the algae gain a stable environment within the coral ' s tissues , while the coral receives nutrients produced by the algae through photosynthesis . by harnessing the sun ' s energy in this way , corals are able to grow rapidly and form vast reef structures , but are constrained to live near the water surface ( 4 ) . while , on average , zooxanthellate coral can obtain around 70 percent of its nutrient requirements from zooxanthellae photosynthesis , the coral may also feed on zooplankton ( 5 ) .\nthis common species occurs in the caribbean , the gulf of mexico , florida , the bahamas , and bermuda ( 1 ) .\nmontastraea annularis is found at shallow and intermediate depths , from 1 to 20 metres ( 3 ) .\nclassified as endangered ( en ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 2 ) .\naround one third of the world\u2019s reef - building corals are threatened with extinction ( 6 ) . the principal threat to corals is the rise in sea temperature associated with global climate change . this leads to coral bleaching , where the symbiotic algae are expelled , leaving the corals weak and vulnerable to an increasing variety of harmful diseases . climate change is also expected to increase ocean acidification and result in a greater frequency of extreme weather events such as destructive storms . this is not to mention the localised threats to coral reefs from pollution , destructive fishing practices , invasive species , human development , and other activities ( 1 ) ( 6 ) .\nin addition to being listed on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) , which makes it an offence to trade m . annularis without a permit ( 2 ) , this coral falls within several marine protected areas across its range . to specifically conserve m . annularis , recommendations have been made for a raft of studies into various aspects of its taxonomy , biology and ecology , including an assessment of threats and potential recovery techniques ( 1 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nweil , e . and knowlton , n . ( 1994 ) a multi - character analysis of the caribbean coral montastraea annularis ( ellis and solander , 1786 ) and its two sibling species , m . faveolata ( ellis and solander , 1786 ) and m . franksi ( gregory , 1895 ) . bulletin of marine science , 55 : 151 - 175 .\nveron , j . e . n . ( 2000 ) corals of the world . australian institute of marine science , townsville , australia .\nbarnes , r . s . k . , calow , p . , olive , p . j . w . , golding , d . w . and spicer , j . i . ( 2001 ) the invertebrates : a synthesis , 3rd edition . blackwell science , oxford .\ncarpenter , ke et al . ( 2008 ) one - third of reef - building corals face elevated extinction risk from climate change and local impacts . science , 321 : 560 - 563 .\nimage quest marine the moos poffley end witney oxfordshire ox29 9uw united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 1993 704050 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 1993 779203 info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken / stock\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - boulder star coral ( montastraea annularis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - boulder star coral ( montastraea annularis )\ntitle =\narkive species - boulder star coral ( montastraea annularis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is affected by global climate change . to learn about climate change and the species that are affected , visit our climate change pages .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , reproduction and adaptation in any medium and for any purpose provided that it is properly attributed . for attribution , the original author ( s ) , title , publication source ( peerj ) and either doi or url of the article must be cited .\nanderson da , walz me , weil e , tonellato p , smith mc ."]}
{"id": 228, "summary": [{"text": "syncopacma captivella is a moth of the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by herrich-sch\u00e4ffer in 1854 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in portugal , spain , france , belgium , the netherlands , switzerland , germany , italy , hungary , poland , the czech republic , croatia and romania .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 8 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are reddish brown , becoming dark brown from about half to a distinct white , straight fascia at two-thirds , beyond this , the apical third of the wing has black , coarser scaling with the scales light grey , tipped black towards the termen and apex .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are dark greyish brown .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on cytisus scoparius and genista legionensis . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "syncopacma captivella", "paragraphs": ["although there are no likely confusion species currently known in britain , it should be borne in mind that there is at least one european species ( syncopacma captivella ) which is superficially similar but in which the white fascia is narrower and parallell sided .\n2011 - 01 - 26 by & van nieukerken , dr erik j . karsholt , dr ole & by dr ole karsholt\nthis work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - share alike 3 . 0 license\npesi is funded by the european union 7th framework programme within the research infrastructures programme . contract no . ri - 223806 . activity area : capacities . period 2008 - 2011 - website hosted & developed by vliz banner picture : gannet ( morus bassanus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) by karl van ginderdeuren - contact pesi\na rare migrant occuring mainly in southern and eastern england and southern ireland usually in coastal or near coastal localities .\nthe earliest known records , both in february , in 1952 ( bexley , kent ) and 1999 ( chessington , surrey ) , were originally thought to be adventive specimens . although this may be the case , events in december 2015 suggest the moth could arrive as a migrant at any time of year when weather conditions and population levels are suitable . these were followed by singletons in dorset ( 2006 ) , five sightings in three vice counties ( dorset , hants and waterford ) during 2009 and , prior to the event detailed below , a singleton in wiltshire in july 2015 .\nduring late 2015 an exceptional immigration of this species took place between the 16th and 29th of december . at least 76 individuals were reported from seventeen southern english vice counties from norfolk round to cornwall and as far inland as hertfordshire and oxfordshire . a study of the weather patterns pertaining at that time suggested a probable origin of morroco or northern algeria .\nthere are no indications to date that the species has attempted to breed in britain . in emmet , a . m & langmaid , j . r . , 2002 , the author for s . polychromella reported the only foodplant traced at that time was lotus sessilifolius , not a plant found in the british isles .\nas a migrant , it is most likely to be encountered at light along coastal and adjacent inland areas of southern and south - east britain . timings to date have included may , june , july and december .\nthe moth has appeared , twice as a possible adventive , in february , and five times between 2006 and 2009 as a migrant , in may and june . during 2015 it occured once in july and then again in large numbers in december , as migrants , into southern parts of the british isles .\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy ."]}
{"id": 230, "summary": [{"text": "oxyjulis californica is a species of wrasse native to the eastern pacific ocean along the coasts of california and baja california .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "its distribution extends from salt point in sonoma county , california , to southern central baja california , near cedros island .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is a very common species ; its common name in spanish is se\u00f1orita .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "this fish can grow to 25 cm ( 9.8 in ) in total length .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its body is fusiform , frequently described as \" cigar-shaped \" .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is brown or shiny bronze dorsally and orange on its sides , becoming paler ventrally .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the base of the tail fin is mostly covered with a large black or chocolate brown spot .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the mouth is small and it has protruding \" buck teeth \" which it uses to scrape tiny invertebrate prey items off of kelp .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this fish lives in near-coastal marine habitats , especially kelp forests and reefs .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it has been observed at depths of 73 m ( 240 ft ) , but it generally lives at 20 m ( 66 ft ) or less .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it may cruise in a small school , but if threatened , it often retreats to the bottom , digging into the substrate to hide .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it also rests on the bottom at night , burrowing in backwards so only its head sticks out of the substrate .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the diet of the fish is composed of invertebrates , including marine worms , bryozoans , crustaceans , dove snails , limpets , fish larvae , and squid .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it may consume small amounts of seaweed .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "it also feeds on the ectoparasites of other fish .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the se\u00f1orita is a cleaner wrasse , a fish that grooms the parasites and other materials off the bodies of other fish .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it may remove and eat ectoparasites such as bacteria , copepods , and isopods .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "parasites can constitute around half its total food intake .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "sometimes when the se\u00f1orita begins to clean one of its clients , a crowd of other fish will gather around to receive the service .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "species that seek the se\u00f1orita for a grooming include the bat ray ( myliobatis californica ) , giant sea bass ( stereolepis gigas ) , kelp bass ( paralabrax clathratus ) , jacksmelt ( atherinopsis californiensis ) , topsmelt ( atherinops affinis ) , sargo ( diplodus sargus ) , blacksmith ( chromis punctipinnis ) , garibaldi ( hypsypops rubicundus ) , opaleye ( girella nigricans ) , halfmoon ( medialuna californiensis ) , and mola ( mola mola ) .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "the other fish may solicit the cleaning with their behavior .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the garibaldi extends its gill slits to give the se\u00f1orita access to parasites on its gills .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the blacksmith points its head down to encourage the cleaner , and many blacksmith at a time may mob it , competing for its attention .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they may even block its escape if it tries to leave the scene .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the opaleye is usually constantly swimming , but it will stop and hold still if it meets a se\u00f1orita .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the kelp bass , a predator of small fish , will often refrain from eating the se\u00f1orita , and let it clean .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "while the se\u00f1orita will often clean large , predatory fish , it is not always safe .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it has been observed in the diet of the kelp bass , the bocaccio ( sebastes paucispinis ) , and the starry rockfish ( s. constellatus ) , but it is not consumed as often as would be expected , considering its frequent close contact with predators .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it might be unpalatable .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "predators that do eat the fish include brandt 's cormorant ( phalacrocorax penicillatus ) and the california sea lion ( zalophus californianus ) .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "the reproductive biology of this fish is not well known .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "some sources suggest it may be a protogynous hermaphrodite , with the female able to change sex and become male , while others doubt this occurs in this species .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "spawning occurs in may through august .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the eggs are pelagic , floating suspended in the water .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the fish tends to return to favorite locations ; in one experiment , se\u00f1oritas were caught and then released a distance away , and most found their way back to their original home ranges .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "fishermen generally do not seek this species as quarry , and it can be an annoyance when it steals bait off hooks .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "while technically edible , it is not valuable as a food fish . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "oxyjulis californica", "paragraphs": ["jennifer hammock chose to hide data on\noxyjulis californica ( g\u00fcnther , 1861 )\n.\njosefin stiller added the german common name\njunkerlippfisch\nto\noxyjulis californica ( g\u00fcnther , 1861 )\n.\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this is a very common species throughout its range . there are no known major threats and it occurs in protected areas throughout its range . it is therefore listed as least concern .\nthis species is known in the eastern pacific from salt point in northern california to southern central baja california .\nthis species is one of the most common wrasses in southern california . it reaches densities of up to 0 . 5 fish per m 2 , and is among the top three species recorded by fisheries independent diver surveys ( craig et al . unpublished data ) .\nthis species inhabits rocky reefs and kelp forests in depths of 1 - 73 m , but is most common above 20 m . it feeds on small invertebrates and may act as a \u201ccleaner\u201d for larger fishes . it is likely a protogynous hermaphrodite .\nthere are no species - specific conservation measures in place for this species . however , its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngreek , oxy = sharp + greek , ioulis , a fish dealing with genera coris or thalassoma ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range 0 - 97 m ( ref . 96339 ) . subtropical ; 39\u00b0n - 22\u00b0n , 124\u00b0w - 110\u00b0w\neastern pacific : salt point in northern california , usa to southern central baja california , mexico .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 25 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 2850 ) ; max . reported age : 4 years ( ref . 56049 )\nlive in kelp and other seaweeds and over rocks . occurs in intertidal up to 97 m ( ref . 96339 ) . found usually at depths shallower than 23 m but also caught at depths up to 73 m . often form small groups , frequently well off bottom . when disturbed often burrows in bottom sediment . sleep at night buried in sand with head protruding . feed on a variety of small invertebrates and also picks parasites from other fishes that come to be cleaned . no sex reversal . pelagic spawner ( ref . 56049 ) .\neschmeyer , w . n . , e . s . herald and h . hammann , 1983 . a field guide to pacific coast fishes of north america . boston ( ma , usa ) : houghton mifflin company . xii + 336 p . ( ref . 2850 )\n) : 12 . 9 - 22 . 9 , mean 18 . 8 ( based on 10 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 0000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00447 ( 0 . 00180 - 0 . 01112 ) , b = 3 . 14 ( 2 . 92 - 3 . 36 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 1 \u00b10 . 40 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( tm = 1 ; tmax = 4 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 19 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nin kelp forests and reefs from five to 240 feet ( 1 . 5 m - 76 m ) ; from salt point , sonoma california to central baja california\nloose schools of se\u00f1oritas swarm in kelp forests and over reefs anywhere from near the bottom of the water to near the top . in the aquarium ' s kelp forest exhibits , look for little cigar - shaped orange fish with large black spots on their tails . se\u00f1oritas sport large scales , small mouths and protruding teeth that are ideal for picking bryozoans and hydroids from algae .\ncommercial fishermen don ' t target se\u00f1oritas and anglers consider them bait - stealing nuisances . se\u00f1oritas , as well as other animals , depend on healthy kelp forests for food and shelter . unfortunately , some kelp forests are in danger . in the past 20 years , three - quarters of these underwater forests have disappeared from channel islands national park . overfishing of sheepheads , lobsters and red urchins removed predators of purple sea urchins . without predators , the population of purple sea urchins increased rapidly to hoards of grazers that ate enough kelp to devastate nearly all the forests . to save the kelp forests , california agencies established no - fishing zones , called marine reserves , and limited fishing areas around the channel islands . if the success of other reserves is repeated , channel island national park kelp forests should flourish again .\nse\u00f1oritas feed during the day . at night they search for a sandy bottom where they bury in the sand with only their heads exposed . when threatened by predators in the daytime , se\u00f1oritas dart to the seafloor and hide by burrowing in the bottom sediment . brandt ' s cormorants and california sea lions prey on se\u00f1oritas .\nse\u00f1oritas are known as\ncleaner\nfish . they pick external parasites and copepods from the skin of other fishes . once a se\u00f1orita starts cleaning , other fishes gather to be cleaned as well . but then the se\u00f1orita loses interest , leaving disappointment in its wake .\nthe mission of the nonprofit monterey bay aquarium is to inspire conservation of the ocean .\nlive in kelp and other seaweeds and over rocks . found usually at depths shallower than 23 m but also caught at depths up to 73 m . often form small groups , frequently well off bottom . when disturbed often burrows in bottom sediment . sleep at night buried in sand with head protruding . feed on a variety of small invertebrates and also picks parasites from other fishes that come to be cleaned . no sex reversal . pelagic spawner ( ref . 56049 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthe following bibliography has been generated by bringing together all references provided by our content partners . there may be duplication .\nanonymous0 fish collection database of the centro interdisiplinario de ciencias marinas . centro interdisiplinario de ciencias marinas ( cicimar ) , la paz , mexico . ( ref . 33624 )\nanonymous0 fish collection database of the j . l . b . smith institute of ichthyology , grahamstown , south africa . j . l . b . smith institute of ichthyology , grahamstown , south africa . ( ref . 36670 )\nanonymous0 fish collection database of the national museum of natural history ( smithsonian institution ) . smithsonian institution - division of fishes . ( ref . 38732 )\nanonymous0 fish collection database of the university of british columbia fish museum fish museum . university of british columbia , vancouver , canada . ( ref . 10937 )\nbreder , c . m . and d . e . rosen0 modes of reproduction in fishes . t . f . h . publications , neptune city , new jersey . 941 p . ( ref . 205 )\nchinese academy of fishery sciences0 chinese aquatic germplasm resources database . urltoken ( ref . 58108 )\neschmeyer , w . n . , e . s . herald and h . hammann . 1983 . a field guide to pacific coast fishes of north america . houghton mifflin company , boston , u . s . a . 336 p .\neschmeyer , w . n . , e . s . herald and h . hammann0 a field guide to pacific coast fishes of north america . houghton mifflin company , boston , u . s . a . 336 p . ( ref . 2850 )\neschmeyer , w . n . 0 pisces . eschmeyer ' s pisces database as published on the internet in june 1997 , url : urltoken ( ref . 12965 )\nescobar - fern\u00e1ndez , r . and m . siri0 nombres vern\u00e1culos y cient\u00edficos de los peces del pac\u00edfico mexicano . universidad aut\u00f3noma de baja california , sociedad ictiol\u00f3gica mexicana , a . c . mexico . ( ref . 27736 )\nfao - fies0 aquatic sciences and fisheries information system ( asfis ) species list . retrieved from urltoken , 29 april 2008 . ( ref . 75549 )\nfao - fies0 aquatic sciences and fisheries information system ( asfis ) species list . retrieved from urltoken , april 2014 . ( ref . 95632 )\nfao - fies0 aquatic sciences and fisheries information system ( asfis ) species list . retrieved from urltoken , march 2010 . ( ref . 83882 )\nfao - fies0 aquatic sciences and fisheries information system ( asfis ) species list . retrieved from urltoken , march 2012 . ( ref . 90062 )\nfao - fies0 aquatic sciences and fisheries information system ( asfis ) species list . retrieved from urltoken , [ accessed 13 / 04 / 2015 ] . ( ref . 101110 )\nfitch , j . e . and r . j . lavenberg0 tidepool and nearshore fishes of california . california natural history guides : 38 . university of california press , berkelley and los angeles , california . 156 p . ( ref . 4930 )\nfroese r . & pauly d . ( eds ) ( 2015 ) . fishbase ( version jan 2015 ) . in : species 2000 & itis catalogue of life , 26th august 2015 ( roskov y . , abucay l . , orrell t . , nicolson d . , kunze t . , flann c . , bailly n . , kirk p . , bourgoin t . , dewalt r . e . , decock w . , de wever a . , eds ) . digital resource at urltoken . species 2000 : naturalis , leiden , the netherlands . issn 2405 - 8858 .\ngarces , l . r . , q . p . sia , m . j . m . vega , j . cabansag and v . hilomen0 species composition and abundance of reef fish communities . p . 000 - 000 . in g . silvestre , c . luna and j . padilla ( eds . ) multidisciplinary assessment of the fisheries in san miguel bay , philippines ( 1992 - 1993 ) . iclarm technical report 47 . international center for living aquatic resources management , makati , philippines . ( ref . 45334 )\nhobson , e . s . , w . n . mcfarland and j . r . chess0 crepuscular and nocturnal activities of californian nearshore fishes , with consideration of their scotopic visual pigments and the photic environment . fish . bull . 79 : 1 - 30 . ( ref . 2323 )\nlowry , m . s . , c . w . oliver , c . macky and j . b . wexler0 food habits of california sea lions zalophus californianus at san clemente island , california , 1981 - 86 . fish . bull . 88 : 509 - 521 . ( ref . 32120 )\nnelson , j . s . , e . j . crossman , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , r . n . lea and j . d . williams0 common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico . american fisheries society , special publication 29 , bethesda , maryland . ix , 386 p . + 1 cd . ( ref . 52299 )\nnelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , et al . , eds . 2004 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico , sixth edition . american fisheries society special publication , no . 29 . ix + 386\nparenti , paola , and john e . randall . 2000 . an annotated checklist of the species of the labroid fish families labridae and scaridae . ichthyological bulletin of the j . l . b . smith institute of ichthyology , no . 68 . 97\nrobins , c . r . , r . m . bailey , c . e . bond , j . r . brooker , e . a . lachner , r . n . lea and w . b . scott0 a list of common and scientific names of fishes from the united states and canada . am . fish . soc . spec . publ . ( 12 ) 1 - 174 . ( ref . 276 )\nrobins , c . r . , r . m . bailey , c . e . bond , j . r . brooker , e . a . lachner , r . n . lea and w . b . scott0 common and scientific names of fishes from the united states and canada . am . fish . soc . spec . pub . ( 20 ) : 183 p . ( ref . 3814 )\nrobins , richard c . , reeve m . bailey , carl e . bond , james r . brooker , ernest a . lachner , et al . 1980 . a list of common and scientific names of fishes from the united states and canada , fourth edition . american fisheries society special publication , no . 12 . 174\nrobins , richard c . , reeve m . bailey , carl e . bond , james r . brooker , ernest a . lachner , et al . 1991 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states and canada , fifth edition . american fisheries society special publication , no . 20 . 183\nshanks , a . l . and g . l . eckert0 population persistence of california current fishes and benthic crustaceans : a marine drift paradox . ecol . monogr . 75 : 505 - 524 . ( ref . 56049 )\nvictor , b . c . 0 duration of the planktonic larval stage of one hundred species of pacific and atlantic wrasses ( family labridae ) . mar . biol . 90 ( 3 ) : 317 - 326 . ( ref . 32018 )\nwu , h . l . , k . - t . shao and c . f . lai ( eds . ) 0 latin - chinese dictionary of fishes names . the sueichan press , taiwan . 1028 p . ( ref . 31517 )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , et al . , eds .\nfull author list : nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h\u00e9ctor espinosa - p\u00e9rez , lloyd t . findley , carter r . gilbert , robert n . lea , and james d . williams\nichthyological bulletin of the j . l . b . smith institute of ichthyology , no . 68\nrobins , richard c . , reeve m . bailey , carl e . bond , james r . brooker , ernest a . lachner , et al .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\ncommon in kelp beds and rocky reefs . cleans parasites from other fishes . attains 10 inches . central california to central baja .\ng\u00fcnther , a . ( 1861 ) . a preliminary synopsis of the labroid genera . ann . mag . nat . hist . ser . 3 . 8 ( 47 ) : 382 - 389 . page ( s ) : 386 [ details ]\n( of halichoeres californicus g\u00fcnther , 1861 ) g\u00fcnther , a . ( 1861 ) . a preliminary synopsis of the labroid genera . ann . mag . nat . hist . ser . 3 . 8 ( 47 ) : 382 - 389 . [ details ]\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\neschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of halichoeres californicus g\u00fcnther , 1861 ) eschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of halichoeres californicus g\u00fcnther , 1861 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\ndata and apps idaho fish and wildlife information system bringing information to bear on the management and conservation of fish , wildlife , and plants in idaho ."]}
{"id": 243, "summary": [{"text": "stygobromus pecki is a rare species of crustacean known by the common name peck 's cave amphipod .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it is endemic to texas in the united states , where lives in only two springs in comal county .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is a federally listed endangered species of the united states , and is listed as endangered on the iucn red list .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "this amphipod , like many subterranean species , is eyeless and lacks pigment .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the amphipod is found in comal springs , which is owned by the city of new braunfels , texas , and hueco springs , which is privately owned .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "this species is threatened by the lowering water levels in the edwards aquifer , which feeds the springs in which it dwells .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the water in the aquifer has long been drained for human use , in irrigation , for example . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "stygobromus pecki", "paragraphs": ["stygobromus pecki is a rare species of crustacean known by the common name peck ' s cave amphipod . content licensed under creative commons attribution . source : urltoken\n59 . contribution to the knowledge of the amphipoda . revision of the genus stygobromus cope 1872 ( fam . gammaridae ) from north america\nbarr , c . b . 1993 . survey for two edwards aquifer invertebrates : comal springs dryopid beetle stygoparnus comalensis barr and spangler ( coleoptera : dryopidae ) and peck ' s cave amphipod stygobromus pecki holsinger ( amphipoda : crangonyctidae ) . prepared for u . s . fish and wildlife service . 70 pp .\n( of stygonectes pecki holsinger , 1967 ) karaman , g . s . ( 1974 ) . 59 . contribution to the knowledge of the amphipoda . revision of the genus stygobromus cope 1872 ( fam . gammaridae ) from north america . glasnik republickog zavoda za zastitu prirode . 7 : 97 - 125 . [ details ]\nthe first recorded specimen of the amphipod stygobromus ( = stygonectes ) pecki ( holsinger 1967 ) was collected by peck at comal springs in june 1964 . reddell collected a second specimen at the same place in may 1965 . in 1967 , holsinger named the species stygonectes pecki , in peck ' s honor , selecting the 1965 specimen as the type specimen . later he included all the nominal stygonectes species in the synonymy of the large genus stygobromus . the fws service used\ncave amphipod\nas a generic common name for members of this genus , and this name was simply transliterated as\npeck ' s cave amphipod\nwithout reference to a particular cave .\narsuffi , thomas l . 1993 . status of the comal springs riffle beetle ( heterelmis comalensis bosse , tuff , and brown ) , peck ' s cave amphipod ( stygobromus pecki holsinger ) , and the comal springs dryopid beetle ( stygoparnus comalensis barr and spangler ) . prepared for the u . s . fish and wildlife service . 25 pp .\n( of stygonectes pecki holsinger , 1967 ) holsinger j . r . ( 1967 ) . systematics , speciation , and distribution of the subterranean amphipod genus stygonectes ( gammaridae ) . united states national museum bulletin , 259 , 1 - 176 . [ details ]\nkaraman , g . s . ( 1974 ) . 59 . contribution to the knowledge of the amphipoda . revision of the genus stygobromus cope 1872 ( fam . gammaridae ) from north america . glasnik republickog zavoda za zastitu prirode . 7 : 97 - 125 . [ details ]\nlike all members of the exclusively subterranean genus stygobromus , this species is eyeless and unpigmented , indicating that its primary habitat is a zone of permanent darkness in the underground aquifer feeding the springs . above ground , individuals are easy prey for predators , but they usually take shelter in the rock and gravel crevices and may succeed in reentering the spring orifice . barr ( 1993 ) got most specimens in drift nets at spring orifices and found them less often as she moved downstream , supporting the notion that they may be easy prey and do not likely survive for long outside the aquifer .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhorton , t . ; lowry , j . ; de broyer , c . ; bellan - santini , d . ; coleman , c . o . ; corbari , l . ; daneliya , m . ; dauvin , j - c . ; fi\u0161er , c . ; gasca , r . ; grabowski , m . ; guerra - garc\u00eda , j . m . ; hendrycks , e . ; hughes , l . ; jaume , d . ; jazdzewski , k . ; kim , y . - h . ; king , r . ; krapp - schickel , t . ; lecroy , s . ; l\u00f6rz , a . - n . ; mamos , t . ; senna , a . r . ; serejo , c . ; sket , b . ; souza - filho , j . f . ; tandberg , a . h . ; thomas , j . ; thurston , m . ; vader , w . ; v\u00e4in\u00f6l\u00e4 , r . ; vonk , r . ; white , k . ; zeidler , w . ( 2018 ) . world amphipoda database .\ndesignation of critical habitat for the peck ' s cave amphipod , comal springs dryopid beetle , and comal springs riffle beetle : proposed rule ; reopening of comment period and notice of availability of draft economic analysis .\nproposed revision of critical habitat for the comal springs dryopid beetle , comal springs riffle beetle , and peck ' s cave amphipod : proposed rule .\n- - natureserve explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50 , 000 plants , animals and ecological communtities of the u . s and canada . natureserve explorer provides in - depth information on rare and endangered species , but includes common plants and animals too . natureserve explorer is a product of natureserve in collaboration with the natural heritage network .\nitis reports - - itis ( the integrated taxonomic information system ) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants , animals , fungi , and microbes of north america and the world .\nfws digital media library - - the u . s . fish and wildlife service ' s national digital library is a searchable collection of selected images , historical artifacts , audio clips , publications , and video .\ncomal springs aquatic ecosystem . primary habitat lies within the aquifer in permanent darkness . it has been collected at the comal springs and hueco springs orifices and in the panther canyon monitoring well , that is drilled into the edwards aquifer . when found outside of the aquifer , peck\u2019s cave amphipods are typically found in the crevices of rocks and in the gravel near spring orifices .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nfitzpatrick , j . f . , jr . 1983 . how to know the freshwater crustacea . wm . c . brown co . publishers . dubuque , iowa . 277 pp .\nholsinger , j . r . 1967 . systematics , speciation , and distribution of the subterranean amphipod genus stygonectes ( gammaridae ) . bull . u . s . nat . mus . 259 : 1 - 176 .\nholsinger , j . r . 1972 . biota of freshwater ecosystems , identification manual no . 5 : the freshwater amphipod crustaceans ( gammaridae ) of north america . environmental protection agency , washington , d . c . 89 pp .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nwhats wrong with secretary kim \uc601\uc900\uc774 \uc7ac\ub2a5\uad50\uc721 \uc2dc\uc791\ud588\ub2c8 ? ( \uc790\uae30\uc758 \uc77c\uc740 \uc2a4\uc2a4\ub85c . . . \ud558\uc9c0\ub9c8 . . . ) 180704 ep . 9\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmclaughlin et al . 2005 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : crustaceans . american fisheries society special publication 31\nlisted as endangered under u . s . endangered species act and on iucn red list ( 2002 )\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service ."]}
{"id": 246, "summary": [{"text": "archips argyrospila , the fruit-tree leafroller moth , is a moth of the tortricidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in most of the united states and southern canada .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is 6-10.2 mm for males and 8.5-11.7 mm for females .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults have a variable forewing colour consisting of combination of reddish brown , dark brown and tan .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing from mid may to july in one generation per year .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on a wide range of plants and are considered a pest on apples and pears .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "recorded host plants include : medicago , malus , prunus , taxodium distichum , phaseolus , vaccinium , betula , acer negundo , aesculus , ceanothus , cercocarpus , citrus , quercus , eriodictyon , vitis , crataegus , carya , gleditsia triacanthos , humulus , syringa , avena , allium , maclura pomifera , pyrus , rheum , sassafras and juglans species .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "first instar larvae bore into the buds of their host plant .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "later instars roll or tie leaves together or tie them to fruit .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "they feed on the leaves , flowers , buds or fruits of the host plant .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "pupation takes place within the larval shelter . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "archips argyrospila", "paragraphs": ["subspecies : a . argyrospila columbiana ( british columbia ) , a . argyrospila vividana ( colorado )\nspecies archips argyrospila - fruit - tree leafroller moth - hodges # 3648 - bugguide . net\nlate instar a . argyrospila larvae may be confused with larvae of choristoneura rosaceana and other archips species .\narchips argyrospila completes a single generation per year . adults are present from mid - may through july .\narchips argyrospila is native to north america and is found throughout the continental united states and southern canada .\nargyrospila walker , 1863 ( retinia ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus 28 : 373 . tl : usa , georgia . holotype : bmnh . female .\narchips argyrospila has been recorded from a long list of plants , many of which are not primary hosts . under outbreak conditions the larvae feed on any plant near the primary host , and the following host list contains both primary and incidental hosts .\nduring the first half of the 20th century outbreaks of argyrospila would completely defoliate large areas of vegitation . the species was brought under control with the introduction of pesticides in the mid - 1950 ' s .\nduring the first half of the 20th century , outbreaks of a . argyrospila would completely defoliate large areas of vegetation . the species was brought under control with the introduction of pesticides in the mid - 1950 ' s .\nabiephagus razowski , 1977 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 22 : 106 no type\nparedreus razowski , 1977 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 22 : 76 no type\npulcher razowski , 1977 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 22 : 105 no type\nterminas diakonoff , 1971 ( archips ) , verff . zool . staatsamml . mnchen 15 : 170 . no type\nadornatus liu , 1987 ( archips ) , sinozoologia 5 : 139 . tl : china . holotype : izas . male .\nrosaceana ishikawa , 1915 ( archips ) , bychgaizasshi 2 ( 9 ) : 778 . tl : japan . holotype : unknown . unknown .\ndavisi kawabe , 1989 ( archips ) , tinea 12 : 191 . tl : taiwan , hualien hsien , tayulin . holotype : usnm . male .\nelongatus liu , 1987 ( archips ) , sinozoologia 5 : 138 . tl : china , shanxi province , ningsgan . holotype : izas . male .\nkellerianus liu , 1987 ( archips ) , sinozoologia 5 : 137 . tl : china , yunnan province , kunming . holotype : izas . female .\nsayonae kawabe , 1985 ( archips ) , tinea 12 : 5 . tl : taiwan . nantou hsien , nanshanchi . holotype : usnm . male .\nopiparus liu , 1987 ( archips ) , sinozoologia 5 : 137 . tl : china , guizhou province , fuquan . holotype : izas . male .\npachyvalvus liu , 1987 ( archips ) , sinozoologia 5 : 140 . tl : china , sichuan province , wolong . holotype : izas . male .\nshibatai kawabe , 1985 ( archips ) , tinea 12 : 1 . tl : taiwan , chiai hsien , fenchihu . holotype : usnm . male .\nspinatus liu , 1987 ( archips ) , sinozoologia 5 : 139 . tl : china , liaoning province , dandong . holotype : izas . male .\nstrigopterus liu , 1987 ( archips ) , sinozoologia 5 : 139 . tl : china , sichuan province , wolong . holotype : izas . male .\nbaolokia razowski , 2009 ( archips ) , polskie pismo entomol . 78 : 17 . tl : vietnam , bao lok . holotype : mnhu . male .\nconfluens obraztsov , 1955 ( archips crataegana ab . ) , tijdschr . ent . 98 : 311 . tl : europe . holotype : unknown . unknown .\ntaichunganus razowski , 2000 ( archips ) , zool . studies 39 : 323 . tl : taiwan , taichung , pilushi . holotype : cmnh . female .\ntaiwanensis kawabe , 1985 ( archips ) , tinea 12 : 3 . tl : taiwan , nantou hsien , lushan spa . holotype : usnm . male .\nyunnanus razowski , 1977 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 22 ( 5 ) : 84 tl : china . holotype : zfmk . male .\nvagrans tuck , 1990 ( archips ) , ent . scand . 21 : 180 . tl : indonesia , east timor . holotype : bmnh . male .\nthe names associated with a . argyrospila are considered a species complex by some authors . this group includes a . eleagnanus , a . mortuana , a . myricana , and two subspecies ( a . a . columbiana and a . a . vividana ) . according to freeman ( 1958 ) , genitalic characters for the group include : an aedeagus with hooked apex and two long cornuti in the male and a bulbous sterigma and antrum in the female .\nnaltarica razowski , 2006 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 49b : 122 . tl : pakistan , gilgit naltar . holotype : isez . male .\nadults may be confused with other archips species ( especially a . semiferanus and a . negundanus ) but are unlikely to be confused with other species covered here .\nalleni tuck , 1990 ( archips ) , ent . scand . 21 : 186 . tl : thailand , khao yai national park . holotype : bmnh . male .\nbachmanus razowski , 2009 ( archips ) , shilap revta . lepid . 37 : 45 . tl : vietnam , mt . ngoclinh . holotype : mnhu . female .\nqinghai liu , 1987 ( archips decretana ssp . ) , sinozoologia 5 : 138 . tl : china . qinghai province , huangzhong . holotype : izas . male .\ncarteri rose & pooni , 2004 ( archips ) , entomon 29 : 152 . tl : india , dist . kangra , palampur . holotype : himpr . male .\nkangraensis rose & pooni , 2004 ( archips ) , entomon 29 : 150 . tl : india , dist . kangra , dharmshala . holotype : himpr . male .\nmertias rose & pooni , 2004 ( archips ) , entomon 29 : 145 . tl : india , dist . kangra , dharmshala . holotype : himpr . male .\npseudotermias rose & pooni , 2004 ( archips ) , entomon 29 : 146 . tl : india , punjab , dist . patiala . holotype : pup . male .\nsilvicolanus razowski , 2009 ( archips ) , shilap revta . lepid . 37 : 43 . tl : vietnam , fan si pan . holotype : mnhu . male .\nweixiensis liu , 1987 ( archips tharsaleopa ssp . ) , sinozoologia 5 : 140 . tl : china . yunnan province , weixi . holotype : izas . male .\nceylonicus razowski , 1977 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 22 : 108 tl : sri lanka , hakgala , botanic gardens . holotype : nhrs . male .\nalbatus razowski , 1977 ( archips limatus ssp . ) , acta zool . cracov . 22 ( 5 ) : 120 tl : china . holotype : zfmk . male .\nmagnifica tuck , 1990 ( archips ) , ent . scand . 21 : 194 . tl : malaysia , sabah , mt . kinabalu . holotype : bmnh . male .\nokuiho razowski , 2009 ( archips ) , polskie pismo entomol . 78 : 16 . tl : vietnam , sa pa okui - ho . holotype : mnhu . male .\nmeridana kozlov & esartia , 1991 ( archips ) , vestnik zool . 1991 ( 1 ) : 34 . tl : georgia . georgia . holotype : zmas . male .\nstrianus fernald , 1905 ( archips ) , can . ent . 37 : 399 . tl : canada , quebec . syntype ( s ) : usnm . 1 male .\nbarlowi tuck , 1990 ( archips ) , ent . scand . 21 : 193 . tl : malaysia , west pahang , genting tea estate . holotype : bmnh . male .\ndichotoma falkovitsh , 1965 ( archips ) , ent . obozr . 44 : 417 . tl : russia , primorskykrai , okeanskaya , near vladivostok . holotype : zmas . male .\nfraterna tuck , 1990 ( archips ) , ent . scand . 21 : 192 . tl : brunei , brunei ( rampayoh r . ) . holotype : bmnh . male .\ngyraleus diakonoff , 1982 ( archips ) , zool . verh . leiden 193 : 87 . tl : sri lanka , ratnapura district , uggalkaltota . holotype : usnm . male .\nsubgyraleus razowski , 2009 ( archips ) , shilap revta . lepid . 37 : 44 . tl : vietnam , kon tum , dac glei . holotype : mnhu . male .\nvivesi razowski , 2009 ( archips ) , polskie pismo entomol . 78 : 18 . tl : vietnam , sa pa , fan si pan . holotype : mnhu . female .\nasiaticus walsingham , 1900 ( archips ) , ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 5 : 380 tl : korea , gensan . lectotype : bmnh . male .\nbreviplicanus walsingham , 1900 ( archips ) , ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 5 : 382 tl : korea , gensan . holotype : bmnh . male .\nbrunneatus razowski , 2009 ( archips ) , shilap revta . lepid . 37 : 44 . tl : vietnam , sa pa , fan si pan . holotype : mnhu . female .\neximius razowski , 1984 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 27 ( 15 ) : 272 tl : china , yunnan province , likiang . holotype : zfmk . female .\nabietis falkovitsh , 1965 ( archips ) , ent . obozr . 44 : 414 . tl : russia . primorsky krai , okeanskaya , near vladivostok . holotype : zmas . male .\nstrojny razowski , 1977 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 22 ( 5 ) : 101 tl : china , hunan province , hoengshan . holotype : zfmk . male .\nwallacei tuck , 1990 ( archips ) , ent . scand . 21 : 186 . tl : indonesia , sulawesi , danau mooat , near kotamobagu . holotype : bmnh . male .\nlimatus razowski , 1977 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 22 ( 5 ) : 119 tl : china , shansi province , tapaishan tsinling . holotype : zfmk . male .\nstellata jinbo , 2006 ( archips ) , entomological science 9 : 335 . tl : japan , nagano , kawakami - mura , kawakami - makioka rindo . holotype : nsmt . male .\naudax razowski , 1977 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 22 ( 5 ) : 81 tl : japan , honshu , nara prefecture , kojindake . holotype : isez . male .\nbulbosus razowski , 2009 ( archips ) , shilap revta . lepid . 37 : 44 . tl : vietnam , sa pa , fan si pan mtns . . holotype : mnhu . female .\ncrassifolianus liu , 1990 ( archips ) , forest research 3 ( 2 ) : 137 . tl : china , gansu province , wuwei , mt . qilia . holotype : izas . male .\ndierli diakonoff , 1976 ( archips ) , zool . verh . leiden 144 : 83 . tl : nepal , prov . no . 3 east , junbesi . holotype : zsm . male .\naperta diakonoff , 1968 ( archips ) , bull . u . s . natn . mus . 257 ( 1967 ) : 28 . tl : philippine islands . holotype : usnm . female .\nfuscocupreanus walsingham , 1900 ( archips ) , ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 5 : 384 tl : japan , kyushu , satsuma . lectotype : bmnh . male .\nrudy razowski , 1977 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 22 ( 5 ) : 146 tl : china , shansi province , tapaishan , tsinling . holotype : zfmk . female .\nviola falkovitsh , 1965 ( archips ) , ent . obozr . 44 : 415 . tl : russia , primorsky krai , okeanska - ya , near vladivostok . holotype : zmas . male .\nfumosus yasuda , 1961 ( archips ) , publ . ent . lab . univ . osaka pref . 6 : 60 . tl : japan . hokkaido , yamabe . holotype : opu . male .\nmimicus walsingham , in swinhoe , 1900 ( archips ) , cat . east . and aust . lepid . heterocera 2 : 573 . tl : india , ooty . lectotype : bmnh . male .\nsabrinae leraut & luquet , 1996 ( archips xylosteana ssp . ) , alexanor 19 ( 1995 ) : 250 . tl : france . var , maures , cavalaire . holotype : mnhn . female .\ncitimus razowski , 1977 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 22 ( 5 ) : 109 tl : afghanistan , sefed kuh , s . seite , kotkai . holotype : lnk . male .\ncompitalis razowski , 1977 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 22 ( 5 ) : 118 tl : china , chekiang , west tien - mu - shan . holotype : zfmk . male .\ngoyerana kruse , 2000 ( archips ) , proc . ent . soc . wash . 102 : 742 . tl : usa , louisiana , assumption parish , pierre part . holotype : lsub . male .\ninanis razowski , 1977 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 22 ( 5 ) : 107 tl : afghanistan , safed koh , s . seite , kotkai . holotype : lnk . female .\nkangraensis rose & pooni , 2004 ( archips ) , entomon 29 : 150 . tl : india , himachal pradesh ( ? ) ( dist . kangra , dharmshala ) . holotype : unknown . male .\nunimaculata shiraki , 1913 ( archips ) , spec . rep . formosa agric . exp . stn . 8 : 344 . tl : taiwan , formosa [ taiwan ] . holotype : unknown . unknown .\npurpuratus kawabe , 1965 ( archips ) , trans . lepid . soc . japan 16 : 16 . tl : japan . honshu , gunma prefecture , mt . akagi . holotype : usnm . male .\narcanus razowski , 1977 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 22 ( 5 ) : 74 tl : china , chekiang province , west tien - mu - shan . holotype : zfmk . male .\ncantinus razowski , 2006 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 49b : 122 . tl : india , jammu and kashmir ( indien j & k , srinagar ) . holotype : isez . male .\nendoi yasuda , 1975 ( archips ) , bull . univ . osaka pref . ( b ) 27 : 97 . tl : japan . honshu , akita prefecture , yawata . holotype : opu . male .\nenodis razowski , 1977 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 22 ( 5 ) : 86 tl : china , chekiang province , west tien - mu - shan . holotype : zfmk . male .\nissikii yasuda , 1961 ( archips ) , publ . ent . lab . univ . osaka pref . 6 : 62 . tl : japan . honshu , tokyo prefecture , asakawa . holotype : opu . male .\nmeridionalis yasuda & kawabe , 1980 ( archips ) , tinea 11 ( 2 ) : 9 . tl : japan , kagoshima prefecture , amami - oshima island , hatsuno : usnm . holotype : usnm . male .\nbrevicervicus yasuda , 1961 ( archips ) , publ . ent . lab . univ . osaka pref . 6 : 59 . tl : japan . honshu , osaka prefecture , sakai . holotype : opu . male .\nissikii kodama , 1960 ( archips ) , publ . ent . lab . univ . osaka pref . 5 : 23 tl : japan , hokaido and honshu . syntypes : opu . unknown . [ larvae , lost ]\nnigriplagana franclemont , 1986 ( archips ) , proc . ent . soc . wash . 88 : 59 . tl : usa , new york , tompkins co . , mclean bogs reserve . holotype : usnm . male .\nbrevicervicus kodama , 1960 ( archips ) , publ . ent . lab . univ . osaka pref . 5 : 21 . tl : japan . honshu . syntypes ( larvae ) : opu . unknown . [ lost ]\nperatratus yasuda , 1961 ( archips ) , publ . ent . lab . univ . osaka pref . 6 : 63 . tl : japan , kyushu , kagoshima prefecture , mt . kirisima . holotype : opu . male .\nargutus diakonoff , 1976 ( archips termias ssp . ) , zool . verh . leiden 144 : 91 . tl : nepal . prov . no . 3 east , bujan , dudh kosi . holotype : zsm . male .\nfumosus kodama , 1960 ( archips ) , publ . ent . lab . univ . osaka pref . 5 : 23 . tl : japan , hok - kaido , yamabe . syntypes : opu . unknown . [ larvae , lost ]\narchips argyrospila has been recorded from a long list of plants , many of which are not primary hosts . under outbreak conditions the larvae feed on any plant near the primary host , and the following partial host list contains both primary and incidental hosts : alfalfa ( medicago sp . ) , apple ( malus sp . ) , apricot , cherry , peach , and plum ( prunus sp . ) , bald cypress ( taxodium distichum ) , beans ( phaseolus sp . ) , blueberry ( vaccinium sp . ) , birch ( betula sp . ) , boxelder ( acer negundo ) , buckeye ( aesculus sp . ) , ceanothus sp . , cercocarpus sp . , citrus sp . , oak ( quercus sp . ) , eriodictyon sp . , grape ( vitis sp . ) , hawthorn ( crataegus sp . ) , hickory ( carya sp . ) , honeylocust ( gleditsia triacanthos ) , hop ( humulus sp . ) , lilac ( syringa sp . ) , oat ( avena sp . ) , onion ( allium sp . ) , osage orange ( maclura pomifera ) , pear ( pyrus sp . ) , rhubarb ( rheum sp . ) , sassafras ( sassafras sp . ) , and walnut ( juglans sp . ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nabiephage yasuda , 1975 ( archippus ) , bull . univ . osaka pref . ( b ) 27 : 109 . tl : japan , hok - kaido , yamabe . holotype : opu . male .\nabiephaga issiki , in issiki & mutuura , 1962 ( ariola ) , publ . ent . lab . univ . osaka pref . 7 : 3 . tl : japan . honshu , koozuke [ gunma prefecture ] , manza . holotype : usnm . male .\nalberta mcdunnough , 1923 ( tortrix ) , can . ent . 55 : 167 . tl : canada , alberta , nordegg . holotype : cnc . male .\nalcmaeonis meyrick , 1928 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 3 : 455 . tl : india , assam , shillong . lectotype : bmnh . female .\ncolumbiana mcdunnough , 1923 ( cacoecia ) , can . ent . 55 : 167 . tl : canada . british columbia , salmon arm . holotype : cnc . female .\nfurvana robinson , 1869 ( tortrix ) , trans . am . ent . soc 2 : 265 . tl : usa . new york . lectotype : ansp . female .\nvividana dyar , 1902 ( cacoecia ) , proc . ent . soc . wash . 5 : 78 . tl : usa . colorado , platte canyon . holotype : usnm . unknown . [ lost ]\nvsignatana packard , 1875 ( tortrix ) , rep . ins . mass . injurious veg . : 238 . tl : usa . massachusetts . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\ncontemptrix meyrick , in caradja , 1925 ( cacoecia ) , bull . sect . scient . acad . roum 3 : 378 . tl : china . canton . holotype : mgab . female .\natrolucens diakonoff , 1941 ( cacoecia ) , treubia 18 : 384 . tl : indonesia , java , sindangkaya . holotype : ncb . male .\nbetulana hubner , [ 1787 ] ( phalaena ( tortrix ) ) , beitr . gesch . schmett . 1 ( 2 ) : 3 . tl : germany , augsburg . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\ndecretana treitschke , 1835 ( tortrix ) , schmett . eur . 10 ( 3 ) : 56 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : tmb . unknown .\nbiforata meyrick , 1930 ( cacoecia ) , ann . naturhist . mus . wien 44 : 224 . tl : brazil , serra do itatiaya . holotype : nhmv . female .\nbinigrata meyrick , 1928 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 3 : 456 . tl : india , assam , shillong . lectotype : bmnh . male .\ncriticana kennel , 1901 ( cacoecia ) , dt . ent . z . iris 13 ( 1900 ) : 213 . tl : russia . holotype : mnhu . male .\ncapsigerana kennel , 1901 ( cacoecia ) , dt . ent . z . iris 13 ( 1900 ) : 212 . tl : russia , primorsky k , askold , dorries . holotype : mnhn . male .\ncerasivorana fitch , 1856 ( lozotaenia ) , rep . ins . new york : 382 . tl : usa , new york . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\ncrataegana hubner , [ 1796 - 1799 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 17 , fig . 107 . tl : europe , syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nroborana hubner , [ 1796 - 1799 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 20 , fig . 126 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nrubromaculata schawerda , 1933 ( cacoecia crataegana var . ) , z . st . ent . verz . 18 : 76 . tl : corsica . corsica ( france ) . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\ndispilana walker , 1864 ( pandemis ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus . 30 : 983 . tl : bhutan , bhutan . holotype : bmnh . male .\ndissitana grote , 1879 ( tortrix ( ptycholoma ) ) , n . am . ent . 1 : 29 . tl : usa , new york , buffalo . lectotype : bmnh . male .\neleagnana mcdunnough , 1923 ( cacoecia ) , can . ent . 55 : 166 . tl : canada , manitoba , aweme . holotype : cnc . male .\nemitescens meyrick , in joannis , 1930 ( cacoecia ) , annls soc . ent . fr . 98 ( suppl . ) ( 1929 ) : 712 . tl : ? , ( cho ganh ) . lectotype : mnhn . male .\neupatris meyrick , 1908 ( cacoecia ) , j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 18 : 614 . tl : sri lanka , ceylon [ sri lanka ] ( wellawaya ) . holotype : bmnh . male .\neuryplintha meyrick , 1923 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 3 : 53 . tl : india , bangla , darjiling , mangpu . holotype : bmnh . female .\nexpansa diakonoff , 1941 ( cacoecia ) , treubia 18 : 413 . tl : indonesia , west java , mt . gede , tjibodas . lectotype : ncb . male .\nfervidana clemens , 1860 ( lozotaenia ) , proc . acad . nat . sci . philad . 12 : 347 . tl : usa , pennsylvania . lectotype : ansp . unknown .\npalludana beutenmuller , 1892 ( tortrix ) , bull . am . mus . nat . hist . 4 : 64 . no type\npaludana robinson , 1869 ( tortrix ) , trans . am . ent . soc 2 : 275 . tl : usa . pennsylvania . lectotype : amnh . male .\nformosanus kawabe , 1968 ( archippus ) , tinea 7 : 122 . tl : taiwan , chiayi , alishan . holotype : usnm . male .\nischidaii razowski & kumata , 1985 ( loxotaenia ) , neue ent . nachr 17 : 11 . no type\nishidaii matsumura , 1900 ( loxotaenia ) , ent . nachr 26 : 194 . tl : japan . hokkaido , sapporo . holotype : eihu . female .\npunicae matsumura , 1931 ( cacoecia ) , 6000 illust . insects japan - empire : 1065 tl : japan . honshu , tokyo prefecture , shibuya . lectotype : eihu . female .\ngeorgiana walker , 1863 ( retinia ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus 28 : 372 . tl : usa , georgia . holotype : bmnh . male .\ngrisea robinson , 1869 ( tortrix ) , trans . am . ent . soc . 2 : 268 . tl : usa , ohio . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nbrauniana kearfott , 1907 ( cacoecia ) , trans . am . ent . soc 23 : 69 . tl : usa . ohio . lectotype : amnh . male .\ninfumatana zeller , 1875 ( tortrix ) , verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 25 : 216 . tl : usa , missouri . lectotype : bmnh . male .\ningentana christoph , 1881 ( tortrix ) , bull . soc . imp . nat . moscou 56 ( 1 ) : 64 . tl : russia , primorsky krai , vladivostok . lectotype : bmnh . female .\ninopinatana kennel , 1901 ( pandemis ) , dt . ent . z . iris 13 ( 1900 ) : 220 . tl : russia , primorsky krai , askold island . holotype : mnhn . male .\ninsulanus kawabe , 1965 ( archippus ) , trans . lepid . soc . japan 16 : 23 . tl : japan , kyushu , kagoshima prefecture , okinoerabu - jima island . holotype : usnm . male .\nmachlopis meyrick , 1912 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 1 : 4 . tl : india , assam , khasi hills . lectotype : bmnh . female .\ncompacta meyrick , 1918 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 2 : 164 . tl : india . bengal , pusa . holotype : bmnh . female .\nisocyrta meyrick , 1920 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 2 : 340 . tl : india . bengal , pusa . holotype : bmnh . female .\nseminubila meyrick , in joannis , 1930 ( cacoecia ) , annls soc . ent . fr . 98 ( suppl . ) ( 1929 ) : 711 . tl : north vietnam . tonkin , hoang su phi . lectotype : mnhn . male .\ntranscutata meyrick , 1935 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 4 : 569 . tl : indonesia . java , bogor , buitenzorg . holotype : bmnh . male .\nmagnoliana fernald , 1892 ( cacoecia ) , can . ent . 24 : 121 . tl : usa , new york , ithaca . syntype ( s ) : usnm . male .\nmenotoma meyrick , 1937 ( cacoecia ) , dt . ent . z . iris 51 : 173 . tl : china , yunnan province . holotype : bmnh . male .\nmicaceana walker , 1863 ( cacoecia ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus 28 : 314 : tl : china , shanghai . holotype : bmnh . female .\neucroca diakonoff , 1958 ( cacoecia ) , beitr . ent . 8 : 119 . tl : china . south china ( canton ) . holotype : deib . male .\nobscura diakonoff , 1939 ( cacoecia micaceana var . ) , rec . indian mus . 41 : 231 . tl : india . dehra dun , new forest , kandauli . holotype : bmnh . male .\nepicyrta meyrick , 1905 ( cacoecia ) , j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 16 : 589 . tl : sri lanka . ceylon [ sri lanka ] ( maskeliya ) . lectotype : bmnh . male .\nmortuana kearfott , 1907 ( cacoecia ) , can . ent . 39 : 158 . tl : usa , pennsylvania . lectotype : amnh . male .\nmyricana mcdunnough , 1923 ( cacoecia ) , can . ent . 55 : 167 . tl : canada , ontario , algonquin park . holotype : cnc . male .\nmyrrhophanes meyrick , in caradja , 1931 ( tortriz [ sic ] ) , bull . sect . scient . acad . roum 14 : 63 . tl : china , chekiang province . holotype : bmnh . male .\nnegundana dyar , 1902 ( cacoecia ) , proc . ent . soc . wash . 5 : 78 . tl : usa , colorado , pike ' s peak . syntype ( s ) : usnm . male .\nnugundana dyar , 1902 ( cacoecia ) , proc . u . s . natn . mus . 25 : 401 . no type\nnigricaudana walsingham , 1900 ( tortrix ) , ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 5 : 459 tl : korea , gensan . holotype : bmnh . male .\noporana linnaeus , 1758 ( phalaena ( tortrix ) ) , systema naturae ( 10th ed . ) : 530 . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nbathyglypta meyrick , in caradja , 1932 ( cacoecia ) , bull . sect . scient . acad . roum 15 : 23 . tl : china . shanghai . holotype : mgab . male .\ndissimilana bentley , 1845 ( lozotaenia ) , zoologist 3 : 1000 tl : united kingdom . england ( new forest ) [ united kingdom ] . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nhermanniana [ denis & schiffermuller ] , 1775 ( tortrix ) , syst . verz . schmett . wienergegend : 317 . tl : austria . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nimpervia meyrick , in joannis , 1930 ( cacoecia ) , annls soc . ent . fr . 98 ( suppl . ) ( 1929 ) : 711 . holotype : mnhn . male .\npiceana linnaeus , 1758 ( phalaena ( tortrix ) , systema naturae ( 10th ed . ) : 531 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\npieceanus yasuda , 1975 ( archippus ( archippus ) ) , bull . univ . osaka pref . ( b ) 27 : 102 no type\nsimilis butler , 1879 ( cacoecia ) , illust . typical specimens lepid . heterocera colln . br . mus 3 : 79 . tl : japan . lectotype : bmnh . female .\npackardiana fernald , 1886 ( tortrix ) , bull . u . s . dept . agric . 12 : 20 . tl : usa , maine , peaks island , casco bay . lectotype : usnm . male .\nparedraea meyrick , 1931 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 4 : 149 . tl : taiwan , taihoku . lectotype : bmnh . male .\npensilis meyrick , 1920 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 2 : 339 . tl : india , south india ( madras ) . holotype : bmnh . female .\nphilippa meyrick , 1918 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 2 : 165 . tl : india , nw india ( abbottabad ) . holotype : bmnh . male .\npruneticola meyrick , 1935 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 4 : 569 . tl : india . tarnab . holotype : bmnh . male .\nsubsidiaria meyrick , 1924 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 3 : 107 . tl : india . kashmir , srinagar . lectotype : bmnh . male .\npodana scopoli , 1763 ( phalaena ) , ent . carn . : 232 . tl : slovenia , carniola [ slovenia ] . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nameriana treitschke , 1830 ( cacoecia ) , schmett . eur . 8 : 49 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : tmb . unknown .\ncongenerana hubner , [ 1823 - 1824 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 47 , fig . 295 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nfulvana [ denis & schiffermuller ] , 1775 ( tortrix ) , syst . verz . schmett . wienergegend : 128 . tl : austria . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\npyrastrana hubner , [ 1796 - 1799 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 20 , fig . 124 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nsauberiana sorhagen , 1882 ( tortrix podana var . ) , berl . ent . z . 26 : 131 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nvulpeculana fuchs , 1903 ( tortrix ) , stettin . ent . ztg . 64 : 3 . tl : turkey . konia . holotype : unknown . female .\npulchra butler , 1879 ( ariola ) , illust . typical specimens lepid . heterocera colln . br . mus 3 : 19 . tl : japan , lectotype : bmnh . male .\npuchra anonymous , 1970 ( ariola ) , ent . rev . 49 : 268 . no type\npunctiseriata strand , 1920 ( catamacta ) , archiv f . naturgesch . 84 ( a ) ( 12 ) : 191 . tl : taiwan , [ taiwan ] . holotype : deib . unknown .\npurpurana clemens , 1865 ( loxotaenia ) , proc . ent . soc . philad . 5 : 136 . tl : usa , pennsylvania . holotype : ansp . unknown .\ngurgitana robinson , 1869 ( tortrix ) , trans . am . ent . soc 2 : 263 . tl : usa . illinois . lectotype : ansp . female .\nguritana darlington , 1947 ( cacoecia ) , trans . am . ent . soc 73 : 102 . no type\nlintneriana grote , 1873 ( tortrix ) , trans . am . ent . soc 4 : 424 . tl : usa . new york . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nrileyana grote , 1868 ( tortrix ) , trans . am . ent . soc 2 : 121 . tl : usa , missouri . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nfervidana walker , 1863 ( cacoecia ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus 28 : 313 . tl : usa . georgia . holotype : bmnh . male .\nrosana linnaeus , 1758 ( phalaena ( tortrix ) ) , systema naturae ( 10th ed . ) : 530 . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nacerana hubner , [ 1796 - 1799 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 19 , fig . 118 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nameriana linnaeus , 1758 ( phalaena ( tortrix ) ) , systema naturae ( 10th ed . ) : 531 . tl : north america . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\namericana gmelin , 1788 ( phalaena ) , systema naturae ( 13th ed . ) : 2504 . no type\namerina linnaeus , 1761 ( phalaena ( tortrix ) ) , fauna svecica ( 2nd ed . ) : 343 . no type\navellana linnaeus , 1758 ( phalaena ( tortrix ) ) , systema naturae ( 10th ed . ) : 531 . tl : north america . lectotype : lsl . male .\nhewittana busck , 1920 ( cacoecia ) , can . ent . 52 : 125 . tl : canada . nova scotia , sydney . holotype : cnc . male .\nlaevigana [ denis & schiffermuller ] , 1775 ( tortrix ) , syst . verz . schmett . wienergegend : 129 : tl : austria . vienna . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nlevigana illiger , 1801 ( tortrix ) , syst . verz . schmett . wienergegend : 2 : 57 . no type\nnebulana stephens , 1834 ( lozotaenia ) , illust . br . ent . ( haustellata ) 4 : 74 . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\nobscura dufrane , 1944 ( cacoecia rosana ab . ) , bull . mus . r . hist . nat . belg 20 ( 18 ) : 8 tl : belgium . mons . holotype : irsn . male .\nochracea dufrane , 1945 ( cacoecia rosana ab . ) , bull . mus . r . hist . nat . belg . 20 ( 18 ) : 8 . tl : ? . saint - symphorien . holotype : irsn . female .\norientana krulikowsky , 1909 ( cacoecia rosana var . ) , mater . pozn . faun . ross . imp 9 : 203 . tl : russia . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\noxyacanthana hubner , [ 1796 - 1799 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 18 , fig . 117 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nsplendana kennel , 1910 ( cacoecia rosana var . ) , palaear . tortr . : 131 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : mnhu . unknown .\ntestaceana eversmann , 1844 ( tortrix ) , fauna lepid . volgo - ural . : 486 . tl : russia . kasan , orenburg . syntype ( s ) : zmas . unknown .\nvariana fabricius , 1787 ( pyralis ) , mantissa insectorum 2 : 231 . tl : germany . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nseditiosa meyrick , 1921 ( cacoecia ) , zool . meded 6 : 147 . tl : indonesia , java , buitenzorg . lectotype : ncb . female .\nbrachytoma meyrick , 1932 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 4 : 341 tl : malaysia . kuala lumpur . holotype : bmnh . male .\norientalis diakonoff , 1941 ( cacoecia seditiosa ssp . ) , treubia 18 : 414 . tl : indonesia . east java , tengger mountains , nongodjajar . lectotype : ncb . male .\nsemiferanus walker , 1863 ( lophoderus ? ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus 28 : 336 . tl : ? , unknown [ north america ] . holotype : bmnh . male .\nflaccidana robinson , 1869 ( tortrix ) , trans . am . ent . soc 2 : 277 . tl : usa . holotype : unknown . unknown .\nsemistructa meyrick , 1937 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 5 : 126 . tl : china , taichow . holotype : bmnh . male .\nsemistractus kawabe , 1965 ( archippus ) , trans . lepid . soc . japan 16 : 29 . no type\nsolida meyrick , 1908 ( cacoecia ) , j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 18 : 614 . tl : india , bangla , darjiling . lectotype : bmnh . male .\nsubrufana snellen , 1883 ( tortrix ) , tijdschr . ent . 26 : 187 . tl : russia , primorsky krai , suifun . syntype ( s ) : ncb . 1 male .\ncoreensis park , 1976 ( archippus ) , ty to ga 26 : 110 . tl : korea . suweon . holotype : cisk . male .\nsymmetra meyrick , 1918 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 2 : 166 . tl : congo , french congo [ congo ] ( bangi ) . holotype : bmnh . female .\ntermias meyrick , 1918 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 2 : 164 . tl : india , assam , shillong . lectotype : bmnh . male .\npomivora meyrick , 1920 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 2 : 340 . tl : india . himalaya , kumaon , ramgarh . holotype : bmnh . male .\nsarcostega meyrick , 1924 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 3 : 106 . tl : india . kumaon , muktesar . lectotype : bmnh . male .\nstenoptycha diakonoff , 1951 ( homona termias ssp . ) , ark . zool . ( 2 ) 3 : 65 . tl : india . burma ( kambaiti ) . holotype : nhrs . male .\ntharsaleopa meyrick , in caradja & meyrick , 1935 ( cacoecia ) , mat . microlepid . fauna chin . prov . : 50 . tl : china , chekiang province , tien - mu - shan . holotype : bmnh . male .\ntsuganus powell , 1962 ( archippus ) , can . ent . 94 : 842 . tl : canada , british columbia , knight inlet . holotype : cnc . male .\nxylosteana linnaeus , 1758 ( phalaena ( tortrix ) ) , systema naturae ( 10th ed . ) : 531 . lectotype : lsl . female .\ncharacterana hubner , 1793 ( phalaena tortrix ) , samml . auser . vogel schmett . 11 , pl . 58 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\ndensana villers , 1789 ( phalaena tortrix ) , c . linnaei . ent . faun . suec . descr . 2 : 416 . no type\ndensata geoffroy , in fourcroy , 1785 ( phalaena ) , ent . paris . 2 : 304 . tl : france . syntype ( s ) : mnhn . unknown .\ngilvana eversmann , 1842 ( tortrix ) , bull . soc . imp . nat . moscou 15 : 562 . tl : russia . syntype ( s ) : zmas .\nhybnerana fabricius , 1794 ( pyralis ) , entomologia systematica 3 ( 2 ) : 247 . tl : germany . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nobliquana fabricius , 1781 ( pyralis ) , species insectorum 2 : 281 . tl : great britain . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\npallens kennel , 1910 ( cacoecia xylosteana var . ) , palaear . tortr . 130 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : mnhu . unknown .\nwestriniana thunberg & borgstrom , 1784 ( tortrix ) , d . d . dissert . ent . sist . ins . svecica 1 : 21 . tl : sweden . uppland . lectotype : unknown . male .\nunless noted , all images on these pages are copyright \u00a9 2003 - 14 by todd gilligan . please do not download , copy , print , or otherwise distribute any images from these pages without the permission of the author . contact form .\nforewing color is a variable combination of reddish brown , dark brown , and tan . the majority of specimens have two contrasting triangular to semi - rectangular pale tan patches on the costa . females are generally lighter in color than males . males have a forewing costal fold .\nlast instar larvae are translucent green with a reddish - brown to dark brown mottled head and an amber prothoracic shield with brown lateral edging . the prothoracic legs are brown or black while the other thoracic legs are pale and unmarked .\nthis species completes a single generation per year . adults are present from mid - may through july .\neggs are laid in masses on the twigs of the host and covered by the female with a substance that hardens to create a smooth , hard surface . eggs are laid in june and july and do not hatch until the following year . first instar larvae hatch in late februrary to mid - may and bore into buds . later instars roll or tie leaves together or to fruit and partially emerge from the shelter to feed . larvae may feed on leaves , flowers , buds , or fruits of the host . pupation occurs within the larval shelter and adults eclose in 10 - 12 days . the adult flight period lasts approximately 3 weeks .\nchapman , p . j . and s . e . lienk . 1971 . tortricid fauna of apple in new york ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) ; including an account of apple ' s occurrence in the state , especially as a naturalized plant . spec . publ . geneva , ny : new york state agricultural experiment station . 122 pp .\npowell , j . a . 1964 . biological and taxonomic studies on tortricine moths , with reference to the species in california . university of california publications in entomology . vol . 32 . 317 pp .\nfigures 5 - 9 used with permission from university of california statewide ipm program . please visit the uc ipm web site for more information .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nadults -\nfw cream and yellow , heavily mottled with reddish to blackish brown .\nsexually dimorphic and geographically variable . males dark brown to reddish brown with distictive white markings proceding and following a median transverse fascia which becomes diffuse toward the dorsal area . hindwing gray with pale fringe . females have blurred forewing pattern . western populations vary to pale , golden tan form with white hindwing . colorado populations\nlarvae - bright green with black hc until the last instar , which has a dark gray dorsum caused by minute , black spirulae , and a browish head capsule .\nmostly apr - aug ( mpg ) , but only three weeks at any one location .\napple , pear , apricot , cherry , peach , plum , alfalfa , beans , blueberries , cedar , grapes , elms , oaks , onions . it may feed on leaves , flowers , buds , or fruits .\none generation a year . eggs are laid in june and july and hatch the following year . they are laid in masses on twigs of host . the female covers them with a substance that hardens to create a smooth , hard surface .\nin the first half of the 20th century there were severe outbreaks . they were brought under control by pesticides in the mid - 1950 ' s .\nwalker , f . , 1863 . list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum . part xxviii \u2013 tortricites and tineites .\nlist of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum . part xxviii \u2013 tortricites and tineites francis walker . 1863 . british museum ( natural history ) , p . 287 - 561 .\ndictionary of word roots and combining forms donald j . borror . 1960 . mayfield publishing company .\nfield guide to moths of eastern north america charles v . covell , jr . 2005 .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\npowell , j . a . & p . a . opler , moths of western north america , pl . 18 . 30m , 18 . 42f ; p . 149 . book review and ordering\nforewing cream and yellow , heavily mottled with reddish to blackish brown . two whitish costal spots are sharpest markings . hindwing dark gray .\napple , pear , apricot , cherries , peaches , plums , alfalfa , beans , blueberries , cedar , grapes , elms , oaks , onions , and prunus species .\nforewing color is a variable combination of reddish brown , dark brown , and tan . the majority of individuals have two contrasting triangular to semi - rectangular pale - tan patches on the costa . females are generally lighter in color than males . males have a forewing costal fold .\nlast instar larvae are 15 - 24 mm in length with a translucent green or gray abdomen . the head is reddish brown to dark brown and may be mottled in some individuals ; head markings are too variable to be diagnostic . the prothoracic shield is amber with brown lateral shading . prothoracic legs are brown or black while the other thoracic legs are pale and unmarked .\nprunus ilicifolia ( nutt . ex hook . & arn . ) d . dietr .\ncitrus x sinensis ( l . ) osbeck ( pro sp . ) [ maxima x reticulata ]\nfreeman , t . n . 1958 . the archipinae of north america ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) . the canadian entomologist supplement 7 ( vol . 90 ) : 1 - 89 .\npowell , j . a . and p . a . opler . 2009 . moths of western north america . university of california press , berkeley . 369 pp .\ntortricids of agricultural importance by todd m . gilligan and marc e . epstein interactive keys developed in lucid 3 . 5 . last updated august 2014 .\nif you have any good quality photographs and would like to contribute , please contact me by email at ian @ ukmoths . co . uk .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 06 - 16 11 : 05 : 15 page render time : 0 . 2935s total w / procache : 0 . 3584s\non apple osx , or right click on the text above to copy the link .\nadults are active from late june to late july in alberta , april to july elsewhere . ( chapman & lienk 1971 ; razowski 1977 ; forbes 1923 )\nthe adult is highly variable in wing pattern . most commonly it is heavily mottled with brown to orange . the darkest markings are normally in the basal patch , slanted median band , and postmedian blotch that can extend to the anal angle . distinctive bright yellow to cream squares are often present on the costa between the darker bands . the hindwings are typically dark grey with a lighter fringe . males have a costal fold that extends to or barely past the basal patch . the larva is green with scattered pale warts and fine setae . the prothoracic shield is dirty green with variable amounts of black or dark brown laterally and the head is shiny dark or light brown . the larva can not be reliably separated from\nand is closely similar to several other common tortricid species . ( chapman & lienk 1971 ; mackay 1962 )\nthe eggs are laid in oval batches of 20 - 100 eggs on the twigs or bark of the host tree . the first instar larvae often spin strands of silk and under ideal wind conditions can disperse to other areas . larvae construct leaf - rolls where they emerge from to feed and when disturbed the larvae either retreat or suspend down on a line of silk . populations are highly cyclical and can this species can become a pest in orchards . ( chapman & lienk 1971 ; razowski 1977 ; kruse & sperling 2001 )\nthe larvae feed on the foliage and fruit of a wide variety of deciduous trees and shrubs and occasionally forbs . it can be a serious pest in apple , pear , cherry , plum , peach , apricot , and citrus orchards . ( chapman & lienk 1971 ; kruse & sperling 2001 ; razowski 1977 ; freeman 1958 ; forbes 1923 )\nthroughout canada from the southern northwest territories and most of the us and into central america .\nthis is complex group to define and may involve cryptic species , conversely other related taxa may also belong here ( razowski 1977 ) . this species also includes a . mortuana ( kruse & sperling 2001 ) .\ncomments are published according to our submission guidelines . the eh strickland entomological museum does not necessarily endorse the views expressed ."]}
{"id": 261, "summary": [{"text": "anodorhynchus is a genus of large blue macaws from open and semi-open habitats in central and eastern south america .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it includes two endangered species , the hyacinth macaw and lear 's macaw also known as the indigo macaw , and one probably extinct species , the glaucous macaw .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "at about 100 centimetres ( 39 in ) in length the hyacinth macaw is the longest parrot in the world .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "glaucous and lear 's macaws are exclusively cliff nesters ; hyacinth macaws are mostly tree nesters .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the three species mainly feed on the nuts from a few species of palms ( notably acrocomia aculeata , attalea phalerata , butia yatay and syagrus coronata ) .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "while blue macaws have been known from taxidermic and captive specimens since at least 1790 , location of the lear 's macaw 's endemic habitat was n't known until 1978 .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the glaucous macaw was extirpated in the 1800s by clearance for agriculture and cattle grazing of the yatay palm ( butia yatay ) groves upon which it fed , though rumors of its continued existence persist .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "lear 's macaws have made a comeback from near extinction in the early 1980s ( about 60 birds ) to over 1000 as a result of conservation programs .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "hyacinth macaws remain locally common within parts of their range , but their range has become fragmented into three known distinct populations in southern brazil , eastern bolivia and northeastern paraguay ; populations are declining due to extensive trapping for the pet trade as well as habitat loss .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "both hyacinth and lear 's macaws are listed on cites appendix 1 . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "anodorhynchus", "paragraphs": ["anodorhynchus leari bonaparte 1856 naumannia 6 consp . psitt . inbeilag . no . 1\nkey words : avian karyotype , anodorhynchus , deroptyus , psittaciformes , conservation biology , cytotaxonomy .\nmich\u0430el fr\u0430nkis marked\nfile : anodorhynchus hyacinthinus - rio grande do sul , brazil - nest - 8 . jpg\nas trusted on the\nanodorhynchus hyacinthinus latham , 1790\npage .\nmich\u0430el fr\u0430nkis marked\nfile : anodorhynchus hyacinthinus - mato grosso do sul , brazil - eating - 8 . jpg\nas trusted on the\nanodorhynchus hyacinthinus latham , 1790\npage .\nmich\u0430el fr\u0430nkis marked\nfile : anodorhynchus hyacinthinus - rio grande do sul , brazil - pair - 8 . jpg\nas trusted on the\nanodorhynchus hyacinthinus latham , 1790\npage .\nanodorhynchus glaucus\u2020 ( vieillot ) 1816 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 2 p . 259\nanodorhynchus glaucus : formerly southern brazil , southern paraguay , northeastern uruguay , and northern argentina . possibly extinct\nmich\u0430el fr\u0430nkis marked\nfile : araraazulemguanandi . jpg\nas trusted on the\nanodorhynchus hyacinthinus latham , 1790\npage .\nyan wong changed the thumbnail image of\nfile : anodorhynchus hyacinthinus - mato grosso do sul , brazil - nest - 8 ( 3 ) . jpg\n.\nto cite this page : hagan , e . 2004 .\nanodorhynchus hyacinthinus\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nseventeen females and twenty - seven males of anodorhynchus hyacinthinus and three males and two females of deroptyus accipitrinus were analyzed . all specimens were maintained by ecological parks , zoological gardens or private bird breeders .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : anodorhynchus hyacinthinus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nalthough in external appearance deroptyus can resemble a parrot of genus amazona ( similar in size and not presenting long central rectrizes ) , our karyotypic data corroborate previous mtdna findings ( miyaki et al . , 1998 ) , indicating that deroptyus could be more related to species of the genera anodorhynchus , ara , cyanopsitta , propyrrhura , aratinga , pionites , pionopsitta , nandayus and guaruba .\ncollar , n . , boesman , p . & sharpe , c . j . ( 2018 ) . hyacinth macaw ( anodorhynchus hyacinthinus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nanodorhynchus hyacinthinus showed a diploid number of 2n = 70 in 202 analyzed metaphases , comprising macro - and microchromosomes . chromosome pairs 1 , 7 , and 10 were metacentric ; pairs 5 , 6 , 8 , 9 , and 11 were submetacentric ; and pairs 2 , 3 , and 4 were subtelocentric . the microchromosomes were telocentric up to the point to which their morphology could be identified . the z - chromosome was metacentric and about the same size as chromosome 5 , and the w - chromosome was submetacentric and about the same size as chromosome 9 ( figure 1 ) .\na first karyotype pattern can be observed among genera ara , cyanopsitta , propyrrhura , aratinga , pionites , pionopsitta , nandayus and guaruba , mainly characterized by a conservative metacentric pair 1 , pairs 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , and 6 varying from submetacentric to subtelocentric , pairs 7 and 8 varying from metacentric to submetacentric , and pairs 9 , 10 , and 11 varying from metacentric to telocentric ( de lucca , 1984 ; van dongen and de boer , 1984 ; de lucca et al . , 1991 ; duarte and giannoni , 1990 ; goldschmidt et al . , 1997 ; francisco et al . , 2001 ; francisco and galetti jr . , 2001 ) . the karyotypes of anodorhynchus hyacinthinus and deroptyus accipitrinus described here also presented this main pattern .\nwhile molecular genetic analyses have been widely applied in both in situ and ex situ management plans ( miyaki et al . , 1993 ; nader et al . , 1999 ; negro and torres , 1999 ; hudson et al . , 2000 ; caparroz et al . , 2001 ; bouzat , 2001 ; miyaki and eberhard , 2002 ) , karyotype analyses have rarely been considered . cytogenetic studies in neotropical psittacids have been restricted to the karyotype description of species easily found in captivity , but the origin of the specimens was usually unknown . although the detection of chromosome variants is not less important than dna polymorphism to conserve the genetic diversity and evolutionary potential of the species , karyotype studies in wild populations are scarce . karyotype characterization of anodorhynchus hyacinthinus and deroptyus accipitrinus can be a starting point for genetic monitoring of these two declining species .\nneotropical parrots are among the most threatened groups of birds in the world , and many species are facing extinction in a near future . at the same time , the taxonomic position of many species remains unclear . karyotype analysis has been used to elucidate the phylogenetic status of many bird groups , also providing important information for both in situ and ex situ conservation plans . the objective of the present study was to describe for the first time the karyotypes of the endangered hyacinth macaw , anodorhynchus hyacinthinus , and of the hawk - headed parrot , deroptyus accipitrinus . a diploid number of 2n = 70 and a karyotype similar to the main pattern previously found for the genera ara , cyanopsitta , aratinga , propyrrhura , pionites , pionopsitta , nandayus , and guaruba were found for both species . these karyotype descriptions can be a starting point for the genetic monitoring of these two declining species .\npartial karyotype descriptions of both a . hyacinthinus and d . accipitrinus were previously published by rocha et al . ( 1995 ) and goldschmidt et al . ( 1996 ) . however , for karyotype monitoring purposes , a complete characterization of the chromosome complement of each species is necessary ( benirschke et al . , 1980 ) . the objective of this work was to present for the first time a detailed karyotype description of a . hyacinthinus and d . accipitrinus , which can be useful for biological conservation approaches . cytotaxonomic considerations are also discussed , since karyotype analysis has been used to elucidate relationships among neotropical psittacidae ( de lucca and marco , 1993 ; de lucca , 1984 ; van dongen and de boer , 1984 ; de lucca et al . , 1991 ; duarte and giannoni , 1990 , duarte and caparroz , 1995 ; goldschmidt et al . , 1997 ; francisco and galetti jr . , 2001 ; francisco et al . , 2001 ) , and both anodorhynchus and deroptyus genera are poorly known from this point of view .\nneotropical parrots comprise one of the most endangered groups of birds in the world . it is estimated that about 30 % of the 140 living species are facing some risk of extinction , and most of the non - endangered species are experiencing population decline ( collar and juniper , 1992 ) . habitat loss and human exploitation are the major causes leading to the extinction of these birds . brazil is the country in the world with the greatest number of psittacidae species ( forshaw , 1989 ) . however , 17 out of the 72 living species are cited in the red list of threatened species of the iucn ( international union for conservation of nature and natural resources ) , and one of them , anodorhynchus glaucus , is already extinct ( sick , 1997 ) . large species need large areas to mantain viable demographic population ( galetti et al . , 2002 ) , and are among the most threatened ( sick , 1997 ) . if conservation actions are not implemented , many other species can disappear in a near future , just like a . glaucus .\nvocalization has been considered a reliable character to distinguish monophyletic genera of neotropical psittacidae ( sick , 1990 ) . based on this character , it has been suggested that ara macao , a . ararauna , a . glaucogularis , a . militaris , a . ambigua , a . chloroptera , a . rubrogenys and a . severa were related to the blue macaws ( anodorhynchus hyacinthinus , a . glaucus and a . leari ) , composing the group of true macaws . other species previously assigned to genus ara , such as maracana , auricollis , manilata and nobilis , were assembled in the maracan\u00e3s group , because their behavior resembles that of the small parakeets of genus aratinga . early classifications have probably overestimated body size and facial bare characters ( sick , 1990 ) . karyotype data of the species analyzed thus far ( see aquino and ferrari , 1990 ; francisco and galetti jr . , 2001 ) , obtained by conventional giemsa staining , have not been able to support this subdivision , because a single general karyotype pattern has been observed in both the true macaws and the maracan\u00e3s . further studies including chromosome banding could be helpful to elucidate species relationships .\nthe hyancinth macaw , anodorhynchus hyacinthinus , is the largest species within the order psittaciformes . it inhabits a vast area of cerrado and gallery forests of central brazil , from the tapaj\u00f3s river eastward to the states of maranh\u00e3o and piau\u00ed , and southward through western bahia and goi\u00e1s to minas gerais and mato grosso , and adjacent pantanal regions of easternmost bolivia and northeast paraguay ( forshaw , 1989 ; collar and juniper , 1992 ; sick , 1997 ) . today , it is extinct in most of its original distribution sites , and the remaining populations are markedly declining , due to trading and hunting ( collar and juniper , 1992 ; sick , 1997 ) . the total number of individuals has been estimated to be no more than 5000 ( collar and juniper , 1992 ; sick , 1997 ) . in 1987 , a . hyacinthinus was included in appendix i of cites ( convention for the international trade of endangered species ) , and in 1989 in the list of\ninstituto brasileiro do meio ambiente e dos recursos naturais\n- ibama ( brazilian institute of environment and natural resources ) as a species at risk for extinction ( sick , 1997 ) .\nthe treatment of species is as per jetz et al . ( 2012 ) and follows the birdlife v3 world list ( june 2010 , 9 , 895 extant species recognized ) . of birdlife v3 we did not recognize nine species ( anodorhynchus glaucus , gallinula pacifica , gallirallus lafresnayanus , oceanodroma macrodactyla , ophrysia superciliosa , rhodonessa caryophyllacea , siphonorhis americana , tadorna cristata , vanellus macropterus ) that are widely considered extinct and three ( heliangelus zusii , atlapetes blancae , upupa marginata ) that are considered not valid by most authorities ( resulting in 9 , 882 accepted species ) . in addition to birdlife v3 we recognize 111 species that are considered valid by the handbook of the birds of the world ( del hoyo et al . 1992 - 2011 ) and / or birds of the western palearctic ( cramp et al . 1978 - 1994 ) and / or birds of africa ( urban et al . 1986 - 2000 ) and that are also recognized by ioc world list v2 . 7 ( dec 29 , 2010 ) , resulting in a total of 9 , 993 recognized species . our species lists and taxonomic information is provided in table s2 . we updated the threat categories of the birdlife v3 list with the 2012 assessment data ( based on birdlife v5 ; 225 species changed threat status compared to 2010 ) . birdlife taxonomy v5 recognizes 9 , 935 extant species compared to 9 , 895 in v3 . 45 additional species not considered extinct were reviewed in birdlife v5 compared to v3 . of these 4 were new discoveries and 41 were splits from species in v3 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nstrigops ( f . ) gray , gr 1845 gen . birds 2 p . 426 pl . cv\nstrigops habroptila gray , gr 1845 gen . birds 2 p . 427 pl . cv\nnestor meridionalis ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 333\nnestor meridionalis meridionalis ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 333\nnestor meridionalis septentrionalis lorenz von liburnau , l 1896 verh . k . k . zool . - bot . ges . wien 46 p . 198\nnymphicus hollandicus ( kerr ) 1792 anim . kingd . [ kerr ] 1 pt2 p . 580\ncalyptorhynchus banksii banksii ( latham ) 1790 indexorn . 1 p . 107 concept nomenclature\ncalyptorhynchus banksii graptogyne schodde , saunders , da & homberger 1989 canberrabirdnotes 13 p . 120\ncalyptorhynchus banksii macrorhynchus gould 1843 pzs [\n1842\n] pt10 no . 117 p . 138\ncalyptorhynchus banksii naso gould 1837 pzs [\n1836\n] pt4 no . 46 p . 106\ncalyptorhynchus banksii samueli mathews 1917 birdsaustr . [ mathews ] 6 pt2 p . 120\ncalyptorhynchus lathami ( temminck ) 1807 cat . syst . cab . orn . quad . p . 21\ncalyptorhynchus lathami erebus schodde & mason , ij 1993 emu 93 p . 156 - 166\ncalyptorhynchus lathami lathami ( temminck ) 1807 cat . syst . cab . orn . quad . p . 21\ncalyptorhynchus funereus ( shaw ) 1794 nat . misc . 6 pl . 186 , text\ncalyptorhynchus funereus funereus ( shaw ) 1794 nat . misc . 6 pl . 186 , text\ncalyptorhynchus funereus whiteae mathews 1912 australav . rec . 1 no . 2 p . 35\ncalyptorhynchus funereus xanthanotus gould 1838 syn . birdsaustr . pt4 app . p . 4\ncalyptorhynchus baudinii lear 1832 ill . psittac . [ lear ] pt12 pl . 6\ncalyptorhynchus latirostris carnaby 1948 w . austral . nat . 1 p . 136 - 138\nprobosciger aterrimus ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 330\nprobosciger aterrimus aterrimus ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 330\nprobosciger aterrimus goliath ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 92\nprobosciger aterrimus macgillivrayi ( mathews ) 1912 novit . zool . 18 p . 261\ncallocephalon ( n . ) lesson 1837 j . navig . thet . esperance [ bougainville ] 2 p . 311 atlas pl . 39 , 40\ncallocephalon fimbriatum ( grant , j ) 1803 narr . voy . disc . news . wales pl . opp . p . 135\neolophus roseicapilla ( vieillot ) 1817 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 17 p . 12 nomenclature\neolophus roseicapilla kuhli ( mathews ) 1912 novit . zool . 18 p . 266\neolophus roseicapilla roseicapilla ( vieillot ) 1817 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 17 p . 12 nomenclature\nlophochroa leadbeateri ( vigors ) 1831 pzs pt1 no . 6 p . 61 concept\nlophochroa leadbeateri leadbeateri ( vigors ) 1831 pzs pt1 no . 6 p . 61 concept\nlophochroa leadbeateri mollis ( mathews ) 1912 novit . zool . 18 p . 265\ncacatua tenuirostris ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 88\ncacatua pastinator ( gould ) 1841 pzs [\n1840\n] pt8 no . 95 p . 175\ncacatua pastinator derbyi ( mathews ) 1916 australav . rec . 3 p . 57\ncacatua pastinator pastinator ( gould ) 1841 pzs [\n1840\n] pt8 no . 95 p . 175\ncacatua sanguinea gould 1843 pzs [\n1842\n] pt10 no . 117 p . 138\ncacatua sanguinea gymnopis sclater , pl 1871 pzs pt2 p . 490 , 493 , textfig .\ncacatua sanguinea normantoni ( mathews ) 1917 birdsaustr . [ mathews ] 6 pt2 p . 211\ncacatua sanguinea sanguinea gould 1843 pzs [\n1842\n] pt10 no . 117 p . 138\ncacatua sanguinea westralensis ( mathews ) 1917 birdsaustr . [ mathews ] 6 pt2 p . 211\ncacatua goffiniana roselaar , cs & michels 2004 zool . verh . leiden 350 p . 186 nomenclature\ncacatua ducorpsii pucheran 1853 voy . polesudzool . 3 mamm . ois . p . 108 nomenclature\ncacatua galerita eleonora finsch 1863 nederl . tijdschr . dierk . 1 p . xxi nomenclature\ncacatua galerita fitzroyi ( mathews ) 1912 novit . zool . 18 p . 264\ncacatua galerita triton temminck 1849 coup - d ' oeilposs . neerland . 3 p . 405 , note\ncacatua sulphurea ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 330\ncacatua sulphurea abbotti ( oberholser ) 1917 proc . u . s . natl . mus . 54 no . 2232 p . 181\ncacatua sulphurea citrinocristata ( fraser ) 1844 pzs pt12 no . 132 p . 38\ncacatua sulphurea parvula ( bonaparte ) 1850 compt . rend . 30 p . 139\ncacatua sulphurea sulphurea ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 330\ncacatua moluccensis ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 331\npoicephalus gulielmi ( jardine ) 1849 contrib . orn . [ jardine ] p .\n64 - 14\npl . 28\npoicephalus gulielmi gulielmi ( jardine ) 1849 contrib . orn . [ jardine ] p .\n64 - 14\npl . 28\npoicephalus gulielmi massaicus fischer & reichenow 1884 j . orn . 32 no . 165 p . 179 nomenclature\npoicephalus flavifrons ( ruppell ) 1842 mus . senckenb . 3 no . 2 p . 126\npoicephalus fuscicollis ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 93 systematics\npoicephalus fuscicollis fuscicollis ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 93\npoicephalus fuscicollis suahelicus reichenow 1898 j . orn . 46 no . 2 p . 314\npoicephalus robustus ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 344\npoicephalus meyeri ( cretzschmar ) 1827 atlasreis . nord . afr . vog . [ ruppell ] [\n1826\n] p . 18 pl . 11\npoicephalus meyeri damarensis neumann 1898 j . orn . 46 no . 3 p . 501\npoicephalus meyeri matschiei neumann 1898 j . orn . 46 no . 3 p . 501\npoicephalus meyeri meyeri ( cretzschmar ) 1827 atlasreis . nord . afr . vog . [ ruppell ] [\n1826\n] p . 18 pl . 11\npoicephalus meyeri reichenowi neumann 1898 j . orn . 46 no . 3 p . 501\npoicephalus meyeri transvaalensis neumann 1899 orn . monatsb . 7 no . 2 p . 25\npoicephalus rueppellii ( gray , gr ) 1849 pzs [\n1848\n] pt16 no . 188 p . 125 pl . 5\npoicephalus cryptoxanthus ( peters , w ) 1854 ber . k . preuss . akad . wiss . berlin p . 371\npoicephalus cryptoxanthus cryptoxanthus ( peters , w ) 1854 ber . k . preuss . akad . wiss . berlin p . 371\npoicephalus cryptoxanthus tanganyikae bowen 1930 proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia 82 p . 267\npoicephalus crassus ( sharpe ) 1884 j . linn . soc . londonzool . 17 p . 429\npoicephalus senegalus ( linnaeus ) 1766 syst . nat . ed . 12 p . 149\npoicephalus senegalus senegalus ( linnaeus ) 1766 syst . nat . ed . 12 p . 149\npoicephalus senegalus versteri finsch 1863 nederl . tijdschr . dierk . 1 p . xvi\npoicephalus rufiventris ( ruppell ) 1842 mus . senckenb . 3 no . 2 p . 125\npoicephalus rufiventris rufiventris ( ruppell ) 1842 mus . senckenb . 3 no . 2 p . 125\ntouit ( m . ) gray , gr 1855 cat . gen . subgen . birds p . 89 nomenclature\ntouit huetii ( temminck ) 1830 pl . col . livr . 83 pl . 491\ntouit costaricensis ( cory ) 1913 fieldmus . nat . hist . pub . orn . ser . 1 p . 283\ntouit dilectissimus ( sclater , pl & salvin ) 1871 pzs [\n1870\n] pt3 p . 788 pl . 47 nomenclature\ntouit purpuratus ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 350 nomenclature\ntouit purpuratus purpuratus ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 350 nomenclature\ntouit purpuratus viridiceps chapman 1929 am . mus . novit . no . 380 p . 10\ntouit melanonotus ( wied - neuwied ) 1820 reisebrasil . 1 p . 275 nomenclature\ntouit surdus ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 59 nomenclature\ntouit stictopterus ( sclater , pl ) 1862 pzs pt1 p . 112 pl . 11 nomenclature\npsilopsiagon aymara ( orbigny ) 1839 voy . am . merid . 2 p . 376 , note1\npsilopsiagon aurifrons ( lesson ) 1830 cent . zool . p . 63 pl . 18\npsilopsiagon aurifrons aurifrons ( lesson ) 1830 cent . zool . p . 63 pl . 18\npsilopsiagon aurifrons margaritae ( berlioz & dorst ) 1956 ois . rev . franceorn . ( n . s . ) 26 p . 85\npsilopsiagon aurifrons robertsi carriker 1933 proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia 85 p . 4\npsilopsiagon aurifrons rubrirostris ( burmeister ) 1860 j . orn . 8 no . 46 p . 243\nbolborhynchus lineola ( cassin ) 1853 proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia 6 p . 372\nbolborhynchus lineola lineola ( cassin ) 1853 proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia 6 p . 372\nbolborhynchus lineola tigrinus ( souance ) 1856 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 8 p . 144\nbolborhynchus orbygnesius ( souance ) 1856 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 8 p . 63 , 64 nomenclature\nnannopsittaca panychlora ( salvin & godman ) 1883 ibis p . 211 pl . 9 fig . 1\nnannopsittaca dachilleae o ' neill , munn & franke 1991 auk 108 p . 225 , 226\nmyiopsitta monachus calita ( jardine & selby ) 1830 ill . orn . 2 pt6 pl . 82 , text [ p . 61 ]\nmyiopsitta monachus cotorra ( vieillot ) 1818 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 25 [\n1817\n] p . 362\nbrotogeris sanctithomae sanctithomae ( statius muller ) 1776 natursyst . suppl . p . 81\nbrotogeris sanctithomae takatsukasae neumann 1931 mitt . zool . mus . berlin 17 heft3 p . 442\nbrotogeris tirica ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 351\nbrotogeris chiriri ( vieillot ) 1818 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 25 [\n1817\n] p . 359\nbrotogeris chiriri behni neumann 1931 mitt . zool . mus . berlin 17 heft3 p . 443\nbrotogeris chiriri chiriri ( vieillot ) 1818 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 25 [\n1817\n] p . 359\nbrotogeris pyrrhoptera ( latham ) 1802 suppl . ind . orn . p . xxii\nbrotogeris jugularis exsul todd 1917 proc . biol . soc . wash . 30 p . 129\nbrotogeris jugularis jugularis ( statius muller ) 1776 natursyst . suppl . p . 80\nbrotogeris cyanoptera ( pelzeln ) 1870 orn . brasil . abth . 3 p . 260 citation\nbrotogeris cyanoptera beniensis gyldenstolpe 1941 ark . zool . 33a no . 12 p . 9\nbrotogeris cyanoptera cyanoptera ( pelzeln ) 1870 orn . brasil . abth . 3 p . 260 citation\nbrotogeris chrysoptera ( linnaeus ) 1766 syst . nat . ed . 12 p . 149\nbrotogeris chrysoptera chrysoptera ( linnaeus ) 1766 syst . nat . ed . 12 p . 149\nbrotogeris chrysoptera solimoensis gyldenstolpe 1941 ark . zool . 33a no . 12 p . 10\nbrotogeris chrysoptera tenuifrons friedmann 1945 proc . biol . soc . wash . 58 p . 114\nbrotogeris chrysoptera tuipara ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 348\ntriclaria malachitacea ( spix ) 1824 av . sp . nov . brasil . 1 p . 40 pl . 28\npyrilia haematotis ( sclater , pl & salvin ) 1860 pzs pt ( 28 ) 2 p . 300\npyrilia haematotis coccinicollaris ( lawrence ) 1862 ann . lyc . nat . hist . n . y . 7 p . 475\npyrilia haematotis haematotis ( sclater , pl & salvin ) 1860 pzs pt ( 28 ) 2 p . 300\npyrilia pyrilia ( bonaparte ) 1853 compt . rend . 37 p . 807 , note\npyrilia pulchra ( berlepsch ) 1897 orn . monatsb . 5 no . 11 p . 175\npyrilia barrabandi ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 61\npyrilia barrabandi aurantiigena ( gyldenstolpe ) 1951 ark . zool . ( 2 ) 2 p . 14 , 67\npyrilia barrabandi barrabandi ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 61\npyrilia caica ( latham ) 1790 indexorn . 1 p . 128 no . 137\npyrilia aurantiocephala ( gaban - lima , r , raposo , ma & hofling , e ) 2002 auk 119 p . 815 , 816 systematics\npyrilia vulturina ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 62 systematics\nhapalopsittaca amazonina ( des murs ) 1845 rev . zool . 8 p . 207\nhapalopsittaca amazonina amazonina ( des murs ) 1845 rev . zool . 8 p . 207\nhapalopsittaca amazonina theresae ( hellmayr ) 1915 verh . orn . ges . bayern 12 heft3 p . 214\nhapalopsittaca amazonina velezi graves , gr & restrepo 1989 wilsonbull . 101 no . 3 p . 369 - 376 , front .\nhapalopsittaca fuertesi ( chapman ) 1912 bull . am . mus . nat . hist . 31 p . 143\nhapalopsittaca melanotis melanotis ( lafresnaye ) 1847 rev . zool . 10 p . 67\nhapalopsittaca melanotis peruviana ( carriker ) 1932 proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia 83 [\n1931\n] p . 455\npionus sordidus ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 99\npionus sordidus antelius todd 1947 ann . carnegiemus . nat . hist . 30 p . 338\npionus sordidus corallinus bonaparte 1854 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 6 p . 148\npionus sordidus mindoensis chapman 1925 am . mus . novit . no . 187 p . 1\npionus sordidus ponsi aveledo & gines 1950 mem . soc . cien . nat . lasalle 10 no . 26 p . 60\npionus sordidus saturatus todd 1915 proc . biol . soc . wash . 28 p . 81\npionus sordidus sordidus ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 99\npionus maximiliani ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 72\npionus maximiliani lacerus heine 1884 j . orn . 32 no . 166 p . 265\npionus maximiliani maximiliani ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 72\npionus maximiliani melanoblepharus ribeiro 1920 rev . mus . paulista 12 pt2 p . 61\npionus maximiliani siy souance 1856 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 8 p . 155\npionus seniloides ( massena & souance ) 1854 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 6 p . 73\npionus menstruus ( linnaeus ) 1766 syst . nat . ed . 12 p . 148\npionus menstruus menstruus ( linnaeus ) 1766 syst . nat . ed . 12 p . 148\npionus menstruus reichenowi heine 1884 j . orn . 32 no . 166 p . 264 nomenclature\npionus menstruus rubrigularis cabanis 1881 j . orn . 29 no . 154 p . 222\npionus senilis ( spix ) 1824 av . sp . nov . brasil . 1 p . 42 pl . 31 fig . 1\npionus chalcopterus ( fraser ) 1841 pzs [\n1840\n] pt8 no . 90 p . 59\ngraydidascalus brachyurus ( temminck & kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 72\nalipiopsitta ( f . ) capparoz , r & pacheco 2006 rev . brasil . orn . 14 no . 2 p . 174\nalipiopsitta xanthops ( spix ) 1824 av . sp . nov . brasil . 1 p . 39 pl . 26\namazona festiva ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 101\namazona festiva bodini ( finsch ) 1873 pzs pt2 p . 569 pl . 49\namazona festiva festiva ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 101\namazona vinacea ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 77\namazona tucumana ( cabanis ) 1885 j . orn . 33 no . 170 p . 221\namazona pretrei ( temminck ) 1830 pl . col . livr . 83 pl . 492\namazona agilis ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 99\namazona albifrons ( sparrman ) 1788 mus . carls . fasc . 3 no . 52 pl . 52\namazona albifrons albifrons ( sparrman ) 1788 mus . carls . fasc . 3 no . 52 pl . 52\namazona albifrons nana miller , w 1905 bull . am . mus . nat . hist . 21 p . 349\namazona albifrons saltuensis nelson 1899 proc . biol . soc . wash . 13 p . 26\namazona collaria ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 102\namazona leucocephala ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 100\namazona leucocephala bahamensis ( bryant , h ) 1867 proc . bostonsoc . nat . hist . 11 p . 65\namazona leucocephala hesterna bangs 1916 bull . mus . comp . zool . 60 p . 308\namazona leucocephala leucocephala ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 100\namazona vittata gracilipes\u2020 ridgway 1915 proc . biol . soc . wash . 28 p . 106\namazona autumnalis ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 102\namazona autumnalis autumnalis ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 102\namazona autumnalis lilacina lesson 1844 echomondesav . ( 2 ) 11 no . 30 col . 394 concept\namazona autumnalis salvini ( salvadori ) 1891 cat . birdsbrit . mus . 20 p . 271 , 300 pl . 7 fig . 3 citation\namazona diadema ( spix ) 1824 av . sp . nov . brasil . 1 p . 43 pl . 32\namazona viridigenalis ( cassin ) 1853 proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia 6 p . 371\namazona xantholora ( gray , gr ) 1859 listbirdsbrit . mus . pt3 sect . 2 p . 83\namazona dufresniana ( shaw ) 1812 gen . zool . [ shaw ] 8 pt2 p . 513\namazona oratrix belizensis monroe , bl jr & howell , tr 1966 occ . pap . mus . zool . lsu no . 34 p . 18\namazona oratrix oratrix ridgway 1887 man . n . am . birds p . 587\namazona auropalliata ( lesson , pa ) 1842 rev . zool . 5 p . 135\namazona auropalliata auropalliata ( lesson , pa ) 1842 rev . zool . 5 p . 135\namazona auropalliata parvipes monroe , bl jr & howell , tr 1966 occ . pap . mus . zool . lsu no . 34 p . 8\namazona ochrocephala ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 339 concept\namazona ochrocephala nattereri ( finsch ) 1865 j . orn . 12 [\n1864\n] no . 72 p . 411 citation\namazona ochrocephala ochrocephala ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 339 concept\namazona ochrocephala panamensis ( cabanis ) 1874 j . orn . 22 no . 127 p . 349\namazona barbadensis ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 339\namazona aestiva ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 101\namazona aestiva aestiva ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 101\namazona aestiva xanthopteryx ( berlepsch ) 1896 orn . monatsb . 4 no . 11 p . 173\namazona mercenarius ( tschudi ) 1844 arch . naturgesch . 10 p . 303 nomenclature\namazona mercenarius canipalliata ( cabanis ) 1874 j . orn . 22 no . 125 p . 105\namazona mercenarius mercenarius ( tschudi ) 1844 arch . naturgesch . 10 p . 303\namazona guatemalae virenticeps ( salvadori ) 1891 cat . birdsbrit . mus . 20 p . 269 , 280 citation\namazona kawalli grantsau & camargo 1989 rev . brasil . biol . 49 p . 1018 concept\namazona brasiliensis ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 102\namazona amazonica ( linnaeus ) 1766 syst . nat . ed . 12 p . 147\namazona guildingii ( vigors ) 1837 pzs [\n1836\n] pt4 no . 45 p . 80\nforpus ( m . ) boie , f 1858 j . orn . 6 no . 35 p . 363\nforpus modestus ( cabanis ) 1849 reisenbrit . - guiana [ schomburgk ] 3 p . 727 nomenclature\nforpus modestus modestus ( cabanis ) 1849 reisenbrit . - guiana [ schomburgk ] 3 p . 727 nomenclature\nforpus modestus sclateri ( gray , gr ) 1859 listbirdsbrit . mus . pt3 sect . 2 p . 86\nforpus cyanopygius ( souance ) 1856 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 8 p . 157\nforpus cyanopygius cyanopygius ( souance ) 1856 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 8 p . 157\nforpus cyanopygius insularis ( ridgway ) 1888 proc . u . s . natl . mus . 10 p . 541\nforpus passerinus ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 103\nforpus passerinus cyanochlorus ( schlegel ) 1864 mus . hist . pays - basrev . meth . crit . coll . livr . 5 no . 26 psittaci p . 31 concept\nforpus passerinus cyanophanes ( todd ) 1915 proc . biol . soc . wash . 28 p . 81\nforpus passerinus deliciosus ( ridgway ) 1888 proc . u . s . natl . mus . 10 p . 533 , 545\nforpus passerinus passerinus ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 103\nforpus passerinus viridissimus ( lafresnaye ) 1848 rev . zool . 11 p . 172\nforpus spengeli ( hartlaub ) 1885 pzs pt3 no . 40 p . 614 pl . 38 fig . 1 nomenclature\nforpus xanthopterygius ( spix ) 1824 av . sp . nov . brasil . 1 p . 38 pl . 34 fig . 1 nomenclature\nforpus xanthopterygius flavescens ( salvadori ) 1891 cat . birdsbrit . mus . 20 p . 241 , 248 citation\nforpus xanthopterygius flavissimus hellmayr 1929 fieldmus . nat . hist . pub . zool . ser . 12 p . 446\nforpus xanthopterygius xanthopterygius ( spix ) 1824 av . sp . nov . brasil . 1 p . 38 pl . 34 fig . 1\nforpus conspicillatus caucae ( chapman ) 1915 bull . am . mus . nat . hist . 34 p . 383\nforpus conspicillatus conspicillatus ( lafresnaye ) 1848 rev . zool . 11 p . 172\nforpus conspicillatus metae borrero & hernandez - camacho 1961 noved . colomb . 1 no . 6 p . 431\nforpus xanthops ( salvin ) 1895 novit . zool . 2 p . 19 pl . 2 fig . 2\npionites ( m . ) heine 1890 nomen . mus . heine . orn . [ heine & reichenow ] p . 231\npionites melanocephalus ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 102\npionites melanocephalus melanocephalus ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 102\npionites melanocephalus pallidus ( berlepsch ) 1890 j . orn . 37 [\n1889\n] no . 187 p . 317 citation\npionites leucogaster ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 70\npionites leucogaster leucogaster ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 70\npionites leucogaster xanthomerius ( sclater , pl ) 1858 pzs [\n1857\n] pt25 no . 343 p . 266\npionites leucogaster xanthurus todd 1925 proc . biol . soc . wash . 38 p . 113\nderoptyus accipitrinus ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 102\nderoptyus accipitrinus accipitrinus ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 102\npyrrhura ( f . ) bonaparte 1856 naumannia 6 consp . psitt . inbeilag . no . 1 genus . 14\npyrrhura cruentata ( wied - neuwied ) 1820 reisebrasil . 1 p . 53 , 72\npyrrhura devillei ( massena & souance ) 1854 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 6 p . 73\npyrrhura frontalis ( vieillot ) 1818 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 25 [\n1817\n] p . 361\npyrrhura frontalis chiripepe ( vieillot ) 1818 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 25 [\n1817\n] p . 361\npyrrhura frontalis frontalis ( vieillot ) 1818 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 25 [\n1817\n] p . 361\npyrrhura lepida ( wagler ) 1832 abh . k . bay . akad . wiss . 1 p . 642 concept\npyrrhura lepida anerythra neumann 1927 orn . monatsb . 35 no . 3 p . 89\npyrrhura lepida coerulescens neumann 1927 orn . monatsb . 35 no . 3 p . 89\npyrrhura lepida lepida ( wagler ) 1832 abh . k . bay . akad . wiss . 1 p . 642 concept\npyrrhura perlata ( spix ) 1824 av . sp . nov . brasil . 1 p . 35 pl . 20 concept\npyrrhura molinae ( massena & souance ) 1854 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 6 p . 73\npyrrhura molinae australis todd 1915 proc . biol . soc . wash . 28 p . 82 citation\npyrrhura molinae flavoptera maijer , herzog , kessler , friggens & fjeldsa 1998 orn . neotrop . 9 p . 186\npyrrhura molinae hypoxantha ( salvadori & festa ) 1899 boll . mus . zool . anat . comp . torino\n15\n[ = 14 ] no . 363 p . 1 nomenclature\npyrrhura molinae molinae ( massena & souance ) 1854 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 6 p . 73\npyrrhura molinae phoenicura ( schlegel ) 1864 mus . hist . pays - basrev . meth . crit . coll . livr . 5 no . 26 psittaci p . 26 concept\npyrrhura molinae restricta todd 1947 ann . carnegiemus . nat . hist . 30 p . 333\npyrrhura leucotis ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 21 nomenclature\npyrrhura picta caeruleiceps todd 1947 ann . carnegiemus . nat . hist . 30 p . 337\npyrrhura picta picta ( statius muller ) 1776 natursyst . suppl . p . 75\npyrrhura picta subandina todd 1917 proc . biol . soc . wash . 30 p . 6\npyrrhura emma salvadori 1891 cat . birdsbrit . mus . 20 p . 212 , 217 pl . 1 citation\npyrrhura amazonum lucida arndt 2008 papageien [ arndt ] 21 p . 278 , 279\npyrrhura amazonum snethlageae joseph & bates , jm 2002 orn . neotrop . 13 p . 354\npyrrhura lucianii ( deville ) 1851 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 3 p . 211\npyrrhura roseifrons ( gray , gr ) 1859 listbirdsbrit . mus . pt3 sect . 2 p . 42\npyrrhura roseifrons roseifrons ( gray , gr ) 1859 listbirdsbrit . mus . pt3 sect . 2 p . 42\npyrrhura roseifrons peruviana hocking , blake & joseph 2002 orn . neotrop . 13 p . 356\npyrrhura viridicata todd 1913 proc . biol . soc . wash . 26 p . 174\npyrrhura egregia ( sclater , pl ) 1881 ibis p . 130 pl . 4\npyrrhura egregia egregia ( sclater , pl ) 1881 ibis p . 130 pl . 4\npyrrhura egregia obscura zimmer & phelps , wh 1946 am . mus . novit . no . 1312 p . 1\npyrrhura melanura ( spix ) 1824 av . sp . nov . brasil . 1 p . 36 pl . 22\npyrrhura melanura berlepschi salvadori 1891 cat . birdsbrit . mus . 20 p . 212 , 224 pl . 2 fig . 1 citation\npyrrhura melanura chapmani bond & meyer de schauensee 1940 proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia 92 p . 156\npyrrhura melanura melanura ( spix ) 1824 av . sp . nov . brasil . 1 p . 36 pl . 22\npyrrhura melanura pacifica chapman 1915 bull . am . mus . nat . hist . 34 p . 382\npyrrhura melanura souancei ( verreaux , j ) 1858 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 10 p . 437 pl . 12\npyrrhura orcesi ridgely & robbins 1988 wilsonbull . 100 no . 2 p . 174 , 175\npyrrhura albipectus chapman 1914 bull . am . mus . nat . hist . 33 p . 319\npyrrhura rupicola rupicola ( tschudi ) 1844 arch . naturgesch . 10 p . 304\npyrrhura rupicola sandiae bond & meyer de schauensee 1944 not . nat . no . 138 p . 1\npyrrhura calliptera ( massena & souance ) 1854 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 6 p . 72\npyrrhura hoematotis souance 1857 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 9 p . 97\npyrrhura hoematotis hoematotis souance 1857 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 9 p . 97\npyrrhura hoematotis immarginata zimmer & phelps 1944 am . mus . novit . no . 1270 p . 4\npyrrhura rhodocephala ( sclater , pl & salvin ) 1871 pzs [\n1870\n] pt3 p . 787\npyrrhura hoffmanni ( cabanis ) 1861 sitz . ges . nat . freundeberlin [ no p . ]\npyrrhura hoffmanni gaudens bangs 1906 proc . biol . soc . wash . 19 p . 103\npyrrhura hoffmanni hoffmanni ( cabanis ) 1861 sitz . ges . nat . freundeberlin [ no p . ]\nenicognathus ( m . ) gray , gr 1840 listgen . birds p . 51\nenicognathus ferrugineus ferrugineus ( statius muller ) 1776 natursyst . suppl . p . 75\nenicognathus ferrugineus minor ( chapman ) 1919 bull . am . mus . nat . hist . 41 p . 323\nenicognathus leptorhynchus ( king ) 1831 pzs pt1 no . 1 p . 14 concept\ncyanoliseus patagonus ( vieillot ) 1818 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 25 [\n1817\n] p . 367\ncyanoliseus patagonus andinus dabbene & lillo 1913 an . mus . nac . hist . nat . buenosaires 24 p . 188 pl . 10\ncyanoliseus patagonus patagonus ( vieillot ) 1818 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 25 [\n1817\n] p . 367\nrhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha ( swainson ) 1827 philos . mag . n . s . 1 p . 439\nrhynchopsitta terrisi moore , rt 1947 proc . biol . soc . wash . 60 p . 27\neupsittula nana astec ( souance ) 1857 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 9 p . 97\neupsittula nana nana ( vigors ) 1830 zool . j . 5 p . 273\neupsittula nana vicinalis bangs & penard , te 1919 bull . mus . comp . zool . 63 p . 24\neupsittula canicularis ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 98\neupsittula canicularis canicularis ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 98\neupsittula canicularis clarae ( moore , rt ) 1937 proc . biol . soc . wash . 50 p . 101\neupsittula canicularis eburnirostrum ( lesson , pa ) 1842 rev . zool . 5 p . 135\neupsittula aurea ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 329\neupsittula pertinax ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 98\neupsittula pertinax aeruginosa ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 98\neupsittula pertinax chrysogenys ( massena & souance ) 1854 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 6 p . 72\neupsittula pertinax griseipecta ( meyer de schauensee ) 1950 not . nat . no . 221 p . 6\neupsittula pertinax lehmanni ( dugand ) 1943 caldasia 2 no . 7 p . 191\neupsittula pertinax margaritensis cory 1918 fieldmus . nat . hist . pub . zool . ser . 13 pub . 197 p . 63\neupsittula pertinax ocularis ( sclater , pl & salvin ) 1865 pzs [\n1864\n] pt3 p . 367 citation\neupsittula pertinax paraensis ( sick ) 1959 j . orn . 100 p . 413\neupsittula pertinax pertinax ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 98\neupsittula pertinax surinama ( zimmer & phelps , wh ) 1951 am . mus . novit . no . 1511 p . 1\neupsittula pertinax tortugensis ( cory ) 1909 fieldmus . nat . hist . pub . orn . ser . 1 p . 220\neupsittula pertinax venezuelae ( zimmer & phelps , wh ) 1951 am . mus . novit . no . 1511 p . 6\neupsittula pertinax xanthogenia ( bonaparte ) 1850 consp . gen . av . 1 p . 1\neupsittula cactorum ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 82\neupsittula cactorum cactorum ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 82\neupsittula cactorum caixana ( spix ) 1824 av . sp . nov . brasil . 1 p . 34 pl . 19 fig . 1\nconuropsis carolinensis\u2020 ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 97 status\nconuropsis\u2020 carolinensis carolinensis\u2020 ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 97\nconuropsis\u2020 carolinensis ludoviciana\u2020 ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 347\naratinga weddellii ( deville ) 1851 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 3 p . 209\naratinga nenday ( vieillot ) 1823 tabl . encyc . meth . orn . 3 livr . 93 p . 1400\naratinga solstitialis ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 97\naratinga maculata ( statius muller ) 1776 natursyst . suppl . p . 74 nomenclature\naratinga jandaya ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 319\naratinga auricapillus ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 20 nomenclature\naratinga auricapillus auricapillus ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 20 nomenclature\naratinga auricapillus aurifrons spix 1824 av . sp . nov . brasil . 1 p . 32 pl . 16 fig . 1\ncyanopsitta spixii ( wagler ) 1832 abh . k . bay . akad . wiss . 1 p . 675\nprimolius couloni ( sclater , pl ) 1876 pzs pt1 p . 255 , fig .\nprimolius auricollis ( cassin ) 1853 proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia 6 p . 372\nprimolius maracana ( vieillot ) 1816 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 2 p . 260\nara ararauna ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 96\nara militaris ( linnaeus ) 1766 syst . nat . ed . 12 p . 139\nara militaris mexicanus ridgway 1915 proc . biol . soc . wash . 28 p . 106\nara militaris militaris ( linnaeus ) 1766 syst . nat . ed . 12 p . 139\nara ambiguus ( bechstein ) 1811 allg . uebers . vogel [ latham ] 4 1 p . 65\nara ambiguus ambiguus ( bechstein ) 1811 allg . uebers . vogel [ latham ] 4 1 p . 65\nara ambiguus guayaquilensis chapman 1925 am . mus . novit . no . 205 p . 2\nara macao ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 96\nara macao cyanopterus wiedenfeld 1995 orn . neotrop . 5 [\n1994\n] no . 2 p . 99 citation\nara macao macao ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 96\nara chloropterus gray , gr 1859 listbirdsbrit . mus . pt3 sect . 2 p . 26 nomenclature\nara tricolor\u2020 ( bechstein ) 1811 allg . uebers . vogel [ latham ] 4 1 p . 64 pl . 1 nomenclature\nara severus ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 97\nleptosittaca ( f . ) berlepsch & stolzmann 1894 ibis p . 402 pl . 11\nognorhynchus icterotis ( massena & souance ) 1854 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 6 p . 71\nguaruba guarouba ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 320 citation\ndiopsittaca nobilis ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 97\ndiopsittaca nobilis cumanensis ( lichtenstein ) 1823 verz . doubl . zool . mus . berlin p . 6\ndiopsittaca nobilis longipennis neumann 1931 mitt . zool . mus . berlin 17 heft3 p . 441 citation\ndiopsittaca nobilis nobilis ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 97\nthectocercus acuticaudatus ( vieillot ) 1818 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 25 [\n1817\n] p . 369\nthectocercus acuticaudatus acuticaudatus ( vieillot ) 1818 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 25 [\n1817\n] p . 369\nthectocercus acuticaudatus haemorrhous ( spix ) 1824 av . sp . nov . brasil . 1 p . 29 pl . 13\nthectocercus acuticaudatus neoxenus ( cory ) 1909 fieldmus . nat . hist . pub . orn . ser . 1 p . 243\nthectocercus acuticaudatus neumanni ( blake & traylor ) 1947 fieldianazool . 31 no . 21 p . 166\npsittacara holochlorus ( sclater , pl ) 1859 ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 3 ) 4 p . 224\npsittacara holochlorus brewsteri ( nelson ) 1928 proc . biol . soc . wash . 41 p . 154\npsittacara holochlorus holochlorus ( sclater , pl ) 1859 ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 3 ) 4 p . 224\npsittacara brevipes ( lawrence ) 1871 ann . lyc . nat . hist . n . y . 10 [\n1874\n] p . 14\npsittacara rubritorquis ( sclater , pl ) 1887 pzs [\n1886\n] pt4 no . 35 p . 539 pl . 56\npsittacara strenuus ( ridgway ) 1915 proc . biol . soc . wash . 28 p . 106\npsittacara wagleri ( gray , gr ) 1845 gen . birds 2 pl . cii\npsittacara wagleri transilis ( peters , jl ) 1927 proc . newengl . zool . cl . 9 p . 111\npsittacara wagleri wagleri ( gray , gr ) 1845 gen . birds 2 pl . cii\npsittacara frontatus ( cabanis ) 1846 faunaperuana [ tschudi ] orn . p . 272 , note\npsittacara frontatus frontatus ( cabanis ) 1846 faunaperuana [ tschudi ] orn . p . 272 , note\npsittacara frontatus minor ( carriker ) 1933 proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia 85 p . 3\npsittacara mitratus chlorogenys ( arndt ) 2006 j . orn . 147 p . 74\npsittacara mitratus mitratus ( tschudi ) 1844 arch . naturgesch . 10 p . 304\npsittacara mitratus tucumanus ( arndt ) 2006 j . orn . 147 p . 77\npsittacara erythrogenys lesson 1844 echomondesav . ( 2 ) 11 no . 34 col . 486 , 487\npsittacara leucophthalmus callogenys ( salvadori ) 1891 cat . birdsbrit . mus . 20 p . 171 , 188 citation\npsittacara leucophthalmus leucophthalmus ( statius muller ) 1776 natursyst . suppl . p . 75\npsittacara leucophthalmus nicefori meyer de schauensee 1946 not . nat . no . 163 p . 2\npsittacara euops ( wagler ) 1832 abh . k . bay . akad . wiss . 1 p . 638 pl . 24 fig . 2\npsittacara chloropterus souance 1856 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 8 p . 59\npsittacara maugei\u2020 souance 1856 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 8 p . 59\npsittrichas fulgidus ( lesson ) 1830 traitedorn . livr . 3 p . 181 citation\ncoracopsis vasa ( shaw ) 1812 gen . zool . [ shaw ] 8 pt2 p . 528\ncoracopsis vasa comorensis ( peters , w ) 1854 ber . k . preuss . akad . wiss . berlin p . 371\ncoracopsis vasa drouhardi lavauden 1929 alauda 1 no . 4 & 5 p . 231\ncoracopsis vasa vasa ( shaw ) 1812 gen . zool . [ shaw ] 8 pt2 p . 528\ncoracopsis nigra ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 99\ncoracopsis nigra libs bangs 1927 proc . newengl . zool . cl . 9 p . 83\ncoracopsis nigra nigra ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 99\ncoracopsis nigra sibilans milne - edwards & oustalet 1885 compt . rend . 101 p . 220\nmicropsitta keiensis ( salvadori ) 1876 ann . mus . civ . stor . nat . genova 7 [\n1875\n] p . 984\nmicropsitta keiensis chloroxantha oberholser 1917 proc . biol . soc . wash . 30 p . 126\nmicropsitta keiensis keiensis ( salvadori ) 1876 ann . mus . civ . stor . nat . genova 7 [\n1875\n] p . 984\nmicropsitta geelvinkiana ( schlegel ) 1871 nederl . tijdschr . dierk . 4 p . 7\nmicropsitta geelvinkiana geelvinkiana ( schlegel ) 1871 nederl . tijdschr . dierk . 4 p . 7\nmicropsitta geelvinkiana misoriensis ( salvadori ) 1876 ann . mus . civ . stor . nat . genova 7 [\n1875\n] p . 909\nmicropsitta pusio ( sclater , pl ) 1866 pzs [\n1865\n] pt3 p . 620 pl . 35\nmicropsitta pusio beccarii ( salvadori ) 1876 ann . mus . civ . stor . nat . genova 8 p . 396\nmicropsitta pusio harterti mayr 1940 am . mus . novit . no . 1091 p . 2\nmicropsitta pusio pusio ( sclater , pl ) 1866 pzs [\n1865\n] pt3 p . 620 pl . 35\nmicropsitta finschii ( ramsay , ep ) 1881 proc . linn . soc . news . wales 6 p . 180\nmicropsitta finschii finschii ( ramsay , ep ) 1881 proc . linn . soc . news . wales 6 p . 180\nmicropsitta finschii tristrami ( rothschild & hartert ) 1902 novit . zool . 9 p . 589\nmicropsitta finschii viridifrons ( rothschild & hartert ) 1899 orn . monatsb . 7 no . 9 p . 138\nmicropsitta bruijnii ( salvadori ) 1875 ann . mus . civ . stor . nat . genova 7 p . 715 , note , p . 753 , 907 pl . 21\nmicropsitta bruijnii bruijnii ( salvadori ) 1875 ann . mus . civ . stor . nat . genova 7 p . 715 , note , p . 753 , 907 pl . 21\nmicropsitta bruijnii pileata mayr 1940 am . mus . novit . no . 1091 p . 2\nmicropsitta bruijnii rosea mayr 1940 am . mus . novit . no . 1091 p . 2\npolytelis swainsonii ( desmarest ) 1826 dict . sci . nat . 39 p . 39\npolytelis anthopeplus ( lear ) 1831 ill . psittac . [ lear ] pt8 pl . 29\npolytelis anthopeplus anthopeplus ( lear ) 1831 ill . psittac . [ lear ] pt8 pl . 29\nalisterus amboinensis ( linnaeus ) 1766 syst . nat . ed . 12 p . 141\nalisterus amboinensis amboinensis ( linnaeus ) 1766 syst . nat . ed . 12 p . 141\nalisterus amboinensis buruensis ( salvadori ) 1876 ann . mus . civ . stor . nat . genova 8 p . 371\nalisterus amboinensis dorsalis ( quoy & gaimard ) 1832 voy . astrolabezool . 1 [ 1830\n] p . 234 atlasois . pl . 21 fig . 3\nalisterus amboinensis hypophonius ( muller , s ) 1843 verh . nat . gesch . [ temminck ] land - volk . no . 6 p . 181 , note\nalisterus amboinensis sulaensis ( reichenow ) 1881 j . orn . 29 no . 154 p . 128\nalisterus chloropterus ( ramsay , ep ) 1879 proc . linn . soc . news . wales 3 pt3 p . 251\nalisterus chloropterus callopterus ( albertis & salvadori ) 1879 ann . mus . civ . stor . nat . genova 14 p . 29\nalisterus chloropterus chloropterus ( ramsay , ep ) 1879 proc . linn . soc . news . wales 3 pt3 p . 251\nalisterus chloropterus moszkowskii ( reichenow ) 1911 orn . monatsb . 19 p . 82\nalisterus scapularis ( lichtenstein ) 1816 zool . mus . univ . berlin p . 29\nalisterus scapularis minor mathews 1911 novit . zool . 18 no . 1 p . 23\nalisterus scapularis scapularis ( lichtenstein ) 1816 zool . mus . univ . berlin p . 29\naprosmictus jonquillaceus ( vieillot ) 1818 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 25 [\n1817\n] p . 352\naprosmictus jonquillaceus jonquillaceus ( vieillot ) 1818 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 25 [\n1817\n] p . 352\naprosmictus jonquillaceus wetterensis ( salvadori ) 1891 cat . birdsbrit . mus . 20 p . 481 , 484 citation\naprosmictus erythropterus ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 343\naprosmictus erythropterus coccineopterus ( gould ) 1865 handb . birdsaustr . 2 p . 39\naprosmictus erythropterus erythropterus ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 343\nprioniturus platurus ( vieillot ) 1818 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 25 [\n1817\n] p . 314\nprioniturus platurus platurus ( vieillot ) 1818 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 25 [\n1817\n] p . 314\nprioniturus waterstradti malindangensis mearns 1909 proc . u . s . natl . mus . 36 no . 1678 p . 437\nprioniturus platenae blasius , w 1888 braunschw . anz . no . 37 p . 335 author\nprioniturus flavicans cassin 1853 proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia 6 p . 373\nprioniturus discurus ( vieillot ) 1822 gal . ois . 1 p . 7 pl . 26\nprioniturus discurus discurus ( vieillot ) 1822 gal . ois . 1 p . 7 pl . 26\nprioniturus discurus whiteheadi salomonsen 1953 vidensk . medd . dansk . naturhist . for . 115 p . 224\neclectus roratus cornelia bonaparte 1850 compt . rend . 30 p . 135 , 136 citation\neclectus roratus macgillivrayi mathews 1913 australav . rec . 2 no . 4 p . 75\neclectus roratus polychloros ( scopoli ) 1786 del . flor . faun . insubr . 2 p . 87\neclectus roratus riedeli meyer , ab 1882 pzs [\n1881\n] pt4 p . 917\neclectus roratus roratus ( statius muller ) 1776 natursyst . suppl . p . 77\neclectus roratus solomonensis rothschild & hartert 1901 novit . zool . 8 no . 1 p . 82\neclectus roratus vosmaeri ( rothschild ) 1922 ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 9 ) 9 p . 412\neclectus roratus westermani\u2020 ( bonaparte ) 1850 consp . gen . av . 1 p . 4\ngeoffroyus geoffroyi ( bechstein ) 1811 allg . uebers . vogel [ latham ] 4 1 p . 103 pl . 21\ngeoffroyus geoffroyi aruensis ( gray , gr ) 1858 pzs pt26 no . 358 p . 183\ngeoffroyus geoffroyi cyanicollis ( muller , s ) 1841 verh . nat . gesch . [ temminck ] land - volk . no . 4 p . 108 , 182 , note\ngeoffroyus geoffroyi floresianus salvadori 1891 cat . birdsbrit . mus . 20 p . 400 , 406 citation\ngeoffroyus geoffroyi geoffroyi ( bechstein ) 1811 allg . uebers . vogel [ latham ] 4 1 p . 103 pl . 21\ngeoffroyus geoffroyi jobiensis ( meyer , ab ) 1874 sitz . k . akad . wiss . wien 70 p . 225\ngeoffroyus geoffroyi minor neumann 1922 verh . orn . ges . bayern 15 heft2 p . 235\ngeoffroyus geoffroyi mysorensis ( meyer , ab ) 1874 sitz . k . akad . wiss . wien 70 p . 225\ngeoffroyus geoffroyi pucherani souance 1856 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 8 p . 218\ngeoffroyus geoffroyi rhodops ( schlegel ) 1864 mus . hist . pays - basrev . meth . crit . coll . livr . 5 no . 26 psittaci p . 43 , 44\ngeoffroyus geoffroyi sudestiensis de vis 1890 annualrep . brit . newguinea ( 1888 - 1889 ) app . g p . 58\ngeoffroyus geoffroyi timorlaoensis meyer , ab 1884 sitz . abh . naturwiss . ges . isisdresden heft1 p . 15\ngeoffroyus simplex ( meyer , ab ) 1874 verh . k . k . zool . - bot . ges . wien 24 p . 39 citation\ngeoffroyus simplex buergersi neumann 1922 verh . orn . ges . bayern 15 heft2 p . 235\ngeoffroyus simplex simplex ( meyer , ab ) 1874 verh . k . k . zool . - bot . ges . wien 24 p . 39 citation\ngeoffroyus heteroclitus ( hombron & jacquinot ) 1841 ann . sci . nat . zool . ( 2 ) 16 p . 319\ngeoffroyus heteroclitus heteroclitus ( hombron & jacquinot ) 1841 ann . sci . nat . zool . ( 2 ) 16 p . 319\ngeoffroyus heteroclitus hyacinthinus mayr 1931 am . mus . novit . no . 486 p . 13\npsittinus cyanurus ( forster , jr ) 1795 faunulaindica . ed . 2 p . 6\npsittinus cyanurus abbotti richmond 1902 proc . biol . soc . wash . 15 p . 188\npsittinus cyanurus cyanurus ( forster , jr ) 1795 faunulaindica . ed . 2 p . 6\npsittinus cyanurus pontius oberholser 1912 smiths . misc . coll . 60 no . 7 p . 5\ntanygnathus megalorynchos hellmayri mayr 1944 bull . am . mus . nat . hist . 83 p . 134 , 149\ntanygnathus megalorynchos sumbensis meyer , ab 1881 verh . k . k . zool . - bot . ges . wien 31 p . 762\ntanygnathus lucionensis ( linnaeus ) 1766 syst . nat . ed . 12 p . 146\ntanygnathus lucionensis hybridus salomonsen 1952 vidensk . medd . dansk . naturhist . for . 114 p . 347\ntanygnathus lucionensis lucionensis ( linnaeus ) 1766 syst . nat . ed . 12 p . 146\ntanygnathus lucionensis talautensis meyer , ab & wiglesworth 1895 abh . ber . mus . dresden 5 no . 9 p . 2\ntanygnathus sumatranus ( raffles ) 1822 trans . linn . soc . london ( 1 ) 13 p . 281\ntanygnathus sumatranus everetti tweeddale 1877 ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 4 ) 20 p . 533\ntanygnathus sumatranus freeri mcgregor 1910 philip . j . sci . 5 p . 108\ntanygnathus sumatranus sumatranus ( raffles ) 1822 trans . linn . soc . london ( 1 ) 13 p . 281\ntanygnathus gramineus ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 338\npsittacula himalayana ( lesson ) 1831 voy . ind . orient . [ belanger ] zool . [\n1834\n] pt4 p . 239 citation\npsittacula roseata biswas 1951 am . mus . novit . no . 1500 p . 4\npsittacula roseata juneae biswas 1951 am . mus . novit . no . 1500 p . 5\npsittacula roseata roseata biswas 1951 am . mus . novit . no . 1500 p . 4\npsittacula cyanocephala ( linnaeus ) 1766 syst . nat . ed . 12 p . 141\npsittacula alexandri ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 97\npsittacula alexandri abbotti ( oberholser ) 1919 proc . biol . soc . wash . 32 p . 29\npsittacula alexandri alexandri ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 97\npsittacula alexandri cala ( oberholser ) 1912 smiths . misc . coll . 60 no . 7 p . 4\npsittacula alexandri dammermani chasen & kloss 1932 bull . rafflesmus . no . 7 p . 8\npsittacula alexandri fasciata ( statius muller ) 1776 natursyst . suppl . p . 74\npsittacula alexandri major ( richmond ) 1902 proc . biol . soc . wash . 15 p . 188\npsittacula alexandri perionca ( oberholser ) 1912 smiths . misc . coll . 60 no . 7 p . 4\npsittacula derbiana ( fraser ) 1852 pzs [\n1850\n] pt18 no . 216 p . 245 pl . 25\npsittacula longicauda defontainei chasen 1935 bull . rafflesmus . no . 9 [\n1934\n] p . 93 citation\npsittacula longicauda modesta ( fraser ) 1845 pzs pt13 no . 144 p . 16\npsittacula longicauda nicobarica ( gould ) 1857 birdsasia [ gould ] 6 pt9 pl . 13\npsittacula longicauda tytleri ( hume ) 1874 str . feath . 2 p . 454\npsittacula calthrapae ( blyth ) 1849 j . asiat . soc . bengal 18 pt2 p . 800\npsittacula eupatria ( linnaeus ) 1766 syst . nat . ed . 12 p . 140\npsittacula eupatria avensis ( kloss ) 1917 j . nat . hist . soc . siam 2 no . 3 p . 219\npsittacula eupatria eupatria ( linnaeus ) 1766 syst . nat . ed . 12 p . 140\npsittacula eupatria magnirostris ( ball ) 1872 j . asiat . soc . bengal 41 p . 278\npsittacula eupatria nipalensis ( hodgson ) 1836 as . res . 19 p . 177\npsittacula eupatria siamensis ( kloss ) 1917 j . nat . hist . soc . siam 2 no . 3 p . 219\npsittacula wardi\u2020 ( newton , e ) 1867 ibis p . 341 , note concept citation\npsittacula krameri borealis ( neumann ) 1915 orn . monatsb . 23 p . 178\npsittacula krameri krameri ( scopoli ) 1769 annusihist . - nat . p . 31\npsittacula krameri manillensis ( bechstein ) 1800 naturgesch . stubenthiereed . 2 1 p . 612 , note\npsittacula krameri parvirostris ( souance ) 1856 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 8 p . 157\npsittacula eques echo ( newton , a & newton , e ) 1876 ibis p . 284 pl . 6\npsittacula caniceps ( blyth ) 1846 j . asiat . soc . bengal 15 p . 23\npsittacella brehmii schlegel 1871 nederl . tijdschr . dierk . 4 p . 35 citation\npsittacella brehmii brehmii schlegel 1871 nederl . tijdschr . dierk . 4 p . 35 citation\npsittacella brehmii harterti mayr 1931 mitt . zool . mus . berlin 17 heft5 p . 702\npsittacella brehmii pallida meyer , ab 1886 zeitsch . ges . orn . 3 p . 3\npsittacella picta excelsa mayr & gilliard 1951 am . mus . novit . no . 1524 p . 6\npsittacella modesta modesta schlegel 1871 nederl . tijdschr . dierk . 4 p . 36\npsittacella madaraszi meyer , ab 1886 zeitsch . ges . orn . 3 p . 4 pl . 1 fig . 1\npsittacella madaraszi huonensis mayr & rand 1935 am . mus . novit . no . 814 p . 4\npsittacella madaraszi madaraszi meyer , ab 1886 zeitsch . ges . orn . 3 p . 4 pl . 1 fig . 1\npsephotus haematonotus ( gould ) 1838 pzs [\n1837\n] pt5 no . 57 p . 88\npsephotus haematonotus caeruleus condon 1941 rec . s . austr . mus . 7 p . 141\npsephotus haematonotus haematonotus ( gould ) 1838 pzs [\n1837\n] pt5 no . 57 p . 88\nnorthiella haematogaster ( gould ) 1838 pzs [\n1837\n] pt5 no . 57 p . 89\nnorthiella haematogaster haematogaster ( gould ) 1838 pzs [\n1837\n] pt5 no . 57 p . 89\nnorthiella haematogaster haematorrhoa ( bonaparte ) 1856 naumannia 6 consp . psitt . inbeilag . no . 1 col . 13 citation\nnorthiella haematogaster pallescens ( salvadori ) 1891 cat . birdsbrit . mus . 20 p . 563 citation\nnorthiella narethae ( white , hl ) 1921 emu 21 p . 81 pl . 12\npsephotellus chrysopterygius ( gould ) 1858 pzs [\n1857\n] pt25 no . 340 p . 220\npsephotellus pulcherrimus \u2020 ( gould ) 1845 ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 1 ) 15 p . 115\npurpureicephalus spurius ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 52\nplatycercus caledonicus ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 328\nplatycercus caledonicus brownii ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 56"]}
{"id": 270, "summary": [{"text": "the mud sunfish ( acantharchus pomotis ) is a sunfish ( family centrarchidae ) widely distributed in the fresh waters along the atlantic coast of north america , ranging from new york to florida .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the mud sunfish prefers sluggish , weedy waters of 10 \u2013 22 \u00b0c ( 50 \u2013 72 \u00b0f ) , over muddy , detritus-strewn bottoms , and occurs in small lakes as well as riverine backwaters .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the maximum recorded size of this species is 21 cm ( 8.3 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "a. pomotis is currently the only species of genus acantharchus but baird had originally assigned it to centrarchus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the generic name , acantharchus , derives from the greek \u03ac\u03ba\u03b1\u03bd\u03b8\u03b1 ( thorn ) and \u03ac\u03c1\u03c7\u03bf\u03c2 ( ruler ) .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "a. pomotis is sometimes also known as the mud bass . ", "topic": 29}], "title": "mud sunfish", "paragraphs": ["mud sunfish acantharchus pomotis longear sunfish longear sunfish lepomis megalotis\nendangered\nicon - click for more information general identification : many species of the sunfish family are beautifully colored and patterned . more\nno studies have been reported . mud sunfish do not appear to be common anywhere .\nlittle biological information is available for the mud sunfish . it is known that populations are spatially separated and of low density . mud sunfish spawn in the spring and males prepare nests .\nmud sunfish acantharchus pomotis this nocturnal , secretive sunfish of sluggish blackwater streams is uncommon along the u . s . atlantic and eastern gulf coastal plains . more\nmud sunfish in an aquarium ( south carolina , circa . 1976 ) the mud sunfish ( acantharchus pomotis ) is a sunfish ( family centrarchidae ) widely distributed in the fresh waters along the atlantic coast of north america , ranging from new york to florida . more\nthe mud sunfish ( acantharchus pomotis ) is a sunfish ( family centrarchidae ) widely distributed in the fresh waters along the atlantic coast of north america , ranging from new york to florida .\nmud sunfish occupy areas in sloughs , lakes , pools and backwaters of streams where the water is acid and vegetation , mud and detritus occur . it is extremely rare in new york state - found only in the hackensack river . more\nthe mud sunfish prefers sluggish , weedy waters of 10\u201322 \u00b0c , over muddy , detritus - strewn bottoms , and occurs in small lakes as well as riverine backwaters .\nfeeding worms to my sunfish . ( lepomis spp . ) 7 / 19 / 15\nthe new york state department of environmental conservation ( dec ) will conduct studies to determine the distribution of the mud sunfish in the hackensack river . dec will examine management options for securing existing populations .\nsimilar in appearance to the rock bass , the mud sunfish can easily be distinguished by its round , not forked , tail and its brown , not red , eyes . there are five distinct lines located along the sides of this relatively small ( approximately five to six inches long ) sunfish . more\nthe mud sunfish is a small fish that rarely exceeds 6 . 5 inches in length . it has smooth scales , a round caudal ( tail ) fin and brown eyes . the body color is reddish brown on top and pale brown on the belly . more\nusually occurs over mud and detritus in vegetated sloughs , lakes , and pools and backwaters of creeks and small to medium rivers .\nthe mud sunfish prefers sluggish , weedy waters of 10\u201322 \u00b0c ( 50\u201372 \u00b0f ) , over muddy , detritus - strewn bottoms , and occurs in small lakes as well as riverine backwaters . the maximum recorded size of this species is 21 cm ( 8 in ) .\n1 / 2 - inch mud sunfish eat a 1 1 / 2 - inch darter whole , and a four - inch specimen devoured a 1 1 / 2 - inch fish and a 2 1 / 2 - inch salamander within 20 minutes of each other . more\noverview : the mud sunfish ( acantharchus pomotis ) has a deep , strongly compressed body with a maximum length of around 21 cm . it has two broadly connected dorsal fins , the anterior fin having 10 - 12 spines and the posterior fin having 9 - 13 soft rays . more\nthe mud sunfish is a small fish that rarely exceeds 6 . 5 inches in length . it has smooth scales , a round caudal ( tail ) fin and brown eyes . the body color is reddish brown on top and pale brown on the belly . there are five distinct lines located along the fish ' s sides .\nthe mud sunfish occurs in lowland streams and bogs from southern new york to northern florida . it favors acid waters associated with cedar swamps and pine barrens areas , and it is also found in standing water with a heavy growth of aquatic plants . these waters have silty or muddy bottoms . in new york , it has only been found in the hackensack river , and not collected since 1935 .\nfood studies show that the sunfish feeds primarily on insects and crusteaceans . a small population found in a maryland pond was aged to evaluate life expectancy ; the fish ranged from two to eight years old .\ndiffers from all other sunfishes in having cycloid scales rather than ctenoid scales ( the latter have a toothed rear edge ) ; only the green sunfish has 23 or more scales around the caudal peduncle ( page and burr 1991 ) .\nhabitat is primarily darkly stained , sluggish , weedy lowland creeks , small to medium rivers ( including backwaters ) , ponds , lakes , and swamps , usually with mud , silt , or detritus substrates ( page and burr 2011 ) .\ncomments : habitat is primarily darkly stained , sluggish , weedy lowland creeks , small to medium rivers ( including backwaters ) , ponds , lakes , and swamps , usually with mud , silt , or detritus substrates ( page and burr 2011 ) .\na . pomotis is currently the only species of genus acantharchus but baird had originally assigned it to centrarchus . the generic name , acantharchus , derives from the greek \u03ac\u03ba\u03b1\u03bd\u03b8\u03b1 ( thorn ) and \u03ac\u03c1\u03c7\u03bf\u03c2 ( ruler ) . a . pomotis is sometimes also known as the mud bass .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthis is a monotypic genus . analysis of variation in meristic and morphometric characters does not support recognition of subspecies in this species ( cashner et al . 1989 ) .\njustification : this species is listed as least concern in view of the large range extent , presumed large population size , and lack of evidence of a substantial decline .\nthis species is widely distributed but uncommon throughout the atlantic coastal plain and lower piedmont from the hudson river drainage ( new york ; at least formerly ) to the st . johns river in northern florida ; it also occurs in gulf coastal plain in northern florida and southern georgia from the suwannee river to st . marks river , and ( disjunctly ) in the lower tombigbee river drainage in alabama , where it is apparently native ( page and burr 2011 ) . a hiatus in the range occurs in western chesapeake bay tributaries from the susquehanna to potomac rivers in maryland and virginia ( records from the potomac are erroneous ) ( cashner et al . 1989 ) . see cashner et al . ( 1989 ) for further information on distribution and status in particular states .\nthis species is represented by a large number of occurrences . total population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10 , 000 and may exceed 100 , 000 . this species may not appear to be abundant in some areas because of a possible nocturnal activity pattern . range extent has probably not declined very much over the long term , though the species may be extirpated in new york and pennsylvania ; area of occupancy has probably declined less than 30 percent . trend over the past 10 years or three generations probably is relatively stable or slowly declining .\nno major threats exist at the present time or for the foreseeable future . pollution and habitat modification such as drainage and damming are potential , but not immediate , problems .\ncurrently , this species is of relatively low conservation concern and does not require significant additional protection or major management , monitoring , or research actions .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nfor help with pdfs on this page , please call 518 - 402 - 8924 .\nglobal range : ( 200 , 000 - 2 , 500 , 000 square km ( about 80 , 000 - 1 , 000 , 000 square miles ) ) this species is widely distributed but uncommon throughout the atlantic coastal plain and lower piedmont from the hudson river drainage ( new york ; at least formerly ) to the st . johns river in northern florida ; it also occurs in gulf coastal plain in northern florida and southern georgia from the suwannee river to st . marks river , and ( disjunctly ) in the lower tombigbee river drainage in alabama , where apparently it is native ( page and burr 2011 ) . a hiatus in the range occurs in western chesapeake bay tributaries from the susquehanna to potomac rivers in maryland and virginia ( records from the potomac are erroneous ) ( cashner et al . 1989 ) . see cashner et al . ( 1989 ) for further information on distribution and status in particular states .\nnorth america : widely distributed in atlantic coastal plain and lower piedmont drainages from hudson river in new york to st . johns river in florida , usa and in gulf coastal plain drainages of northern florida and southern georgia , usa from suwannee river to st . marks river .\n21 . 0 cm tl ( male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5723 ) )\ntype for acantharchus pomotis catalog number : usnm 32490 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of fishes collector ( s ) : s . baird locality : beeseley ' s pt . , n . j . , new jersey , united states , north america\ndepth range based on 2 specimens in 1 taxon . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 0 . 75 - 0 . 75 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .\ndemersal ; freshwater ; ph range : 6 . 8 - 7 . 8 ; dh range : 10 - 25\nnon - migrant : no . all populations of this species make significant seasonal migrations .\nlocally migrant : no . no populations of this species make local extended movements ( generally less than 200 km ) at particular times of the year ( e . g . , to breeding or wintering grounds , to hibernation sites ) .\nlocally migrant : no . no populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km .\ncomments : in north carolina , diet was dominated by invertebrates , especially amphipods , decapods , coleopterans , and odonates ; large individuals sometimes ate fishes ( pardue 1993 ) .\nnote : for many non - migratory species , occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations .\ncomments : total population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10 , 000 and may exceed 100 , 000 . this species may not appear to be abundant in some areas because of a possible nocturnal activity pattern .\nrelatively sedentary . may exhibit high mortality when swamps shrink and / or dry up . in north carolina , average standing stock was 351 individuals / ha and 14 . 7 kg / ha ( pardue 1993 ) .\nin north carolina , spawned at temperatures as low as 6 c ; females with ripe eggs were found january - may ; both sexes reached maturity at age 1 + ; lifespan is short , 4 + years ( pardue 1993 ) .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there are 4 barcode sequences available from bold and genbank .\nbelow is a sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .\nthis species is listed as least concern in view of the large range extent , presumed large population size , and lack of evidence of a substantial decline .\nreasons : widespread in atlantic states from new york to florida ; still present throughout most of the natural range ; habitat is not immediately threatened ; not used in sport or commercial fisheries .\ncomments : trend over the past 10 years or three generations probably is relatively stable or slowly declining .\ncomments : range extent probably has not declined very much over the long term , though the species may be extirpated in new york and pennsylvania ; area of occupancy probably has declined less than 30 percent .\ncomments : no major threats exist at the present time or for the forseeable future . pollution and habitat modification such as drainage and damming are potential , but not immediate , problems .\nbiological research needs : further investigations into the behavior and ecology of a . pomotis are needed .\nfroese , rainer , and daniel pauly , eds . ( 2004 ) . species of acantharchus in fishbase . october 2004 version .\nfroese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2004 ) .\nacantharchus pomotis\nin fishbase . october 2004 version .\ncomments : monotypic genus . analysis of variation in meristic and morphometric characters does not support recognition of subspecies in this species ( cashner et al . 1989 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\n, ph range : 6 . 8 - 7 . 8 , dh range : 10 - 25 environment ."]}
{"id": 272, "summary": [{"text": "the far eastern curlew ( numenius madagascariensis ) is a large shorebird most similar in appearance to the long-billed curlew , but slightly larger .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is mostly brown in color , differentiated from other curlews by its plain , unpatterned brown underwing .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is not only the largest curlew but probably the world 's largest sandpiper , at 60 \u2013 66 cm ( 24 \u2013 26 in ) in length and 110 cm ( 43 in ) across the wings .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the body is reportedly 565 \u2013 1,150 g ( 1.246 \u2013 2.535 lb ) , which may be equaled by the eurasian curlew .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the extremely long bill , at 12.8 \u2013 20.1 cm ( 5.0 \u2013 7.9 in ) in length , rivals the bill size of the closely related long-billed curlew as the longest bill for a sandpiper .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the far eastern curlew spends its breeding season in northeastern asia , including siberia to kamchatka , and mongolia .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "its breeding habitat is composed of marshy and swampy wetlands and lakeshores .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "most individuals winter in coastal australia , with a few heading to south korea , thailand , philippines and new zealand , where they stay at estuaries , beaches , and salt marshes .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "during its migration the far eastern curlew commonly passes the yellow sea .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "it uses its long , decurved bill to probe for invertebrates in the mud .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it may feed in solitary but it generally congregates in large flocks to migrate or roost .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "its call is a sharp , clear whistle , cuuue-reee , often repeated .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "as of 2006 , there are an estimated 38,000 individuals in the world .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "formerly classified as least concern by iucn , it was found to have been rarer than previously believed and thus its status was updated to vulnerable in the 2010 iucn red list of threatened species .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "in australia its status under the epbc act is critically endangered . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "far eastern curlew", "paragraphs": ["the far eastern curlew is also known as the eastern curlew , the australian curlew , the sea curlew and just plain curlew . it is the largest migratory wading bird in the world .\nfar eastern curlew : largest curlew , very long , decurved bill , longest of any shorebird . dark brown with heavily streaked\nthe far eastern curlew is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\ninformation on the far eastern curlew ( numenius madagascariensis ) is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - far eastern curlew ( numenius madagascariensis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - far eastern curlew ( numenius madagascariensis )\ntitle =\narkive species - far eastern curlew ( numenius madagascariensis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe eastern curlew is the largest curlew , with a much longer bill and legs than the similar whimbrel , numensius phaeopus . the call of the eastern curlew is distinctive and the long bill is obvious in flight .\neastern curlew ( department of environment and heritage protection ( dehp ) , 2013q ) [ database ] .\neastern curlew . adult ( possibly immature ) . miranda , june 2010 . image \u00a9 duncan watson by duncan watson\nthe far eastern curlew has a large breeding range of 727 , 000 square kilometers . it breeds in marshes and open bogs in eastern russia , and parts of mongolia and northeastern china . it winters in estuaries and other coastal habitats in eastern asia , the philippines , indonesia , and australasia , and has been recorded as a vagrant in alaska . this species is threatened by destruction of important tidal mud flats used during migration and on wintering grounds and has shown recent declines because of this . the far eastern curlew has an estimated population of 20 , 000 - 49 , 999 individuals and a conservation rating of endangered .\nthreatened species of the northern territory - eastern curlew , numenius madagascariensis ( ward , s . , 2012h ) [ information sheet ] .\n2011 ) and was recently uplisted as critically endangered in australia . the east asian - australasian flyway partnership far eastern curlew task force is developing an international single species action plan for the species with range states , partners and research organisations within the flyway ( m . carey\nthe eastern curlew is one of 20 birds that the australian government has prioritised resource allocation to support the species recovery effort . the australian government plays an important role in building international cooperation to conserve migratory birds and is a member of the east - asian \u2013 australasian flyway partnership . five projects are helping to restore eastern curlew habitat through the national landcare programme . actions to protect eastern curlew will benefit many other migratory shorebirds including the bar - tailed godwit .\ncalls given from ground while chasing an eurasian curlew . same bird as xc194375 exact location\nthe eastern curlew is australia\u2019s largest shorebird and a long - haul flyer . it is easily recognisable , with its long , down - curved bill . the eastern curlew takes an annual migratory flight to russia and north - eastern china to breed , arriving back home to australia in august to feed on crabs and molluscs in intertidal mudflats . it is extremely shy and will take flight at the first sign of danger .\nfar eastern curlew : this species breeds in northeastern asia and siberia , wintering in australia , new zealand , and new guinea . it very rarely wanders to the aleutian islands and pribilof islands of alaska and southwestern british columbia in the spring . it is found along wetlands , beaches , lakeshores , and salt marshes .\nriegen , a . c . 2013 [ updated 2017 ] . eastern curlew . in miskelly , c . m . ( ed . ) new zealand birds online . urltoken\nnumenius madagascariensis ( eastern curlew ) : species management profile for tasmania ' s threatened species link ( threatened species section ( tss ) , 2014sz ) [ state action plan ] .\nthe eastern curlew is found on intertidal mudflats and sandflats , often with beds of seagrass , on sheltered coasts , especially estuaries , mangrove swamps , bays , harbours and lagoons .\nflock of eastern curlews leaving the mudflats of roebuck bay , commencing their northern migration .\neastern curlews breed in marshy , boggy habitat in eastern mongolia , north - east china and eastern siberia . in the non - breeding season they are mainly found on mudflats in northern and eastern australia . in new zealand , curlews are found in small numbers on major harbours and estuaries from parengarenga in the far north to awarua bay in southland , with strongholds at manukau harbour and farewell spit . they have been recorded as vagrants on north meyer island ( kermadec islands ) , and on chatham , stewart and campbell islands .\nthe eastern curlew eats mainly small crabs and molluscs . foraging by day and night , it is slow and deliberate , stalking slowly on sandy and muddy flats , picking from the surface or probing deep with its long bill .\nthe eastern curlew is widespread in coastal regions in the north - east and south of australia , including tasmania , and scattered in other coastal areas . it is rarely seen inland . it breeds in russia and north - eastern china . on passage , they are commonly seen in japan , korea and borneo . small numbers visit new zealand .\nthe eastern curlew is the largest wader in new zealand , and has the longest bill of any wader at around 20 cm in length . it is a regular summer visitor to new zealand but now in very small numbers , with probably fewer than 10 each summer since the mid 2000\u2019s , and usually at only a handful of sites . the eastern curlew is confined to the east asian - australasian flyway ( eaaf ) , with a global population estimated to be c . 20 , 000 and declining .\nvan gils , j . , wiersma , p . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . far eastern curlew ( numenius madagascariensis ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nsimilar species : in the new zealand region only whimbrel and bristle - thighed curlew are possible confusion species . both are smaller with shorter decurved bills and boldly streaked crowns . eurasian curlew has occurred once in australia and is distinguished by its extensive white rump and lower back and whiter underparts .\nthe eastern curlew is the largest wader that visits australia , with a very long down - curved bill . the female ' s bill is usually longer than the male ' s and averages 185 mm in length . it is a bulky , dark - streaked brown wader , with a long neck and legs . when flying , the barred flight feathers are visible , lighter under the wings and dark above . they are wary birds , quick to take flight . their wing beats are slow and deliberate , unlike the rapid beats of the whimbrel . other names are curlew and australian or sea curlew .\n53\u201366 cm ; 390\u20131350 g , male averaging 110 g lighter than female ; wingspan 97\u2013110 cm . largest curlew with very long , heavy bill ; female has longest bill of . . .\neastern curlews mainly eat crabs and small molluscs on the non - breeding grounds . they usually break crabs legs off first before swallowing the legs and body . no new zealand data .\nthe eastern curlew is a long distance migrant , making non - stop flights from east and north australia direct to east asia , from taiwan northwards to major mudflat staging sites of the yellow sea . from there , the curlews fly directly to their breeding grounds . southward migration follows a similar route and legs . they reach new zealand from september to november and leave in march and april . eastern curlews are very wary birds , and are difficult to approach . in new zealand they may be solitary , associate with other curlews , or join with bar - tailed godwits .\neastern curlews are the largest of all the world\u2019s shorebirds , and call their call , a mournful \u2018cuuuurrlew\u2019 , ringing out beautifully across vast coastal wetlands . their impressive bill , which is characteristic of the species , is used to probe the mud and dig up crabs , their main food source in australia . sadly , its down - curved shape also mimics the decline of australia\u2019s migratory shorebirds . the eastern curlew occurs only in our flyway , and about 75 per cent of the world\u2019s curlews winter in australia , so we have a particular responsibility to protect coastal wetlands for them and the smaller shorebirds that live in their shadow .\ndann , p . ( 2014 ) . prey availability , and not energy content , explains diet and prey choice of eastern curlews numenius madagascariensis in southern australia . ardea . 102 ( 2 ) : 213 - 224 .\neastern curlews breed in the northern hemisphere on swampy moors and boggy marshes . both sexes have similar plumage , with the males using their haunting calls and display flights to attract a mate and defend their territory . the nest is a shallow depression lined with grass .\nalthough not considered endangered , populations of the red knot in eastern north america have been steeply falling because of over harvesting of the horseshoe crab ; the eggs of which serve as their main food source during a critical migration stop - over in the delaware bay .\neastern curlews breed from early may to late june . nests typically contain 4 eggs and are placed on small mounds in swampy ground . incubation is shared by both sexes . chicks leave the nest soon after hatching and feed themselves on insects and other small invertebrates .\nsandpipers , phalaropes and allies occur in a wide variety of aquatic habitats that include mudflats , beaches , shores of ponds , lakes and rivers , and marshes although two members of the family , the long - billed curlew and upland sandpiper , are grassland birds . most members of this family breed in the extensive wetlands of the arctic tundra , utilizing other wetland habitats during migration and winter .\nthe eastern curlew is an enormous wader with very long heavily decurved bill . the head and neck are streaked dark - brown , there is a thin white eye - ring , and the chin and throat are whitish . the upperparts are brown with pale olive - brown edging , the rump is brown , and the tail is greyish - brown with narrow dark banding . the underparts are dark brownish - buff , paler towards the vent , with fine dark - brown streaking turning to thicker arrow - shaped streaks on the flanks . the underwings are whitish , but appear darker due to the fine dark barring . the sexes are alike ( apart from females being larger with longer bills ) ; juveniles are similar , but with with back feathers neatly edged and notched with white , and with finer streaks on the underparts .\nthe global population of eastern curlews was estimated at 38 , 000 in 2006 but is known to be declining . based on winter counts in australia , the population is now likely to number around 20 , 000 . annual declines between 1992 and 2008 averaged 2 . 4 % in moreton bay , queensland , a wintering stronghold . numbers in new zealand were regularly in the mid 40s during the 1980s but now fewer than 10 occur annually , with only 1 or 2 overwintering .\nthe eskimo curlew plays a role similar to that of the enigmatic and controversial ivory - billed woodpecker . a historically common bird , by the start of the twentieth century , it became very rare due to overhunting . since then , unlike other shorebird species that were also heavily hunted , it has not recovered and might be extinct . a sliver of hope is kept alive , though , by documented sightings in the 1960\u2019s , undocumented sightings since then , and the fact that it breeds and winters in very remote areas .\neastern curlews are classed as endangered by iucn . like most waders migrating along the eaaf , particularly for those using coastal wetlands in china and korea , they are under serious threat from staging habitat loss , due mostly to reclamation and human based development and disturbance . breeding grounds and most wintering sites are probably more secure although hunting and other disturbance maybe a factor on the breeding grounds , particularly in russia . human disturbance at southern wintering grounds in australia are also of concern . curlews are more susceptible to disturbance than most waders .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nturbott , e . g . 1990 . checklist of the birds of new zealand . ornithological society of new zealand , wellington .\n63 cm . largest wader in new zealand . greyish brown and buff streaked body ; very long downcurved bill ( 19 cm ) .\nbenstead , p . , butchart , s . , calvert , r . , derh\u00e9 , m . , ekstrom , j . , harding , m . , symes , a . , ashpole , j , north , a . , wheatley , h .\nthis species has been uplisted to endangered as new information suggests it is undergoing a very rapid population decline which is suspected to have been primarily driven by habitat loss and deterioration in the yellow sea region . further proposed reclamation projects are predicted to cause additional declines in the future\nis a particularly important stopover site on northward and southward migration . it has been recorded as a passage migrant in\n. in prep . ) . in 2015 , the australian government listed the species as critically endangered under australia ' s national environmental law ( m . carey\nwetlands international ( 2006 ) estimated the global population at c . 38 , 000 individuals , although a more recent update now estimates the population at 32 , 000 individuals ( wetlands international 2015 ) . it is therefore placed in the band 20 , 000 - 49 , 999 individuals .\n. in prep . ) suggests that the species has declined much more rapidly than was previously thought ; with an annual rate of decline of 0 . 058 equating to a loss of 81 . 7 % over three generations . loss of habitat at critical stopover sites in the yellow sea is suspected to be the key threat to this species and given that it is restricted to the east asian - australasian flyway , the declines in the non - breeding population are thought to be representative of the global population .\nlocal - scale declines have also been reported : the species has been declining steadily in australia , at a rate of 2 . 4 % annually in moreton bay between 1992 and 2008 ( wilson\n2011 ) ; c . 5 % annually in victoria between 1980 and 2010 ( d . rogers\n2012 ) ; by over 65 % in tasmania since the 1950s ( reid and park 2003 ) ; and by 40 % across 49 australian sites between c . 1983 and c . 2007 ( d . rogers\n2011 ) . declines seem equally worrying in north - western australia ( d . rogers\n2012 ) . furthermore , the population at saemangeum ( south korea ) has decreased by 32 . 6 % ( c . 1 , 800 birds ) between 2006 and 2008 due to the reclamation of tidal flats ( moores 2006 , moores\n2008 ) . although these sites only represent a proportion of the wintering and stopover populations , threats are widespread and are projected to cause population declines in the future ( d . rogers\n2009 ) . given that more reclamation is proposed within the yellow sea , with widespread threats elsewhere on the flyway , it is assumed that these declines will continue .\nthe species breeds on open mossy or transitional bogs , moss - lichen bogs and wet meadows , and on the swampy shores of small lakes ; in the non - breeding season it is essentially coastal , occurring at estuaries , mangrove swamps , saltmarshes and intertidal flats , particularly those with extensive seagrass ( zosteraceae ) meadows . it often roosts in salt - marshes , behind mangroves , or on sandy beaches ( del hoyo\nits diet on breeding grounds includes insects , such as larvae of beetles and flies , and amphipods . berries are also consumed during the autumn migration . in non - breeding areas it feeds on marine invertebrates , preferentially taking crabs and small molluscs but also feeding on other crustaceans and polychaete worms ( del hoyo\n1996 ) . this migratory wader nests from early may to late june , often in small colonies of 2 - 3 pairs , with an average clutch size of four eggs . it probably delays maturity longer than most shorebirds , perhaps not breeding until 3 - 4 years old ( del hoyo\n. 2014 ) . this scale of habitat loss is predicted to continue owing to growing populations around the yellow sea . it is difficult to ascertain whether declines seen at reclaimed sites such as saemangeum represent true declines , or whether the birds have simply been displaced ( moores\n2009 ) , but the former seems more probable , given the huge scale of habitat loss in the yellow sea . wetland degradation in the yellow sea may affect the species where it stages on migration ( bamford\n2010 ) . further threats may include disturbance at the nesting and feeding sites ( taylor & bester 1999 in conservation advice 2015 ) , direct persecution throughout its range , and a decrease in the availability of food due to pollution at stopover points in south korea . furthermore , females probably tend to migrate further south to southern australian wetlands which are more threatened than those in northern australia ( del hoyo\ncms appendix i and ii . the species was accepted as a concerted action species under cms in november 2014 ( anon . 2014 ) . population trends are being monitored in australia as part of birdlife australia ' s shorebirds 2020 programme . the species is included in the action plan for australian birds 2010 ( garnett\nidentify key stopover areas and work with governments along the east asian - australasian flyway to prevent destruction / reclamation of important staging sites . continue to monitor population trends . restore reclaimed wetland sites . campaign to stop shorebird hunting in asian countries . legally protect it in all range states . survey the breeding grounds for potential threats . the proposal for listing as a species for concerted action under cms stated that conservation actions were needed to : 1 ) protect staging habitat and manage habitat in the yellow river delta and remaining habitat at yala jiang and other sites in the yellow sea ; 2 ) manage shellfisheries at key sites to benefit the species ( leyrer\n. 2014 ) . the australian government ' s approved conservation advice states that the protection of roosting and feeding sites in australia should be maintained and improved and the requirements of the species should be incorporated into coastal planning . important sites should also be managed to reduce disturbance when the species is present , and to identify and reduce the threat of invasive species ( conservation advice 2015 ) .\nmap edited : changed mongolian range from breeding to passage . adjusted breeding range . eoo updated .\n( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22693199a118601473 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nfor information to assist regulatory considerations , refer to policy statements and guidelines , the conservation advice , the listing advice and / or the recovery plan .\nrecovery plan not required , as the approved conservation advice for the species provides sufficient direction to implement priority actions and mitigate against key threats .\nepbc act policy statement 3 . 21 - industry guidelines for avoiding , assessing and mitigating impacts on ebbc act listed migratory shorebird species\n( great barrier reef marine park authority ( gbrmpa ) , 2011 ) [ admin guideline ] .\n( bamford m . , d . watkins , w . bancroft , g . tischler & j . wahl , 2008 ) [ information sheet ] .\n( hansen , b . d . , r . a . fuller , d . watkins , d . i . rogers , r . s . clemens , m . newman , e . j . woehler & d . r . weller , 2016 ) in effect under the epbc act from 29 - may - 2017 . [ information sheet ] .\nshorebirds ( department of environment and heritage protection ( dehp ) , 2013bi ) [ internet ] .\nthe action plan for australian birds 2010 ( garnett , s . , j . szabo & g . dutson , 2011 ) .\nlisted as endangered ( global status : iucn red list of threatened species : 2017 . 1 list )\nthe distribution shown is generalised from the departments species of national environmental significance dataset . this is an indicative distribution map of the present distribution of the species based on best available knowledge . some species information is withheld in line with sensitive species polices . see map caveat for more information .\nthe threatened species strategy webpage includes information on what is being done to support the species recovery effort .\nfor the most current information relating to the species and to assist with regulatory considerations , refer to its conservation advice . further information may be available in the epbc act policy statement ( department of the environment 2015 ) or recent research ( bamford et al . 2008 ; dann 2014 ; hansen et al . 2015 ; hua et al . 2015 ; li et al . 2016 ; melville et al . 2016 ) .\nbamford m . , d . watkins , w . bancroft , g . tischler & j . wahl ( 2008 ) . migratory shorebirds of the east asian - australasian flyway : population estimates and internationally important sites . canberra , act : department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts , wetlands international - oceania . available from : urltoken .\ndepartment of the environment ( 2015w ) . epbc act policy statement 3 . 21 - industry guidelines for avoiding , assessing and mitigating impacts on ebbc act listed migratory shorebird species . canberra , act : commonwealth of australia . available from : urltoken .\nhansen , b . d . , p . menkhorst , p . moloney & r . h . loyn ( 2015 ) . long - term declines in multiple waterbird species in a tidal embayment , south - east australia . austral ecology . 40 ( 5 ) : 515 - 527 .\nhua , n . , k . tan , y . chen & z . ma ( 2015 ) . key research issues concerning the conservation of migratory shorebirds in the yellow sea region . bird conservation international . 25 ( 1 ) : 38 - 52 .\nli , x . , x . zhang , x . xu , s . lv , y . zhao , d . chen , c . hou , b . chen & g . yang ( 2016 ) . bird diversity in the buffer zone of the largest coastal nature reserve of china and conservation implications . pakistan journal of zoology . 48 ( 4 ) : 1193 - 1199 .\nmelville , d . s . , y . chen & z . ma ( 2016 ) . shorebirds along the yellow sea coast of china face an uncertain future - a review of threats . emu . 116 ( 2 ) : 100 - 110 .\naustralian government department of the environment and heritage ( agdeh ) ( 2006f ) . wildlife conservation plan for migratory shorebirds . canberra , act : department of the environment and heritage . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 25 - feb - 2006 . ceased to be in effect under the epbc act from 15 - jan - 2016 .\ncommonwealth of australia ( 2000b ) . list of migratory species ( 13 / 07 / 2000 ) . f2007b00750 . canberra : federal register of legislative instruments . available from : urltoken .\ncommonwealth of australia ( 2000c ) . declaration under section 248 of the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 - list of marine species . f2008b00465 . canberra : federal register of legislative instruments . available from : urltoken .\ncommonwealth of australia ( 2007h ) . environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 - listed migratory species - approval of an international agreement . f2007l02641 . canberra : federal register of legislative instruments . available from : urltoken .\ndepartment of the environment , water , heritage and the arts ( dewha ) ( 2009bc ) . draft background paper to epbc act policy statement 3 . 21 . canberra , dewha . available from : urltoken .\ngarnett , s . , j . szabo & g . dutson ( 2011 ) . the action plan for australian birds 2010 . csiro publishing . available from : urltoken .\nepbc act email updates can be received via the communities for communities newsletter and the epbc act newsletter .\nthis database is designed to provide statutory , biological and ecological information on species and ecological communities , migratory species , marine species , and species and species products subject to international trade and commercial use protected under the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 ( the epbc act ) . it has been compiled from a range of sources including listing advice , recovery plans , published literature and individual experts . while reasonable efforts have been made to ensure the accuracy of the information , no guarantee is given , nor responsibility taken , by the commonwealth for its accuracy , currency or completeness . the commonwealth does not accept any responsibility for any loss or damage that may be occasioned directly or indirectly through the use of , or reliance on , the information contained in this database . the information contained in this database does not necessarily represent the views of the commonwealth . this database is not intended to be a complete source of information on the matters it deals with . individuals and organisations should consider all the available information , including that available from other sources , in deciding whether there is a need to make a referral or apply for a permit or exemption under the epbc act .\ncitation : department of the environment ( 2018 ) . numenius madagascariensis in species profile and threats database , department of the environment , canberra . available from : urltoken . accessed tue , 10 jul 2018 06 : 11 : 44 + 1000 .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is affected by global climate change . to learn about climate change and the species that are affected , visit our climate change pages .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nby joining the biggest community of bird lovers in australia , you can help us make a positive impact on the future of our native birdlife . the members of birdlife australia , along with our supporters and partners , have been powerful advocates for native birds and the conservation of their habitats since 1901 .\nwe are also the meeting ground for everyone with an interest in birds from the curious backyard observer to the dedicated research scientist . it doesn\u2019t matter what your interest in birds is or how much you know about them , your membership will offer you the opportunity to increase your awareness and enjoyment .\nbirdlife australia would be delighted to welcome you as a new member and we look forward to sharing our news and achievements with you throughout the coming year .\nalthough birds are usually quite easy to see , often they are more difficult to identify . you may have had the briefest glimpse or heard a snatch of its song , or perhaps it was a bird you have never seen before . the best place to look for it is here . you will discover the remarkable variety of birds that occur across australia . with stunning images of featured species and some recordings of their songs and calls , you are sure to find that mystery bird , or learn more about species you already know .\nselect a bird group . . . birds of prey bush birds parrots sea birds water birds\nyou can participate and share in activities and projects with local experts all over australia .\nvisit us in sydney olympic park where you can learn about , see and engage with australian birds up close and personal .\nvisit birdlife australia\u2019s stunning conservation reserves and sanctuaries overflowing with native birdlife and other incredible flora and fauna .\nour bird observatories in western australia may be a little off the track , but that\u2019s what makes them such magical places to see birds .\nwant to know all about our native birds ? explore , learn , discover and enjoy australia\u2019s most comprehensive bird resource .\ndiscover and identify the urban birds in your backyard . get involved by helping us gather and share information about your local birdlife .\nfind places to watch birds in their native habitat . search our listing to find the next opportunity to see your favourite birds nearby and interstate .\nwe hold regular events and activities throughout the year and some have been taking place for decades . there are many ways for keen bird lovers to get involved .\njoin our community of dedicated volunteers that help monitor and collect important data on australia\u2019s birds . we always need more citizen scientists .\nthere are many ways you can help us help our native birds . join as a member , volunteer , make a donation or a bequest . your support makes a real difference .\nfrom urgent conservation activities to ongoing data recording , explore our vital projects that make a real difference to australia\u2019s birds .\nour policies , submissions and campaigns make us the leading voice for australia\u2019s birds by influencing decision makers and stakeholders .\nresearch , monitoring and evaluation underpin all our efforts . we have a long history of expertise in the science of bird conservation .\nour education programs share knowledge and experience in a friendly hands - on environment with staff and volunteers that know and love australia ' s birds and their habitats .\nbirdlife australia has a long and proud history of excellence in publishing . our members ' magazine , journals , newsletters , and reports are all world - class .\nthe h . l . white library is the most comprehensive ornithological library in australia , containing thousands of books , journals , and media about birds and related topics .\nthe atlas is one of birdlife australia ' s greatest resources , allowing us to track changes in birds across the country . since 1998 a dedicated band of . . . more >\nbirdlife australia\u2019s beach - nesting birds project works with community volunteers across australia to help raise awareness among beach users about . . . more >\nthe shorebirds 2020 program aims to reinvigorate and coordinate national shorebird population monitoring in australia . to report on the population . . . more >\nsince european settlement one - third of australia\u2019s woodlands and 80 % of temperate woodlands have been cleared . the woodland birds for biodiversity . . . more >\ne siberia , from upper reaches of r nizhnyaya tunguska e through verkhoyansk mts to kamchatka , and s to ne mongolia , extreme ne china ( ne heilongjiang ) and ussuriland . winters in japan , e china and taiwan s to indonesia and new guinea , but most migrate to australia and a few reach new zealand . never recorded in madagascar .\nbreeds in open mossy or transitional bogs , moss - lichen bogs and wet meadows , and on swampy shores . . .\ndiet on breeding grounds includes insects , such as larvae of beetles and flies , and amphipods . during autumn migration berries also . . .\npoorly known . nests early may to late jun . often in small colonies of 2\u20136 pairs , with densities of up to 5\u00b76 individuals / km . . .\nlong - distance migrant ; moves , generally in small flocks , along coasts of kuril is , sakhalin , . . .\nendangered . formerly considered near threatened . listed as critically endangered in australia given evidence that species has perhaps declined by c . 80 % in last 30 years . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nsequence of species in this family is based largely on findings of a recent phylogenetic study # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nblue - gray legs , feet . eats crustaceans , marine worms , insects , larvae , invertebrates . strong steady flight , rapid wing beats . flies in straight line or v formation .\nduring courtship the males attract females through their calls and their dances . the males flutter their wings , leaping up to 10 - 15 metres off the ground and trilling as they do .\nnamed\nnumenius madagascariensis\nby linnaeus in 1766 , it appears that the famous biologist mistakenly confused madigascar with macassar . the more appropriate name would be numenius macassariensis .\na group of curlews has many collective nouns , including a\ncurfew\n,\ngame\n,\nhead\n,\nsalon\n, and\nskein\nof curlews .\nthe gulls , plovers , sheathbills of the antarctic , predatory skuas , and sandpipers are five of the nineteen families in the taxonomic order charadriiformes ( pronounced kah - rah - dree - ih - for - meez ) .\nsandpipers , phalaropes and allies are in the scolopacidae ( pronounced skoh - loh - pay - suh - dee ) family , a group of ninety - one species of wading birds in twenty - one genera occurring nearly worldwide .\nfifty - four species of sandpipers , phalaropes , and allies in ten genera have occurred in the south pacific . twenty - eight species of sandpipers , phalaropes , and allies in eleven genera have occurred in palau . all of these species are migrants .\nin north america , sixty - five species of sandpipers , phalaropes and allies in eighteen genera have occurred . included among these birds are the large , long - billed godwits and curlews , the harlequin - like ruddy turnstone , and a variety of sandpiper species .\nsandpipers , phalaropes and allies are known for their affinity for the water\u2019s edge . the sanderling is known for its habit of running on beaches to pursue and retreat from waves in its attempt to remain at the very edge of the water .\nsandpipers , phalaropes and allies range from the sparrow - sized \u201cpeeps\u201d to the heron - sized curlews . in general , they have plump bodies , short tails , longish necks with small heads , and long , pointed wings for fast , long distance flight . leg length varies among species although most have fairly long legs suited for wading . sandpipers also demonstrate a wide variety of bill sizes and shapes that reflect different feeding behaviors ; there are species with short , stubby bills , thin medium length bills , long , thin bills , and decurved bills .\naside from the ruddy turnstone with its striking black , white , and orange plumage with red legs and bill , most sandpipers are plumaged in browns , gray , white , and black although dark red - orange colors are also shown by the breeding plumages of dowitchers and the red knot . in most species , these colors are combined for handsome , intricate patterns that act as camouflage and attract mates in the breeding season . during the winter , most species molt into drab gray and white plumages .\nmost members of this family are migrants , several species flying to south america for the winter .\nthe majority of sandpipers , phalaropes and allies occur in flocks outside of the breeding season . they can often be seen foraging in mixed flocks for a variety of invertebrates and crustaceans , each species searching for food in a different manner or in different habitats . for example the least sandpiper probes just below the mud at water\u2019s edge , dowitchers probe deep into the mud further out in the water , and the greater yellowlegs chases small fry with its bill held below the surface of the water .\n\u00a9 2002 - 2013 urltoken all rights reserved . mitch waite group . no part of this web site may be reproduced without written permission from mitch waite group . privacy policy\nvoice : a bubbling song ker ker - ee - ker - ee when disturbed .\nno birds banded overseas have been seen in new zealand and none has been banded here .\ndel hoyo , j . ; elliott , a . ; sargatal , j . ( eds ) . 1996 . handbook of birds of the world . vol . 3 , hoatzin to auks . lynx edicions , barcelona .\nhayman , p . ; marchant , j . ; prater , a . j . 1986 . shorebirds ; a n identification guide to waders of the world . christopher helm , london .\nhiggins , p . j . ; davies , s . j . j . f . ( eds ) 1996 . handbook of australian , new zealand and antarctic birds . vol . 3 , snipe to pigeons . oxford university press , melbourne .\nornithological society of new zealand ( unpublished national wader counts 2003 - 2012 ) .\nrobertson , h . a ; baird , k . ; dowding , j . e . ; elliott , g . p . ; hitchmough , r . a . ; miskelly , c . m . ; mcarthur , n . ; o\u2019donnell , c . f . j . ; sagar , p . m . ; scofield , r . p . ; taylor , g . a . 2017 . conservation status of new zealand birds , 2016 . new zealand threat classification series 19 . wellington , department of conservation . 27 p .\nsagar , p . m . ; shankar , u . ; brown , s . 1999 . distribution and numbers of waders in new zealand , 1983 - 1994 . notornis 46 : 1 - 43 .\na very large bulky wader with a very long heavily decurved bill , head and neck streaked dark brown , thin white eye - rings , and whitish throat . the upperparts are brown with pale olive - brown edging and the underparts are dark brownish - buff , paler towards the vent , with fine streaking grading to thicker arrow - shaped streaks on the flanks .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : numenius madagascariensis . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 ."]}
{"id": 287, "summary": [{"text": "tyler 's mouse opossum ( marmosa tyleriana ) is a south american marsupial of the family didelphidae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it lives in rainforests of the guiana highlands of southern venezuela at elevations between 1300 and 2200 m .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the species has only been found on three isolated tepuis ( auyantepui , marahuaca and sarisari\u00f1ama ) .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "all three of these locations are in protected areas ( canaima , duida-marahuaca and jaua-sarisari\u00f1ama national parks ) .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the latin species name refers to the habitat in which the opossum was first found , a tyleria forest .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "in turn , both the genus tyleria and the opossum 's common name refer to sidney f .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "tyler , an american historian and photographer who helped finance the 1928-29 expedition of the american museum of natural history to the headwaters of the orinoco , during which the opossum was discovered . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "tyler ' s mouse opossum", "paragraphs": ["tyler s mouse opossum tyler ' s mouse opossum tyler ' s mouse opossum ( marmosa tyleriana ) is a venezuela .\ntyler s mouse opossum tyler ' s mouse opossum tyler ' s mouse opossum ( marmosa tyleriana ) is a venezuela . ( full text )\ntyler ' s mouse opossum ( marmosa tyleriana ) is a south american marsupial of the family didelphidae .\ntyler ' s mouse opossum ( marmosa tyleriana ) is a south american marsupial of the family didelphidae . ( wiki )\nand the opossum ' s common name refer to sidney f . tyler , an american historian and photographer who helped finance the 1928 - 29 expedition of the\na young / baby of a tyler is called a ' joey ' . the females are called ' jill ' and males ' jack ' .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\nvoss , r . s . , lunde , d . p . & jansa , s . a . , 2005 : on the contents of gracilinanus gardner and creighton , 1989 , with the descripition of a previously unrecognized clade of small didelphid marsupials . \u2013american museum novitates : # 3482 , pp . 1 - 34\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nvoss , r . s . & jansa , s . a . , 2003 : phylogenetic studies on didelphid marsupials ii . nonmolecular data and new irbp sequences : separate and combined analyses of didelphine relationships with denser taxon sampling . \u2013bulletin of the american museum of natural history : vol . # 276 , pp . 1 - 82\nvoss , r . s . , gardner , a . l . & jansa , s . a . , 2004 : on the relationships of \u201c marmosa \u201d formosa shamel , 1930 ( marsupialia : didelphidae ) , a phylogenetic puzzle from the chaco of northern argentina . \u2013american museum novitates : vol . # 3442 , pp . 1 - 18\nnowak , r . m . , 1991 : walker ' s mammals of the world ; part 1 . \u2013the johns hopkins university press , baltimore and london , 1991 , xlviii - 642 - lxiii\nnowak , r . m . , 1991 : walker ' s mammals of the world ; part 2 . \u2013the johns hopkins university press , baltimore and london , 1991 , xii - 643 - 1629\nmckenna , m . c . & bell , s . k . , ( eds . ) 1997 : classification of mammals \u2013 above the species level . \u2013columbia university press , new york , 1997 , xii - 631\nthis species inhabits highland tepuis . the female has only four teats , indicating one of the smallest litter sizes for any species of marmosa s . l . . it is nocturnal and crepuscular , arboreal and terrestrial ( eisenberg 1989 ) .\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this species is listed as data deficient in view of the absence of recent information on its extent of occurrence , status and ecological requirements . the species is known from only three isolated localities , and although these are within protected areas these restricted populations could be at risk . further information in needed on the actual distribution and natural history .\nthis species is found in the guyanan highlands of southern venezuela ( gardner 2008 ) , and is restricted to three isolated tepuis ( duida - marahuaca , jaua - sarisari\u00f1ama , and auyantepui ) . the species is not suspected to occur on the serrania de maigualida ( northwest of its known distribution ) and on sierra de lema ( east of its known distribution ) , as both areas have different vegetation . it might occur on roraima , which has similar vegetation . this species was first found on mount duida above 2 , 000 m ( eisenberg 1989 ) . it is found in humid forests from 1 , 300 to 2 , 100 m .\nthis species is rare ; there have been many surveys in the guyanan highlands of southern venezuela with no records of this species .\nall three places where the species has been captured are national monuments ( the most strict figure of protected area in venezuela ) , and the areas are restricted to access with helicopters due to their isolation .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nvenezuela , amazonas ,\ncentral camp , mt . duida plateau , upper rio orinoco .\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\nmammalogists for helping to forge the nomenclatural mesh that holds our science together . * journal of mammalogy * to refer to this work as a checklist undervalues it and does not give sufficient credit to the authors and editors for their meticulous efforts in its production . a valuable reference work and a vital tool , particularly for researchers . * journal of natural history * by far the most convenient source for finding the correct scientific name of any mammal and should be on the reference shelf of libraries striving to have useful science sections . * science books and films * the editors and authors are to be congratulated for undertaking such an outstanding and authoritative work , and it should serve as a standard reference for mammalian species taxonomy for many years to come . * journal of mammalian evolution * the third edition adds to its reputation as an outstanding and authorative work . * national museum of natural history weekly update & forecast * impressive and elegant work . - - g . r . seamons * reference reviews * a must - have text for any professional mammalogist , and a useful and authoritative reference for scientists and students in other disciplines . * southeastern naturalist * a magnificent work important to anyone seriously interested in mammals . this work is essential for academic or special libraries supporting zoology or conservation and for large public libraries . * american reference books annual * as were many of our colleagues , we were waiting for this revised edition since 2003 . . . we can say that the wait was worth it . - - sergio solari and robert j . baker * journal of mammalogy *\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nthis species is found in the guyanan highlands of southern venezuela ( gardner 2007 ) . the species is restricted to three isolated tepuis ( duida - marahuaca , jaua - sarisariama , and auyantepui ) at elevations between 1 , 300 and 2 , 200 m ( gardner and creighton 2007 , ochoa 1985 , rossi 2005 , tate 1933 ) .\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nguayananhiiriopossumi\nto\nmarmosa tyleriana tate , 1931\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthis species inhabits humid forests in highland tepuis . as expected from the paucity of specimens in natural history collections , there are not studies available about the ecology and natural history of this species .\nlew , d . , prez - hernandez , r . , gutirrez , e . , ventura , j . & lpez fuster , m .\nthis species is listed as data deficient in view of the absence of recent information on its extent of occurrence , status and ecological requirements . this species is known only from three isolated locations and , therefore , its populations might be at risk in spite of these sites being in protected areas .\nall three places are national monuments ( the most strict figure of protected area of venezuela ) and the areas are restricted to access with helicopters due to their isolation .\ngardner , a . l . ( 2005 ) .\norder didelphimorphia\n. in wilson , d . e . ; reeder , d . m . mammal species of the world ( 3rd ed . ) . johns hopkins university press . pp . 9\u201310 . isbn 978 - 0 - 8018 - 8221 - 0 . oclc 62265494 .\nbeolens , bo ; watkins , michael ; grayson , michael ( 2009 - 09 - 28 ) . the eponym dictionary of mammals . baltimore : the johns hopkins university press . p . 421 . isbn 978 - 0801893049 . oclc 270129903 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\npicture has been licensed under a creative commons attribution sharealike license original source : base map derived from file : blankmap - world . png . distribution data from iucn red list author : chermundy\nsorry , the species or group that you asked for is not on the onezoom tree .\nthe open tree contains additional species not on the onezoom tree ( particularly subspecies and fossils ) . to check if this is why we cannot find your species or group , you can\n, then chances are you have entered a wrong number or a misspelt name .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\ncarroll , r . l . , 1988 : vertebrate paleontology and evolution . \u2013w . h . freeman and company , new york , 1988 , 698 .\ncarroll , r . l . , 1988 : appendix . 594 - 648 . in carroll , r . l . , 1988 : vertebrate paleontology and evolution . \u2013w . h . freeman and company , new york , 1988 , 698 .\njos h . m . dols , for gathering additional information and missing species .\nenglish french online dictionary term bank , where you can search in more than 2 million words in categories and different pronunciation options .\nbiokids is sponsored in part by the interagency education research initiative . it is a partnership of the university of michigan school of education , university of michigan museum of zoology , and the detroit public schools . this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation under grant drl - 0628151 . copyright \u00a9 2002 - 2018 , the regents of the university of michigan . all rights reserved ."]}
{"id": 294, "summary": [{"text": "the vaurie 's nightjar ( caprimulgus centralasicus ) is a species of nightjar in the family caprimulgidae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is endemic to china .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its natural habitat is cold desert .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "however , it is threatened by habitat loss .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "this bird is only known from a single 1929 specimen from xinjiang , china .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it has never been found again , and it is quite possibly invalid as it has not yet been compared to the similar subspecies of the european nightjar , c. europaeus plumipes , which occurs at the locality where c. centralasicus was found . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "vaurie ' s nightjar", "paragraphs": ["select an image : 1 . vaurie ' s nightjar > > type specimen 2 . vaurie ' s nightjar > > type specimen 3 . vaurie ' s nightjar > > type specimen 4 . vaurie ' s nightjar\nleader 2009 . is vaurie ' s nightjar caprimulgus centralasicus a valid species ? birding asia 11 : 47\u009650 .\nleader , pj 2009 . asian enigma : is vaurie ' s nightjar caprimulgus centralasicus a valid species ? birding asia 11 : 47 - 50 .\nsince vaurie ' s nightjar is known from a single specimen , then if it was the last of its kind , it would be extinct now anyway .\ndon ' t forget that there is a subspecies of the nightjar in nw china , c . europaeus plumipes . maybe you ' ve seen this bird rather than the vaurie ' s nightjar ( if it is really exist ) .\nit ' s wings have been clipped to and it ' s very tame . so someone has been taking care of it .\nknown only from this type specimen , which was collected in \u2018sandy scrub - jungle\u2019 by frank ludlow at pishan ( formerly goma ) ( 37\u00b0 31\u2019n . , 78\u00b0 17\u2019e ) , in xinjiang on september 7 , 1929 and described as a new species in vaurie 1960 . refs : vaurie , c . ( 1960 ) systematic notes on palearctic birds , no . 39 : caprimuligidae : a new species of caprimulgus . amer . mus . novit . no . 1985 . leader , p . j . ( 2009 ) is vaurie ' s nightjar caprimulgus centralasicus a valid species ? birdingasia 11 : 47 - 50 .\nlooking forward for the paper , but i would like to see dna analysis . actualy , some cleverdick could analyze dna of nightjars . he might also discover several overlooked nightjar species worldwide . about vaurie ' s - i think it is an aberrant bird . if not , there is no reason why it should be extinct . i guess practicaly nobody surveyed for nightjars in w china !\ncleere , n . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . vaurie\u2019s nightjar ( caprimulgus centralasicus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthere ' s been a lot of habitat degradation in xinjiang , according to the red list data .\nno , it ' s pawel kwak beer ( est 1791 ) , after three 330ml bottles . . .\nunknown , but species ( if valid ) is assumed to be a migrant given that winter bird community of s . . .\nhello , i ' m an expat living in china and my wife found a nightjar / nighthawk on the ground while walking to the store . we ' re trying to identify what kind of nightjar / nighthawk it is and was wondering if you guys could help ? if i get any replies i ' ll take a picture and put it online asap . thanks .\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nleader acknowledges possible habitat changes . he also notes that , given the winter temperatures at the type location , it is most unlikely that the nightjar would be a permanent resident , and suggests that it should be looked for in oct - apr in the deserts and semi - deserts of pakistan and n & w india ( perhaps overlooked among sykes ' s ) ; and could also be just a migrant through s xinjiang , breeding further n in the taklamakan or gobi deserts .\nif you have videos , photographs or sound recordings you can share them on the internet bird collection . it ' s free and easy to do .\npaul leader describes how in june 2004 he and and three others spent two weeks in southern xinjiang , including several days and nights at the type locality of the nightjar ( pishan , between kashgar and hotan ) , without success .\none amazing fact ( new to me anyway ) : paul leader notes that the first of only two specimens of leucosticte sillemi was collected on the same day ( 7 sep ) as the nightjar , also in xinjiang , although 250km to the s ( with the second on the following day ) . i knew that both species were collected in the same year ( 1929 ) , but had never appreciated that it was on exactly the same day . what are the chances of that - 2 species never to be seen again ?\none amazing fact ( new to me anyway ) : paul leader notes that the first of only two specimens of leucosticte sillemi was collected on the same day ( 7 sep ) as the nightjar , also in xinjiang , although 250km to the s ( with the second on the following day ) . i knew that both species were collected in the same year ( 1929 ) , but had never appreciated that it was on exactly the same day . what are the chances of that - 2 species never to be seen again ? richard\nw china ( sw xinjiang ) , where possibly occurs throughout s tarim basin along kun lun ; speculated to breed in taklamakan desert or as far n as gobi desert and to winter in semi - deserts of pakistan and nw india # r .\n_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ oriental bird club - helping to save asia ' s threatened birds . urltoken\nbirdforum is the net ' s largest birding community , dedicated to wild birds and birding , and is absolutely free ! you are most welcome to register for an account , which allows you to take part in lively discussions in the forum , post your pictures in the gallery and more .\ndid you need special permits ? and were you restricted to the main highway when transiting aksai chin , or was it possible to travel freely towards the indian border ? ( the sillem ' s type locality is in the extreme west of aksai chin , very close to the border with jammu & kashmir . )\nblack robin petroica traversi the black robin was the world ' s rarest bird , and is new zealand ' s comeback hero from the brink of extinction . extinction could not have been any closer in 1980 when there was one female named old blue and her breeding partner and three other males , but the black robin has been brought back to a population of about 254 . when old blue died it was announced in parliament . its status has been lowered to endangered on the 2007 iucn red list . the black robin is found only on three small islands in the chatham islands and remains ' nationally critical ' on the 2005 nz threat\ni haven ' t checked , but if i remember right these specimens are from a region that , at least in part , is off - limits to birders ( foreign , not sure about chinese ) . the region is certainly considered\npolitically sensitive\nby chinese authorities ( uyghur issue , nearby tibet issue , china - india border issue ) and there is a rather heavy military presence . . . possibly making it somewhat difficult to freely search for these species without risking being shot ( ! ) . i know birders have looked for the nightjar near the region where the specimen was collected . has anyone managed to do the same for the mountain - finch ?\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : despite recent searches , this species is known from only one specimen , the provenance of which has been debated . as such , there is insufficient information available for an assessment of its threat status .\nthis species is only known from its type specimen and as such no population estimates are available . trend justification : the current population trend is unknown as the species is only known from a single record .\nthe type - specimen was collected in sandy scrub - jungle at 1 , 220 m and it presumably occurs in desert and semi - desert habitats .\nthere has been widespread degradation of desert and semi - desert habitats in the taklimakan desert through intensive grazing by goats and camels , extraction of fuelwood , and the conversion of huge areas to irrigated farmland . in 1990 , the habitats at the type - locality , guma , were found to have been very much altered since the 1920s .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ntaxonomic status perhaps questionable . known only from type specimen , an immature female originally identified as c . aegyptius , and compared only with that species when described ; further study of immature c . europaeus plumipes may also be of interest . recent reassessment , however , strongly supports probability that taxon is valid , specimen being markedly smaller than any plumipes even allowing for incomplete growth of wings # r . monotypic .\n19 cm . known only from type specimen , a suspected immature female . closest in size to\npossibly arid plains and sandy foothills covered in short scrub . type specimen was collected at . . .\nnot globally threatened . previously considered vulnerable ; now regarded as data deficient . restricted - range species : present in taklimakan ( taklamakan ) desert eba . taxonomic . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\ndespite recent searches , this species is known from only one specimen , the provenance of which has been debated . as such , there is insufficient information available for an assessment of its threat status .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : caprimulgus centralasicus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nclick here to go to the home page and find out more . | click here to join .\nthe type locality of the finch is in aksai chin , which is under chinese administration but claimed by india - so probably difficult to visit .\nthe type locality of the finch is in aksai chin , which is under chinese administration but claimed by india - so probably difficult to visit . richard\nthat must have been an interesting trip - certainly well off the beaten track . ( i know that ben king runs occasional tours to xinjiang , but only to the north . )\nyes , it was an amazing trip . excellent views of tibetan sandgrouse and snowcock , as well as the ground jay . we did have permits , but these had been arranged by chinatibet travel in chengdu . we had an english speaking tibetan for a guide and a chinese driver . there were a few checkpoints in the odd town , but not a lot in the aksai chin , although we did bump into nomads in the most desolate places ! stunning scenery however , different views of k2 etc . tony\ni knew that both species were collected in the same year ( 1929 ) , but had never appreciated that it was on exactly the same day . what are the chances of that - 2 species never to be seen again ?\nunfortunately the llast specimens were collected and now the species are extinct . . .\n_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ val\u00e9ry schollaert birds are disappearing because we destroy their natural habitat . by far , the main reason of this destruction is animal agriculture ; thus , the first essential step for all bird lovers : becoming vegan .\nit is just to recall that when a new bird is found , killing the first specimen is not a good idea . . . we did in the past , whatever , but we should stop now .\nyou never now . . . urltoken it is just to recall that when a new bird is found , killing the first specimen is not a good idea . . . we did in the past , whatever , but we should stop now .\ni don ' t disagree with you about present - day collection of specimens , but you can ' t really expect people to take you seriously when you make ridiculous comments about birds collected in 1929 .\nobviously i forgot the smilies . . . ( i wanted to click on\ngo advanced\nand clicked on\npost quick reply\n) . . .\n_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _\n. . . bureaucracy is a parasite that preys on free thought and suffocates free spirit . . .\ndouglas adams urltoken\n_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ the fuzziness of all supposedly absolute taxonomic distinctions - stephen jay gould ( 1977 )\never since darwin : reflections in natural history\n. species and subspecies are but a convenient fiction - kees van deemter ( 2010 ) ,\nin praise of vagueness\n. biology is messy\npowered by vbulletin\u00ae , copyright \u00a92000 - 2018 vbulletin solutions , inc . \u00a9 birdforum ltd 2002 - 2018"]}
{"id": 296, "summary": [{"text": "ypsolopha vintrella is a moth of the family ypsolophidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is known from the united states , including arizona and california .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 17 \u2013 22 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the antennae are white with sharp prominent dark brown annulations .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the labial palpi are white and the face , head and thorax are pure white .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the forewings are white with indistinct and ill-defined , light ochreous fuscous markings , the most persistent of these are a central longitudinal row of three large oblong spots , more or less connected by single dark scales , and a series of equidistant costal , apical and dorsal spots around the edge of the apical third of the wing .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there are also two ochreous fuscous costal spots , one at basal third and one at the middle of the wing , and two or more dorsal spots , but none of these markings are very constant .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are light gray , the abdomen is dark fuscous and the legs are white . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "ypsolopha vintrella", "paragraphs": ["ypsolopha helva j . c . sohn & c . s . wu , in sohn et al . , 2010\nypsolopha pseudoparallela j . c . sohn & c . s . wu , in sohn et al . , 2010\nypsolopha sordida j . c . sohn & c . s . wu , in sohn et al . , 2010\nypsolopha species are variable in shape and color and no exclusive superficial features have been established for the group . in contrast , the genitalia of both sexes are remarkably homogeneous .\nypsolopha is a genus of moth of the ypsolophidae family . it is the type genus of the ypsolophidae family and comprises over 120 described species ( about 95 % of the known world diversity of the ypsolophidae family ) .\nadults are nocturnal or rarely diurnal . their resting postures are various , but they often have the head down and the lower body up . ypsolopha acuminata mimics a small broken branch at rest . the larvae usually live in open webs on the leaves of various , primarily woody , plants and mostly feed on a limited range of host plants . they are active primarily at night and have two defensive behaviors that involve wiggling and jumping .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\nthere are no photos of this species on the website yet . you can offer your photo by logging into your account\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\n80x5 - 240x3 - 240x4 - 320x1 - 320x2 - 320x3 - 640x1 - 640x2 set display option above . click on images to enlarge .\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy ."]}
{"id": 299, "summary": [{"text": "hypobapta percomptaria is a moth of the family geometridae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is known from australia , including south australia , new south wales , queensland , victoria and tasmania .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 50 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are grey-brown with wavy lines .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "specimens from tasmania are generally paler than mainland specimens .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the larvae feed on eucalyptus species .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "young larvae are brown with a red head and tail .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "later instars become green with a conical head . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "hypobapta percomptaria", "paragraphs": ["this caterpillar is initially brown with a red head and tail . later it becomes green with a conical head .\nthe adult moth is grey - brown with wavy lines . the undersides have a rosy suffusion , and each wing has a broad black submarginal band . the wingspan is about 4 cms .\nthe eggs are smooth and somewhat conical ovals . they are laid in irregular clusters .\nvolume 9 , part 9 ( 1857 ) , plate 6 , fig . 4 ,\nmelbourne university press , 1990 , pl . 26 . 13 , fig . 37 . 5 , p . 371 .\nvolume 9 , part 9 ( 1857 ) , pp . 280 - 281 ,\nvolume 32 , number 2 ( november 2009 ) , pp . 161 - 166 .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nguen\u00e9e , a . 1857 ,\nuranides et phal\u00e9nites\n, ed . boisduval , j . - a . & guen\u00e9e , a . ( eds ) , histoire naturelle des insectes . species g\u00e9n\u00e9ral des l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res , vol . 9 , librarie encyclop\u00e9dique de roret , paris\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 3ef52e38 - 2bf5 - 4a5d - 98d8 - 8c8a3db4c009\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 7ac7a8e8 - 54b9 - 47b8 - 85eb - bb7337405452\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 7ae4904b - 990f - 4e40 - 977a - 5ded39badc8e\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : c0ec8903 - f21a - 41f3 - a177 - 49a5f753ad45\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 99192177 - 5832 - 4281 - 95d0 - 46af2e98b417\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 412683\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwhen i first discovered this macro world of amazing color and design i never expected that 22 months later i would still be posting so many different types of moths and bugs . . . . many of these creatures are only fingernail size which with the aid of an 18mp sony hx20v camera and photoshop it has been possible to present them to the world . to the naked eye they appear as dark shapes which most people would not notice . . . all these pictures are taken at night on our upper balcony and none of them have been harmed . we live next to a rainforest which may account for the amazing variety . . . . . i hope you enjoy them , and thanks in advance for any views & comments . .\nyou have indicated that this image may be a violation of the terms of service . please indicate your reason below ( required ) and include a brief explanation if desired , then click\nsubmit\nto confirm your report .\nmembers remain the original copyright holder in all their materials here at renderosity . use of any of their material inconsistent with the terms and conditions set forth is prohibited and is considered an infringement of the copyrights of the respective holders unless specially stated otherwise .\nthis site uses cookies to deliver the best experience . our own cookies make user accounts and other features possible . third - party cookies are used to display relevant ads and to analyze how renderosity is used . by using our site , you acknowledge that you have read and understood our terms of service , including our cookie policy and our privacy policy .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services ."]}
{"id": 310, "summary": [{"text": "aphrissa orbis , the orbed sulphur , is a butterfly in the family pieridae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is native to hispaniola and cuba but is a very rare stray to florida .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the habitat consists of tropical moist forests above 500 meters .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the wingspan is 63 \u2013 76 mm ( 2.5 \u2013 3.0 in ) .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the upper surface of the male forewings is pale lemon yellow with a large orange patch on the basal third .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the female upper surface is deep ochre , the underside of the hindwing with a large brown patch .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there are multiple generations per year on cuba and hispaniola .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "they feed on flower nectar of various flowers , including ageratum conyzoides , antigonon leptotus and hibiscus species .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on poinciana pulcherrima . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "aphrissa orbis", "paragraphs": ["aphrissa orbis ( poey , 1832 ) = callidryas orbis poey , 1832 = phoebis orbis = aphrissa orbis orbis = phoebis orbis poey 1832 = callidryas orbis poey 1832 .\naphrissa orbis orbis sulphur male guanahacabibes 27 mar 1993 . coll . d . s . smith . specimen from the collection of the oxford university museum of natural history .\nrecognizing females of the common phoebis sennae sennae and new aphrissa orbis orbis in the field is very difficult . there is more variability with respect to hue and markings in phoebis sennae so that complicates the issue . here are some comparative observations from dr . jacqueline miller of the mc guire center at the florida museum of natural history where she illustrates this with their library pictures\nphoebis ( aphrissa ) statira hispaniolae munroe , 1947 ; ; tl : dominican rep .\naphrissa butler , 1873 ; lepid . exotica ( 19 ) : 155 ; ts : papilio statira cramer\n= aphrissa statira ; godman & salvin , [ 1889 ] , biol . centr . - amer . , lep . rhop . 2 : 147\naphrissa statira statira ; winhard , 2000 , butterflies of the world 10 : 12 , pl . 15 , f . 9 ; [ ecul ] ; [ nl4a ] , # 81a\n= aphrissa statira ; godman & salvin , [ 1889 ] , biol . centr . - amer . , lep . rhop . 2 : 147 ; dyar , 1903 , bull . u . s . nat . mus . 52 : 8\naphrissa statira ; godman & salvin , [ 1889 ] , biol . centr . - amer . , lep . rhop . 2 : 147 ; dyar , 1903 , bull . u . s . nat . mus . 52 : 8 ; [ bcr ] , 104 ; [ nacl ] , # 4233 ; [ ebw ] ; [ opler ] ; [ nl4a ] , # 81\nupper surface of male forewing pale lemon yellow with large orange patch on basal third . female upper surface deep ocher , underside of hindwing with large brown patch .\nmany flights in cuba ; many from april - august on hispaniola ; also other months .\nflower nectar including that of ageratum conyzoides , antigonon leptotus , and hibiscus species .\ng3 - very rare or local throughout its range or found locally in a restricted range ( 21 to 100 occurrences ) . ( threatened throughout its range ) .\nbrazil ( rio de janeiro , amazonas ) , peru . see [ maps ]\n1400x1113 ( ~ 177kb ) underside usa : sierra vista , cochise co . , arizona , 8 . 8 . 2005 , photo \u00a9 markku savela\ne - mail : jshuey at tnc . org ; director of conservation science ; indiana office of the nature conservancy ;\nbutterflies of north america . 2 . scientific names list for butterfly species of north america , north of mexico .\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nwinhard , 2000 pieridae i butterflies of the world 10 : 1 - 40 , pl . title , 1 - 48 , back\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe marking near the end of the forewing cell is usually dark brown and slightly cut out along the outer margin .\nbelow , this end cell spot is enlarged and more magenta with white overscaling . the same color combination can be seen along the lateral or outside margin on the forewing .\nthere is a reddish brown , jagged submarginal spotband that extends from near the fw apex and extends about half way down the wing .\nfemale above , marking at the end of the cell is circular with usually an open circle ( white or off white ) in center .\nmarking at end of cell becomes double spots , silver in center and outlined in reddish brown .\na reddish brown submarginal spotband which extends nearly to the anal or near the posterior margin of the wing .\nbasic color below is usually\npeppered\nwith red to reddish - brown to brown scales .\nbrown border of hw more complete ; fw above border along the lateral margin crescent shaped .\nmailing address : p . o . box 203 north side grand cayman ky1 - 1701 cayman islands ( click here for directions ) telephone : ( 345 ) 947 - 9462 email : manager @ urltoken\n9 : 00 a . m . to 5 : 30 p . m . last admission at 4 : 30 p . m . ( closed on christmas day and good friday )\n\u2022 queen elizabeth ii botanic park \u2022 pedro st . james historic site \u2022 hell attraction \u2022 cayman craft market \u2022 pirates week festival\nwe ' re not around right now . but you can send us an email and we ' ll get back to you , asap .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\ndata and apps idaho fish and wildlife information system bringing information to bear on the management and conservation of fish , wildlife , and plants in idaho .\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy"]}
{"id": 332, "summary": [{"text": "horntail or wood wasp is the common name for any of the 150 non-social species of the family siricidae , of the order hymenoptera , a type of xylophagous sawfly .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "this family was formerly believed to be the sole living representative of the superfamily siricoidea , a group well represented in paleogene and mesozoic times , but the family anaxyelidae has been linked to this group .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "there are ten living genera placed in the family , and an additional three genera described from fossils .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the last tergite of the abdomen has a strong , projecting spike , thus giving the group its common name ( the ovipositor is typically longer and also projects posteriorly , but it is not the source of the name ) .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "a typical adult horntail is brown , blue , or black with yellow parts , and may often reach up to 4 cm ( 1.6 in ) long .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the pigeon horntail ( tremex columba ) can grow up to 5 cm ( 2.0 in ) long ( not counting the ovipositor ) , among the longest of all hymenoptera .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "female horntails lay their eggs in trees .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the larvae bore into the wood and live in the tree for up to two years , possibly more .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "they typically migrate to just under the bark before pupation .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the spiral groove on the ovipositor is visible on the photograph but not easily to the naked eye . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "horntail", "paragraphs": ["horntail also appears in zero ' s early game ( after alpha and beta meet ) but only shows the giant left head . horntail starts crying after being attacked by zero , and freud states that horntail is just a baby .\nthe pigeon tremex is a type of non - stinging wasp , known as a horntail .\ndetailing the physical features , habits , territorial reach and other identifying qualities of the horntail wasp .\n. if one gives the wizard a sword he will kill the horntail and give the player a key .\ntime limit shows the total time allowed to fight but you must spawn the full horntail within 15 minutes .\nscientists have discovered that , in the case of other species of horntail wasps , fungal associates can attract these parasites . ibalia is attracted to volatile chemicals released by the fungus in its early stages of development ahead of the horntail larva\u2019s feeding tunnel . ichneumon wasps are drawn to fungal chemicals excreted in the horntail grub\u2019s feces .\nhorntail wasps look like they can deliver a wicked sting , but that stout syringe is actually for laying eggs .\nthe hungarian horntail was part of the dragon challenge roller coaster in the wizarding world of harry potter along with the chinese fireball .\nthere is , however , reason to suspect the relationship has a dark side . the fungus may play a role in attracting parasitic wasps that reduce the horntail larvae\u2019s numbers . a larva tunneling inside a tree would seem to be safe from enemies , but there are other wasps that have evolved to seek out horntail grubs . female giant ichneumon wasps in the genus megarhyssa have long , whip - like ovipositors that drill deep to attach an egg to a horntail grub . wasps in the ibaliidae family reach young horntail larvae at a more shallow depth . ichneumon larvae feed externally on nearly mature horntail larvae . ibaliid larvae feed internally initially , externally later .\nsupposedly the most dangerous of all dragon breeds , the hungarian horntail has black scales and is lizard - like in appearance .\nwhen faced with the agony of trying to ask someone to the yule ball , harry said that he would have preferred facing the horntail again .\nwhat made you want to look up horntail ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\nsince the beginning , it was intended to bring the horntail to life mostly through computer animation . the task was assigned to industrial light & magic , whose digital effects artists fashioned a horntail model starting from the maquette provided by dudman\u2019s team . the digital model was used for the remainder of the forest sequence , as well as the entire first task scene . a small - scale version of the horntail also appears in the selection scene .\nthe hungarian horntail appears in the attraction at the wizarding world of harry potter . riders encounter the dragon when harry potter and ronald weasley fly muggles to the quidditch pitch . riders enter a real set of the wooden bridge where they encounter a animatronic hungarian horntail , which breathes false fire at them .\noh , don\u2019t worry about \u2019em , harry , they\u2019re seriously misunderstood creatures\u2026 although , i have to admit that horntail is a right nasty piece of work .\nhow do they get inside ? horntail females lay eggs in dead , dying , or fallen logs . if a property owner\u2019s home is built using lumber infested with horntail larvae , the adult insects may emerge in homes after completion of their life cycle . adults will chew through plaster or sheet rock walls to get to living spaces .\nhorntail wasps do not bite or sting . also , they cannot infest lumber after it has been cut so there is no risk of additional generations of horntails in the studs or household furniture . most horntail wasps will emerge within the first year of construction , though a few may linger and emerge as long as 2 or 3 years after construction .\nthe horntail ' s appearance in the movie is based off of the dragons in the movie ,\nreign of fire\n( 2002 ) . the appearance of the horntail in movie adaptations is more akin to that of a traditional wyvern ; as it has no forelegs , a true classical dragon having forelegs , hindlegs and wings like described in the books .\nhorntail is a boss that , much like gollux , consists of multiple body parts that appear in different maps . the party must defeat all of them to win the boss battle .\nhorntail is an evil power - hungry dragon who rebelled against the nine spirits ' rule and distorted the area with evil in order to kidnap an egg of nine spirit dragon and consolidate its power over minar forest . horntail now holds an ambitious wish of ruling over the entire minar forest . it now waits for powerful maplers to enter the cave of life to challenge it .\nposted on 07 / 03 / 2013 , in movie monsters and tagged dragon , harry potter monsters , hungarian horntail , nick dudman , paul catling . bookmark the permalink . 1 comment .\nthe horntail is featured in the video game version of harry potter and the deathly hallows : part 1 and lives in the dark caves , a wizarding world forestal area with a giant cave .\nwhen the player approaches the cave , he / she sees moira trapped in a cage ; she pleads with the player to slay horntail , giving the pendant to enter the cave and do so .\noh , don ' t worry about ' em , harry , they ' re seriously misunderstood creatures \u2014 although , i have to admit that horntail is a right nasty piece of work .\nwarriner md . 2008 . first record of the asian horntail , eriotremex formosanus ( hymenoptera : siricidae ) , in arkansas , u . s . a . entomological news 119 : 212 - 213 .\ndesigning the hungarian horntail for the film adaptation of goblet of fire proved to be an arduous challenge : given the long tradition of dragon depictions in both films and general media , the creature designers focused on what not to do in order to distinguish the horntail ( as well as the other first task dragons ) from previous dragon designs . the creature effects team set out to portray a spectacular and surprising creature .\nthe adult female can be seen searching the same areas used by the pigeon tremex , although they tend to be present a bit later in the summer . developing horntail larvae can be detected under the bark by the female and she subsequently drills into the wood to the tunnel of the horntail larva . during egg laying ( oviposition ) the host larva is paralyzed with a sting after which the egg is laid . the parasitic wasp larva feeds on the paralyzed horntail larva , consuming it completely within a couple of weeks . it then pupates and remains dormant under the bark until the following summer , when the adults emerge .\nhorntails get their name from the projection on the back of their abdomen , which often is confused for a stinger . some people refer to these insects as wood wasps , as horntail larvae bore into wood .\nsmith dr . 1996 . discovery and spread of the asian horntail , eriotremex formosanus ( matsumura ) ( hymenoptera : siricidae ) , in the united states . journal of entomological science 31 : 116 - 171 .\nsmith dr . 1975 . eriotremex formosanus ( matsumura ) , an asian horntail in north america ( hymenoptera : siricidae ) . u . s . department of agriculture , cooperative economic insect report 24 : 851 - 854 .\nfor years , biologists couldn ' t understand how the horntail drill worked . unlike traditional drills , which require additional force ( think of a construction worker bearing down on a jackhammer ) , the horntail can drill from any angle with little effort and little body weight . after years of studying the tiny insects , scientists finally figured out that the two needles inch their way into wood , pushing off and reinforcing each other like a zipper .\nthe hungarian horntail is a dragon native to hungary and is considered to be one of the most dangerous dragon breeds , if not the most dangerous . [ 1 ] it possesses black scales and is lizard - like in appearance .\nthis party quest is located in the cave of life in the leafre canyons . it leads up to the fight with one of the most powerful boss monsters in the game , horntail . to enter , one must be in a party of 1 - 6 , and be over the level of 130 . the leader also must have completed the secret medicine of transformation certificate of squad badge quest , which will give the certificate to enter the horntail ' s cave .\nhorntail wasps emerging into houses through plaster board ( sheetrock ) come from larvae living in the studs behind the plaster board . studs that were cut from infested logs can contain horntail larvae that survived the processing . the larvae survived , in part , because the studs were not kiln dried or were inadequately dried . the adult wasps chewing their way out of infested studs also chew through almost any building material used to cover the wood ( plaster board or paneling ) .\na photograph found in the monster park shows horntail with spiegelmann , suggesting the two are friends , or used to be . ( if it is shown to spieglemann , he ' ll bribe the player into keeping quiet about it . )\ncolliding into a bridge , the horntail falls into an uncertain fate , whereas its miniature counterpart makes a cameo in harry potter and the half - blood prince \u2014 roasting chestnuts on a cart outside weasley wizard wheezes . jim mitchell was satisfied with the final results of the horntail animation and rendering for goblet of fire , saying that \u201cilm did a great job with the animation and look of the bat - like dragon making it as real as any dragon i\u2019ve seen . \u201d\na hungarian horntail was to be faced during the first task of the 1994 triwizard tournament , in an effort to retrieve a golden egg . [ 2 ] harry potter had to face it after selecting , at random , a tiny model depicting the horntail from a bag . he summoned his firebolt broomstick to him and used it to manoeuvre around the dragon to retrieve the egg . it is stated that ron weasley ' s brother charlie helped transport the dragon from romania . [ 2 ]\nin most cases , it will not be necessary to do anything to control horntails . the adult horntail does not reinfest seasoned wood . it will not lay eggs in wood that is inside the home . damaged wood can often be repaired or replaced .\nin the film adaptation of harry potter and the goblet of fire , the horntail broke free of its chain and attacked harry . the two of them fought in an exciting chase that spanned all around the castle grounds , almost causing harry to fall to his death at one point when he was trying to reach his firebolt , but when the chase continued , harry flew through the viaduct , which the horntail crashed into , breaking its wing and causing it to fall into the chasm below , presumably to its death .\nbased on the approved design , kate hill sculpted two quarter - scale horntail maquettes , which were moulded in fiberglass and painted for reference . a larger scanning model was then devised and supplied to industrial light & magic to create the digital model of the dragon .\nthe pottermore illustration of the hungarian horntail resembles its description in the novels , having four legs and two wings , with a lizard - like head and being black in colour with bronze spikes and claws . this is markedly different than the depiction of the dragon in the film .\nin the film adaptation of harry potter and the half - blood prince , the hungarian horntail model that was given to harry from barty crouch snr is seen in the roast chestnuts sale , located in diagon alley . it is possible that harry gave his dragon to fred and george who put it there .\nand there was the horntail , at the other end of the enclosure , crouched low over her clutch of eggs , her wings half - furled , her evil , yellow eyes upon him , a monstrous , scaly , black lizard , thrashing her spiked tail , heaving yard - long gouge marks in the hard ground .\nthough the horntail ( or wood wasp ) looks like a wasp , it is not a wasp at all . it does not have a stinger , nor does it have venom . the long projection at the rear of its abdomen is an ovipositor ( egg depositor ) . this is only seen in the female . on the top side of the abdomen , at its tip , is a triangular \u201chorn\u201d ( best seen in a side view ) . this is what gives the horntail its name . they are about one inch long with a cylindrical body . they are brown , black or metalic blue in color with yellow or red markings .\ndon ' t be scared of the two giant , whip - like needles on the end of a horntail wasp . they ' re not stingers ; they ' re drill bits . horntails use these needles ( which can be longer than their entire bodies ! ) to drill into trees , where they deposit their young .\nafter fighting the preliminary heads , the party will be directed to the map for the real fight . to start the bossfight , destroy the pink crystal on the far right of the map to summon horntail . players must stand clear away from the middle when this happens , otherwise they ' d most likely end up dying .\ntwo large and bizarre looking insects are commonly associated with dying branches and trunks of several commonly grown hardwood trees . one of these is an insect that develops as a borer within the tree\u2014the pigeon tremex horntail ( tremex columba ) . the other is the most common natural enemy of this insect , the giant ichneumon wasp ( megarhyssa macrurus ) .\nit has black scales , and is lizard - like in appearance . it also has yellow eyes , with vertical pupils like a cat ' s , bronze horns and similarly coloured spikes that protrude from its long tail which it will gladly deploy in combat . the dragon ' s roar is a yowling , screeching scream , and its flame can reach to about fifty feet . while having a very far reaching flame the horntail ' s breath can reach extremely high temperatures as it made a stone turn red hot in seconds . its eggs are cement - coloured and particularly hard - shelled . the horntail ' s foods of choice include cattle , sheep , goats , and whenever possible , humans .\nthe maquettes also served as reference for a full - scale horntail animatronic built by nick dudman\u2019s special effects team . the puppet would be used in the early shots that revealed the creature , which show it in a distance . dudman recalled : \u201cthe production wanted a lightweight life - size dragon head to run about on set with . once we had that head and eight feet of the neck , we suggested that we could sculpt the rest very quickly , keeping it very basic . we used that for wide shots of the dragon in its cage . \u201d kate hill led the creation of the full - size sculpture of the horntail \u2014 aided by waldo mason , andy hunt and other sculptors .\ndespite the warning colors , horntail wasps are generally non - aggressive and ( one source says ) harmless . both genders of horntail wasp species have short spines at the tip of their abdomen , but females appear to have two menacing stingers . the thicker , longer one is actually an ovipositor . the ovipositor is a tube used by the female to directly inject eggs into tree trunks and other durable wood where they are less likely to found and eaten by other insects . that sturdy spine aids in splitting the wood before the eggs are laid . larvae hatch inside the wood and tunnel through it , emerging as adults . despite the great efforts to use deep wood to protect the horntail larvae , they are eaten by the larvae of other parasitic wasps that have also hatched in the same tree . those that survive emerge from the tree in adult form . if the tree has been harvested and used for building material before then , it is not unusual to see these adults inside as they come out of wood . adults drink nectar and water .\nthe wasp and fungus are mutually supportive . the fungus benefits by hitching a ride to new host trees , where it can spread and ultimately produce fruiting bodies - shelf mushrooms known as mossy maze polypore . the wasp depends on the fungus to complete its life cycle . without cerrena unicolor to provide food and soften wood , pigeon horntail larvae do not survive .\nan unusual pest problem of large wasps chewing holes through plaster board and emerging within recently constructed homes came to our attention in the summer of 1991 . these 1 and 1 / 4 inch long , black or dark blue wasps have been identified as horntails or horntail wasps . the name comes from the spearlike projection on the tail end of both male and female horntails .\na pigeon horntail that survives the perils of youth eventually becomes a pupa , the \u201cresting stage\u201d in which it transforms into an adult . adult horntails chew their way out of their host trees between june and october in the northeast u . s . males emerge before females , gathering in loose swarms over treetops . females look for these \u201cbachelor\u201d parties and select suitable mates .\nthe pigeon tremex is a type of non - stinging wasp , known as a horntail ( hymenoptera : siricidae ) . they are large insects , with a tubular shaped body and generally brown color , marked with yellow . females , which are considerably larger than males , have a stout spine projecting from the hind end . this is the ovipositor , used to insert eggs under bark .\nno one could fault you for running away , screaming in terror , if you saw a large , flying , cigar - shaped insect armed with a \u201cstinger\u201d bigger than a sewing needle . thankfully , the female pigeon horntail wood wasp is harmless . that spear on its rear isn\u2019t meant to pierce skin . it\u2019s for drilling into wood ; and it lays the foundation \u2013 literally \u2013 for a remarkable inter - species relationship .\nin the film adaptation of harry potter and the goblet of fire , the horntail ' s manner of breathing fire by shooting a pair of chemical liquids that cause a fire blast on contact is possibly based on the same fire - breathing manner used by dragons in the movie reign of fire ( 2002 ) . [ 1 ] this was further followed by other media such as game of thrones series and gods of egypt ( 2016 ) .\nadults in the forest , horntails can complete the entire life cycle in a year or two . if the wood has been dried and made into lumber , the horntail life cycle can take as long as five years . when the adult comes out of the cocoon , it chews its way out of the wood . the adult makes a round hole in the surface of the wood . the exit holes are usually about 1 / 4\u2033 in diameter .\nvincent described how the parasitoid wasp species megarhyssa macrurus , is able to use her egg laying tube to drill down into tree bark , where she deposits her eggs onto the larvae of the pidgeon tremaz horntail ( how did this come up as a topic ? ! over dessert ? ) . this is possible thanks to a complex structure of three tubes that can bend and flex as the wasp drills , allowing her to position her eggs with pinpoint precision .\nthe finished animatronic was mounted on a mobile , wheeled unit \u2014 which eased transport of the enormous prop . the head could perform a wide range of motion , including an articulated neck and mouth , and movable eyes , eyelids and nostrils . the wings could make limited movements and the body could move from side to side . the puppet was shot inside a hydraulically - operated breakaway cage . in addition , the full - size horntail was also used at the film\u2019s world premiere in london .\nthe map below showcases ( in red ) the states and territories of north america where the horntail wasp may be found ( but is not limited to ) . this sort of data can be useful in seeing concentrations of a particular species over the continent as well as revealing possible migratory patterns over a species ' given lifespan . some species are naturally confined by environment , weather , mating habits , food resources and the like while others see widespread expansion across most , or all , of north america .\nin the novel , the first task ends in the arena ; in the film , however , the sequence was taken into a more action - oriented direction : the horntail breaks from its restraints , chasing harry outside the arena . visual effects supervisor jim mitchell developed the idea . he related : \u201cthere never was any of the chase around hogwarts castle , but one day when i was checking out the huge physical model of the castle for some establishing shots , i thought how cool would it be see harry and the dragon flying through its deep ravines , under bridges and past these giant , stoned structures . i imagined the dragon landing on one of the steep towers and roaring like king kong on the empire state building . mike newell and the producers liked the idea and so the sequence grew to include the chase . i think it opened the sequence up and made it more perilous and exciting than it originally was . \u201d the chase scene offered the opportunity to further showcase horntail animation \u2014 swooping like a hawk or crawling like a bat on the hogwarts towers .\nrowling\u2019s description in the novel made mention of \u201cclawed front legs , \u201d a trait that was initially considered , but discarded ; in order to maintain artistic integrity , the filmmakers eventually steered towards a four - limbed configuration of the anatomy , harkening back to norbert from the first film . the key trait of the creature \u2014 the \u2018horntail\u2019 \u2014 was initially envisioned as a scorpion\u2019s stinger , or a tail tip with clusters or rows of spikes . in the end , a large spear - like tail tip covered in smaller spikes was chosen . as the design process progressed , it was decided to make horns the key visual motif of the monster \u2014 endowing it with a crown of horns on its head , which continued mane - like down its neck , back and tail , ending in the spiked tip . some of the horns on the creature\u2019s head can also flare out and hinge back to highlight its emotional state . the final design \u2014 penned by paul catling \u2014 was also strongly influenced by birds of prey : a hawk - like beaked tip of the mouth and a proportionally large chest housing powerful flight muscles completed the imposing look of the hungarian horntail .\na fertile female pigeon horntail seeks a tree that is dead , dying , or weakened . maple and beech are preferred hosts , but elm , apple , poplar , oaks , and other hardwoods are also targets . once she selects a tree , she begins drilling in the manner described above . foresters call the wasps \u201cstump stabbers\u201d in reference to this behavior . she lays two to seven eggs at a time at a depth of about three - fourths of an inch . she then extracts her ovipositor and repeats the process , elsewhere on the same tree , and / or in other trees .\nthe eggs of the raspberry horntail , a wood wasp , are pearly white and oblong , with a curved point at one end . mature larvae are white and cylindrical , with dark heads and a short spine on the tail end . they have three pairs of legs , no prolegs , and attain a length of up to 1 inch ( 2 . 5 cm ) . the adult wasps , which are seldom seen , vary from 0 . 5 to 0 . 75 inch ( 12\u201318 mm ) in length . the females are marked with bright yellow and black ; the males are mostly black .\nhorntails are attracted to dying , burned or recently cut wood . the female deposits her eggs into the wood of host trees , most commonly silver maple , ash , cottonwood , and elm . along with the eggs , she deposits a fungus that will continue to degrade the already compromised wood . the eggs hatch in 3 - 4 weeks and the larvae begin consuming the fungus along with the wood . this may last anywhere from one to five years depending on the climate . the adult horntail chews through the last bit of wood and emerges , leaving a round exit hole 1 / 4\u2033 to 1 / 2\u2033 in diameter .\nat the same time she lays her eggs , she deposits the spores of a wood - rotting fungus , cerrena unicolor . these spores are stored in two mucus - filled pouches near the base of her ovipositor . as the fungus grows in the tree , it secretes enzymes that break down cellulose . this partly digested wood is consumed by the horntail larvae ; female larvae store the fungal strands in pockets that will become the mucus pouches in the adult wasps . as the larvae grow , they bore tunnels through sapwood and heartwood , fifteen centimeters to two meters or more in length , curving towards the exterior surface of the tree .\nthe giant ichneumon wasp is a parasitic wasp ( hymenoptera : ichneumonidae ) specific to the pigeon tremex . it also is generally brown in color with yellow and orange markings . it has a very elongated body form and most notably long \u2018tails\u2019 that may extend a couple of inches . these \u2018tails\u2019 also are the ovipositor and supporting structures , used to insert eggs into wood onto developing pigeon tremex horntail laravae . altogether the body and ovipositor of this insect may extend more than 5 inches . ( males are smaller , lack the ovipositor , and have a blunt tip of the abdomen . ) despite its rather fearsome appearance , the giant ichneumon wasp is harmless to humans and can not sting .\nhorntails are also known for being one of the most vicious and aggressive breeds of dragon and that is saying something since all dragons are known to be ferocious ; even rubeus hagrid commented on their ferocity saying that the horntail was a ' right nasty piece of work ' . [ 3 ] this breed is especially aggressive when protecting their young . along with their viciousness , tail spikes and fiery breath , horntails are shown being extremely fast in flight while able to keep up with a firebolt broomstick , a broom capable of going from 0 to 150 miles per hour in 10 seconds . horntails are also seen able to keep up with harry potter ' s flying skills ; a very impressive feat considering harry ' s talent as a seeker . [ 2 ]\nanimatronic systems supervisor matt denton mounted the creature\u2019s head to a computer - controlled performance system that was devised cannibalizing parts of aragog and the basilisk built for the second film , in order to save both time and budget . the skull of the dragon was fabricated in fireproof fiberlass with a steel beak , epoxy teeth and silicone skin . for a dragon that could actually breathe fire , the mouth interior was lined with flame retardant nomex . the entire head was coated inside and out with flamebar , a flexible fire - resistant elastomeric silicone sealant . john richardson and his mechanical effects team fitted the mouth with twin flame jets using a benturi system that blasted liquid propane over a pilot flame . the horntail animatronic could shoot a 36 - foot stream of dragonfire at the camera .\ndevelopment of the horntail\u2019s body language was assigned to animation director steve rollins , who collaborated with visual effects supervisor jim mitchell . much like the design itself , the animation mainly referenced birds of prey \u2014 such as eagles and owls . \u201cwhen you see the movie , look for the head twitching , head cocked , and quick twitchy movements ; these were all from the bird references , \u201d said visual effects supervisor tim alexander . other minor references included reptiles and bats . different iterations of the animation sequences were attempted before a final version was selected by the director . \u201cwhere the dragon crawls across the rocks , we\u2019d do one version with it using its hind legs , another where it\u2019s crouched down , using the batlike hands on its wings to crawl , \u201d alexander explained .\nhorntail as a whole consists of his three heads , two arms , wings , legs , and tail . in the main fight , his left head and right head retain some of the abilities from the preliminary battled , while the middle head uses fire - based attacks and skills , as well as summon wyverns . the left and right heads have 100 , 000 , 000 hp in easy mode , 330 , 000 , 000 hp each on normal mode and 3 , 300 , 000 , 000 hp in chaos mode . the middle head has 235 , 200 , 000 hp in easy mode , 490 , 000 , 000 hp in normal mode and 3 , 900 , 000 , 000 hp in chaos mode . all three heads can cast weapon cancel and magic cancel . in chaos mode , the left head can cast physical reflect , and the right head can cast magical reflect .\nadults of the pigeon tremex are active from june through early october . females may be seen crawling over the bark and occasionally may insert their ovipositor into the trunk . ( dead females are sometimes seen stuck on the trunk with their ovipositor embedded in the tree . ) if the conditions under the bark are suitable , notably a sufficiently low moisture content , a few eggs ( 2 to 7 ) will be laid into the wood . along with the eggs , the white rot fungus daedalea unicolor is also introduced . this fungus grows within the wood ahead of the horntail larvae and is required for their successful development . infection of trees with white rot fungus accelerates decay and further weakens the structure of affected trees . larvae typically take nearly a year to become full - grown and then pupate just under the bark . the adult emerges in about a month after pupation and cuts a circular exit hole from which it leaves the tree .\ncrafting the dragonfire was another challenge . \u201cfire is a natural occurrence , everyone knows what it looks like . they know if it looks fake , \u201d alexander said . \u201cwe needed fire to be directable , and that took a long time . \u201d many of the dragonfire shots were a combination of the digital horntail and practical fire elements provided by john richardson\u2019s team \u2014 who built a handheld flamethrower device that blasted flames across rocks in the first task arena set . for the chase scene , the fire was portrayed with composited practical flame elements shot by physical effects supervisor geoff heron , as well as digital fire simulations created in ilm\u2019s zeno pipeline . said system made use of stanford university\u2019s \u2018physbam\u2019 physics simulations . \u201cstanford\u2019s smoke simulations created roiling and spinning particles , \u201d said alexander . \u201cit was similar to the live - action pyro elements , so we used that as the basis for our cg fire . smoke tends to move slower than fire , so we did a lot of work with speed and scale \u2014 too fast , and it spurted everywhere ; too slow , and it didn\u2019t create the roiling effect . we then developed a shader look with very sharp detail broken up at the ridges . \u201d\nwasps may be the bane of many a summer picnic but they are now the inspiration behind a new type of flexible medical probe . the biomimetic instrument is being developed by a team at the department of mechanical engineering , imperial college london , uk . its design is based on the ovipositor ( egg - laying tube ) of a female wood wasp .\nthe wood wasp\u2019s ovipositor looks like two hollow needles , one inside the other , each of which is lined with backward - facing teeth to give purchase as the wasp \u2018drills\u2019 progressively into the bark of a tree . this takes surprisingly little force , making it attractive for carrying out minimally invasive procedures such as brain biopsies without having to exploit a natural orifice .\nunlike the wood wasp\u2019s ovipositor , however , the probe \u2018displaces\u2019 the tissue rather than removing it . the current prototype consists of four interlocking probe segments lined with 50\u03bc teeth and propelled by small motors and actuators . the ultimate aim is to be able to steer the probe in three dimensions through soft tissue and monitor its progress .\ndr ferdinando rodriguez , at imperial , explains that existing percutaneous instruments can be divided into two main groups \u2013 thick and non - flexible probes ( bioposy probe and laparoscopes ) and thin and flexible needles ( such as a brachytherapy needle ) .\nhe says , \u2018thick and non - flexible probes can be pointed to the target with the aid of a visualisation system and will not deform under load , but their manipulation causes significant pressure on the tissue , limiting the surgeon\u2019s degrees of freedom .\n\u2018conversely , thin and flexible probes tend to be less damaging to the surrounding tissue , but deflect and buckle against tissue resistance , resulting in placement accuracy which is inversely proportional to the depth of the target\u2019 .\nfurthermore , the \u2018underlying technological and functional limitation\u2019 of both devices is that they cannot be guided along curvilinear trajectories . this \u2018limits their application to surgical procedures where a straight - line approach is viable\u2019 .\na \u2018scaled up\u2019 prototype of the team\u2019s flexible probe , measuring 12mm - wide and about 30cm long , has been demonstrated but a final prototype will be no more than a few millimetres in diameter .\n\u2018developing a multi - part probe of a few millimetres outer diameter will mean identifying materials , manufacturing methods and surface treatments that will work at this scale , \u2019 remarks rodriguez . \u2018particularly challenging will be [ ensuring ] that the probe can sustain the loading conditions incurred during actuation , while being sufficiently flexible not to damage surrounding tissue during insertion . \u2019\nthe team is exploring medical - grade silicon , latex rubber and possibly even polytetrafluoroethylene ( ptfe ) from which to manufacture their device .\nprofessor tony anson , of uk biomedical materials research company diameter ltd , says , \u2018there\u2019s a significant global market for such a device , as there are many patients with problematic physiology who would benefit here . \u2019\nhe agrees , though , that finding a suitable material will be challenging . he says , \u2018i would discount latex , as there have been too many problems with latex gloves . medical - grade silicon could work but it has a possible demerit because of its high surface friction , and ptfe is a good biomaterial , although in some cases it lacks the right mechanical properties \u2013 both have potential .\n\u2018i notice that polyurethane ( pu ) isn\u2019t mentioned . i think pu shows promise , but then so could some combination of materials , coatings or polymer composites , \u2019 he says . anson suggests that the manufacturing technology may ultimately influence the choice of material .\nthe prototype of a few millimetres should be available before the end of 2015 for clinical trials to take place . rodriguez says , \u2018the feasibility study focused on probe design , actuation and control . it also laid the foundation for an \u201cintelligent probe , \u201d where the insertion process is guided interactively by pre - operative image data , allowing deep lesions of the brain and other regions of the human body to be accessed with greater accuracy and repeatability\u2019 .\nthe institute is a body incorporated by royal charter , registered charity no 269275 . patron : hm the queen . the institute of materials , minerals and mining , 297 euston road , london nw1 3ad , uk tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 20 7451 7300\nbefore the main battle , the party must fight the right head and left head in two preliminary battles . both have 100 , 000 , 000 hp in easy mode , 330 , 000 , 000 hp each on normal mode and 3 , 300 , 000 , 000 hp in chaos mode . the left head has ice - based attacks , can summon red wyverns , blue wyverns ( not in easy mode ) , and dark wyvern ( 2 at a time ) , can create spiked tombstones on the floor ( below the platform ) and cast weapon cancel and magic cancel . the right head is similar , but uses electric attacks .\nhis right arm and left arm can dispel and seduce and drain mp . both have 90 , 800 , 000 hp in easy mode , 230 , 000 , 000 hp in normal mode and 2 , 300 , 000 , 000 hp in chaos mode .\nhis wings can heal both the hp and mp of the rest of the body and can summon green cornians and dark cornians . they have 100 , 000 , 000 hp in easy mode , 270 , 000 , 000 hp in normal and 2 , 700 , 000 , 000 hp in chaos .\nhis legs have an earthquake stomp attack with a powerful knockback that can also stun . it has 67 , 200 , 000 hp in easy mode , 130 , 000 , 000 hp in normal and 1 , 300 , 000 , 000 hp in chaos .\nhis tail also has an earthquake attack and can summon a poison mist cloud . it has 33 , 600 , 000 hp in easy mode , 80 , 000 , 000 hp in normal and 900 , 000 , 000 hp in chaos . ( it is recommended that players destroy this part first ; aside from the poison its touch attack can do upwards of 27 , 000 points of damage , or 33 , 000 when buffed . )\nhis body is not dangerous unless physically touched , but only when all parts are reduced to zero hp is he finally defeated .\nin chaos mode , the background turns from being a cave to a stormy , dark background . this is also seen in the battle against chaos pink bean and pre - revamped chaos zakum . this is probably because the black mage corrupted them , making them stronger and more menacing .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\nin lego harry potter : years 1 - 4 , hermione falls into the arena with harry and they both have to battle it . it not only breaks free like in the movie , but it also chases them into the castle .\nantennae : ants and bees both have a pair of antennae on the head that senses their surroundings .\nhead : the head contains the insect ' s compound eyes , antennae , and mandibles .\nabdomen : contains various organs including the heart , gut , venom glands , and anus .\nlegs : ants and bees have three pairs of legs attached to the thorax ( center - body section ) .\nnote : ants , bees and wasps are part of the hymenoptera order because they share many similarities .\nan insect ' s reach is not limited by lines drawn on a map and therefore species may appear in areas , regions and / or states beyond those listed below as they are driven by environmental factors ( such as climate change ) , available food supplies and mating patterns . grayed - out selections below indicate that the subject in question has not been reported in that particular territory . u . s . states and canadian provinces / territories are clickable to their respective bug listings .\nsite disclaimer | privacy policy | cookies | site map urltoken \u2022 content \u00a92005 - urltoken \u2022 all rights reserved \u2022 site contact email : insectidentification at gmail . com . the urltoken logo is unique to this website and protected by all applicable domestic and international intellectual property laws . written content , illustrations and photography is unique to this website ( unless where indicated ) and not for reuse in any form . material presented throughout this website is for entertainment value and should not to be construed as usable for scientific research or medical advice ( regarding bites , etc . . . ) . please consult licensed , degreed professionals for such information . by submitting images to us ( urltoken ) you acknowledge that you have read and understood our site disclaimer as it pertains to\nuser - submitted content\n. when emailing please include your location and the general estimated size of the specimen in question if possible .\nsize : depending on the species , adult sizes range between 12 to 40 mm .\ncolor : they are dark colored , usually brown or black . some species have pale markings .\nimproperly dried lumber from infested logs is most at risk for problems with these pests . firewood stored inside can also contain horntails .\nexit holes in tree trunks \u2013 adult horntails that emerge in the living space of a home can cause a disturbance . the exit holes can be unsightly , especially in wood that has been painted or stained .\nstructural damage concerns horntails are actually wasps , but these insects do not bite or sting . they rarely cause structural damage since they do not lay their eggs in construction wood after it is cut and dry . but , if infested wood was used in a home without proper drying and aging , adults might show up as they emerge from the infested wood .\nhorntails will not infest furniture or re - infest wood inside a home . still , they are a nuisance to people and may cause alarm to homeowners who think their house is being destroyed by a wood damaging insect .\nprevention nevertheless , homeowners can help prevent infestation by storing firewood outside the home . firewood should only be brought in when it will be used .\nif infestation is suspected , homeowners are encouraged to request an inspection by an orkin specialist to ensure any evidence of wood damage is not from authentic wood damaging insects able to cause structural problems .\neggs female horntails deposit their eggs into the trunks of trees . most species choose coniferous , softwood trees , but a few species choose broadleaf , hardwood trees . chosen trees are usually in decline from disease or attack from other insects .\nlarvae when the eggs hatch , the larvae burrow into the wood . they pack tunnels with droppings and wood shavings as they burrow . when the larvae are mature , they burrow close to the surface of the wood and make a silken cocoon inside the tunnel , where they then change into adults .\nby clicking the \u201cget started\u201d button , i authorize orkin to contact me about their services at this number using an auto dialer . i understand my consent is not required to make a purchase .\nmaplestory | table of contents | walkthrough | availability | jobs | locations | monsters | quests | faq | glossary | npcs | quests : maple island | edelstein | victoria island | el nath mts . & aqua road | ludus lake | mu lung garden | nihal desert | minar forest | temple of time | gate to the future | theme dungeons | silent crusade | world tour | malaysia and singapore | masteria | tynerum | commerci job - specific quests : dual blade | cygnus knights | aran | evan | mercedes | phantom | luminous | resistance | demon | xenon | kaiser | angelic buster medals | jump quests | exchange quest | gm events | mini - games | special events party quests : cooking with tangyoon | romeo and juliet | nett ' s pyramid | xerxes in chryse | dimensional crack | lord pirate | escape | dimension invasion | dragon rider | kenta in danger | resurrection of the hoblin king - cross world party quests : moon bunny ' s rice cake | first time together | forest of poison haze | remnant of the goddess | ariant coliseum - constant level party quests : sharenian guild quest | amorian challenge | fight for aswan | crimsonwood keep | alien visitor | hungry muto - solo only : monster park | mu lung dojo | commerci trade voyages\nhowever , once you completed the quest , you can simply enter the cave directly since the gatekeeper has fled , so you do not have to do the transformation quest anymore . this quest is repeatable unlimited times and only appears if you lost the certificate of the squad badge .\nthere are 2 parts to the fight : preliminary fight and the actual fight .\nbefore the real fight , there are 2 prelimary heads to kill . their stats as follows :\nit is recommended that all party members must be 160 + to withstand the horntails damage .\nthis bossfight in a way is similar to zakum except you ' ll be fighting 3 heads and its bodyparts . each of the parts have their own unique abilities .\nphysical reflect for around 5 , 000 ~ 7 , 000 damage ( chaos mode only ) .\nmagic reflect for around 5 , 000 ~ 7 , 000 damage ( chaos mode only ) .\nthis page was last edited on 30 november 2017 , at 04 : 48 .\nthe story of an imaginary word that managed to sneak past our editors and enter the dictionary .\ntake this quiz and discover 12 words for things you didn ' t know had words .\ncsu extension - a division of the office of engagement . providing trusted , practical education to help you solve problems , develop skills and build a better future .\nthe giant ichneumon wasp is the most common natural enemy of the pigeon tremex .\npigeon tremex are not considered serious pests since attacks are limited to trees and limbs that are in serious decline or very recently dead .\nthe pigeon tremex develops as a wood borer and the larvae are cylindrical - bodied , cream colored grubs that live within the wood . however , they are not considered serious pests since attacks are limited to trees or individual limbs that are in serious decline or very recently dead .\nonly certain hardwood trees are attacked by pigeon tremex , notably silver maple , ash , cottonwood , and elm . ( several other species of horntails also occur in the state but these are limited to conifers , usually those growing in forested areas . ) however , the insect may become locally abundant as these host trees become increasingly susceptible due to old age or disease . because pigeon tremex is not considered to be a primary pest , controls have not been developed , although it likely can be temporarily managed by use of insecticides in a manner similar to that of other wood borers . ( see colorado state university extension fact sheet 5 . 530 , shade tree borers . )\n( the ovipositor of the female consists of three filaments . the central part is the actual ovipositor , capable of drilling through wood . although appearing as a single filament , it is actually made of two parts , that interlock , slide against each other , and are tipped with the cutting edge . although very thin , it is a tube and the egg moves down the minute channel in its center during egg laying . the ovipositor is normally sheathed within two other thin filament structures that are protective in function , do not assist with drilling and bow out prominently around the insect during egg laying . )"]}
{"id": 349, "summary": [{"text": "mohammed ben aarafa , or ben arafa ( 1889 \u2013 17 july 1976 ) was a distant relative of sultan mohammed v of morocco ( arabic : \u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0628\u0646 \u0639\u0631\u0641\u0629 \u0628\u0646 \u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f ) ; he was put in mohammed v 's place by the french after they exiled mohammed v to madagascar .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "installed in august 1953 , he abdicated in october 1955 , while mohammed v was still in exile .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the reign of this \" mohammed vi \" was not recognized in the spanish protected part of morocco .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "protests against ben aarafa helped lead to moroccan independence , which was agreed to between france and mohammed v in 1955 .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "he died in 1976 in france .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "mohammed v 's grandson now reigns in morocco as mohammed vi , ignoring the reign of ben aarafa by using the same regnal number . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "mohammed ben aarafa", "paragraphs": ["assassination attempt on mohammed ben aarafa sultan of . . . assassination attempt on mohammed ben aarafa sultan of . . .\nmohammed ben aarafa , or ben arafa ( 1889 - 1976 ) was a distant relative of sultan mohammed v of morocco ( arabic : \u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0628\u0646 \u0639\u0631\u0641\u0629 \u0628\u0646 \u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f\u200e ) , was put in mohammed v \\ s place by the french after they exiled mohammed v to madagascar . ben aarafa was installed in august 1953 , he abdicated in october 1955 , while mohammed v was still in exile . protests against ben aarafa helped lead to moroccan independence , which was agreed to between france and mohammed v in 1955 . he died in 1976 in france .\nin 1953 , france exiled the highly respected sultan mohammed v and replaced him with the unpopular mohammed ben aarafa . ben aarafa ' s reign was widely perceived as illegitimate , and sparked active opposition to french rule . france allowed mohammed v to return in 1955 , and by 1956 , morocco had regained its independence .\nprotests against ben aarafa helped lead to moroccan independence , which was agreed to between france and mohammed v in 1955 . he died in 1976 in france .\nactually , any things related with\nmohammed ben aarafa\ncan be shipped to any place in ireland , including leinster , ulster , munster , and connacht .\nactually , the goods named\nmohammed ben aarafa\ncan be shipped to any place in the uk , including england , scotland , wales , and northern ireland .\nmohammed ben aarafa - the complete information and online sale with free shipping . order and buy now for the lowest price in the best online store ! discounts & coupons .\ninstalled in august 1953 , he abdicated in october 1955 , while mohammed v was still in exile . the reign of this\nmohammed vi\nwas not recognized in the spanish protected part of morocco . protests against ben aarafa helped lead to moroccan independence , which was agreed to between france and mohammed v in 1955 . he died in 1976 in france . mohammed v ' s grandson now reigns in morocco as mohammed vi , ignoring the reign of ben aarafa by using the same regnal number .\ninstalled in august 1953 , he abdicated in october 1955 , while mohammed v was still in exile . the reign of this\nmohammed vi\nwas not recognized in the spanish protected part of morocco . protests against ben aarafa helped lead to moroccan independence , which was agreed to between france and mohammed v in 1955 . he died in 1976 in france . mohammed v ' s grandson now reigns in morocco as mohammed vi , ignoring the reign of ben aarafa by using the same regnal number .\n\u200e\u200e ) ; he was put in mohammed v ' s place by the french after they exiled mohammed v to madagascar .\nand mohammed v in 1955 . he died in 1976 in france . mohammed v ' s grandson now reigns in morocco as\ntoday the goods named\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin south dakota can be shipped to sioux falls , rapid city , aberdeen , brookings , watertown , mitchell , yankton , pierre , huron , spearfish , vermillion and smaller towns .\nit goes without saying that the found goods by query\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin vermont can be delivered to burlington , south burlington , rutland , barre , montpelier , winooski , st . albans , newport , vergennes , and other cities .\nin other words , any products related with\nmohammed ben aarafa\ncan be shipped to any place in australia , including new south wales , victoria , queensland , western australia , south australia , tasmania , australian capital territory , and northern territory .\nchipolopolo arrive at the mohammed v stadiumthe chipolopolo boys have arrived at the mohammed v stadium in casablanca for their group b match against namibia .\nrelated products in the best online stores . for your convenience the search term is already added to the search box . you can either make a search right now or modify the query somehow ( for example ,\nmohammed ben aarafa 2018\n) .\nshowing page 1 . found 0 sentences matching phrase\nmohammed ben aarafa\n. found in 0 ms . translation memories are created by human , but computer aligned , which might cause mistakes . they come from many sources and are not checked . be warned .\nin other words , the goods related with\nmohammed ben aarafa\ncan be shipped to any place in canada , including ontario , quebec , british columbia , alberta , manitoba , saskatchewan , nova scotia , new brunswick , newfoundland and labrador , and prince edward island .\non 20 august 1953 , the french who were occupying morocco at the time forced mohammed v and his family into exile on corsica . his uncle , mohammed ben aarafa , was placed on the throne . mohammed v and his family were then transferred to madagascar in january 1954 . mohammed v returned from exile on 16 november 1955 , and was again recognized as sultan after active opposition to the french protectorate . in february 1956 he successfully negotiated with france for the independence of morocco , and in 1957 took the title of king .\nmohamed ben arafa was a moroccan alaouite royal of the early 20th century . ben arafa is best known for being the subject of a plot by thami el glaoui , pasha of marrakech to dethrone his cousin mohammed ben youssef . he ruled for a brief period between 1953 and 1955 , when he was enthroned by the french as a replacement of mohammed v . this move was seen by the moroccan public as humiliation and resulted in widespread violence until mohammed v was resorted to his throne . mohamed ben arafa was a nephew of hassan i , after his abdication he retired in tangiers then settled in nice , france where he lived until his death in 1976 .\non 20 august 1953 , the french who were occupying morocco at the time forced mohammed v and his family into exile on corsica . his uncle , mohammed ben aarafa , was placed on the throne . mohammed v and his family were then transferred to madagascar in january 1954 . mohammed v returned from exile on 16 november 1955 , and was again recognized as sultan after active opposition to the french protectorate . in february 1956 he successfully negotiated with france and spain for the independence of morocco , and in 1957 took the title of king .\nusually , the goods related with\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin wyoming can be bought in cheyenne , casper , laramie , gillette , rock springs , sheridan , green river , evanston , riverton , jackson , cody , rawlins , lander , torrington , powell , douglas , worland , and other cities .\ninstalled in august 1953 , he abdicated in october 1955 , while mohammed v was still in exile . the reign of this\nmohammed vi\nwas not recognized in the\nthis page is based on the copyrighted wikipedia article mohammed ben aarafa ; it is used under the creative commons attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license ( cc - by - sa ) . you may redistribute it , verbatim or modified , providing that you comply with the terms of the cc - by - sa\nit goes without saying that the products by request\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin montana can be purchased if you live in billings , missoula , great falls , bozeman , butte , helena , kalispell , havre , anaconda , miles city , belgrade , livingston , laurel , whitefish , lewistown , sidney and smaller towns .\nin other words , the found goods by query\nmohammed ben aarafa\ncan be shipped to any place in new zealand , including north island , south island , waiheke island , and smaller islands . usually , any things related withcan be delivered to the following cities : you can also buy these goods in . . .\nit goes without saying that any things related with\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin west virginia can be delivered to the following cities : charleston , huntington , morgantown , parkersburg , wheeling , weirton , fairmont , martinsburg , beckley , clarksburg , south charleston , st . albans , vienna , bluefield , and other cities and towns .\ntoday the products related to the term\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin connecticut can be delivered to bridgeport , new haven , hartford , stamford , waterbury , norwalk , danbury , new britain , bristol , meriden , milford , west haven , middletown , norwich , shelton , torrington , new london , ansonia , derby , groton , etc .\nno need to say , the products related to the term\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin nebraska can be purchased if you live in omaha , lincoln , bellevue , grand island , kearney , fremont , hastings , norfolk , north platte , papillion , columbus , la vista , scottsbluff , south sioux city , beatrice , lexington . . .\nno doubt , the goods named\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin nevada can be received in such cities as las vegas , henderson , reno , north las vegas , sparks , carson city , fernley , elko , mesquite , boulder city , fallon , winnemucca , west wendover , ely , yerington , carlin , lovelock , wells , caliente .\nof course , the products related to the term\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin delaware can be delivered to the following cities : wilmington , dover , newark , middletown , smyrna , milford , seaford , georgetown , elsmere , new castle , millsboro , laurel , harrington , camden , clayton , lewes , milton , selbyville , bridgeville , townsend , etc .\nfile : inside mohammed v mausoleum . jpg : image : mohammed v morocco 1957 . lowres . jpegmohammed v ( 10 august 1909 \u2013 26 february 1961 ) ( ) was sultan of morocco of morocco from 1927 to 1953 ; he was recognized as sultan again upon his return from exile in 1955 , and as king of morocco from 1957 to 1961 . his full name was sidi mohammed ben yusef , or son of ( sultan ) yusef of morocco , upon whose death he succeeded to the throne . he was a member of the alaouite dynasty . on 20 august 1953 , the french people who were occupying morocco at the time forced mohammed v and his family into exile on corsica . his uncle , mohammed ben aarafa , was placed on the throne . mohammed v and his family were then transferred to madagascar in january 1954 . mohammed v returned from exile on 16 november 1955 , and was again recognized as sultan after active opposition to the french protectorate . in february 1956 he successfully negotiated with france and spain for the independence of morocco , and in 1957 took the title of king .\ninstalled in august 1953 , he abdicated in october 1955 , while mohammed v was still in exile .\nit goes without saying that the goods related with\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin maine can be delivered to portland , lewiston , bangor , south portland , auburn , biddeford , sanford , saco , augusta , westbrook , waterville , presque isle , brewer , bath , caribou , ellsworth , old town , rockland , belfast , gardiner , calais , hallowell , eastport .\nnormally , the products by request\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin the united kingdom can be delivered to london , birmingham , leeds , glasgow , sheffield , bradford , edinburgh , liverpool , manchester , bristol , wakefield , cardiff , coventry , nottingham , leicester , sunderland , belfast , newcastle upon tyne , brighton , hull , plymouth , stoke - on - trent .\nundoubtedly , any products related with\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin australia can be shipped to such cities as sydney , melbourne , brisbane , perth , adelaide , gold coast , tweed heads , newcastle , maitland , canberra , queanbeyan , sunshine coast , wollongong , hobart , geelong , townsville , cairns , darwin , toowoomba , ballarat , bendigo , albury , wodonga , launceston , mackay .\nas usual , the goods related with\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin north dakota can be received in fargo , bismarck , grand forks , minot , west fargo , williston , dickinson , mandan , jamestown , wahpeton , devils lake , watford city , valley city , grafton , lincoln , beulah , rugby , stanley , horace , casselton , new town , hazen , bottineau , lisbon , carrington .\nas you know , any things related with\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin canada can be shipped to such cities as toronto , montreal , calgary , ottawa , edmonton , mississauga , winnipeg , vancouver , brampton , hamilton , quebec city , surrey , laval , halifax , london , markham , vaughan , gatineau , longueuil , burnaby , saskatoon , kitchener , windsor , regina , richmond , richmond hill .\nundoubtedly , the products by request\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin new zealand can be bought in auckland , wellington , christchurch , hamilton , tauranga , napier - hastings , dunedin , lower hutt , palmerston north , nelson , rotorua , new plymouth , whangarei , invercargill , whanganui , gisborne , porirua , invercargill , nelson , upper hutt , gisborne , blenheim , pukekohe , timaru , taupo . . .\nof course , the products by request\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin alaska can be purchased if you live in anchorage , fairbanks , juneau , sitka , ketchikan , wasilla , kenai , kodiak , bethel , palmer , homer , unalaska , barrow , soldotna , valdez , nome , kotzebue , seward , wrangell , dillingham , cordova , north pole , houston , craig , hooper bay , akutan and smaller towns .\nking mohammed v died today after a minor operation . he was 51 years old and had occupied the throne since 1927\nand of course , any things related with\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin idaho can be purchased if you live in boise , meridian , nampa , idaho falls , pocatello , caldwell , coeur d ' alene , twin falls , lewiston , post falls , rexburg , moscow , eagle , kuna , ammon , chubbuck , hayden , mountain home , blackfoot , garden city , jerome , burley , and other cities and towns .\nit goes without saying that any products related with\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin maryland can be delivered to the following cities : baltimore , frederick , rockville , gaithersburg , bowie , hagerstown , annapolis , college park , salisbury , laurel , greenbelt , cumberland , westminster , hyattsville , takoma park , easton , elkton , aberdeen , havre de grace , cambridge , new carrollton , bel air , and other cities and towns .\nfrance ' s exile of sultan mohammed v in 1953 to madagascar and his replacement by the unpopular mohammed ben aarafa , whose reign was perceived as illegitimate , sparked active opposition to the french protectorate all over the country . the most notable occurred in oujda , where moroccans attacked french and other european residents in the streets . operations by the newly created\narmy of liberation\nwere launched in 1955 . the\narmy of liberation\nwas created by the arab maghreb liberation committee in cairo , egypt , to constitute a resistance movement against occupation , like the national liberation front in algeria . its goal was the return of king mohammed v and the liberation of algeria and tunisia as well . france allowed mohammed v to return in 1955 , and the negotiations that led to moroccan independence began the following year .\n\u2014 for those of a similar name , see mohamed v ( disambiguation ) . mohammed v of morocco king of morocco sultan of morocco ( 1957\u201358 ) sultan mohammed v of morocco visiting lawrence livermore lab , united states , in 1957 reign 19 \u2026\nas you know , the goods by request\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin new hampshire can be shipped to manchester , nashua , concord , derry , dover , rochester , salem , merrimack , hudson , londonderry , keene , bedford , portsmouth , goffstown , laconia , hampton , milford , durham , exeter , windham , hooksett , claremont , lebanon , pelham , somersworth , hanover , amherst , raymond , conway , berlin , and so on .\nas you know , the products related to the term\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin new mexico can be shipped to albuquerque , las cruces , rio rancho , santa fe , roswell , farmington , south valley , clovis , hobbs , alamogordo , carlsbad , gallup , deming , los lunas , chaparral , sunland park , las vegas , portales , los alamos , north valley , artesia , lovington , silver city , espa\u00f1ola , and so on .\nand the goods named\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin tennessee can be shipped to memphis , nashville , knoxville , chattanooga , clarksville , murfreesboro , franklin , jackson , johnson city , bartlett , hendersonville , kingsport , collierville , smyrna , cleveland , brentwood , germantown , columbia , spring hill , la vergne , gallatin , cookeville , mount juliet , lebanon , morristown , oak ridge , maryville , bristol , farragut , shelbyville , east ridge , tullahoma .\nthe mohammed v international airport and stade mohamed v of casablanca are named after him , as well as numerous universities and various public spaces across morocco . there is an avenue mohammed v in nearly every moroccan city and a major one in tunis , tunisia .\n\u2191 morocco ' s king mohammed unveils constitutional reforms bbc news ( june 18 , 2011 ) . retrieved february 1 , 2017 .\nand today the goods related with\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin louisiana can be sent to new orleans , baton rouge , shreveport , metairie , lafayette , lake charles , kenner , bossier city , monroe , alexandria , houma , marrero , new iberia , laplace , slidell , prairieville , central , terrytown , ruston , sulphur , harvey , hammond , bayou cane , shenandoah , natchitoches , gretna , chalmette , opelousas , estelle , zachary , and other cities .\nno doubt , the goods named\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin virginia can be shipped to virginia beach , norfolk , chesapeake , richmond , newport news , alexandria , hampton , roanoke , portsmouth , suffolk , lynchburg , harrisonburg , charlottesville , danville , manassas , petersburg , fredericksburg , winchester , salem , staunton , fairfax , hopewell , waynesboro , colonial heights , radford , bristol , manassas park , williamsburg , falls church , martinsville , poquoson , and so on .\nusually , any things related with\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin rhode island can be purchased if you live in providence , warwick , cranston , pawtucket , east providence , woonsocket , coventry , cumberland , north providence , south kingstown , west warwick , johnston , north kingstown , newport , bristol , westerly , smithfield , lincoln , central falls , portsmouth , barrington , middletown , burrillville , narragansett , tiverton , east greenwich , north smithfield , warren , scituate , etc .\nas usual , the goods related with\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin hawaii can be shipped to such cities as honolulu , east honolulu , pearl city , hilo , kailua , waipahu , kaneohe , mililani town , kahului , ewa gentry , mililani mauka , kihei , makakilo , wahiawa , schofield barracks , wailuku , kapolei , ewa beach , royal kunia , halawa , waimalu , waianae , nanakuli , kailua , lahaina , waipio , hawaiian paradise park , kapaa and smaller towns .\nas usual , the products by request\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin iowa can be purchased if you live in des moines , cedar rapids , davenport , sioux city , iowa city , waterloo , council bluffs , ames , west des moines , dubuque , ankeny , urbandale , cedar falls , marion , bettendorf , marshalltown , mason city , clinton , burlington , ottumwa , fort dodge , muscatine , coralville , johnston , north liberty , altoona , newton , indianola . . .\nnormally , the goods named\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin pennsylvania can be purchased if you live in philadelphia , pittsburgh , allentown , erie , reading , scranton , bethlehem , lancaster , harrisburg , altoona , york , wilkes - barre , chester , williamsport , easton , lebanon , hazleton , new castle , johnstown , mckeesport , hermitage , greensburg , pottsville , sharon , butler , washington , meadville , new kensington , coatesville , st . marys , lower burrell , oil city , nanticoke , uniontown and smaller towns .\nin 1944 , moroccan nationalists formed an independence party seeking an end to colonialism , and became known as the istiqlals . in response , the french government arrested all the leaders of the group . following riots in casablanca in 1952 , istiqlal was banned . king mohammad v was exiled to madagascar , and ben aarafa took over , but he was not well - liked by moroccans .\nundoubtedly , the goods by request\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin kentucky can be purchased if you live in louisville , lexington , bowling green , owensboro , covington , hopkinsville , richmond , florence , georgetown , henderson , elizabethtown , nicholasville , jeffersontown , frankfort , paducah , independence , radcliff , ashland , madisonville , winchester , erlanger , murray , st . matthews , fort thomas , danville , newport , shively , shelbyville , glasgow , berea , bardstown , shepherdsville , somerset , lyndon , lawrenceburg , middlesboro , mayfield . . .\nwikimedia commons has media related to [ [ commons : category : { { # property : p373 } } | mohammed v of morocco ] ] .\nthe mohammed v international airport and stade mohamed v of casablanca are named after him , as well as numerous universities and various public spaces across morocco . there is an avenue mohammed v in nearly every moroccan city and a major one in tunis , tunisia . in december 2007 , the jewish daily forward reported on a secret diplomatic initiative by the moroccan government to have mohammed v admitted to the righteous among the nations . . the forward , 12 december 2007\nno need to say , the goods named\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin indiana can be delivered to the following cities : indianapolis , fort wayne , evansville , south bend , carmel , fishers , bloomington , hammond , gary , lafayette , muncie , terre haute , kokomo , noblesville , anderson , greenwood , elkhart , mishawaka , lawrence , jeffersonville , columbus , portage , new albany , richmond , westfield , valparaiso , goshen , michigan city , west lafayette , marion , east chicago , hobart , crown point , franklin , la porte , greenfield , etc .\nas usual , the found goods by query\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin kansas can be purchased if you live in wichita , overland park , kansas city , olathe , topeka , lawrence , shawnee , manhattan , lenexa , salina , hutchinson , leavenworth , leawood , dodge city , garden city , junction city , emporia , derby , prairie village , hays , liberal , gardner , pittsburg , newton , great bend , mcpherson , el dorado , ottawa , winfield , arkansas city , andover , lansing , merriam , haysville , atchison , parsons , and so on .\nnaturally , the goods named\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin georgia can be delivered to the following cities : atlanta , columbus , augusta , macon , savannah , athens , sandy springs , roswell , johns creek , albany , warner robins , alpharetta , marietta , valdosta , smyrna , dunwoody , rome , east point , milton , gainesville , hinesville , peachtree city , newnan , dalton , douglasville , kennesaw , lagrange , statesboro , lawrenceville , duluth , stockbridge , woodstock , carrollton , canton , griffin , mcdonough , acworth , pooler , union city , and other cities and towns .\nusually , the goods related with\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin wisconsin can be sent to milwaukee , madison , green bay , kenosha , racine , appleton , waukesha , oshkosh , eau claire , janesville , west allis , la crosse , sheboygan , wauwatosa , fond du lac , new berlin , wausau . the shipping is also available in brookfield , beloit , greenfield , franklin , oak creek , manitowoc , west bend , sun prairie , superior , stevens point , neenah , fitchburg , muskego , watertown , de pere , mequon , south milwaukee , marshfield , and other cities .\nand today the goods by your query\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin missouri can be shipped to such cities as kansas city , st . louis , springfield , independence , columbia , lee\u2019s summit , o\u2019fallon , st . joseph , st . charles , blue springs , st . peters , florissant , joplin , chesterfield , jefferson city , cape girardeau , oakville , wildwood , university city , ballwin , raytown , liberty , wentzville , mehlville , kirkwood , maryland heights , hazelwood , gladstone , grandview , belton , webster groves , sedalia , ferguson , arnold , affton , and so on .\nduring the 1950s and 1960s , morocco was an artistic center and attracted writers such as paul bowles , tennessee williams , and william s . burroughs . moroccan literature flourished , with novelists such as mohamed choukri , who wrote in arabic , and driss chra\u00efbi , who wrote in french . other important moroccan authors include tahar ben jelloun , fouad laroui , mohammed berrada , and leila abouzeid .\nno need to say , the products related to the term\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin mississippi can be received in such cities as jackson , gulfport , southaven , hattiesburg , biloxi , meridian , tupelo , greenville , olive branch , horn lake , clinton , pearl , ridgeland , starkville , columbus , vicksburg , pascagoula , clarksdale , oxford , laurel , gautier , ocean springs , madison , brandon , greenwood , cleveland , natchez , long beach , corinth , hernando , moss point , mccomb , canton , carriere , grenada , brookhaven , indianola , yazoo city , west point , picayune , petal .\nof course , the goods by your query\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin south carolina can be shipped to columbia , charleston , north charleston , mount pleasant , rock hill , greenville , summerville , sumter , hilton head island , spartanburg , florence , goose creek , aiken , myrtle beach , anderson , greer , mauldin , greenwood , north augusta , easley , simpsonville , hanahan , lexington , conway , west columbia , north myrtle beach , clemson , orangeburg , cayce , bluffton , beaufort , gaffney , irmo , fort mill , port royal , forest acres , newberry , and other cities and towns .\nin december 2007 , the jewish daily forward reported on a secret diplomatic initiative by the moroccan government to have mohammed v admitted to the righteous among the nations . [ 10 ]\nin december 2007 , the jewish daily forward reported on a secret diplomatic initiative by the moroccan government to have mohammed v admitted to the righteous among the nations . [ 6 ]\nas you know , the products related to the term\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin oklahoma can be delivered to oklahoma city , tulsa , norman , broken arrow , lawton , edmond , moore , midwest city , enid , stillwater , muskogee , bartlesville , owasso , shawnee , yukon , ardmore , ponca city , bixby , duncan , del city , jenks , sapulpa , mustang , sand springs , bethany , altus , claremore , el reno , mcalester , ada , durant , tahlequah , chickasha , miami , glenpool , elk city , woodward , okmulgee , choctaw , weatherford , guymon , guthrie , warr acres , and other cities and towns .\nnevertheless , mohammed is highly esteemed by moroccan jews who credit him for protecting their community from the nazi and vichy french government , [ 1 ] and mohammed v has been honored by jewish organizations for his role in protecting his jewish subjects during the holocaust . [ 5 ] some historians maintain that mohammed ' s anti - nazi role has been exaggerated ; historian michel abitol writes that while mohammed v was compelled by vichy officials to sign the anti - jewish dahirs ,\nhe was more passive than moncef bay ( ruler of tunisia during the second world war ) in that he did not take any side and did not engage in any public act that could be interpreted as a rejection of vichy ' s policy .\n[ 4 ]\nnormally , the goods named\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin arkansas can be received in such cities as little rock , fort smith , fayetteville , springdale , jonesboro , north little rock , conway , rogers , pine bluff , bentonville , hot springs , benton , texarkana , sherwood , jacksonville , russellville , bella vista , west memphis , paragould , cabot . delivery is also carried out in searcy , van buren , el dorado , maumelle , blytheville , forrest city , siloam springs , bryant , harrison , hot springs village , mountain home , marion , helena - west helena , camden , magnolia , arkadelphia , malvern , batesville , hope , and other cities .\nusually , the goods by request\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin massachusetts can be delivered to the following cities : boston , worcester , springfield , lowell , cambridge , new bedford , brockton , quincy , lynn , fall river , newton , lawrence , somerville , framingham , haverhill , waltham , malden , brookline , plymouth , medford , taunton , chicopee , weymouth , revere , peabody , methuen , barnstable , pittsfield , attleboro , arlington , everett , salem , westfield , leominster , fitchburg , billerica , holyoke , beverly , marlborough , woburn , amherst , braintree , shrewsbury , chelsea , dartmouth , chelmsford , andover , natick , randolph , watertown , etc .\nno need to say , the goods by your query\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin ireland can be purchased if you live in dublin , cork , limerick , galway , waterford , drogheda , dundalk , swords , bray , navan , ennis , kilkenny , tralee , carlow , newbridge , naas , athlone , portlaoise , mullingar , wexford , balbriggan , letterkenny , celbridge , sligo . and also in clonmel , greystones , malahide , leixlip , carrigaline , tullamore , killarney , arklow , maynooth , cobh , castlebar , midleton , mallow , ashbourne , ballina , laytown - bettystown - mornington , enniscorthy , wicklow , tramore , cavan , and other cities and towns .\nmohammed v was one of the sons of sultan yusef , who was enthroned by the french in september 1912 and his wife lalla yaqut , who was of turkish origin . [ 6 ]\nmohammed v was one of the sons of sultan yusef , who was enthroned by the french in september 1912 and his wife lalla yaqut , who was of turkish origin . [ 2 ]\nand the products related to the term\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin arizona can be delivered to phoenix , tucson , mesa , chandler , glendale , scottsdale , gilbert , tempe , peoria , surprise , yuma , avondale , flagstaff , goodyear , lake havasu city , buckeye , casa grande , sierra vista , maricopa , oro valley , prescott , bullhead city , prescott valley . as well as in apache junction , marana , el mirage , kingman , queen creek , florence , san luis , sahuarita , fountain hills , nogales , douglas , eloy , payson , somerton , paradise valley , coolidge , cottonwood , camp verde , chino valley , show low , sedona . . .\nundoubtedly , the products by request\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin north carolina can be shipped to charlotte , raleigh , greensboro , durham , winston - salem , fayetteville , cary , wilmington , high point , greenville , asheville , concord , gastonia , jacksonville , chapel hill , rocky mount , huntersville , burlington , wilson , kannapolis , apex , hickory , wake forest , indian trail , mooresville , goldsboro , monroe , salisbury , holly springs , matthews , new bern , sanford , cornelius , garner , thomasville , statesville , asheboro , mint hill , fuquay - varina , morrisville , kernersville , lumberton , kinston , carrboro , havelock , shelby , clemmons , lexington , clayton , boone , etc .\nand today any things related with\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin colorado can be delivered to denver , colorado springs , aurora , fort collins , lakewood , thornton , arvada , westminster , pueblo , centennial , boulder , greeley , longmont , loveland , broomfield , grand junction , castle rock , commerce city , parker , littleton , northglenn , brighton , englewood . you can also buy these goods in wheat ridge , fountain , lafayette , windsor , erie , evans , golden , louisville , montrose , durango , ca\u00f1on city , greenwood village , sterling , lone tree , johnstown , superior , fruita , steamboat springs , federal heights , firestone , fort morgan , frederick , castle pines , and so on .\nusually , the products related to the term\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin oregon can be purchased if you live in portland , salem , eugene , gresham , hillsboro , beaverton , bend , medford , springfield , corvallis , albany , tigard , lake oswego , keizer , grants pass , oregon city , mcminnville , redmond , tualatin , west linn , woodburn , forest grove , newberg , wilsonville , roseburg , klamath falls , ashland , milwaukie , sherwood , happy valley , central point , canby , hermiston , pendleton , troutdale , lebanon , coos bay , the dalles , dallas , st . helens , la grande , cornelius , gladstone , ontario , sandy , newport , monmouth , and other cities .\nthere are competing accounts of exactly what mohammed v did or did not do for the moroccan jewish community\nduring the holocaust . [ 1 ] however ,\nthough a subject of debate , most scholars stress the benevolence of mohammed v toward the jews\nduring the vichy era . [ 2 ] mohammed blocked efforts by vichy officials to impose anti - jewish legislation upon morocco and deport the country ' s 250 , 000 jews to their deaths in nazi concentration camps and extermination camps in europe . [ 3 ] the sultan ' s stand was\nbased as much on the insult the vichy diktats posed to his claim of sovereignty over all his subjects , including the jews , as on his humanitarian instincts .\n[ 3 ] partial nazi race measures were enacted in morocco over mohammed ' s objection , [ 3 ] and mohammed did sign , under the instructions of vichy officials , two dahirs ( decrees ) that barred jews from certain schools and positions . [ 4 ]\nof course , the products by request\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin alabama can be bought in birmingham , montgomery , mobile , huntsville , tuscaloosa , hoover , dothan , decatur , auburn , madison , florence , gadsden , vestavia hills , prattville , phenix city , alabaster , bessemer , enterprise , opelika , homewood , northport , anniston , prichard , athens . as well as in daphne , pelham , oxford , albertville , selma , mountain brook , trussville , troy , center point , helena , hueytown , talladega , fairhope , ozark , alexander city , cullman , scottsboro , millbrook , foley , hartselle , fort payne , gardendale , jasper , saraland , muscle shoals , eufaula , and other cities and towns .\nno need to say , the products by request\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin ohio can be received in such cities as columbus , cleveland , cincinnati , toledo , akron , dayton , parma , canton , youngstown , lorain , hamilton , springfield , kettering , elyria , lakewood , cuyahoga falls , euclid , middletown , mansfield , newark , mentor , cleveland heights , beavercreek , strongsville , fairfield , dublin , warren , findlay , lancaster , lima , huber heights , marion , westerville , reynoldsburg , grove city , stow , delaware , brunswick , upper arlington , gahanna , westlake , north olmsted , fairborn , massillon , mason , north royalton , bowling green , north ridgeville , kent , garfield heights and smaller towns .\nnaturally , any things related with\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin new jersey can be bought in newark , jersey city , paterson , elizabeth , edison , woodbridge , lakewood , toms river , hamilton , trenton , clifton , camden , brick , cherry hill , passaic , middletown , union city , old bridge , gloucester township , east orange , bayonne , franklin , north bergen , vineland , union , piscataway , new brunswick , jackson , wayne , irvington , parsippany - troy hills , howell , perth amboy , hoboken , plainfield , west new york , washington township , east brunswick , bloomfield , west orange , evesham , bridgewater , south brunswick , egg harbor , manchester , hackensack , sayreville , mount laurel , berkeley , north brunswick .\nand today any products related with\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin illinois can be delivered to the following cities : chicago , aurora , rockford , joliet , naperville , springfield , peoria , elgin , waukegan , champaign , bloomington , decatur , evanston , des plaines , berwyn , wheaton , belleville , elmhurst , dekalb , moline , urbana , crystal lake , quincy , rock island , park ridge , calumet city , pekin , danville , st . charles , north chicago , galesburg , chicago heights , granite city , highland park , burbank , o ' fallon , oak forest , alton , kankakee , west chicago , east st . louis , mchenry , batavia , carbondale , freeport , belvidere , collinsville , harvey , lockport , woodstock . . .\nno need to say , any products related with\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin washington can be sent to seattle , spokane , tacoma , vancouver , bellevue , kent , everett , renton , federal way , yakima , spokane valley , kirkland , bellingham , kennewick , auburn , pasco , marysville , lakewood , redmond , shoreline , richland , sammamish , burien , olympia , lacey . the shipping is also available in edmonds , puyallup , bremerton , lynnwood , bothell , longview , issaquah , wenatchee , mount vernon , university place , walla walla , pullman , des moines , lake stevens , seatac , maple valley , mercer island , bainbridge island , oak harbor , kenmore , moses lake , camas , mukilteo , mountlake terrace , tukwila , etc .\nas usual , the goods by request\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin minnesota can be received in minneapolis , saint paul , rochester , bloomington , duluth , brooklyn park , plymouth , maple grove , woodbury , st . cloud , eagan , eden prairie , coon rapids , blaine , burnsville , lakeville , minnetonka , apple valley , edina , st . louis park , moorhead , mankato , maplewood , shakopee , richfield , cottage grove , roseville , inver grove heights , andover , brooklyn center , savage , oakdale , fridley , winona , shoreview , ramsey , owatonna , chanhassen , prior lake , white bear lake , chaska , austin , elk river , champlin , faribault , rosemount , crystal , farmington , hastings , new brighton , and so on .\nas always , the goods by your query\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin new york can be purchased if you live in new york , buffalo , rochester , yonkers , syracuse , albany , new rochelle , mount vernon , schenectady , utica , white plains , troy , niagara falls , binghamton , rome , long beach , poughkeepsie , north tonawanda , jamestown , ithaca , elmira , newburgh , middletown , auburn , watertown , glen cove , saratoga springs , kingston , peekskill , lockport , plattsburgh , cortland , amsterdam , oswego , lackawanna , cohoes , rye , gloversville , beacon , batavia , tonawanda , glens falls , olean , oneonta , geneva , dunkirk , fulton , oneida , corning , ogdensburg , canandaigua , watervliet , and other cities and towns .\nno need to say , any products related with\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin michigan can be shipped to detroit , grand rapids , warren , sterling heights , lansing , ann arbor , flint , dearborn , livonia , clinton , canton , westland , troy , farmington hills , macomb township , kalamazoo , shelby , wyoming , southfield , waterford , rochester hills , west bloomfield , taylor , saint clair shores , pontiac , dearborn heights , royal oak , novi , ypsilanti , battle creek , saginaw , kentwood , east lansing , redford , roseville , georgetown , portage , chesterfield township , midland , bloomfield charter township , oakland county , saginaw , commerce , meridian , muskegon , lincoln park , grand blanc , holland , orion , bay city , independence charter township , and other cities .\nand the products by request\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin utah can be delivered to salt lake city , west valley city , provo , west jordan , orem , sandy , ogden , st . george , layton , taylorsville , south jordan , logan , lehi , murray , bountiful , draper , riverton , roy , spanish fork , pleasant grove , cottonwood heights , tooele , springville , cedar city , midvale . the shipping is also available in kaysville , holladay , american fork , clearfield , syracuse , south salt lake , herriman , eagle mountain , clinton , washington , payson , farmington , brigham city , saratoga springs , north ogden , south ogden , north salt lake , highland , centerville , hurricane , heber city , west haven , lindon , and other cities and towns .\nand the goods by request\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin florida can be shipped to such cities as jacksonville , miami , tampa , orlando , st . petersburg , hialeah , tallahassee , fort lauderdale , port st . lucie , cape coral , pembroke pines , hollywood , miramar , gainesville , coral springs , miami gardens , clearwater , palm bay , pompano beach , west palm beach , lakeland , davie , miami beach , boca raton . the shipping is also available in deltona , plantation , sunrise , palm coast , largo , deerfield beach , melbourne , boynton beach , lauderhill , fort myers , weston , kissimmee , homestead , delray beach , tamarac , daytona beach , wellington , north miami , jupiter , north port , coconut creek , port orange , sanford , margate , ocala , sarasota , pensacola , and other cities .\ndespite improvements under mohammed vi , international organizations have continued to criticize the human rights situation in morocco in general ( arrests of suspected islamist extremists during 2004 and 2005 related to the 2003 casablanca bombings ) , and in western sahara in particular .\nthere are competing accounts of exactly what mohammed v did or did not do for the moroccan jewish community\nduring the holocaust . jessica m . marglin , across legal lines : jews and muslims in modern morocco ( yale university press , 2016 ) , p . 201 . however ,\nthough a subject of debate , most scholars stress the benevolence of mohammed v toward the jews\nduring the vichy french era . orit bashkin & daniel j . schroeter ,\nhistorical themes : muslim - jewish relations in the modern modern middle east and north africa\nin the routledge handbook of muslim - jewish relations ( routledge , 2016 ) , p . 54 . mohammed blocked efforts by vichy officials to impose vichy anti - jewish legislation upon morocco and deport the country ' s 250 , 000 jews to their deaths in nazi concentration camps and extermination camps in europe . susan gilson miller , a history of modern morocco ( cambridge university press , 2013 ) , pp . 142 - 43 . the sultan ' s stand was\nbased as much on the insult the vichy diktats posed to his claim of sovereignty over all his subjects , including the jews , as on his humanitarian instincts .\npartial nazi race measures were enacted in morocco over mohammed ' s objection , and mohammed did sign , under the instructions of vichy officials , two moroccan dahir ( decrees ) that barred jews from certain schools and positions . abdelilah bouasria ,\nthe second coming of morocco ' s ' commander of the faithful ' : mohammed vi and morocco ' s religious policy\nin contemporary morocco : state , politics and society under mohammmed vi ( eds . bruce maddy - weitzman & daniel zisenwine , 2013 ) , p . 42 . nevertheless , mohammed is highly esteemed by moroccan jews who credit him for protecting their community from the nazi germany and vichy french government , and mohammed v has been honored by jewish organizations for his role in protecting his jewish subjects during the holocaust . some historians maintain that mohammed ' s anti - nazi role has been exaggerated ; historian michel abitol writes that while mohammed v was compelled by vichy officials to sign the anti - jewish dahirs ,\nhe was more passive than muhammad vii al - munsif ( list of beys of tunis during the second world war ) in that he did not take any side and did not engage in any public act that could be interpreted as a rejection of vichy ' s policy .\nlater on , in response to anti - jewish rhetoric in the wake of the creation of the state of israel , mohammed v warned muslims not to hurt moroccan jews , reminding them that jews had always been protected in morocco . [ 1 ]\nduring the 1990s , king hassan made great strides toward economic and political liberalization . king hassan died on july 23 , 1999 , and was succeeded by his son , mohammed vi , who pledged to continue these reforms . under mohammed vi , the moroccan government has undertaken a number of economic , political , and social reforms , including the 2003 moudawana , a reform of the family status code , and the 2006 equity and reconciliation commission , which investigated allegations of human rights abuse from 1956 to 1999 .\nimage : mohammed v 1954 , madagascar . jpg : mohammed v was one of the sons of sultan yusef of morocco , who was enthroned by the french in september 1912 and his wife lalla yaqut , who was of turkey origin . his first wife was lalla hanila bint mamoun . she was the mother of his first daughter lalla fatima zohra . his second wife was his first cousin lalla abla bint tahar ( ) ( born 5 september 1909 \u2013 died 1 march 1992 ) . she was the daughter of moulay mohammed tahar bin hassan , son of hassan i of morocco . she married mohammed v in 1929 and died in rabat on 1 march 1992 . she gave birth to five children : the future king hassan ii of morocco , princess lalla aicha of morocco , princess lalla malika of morocco , prince moulay abdallah of morocco and princess lalla nuzha of morocco . international business publications , morocco foreign policy and government guide p . 84his third wife was lalla bahia , mother of his last daughter princess lalla amina of morocco .\nnaturally , the products by request\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin texas can be bought in houston , san antonio , dallas , austin , fort worth , el paso , arlington , corpus christi , plano , laredo , lubbock , garland , irving , amarillo , grand prairie , brownsville , mckinney , frisco , pasadena , mesquite , killeen , mcallen , carrollton , midland , waco , denton , abilene , odessa , beaumont , round rock , the woodlands , richardson , pearland , college station , wichita falls , lewisville , tyler , san angelo , league city , allen , sugar land , edinburg , mission , longview , bryan , pharr , baytown , missouri city , temple , flower mound , new braunfels , north richland hills , conroe , victoria , cedar park , harlingen , atascocita , mansfield , georgetown , san marcos , rowlett , pflugerville , port arthur , spring , euless , desoto , grapevine , galveston , and other cities and towns .\nnovember 18th in morocco is known as eid al istiqulal ( independence day ) , and honours the return of king mohammed v to morocco from exile in madagascar . on this day the king proclaimed the freedom of morocco from france and spain who had colonised the country for 44 years\nparliamentary elections were held in november 2002 and were considered largely free , fair , and transparent . at that time , king mohammed vi formed a government appointing then - interior minister driss jettou as prime minister . cabinet level positions were drawn from most major parties in the coalition .\nallait devenir la petite - fille pr\u00e9f\u00e9r\u00e9e de hassan ii , le roi s\u2019est \u00e9merveill\u00e9 sans aucune g\u00eane des yeux bleus de la nouveau - n\u00e9e . \u00ab elle tient \u00e7a de son arri\u00e8re - grand - m\u00e8re turque \u00bb , faisait - il remarquer en rappelant les yeux azur de la m\u00e8re de mohammed v\nabdelilah bouasria ,\nthe second coming of morocco ' s ' commander of the faithful ' : mohammed vi and morocco ' s religious policy\nin contemporary morocco : state , politics and society under mohammmed vi ( eds . bruce maddy - weitzman & daniel zisenwine , 2013 ) , p . 42 .\nallait devenir la petite - fille pr\u00e9f\u00e9r\u00e9e de hassan ii , le roi s ' est \u00e9merveill\u00e9 sans aucune g\u00eane des yeux bleus de la nouveau - n\u00e9e . \u00ab elle tient \u00e7a de son arri\u00e8re - grand - m\u00e8re turque \u00bb , faisait - il remarquer en rappelant les yeux azur de la m\u00e8re de mohammed v\nfollowing the 2002 elections , king mohammed vi highlighted several goals toward which the new government should work : expanded employment opportunities , economic development , meaningful education , and increased housing availability . to meet the king ' s objectives , the jettou government embarked on a series of initiatives and reforms , which jettou laid out in his early days as prime minister .\nmorocco has about 230 , 000 students enrolled in fourteen public universities . the most prestigious are mohammed v university in rabat and al akhawayn university in ifrane ( private ) . al - akhawayn , founded in 1993 by king hassan ii and king fahd of saudi arabia , is an english - medium , american - style university comprising about one thousand students . university of al karaouine , in fez , is the oldest university in the world and has been a center for knowledge for more than a thousand years .\nmorocco is home to 14 public universities . mohammed v university in rabat is one of the country ' s most famous schools , with faculties of law , sciences , liberal arts , and medicine . karaouine university , in fes , is a longstanding center for islamic studies and is the oldest university in the maghreb . morocco has one private , english language university , al - akhawayn , in ifrane , founded in 1993 by king hassan ii and king fahd of saudi arabia . the curriculum is based on an american model .\nhowever , under the reign of mohammed vi , and with the launch of the equity and reconciliation commission ( ier ) to investigate the atrocities , morocco is trying to reconcile with the victims . many new laws and codes concerning all aspects of life are being launched . the most notable event was the creation of the mudawana \u2014a family code that was the first unique initiative of its kind in the arab and muslim world . the code gives women more rights . other issues , such as the abolition of capital punishment , are being considered .\nmorocco is a moderate arab state which maintains close relations with europe and the united states . it is a member of the un and belongs to the arab league , arab maghreb union ( uma ) , organization of the islamic conference ( oic ) , and the non - aligned movement . king mohammed vi is the chairman of the oic ' s al - quds jerusalem committee . although not a member of the african union ( formerly the organization of african unity\u2014oau ) , morocco remains involved in african diplomacy . it contributes consistently to un peacekeeping efforts on the continent .\nmohammed v told jewish leaders that in his opinion vichy laws singling out the jews were inconsistent with moroccan law . he believed that jews should be treated equally with muslims . he emphasized that the property and lives of the moroccan jews remained under his protection . \u201cthere are no jews in morocco . there are only subjects , \u201d the king was reported to have said . in a blatant show of defiance the king insisted on inviting all the rabbis of morocco to the 1941 throne celebrations . due to his strong stance , vichy administrators were unable to implement their discriminatory laws and the jewish community was saved .\nas you know , the goods related with\nmohammed ben aarafa\nin california can be received in los angeles , san diego , san jose , san francisco , fresno , sacramento , long beach , oakland , bakersfield , anaheim , santa ana , riverside , stockton , chula vista , fremont , irvine , san bernardino , modesto , oxnard , fontana , moreno valley , glendale , huntington beach , santa clarita , garden grove . it ' s also available for those who live in santa rosa , oceanside , rancho cucamonga , ontario , lancaster , elk grove , palmdale , corona , salinas , pomona , torrance , hayward , escondido , sunnyvale , pasadena , fullerton , orange , thousand oaks , visalia , simi valley , concord , roseville , santa clara , vallejo , victorville . delivery is also carried out in el monte , berkeley , downey , costa mesa , inglewood , ventura , west covina , norwalk , carlsbad , fairfield , richmond , murrieta , burbank , antioch , daly city , temecula , santa maria , el cajon , rialto , san mateo , compton , clovis , jurupa valley , south gate , vista , mission viejo . delivery is also carried out in vacaville , carson , hesperia , redding , santa monica , westminster , santa barbara , chico , whittier , newport beach , san leandro , hawthorne , san marcos , citrus heights , alhambra , tracy , livermore , buena park , lakewood , merced , hemet , chino , menifee , lake forest , napa . as well as in redwood city , bellflower , indio , tustin , baldwin park , chino hills , mountain view , alameda , upland , folsom , san ramon , pleasanton , lynwood , union city , apple valley , redlands , turlock , perris , manteca , milpitas , redondo beach , davis , camarillo , yuba city . and , of course , rancho cordova , palo alto , yorba linda , walnut creek , south san francisco , san clemente , pittsburg , laguna niguel , pico rivera , montebello , lodi , madera , monterey park , la habra , santa cruz , encinitas , tulare , gardena , national city , cupertino . and also in huntington park , petaluma , san rafael , la mesa , rocklin , arcadia , diamond bar , woodland , fountain valley , porterville , paramount , hanford , rosemead , eastvale , santee , highland , delano , colton , novato , lake elsinore , brentwood , yucaipa , cathedral city , watsonville , placentia .\nrabat , morocco cu . new sultan of morocco sidi mohammed ben moulay arafa ( aug . 1953 - sep . 1955 ) . sv . scu . pan , sultan walking towards , preparing to leave for mosque . gv . rabat . lv . sultan leaving palace with procession . scu . sultan leaving palace on horseback . back view of procession towards the mosque . scu . pan , sultan on horseback . cu . car breaking through crowd . lv . assassin attempting to stab sultan , a french officer jumps aboard assassin ' s car , assassin draws knife , officer and assassin wrestling , officer knocks assassin off car , guards pounce on assassin as he falls on the ground . scu . assassin laying on ground , he lifts his head . scu . sergeant major king holding assassin ' s knife looking at his wound . pan down to assassin laying on ground . sv . dead horse laying by assassin ' s car . scu . sultan being helped away from scene . cu . guard . sv . & scu . pan , sultan leaving mosque in carriage escorted by guards . lv . & sv . procession . sv . towards , procession with sultan entering palace . ( f . g . ) ( orig . l . ) film id : 116 . 16 a video from british path\u00e9 . explore our online channel , british path\u00e9 tv . it ' s full of great documentaries , fascinating interviews , and classic movies . urltoken for licensing enquiries visit urltoken british path\u00e9 also represents the reuters historical collection , which includes more than 120 , 000 items from the news agencies gaumont graphic ( 1910 - 1932 ) , empire news bulletin ( 1926 - 1930 ) , british paramount ( 1931 - 1957 ) , and gaumont british ( 1934 - 1959 ) , as well as visnews content from 1957 to the end of 1979 . all footage can be viewed on the british path\u00e9 website . urltoken\nthe constitution grants the king extensive powers ; he is both the political leader and the\ndefender of the faith .\nhe presides over the council of ministers ; appoints the prime minister following legislative elections , and on recommendations from the latter , appoints the members of the government . while the constitution theoretically allows the king to terminate the tenure of any minister and , after consultation with the heads of the higher and lower assemblies , to dissolve the parliament , suspend the constitution , call for new elections , or rule by decree , the only time this happened was in 1965 . the king is formally the chief of the military . upon the death of his father mohammed v , king hassan ii succeeded to the throne in 1961 . he ruled morocco for the next 38 years , until he died in 1999 . his son , king mohamed vi , assumed the throne in july 1999 ."]}
{"id": 353, "summary": [{"text": "antaeotricha humilis , the dotted anteotricha moth , is a moth in the depressariidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by philipp christoph zeller in 1855 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from alabama , arkansas , florida , georgia , illinois , indiana , kansas , kentucky , louisiana , maryland , mississippi , new jersey , north carolina , ohio , oklahoma , south carolina , tennessee , texas , virginia and west virginia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 14 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are greyish , almost white with obscure patches of very pale fuscous on the forewings .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is a small brown spot within the dorsal margin , before the middle and another a little behind it on the fold , and yet another at the end of the disc .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on quercus species , tying the leaves of their host plant . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "antaeotricha humilis", "paragraphs": ["species antaeotricha humilis - dotted anteotricha moth - hodges # 1019 - bugguide . net\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nthe larva is a leaf tier on oak . [ comment by terry harrison ]\ncontributed by john f . carr on 30 december , 2009 - 3 : 35pm additional contributions by ceiseman , robert lord zimlich last updated 22 april , 2012 - 12 : 14pm\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nmehan , payne county , oklahoma , usa april 11 , 2016 size : ~ 7 . 5mm\ncontributed by michael w . palmer on 11 april , 2016 - 5 : 21pm last updated 20 april , 2016 - 8 : 27pm\nselect your preferred way to display the comments and click ' save settings ' to activate your changes .\nbiokids is sponsored in part by the interagency education research initiative . it is a partnership of the university of michigan school of education , university of michigan museum of zoology , and the detroit public schools . this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation under grant drl - 0628151 . copyright \u00a9 2002 - 2018 , the regents of the university of michigan . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\ncounties that are filled - in are those for which the south carolina moths checklist has confirmed records of this species .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken"]}
{"id": 377, "summary": [{"text": "armatophallus exoenota is a moth of the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by meyrick in 1918 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in gambia , cameroon , ethiopia , kenya , tanzania , uganda , zimbabwe , namibia and south africa .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 12.5-20.1 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are dark red-brown , suffusedly mixed with dark purplish-fuscous and with a short indistinct light reddish-ochreous transverse mark from the costa almost at the base .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the plical and second discal stigmata are small , indistinct and blackish and there is a small indistinct spot of ochreous suffusion on the costa at three-fourths .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are rather dark grey .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing from october to may and in august . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "armatophallus exoenota", "paragraphs": ["this is the place for armatophallus definition . you find here armatophallus meaning , synonyms of armatophallus and images for armatophallus copyright 2017 \u00a9 urltoken\nhere you will find one or more explanations in english for the word armatophallus . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word armatophallus and , of course , armatophallus synonyms and on the right images related to the word armatophallus .\narmatophallus gen . n . , a new genus of gelechiid moths ( lepidoptera , gelechiidae ) from the afrotropical and oriental regions .\narmatophallus gen . n . , a new genus of gelechiid moths ( lepidoptera , gelechiidae ) from the afrotropical and oriental regions . - pubmed - ncbi\nbidzilya o . v . 2015 . armatophallus gen . n . , a new genus of gelechiid moths ( lepidoptera , gelechiidae ) from the afrotropical and oriental regions . - zootaxa 3981 ( 3 ) : 413\u2013429 .\narmatophallus , gen . n . , is established for six species : a . exoenota ( meyrick , 1918 ) , comb . n . ( ex gelechia ) ( = gelechia xylophaea meyrick , 1921 , syn . n . ) ; a . crudescens ( meyrick , 1920 ) , comb . n . ( ex gelechia ) ; a . kuehnei , sp . n . ( rwanda ) ; a . akagericus , sp . n . ( rwanda ) ; a . hackeri , sp . n . ( yemen , ethiopia ) ; and a . indicus , sp . n . ( india ) . the systematic position of the new genus is briefly discussed . a key to the species is given based on external characters and the genitalia of both sexes . adults and genitalia of all species are illustrated .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\na new species of fish , pseudoliparis swirei , published in zootaxa ( 4358 : 161 - 177 ) by gerringer , m . e et al . was voted among top 10 new species described in 2017 .\na new species of madagascan crickets described by mustafa \u00fcnal and george beccaloni in zootaxa was featured in a national geographic story . well done mustafa and george !\na new species of wolf spider , lycosa aragogi , is named after aragog\u2014the famous fictional spider from \u201charry potter\u201d book series by j . k . rowling . the new species is similar to the animatronic puppet version of the character used in the film \u201charry potter and the chamber of secrets\u201d , which is actually based on a wolf spider . the naming of the new species is dedicated to the 20th anniversary of harry potter book series .\nmariah o . pfleger , r . dean grubbs , charles f . cotton , toby s . daly - engel\nidentification of nipaecoccus ( hemiptera : coccomorpha : pseudococcidae ) species in the united states , with descriptions of nipaecoccus bromelicola sp . n . and the male of n . floridensis beardsley\ngelechia crudescens meyrick , 1920 ; in alluaud & jeannel , voyage afr . orientale , ins . l\u00e9p . 2 : 70 ; tl : british east africa , bura\n[ afromoths ] de prins , j . & de prins , w . , 2013\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nvoyage de ch . alluaud et r . jeannel en afrique orientale ( 1911 - 1812 ) . r\u00e9sultats scientifique . insectes l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res . 2 . microlepidoptera in alluaud & jeannel ,\nmeyrick , 1921 descriptions of south african micro - lepidoptera . part 1 ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 49 - 148\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nkiev national taras shevchenko university , zoological museum , volodymyrska str . , 60 , msp 01601 , kyiv , ukraine . ; email : bidzilya @ univ . kiev . ua .\nmeyrick e . 1920a . voyage de ch . alluaud et r . jeannel en afrique orientale ( 1911\u20131912 ) . r\u00e9sultats scientifiques . insectes l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res ii . microlepidoptera . - \u2014 : 35\u2013120 .\nmeyrick e . 1918a . descriptions of south african micro - lepidoptera . - annals of the transvaal museum 6 ( 2 ) : 7\u201359 .\nmeyrick e . 1921b . descriptions of south african micro - lepidoptera . - annals of the transvaal museum 8 ( 2 ) : 49\u2013148 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a fact about armatage shanks ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for armatage shanks ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation ."]}
{"id": 381, "summary": [{"text": "coleophora stuposa is a moth of the coleophoridae family that can be found in turkestan and uzbekistan .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the wingspan is 10.5 \u2013 12.5 millimetres ( 0.41 \u2013 0.49 in ) .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the larvae feed on salsola gemmascens .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they create a silky , very compact case with a cover .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "this cover is cloth-like and dense .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the valve is three-sided and short .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the length of the case is 4.5 \u2013 5 millimetres ( 0.18 \u2013 0.20 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the color of the cover is gray , while the silky base is brown , with five to six indistinct but lustrous longitudinal lines partially obliterated by surrounding pubescence .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the case of the young larvae is whitish-gray .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "larvae can be found from september to october . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "coleophora stuposa", "paragraphs": ["coleophora laricella h\u00fcbner , 1817 = protocryptis laricella ( hubner , [ 1817 ] ) = tinea laricella h\u00fcbner , [ 1817 ] = phalaena tortix ( ornix ) laricinella ratzeburg , 1840 = coleophora nigricornis heinemann & wocke , 1877 .\ncoleophora - species dictionary - global : ispot nature - your place to share nature . ispot is a website aimed at helping anyone identify anything in nature . once you ' ve registered , you can add an observation to the website and suggest an identification yourself or see if anyone else can identify it for you .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken"]}
{"id": 391, "summary": [{"text": "acanthops falcataria , common name south american dead leaf mantis , is a species of praying mantis in the subfamily acanthopinae of the family acanthopidae and not to be confused with acanthops falcata , a different species in the same genus that is often referred to with the same common name .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "a. falcataria is one of many mantis species from various genera that resemble a dead leaf .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "acanthops species have an unusual degree of sexual dimorphism compared to other mantids .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the flightless female resembles a curled dead leaf and weighs twice as much as the male .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "it has reduced wings that can be lifted to reveal brightly colored warning colors on the abdomen .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the male flies well and has long functional wings that resemble a flat or rolled-up dead leaf at rest .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "when perched , males often assume a posture where the head , grasping legs and prothorax add to the camouflage by recreating the appearance of a dead leaf 's shriveled petiole and stipules .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is native to south america . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "acanthops falcataria", "paragraphs": ["louva - a - deus de folha seca - acanthops falcataria , acanthops falcata , bicho - folha - seca ( mantodea - acanthopidae - acanthopinae - acanthopini ) biodiversidade , biodiversity , nature videos , v\u00eddeos de natureza , florian\u00f3polis , santa catarina ( state ) , brasil , southern brazil original filming praying matis playlist species : urltoken tive sorte de encontrar esta esp\u00e9cie no meu quintal , raramente encontro este tipo de esp\u00e9cie direto da natureza , consegui identificar bem r\u00e1pido devido as caracter\u00edsticas do corpo que se assemelha a uma folha morta . original videos filmings , 3d modelings , arts animations created and directed by diego da cruz pereira ( diegodcvids )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nehrmann , r . 2002 . mantodea : gottesanbeterinnen der welt . natur und tier , m\u00fcnster .\ne . giglio - tos . 1913 . orthoptera . fam . mantidae . subfam . perlamantinae . genera insectorum de p . wytsman 144 : 1 - 13\n. note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own license , and they may or may not be available for reuse . click on an image or a media link to access the media data window , which provides the relevant licensing information . for the general terms and conditions of tol material reuse and redistribution , please see the\neach tol branch page provides a synopsis of the characteristics of a group of organisms representing a branch of the tree of life . the major distinction between a branch and a leaf of the tree of life is that each branch can be further subdivided into descendent branches , that is , subgroups representing distinct genetic lineages .\nfor a more detailed explanation of the different tol page types , have a look at the structure of the tree of life page .\ntree of life design and icons copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2004 tree of life project . all rights reserved .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nif is associated with an alamy account you ' ll receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password .\nenter your log in email address and we\u0092ll send you a link to reset your password .\nsorry , this image isn ' t available for this licence . please refer to the license restrictions for more information .\non the alamy prints site ( powered by art . com ) choose your frame , the size and finish of your photo .\nenter your log in email address and we ' ll send you a link to reset your password .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmantodea species file ( version 5 . 0 / 5 . 0 ) home search taxa key help wiki\ndisplay . you can modify these specifications at any time by clicking the\nchange items displayed\nbutton in the header .\nif you want your changes to be preserved for future sessions , you should login . to do this , click on the logo in the upper left corner .\nchopard . 1914 . voy . allaud et jeannel afr . or . , orth . 2 : 23 - > > note : in east africa\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 . except where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution - sharealike 4 . 0 international license .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nterms | privacy | phone : 831 . 661 . 5551 | email : info @ urltoken | \u00a9 2015 minden pictures inc | all content on this website is protected by copyright"]}
{"id": 402, "summary": [{"text": "the cardinal myzomela ( myzomela cardinalis ) is a species of bird in the honeyeater family .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is named for the scarlet color of the male .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is found in american samoa , new caledonia , samoa , solomon islands , and vanuatu .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical mangrove forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it frequents areas with flowers , such as gardens .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "this is a small , active bird , measuring about 13 cm ( 5.1 in ) from bill to tail .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "males are red and black in coloration , females are grayish-olive , sometimes with a red cap or red head .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "its long , curved bill is especially adapted for reaching into flowers for nectar .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "cardinal myzomela populations have vanished from the island of guam since the invasion of the brown tree snake . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "cardinal myzomela", "paragraphs": ["cardinal myzomela ( myzomela cardinalis ) is a species of bird in the meliphagidae family .\nother synonyms catalan : mel\u00b7l\u00edfer cardenal czech : med\u00e1cek rudohlav\u00fd , medosavka tangarovit\u00e1 danish : kardinalhonning\u00e6der german : kardinalhonigfresser , kardinal - honigfresser english : cardinal honeyeater , cardinal myzomela , cardinal or samoan myzomela , guam cardinal honeyeater spanish : meloncillo cardenal , mielero cardenal estonian : kardinal - meelind finnish : kardinaalimesikko french : myzom\u00e8le cardinal , myzom\u00e8le cardinal ou m . des samoa , sucrier cardinal hungarian : kardin\u00e1lism\u00e9zev\u0151 italian : mangiamiele cardinale , mizomela cardinale japanese : mitsusui japanese : \u30df\u30c4\u30b9\u30a4 latin : certhia cardinalis , myzomela [ cardinalis or nigriventris ] , myzomela cardinalis , myzomela cardinalis cardinalis lithuanian : kardinolin\u0117 mizomela , kardinolion\u0117 mizomela dutch : kardinaaldwerghoningeter , kardinaal - dwerghoningeter norwegian : kardinalhonningeter polish : miod\u00f3wka kardynalska russian : \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u043c\u0438\u0437\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043b\u0430 , \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0441 slovak : med\u00e1rik \u010derven\u00fd swedish : kardinalmyzomela chinese : \u6df1\u7ea2\u6444\u871c\u9e1f chinese ( traditional ) : \u6df1\u7d05\u651d\u871c\u9ce5\nhiggins , p . , christidis , l . & ford , h . ( 2018 ) . cardinal myzomela ( myzomela cardinalis ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : myzomela cardinalis . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : although this species may have a restricted range , it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is described as common throughout its range ( doughty et al . 1999 ) . trend justification : this population is suspected to be in decline owing to ongoing habitat destruction ( stattersfield et al . 1998 ) .\nmap edited : deleted from manua group ( e american samoa ) . eoo updated .\n( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22703868a118657750 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nsometimes treated as conspecific with m . chermesina ; formerly treated as conspecific with m . rubratra , but differs in morphology and vocalizations . variation among subspecies sometimes pronounced , and several species may be involved ; small black - breasted lifuensis and strangely outlying nigriventris merit taxonomic study , including vocalizations ; songs of birds in solomons , vanuatu and samoa all appear to vary , and \u201cmelodious white - eye - like\u201d dawn song of sanfordi regarded as unique # r . race pulcherrima apparently a recent invader of san cristobal from ugi and / or three sisters in early 20th century , perhaps hybridizing with m . tristrami in the past # r . eight subspecies recognized .\n\u2013 makira ( san cristobal ) , ugi and three sisters is , in se solomons .\n\u2013 islands of santa cruz group , including nepani , reef is ( fenualoa , lonlom ) , duff is , nendo , utupua , vanikoro , and torres is ( hiu , loh ) .\nmayr , 1937 \u2013 tucopia i ( e of vanikoro ) , in santa cruz group .\nmayr , 1937 \u2013 banks is and n & c vanuatu ( s to \u00e9fat\u00e9 ) .\n\u2013 s vanuatu ( erromango , tanna , aniwa , futuna , anatom ) .\n\u2013 samoa ( savaii , upolu and offshore islets of apolima , manono and nu\u2019utele ) and w american samoa ( tutuila ) .\nvocal , but not noisy , with variety of short , sharp syllables . usual call a sharp high - pitched \u201c . . .\nprimarily forest , but occupies wide range of habitats on all islands on which recorded , occurring . . .\nnectar , also pollen , possibly other plant material ; also small arthropods , including insects and spiders ( araneae ) . a small snail ( . . .\nin vanuatu season sept to dec / jan , with some evidence of breeding jun ; in samoa thought to breed in all months ( nestlings found in jul and . . .\nresident , some local movement in search of blossom or other food sources . locally , may be . . .\nnot globally threatened . restrictedrange species : present in solomon group eba , in rennell and bellona eba , in vanuatu and temotu eba , in new caledonia eba , and in samoan . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\ninternal sequence based mainly on findings of recent phylogenetic studies # r # r , with a few modifications # r # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nalthough this species may have a restricted range , it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nsongs from a bird moving fairly high through dense humid forest on limestone karst .\nmale singing from about 15 ' away while female and juvenile hung out in the background . some typical calls mixed in as well .\ncalls of a bird in top strata of secondary forest . equipment used : telinga pro7 stereo dat mic , sound devices 702\nm . cardinalis chasing m . tristrami , probably cardinalis vocalizing . tape ref . a 47 - 49\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 291 , 989 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\n( torres is . . vanuatu . and santa cruz is . ( e solomons ) )"]}
{"id": 404, "summary": [{"text": "the chestnut-backed antbird ( myrmeciza exsul ) is a passerine bird in the antbird family .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is found in humid forests in central and south america ( choc\u00f3-magdalena ) , ranging from eastern nicaragua to western ecuador .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it mainly occurs in lowlands up to an altitude of 900 metres ( 3,000 ft ) m , but locally it occurs higher .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "this is a common bird in the understory thickets of wet forest , especially at edges , along streams and in old treefall clearings , and in adjacent tall second growth .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the female lays two purple or red-brown spotted white eggs , which are incubated by both sexes , in an untidy cup nest which is constructed from vines , plant fibre and dead leaves and placed low in vegetation .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the male and female parents both feed the chicks .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the chestnut-backed antbird is heavy-bodied and short-tailed , typically 14 centimetres ( 5.5 in ) long , and weighing 28 grams ( 0.99 oz ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "both sexes have a pale blue bare patch of skin around each eye .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the adult male has a blackish head , neck and breast , and the rest of the upperparts , wings and tail are chestnut .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the flanks and the lower belly are a somewhat darker brown .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the female has a brownish-black head and neck , but this does not extend to the breast .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "her underparts are a darker chestnut in the nominate subspecies of the caribbean lowlands from nicaragua to panama , but more rufous in m. e. occidentalis of the pacific lowlands in costa rica and panama .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "m. e. niglarus from eastern panama and far north-western colombia ( northern choc\u00f3 department ) is similar .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "young birds are duller and slatier than the adults .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the subspecies found in far south-east panama ( dari\u00e9n province ) , colombia ( except northern choc\u00f3 department ) and ecuador , m. e. maculifer and m. e. cassini , have two wing bars consisting of white spots .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "they were once considered a separate species , the wing-spotted antbird ( m. maculifer ) , but are vocally similar to the subspecies without spots on the wings , and the two groups hybridize where their distributions come into contact .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "this species has a grating naar call , and the male \u2019s song is a whistled peeet peeew answered by the female \u2019s higher pitched version .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the chestnut-backed antbird is normally found as pairs throughout the year , but occasionally joins mixed-species feeding flocks or army ants .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it feeds on insects , other arthropods , and sometimes small frogs or lizards taken from leaf litter and vine tangles in low vegetation or on the ground .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is easier to hear than see in its dense habitat , but can be attracted by imitating its whistled song .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "it may then give a territorial display with puffed-up body , drooped wings , and pumping tail . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "chestnut - backed antbird", "paragraphs": ["nonbreeding territorial behavior of two congeneric antbirds , chestnut - backed antbird ( myrmeciza exsul ) and white - bellied antbird ( m . longipes )\na pair of chestnut - backed antbirds foraging and singing about 4 m from me , in the rain .\nthe signature look of three species of antbird found on the osa peninsula of costa rica is the blue orbital skin ( the skin surrounding the eye ) . the chestnut - backed antbird is one of these species and is distinguished from the others by its slate colored head and chestnut back . the other antbird that you are likely to see here with the blue orbital skin is the bicolored antbird , but it is distinguished by its white neck and belly .\nthe antbird was only 1 m from me , sang twice , then flew away .\nchestnut - backed antbirds ( myrmeciza exsul ) are common residents of the osa peninsula and one of the most abundant species found here . it is difficult to walk outside here at friends of the osa\u2019s osa biodiversity center and not hear two or three individuals counter - singing . often times when the rest of the forest has become fairly quiet you can always count on a chestnut - backed antbird to let you know that all is as it should be .\nthe chestnut - backed antbird is one of many secretive forest understory species that is far more often heard than seen . the song - - a two - or three - note whistle - - is a common feature of many lowland forests throughout the species\u2019 range . like most antbirds , the species has no special predilection for foraging at army - ant swarms , though it does so opportunistically when a swarm passes through a territory . the specific name exsul ( \u201cstranger\u201d in latin ) may have reflected its sporadic appearance at ant swarms to early naturalists who believed all antbirds followed army ants . unlike many forest - dwelling antbird species , the chestnut - backed antbird is often found in even small forest patches in fragmented landscapes , and it has flourished on barro colorado island , panama , despite being a demonstrably isolated population .\nzimmer , k . , isler , m . l . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . chestnut - backed antbird ( poliocrania exsul ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nas you can tell by the name , chestnut - backed antbirds follow army ant swarms ; however , they only do this occasionally and are not considered obligate , or professional , army ant followers . they are strongly associated with the dark undergrowth of wet tropical forests within dense vegetation especially near overgrown treefalls or dense thickets . they often join mixed species flocks but won\u2019t necessarily move along the forest with the flock , but will rather join them while ant swarms are moving through the dense thickets in which the chestnut - backed antbirds are found . once the army ant swarm or the mixed species flock is gone , they will remain in the undergrowth found in their territory . many tropical birds follow army ant swarms to pick up insects flushed by the ants , not to eat the ants themselves . chestnut - backed antbirds mainly hop along very low lying perches or along the ground and peck their prey , which mainly consists of insects and spiders from the ground or near the ground vegetation .\n13\u00b75\u201314\u00b75 cm ; 24\u201330 g . male nominate race has head , throat and upper breast greyish black ; upperparts and tail dark chestnut , wing - coverts blacker , . . .\na pair of chestnut - backed antbirds was foraging near the ground , and i made my way close to intercept them . the two moved to within 2 m and 5 m of me . they sang their typical , 2 - element song ( e . g . , 0 : 00 , 0 : 08 , 0 : 17 ; the loudest at 1 : 19 and 1 : 29 ) . in addition , for about 12 seconds starting at 0 : 20 , the closer one sang a quiet little song . they continued to forage and sing as they moved away from me .\nauthors : stefan woltmann , ryan s . terrill , matthew j . miller , and matthew l . brady\nwoltmann , s . , r . s . terrill , m . j . miller , and m . l . brady ( 2010 ) .\n) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .\na pair that stayed within 1 to 3 m of one another as they sang and foraged . they were about 3 m and 5 m from me . the call at 0 : 23 also was from one of the antbirds .\none individual singing at low level and flying away . habitat : secondary forest .\nthe bird was calling as it foraged on some dead branches about 0 . 5 m from the ground , about 3 to 4 m from me .\nbird was singing the\ncome here\nsong within 1 m of me , as if i were not there , about 0 . 5 m from ground in brush right along pipeline road . another adult was singing the\ncome here\nsong at least 80 m away . location was about 400 m north of juan grande .\nbird was singing the\ncome here\nsong within 1 m of me , as if i were not there , about 0 . 5 m from ground in brush right along pipeline road . his / her mate was nearby singing the barking aargh call . another adult was singing the\ncome here\nsong at least 80 m away . location was about 400 m north of juan grande .\non loop trail . two birds foraging on ground very close to trail and calling in response to playback .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhitherto considered conspecific with p . maculifer ( which see ) . plumage differences among races may reflect clinal variation . three subspecies recognized .\n( cherrie , 1891 ) \u2013 pacific slope in costa rica and w panama ( chiriqu\u00ed , veraguas ) .\n( wetmore , 1962 ) \u2013 e panama ( from col\u00f3n e of canal , and pacific slope in panam\u00e1 province and nw dari\u00e9n ) and adjacent extreme nw colombia ( n choc\u00f3 ) .\nloudsong 2\u20133 mellow , slightly downslurred whistles , intervals between them typically longer . . .\nunderstorey of humid evergreen forest and adjacent mature second - growth woodland ; mostly below 900 . . .\nfeeds on a variety of insects and other arthropods ; also occasionally on small lizards and frogs . stomach contents from panama include . . .\nseason late mar\u2013aug ( perhaps mar\u2013oct ) in costa rica and apr\u2013nov in panama . nest a compact or bulky and messy cup , one in . . .\npresumed resident . home - range size in sw costa rica varied from 1\u00b702\u20132\u00b776 ha to . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . fairly common to common throughout most of its range . occurs in a number of protected areas , e . g . saslaya national park and r\u00ed . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nrecent phylogenetic studies # r # r # r have led to internal clarification of family and its division into two subfamilies , thamnophilinae and myrmornithinae ; subsequent work has erected a third , euchrepomidinae ( see below , euchrepomis ) .\nrecent phylogenetic studies # r # r # r have led to distribution of taxa included herein into five tribes , microrhopiini , formicivorini , thamnophilini , pithyini and pyriglenini .\ntraditionally included in myrmeciza ( which see ) , but recently split as a new genus # r # r ; forms a clade with ampelornis and sipia .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nthey are territorial throughout the entire year and both the male and female sing duets back and forth to each other and in response to their nearest neighbors . when disturbed , they will pump their tail downward , droop their wings , and fluff up their feathers . they nest low in small bushes or debris during the rainy season from april to october . they usually lay two eggs and both parents incubate and tend to their young .\nwe would like to thank both alan dahl from focused on nature and gianfranco gomez from the drake bay rainforest chalet for allowing us to showcase their photographs .\nwe noticed that you ' re using an unsupported browser . the tripadvisor website may not display properly . we support the following browsers :\ncarara national park is south of the rio tarcoles and 15 km north of . . .\ncarara national park is south of the rio tarcoles and 15 km north of jaco dentral . it boasts of a large population of breeding scarlet macaws , capuchin monkeys , anteaters , parrots , aracaris , kingfishers old growth forest and is a transistional forest supporting both amazonian and mesoamerican habitats .\nthere is a tremendous amount to see in carara park , especially if you are interested in the birds of costa rica . for birders , i would highly recommend johan chavez as your guide . brilliant young man who knows the birds and all other aspects of carara and costa rica natural history . we spent two days with him and loved the trip . . . .\n* tripadvisor llc is not a booking agent and does not charge any service fees to users of our site . . . (\ntripadvisor llc is not responsible for content on external web sites . taxes , fees not included for deals content .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\njavascript is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .\nstri staff publications [ 3666 ] a collection of scientific publications by stri staff ."]}
{"id": 407, "summary": [{"text": "herotilapia multispinosa also known as the rainbow cichlid is a tropical freshwater central american fish of the cichlid family .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is found in atlantic slope of honduras , nicaragua , and costa rica from patuca river ( honduras ) south to matina river ( costa rica ) , and the pacific slope of nicaragua and costa rica from guasaule river south to tempisque river .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "specimens are also reported from the choluteca river in the pacific of honduras .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "this species is found in lakes and swamps with muddy bottoms , where it uses its specialized teeth and only 3.5 % jaw protrusion to feed mostly on algae .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is commercially important as an aquarium fish .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the rainbow cichlid prefers a ph range of 7.0 \u2013 8.0 , water hardness of 9-20 dgh and a temperature range of 21 \u2013 36 \u00b0c . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "rainbow cichlid", "paragraphs": ["central america ; rainbow cichlid is to be found in the honduras and nicaragua .\nbooks for sale cichlid books and dvds for sale at the cichlid room companion .\nrelatively common in the hobby , the rainbow cichlid makes an ideal ca cichlid for those who do not wish to manage the challenge of the more aggressive ca species .\nnorton , 1975 . the black - trim rainbow cichlid . buntbarsche bull . ( 51 ) : 10 - 12 .\nthe rainbow cichlid is unique in that it possesses tricuspid teeth , specifically enhancing its ability to eat filamentous algae which is its main source of food . the rainbow cichlid is capable of changing its coloration as its mood changes . the rainbow cichlid is an excellent choice for a chance to experience and observe a unique and wonderful fish species without a lot of special requirements and necessary equipment .\nabove : one of the two rainbow cichlids i have owned . my avatar , of course .\nschwarz , 1977 . archocentrus centrarchus ( gill and bransford 1877 ) . amer . cichlid assoc . cichlid index 2 ( 9 ) : 1 - 2 .\nthe kribensis ( pelvicachromis pulcher ) , also known as the krib , the rainbow krib and the rainbow cichlid , is a small freshwater fish native to africa . while mainly found in the rivers of nigeria and cameroon , they are also listed as an invasive species in hawaii .\nmost cichlids have a classical fish - shaped body design and they come in a rainbow of colors .\nin the wild rainbow cichlids eat algae of rocks , but in aquaria they will gladly eat any kind of food offered . i fed mine spectrum , tetra cichlid sticks , and hbh graze . the tetra cichlid sticks kept the females in very good breeding condition .\ntrade section the master list of cichlid offers ordered by area and species name .\npam chin has been replying to cichlid questions for over twenty years . highly respected and experienced aquarist , pam has visited cichlid habitats around the world , and bred in her ' s and her husband gary fish house hundreds of cichlid species . besides her job , she still devotes time to help any person with a cichlid question !\ni have rainbow cichlids kept with convicts . both are comfortable at cooler tempretures . article is factually accurate .\nthe rainbow cichlid is a popular , not - too - large cichlid that is relatively peaceful and full of personality . has unique tricuspid teeth , which it uses to rasp filamentous algae , a major part of its diet in the wild , from rockwork and other aquarium decor .\nherotilapia multispinosa ( some - times referred to as the\nrainbow\ncichlid in the pet trade ) is a hardy and colorful central american cichlid . it makes a great addition to community tanks , but is also worthy of a showy species - only tank , even safely placed in tanks containing certain livebearers , tetras , and other fish usually not easily placed in the cichlid aquarium .\nthe rainbow cichlid is an omnivore ; it will accept quality flake and cichlid pellets . blood worms and brine shrimp will also be accepted as treats . the diet should be supplemented with other treats such as spirulina which is classed as vegetable matter and they are often seen to be grazing on any algae present in the aquarium .\ne - books for sale pdf copies of popular cichlid books offered for sale at the best price .\nh . multispinosa is a territorial , but peaceful , cichlid that is rarely aggressive except during spawning .\nrainbow cichlid is a great cichlid to keep , especially for beginners . this easy hardy , relatively small , and peaceful cichlid is not demanding and is colorful . this fish , first typed by g\u00fcnther in 1867 , belonged in its own genus herotilapia . after schmitter - soto ' s 2007 reclassification of the central american fishes this fish was moved to the genus archocentrus . although it may be a representative of this genus , very little is known on rainbow cichlids scientifically and i believe more research should be done before it is considered a representative of this genus . this fish was first brought into the hobby back in 1961 and is a favorite with many cichlid fanatics .\n: 4 . a robust cichlid recommended for a community tank with other similarly - sized central american cichlids .\nloiselle , p . v . 1982b . cichlid potpouri . fama 5 ( 9 ) : et seq .\nbaylis , j . r . 1976 . a rainbow in muddy water . tropical fish world 3 ( l ) : 8 - 14 .\nalgal browsing by this sexually quiescent male los chiles herotilapia multispinissa is facilitated by the distinctive jaw teeth that define the genus . even outside of periods of sexual activity , the rainbow cichlid is a very attractively colored fish . photo by paul v . loiselle .\ndescription : rainbow cichlid have bright orange base color with variable black markings along the length of the body . fins - excluding pectorals - are edged in bright blue . the fish can quickly change colors according to mood . they have orange eyes . debatably the smallest central american cichlid , it is closely related to the genus cichlasoma differing only by its three - pointed teeth . archocentrus multispinosus has tricuspid teeth , which greatly enhances the ability to feed on filamentous algae , making up a large portion of its natural diet . these three specialized teeth have earned multispinosa its own genus , herotilapia . the rainbow cichlid is an ideal fish to keep and breed for the beginner .\ndr . phillip lobel recently reviewed the relatively scant literature on this topic ( 2001 . \u201cacoustic behavior of cichlid fishes . \u201d\nladich f , schulz - mirbach t ( 2013 ) hearing in cichlid fish under noise conditions . plos one 8 : e57588\nthe rainbow cichlid should be housed in an aquarium of at least 45 gallons and should be provided with plenty of rock structure ( caves ) and / or driftwood for shelter ; they prefer a sand or fine gravel substrate and appreciate live plants , which help them feel more at home .\nthe rainbow cichlid is a brightly colored , monotypic fish commonly found in the lakes and rivers on the atlantic and pacific slopes of central america . it makes an excellent addition to semi - aggressive cichlid aquariums as well as peaceful community setups ; because of this the species is very popular among hobbyists looking for a few larger\ncommunity\nfish that also fit the bill for the adding some color to their tanks .\nthe rainbow cichlid is an ideal fish to keep and breed for the beginner , and certainly possesses the traits to earn a place with hobbyists . with its ease of care , wonderful behaviors and coloration , i am confident that anyone who decides to try keeping h . multispinosa will not be disappointed .\nsuch a life history pattern requires of its practitioners a specialized suite of adaptations . the physiological characteristics the rainbow cichlid must possess to prosper in such habitats are obvious enough . tolerance of high concentrations of dissolved metabolites and indifference to short term fluctuations in temperature and water chemistry head the list . experiments ( baylis , 1974 ) have demonstrated this species ' ability to tolerate the sort of hypoxic conditions likely to occur in the presence or large - scale decomposition of organic matter . i have already alluded to the dental modifications that allow herotilapia to collect vegetable foods efficiently . parallel digestive specialization must accompany such dental features as well . there are no data on the digestive physiology of this species , but the rainbow cichlid does possess the same sort of elongate intestine characteristic of such other herbivorous cichlids as sarotherodon , tilapia and many of the mbuna . withal , the rainbow cichlid as well equipped to survive in seasonally flooded habitats .\nthe rainbow cichlid is not characterized by extreme sexual dimorphism . females such as this one are best recognized by their plumper appearance and somewhat shorter , more rounded dorsal and anal fins . among sibs of the same age , females are also typically slightly smaller than their brothers . photo by paul v . loiselle .\nsand subtrate should be used , although this fish would actually prefer a muddy bottom which would pose a challenge to the aquarist . other tank decor is not critical , although the rainbow cichlid will appreciate areas of planting in which it can take cover . water flow should be slow to moderate and lighting not overly strong .\nranging along the atlantic & pacific slopes , the rainbow cichlid can be found from honduras to costa rica where the fish is likely to be found seeking refuge among the submerged logs , tangled roots and overhead cover of muddy lake shores and swampy bogs . it is often found foraging through the muddy substrate in pursuit of anything edible .\na sexually quiescent male archocentrus centrarchus . in the past , this species was confused with h . multispinosa by aquarists . like the rainbow cichlid , this species has elevated dorsal and anal fin spines counts , but differs dramatically in its coloration and uniformity conical jaw teeth . photographed at shedd aquarium . photo by paul v . loiselle .\nit can be difficult to determine the sex of a rainbow cichlid , but the male ' s anal and dorsal fins are usually more pointed ; the females are commonly smaller and have a short ovipositor . pairs will form a nuclear family and they will care for the fry and defend them ( in a community tank as well ) .\nomnivore . because a good portion of the rainbow cichlid\u2019s diet in the wild is filamentous algae , be sure to provide sufficient plant matter in their diets , including commercial spirulina foods . also provide a variety of commercial foods designed for cichlids , as well as live , frozen and freeze - dried foods , such as brine shrimp or bloodworms .\nfor those who want to try something big and have a minimum of a 48 - inch aquarium , the jaguar cichlid ( parachromis managuensis ) from central america and tilapia mariae ( west africa ) are possibilities ; in the case of the jaguar cichlid , start with young adults , not full - grown fish .\n: captive bred specimen have lost much of their coloration . this fish has the ability to rapidly change colors according to its mood . the rear and lower parts can change from whitish - gold to black . the rainbow cichlid belongs to a monotypic genus , meaning that it is the only fish included . this fish is sexually mature at 3\n( 8 cm ) .\nas mentioned above they are classed as a peaceful species compared to the other cichlid species available so can be housed with other species of fish with a similar disposition .\nloiselle , v . 1980a . cichlasoma septemfasciatum \u00ad a new color form of a central american cichlid . fama 3 ( 1 ) : 44 - 49 et seq .\nall of these cichlid fish will do very well and breed in a well - planted aquarium with a few flowerpot caves . they thrive in virtually any water chemistry .\nrainbow cichlid does not usually dig into the substrate or redecorate its environment so live plants and structures should remain unmolested . it ' s a good idea to provide them with adequate water movement although they have no special requirements above standard , efficient water filtration and lighting . they are a peaceful species that rarely show aggression , although they can become territorial and show aggressive behavior when spawning .\nmost cichlid fish are easy to breed , provided you have a male and a female , offer them suitable conditions and can manage their territorial behaviors . via brad / flickr\nmoving up a size bracket and to a 36 - inch aquarium minimum , we have the jack dempsey ( \u201ccichlasoma\u201d octofasciatum ) , the rainbow cichlid ( herotilapia multispinosa ) and hypsophrys nicaraguensis , all from central america . then there\u2019s the blue acara ( aequidens pulcher ) and the port acara ( cichlasoma portalegrense ) from south america . all of these will do well in any but acidic conditions .\nherotilapia multispinosa ( some - times referred to as the\nrainbow\ncichlid in the pet trade ) is a hardy and colorful central american cichlid . it makes a great addition to community tanks , but is also worthy of a showy species - only tank , even safely placed in tanks containing certain livebearers , tetras , and other fish usually not easily placed in the cichlid aquarium . debatably the smallest central american cichlid , h . multispinosa is also unique in that it possesses tricuspid teeth , which greatly enhances the ability to feed on filamentous algae , making up a large portion of its natural diet . these three specialized teeth have earned multispinosa its own genus , herotilapia . its characteristic golden coloration along with the orange eyes , black markings , and subtle blue hues make it a truly stunning aquarium occupant . it can mature at a size of just 3\n, and is often not noted to grow much larger .\nloiselle , p . v . 1982a . our national cichlid \u00ad cichlasoma cyanoqunatum ( baird and girard 1854 ) . fama 5 ( 5 ) : 6 - 11 et seq .\nthese cichlid fish are best kept in a species aquarium of their own , with just one pair of the chosen species . they are likely to fight constantly with other cichlid fish , whether their own kind or different species . this behavior is tied to their need to occupy a safe , private territory for raising a family . fish intruding into their territory are seen as a threat to the brood ( usually with justification ) , and other cichlid fish in particular are seen as competitors for resources ( breeding sites and food supply ) .\nmany would - be cichlid fish breeders have a typical community of fish and want to try their hand at adding cichlids to this environment . as it turns out , there are a number of small substrate - spawning cichlid fish that will fit well into such a setup , and they will not destroy a pleasant underwater scene by digging excessively and / or eating plants .\ndue in large measure to the efforts of dr . jeffrey r . baylis , a great deal more is known about the natural history - of the h . multispinosa than is typically the case for a neotropical cichlid . during his graduate program at berkeley , jeff had an opportunity to supplement laboratory work on this species ' behavior with field studies . the knowledge he gained about the ecology of the rainbow cichlid allowed him to meaningfully interpret much of the behavioral data derived from his laboratory observations . though this species has attracted the attention of subsequent workers ( smith - grayron and keenleyside , 1978 ) , the results of his research ( baylis , 1974 ) remain a model of the successful integration of field observation and laboratory studies to which any aspiring student of cichlid behavior can profitably turn for inspiration .\nsome species grow to only 4 cm ( 2 in . ) , but the largest cichlid , boulengerochromis microlepis , can reach a size up to 90 cm ( 3 ft . ) .\nhowever , it is important to remember that these cichlid fish look after their eggs and fry , and thus will inevitably occupy an area of territory \u2014 a \u201cnursery . \u201d these cichlid fish should be kept only if the aquarium is large enough to accommodate this territory need and still leave plenty of living space for the other occupants to go about their business without constant harassment .\nin 1970 , a color mutant of the rainbow cichlid characterized by a novel distribution of black pigment on the body and fins was first discovered . this new color form made its appearance in an aquarium shop in waterloo , iowa , among a population of tank - reared herotilapia being held for sale . this heteromelanic color variety is generally known as the norton black - trim rainbow cichlid , in honor of dr . joanne norton , who worked out the genetics of this phenotype and was largely responsible for distributing it among interested cichlid keepers . according to norton ( 1975 ) , the mutant gene behaves as a simple mendelian recessive . it would be interesting to know if the black trim phenotype exists in nature . given the degree to which the normal color pattern of this species is adapted to its optical environment , one would predict with a fair degree of confidence that the mutant form would be at a considerable disadvantage in all pre - reproductive and reproductive interactions relative to the normal form . the black trim rainbow is as easily maintained in captivity as the wild , or as norton ( 1975 ) refers to it , the\ndrab\nform . from the perspective of one who has kept both , i find myself in disagreement with norton ' s assessment of the relative attractiveness of the two fish . i find the normal form a much more colorful cichlid . fortunately , in such matters one can be guided by one ' s personal taste . trahit sua quemque voluptas !\nthat the ideal result of completely eliminating this source of mortality goes unattained is evinced by the steady attrition of the swarm of fry when rainbow cichlids spawn in a community situation in captivity . no less than by the simple observation that the inhabitants of nicaragua and costa rica are not up to their armpits in herotilapia ! i have no idea what percentage of a successful spawning survives to independence in nature . in captivity , however , given a tank of 200 1 capacity or larger , it is not unusual for ten to fifteen percent of a brood to attain this point under community conditions . given the fecundity of the rainbow cichlid , this is a most impressive performance .\n( editor note : the present article , written in 1982 , lacks all the recent modifications in central american cichlid taxonomy . in an attempt to make it current i have updated dr . loiselle ' s article to include all the curently accepted cichlid genus . i have followed kullander paper ( kullander 1996 ) on heroines with comments for cichlasomines systematics for this end . may - 1997 . )\nfood is also no problem in captivity . any of the usual live and prepared foods will satisfy the rainbow cichlid ' s healthy appetite . the intense golden base coloration is at its best when their keeper sees fit to offer his fish a fair amount of plant matter in their diet . herotilapia will take any of the usual leafy vegetables enthusiastically , provided they are presoftened by a quick dip into boiling water . if one fails to provide them with supplementary plant matter , the fish are capable of making up for this deficiency by nibbling any rooted plants in their aquarium . duckweed is also likely to come in for such attention , though floating fern ( ceratopteris ) is effectively immune . assuming their appetite for vegetable food is otherwise satisfied , h . multispinosa is no danger to rooted plants . unlike many heroine species , the rainbow cichlid confines its digging strictly to periods of reproductive activity .\nthe seasonality of reproduction in nature also places a premium on the ability to respawn promptly should anything disrupt a previous spawning effort . according to baylis ( 1974 ) , a female rainbow cichlid can respawn from 10 to 14 days after the loss of a clutch of eggs . this reduced recycling time , combined with the extreme fecundity of h . multispinosa has led some killifish and betta fanciers to reverse the usual polarity of trophic interactions in their fish rooms . many breeders of these fish like to keep a single large cichlid around as a sort of biological garbage disposal for the numerous culls any program of selective breeding is likely to engender . however , in situations where winter scarcity of live food is a real problem , astute breeders have discovered that a pair of rainbow cichlids constitutes a convenient and highly reliable means of upgrading dried food into an abundant supply of high quality live food for the main objects of their attentions !\nrainbow cichlids are great . i highly recommend them to the cichlid lover who has never tried them , but also to anyone who wants to try cichlids as they are a very nice and peaceful species to start with . this fish is occasionally found in shops and hobbyists . although it is generally cheap , it tends to disappear from time to time . if you don ' t have much room and want a nice central american , give these guys a try .\nmy fish have laid eggs twice now , but they ate them . i have three adult rainbow cichlids and two bala sharks , should i remove the fish once the eggs have been laid ? the mother protects them , but the male tries to eat them !\nanton lamboj ( 2004 ) : pelvicachromis signatus and pelvicachromis rubrolabiatus , two new cichlid species ( teleostei , perciformes ) from guinea , west africa . zootaxa 454 , 1 - 12 : 12 - 12 , urltoken\nloiselle , paul v . ( may 16 , 1997 ) .\nthose other central american cichlids - part one : herotilapia multispinossa\n. cichlid room companion . retrieved on july 09 , 2018 , from : urltoken\ncompared to other central american cichlids , rainbow cichlids are fairly peaceful and generally easy to keep in the home aquarium . this makes them a great choice for beginners or for those who simply want a central american cichlid without the typical aggressiveness . this species is not demanding when it comes to tank conditions and generally a very hardy fish , but they do prefer hard , slightly alkaline water . rainbow cichlids are also smaller than some central american cichlids , so they do not require as much tank space . in the wild , they are found in vegetated areas of still or slow - moving waters . mimic this in the aquarium by providing plants for hiding places and gentle filtration to minimize water flow . floating plants would be a good idea to help diffuse the light .\ni commented on the blue acara page about the introduction of a pair of rainbow cichlids . i did take one of two male blue acaras back to a shop and brought home two more rainbow cichlids , making the cichlid population in my tank = 4 rainbow cichlids and 1 blue acara ( male ) . they all seem to get along fine , no fighting or indeed , no sexual activity what - so - ever . i know one of the rainbows is definitely male as he has a slight nuchal bump on his head . he also happens to have red eyes and is much more orange than the other three ? as for the remaining three , i have no idea what sex they are , it seems impossible to tell but they don\u2019t seem interested in the male at all . i have researched that these cichlids are really easy to breed so i wonder if they are either all male , the acara is putting them off or they are too young still . they are approx 6cm ( excluding tail fin ) and the acara about 7cm .\na peaceful cichlid , especially by central american standards , which will appreciate tankmates of a similar disposition . tetras barbs and other smaller peaceful cichlids can all be considered . small plecs and doradids make suitable bottom - dwellers .\nfor this reason , the novice cichlid breeder \u2014 or perhaps i should say cichlid keeper ( because keeping them successfully usually results in breeding , planned or not ) \u2014 will do well to stick to species that have been in captivity for some time and are hardy . such fish will do well in the water conditions you are able to provide and do not have any other specialized environmental conditions . plus , they are reasonably well behaved .\nthis parental female archocentrus centrarchus displays the same sort of reverse countershading that can be seen in comparably motivated rainbow cichlids . reverse countershading is characteristic of the breeding dress of all representatives of the genus archocentrus and of many other heroine species as well . photo by paul v . loiselle .\nlowe - mcconnell , r . h . 1969 . the cichlid fishes of guyana , south america , with notes on their ecology and breeding behavior . zool . j . linn . soc . 48 : 255 - 302 .\ni would not advise trying to keep even these small cichlid fish in any community aquarium with a length less than 36 inches , and then keep only one pair of a single species . when breeding , a pair will occupy about half the aquarium , leaving the other half for the other fish . in a community smaller than noted , even peaceful dwarf cichlid fish are best kept by themselves in a species aquarium ( more on this later ) .\nin a more recent article by amorim and associates ( amorim , m . , m . knight , y . stratoudakis , and g . turner , 2004 . \u201cdifferences in sounds made by courting males of three closely related lake malawi cichlid species . \u201d journal of fish biology 65 : 1358 - 1371 ) sounds from three malawi mbuna are recorded and analyzed , and the results suggest that sound may play a larger role in cichlid species recognition than we thought .\n9 : 167 - 186 ) . lobel believes the mechanism of sound production in cichlids involves the jaw apparatus , with sounds amplified by the swimbladder . indeed , a variety of sounds have been recorded from a number of cichlid species including\nbottom dwelling species run a considerably greater risk of injury . herotilapia will systematically persecute individuals of the lurking eleotrid predator gobiomorus dormitor , attacking individuals even beyond the boundaries of its territory . according to baylis ( 1974 ) , such predators will not survive such attentions unless furnished with shelter such as a length of pvc pipe which the cichlids cannot penetrate . such behavior is understandable enough , given that dormitor is a major source of danger to sympatrically occurring cichlid fry in central america . however , the average aquarist is usually less than forgiving when this sort of selective obliteration is directed at the catfishes and loaches sharing a tank with a reproductively inclined pair of rainbow cichlids . heavily armored loricariid catfishes are effectively immune to the consequences of herotilapia harassment , but prudence dictates removing any other bottom dwellers as soon as a pair of rainbow cichlids begins defending a breeding site .\nwhen not engaged in courtship or spawning , herotilapia is an excellent community resident . while it will eat fish up to the size of a male guppy , such an eventuality is unlikely to occur in large aquaria . the rainbow cichlid is a most inept predator , lacking both the morphological and behavorial characteristics of a successful piscivore . the response of sexually active herotilapia towards other fish varies with the species concerned and the size of the breeding tank . other cichlids and mid - water living fishes are simply interdicted from the pair ' s territory . in a tank of 100 1 capacity or larger , they run little danger of serious injury . as mentioned earlier , rainbow cichlids can , and typically will , make do with a restricted breeding territory , while in a spacious tank , the other residents have adequate space to move into when the prospective parents begin feeling their oats .\ni have a little rainbow cichlid a little over 2 inches , housed with a blue acara , firemouth and ( 2 ) jaguar catfish . this fish fits in well with my little community tank . its a nice curious , feisty little fish and i like it alot . occasionally it will charge or give a short chase to my firemouth , but nothing serious . the colors of this fish are nice , mostly yellow and black , sometimes the colors alternate with mood . i believe mine is a female , its chubby and has short dorsal and anal fins .\nnovel object ( no ) test in cichlid fish . time spent freezing and exploring the no in the three social contexts ; different letters represent significant differences between treatments ( wilcoxon matched - pairs test with bonferroni correction , p < 0 . 0167 ) .\nthe rainbow cichlid is omnivorous and commonly feeds on filamentous algae , small invertebrates , and various insects within its native habitat . in the aquarium , they will consume algae , but should also be provided with meaty foods as well as vitamin - enriched , frozen and prepared food items ; live , frozen or freeze - dried brine shrimp , small insects , bloodworms , chopped earthworms , and a variety of small pellet and flake foods would make for a well balanced and healthy menu . feed once or twice a day and only what they will consume in a few minutes .\nin my opinion , most cichlid fish are easy to breed , provided you have a male and a female , offer them suitable conditions and can manage their territorial behaviors . after all , given that cichlid fish look after their young , they do most of the work for you . the reason some appear to be difficult to breed is because they have more or less specialized environmental requirements that not everyone can meet , or because serious problems develop between male and female unless you are an expert at behavioral management .\nkribensis are a relatively short lived cichlid , and usually only live for five years in an aquarium . there are reports of some living longer , but five years seems to be about the maximum age \u2013 even for ones that are well taken care of .\nit should be fairly obvious from the foregoing why h . multispinosa is such a superb beginner ' s cichlid . the same abilities that allow this species to prosper in highly eutrophic habitats in nature also allow it to shrug off a good deal of accidental mismanagement in captivity . this is not to say that the basic principles of good cichlid keeping should not be applied to this species . like other abuse - resistant species , the rainbow cichlid does much better and certainly shows up more satisfactorily when housed under suitable conditions . a temperature range of 21\u00b0 - 25\u00b0c . suffices for ordinary maintenance , with a rise to 30\u00b0c . advisable for breeding . dropping the temperature gradually down to 23\u00b0c . once the fry are mobile will reduce the likelihood of precocious respawning and its attendant complications , a contingency to which this species is otherwise quite susceptible in captivity ( baylis , 1974 ; loiselle , 1982b ) . so long as obvious extremes in either direction are avoided , herotilapia is indifferent to ph and hardness . while resistant to mismanagement of the nitrogen cycle , it does appreciate regular partial water changes , to which it responds with enhanced coloration .\nin the wild , rainbow cichlids feed on algae that grows on the rocks and substrate in their native environment . in the home aquarium , these fish will feed on algae growths , but can also be offered a variety of foods including algae wafers , pellets and flake foods . feed a regular varied diet for best health and coloration .\ncentral america is extremely rich in cichlid species but remarkably poor in cichlid genera . a single representative of the genus geophagus , g . crassilabrus , occurs as far north as central panama , while the genus aequidens , widespread in south america , is represented here only by ae . caerulopunctatus , which barely manages to squeak into southern costa rica . the remaining mesoamerican cichlids are either representatives of the heroine group or of genera derived from it . one of these heroine derivatives , the large piscivore petenia splendida , i have discussed in a previous article ( loiselle , 1980b ) . i intend to devote this essay to the remaining cichlid genera endemic to this region , herotilapia and neetroplus . both are attractive cichlids of modest dimensions , whose behavior makes them as interesting to scientists as they are to aquarists .\nfinally , to make a success of such a life history pattern , its practitioners must be highly fecund . entry into a suitable breeding habitat during the dispersal phase is essentially a matter of chance . thus the more offspring a pair produces per spawning effort , the greater the likelihood that a few of them will penetrate suitable habitats and in turn spawn successfully in the future . the need to channel as much of its available energy to spawning as possible is another reason why selection has favored adaptations that reduce intraspecific in the rainbow cichlid . herotilapia rises to this challenge by producing the largest spawns of any cichlid in its size range to date studied . baylis ( 1974 ) reports spawns of up to 1500 eggs from a female 10 . 0 cm sl . in my experience , clutches of up to 2500 eggs are not at all unusual from females in that size range .\naccording to guy jordan ( pers . comm . ) , the successful introduction of the rainbow cichlid , as h . multispinosa came to be called , was due not to bussing ' s efforts but rather the result of an importation of this species sometime afterwards by a private party in dallas , texas . the sporadic export of wild amphilophus . labiatum from nicaragua at that time suggests the rio san juan basin as the focus of the original aquarium strain of this species . marie mccann , a correspondent who was aware of his interest in unusual cichlids , sent guy a pair of these fish in 1964 . he had no difficulty in inducing the fish to spawn and distributed fry among his extensive network of contacts . his success was apparently far from unique , for by 1970 h . multispinosa had become so generally available in the united states that it was widely regarded as the quintessential beginner ' s cichlid !\nalthough many medium and large cichlid fish are best kept in species aquariums , not all are suitable for beginners . in some species , there can be serious aggression problems between the male and female even after they have paired and spawned , and these require specialized management to prevent one partner , usually the female , from being badly injured or even killed . some require very large aquariums that a beginner is unlikely to want to devote to just two cichlid fish . some must have very specific water chemistry ( very soft and acid , or in the case of a species like the green chromide , etroplus suratensis , a brackish aquarium ) or a diet of live fish , which may be difficult or distasteful for the novice to provide . some cichlid fish simply appear reluctant to breed in the limited amount of space we can offer .\nkullander , sven 1996 ,\nheroina isonycterina , a new genus and species of cichlid fish from western amazonia , with comments on cichlasomine systematics .\nichthyological explorations of freshwaters , vol 7 , no . 2 , pp 149 - 172 , 13 figs . , 5 tabs .\nall animals were housed in stock aquaria of 240 l in groups of eight animals each ( three males and five females ) at 26 \u00b1 2\u00b0c , with a photoperiod of 12 l : 12 d . fish were daily fed ad libitum with commercial cichlid sticks ( astra ) .\nthis article is intended only as a basic guide to what the novice should consider , and i would advise that you make a preliminary choice of species and then read up on it before actually buying any fish . you\u2019ll want some of the finer details before making a commitment . remember that the trick is to set up the aquarium to suit the cichlid fish , feed them a suitable diet and be patient . avoid tinkering with the setup . as long as you have provided the right conditions , it should be simply a matter of time before your cichlid fish are breeding .\nfeeds mainly on detritus in nature , including a great deal of algae and other plant matter . not a fussy eater in captivity . feed a high quality cichlid pellet as staple and vary often with frozen and livefoods . will especially appreciate brineshrimp . vegetable / spirulina flakes or similar will also be accepted .\nsuitable small cichlid fish for breeding in the general community ( whatever its water chemistry ) include a number of south american and west african dwarfs . from south america there are the \u201cdwarf acaras\u201d laetacara ( formerly part of aequidens ) and nannacara . there is also the keyhole cichlid ( cleithracara maronii ) and the bolivian ram ( mikrogeophagus altispinosa ) . from west africa are the krib ( pelvicachromis pulcher ) and the blockhead ( steatocranus casuarius ) . the latter nominally comes from a specialized biotope ( rapids ) and is rather larger than the rest , but is peaceful and will do very well in a typical aquarium .\nhowever , a successful life history pattern based on the use of peripheral habitats as breeding sites requires that its practitioners be capable of more than mere survival under extreme environmental conditions . they must be able to reproduce successfully under such circumstances as well . the foregoing adaptations are obviously necessary preconditions to any reproductive effort . however , they do not directly address the reproductive process itself . survival assured , the essential difficulty herotilapia must surmount is that of breeding successfully under crowded conditions . according to baylis ( l974 ) , space in isolated pools is limited , while rainbow cichlid populations are often dense . to breed successfully under these conditions requires a special set of behavioral adaptations to complement the physiological specializations considered above .\nbreeding rainbow cichlids is considered to be fairly easy . these fish are substrate spawners and when they are ready for breeding , they often turn completely black . the average brood size for this species is between 150 and 500 eggs and the parent fish will guard the nest until the eggs hatch . these cichlids display a great deal of parental care in guarding the nest but also in caring for the fry after they have hatched .\ncommon name ( s ) : blue neon goby , rainbow goby , cobalt blue goby scientific name : stiphodon semoni family : gobiidae origin : new caledonia , indonesia , papua new guinea , philippines , and solomon islands temperament / behavior : peaceful conspecific behavior : males are territorial towards there own species , they can be kept together only in larger tanks max size : 2 inches min tank size : 20 gallons tank . . .\naccording to jeff , h . multispinosa is essentially a fish of seasonally inundated marshes and potholes . juveniles and sexually inactive adults can be found in the shallow , usually vegetated peripheral waters of large lakes and rivers or in the small creeks flowing into them . sexually active adults and very small fry , however , are to be found only in seasonally flooded habitats . at los chiles , costa rica , jeff ' s main study site , the only other fishes regularly found sharing such habitats with rainbow cichlids were the ubiquitous characin astyanax mexicanus , a member of the poecilia mexicana complex of short - finned mollies , and juvenile parachromis managuense . no other cichlid breeds in such habitats . indeed , aside from the molly , no other representative of the local ichthyofauna reproduces therein .\nrainbow cichlids are very peaceful and will rarely go after tank mates . the only aggression i saw from mine was during spawning . the pair bond for this fish is usually strong , so you could keep a pair in a 20 gallon tank , although a 40 breeder would be better . as far as tank mates go , use rainbows or giant danios as these fish can be shy . they also mix well with milder new world cichlids and docile malawians .\nas the authors point out , while their current results are tantalizing , it remains to be demonstrated whether cichlids\u2014females of these cichlids in particular\u2014can actually differentiate among males based on these courtship calls , as is the case for frogs and insects . though amorim et al . wisely choose to interpret their results conservatively , they suggest that courtship signals involving sensory modalities other than vision , including acoustic ( sound ) and possibly olfactory ( smell ) may well be involved in cichlid species recognition and mate choice , and may have contributed to cichlid speciation . these suggestions await experimental confirmation , but i won\u2019t be surprised when it is demonstrated that female cichlids can and do choose mates on the basis not just of color , but also sound and smell .\nfor those who want a larger mouthbrooder , there are various sarotherodon and oreochromis , mouthbrooding tilapiines from africa , the best known being the mozambique mouthbrooder or mozzie ( o . mossambicus ) . these cichlid fish seem nearly indestructible , are great characters , eat anything ( including plants ) and are very easy to breed , but they will re - arrange gravel with gusto .\nrainbow cichlids are central american cichlids , native to a variety of lakes and swamps in costa rica , nicaragua and honduras . this species tends to inhabit bodies of water with muddy bottoms where it feeds primarily on algae . these fish are named for their vibrant coloration - they typically have an overall gold or orange coloration that is often iridescent in appearance . many specimens exhibit a dark band running along the lateral line and the fins are often colored to match the body .\nrainbow cichlids are super easy to breed . the fish are substrate spawners and will lay eggs on any solid surface in the tank . i like to use rocks and flower pots as breeding sites . when rainbow cichlids breed the fish turn jet black with a little bit of orange dorsally . this is awesome to see and as they start to change , exciting because you know they are going to breed . the fish lay 150 - 500 eggs on a flat surface . the nest is usually well guarded by the parents . if you have these fish spawn in a community tank , i recommend pulling the eggs and artificially hatching them . these fish have trouble defending against larger , more aggressive fish . the fry hatch in about 5 days , and are free swimming by 8 - 9 . the fry are small but will gladly eat brine shrimp . growth is relatively well paced . the fry grow up to about 1 inch in 2 months .\nh . multispinosa seems to be capable of holding a territory without over aggression and may be kept with other similar sized cichlids as well as larger livebearers . some aquarists have noted their ability to survive in a cichlid aquarium along with larger and more aggressive fish due to their non - competitive status . as with any fish , carefully observe aquarium occupants and remove as necessary .\nthe rainbow cichlid keeps the cost of aggression at a minimum by combining an extremely complex but highly unambiguous visual signaling system with a marked tendency to habituate to the presence of territorial neighbors . the color patterns of herotilapia allows an individual to communicate its motivational state with great precision . this reduces the likelihood of accidental conflict by minimizing the ambiguity in any exchange of information between two potential combatants . should physical conflict arise , however , ritualization of the resulting interaction keeps risk of injury minimal . attacks are directed not at vulnerable targets such as the eyes , but rather towards specific elements in the color pattern located well away from such sensitive areas ( baylis , 1974 ) . combat between two neighboring males of this species is , to paraphrase shakespeare , an affair of sound and fury , whose level of significance is quite disproportionate to its relative lack of substance .\nwill change colouration according to its moods . a peaceful species compared to other american cichlids , it is also tolerant of water conditions . the rainbow cichlid inhabits muddy waters in the wild but this would be very hard to re - create in the aquarium . the best a keeper could do in reality is to keep the lighting dim and add plenty of plants to diffuse the light even further . these fish like to dig do use sand for the substrate and as they occupy inland waters in their natural habitat , it is best to keep the water flow low . they will require some swimming space in the aquarium so make sure that the minimum size for the aquarium is at least 36 inches ( 91 . 44 cm ) , the depth is not critical but obviously the larger the water volume , the easier it is to control the water quality and parameters .\nspawn defense is also made easier if the parents can signal their motivational state unambiguously to potential predators . fry predators that learn to associate the physical abuse they receive from parental cichlids with a specific color pattern are likely to avoid their vicinity in the future . by so doing , they also avoid the vicinity of the pair ' s mobile fry . many cichlids practice this sort of aversive conditioning of potential fry predators , but few of them are faced with the problem herotilapia must overcome in transmitting the necessary signal . the intense golden ochre and black spawning colors that aquarists find so attractive is the rainbow cichlid ' s solution to the challenge of visual signaling in an extremely turbid environment . research on underwater optics ( luria and kinney , 1970 ; lythgoe , 1979 ) has shown that this combination of colors is maximally visible in such environments , and thus best suited for transmitting a signal unambiguously and over a considerable distance .\nmaybe you\u2019d like to try a mouthbrooding species as your first cichlid fish . if so , the egyptian mouthbrooder ( pseudocrenilabrus multicolor ) is suitable for any community aquarium of 30 inches or more , and you can also try the slightly larger p . philander from southern africa in larger communities . it is best to have two or more females per male . these species are not fussy about water conditions and diet .\nthe rainbow cichlid exploits these difficult but rewarding habitats with a two - phase life history . reproduction occurs in seasonally flooded habitats during their dry season isolation from their parent bodies . while physical conditions are extreme at this time , their isolation assures the breeding herotilapia of a greatly reduced complement of fry predators with which to contend . an abundance of food and a dearth of competitors promote rapid growth of their progeny in the bargain . when the rains come , the rising water level of the adjacent rivers brings them into contact with previously isolated pools and marshes . this triggers the dispersal phase of the life cycle , in which the previously impounded rainbow cichlids can move into new habitats . a certain proportion of the fish will enter suitable breeding habitat prior to its isolation by receding waters at the end of the rainy season . these fish will compromise the coming dry season ' s reproductive population . those not fortunate enough to colonize such habitats will remain behind in the river shallows , their chance at reproduction lost for another year . such a life history pattern can be likened to an evolutionary lottery . to succeed , players must disperse into a peripheral habitat suitable for spawning that will persist through the dry season . losers , defined as fish that either fail to colonize a suitable breeding habitat or else colonize one that proves a fatal trap are penalized a year ' s reproductive output , or in the extreme case , their lives . the payoff for winners is a disproportionate contribution to the next year class of juveniles ."]}
{"id": 412, "summary": [{"text": "the brown-throated wattle-eye ( platysteira cyanea ) , also known as the common wattle-eye or scarlet-spectacled wattle-eye , is a small , insectivorous passerine bird .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the wattle-eyes were previously classed as a subfamily of the old world flycatcher family muscicapidae , but are now usually separated from that group .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "this species breeds in west , central and northeast tropical africa .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "this common species is found in secondary forest and other woodland areas , including gardens .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the eggs are laid in a small neat lichen and cobweb cup low in a tree or bush .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the adult brown-throated wattle-eye is a stout bird about 14 cm ( 5.5 in ) long .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the breeding male has glossy black upperparts , and white underparts with a neat black breast band .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "there is a strong white wingbar , and fleshy red wattles above the eye .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the females are grey-black above , and also have the white wing bar and red wattles .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "there is a small patch of white below the bill , and the throat and breast are maroon , separated from the white belly by the black breast band .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "young males are washed-out , greyer versions of the female .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "these active insect-eating birds are found in pairs or small groups .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the ringing call of the brown-throated wattle-eye is a very characteristic six note doo-dd-dum-di-do-do . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "brown - throated wattle - eye", "paragraphs": ["this birds call bears some resemblance to black - throated wattle - eye , though they are not known to intergrade .\nfew birds are named after the plumage of the female , but brown - throated wattle - eye ( platysteira castanea ) is one of them . the following photo is of a male .\nlouette , m . ( 2018 ) . brown - throated wattle - eye ( platysteira cyanea ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\n13 cm ; 12\u201317 g . black and white flycatcher - like bird with fleshy red eye wattle and white wingstripe . male nominate has top of head and mantle glossy bluish - black , . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be uncommon to common ( urban et al . 1997 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n( statius m\u00fcller , 1776 ) \u2013 senegal e to w central african republic , s to nw angola and nw drcongo ( s approximately to r congo ) .\nneumann , 1905 \u2013 e central african republic and c & e drcongo ( from lower and middle r congo ) e to s south sudan , w kenya , and nw tanzania including islands in l victoria ( kome , ukerewe ) .\nvery extensive repertoire . song a series of plaintive ( sometimes descibed as \u201cmelodious . . .\narray of wooded habitats , including forest clearings ; avoids primary forest , but occurs in sahel . . .\narthropods . many orders of insects recorded , lepidopterans , hymenopterans , termites ( isoptera ) , orthopterans , flies ( diptera ) , bugs ( . . .\nseems to nest for much of year in equatorial areas ; adults feeding young and fledglings in jan , mar and jul\u2013aug in cameroon ; . . .\nresident , but probably some local seasonal movement in w africa ; more common in gambia during rains . . .\nnot globally threatened . generally common . in liberia , locally 3\u20135 singing males / 10 ha . in cameroon , very common across the forest , the adamawa and the benue plain . in . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nfive males changing perch frequently , flicking their wings , singing and calling around a female hidden inside a bush ( see xc247571 ) . habitat : secondary evergreen forest , garden .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 296 , 425 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : platysteira cyanea . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\n\u00a9 2012 the field museum . all rights reserved . 1400 s lake shore dr , chicago il 60605 ( 312 ) 922 - 9401\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nplease note flash is required to use the features of this site . please update your flash player .\nthe british library board acknowledges the intellectual property rights of those named as contributors to this recording and the rights of those not identified . legal and ethical usage \u00bb"]}
{"id": 413, "summary": [{"text": "coleophora eremosparti is a moth of the coleophoridae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in turkmenistan and southern russia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the larvae feed on eremosparton flaccidum .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they create a silky case , with oblique sinuous wrinkles and without distinct longitudinal grooves .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the valve is two-sided .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the length of the case is 18 \u2013 23 mm and it is dull or yellowish-white in color .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "larvae can be found from may to june . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "coleophora eremosparti", "paragraphs": ["coleophora laricella h\u00fcbner , 1817 = protocryptis laricella ( hubner , [ 1817 ] ) = tinea laricella h\u00fcbner , [ 1817 ] = phalaena tortix ( ornix ) laricinella ratzeburg , 1840 = coleophora nigricornis heinemann & wocke , 1877 .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nenter the name or part of a name you wish to search for . the asterisk character * can be used as wildcard . e . g . ' papilio * ' . keep in mind that the search is only based on the full taxon name .\nwe are still having problems with the search feature . unfortunately we cannot give a timeline when the advanced search will be fixed .\nmuseum f\u00fcr naturkunde leibniz - institut f\u00fcr evolutions - und biodiversit\u00e4tsforschung invalidenstr . 43 10115 berlin germany e - mail : fauna - eu ( at ) mfn - berlin . de website : urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwe believe that this request has either come from an unwelcome search engine , from a data grabber , or that an attempt is being made to hack the site . as a result your request has been refused . please email us if you believe that our decision is incorrect .\nwir glauben , dass dieser antrag que entweder von einer unwillkommenen suchmaschine gekommen ist , ab dem zeitpunkt grabber , oder que versuch wird gemacht , die website zu hacken . als ergebnis hat ihre anfrage abgelehnt . bitte mailen sie uns , wenn sie que unsere entscheidung glauben , ist falsch .\ncreemos que esta solicitud ha provenir de un motor de b\u00fasqueda no deseado , desde el capturador de fecha , o que un intento que se est\u00e1 haciendo para hackear el sitio . como resultado de su solicitud ha sido rechazada . por favor , correo electr\u00f3nico si usted cree que nuestra decisi\u00f3n es incorrecta .\nnous croyons que cette demande a soit provenir d ' un moteur de recherche importune , de la date grabber , ou que une tentative est fait pour pirater le site . en cons\u00e9quence votre demande a \u00e9t\u00e9 refus\u00e9e . s ' il vous pla\u00eet nous contacter si vous croyez que notre d\u00e9cision est incorrecte .\ncrediamo que questa richiesta \u00e8 sia venuto da un motore di ricerca sgradita , a partire dalla data grabber , o que un tentativo \u00e8 stato fatto per hackerare il sito . di conseguenza la richiesta \u00e8 stata rifiutata . vi preghiamo di inviarci se si ritiene que la nostra decisione non \u00e8 corretta .\nwij geloven que dit verzoek is ofwel afkomstig uit een onwelkome zoekmachine , vanaf de datum grabber , of que een poging wordt gedaan om de site te hacken . als gevolg van uw verzoek is geweigerd . stuur ons een email als u denkt que onze beslissing onjuist is .\nque acreditamos que este pedido tem ou vir de um motor de busca desejados , a partir de uma data grabber , ou que uma tentativa est\u00e1 sendo feita para invadir o local . como resultado o seu pedido foi recusado . por favor envie - nos se voc\u00ea acredita que nossa decis\u00e3o est\u00e1 incorreta ."]}
{"id": 420, "summary": [{"text": "agonopterix atrodorsella is a moth in the depressariidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by clemens in 1863 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from illinois , indiana , kentucky , maine , maryland , massachusetts , michigan , new brunswick , new hampshire , new york , north carolina , ohio , ontario , quebec and wisconsin .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 18 \u2013 23 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are yellow ochreous with several black costal dots from the base to the tip of the wing .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is a black dot on the basal portion of the disc with a rufous patch beyond this .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are yellowish .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults have been recorded in all months of the year depending on the collection locality .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "there is however only one generation per year .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the larvae feed on eupatorium and coreopsis species , as well as bidens frondosa and myrica asplenifolia .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the species overwinters as an adult . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "agonopterix atrodorsella", "paragraphs": ["depressaria atrodorsella clemens , 1863 ; proc . ent . soc . philad . 2 : 124 ; tl : [ pennsylvania ? ]\nredescription of agonopterix selini ( heinemann , 1870 ) with description of agonopterix lessini sp . n . and agonopterix paraselini\nagonopterix atrodorsella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 25 , f . 1a , pl . 1 , f . 20 - 21 ; [ nacl ] , # 864 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix kuznetzovi lvovsky , 1983 ; ent . obozr . 62 ( 3 ) : 594\nagonopterix flurii sonderegger , 2013 ; contr . nat . history 21 : ( 1 - 14 )\nagonopterix banatica georgesco , 1965 ; rev . roum . biol . ( zool . ) 10 : 113\nagonopterix dumitrescui georgesco , 1965 ; rev . roum . biol . ( zool . ) 10 : 111\nagonopterix abditella hannemann , 1959 ; dt . ent . z . 6 ( 1 - 3 ) : 40\nagonopterix graecella hannemann , 1976 ; dt . ent . z . 23 ( 4 - 5 ) : 233\nagonopterix inoxiella hannemann , 1959 ; dt . ent . z . 6 ( 1 - 3 ) : 38\nagonopterix ordubadensis hannemann , 1959 ; dt . ent . z . 6 ( 1 - 3 ) : 34\nagonopterix subumbellana hannemann , 1959 ; dt . ent . z . 6 ( 1 - 3 ) : 42\nagonopterix chaetosoma clarke , 1962 ; ent . news 73 : 93 ; tl : japan , hoshu , kii , nati\nagonopterix cluniana huemer & lvovsky , 2000 ; nachr . ent . ver . apollo nf 21 ( 3 ) : 135\nagonopterix issikii clarke , 1962 ; ent . news 73 : 96 ; tl : japan , honshu , sinano , tobira\nagonopterix ( subagonopterix ) vietnamella subgen . nov . et spec . nov , of flat moths from south - eastern asia\nagonopterix socerbi sumpich , 2012 ; nota lepid . 35 ( 2 ) : 162 ; tl : slovenia , crni kal - socerb\nagonopterix dierli lvovsky , 2011 ; zoosyst . rossica 20 ( 1 ) : 149 ; tl : nepal , east khumjung , 3800m\nagonopterix medelichensis buchner , 2015 ; zootaxa 3986 ( 1 ) : 107 ; tl : italy , prov . verona , monte , 300m\nagonopterix mendesi corley , 2002 ; nota lepid . 24 ( 4 ) : 26 ; tl : portugal , algarve , praia de castelejo\nagonopterix heracliana ; karsholt , lvovsky & nielsen , 2006 , nota lepid . 28 ( 3 / 4 ) : 184 ; [ fe ]\nagonopterix mikkolai lvovsky , 2011 ; zoosyst . rossica 20 ( 1 ) : 151 ; tl : nepal , kathmandu , phulchoki mt . , 1700m\nagonopterix perezi walsingham , [ 1908 ] ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1907 : 957 , pl . 52 , f . 8\nagonopterix paraselini buchner , 2017 ; gortania 38 : 94 ; tl : austria , lower austria , eichkogel near m\u00f6dling , 48\u00b04 . 8n ; 16\u00b016 . 6e\nagonopterix parinkini lvovsky , 2011 ; zoosyst . rossica 20 ( 1 ) : 151 ; tl : nepal , e . bujan , dudh kosi tal , 2900m\n= agonopterix nigrinotella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 26 ; [ nacl ] , # 868 ; [ nhm card ]\nagonopterix ( depressariini ) ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 15 , 9 ; [ nacl ] , 11 ; [ fe ]\nagonopterix bipunctifera ; ridout , 1981 , ins . matsumurana 24 : 32 , pl . 1 , f . 3 , pl . 3 , f . 13 ; [ nhm card ]\nagonopterix takamukui ; ridout , 1981 , ins . matsumurana 24 : 34 , pl . 1 , f . 6 , pl . 3 , f . 14 ; [ nhm card ]\nagonopterix toega hodges , 1974 ; moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 30 , pl . 1 , f . 38 - 40 ; tl : san clemente island , california\nagonopterix l - nigrum ; ridout , 1981 , ins . matsumurana 24 : 32 , pl . 1 , f . 4 , pl . 4 , f . 18 ; [ nhm card ]\nagonopterix sapporensis ; ridout , 1981 , ins . matsumurana 24 : 33 , pl . 1 , f . 5 , pl . 3 , f . 15 - 16 ; [ nhm card ]\nagonopterix hesphoea hodges , 1975 ; j . lep . soc . 29 ( 2 ) : 89 ; tl : texas , culberson co . , sierra diablo 20 mi . nnw van horn , 6000ft\nagonopterix amyrisella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 42 ; [ nacl ] , # 898 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix psoraliella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 39 ; [ nacl ] , # 891 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix caucasiella karsholt , lvovsky & nielsen , 2006 ; nota lepid . 28 ( 3 / 4 ) : 180 ; tl : russia , caucasus , 44\u00b009 ' n , 40\u00b004 ' e , majkop , 1300m\nagonopterix cinerariae walsingham , [ 1908 ] ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1907 : 955 , pl . 52 , f . 7 ; tl : tenerife , arafo ; barranco lorez , near orotava\nagonopterix dammersi clarke , 1947 ; j . wash . acad . sci . 37 ( 1 ) : 4 , f . 1 - 1a , 8 ; tl : forest home , san bernardino co . , california\nagonopterix chrautis hodges , 1974 ; moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 28 , f . 2d - e , h , pl . 1 , f . 33 ; tl : jemez springs , new mexico\nagonopterix paulae harrison , 2005 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 107 ( 1 ) : 164 ; tl : illinois , piatt co . , univ . of illinois - robert allerton park , lost garden trail\nagonopterix thelmae clarke , 1941 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 90 ( 3107 ) : 96 , pl . 44 , f . 259 ; tl : oak station , allegheny co . , pennsylvania\nagonopterix oregonensis clarke , 1941 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 90 ( 3107 ) : 65 , pl . 31 , f . 176 , pl . 42 , f . 241 ; tl : salem , oregon\nagonopterix cajonensis clarke , 1941 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 90 ( 3107 ) : 82 , pl . 31 , f . 180 , pl . 42 , f . 244 ; tl : cajon valley , california\nagonopterix amissella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 39 , pl . 2 , f . 27 ; [ nacl ] , # 890 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix arnicella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 33 , pl . 2 , f . 7 ; [ nacl ] , # 879 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix clarkei ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 24 , pl . 1 , f . 19 ; [ nacl ] , # 863 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix clemensella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 24 , pl . 1 , f . 18 ; [ nacl ] , # 862 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix costimacula ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 39 ; harrison & berenbaum , 2005 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 107 ( 1 ) : 164 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix gelidella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 20 , pl . 1 , f . 4 ; [ nacl ] , # 855 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix hyperella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 22 , pl . 1 , f . 5 ; [ nacl ] , # 856 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix latipalpella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 42 , pl . 3 , f . 4 ; [ nacl ] , # 897 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix lecontella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 37 , pl . 2 , f . 35 ; [ nacl ] , # 886 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix muricolorella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 23 , pl . 1 , f . 13 ; [ nacl ] , # 860 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix pergandeella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 38 , pl . 2 , f . 41 ; [ nacl ] , # 888 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix senicionella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 34 , pl . 2 , f . 6 ; [ nacl ] , # 881 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix walsinghamella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 27 , pl . 1 , f . 30 ; [ nacl ] , # 869 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix nervosa ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 41 , pl . 2 , f . 42 - 47 ; [ nacl ] , # 895 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; [ fe ]\nagonopterix curvilineella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 23 , pl . 1 , f . 11 - 12 ; [ nacl ] , # 859 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix dimorphella clarke , 1941 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 90 ( 3107 ) : 97 , pl . 31 , f . 179 , pl . 40 , f . 229 ; tl : henry , putnam co . , illinois\nagonopterix eupatoriiella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 25 , pl . 1 , f . 24 - 25 ; [ nacl ] , # 866 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix flavicomella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 34 , pl . 2 , f . 4 - 5 ; [ nacl ] , # 880 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix fusciterminella clarke , 1941 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 90 ( 3107 ) : 80 , pl . 28 , f . 167 , pl . 44 , f . 258 ; tl : dunca , vancouver island , british columbia\nagonopterix lythrella ; [ nacl ] , # 857 ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 22 , pl . 1 , f . 6 - 8 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix nebulosa ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 40 , pl . 2 , f . 25 - 26 ; [ nacl ] , # 894 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix nigrinotella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 26 , pl . 2 , f . 13 - 15 ; [ nacl ] , # 868 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix nubiferella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 23 , pl . 1 , f . 9 - 10 ; [ nacl ] , # 858 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix posticella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 41 , pl . 3 , f . 1 - 3 ; [ nacl ] , # 896 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix pteleae ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 25 , pl . 1 , f . 22 - 23 ; [ nacl ] , # 865 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix pulvipennella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 26 , pl . 1 , f . 26 - 29 ; [ nacl ] , # 867 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix robiniella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 34 , pl . 2 , f . 29 - 33 ; [ nacl ] , # 882 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix rosaciliella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 32 , pl . 1 , f . 41 - 45 ; [ nacl ] , # 876 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix sabulella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 29 , pl . 1 , f . 24 - 35 ; [ nacl ] , # 872 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix sanguinella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 37 , pl . 2 , f . 11 - 12 ; [ nacl ] , # 885 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix jezonica ; kuroko , 1959 , 35 ; [ nhm , ( nom nud . ) card ] ; ridout , 1981 , ins . matsumurana 24 : 34 , pl . 2 , f . 7 - 8 , pl . 4 , f . 17\nagonopterix ciliella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 32 , pl . 1 , f . 46 ; [ nacl ] , # 877 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; [ fe ]\nagonopterix cratia hodges , 1974 ; moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 35 , pl . 2 , f . 34 ; tl : walnut canyon , 6500 ' , 6 1 / 3 mi e by s . flagstaff , coconino co . , arizona\nagonopterix argillacea ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 38 , pl . 2 , f . 8 - 10 , 16 , 28 ; [ nacl ] , # 889 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix canadensis ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 33 , pl . 1 , f . 47 , pl . 2 , f . 1 - 3 ; [ nacl ] , # 878 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix cajonensis ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 28 ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 29 , pl . 1 , f . 37 ; [ nacl ] , # 874 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix dammersi ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 43 ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 29 , pl . 1 , f . 36 ; [ nacl ] , # 873 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix antennariella ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 15 ; [ nhm card ] ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 40 , pl . 2 , f . 22 - 24 ; [ nacl ] , # 893 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix dimorphella ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 47 ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 38 , pl . 2 , f . 38 - 40 ; [ nacl ] , # 887 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix oregonensis ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 103 ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 24 , pl . 1 , f . 14 - 17 ; [ nacl ] , # 861 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix thelmae ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 137 ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 37 , pl . 2 , f . 36 - 37 ; [ nacl ] , # 884 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix fusciterminella ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 60 ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 27 , f . 2a - b , g , pl . 1 , f . 31 - 32 ; [ nacl ] , # 870 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnb : the taxon name search is for single names only . for example , to locate dysodia vitrina flammata warren , 1904 you should enter flammata only .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhodges , r . w . , 1974 . moths of america north of mexico , fascicle 6 . 2 , p . 25 ; pl . 1 . 20 - 21 . order\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhodges , r . w . et al . , eds . 1983 . check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . e . w . classey limited and the wedge entomological research foundation , london . 284 pp .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\ndistribution data for u . s . states and canadian provinces is known to be incomplete or has not been reviewed for this taxon .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\nall documents and related graphics provided by this server and any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server are provided\nas is\nwithout warranty as to the currentness , completeness , or accuracy of any specific data . natureserve hereby disclaims all warranties and conditions with regard to any documents provided by this server or any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , including but not limited to all implied warranties and conditions of merchantibility , fitness for a particular purpose , and non - infringement . natureserve makes no representations about the suitability of the information delivered from this server or any other documents that are referenced to or linked to this server . in no event shall natureserve be liable for any special , indirect , incidental , consequential damages , or for damages of any kind arising out of or in connection with the use or performance of information contained in any documents provided by this server or in any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , under any theory of liability used . natureserve may update or make changes to the documents provided by this server at any time without notice ; however , natureserve makes no commitment to update the information contained herein . since the data in the central databases are continually being updated , it is advisable to refresh data retrieved at least once a year after its receipt . the data provided is for planning , assessment , and informational purposes . site specific projects or activities should be reviewed for potential environmental impacts with appropriate regulatory agencies . if ground - disturbing activities are proposed on a site , the appropriate state natural heritage program ( s ) or conservation data center can be contacted for a site - specific review of the project area ( see visit local programs ) .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 15 ; [ nacl ] , 11 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; [ afromoths ]\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 15\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 15 ; [ nacl ] , 11 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\n312x662 ( ~ 85kb ) russia , moscow area , 26 . 4 . 2008 , photo \u00a9 d . smirnov\nthe exact identification of this species is still unknown , but tentatively assumed to belong into this group .\ndepressaria abjectella christoph , 1882 ; bull . soc . imp . nat . moscou 57 ( 1 ) : 16 ; tl : wladiwostok\ndepressaria acerbella walker , 1864 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 29 : 564 ; tl : cape\nacuta stringer , 1930 \u00b2 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 10 ) 6 ( 34 ) : 416\ndepressaria agyrella rebel , 1917 ; dt . ent . z . iris 30 : 193 ; tl : r . agyr [ ? ] , tannuola\nlarva on conium , conium maculatum berenbaum & passoa , 1983 , j . lep . soc . 37 ( 1 ) : 38\ndepressaria amissella busck , 1908 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 9 ( 1 - 4 ) : 89 ; tl : kissimmee , florida\nlarva on amyris floridana hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 42\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 40 ; [ nacl ] , # 893 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nlarva on antennaria luzuloides hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 40\ndepressaria anticella erschoff , [ 1877 ] ; horae soc . ent . ross . 12 ( 4 ) : 344 ; tl : irkutsk\naperta hannemann , 1959 ; dt . ent . z . 6 ( 1 - 3 ) : 43\ndepressaria archangelicella caradja , 1920 ; dt . ent . z . iris 34 ( 1 / 2 ) : 131 ; tl : kasakewitsch\n669x637 ( ~ 88kb ) russia , moscow area , 11 . 9 . 2010 ( 36\u00b025 ' e , 56\u00b000 ' n ) , photo \u00a9 d . smirnov\ncalifornia - british columbia , manitoba , ontario , new brunswick , nova scotia , michigan , south dakota , illinois , texas , florida , utah . see [ maps ]\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 38 ; [ nacl ] , # 889 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nlarva on salix lasiolepis , s . bebbiana , amorpha fruticosa , ptelea trifoliata hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 39\ndepressaria arnicella walsingham , 1881 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1881 : 314 , pl . 36 , f . 3 ; tl : mt . shasta , california\nlarva on erigeron hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 34\ns . quebec , ontario , wisconsin , n . illinois . see [ maps ]\nlarva on eupatorium spp . , coreopsis spp . , bidens frondosa , myrica asplenifolia hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 25\nbabaella amsel , 1972 \u00b2 ; beitr . naturk . forsch . s\u00fcdwdtl . 31 : 136\nagonopteryx bakriella amsel , 1958 ; sber . \u00f6st . akad . wiss . ( 1 ) 167 : 559 ; tl : deh bakri , prov . kirman , iran\ndepressaria baleni zeller , 1877 ; horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 253 ; tl : bogota\ndepressaria bipunctifera matsumura , 1931 ; 6000 illust . insects japan . - empire : 1089 ; tl : japan , sapporo\ndepressaria cadurciella chr\u00e9tien , 1914 ; bull . soc . ent . fr . 1914 : 159 ; tl : causse de gramat\nconnecticut , new york , manitoba , s . british columbia - colorado , washington - california , utah , arizona . see [ maps ]\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 33 ; [ nacl ] , # 878 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nlarva on senecio terra hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 33\ncanuflavella ( hannemann , 1953 ) ( agonopteryx ) ; mitt . zool . mus . berl . 29 : 292\ndepressaria caprella stainton , 1849 ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 5 : 157 , pl . 17 , f . 9 ; tl : near lewes\ntinea carduella h\u00fcbner , [ 1817 ] ; samml . eur . schmett . [ 8 ] : pl . 66 , f . 439\nlarva on heracleum mantegazzianum karsholt , lvovsky & nielsen , 2006 , nota lepid . 28 ( 3 / 4 ) : 181\ndepressaria cervariella constant , 1885 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . ( 6 ) 4 : 251 , pl . 10 , f . 13\ndepressaria chironiella constant , 1893 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . 62 : 392 , pl . 11 , f . 4\nalberta - to ( new mexico , california , alberta ) . see [ maps ]\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 32 ; [ nacl ] , # 877 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nlarva on angelica silvestris , a . archangelica , peucedanum palustre , selinum , sium , cicuta , pimpinella saxifraga , seseli , heracleum , ligusticum , carum\nlarva on senecio populifolius , s . heritieri walsingham , [ 1908 ] , proc . zool . soc . lond . 1907 : 956\nagonopteryx [ sic ] clarkei keifer , 1936 ; bull . south calif . acad . sci . 35 : 10 , pl . 4 , pl . 7 , f . 6 ; tl : missouri flat , placerville district , california\nlarva on artermisia vulgaris hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 25\ns . quebec , s . ontario , wisconsin , illinois , ohio . see [ maps ]\ngelechia clemensella chambers , 1876 ; can . ent . 8 ( 9 ) : 173 ; tl : easton , pennsylvania\nlarva on pastinaca sativa hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 24 , heracleum mantegazzianum karsholt , lvovsky & nielsen , 2006 , nota lepid . 28 ( 3 / 4 ) : 184\nhaemylis cnicella treitschke , 1832 ; in ochsenheimer , schmett . eur . 9 ( 1 ) : 237\ndepressaria coenosella zerny , 1940 ; zs . wiener entver . 25 ( schlu\u00df ) : 45 , pl . 11 , f . 14 \u2642 ; tl : pelur ( 2000m ) ; rehde - demawend\ndepressaria comitella lederer , 1855 ; verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 5 : 232 , pl . 5 , f . 5\ndepressaria communis meyrick , 1920 ; ann . s . afr . mus . 17 ( 4 ) : 288 ; tl : cape colony , table mtn\ndepressaria compacta meyrick , 1914 ; ann . s . afr . mus . 10 ( 8 ) : 249 ; tl : cape colony , capetown\nlarva on salix , ( wide leafed ) s . caprea , s . aurita , s . cinerea , s . repens\ndepressaria crassiventrella rebel , 1891 ; verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 41 : 627\ndepressaria crypsicosma meyrick , 1920 ; ann . s . afr . mus . 17 ( 4 ) : 287 ; tl : cape colony , table mountain , 2500ft\ncuillerella amsel , 1972 \u00b2 ; beitr . naturk . forsch . s\u00fcdwdtl . 31 : 137\ne . ontario , manitoba , massachusetts , new york - south carolina . see [ maps ]\ndepressaria curvilineella beutenm\u00fcller , 1889 ; ent . amer . 5 : 10 ; tl : new york\ndepressaria cyclas meyrick , 1910 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 1 ) : 166 ; tl : dalhousie , kashmir\ncynarivora meyrick , 1932 \u00b2 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 8 - 9 ) : 280\ndepressaria cyrniella rebel , 1929 ; verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 79 : 45\nlarva on senecio douglasii , eriophyllum hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 29\nagonopteryx demissella hannemann , 1958 ; dt . ent . z . 5 1 : 456\ndeliciosella turati , 1924 \u00b2 ; atti soc . ital . sci . nat . 63 : 174 , pl . 5 , f . 61\ndeltopa meyrick & caradja , 1935 \u00b2 ; mat . microlep . fauna chin . prov . : 80\ndideganella amsel , 1972 ; beitr . naturk . forsch . s\u00fcdwdtl . 31 : 136 , pl . 1 , f . 3\nsouth carolina , illinois , e . nebraska , kansas , arkansas . see [ maps ]\nlarva on amorpha fruticosa hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 38\ndepressaria divergella caradja , 1920 ; dt . ent . z . iris 34 ( 1 / 2 ) : 128 ; tl : tjutjuje\ndepressaria dryocrates meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 100 ; tl : natal , kirkloof\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 15 ; [ nhm card ]\nelbursella hannemann , 1976 ; dt . ent . z . 23 ( 4 - 5 ) : 234\ndepressaria encentra meyrick , 1914 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 8 ) : 252 ; tl : japan\ndepressaria epichersa meyrick , 1914 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 8 ) : 253 ; tl : china , ta - tsien - lon\npennsylvania , illinois , north carolina , kentucky , maryland . see [ maps ]\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 25 ; [ nacl ] , # 866 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nlarva on eupatorium , actinomeris alternifolia , carya ovata hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 26\ndepressaria erythrella snellen , 1884 ; tijdschr . ent . 27 : 161 , pl . 8 , f . 7 , 7a ; tl :\nchanka - meer\n; suifun\ndepressaria exquisitella caradja , 1920 ; dt . ent . z . iris 34 ( 1 / 2 ) : 132 ; tl : kasakewitsch\nfarsensis hannemann , 1958 ; dt . ent . z . 5 1 : 457\ndepressaria ( schistodepressaria ) ferocella chr\u00e9tien , 1910 ; schmett . eur . 2 : 340\nlarva on cirsium ferox spuler , 1910 , schmett . eur . 2 : 340\nconnecticut , s . manitoba , north carolina , indiana , illinois . see [ maps ]\ndepressaria flavicomella engel , 1907 ; ent . news 18 ( 7 ) : 276 ; tl : new brighton , pennsylvania\nlarva on heracleum lanatum , taenidia integerrima hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 34\nlarva on bupleurum fruticosum walsingham , 1903 , ent . mon . mag . 39 : 267\nhungary , dalmatia , asia minor , . . . . see [ maps ]\nlarva on senecio aronicoides , cacaliopsis nardosmia hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 28\ndepressaria fuscovenella rebel , 1917 ; verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 67 ( s . b . ) : 18 ; tl : ain draham , tunis\ngalbella hannemann , 1959 ; dt . ent . z . 6 ( 1 - 3 ) : 36\ndepressaria gelidella busck , 1908 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 9 ( 1 - 4 ) : 90 ; tl : winnipeg , manitoba , canada\nlarva on salix , betula papyrifera hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 22\ndepressaria glabrella turati , 1921 ; naturalista sicil . 23 ( 7 - 12 ) : 338 , pl . 4 , f . 45 ; tl : tangier , morocco\ndepressaria glyphidopa meyrick , 1928 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 14 - 15 ) : 475 ; tl : natal , weenen\ndepressaria grammatopa meyrick , 1920 ; ann . s . afr . mus . 17 ( 4 ) : 287 ; tl : cape colony , table mountain , 2500ft\n= ; [ nhm card ] ; karsholt , lvovsky & nielsen , 2006 , nota lepid . 28 ( 3 / 4 ) : 184\n= ; [ nhm card ] ; karsholt , lvovsky & nielsen , 2006 , nota lepid . 28 ( 3 / 4 ) : 184 ; [ fe ]\n= ; karsholt , lvovsky & nielsen , 2006 , nota lepid . 28 ( 3 / 4 ) : 184\ndepressaria homogenes meyrick , 1920 ; ann . s . afr . mus . 17 ( 4 ) : 288 ; tl : cape colony , gt . winthoek , 4500ft\ndepressaria hypomarathri [ = hippomarathri ] nickerl , 1864 ; wiener ent . monat . 8 ( 1 ) : 3 , pl . 5 , f . 8\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 22 ; [ nacl ] , # 856 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nlarva on hypericum prolificum , h . perforatum hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 22\ndepressaria conterminella var . atrella caradja , 1920 ; dt . ent . z . iris 34 ( 1 / 2 ) : 131 ; tl : kasakewitsch\ndepressaria iliensis rebel , 1936 ; dt . ent . z . iris 50 : 96\nintersecta filipjev , 1929 \u00b2 ; ann . mus . zool . leningrad 30 : 11 , pl . 1 , f . 10 , pl . 2a , f . 2\ninvenustella ( hannemann , 1953 ) ( agonopteryx ) ; mitt . zool . mus . berl . 29 : 293\ndepressaria lacteella caradja , 1920 ; dt . ent . z . iris 34 ( 1 / 2 ) : 130 ; tl : kasakewitsch\nagonopteryx [ sic ] latipalpella barnes & busck , 1920 ; contr . nat . hist . lepid . n . am . 4 ( 3 ) : 233 ; tl : san benito , texas\nlatipennella zerny , 1934 \u00b2 ; dt . ent . z . iris 48 : 24 , pl . 1 , f . 8\ndepressaria lecontella clemens , 1860 ; proc . acad . nat . sci . philad . 12 : 174\nlarva on baptisia tinctoria hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 38\ncroatia , france , greece , italy , slovenia , turkey . see [ maps ]\ndepressaria leucadensis rebel , 1932 ; zs . \u00f6st . entver 17 ( 8 ) : 55 ; tl : greece\ndepressaria l - nigrum matsumura , 1931 ; 6000 illust . insects japan . - empire : 1091 ; tl : japan , sapporo\nnova scotia , new brunswick , ontario , illinois , north carolina . see [ maps ]\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 22 ; [ nacl ] , # 857 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nlarva on lythrum alatum , hypericum punctatum , h . virginicum hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 23\nastria , italy , slovakia , hungary , greece , . see [ maps ]\ndepressaria melanarcha meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 316 ; tl : barberton\nlarva on centaurea sphaerocephala corley , 2002 , nota lepid . 24 ( 4 ) : 26\nmetamelopa meyrick , 1931 \u00b2 ; bull . acad . roum . 14 : 72\nmiyanella amsel , 1972 ; beitr . naturk . forsch . s\u00fcdwdtl . 31 : 136 , pl . 1 , f . 1\nmonotona caradja , 1927 \u00b2 ; mem . sect . stiint . acad . rom . 4 ( 8 ) : 33\ndepressaria muricolorella busck , 1902 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 24 ( 1268 ) : 741 ; tl : golden , colorado\nlarva on lomatium macrocarpum , l . grayi , leptotaenia multifida hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 24\ndepressaria nanatella stainton , 1849 ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 5 : 154 , pl . 17 , f . 2 ; tl : charlton sand - pit\ndepressaria aridella mann , 1869 ; verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 19 : 385 ; tl : brussa ; spalato\ndepressaria nebulosa zeller , 1873 ; verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 23 ( abh . ) : 237 ; tl : cambridge , massachusetts\nlarva on antennaria plantaginifolia hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 40\ndepressaria neoxesta meyrick , 1918 ; ann . transv . mus . 6 ( 2 ) : 31 ; tl : zululand , eshowe\nbritish columbia - california , nevada , . . . , eu , . . . , ? . see [ maps ]\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 41 ; [ nacl ] , # 895 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; [ fe ]\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 41 ; [ nacl ] , # 895 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nlarva on ulex europaeus , cytisus scoparius , laburnum , genista hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 41\nnew york , s . quebec , s . ontario , nw . wisconsin , arkansas . see [ maps ]\ndepressaria nigrinotella busck , 1908 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 9 ( 1 - 4 ) : 88 ; tl : cincinnati , ohio\nlarva on carya , ptelea trifoliata , zanthoxylum americanum hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 27\ndepressaria nodiflorella milli\u00e8re , 1866 ; icon . desc . chenilles lepid . 2 : 214 , pl . 73 , f . 8 - 11\ndepressaria nubiferella walsingham , 1881 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1881 : 316 , pl . 36 , f . 6 ; tl : rogue river , oregon\nlarva on hypericum perforatum hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 23\ndepressaria nyctalopis meyrick , 1930 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 18 - 20 ) : 621 ; tl : comoro is . , grand comoro\ndepressaria occaecata meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 13 ) : 391 ; tl : syria , beirut\nlarva on salix , s . repens , ( middle europe also ) betula , quercus\ndepressaria oinochroa turati , 1879 ; bull . soc . ent . ital . 11 : 200 , pl . 8 , f . 13\nomelkoi lvovsky , 1985 ; trudy zool . inst . leningr . 134 : 97\nlarva on lomatium caruifolium , l . marginatum , l . nudicaule , l . utriculatum , angelica hendersonii , a . lucida , eryngium vaseyi , oenanthe sarmentosa , sanicula bipinnatifida , sanicula laciniata , s . nevadensis , s . tuberosa hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 24\npallidior stringer , 1930 \u00b2 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 10 ) 6 ( 34 ) : 417\npanjaoella amsel , 1972 \u00b2 ; beitr . naturk . forsch . s\u00fcdwdtl . 31 : 137\naustria , france , germany , slowenia , switzerland , turkey . see [ maps ]\nlarva on zanthoxylum americanum harrison & berenbaum , 2005 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 107 ( 1 ) : 166\ndepressaria pavida meyrick , 1913 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 4 ) : 114 ; tl : asia minor , taurus mts\ndepressaria pergandeella busck , 1908 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 9 ( 1 - 4 ) : 89 ; tl : nebraska\ndepressaria petasitis standfuss , 1851 ; zs . ent . breslau ( lepid . ) ( 16 ) : 51\nsyllochitis petraea meyrick , 1910 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 2 ) : 462 ; tl : maskeliya , madulsima , matale , wellawaya , kegalle , puttalam , ceylon\ndepressaria posticella walsingham , 1881 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1881 : 315 , pl . 36 , f . 5 ; tl : lake co . ; mendocino co . , california , s . oregon\nlarva on psoralea physodes , p . macrostachya , p . tenuiflora hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 42\nprobella ( hannemann , 1953 ) ( agonopteryx ) ; mitt . zool . mus . berl . 29 : 292\npseudorutana turati , 1934 \u00b2 ; atti soc . ital . sci . nat . 73 : 201 , pl . 3 , f . 26\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 39 ; [ nacl ] , # 891 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nlarva on psoralea lanceolata , p . physodes hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 40\nagonopteryx [ sic ] pteleae barnes & busck , 1920 ; contr . nat . hist . lepid . n . am . 4 ( 3 ) : 231 , pl . 28 , f . 13 , pl . 38 , f . 1 ; tl : decatur , illinois\nlarva on ptelea trifoliata hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 25\nnew hampshire , s . manitoba , missouri , lousiana , colorado . see [ maps ]\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 26 ; [ nacl ] , # 867 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nlarva on solidago , urtica hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 26\ndepressaria pupillana wocke , 1887 ; bresl . ent . z . 12 : 62\nceu , seu , asia minor , iran , palestine . see [ maps ]\ndepressaria remota meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 13 ) : 392 ; tl : palestine , haifa\ndepressaria rimulella caradja , 1920 ; dt . ent . z . iris 34 ( 1 / 2 ) : 128 ; tl : kasakewitsch\nrhododrosa meyrick , 1934 \u00b2 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 15 ) : 476\nrhodogastra meyrick , 1935 \u00b2 ; mat . microlep . fauna chin . prov . : 80\nnova scotia , s . michigan , na . georgia , w . arkansas . see [ maps ]\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 34 ; [ nacl ] , # 882 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nlarva on robinia pseudoacacia hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 35\nalaska , w . saskatchewan - washington - california , arizona . see [ maps ]\n: skyline ridge , 2500 - 3000 ' , mt baker district , whatcom co . , washington\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 32 ; [ nacl ] , # 876 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nlarva on angelica arguta , a . hendersonii , conioselinum chinense , ligusticum apiifolium , oenanthe sarmentosa , osmorhiza chilensis , osmorhiza occidentalis , echinopanax horridum hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 32\nroseocaudella stringer , 1930 \u00b2 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 10 ) 6 ( 34 ) : 417\nagonopteryx rubristricta walsingham , 1912 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 136 , pl . 4 , f . 31 ; tl : guatemala , totonicapam , 8500 - 10500ft\nrubrovittella caradja , 1926 \u00b2 ; dt . ent . z . iris 40 : 168\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 29 ; [ nacl ] , # 872 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nlarva on eriophyllum confertiflorum , e . lanatum , eriophyllum stachaediflorum hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 29\nsalangella amsel , 1972 \u00b2 ; beitr . naturk . forsch . s\u00fcdwdtl . 31 : 137 , pl . 1 , f . 5\ndepressaria sanguinella busck , 1902 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 24 ( 1268 ) : 738 ; tl : pinal mts . , arizona\nlarva on robinia neoxmexicana hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 37\ndepressaria sapporensis matsumura , 1931 ; 6000 illust . insects japan . - empire : 1092 ; tl : japan , sapporo\nscopariella calycotomella ( amsel , 1958 ) ( depressaria ) ; zs . wiener ent . ges . 43 ( schlu\u00df ) : 73\naustria , croatia , finland , france , germany , greece , hungary , italy , romania , slovakia , slovenia , spain , turkey . see [ maps ]\ndepressaria selini heinemann , 1870 ; schmett . dtl . scweitz . ( 2 ) 3 : 167\nlarva on peucedanum palustre , p . oreoselinum , selinum carvifolium , ligusticum lucidum buchner , 2017 , gortania 38 : 81\ndepressaria senicionella busck , 1902 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 24 ( 1268 ) : 742 ; tl : district of columbia\nlarva on senecio aureus hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 34\ndepressaria septicella snellen , 1884 ; tijdschr . ent . 27 : 162 , pl . 8 , f . 8 ; tl : chabarowska\ndepressaria seraphimella chr\u00e9tien , 1929 ; amat . papillons 4 : 194 , pl . 5 , f . 9\ndepressaria silerella stainton , 1865 ; ent . mon . mag . 1 : 221\nlarva on siler aquilegifolium stainton , 1865 , ent . mon . mag . 1 : 222\ndepressaria squamosa mann , 1864 ; wien . ent . mon . 8 ( 6 ) : 185 , pl . 4 , f . 13\ndepressaria stigmella moore , 1878 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 5 ) 1 ( 3 ) : 237 ; tl : yangihissar ( 4320ft ) , kashgar\ndepressaria straminella staudinger , 1859 ; stettin ent . ztg 20 ( 7 - 9 ) : 238 ; tl : chiclana\nnaf , seu , ceu , asia minor , syria . see [ maps ]\nsutschanella caradja , 1926 \u00b2 ; dt . ent . z . iris 40 : 43\ntabghaella amsel , 1953 \u00b2 ; mitt . zool . mus . berlin 20 : 294 , pl . 10 , f . 69\ndepressaria takamukui matsumura , 1931 ; 6000 illust . insects japan . - empire : 1902 ; tl : japan , chikugo\ndepressaria thurneri rebel , 1941 ; isv . tsarsk . prirodonauch . inst . sofia 14 : 7\nlarva on sanicula hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 30\ntolli hannemann , 1959 ; dt . ent . z . 6 ( 1 - 3 ) : 37\ntriallactis meyrick , 1935 \u00b2 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 18 - 19 ) : 594\ndepressaria trimenella walsingham , 1881 ; trans . ent . soc . 1881 ( 2 ) : 251 , pl . 11 , f . 19 ; tl : spring valley\ndepressaria tschorbadjiewi rebel , 1916 ; verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 66 : 45 ; tl : burgas\nvasta amsel , 1935 \u00b2 ; mitt . zool . mus . berl . 20 ( 2 ) : 294 , pl . 10 , f . 58\nnova scotia , s . quebec , s . ontario , wisconsin , connecticut , new york , pennsylvania . see [ maps ]\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 27 ; [ nacl ] , # 869 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nlarva on myrica aspleniifolia , m . gale , l . pensylvanica hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 27\nxylinopis caradja , 1931 \u00b2 ; bull . acad . roum . 14 : 14\nn . africa , canary is . , seu , . . . . see [ maps ]\ncryptolechia eoa meyrick , 1910 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 1 ) : 165 ; tl : khasis\nleptopa ( diakonoff , 1952 ) ( cryptolechia ) ; ark . zool . ( 2 ) 3 ( 6 ) : 84\nmalaisei ( diakonoff , 1952 ) ( cryptolechia ) ; ark . zool . ( 2 ) 3 ( 6 ) : 86\ntinea deplanella h\u00fcbner , [ 1805 ] ; samml . eur . schmett . [ 8 ] : f . 274\ndepressaria furvella f . jezonica matsumura , 1931 ; 6000 illust . insects japan . - empire : 1090 ; tl : japan , saghalin\ntinea rubidella h\u00fcbner , 1796 ; samml . eur . schmett . [ 8 ] : pl . 32 , f . 221\ndepressaria urzhumella krulikowsky , 1909 ; dt . ent . z . iris 21 ( 4 ) : 266 ; tl : kasan\n[ afromoths ] de prins , j . & de prins , w . , 2013\nsangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;\n[ spl ] varis , v . ( ed ) , ahola , m . , albrecht , a . , jalava , j . , kaila , l . , kerppola , s . , kullberg , j . , 1995\n[ \u00b2 ] this may require parentheses or not . i don ' t have the necessary information for this taxon .\nergebnisse der \u00f6sterreichischen iran - expedition 1949 / 50 . lepidoptera ii . ( microlepidoptera )\nicones insectorum rariorum cum nominibus eorum trivialibus , locisque e c . linnaei . . . systema naturae allegatis . holmiae\nthe natural history of british insects ; explaining them in their several states . . . with the history of such minute insects as require investigation by the microscope\ngenera insectorum eorumque characters naturales secundum numerum , figuram , situm et proportionem . . .\nspecies insectorum exhibentes eorum differentia specifica , synonyma auctorum , loca natalia , metamorphosin adiectis , observationibus , descriptionibus . tom ii\nneuere beitr\u00e4ge zur schmetterlingskunde mit abbildungen nach der natur . ( 17 - 32 )\nlepidoptera britannica , sistens digestimen novam lepidopterorum quae in magna britannica reperiunter . . . adjunguntur dissertationes variae ad historiam naturalam spectantes\nsystematische bearbeitung der schmetterlinge von europa , zugleich als text , revision und supplement zu j . h\u00fcbner ' s sammlung europ\u00e4ischer schmetterlinge , die schaben und federmotten , ( 1847 - ) 1853 - 1855 )\nthe moths of america north of mexico including greenland . fascicle 6 . 2 . gelechioidea , oecophoridae"]}
{"id": 436, "summary": [{"text": "the pipits are a cosmopolitan genus , anthus , of small passerine birds with medium to long tails .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "along with the wagtails and longclaws , the pipits make up the family motacillidae .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "the genus is widespread , occurring across most of the world , except the driest deserts , rainforests and the mainland of antarctica .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "they are slender , often drab , ground-feeding insectivores of open country .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "like their relatives in the family , the pipits are monogamous and territorial .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "pipits are ground nesters , laying up to six speckled eggs . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "pipit", "paragraphs": ["pipit information . . . pipit index of species . . . pipit species photos\nthe back of the sprague ' s pipit is more strongly marked , almost scaly appearance in good light . underparts generally paler than american pipit . outer tail feathers have more extensive white . not as common as american pipit .\nrevising environment canada\u2019s timelines of the action planning for the sprague ' s pipit .\neleven species of the motacillidae in two genera have been recorded in north america . included among these eleven species are the yellow wagtail , american pipit , and sprague\u2019s pipit .\namerican pipit in basic plumage , subspecies pacificus , sunnyvale , ca , 30 october .\n) . mortality and egg production of the meadow pipit with special references to altitude .\nwhen first discovered it contained two pipit ' s eggs and the egg of a cuckoo .\nthe food of this pipit is composed of insects , and worms , and small seeds .\nsprague ' s pipit is all in streaks of brown and gray , and lighter below .\nthe rock pipit is the most inconspicuous of the pipits . they are closely related to the\ngeographical variation : four subspecies , all extant : new zealand pipit a . n . novaeseelandiae ( at risk / declining ) ; chatham island pipit a . n . chathamensis ( at risk / naturally uncommon ) ; auckland island pipit a . n . aucklandicus ( at risk / recovering ) ; antipodes island pipit a . n . steindachneri ( at risk / naturally uncommon ) .\n. the eurasian rock pipit is a much more approachable bird than the water pipit . if startled , it flies a fairly short distance , close to the ground , before it lands again .\ngin they had a ' fouchten as he pipit , there wad hae been anither tale to tell .\nthe paddyfield pipit ( anthus rufulus ) is a small passerine bird in the pipits and wagtail family .\nit was formerly included within its putative sister species , the water pipit ( a . spinoletta ) , as was their slightly more distinct pacific relative the buff - bellied pipit ( a . rubescens ) .\nnew zealand pipit . adult . whangaehu river estuary , december 2010 . image \u00a9 ormond torr by ormond torr\n\u201c pipit \u201d in le tr\u00e9sor de la langue fran\u00e7aise informatis\u00e9 ( the digitized treasury of the french language ) .\nsome of the species have declined even more : meadow pipit populations , for example , fell by 68 percent .\nbreeding and wintering ranges of the american pipit . where the two ranges seemingly overlap they are separated by altitude .\nidentifying sprague ' s pipit critical habitat . research and analysis of information gathered regarding critical habitat for sprague\u2019s pipit have advanced since the posting of the final recovery strategy for this species in 2008 , allowing partial identification of critical habitat .\n90 - day finding on a petition to list sprague\u2019s pipit as threatened or endangered ( dec . 3 , 2009 )\nthe american pipit was at least 4 years old , when it was recaptured and rereleased during a banding operation in new hampshire .\nthe eurasian rock pipit ( anthus petrosus ) is a small species of passerine bird which breeds on rocky coasts of western europe .\nthe part \u2018swampy\u2019 field , originally with a pair of paddyfield pipit , now has two pairs with the success of this breeding .\n. paddyfield pipit is smaller and dumpier , has shorter looking tail and has a weaker fluttering flight . the usually uttered characteristic\nchip - chip - chip\ncall is quite different from usual calls of richard ' s pipit ( explosive\nshreep\n) and\n12 - month finding on a petition to list sprague\u2019s pipit as endangered or threatened throughout its range ( sept . 15 , 2010 )\npipit is an elegant , clean , modern and responsive wordpress blog theme . amaze your visitors with pipit\u2019s great out of the box features like full screen image , video and slider hero , slick featured posts slider , unique layouts , full width media feed and so on .\nthe sprague ' s pipit was named by audubon for isaac sprague , an artist who accompanied him on his trip up the missouri river .\nthe australasian pipit resembles the introduced skylark , alauda arvensis , and is adapted to a similar ecological niche , with both species being well - camoflaged birds that forage on the ground . the australasian pipit lacks the skylark ' s small crest and has more creamy white underparts and eyebrows .\nwhat made you want to look up pipit ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\n) or of allopatric speciation processes . indeed although tree and water pipits are closest extant relatives , they are not sister species and their respective lineages have originated in different palearctic zones , western for the species group including the water pipit , and eastern for that of the tree pipit ( voelker ,\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - sokoke pipit feeding on forest floor\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - sokoke pipit feeding on forest floor\ntitle =\narkive photo - sokoke pipit feeding on forest floor\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\npavel v , bure\u0161 s ( 2001 ) offspring age and nest defence : test of feedback hypothesis in the meadow pipit . anim behav 61 : 297\u2013303\nliversidge , r . ( 1996 ) a new species of pipit in southern africa . bull . brit . ornithol . club 116 : 211 - 215 .\nthe australasian pipit is found across australia . it is also found in new guinea , new zealand , as well as being widespread across africa and asia .\nyesterday i came across this news item on the site if the belgian society for the protection of birds , it is from last year . in a rehab centre a young meadow pipit and a young cuckoo were placed together in a cage , after a while the cuckoo began begging for food and to the astonishment of the people who work there the meadow pipit started feeding the cuckoo . in the third picture the pipit feeds the cuckoo while sitting on its back . urltoken\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - yellow - breasted pipit ( anthus chloris )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - yellow - breasted pipit ( anthus chloris )\ntitle =\narkive species - yellow - breasted pipit ( anthus chloris )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe sprague\u2019s pipit has been listed as a vulnerable species . like many grassland birds , this formerly common species has suffered from destruction of its short grass habitat .\nbeauchamp , a . j . 1995 . the status of the new zealand pipit ( anthus novaeseelandiae ) in the wellington region . notornis 42 : 117 - 125 .\n) . the auc of the best jsdm for pipits was 0 . 75 for the tree pipit and 0 . 83 for the water pipit , representing a good to very good predictive discrimination between occupied and unoccupied sites . the range of shared environmental correlations was negative for pipits , thus suggesting that species had different environmental requirements ( figure\nin north america , members of this family breed in alaska , northern canada , and the northern great plains ( the sprague\u2019s pipit ) . they are all non - forest species , many with an affinity for wetlands . the most numerous species is the american pipit . a bird of the far northern tundra and alpine meadows in the summer , it also occurs along the coast and other open habitats in much of canada and the united states during the winter . aside from the sprague\u2019s pipit , the other pipit species occur as asian vagrants to the west coast . the wagtails also show up as vagrants from asia , or breed in alaska and winter in asia .\n) . its congener water pipit also occupies the euro\u2010siberian region and some areas of the central system but systematically above 700 m a . s . l . ( vasquez ,\n[ habitat selection and metapopulation structure : a multi - year study of distribution of the hodgson ' s pipit , anthus hodgsoni richm . ( aves , passeriformes ) ] .\nother synonyms afrikaans : bergkoester arabic : \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0634\u0646\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0628\u064a\u0631\u0629 asturian : chis de richard bulgarian : \u0434\u044a\u043b\u0433\u043e\u043e\u043f\u0430\u0448\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u0431\u044a\u0431\u0440\u0438\u0446\u0430 catalan : piula grossa czech : lindu\u0161ka velk\u00e1 welsh : corhedydd richard danish : new zealand - storpiber , storpiber german : australspornpieper , hochlandpieper , spornpieper greek : \u03b3\u03b1\u03ca\u03b4\u03bf\u03c5\u03c1\u03bf\u03ba\u03b5\u03bb\u03ac\u03b4\u03b1 english : australasian pipit , common pipit , new zealand or australian pipit , new zealand pipit , paddyfield pipit , richard ' s pipit spanish : bisbita de richard , bisbita neozeland\u00e9s spanish ( spain ) : bisbita neozeland\u00e9s estonian : l\u00f5una - niidukiur , niidukiur finnish : isokirvinen faroese : st\u00f3rt\u00edtlingur french : pipit austral , pipit de nouvelle - z\u00e9lande , pipit de nouvelle - z\u00e9lande ou p . austral , pipit de richard irish : riabh\u00f3g richard galician : pica de richard hebrew : \u05e4\u05e4\u05d9\u05d5\u05df \u05d0\u05e8\u05da \u05e8\u05d2\u05dc\u05d9\u05d9\u05dd hungarian : sarkanty\u00fas pityer indonesian : apung tanah icelandic : vingultittlingur italian : calandro maggiore , pispola australasiatica japanese : mamijirotahibari , mamijiro - tahibari , oasutorariamamijirotahibari japanese : \u30aa\u30a2\u30b9\u30c8\u30e9\u30ea\u30a2\u30de\u30df\u30b8\u30ed\u30bf\u30d2\u30d0\u30ea , \u30de\u30df\u30c2\u30ed\u30bf\u30d2\u30d0\u30ea kazakh : \u0434\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0436\u0430\u0434\u044b\u0440\u0430\u0493\u044b korean : \ud070\ubc2d\uc885\ub2e4\ub9ac latin : alauda novae seelandiae , anthus [ novaeseelandiae or australis ] , anthus novaeseelandiae , anthus novaeseelandiae novaeseelandiae , anthus richardi lithuanian : stepinis kalviukas maori : pihoihoi , pi - hoihoi malayalam : \u0d35\u0d2f\u0d32\u0d4d\u200d \u0d35\u0d30\u0d2e\u0d4d\u0d2a\u0d28\u0d4d\u200d maltese : bilblun prim dutch : grote pieper , nieuw - zeelandse pieper norwegian : australpiplerke , tartarpiplerke polish : swiergotek nowozelandzki , \u015bwiergotek nowozelandzki , \u015bwiergotek szponiasty portuguese : petinha de richard portuguese ( portugal ) : petinha - australiana romansh : pivet zelandais russian : \u0441\u0442\u0435\u043f\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0451\u043a slovak : \u013eabtu\u0161ka dlhoprst\u00e1 albanian : drenja e ri\u00e7ardit serbian : velika trepteljka swedish : australisk pipl\u00e4rka / nyazeelandpipl\u00e4rka , nya zeelandpipl\u00e4rka , st\u00f6rre pipl\u00e4rka swahili : kipimanjia - mbuga thai : \u0e19\u0e01\u0e40\u0e14\u0e49\u0e32\u0e14\u0e34\u0e19\u0e17\u0e38\u0e48\u0e07\u0e43\u0e2b\u0e0d\u0e48 turkish : mahmuzlu incirku\u015fu , mahmuzlu i\u0307ncirku\u015fu , mahmuzlu \u015fncirku\u015fu chinese : \u6fb3\u6d32\u9e68 , \u7530 \u9e68 , \u7530\u9e68 chinese ( traditional ) : \u7530\u9dda\u3014\u7d10\u897f\u862d\u7530\u9dda\u3015\nbeauchamp , a . j . 2013 [ updated 2017 ] . new zealand pipit . in miskelly , c . m . ( ed . ) new zealand birds online . urltoken\namended recovery strategy for the sprague\u2019s pipit ( anthus spragueii ) in canada\n( 2012 - 11 - 30 ) ( pdf format , 1 , 329 . 56 kb )\nrecovery strategy for the sprague\u2019s pipit ( anthus spragueii ) in canada [ proposed ]\n( 2008 - 01 - 18 ) ( pdf format , 515 . 87 kb )\nplots representing the highest posterior density mean of the coefficients ( intercepts and slopes ) , their lower ( 2 . 5 % ) and the upper ( 97 . 5 % ) credible intervals , for of jsdm with the highest auc in pipits and buntings ( tp = tree pipit ; wp = water pipit ; yh = yellowhammer ; ob = ortolan bunting )\nrecovery strategy for the sprague\u2019s pipit ( anthus spragueii ) in canada [ final version ]\n( 2008 - 05 - 02 ) ( pdf format , 454 . 48 kb )\nliversidge , r . and voelker , g . ( 2002 ) the kimberley pipit : a new african species . bull . brit . ornithol . club 122 : 93 - 108 .\nthe american pipit\u2019s nest is a cup of grasses and weeds and is lined with finer materials . it is placed on the ground under the shelter of vegetation or a rock ledge .\npipits occur on all continents , except antarctica , with many species that are often difficult to distinguish from each other . the american pipit was long known as the water pipit ( anthus spinoletta ) , a wide - ranging species with seven subspecies occurring from the shores of great britain and scandinavia , and the high mountains of europe and central asia , to north america . recent taxonomic studies , however , have shown that the three north american subspecies and the most eastern asiatic subspecies are best regarded as a distinct species , now referred to as the american pipit ( a . rubescens ) . nevertheless , because of the close similarity between spinoletta and rubescens , the old world literature sheds much light on the biology of the american pipit .\n[ habitat selection and metapopulation structure : a multi - year study of distribution of the hodgson ' s pipit , anthus hodgsoni richm . ( aves , passerifo . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nbeauchamp , a . j . 2013 . new zealand pipit ( anthus novaeseelandiae ) presence and breeding status using car and walk surveys near whangarei , new zealand . notornis 60 : 125 - 133 .\nthe american pipit is a small , slender , drab bird of open country . although it appears similar to sparrows , it can be distinguished by its thin bill and its habit of bobbing its tail .\nthe american pipit was long known as the water pipit ( anthus spinoletta ) , a wide ranging species with seven subspecies occurring from the shores of great britain and scandinavia , and the high mountains of europe and central asia , to north america . recent taxonomic studies , however , have shown that the three north american subspecies , along with the most eastern asiatic one , are best regarded as a distinct species .\nbeauchamp , a . j . 2007 . notes on new zealand pipit ( anthus n . novaeseelandiae ) home ranges , parental care , and the behaviour of dependent young . notornis 54 : 112 - 114 .\nthe yellow - breasted pipit spends much of the year at elevations above 1 , 500 metres in the lush , expansive grasslands found upon the undulating slopes of the drakensberg mountains ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .\nthe recovery strategy for the sprague\u2019s pipit ( anthus spragueii ) in canada ( environment canada 2008 ) was posted on the species at risk public registry in may 2008 . under section 45 of the species at risk act ( sara ) , the minister of the environment may amend a recovery strategy at any time . this amendment to the recovery strategy for the sprague\u2019s pipit ( anthus spragueii ) in canada is for the purpose of :\ndistribution of the tree pipit , water pipit , yellowhammer , and ortolan bunting in spain . the shaded areas depict the distributions of pipits and buntings species . modified from mart\u00ed and del moral ( 2003 ) . atlas de las aves reproductoras de espa\u00f1a . direcci\u00f3n general de conservaci\u00f3n de la naturaleza\u2010sociedad espa\u00f1ola de ornitolog\u00eda . madrid . the rectangles enclose the study area for species ' survey ; the experiment was performed in the contact zone only\n) . these species show therefore a noticeable elevational partitioning . in the cantabrian mountains , the tree pipit reproduces in low\u2010 and medium\u2010elevation grasslands ( average elevation \u00b1 sd : 1230 . 39 \u00b1 416 . 60 m a . s . l . ) . conversely , the water pipit reproduces in medium and high elevations ( average elevation \u00b1 sd : 1726 . 63 \u00b1 341 . 35 m a . s . l . ; figure\nthese example sentences are selected automatically from various online news sources to reflect current usage of the word ' pipit . ' views expressed in the examples do not represent the opinion of merriam - webster or its editors . send us feedback .\nin an alpine population in the beartooth mountains of wyoming , a snow storm buried 17 american pipit nests for 24 hours . all of the nestlings that were 11 days or older survived , but only a few of the younger ones did .\nthompson , d . r . ; bearhop , s . ; ross , b . 2005 . spread of australasian pipit ( anthus novaeseelandiae ) onto campbell island following the eradication of norway rats ( rattus novegicus ) . notornis 52 : 43 - 46 .\nvocalizations : the song of the american pipit is low series of variable , jingling phrases ,\ntseewl , tseewl , tseewl\nor\npleetr , pleetr , pleetr .\nduring regular flight , their call is a high , squeaky\nslip\nor , when flushed , a higher\npipit .\ndownward spiralling aerial displays during the breeding season are accompanied by incessant\ntseep , tseep , tseep\ncalls . on the nest , their call is a lower but rising\npwisp .\naskenmo c . , and neergaard r . ( 1990 ) . polygyny and nest predation in the rock pipit : do females trade male assistance against safety ? in \u2018population biology of passerine birds\u2019 . ( ed . j . blondel . ) pp . 331\u2013343 . nato asi series , vol . g 24 . ( springer - verlag : berlin . ) askenmo , c . , and unger , u . ( 1986 ) . how to be double - brooded : trends and timing of breeding performance in the rock pipit . ornis scandinavica 17 , 237\u2013244 .\nhendricks , paul and n . a . verbeek . 2012 . american pipit ( anthus rubescens ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .\namendment to the final recovery strategy for the sprague\u2019s pipit ( anthus spragueii ) in canada re : partial identification of critical habitat in alberta and saskatchewan and action planning [ proposed ]\n( 2011 - 03 - 09 ) ( pdf format , 1 , 119 . 94 kb )\nthe australasian pipit is a well - camoflaged brown ground - dwelling bird . it has darker brown streaks above , and has pale creamy white stripes on the eyebrows and below the cheeks . the underparts are creamy white , spotted and streaked dark on the breast . the wings and tail are dark brown , with the outermost tail feathers white . the eye is brown and the bill and feet are pale pink - grey . seen on the ground in open country , this species often wags its tail up and down while foraging . it was previously called richard ' s pipit .\na small , brown , streaky bird , the meadow pipit is the most common songbird in upland areas . its high , piping call is a familiar sound . in flight it shows white outer tail feathers and in the breeding season it has a fluttering ' parachute ' display flight . in winter , they are quite gregarious and gather in small flocks , often invisible among the vegetation , suddenly flying up with typical jerky flight . meadow pipit numbers in the uk have been declining since the mid - 1970s , resulting in this species being included on the amber list of conservation concern .\nsome of the subspecies in the group were formerly treated as a subspecies of the australasian pipit anthus novaeseelandiae and the grouping has been in state of flux . considerable colour and morphological variation with age and latitude make the species difficult to identify museum specimens . six subspecies are now included in this species .\nthe wagtails and pipits are small birds with fairly long , strong legs adapted to a terrestrial lifestyle . members of this family are also for the most part slim birds with long tails ( although tails of some pipit species are fairly short ) , fairly long , pointed wings , and longish , thin bills .\nthe american pipit has brownish - gray to gray upperparts with faint streaks , a bold , pale eyeline , variably streaked , whitish to buffy underparts , and a white eye ring . it has an upright posture , and frequently bobs its tail . a number of subspecies account for the plumage variation within the species .\nwe used presence / absence survey dataset but excluded survey plots characterized by high forest cover , as such surveyed areas were unsuitable and , consequently , they would contain no useful information for the modelling . for pipits , we considered only survey plots where the percent tree cover is less than 80 % of the area ( n = 1 , 874 plots ) , because the tree pipit is an ecotone species that utilizes a mixture of open grasslands and scattered trees ( laiolo , dondero , ciliento , & rolando , 2004 ) . for buntings , we selected survey plots where the tree percent cover is < 60 % of the area of the plot ( n = 1 , 790 plots ) , being both species less dependent on tree cover ( dale & manceau , 2003 ) . our sample size corresponds to 192 presences for the tree pipit , 655 presences for the water pipit , 161 presences for the yellowhammer , and 52 presences for the ortolan bunting .\nthe sprague\u2019s pipit is a small bird which breeds in the great plains of north america . nesting grounds are found in the peace river district of alberta , turtleford , prince albert and shoal lake , saskatchewan , central manitoba , north dakota , montana , south dakota and minnesota . they may also be found in british columbia occasionally . this species winters in the southwestern united states and northern mexico , including california , arizona , new mexico , texas , kansas , oklahoma , missouri , tennessee , mississippi , arkansas and louisiana . typical diets consist of insects , spiders and seeds . the conservation status of the sprague\u2019s pipit is least concern .\nsprague ' s pipit : this species breeds from central alberta east to manitoba and south from montana to south dakota . it may breed as far west as british columbia . it spends winters along the southwestern and southern states from california to florida and throughout much of mexico . its preferred habitats include short - grass fields .\ntree pipit , water pipit , yellowhammer , and ortolan bunting inhabit montane , alpine , and subalpine open habitats in our study area and present relatively overlapping trophic niches , being pipits more strictly insectivorous and buntings granivorous outside the breeding period ( brodmann , reyer , bollmann , schl\u00e4pfer , & rauter , 1997 ; dale & manceau , 2003 ; loske , 1987 ) . tree pipit and ortolan bunting are trans\u2010saharan migrants ( dale & manceau , 2003 ; loske , 1987 ) . all species are territorial , mostly monogamous , and they nest on the ground . they actively defend territories in the breeding period , and males sing to mark territories and attract females . these species served as models in studies on homo\u2010 or heterospecific territoriality , as they reliably respond to playbacks simulating territorial intrusion ( bastianelli , seoane , \u00e1lvarez\u2010blanco , & laiolo , 2015 ; osiejuk , raty\u0144ska , & cygan , 2004 ; petruskov\u00e1 et al . , 2014 ; skierczynski , czarnecka , & osiejuk , 2007 ) .\nthe american pipit is an inconspicuous , slender , migratory songbird that occurs throughout north america and south to el salvador . it is one of a very few species of ground - inhabiting songbirds that breed at high altitudes in alpine meadows and on the arctic tundra . despite its generally inhospitable habitat , this species has been relatively well studied . its alpine and arctic environment is ecologically relatively simple , so interactions among species are easier to understand . in addition , short summers and climatic extremes impose restrictions on the timing of this pipit ' s breeding cycle . how this species , and other pipits , have adapted to such extremes is a question worth investigating .\nfound only in south africa and lesotho , the yellow - breasted pipit mainly occupies the drakensberg mountain range within the south african provinces of kwazulu - natal and mpumalanga , and the margins of lesotho . additional small populations are found in the north - east of the eastern cape and eastern parts of the free state ( 2 ) .\nits call is an explosive fit . the song , as in many pipits , is a series of\nblocks\nof repeated more or less shrill cheeping single or double notes ; it ends on a trill and has usually fewer , but longer - lasting\nblocks\n( a dozen repetitions or more ) than in the water pipit .\nhistorically , the yellow - breasted pipit was far more abundant and widespread than it is today . sadly , the effects of intense grazing , commercial forest planting , and agricultural practices that involve the burning of grasslands , have greatly reduced and fragmented this species\u2019 habitat . such practices are only increasing in intensity ; for example , in the wakkerstroom district , a region which supports a large number of yellow - breasted pipits , over 100 , 000 hectares of grassland has been targeted for conversion to forest plantations . if this conversion goes ahead , it could prove to be catastrophic for the yellow - breasted pipit , as the land would no longer be suitable for it to breed ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .\nthe yellow - breasted pipit is a rare and secretive bird found in the high - altitude grasslands of south africa and lesotho ( 3 ) . this species is most striking when in its breeding plumage , developing bright yellow underparts and wing linings ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ; in contrast , outside the breeding period , the underparts are brown or dull white with dark streaks ( 2 ) . the upperparts , which remain greyish - brown throughout the year , are boldly dappled with dark spots and patches , giving a distinctive scaled appearance . the juvenile is generally pale brown and lacks the adult\u2019s bright yellow colouring , having creamy brown underparts instead . the characteristic calls of the yellow - breasted pipit consist of a rapid , continuous chip chip chip and a quieter suwiep ( 4 ) .\namerican pipit numbers may be declining . partners in flight estimates a global breeding population of 20 million birds , with 52 % spending some part of the year in the u . s . , 87 % in canada , and 36 % wintering in mexico . they rate a 9 out of 20 on the continental concern score and are not on the 2014 state of the birds watch list . back to top\nthe yellow - breasted pipit occurs within a number of public nature reserves , but the populations that they support are generally small . currently , only natal drakensberg park holds a significant population ( 2 ) ( 3 ) , but plans are underway to create a one million hectare grassland biosphere reserve in the threatened region around wakkerstroom that will protect and conserve a much larger proportion of this species\u2019 total population ( 6 ) . should the reserve be created it will need careful management , so that the livelihoods of the local people and the population of the yellow - breasted pipit can both be preserved . this is also true of the other areas supporting populations of this species , where the landowners must be given incentives to manage the grassland beneficially , rather than opt for the plantation of commercially valuable forests ( 3 ) ( 6 ) .\nthe nsw national parks and wildlife service provided permission to study pipits in kosciuszko national park . pipits were banded under australian bird and bat banding scheme banding authority no . 2408 , environment australia . logistical support was provided by nsw national parks and wildlife service , and billy and marilyn james . financial support was provided by the state university college of new york at brockport . pipit clutch - size data from the birds australia nest records scheme were furnished by rory poulter , birds australia . robert palmer provided access to pipit specimens in the australian national wildlife collection , canberra . thanks to snowy hydro for spencers creek snowcourse data . david little supplied several nest records . nancy fitzsimmons and tony tucker helped in the field , while melissa norment assisted in many ways . paul hendricks and two anonymous reviewers commented on a draft of the manuscript .\n) : effect size = m1\u2013m2 / pooled standard deviation , where m1 is the mean of the response to the conspecific and m2 is the mean of the response to the control . the power for the comparison among heterospecifics , based on the sample size for this level and the correction of the effect size for homospecifics by the c\u2010score , was high . for the closest distance of approach , we obtained a power of 0 . 89 and 0 . 96 in tree pipit and water pipit , respectively . for the same variable , we obtained a power of 0 . 91 and 0 . 76 for yellowhammer and ortolan bunting . for the latency of approach , we obtained a power of 0 . 70 and 0 . 83 in pipits . for the same variable , we obtained a power of 0 . 88 and 0 . 83 in yellowhammer and ortolan bunting , respectively .\nwells ( 2007 ) reports that the paddyfield pipit nests can be shallow cups to fully domed , with variations in between . in this field the nest was dome - shaped ( below right ) , built in a small unburnt area ( below left ) . at the time of observation the dome was already built : width 12cm , length 13 - 15cm ( longer than wide ) , height 9 - 10cm and oval opening 3 - 4cm diameter .\non 20th february 2010 dato\u2019 dr amar - singh hss chanced upon a pair of paddyfield pipit ( anthus rufulus malayensis ) nest building ( above ) in a burnt grassy field around ipoh in the malaysian state of perak . for two hours in the hot sun he made discreet observations from a distance of about 10m , using his camera mounted with a 500 mm lens to document the activities . no tripod was used so as not to unnecessarily distract the birds .\npipits of the family motacillidae ( meaning\nmoving tail\n) are plain , sparrow - sized , insectivorous birds with slender bills . although highly terrestrial , their flight is strong and undulating . pipits walk upright along the ground with dainty steps , rather than hops . as they feed , they habitually pump their tails and bob their heads , much like a pigeon . their common name ,\npipit\n( latin for\nchirp\n) , imitates the sounds of their distinctive calls .\n14 . 5 - 15 cm . small streaked pipit , earth - brown / greenish orange - brown with broad brownish - black streaks on top of head , mantle , scapulars and back . wings darker . tail dark brown . underparts white / grey / yellow - buff . throat side , breast and flanks streaked black - brown . juvenile more buff - brown with more obvious streaking . voice aerial song a series of segments of uniform notes . call a thin high - pitched squeak often repeated .\nthe new zealand pipit is a small brown - and - white songbird that resembles a lark , but has longer legs , and walks rather than hops . they are birds of open country , including the tideline of sandy beaches , rough pasture , river beds and above the tree - line . pipits are members of the wagtail family , and frequently flick their long tails as they walk . in flight their tails have narrow white sides \u2013 a character shared with skylarks , chaffinches , yellowhammers and cirl buntings .\npipits probably benefitted initially from forest clearance , but have declined in density as land - use has intensified . heavily grazed pasture and drained wetlands hold fewer pipits than rough pasture with patches of fern , and marshes or bogs . pipits have declined from drought - prone regions , and have disappeared from many islands where rats are present . while pipits use clear - felled pine forest blocks in the central north island , they are preferentially hunted by new zealand falcons there , compared to introduced passerines . pipit have greatly benefitted from rat eradication on some islands , most spectacularly on 11 , 000 ha campbell island in the new zealand subantarctic .\nthis is a large pipit at 15cm , but is otherwise an undistinguished looking bird , mainly streaked grey - brown above and pale below with breast streaking . it is long legged with a long tail and a long dark bill . males and females look alike . summer and winter plumages are similar . young birds are more richly colored below than adults and have the pale edges to the feather ' s of the upper parts more conspicuous with more prominent spotting on the breast . the population waitei from northwestern india and pakistan is pale while the population malayensis from the western ghats is larger , darker and more heavily streaked with nominate rufulus intermediate .\ndistribution : the american pipit winters in flocks from the southern united states to the fields and muddy shores of guatemala and el salvador . they breed throughout alaska , yukon , and british columbia , across the northern edge of canada to newfoundland , coastal greenland and their associated islands , and in spotty locations in the western united states . within yukon - charley rivers national preserve , these birds were detected in several ecological units , as determined during the yukon - charley rivers national preserve bird inventory , june 1999 and 2000 . they occur at their highest densities within the montane tundra of the upper charley mountain tundra ( mt ) , snowy domes ( sd ) and ogilive lime / dolostone mountains ( om ) ecological units .\nwe performed a preliminary analysis to test whether the month , the time of the day in which a test was performed , and their interaction could affect bird behavioral patterns . in no species we found such effects on the closest distance of approach or on the latency of the approach ( linear models : all p \u2265 . 10 ) . therefore , we did not account for temporal covariates in further analyses . in order to assess the differences in the minimum distance of approach between the three playback levels ( conspecific , congeneric , and control song ) , we performed a one\u2010way analysis of variance ( anova ) after transforming the variable by means of a box\u2010cox transformation to meet the assumptions of normality ( tree pipit : \u03bb = 0 . 30 , water pipit : \u03bb = 0 . 26 , yellowhammer : \u03bb = 0 . 30 ; ortolan bunting : \u03bb = 0 . 51 ) . we performed multiple comparisons ( tukey contrasts ) to assess the significance of the differences between pairwise playback types . as the latency of approach did not meet the normality assumption , we carried a kruskal\u2013wallis test to analyze playback effects . we performed multiple comparisons by means of dunn test . we performed power tests in the case of detecting no significant differences in the behavioral response between pairwise playback types , and we based our expectations of interference on the local spatial segregation patterns ( c\u2010score ) observed in each species pairs . a power \u22650 . 80 was considered as a good power ( cohen , 1992 ) . we performed the analysis with r v 3 . 2 . 2 ( r development core team , 2015 ) and g power v . 3 ( faul , erdfelder , lang , & buchner , 2007 ) .\nnests : assembled by both parents , the cup - shaped nests of the american pipit are built in ground - hollows and partially concealed by overhanging rock or vegetation . constructed in 4 - 5 days of plant stems , grasses and mosses , the nests are softly lined with fine grasses , fibers and hair . a clutch consists of 4 - 7 , smooth and glossy 21mm eggs . the cryptic , ground - colored ( whitish gray ) eggs are heavily spotted in brown and pale gray and may be finely streaked , wreathed or capped in black at the larger ends . although the female alone incubates the clutch for 14 days , the male feeds her during this time . offspring fledge in another 14 - 16 days and are tended by both parents . young birds are completely independent by 29 days post - hatching and aggregate together in large , late - summer flocks .\nwe performed playback experiments simulating territorial intrusion in replacement areas , that is where congeners were located \u22642 km from each other ( appendix s1 ) . the study was performed during breeding , which is the sole phase of species phenology in which birds are strongly territorial and in which their ranges overlap ( one member of each pair is migratory and spends the winter elsewhere ) . during playbacks , we broadcast the songs of a conspecific male , or a congeneric male , or of a control species . overall , we tested 148 pipit males and 112 bunting males ; each individual was tested once and was randomly submitted to a playback of one of three categories mentioned above ( conspecific , congener , or control ; appendix s6 ) . we selected as controls species of a different family and that largely co\u2010occurred with the target species , which we assumed were no competitors . yellowhammer and whinchat ( saxicola rubetra ) were selected as the control species for pipits and buntings , respectively . similar to other playback studies , we considered that interspecific territoriality occurred if the behavioral response did not differ between conspecific and congeneric playbacks and / or if the response to the congeneric playback was stronger than to the control playback ( jankowski et al . , 2010 ; laiolo , 2013 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\nstattersfield , a . , o ' brien , a . , taylor , j .\nthis species is classed as near threatened owing to its small population and small range on one island , which remains susceptible to the introduction of rats . should any immediate threat arise , this species should be uplisted as a matter of urgency .\n. it is confined to c . 20 small , rat - free offshore islands and islets , and to a few mainland areas ( < 10 % of total habitat ) , enclosed by sea - level glaciers , in which brown rat\nthe population has been estimated at 3000 - 4000 pairs , equivalent to 6 , 000 - 8 , 000 mature individuals and c . 9 , 000 - 12 , 000 individuals in total . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\n. it feeds on insects in tussock habitat , and insects and crustaceans along tidelines ( j . p . croxall\n. in typical habitat it is common and productive , but winter survival of juveniles is low . it has almost no natural predators , remains of birds very occasionally turning up at middens of brown skua\nthe projected continuing recession of glaciers at south georgia threaten its remaining mainland habitats with invasion by rats ( j . p . croxall\nalthough precautions are taken to prevent the introduction of rats to several important sites , their remote location renders regulation of all visitors to all sites impossible in practice ( j . p . croxall\ncarry out surveys to obtain an up - to - date population estimate . monitor population trends through regular surveys . maintain measures to prevent the introduction of rats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nnew zealand pipits are slender , small to medium - sized , long - tailed songbirds that are predominantly streaked grey - brown above and off - white below , with brown streaking on the breast . they have a prominent pale eyebrow stripe , and white outer tail feathers . their crown is streaked grey - brown , lacking any crest ( cf . skylark ) the bill is fine and dark , and the legs long , slender and pale brown . pipits are often confiding , allowing closer approach than most open country songbirds . they walk or run , characteristically flicking their tail up and down whenever they stop walking , or when perched .\nvoice : the main call given all year is a strident tzweep . song given in air with arched fluttering flight over home ranges . tswee call given from fence posts and on the ground when gathering large invertebrates to feed young on the nest .\nsimilar species : skylarks are tawnier , more likely to fly when disturbed , are shorter legged , hop rather than walk , and have a small erectile crest on the back of the crown . female house sparrows and chaffinches have conical bills , and white wing - bars on the inner upperwing .\nnew zealand pipits are widespread in rough open habitats from the coastline to alpine shrublands at c . 1900 m . they are often seen along coastlines and rivers , in alpine areas in the south island , and coastal margins and alpine areas on stewart island . pipits are present within felled compartments of pine forests in the central north island , and around remaining wetlands in the central north island . they have declined in nearby subalpine habitats that have been taken over by heather . pipits are common in farmland and open shrublands on chatham and pitt islands , and in tussock grasslands and open habitats on the auckland island , campbell island and antipodes islands .\nfarmland population estimates for pipits were 0 . 37 pairs / per ha on chatham island , and 0 . 036 pairs / ha at waipu caves , whangarei .\nnew zealand pipits breed during august - march . the nest is a sizable cup of woven grass under tussocks and grass clumps within fern , and partly or fully covered with vegetation . clutch size is typically 2 - 4 ( average 3 ) eggs . both sexes feed young on the nest . incubation takes 14 - 16 days and chicks fledge at 14 days . adults land and take concealed routes to nests . chicks are noisy during and after feeding . chicks do not congregate after fledging , and parents and fledglings can end up hundreds of meters from nest sites . the number of clutches per annum is unknown .\npipits are approachable , often running a short distance in front of people , and walking , rather than flying away . some home ranges are occupied all year and others are deserted in the late summer . flocks of first - year pipits and adults are seen in areas where there was no breeding population . flock sizes are generally indicative of the population size . flocks of tens to hundreds of pipits fanned out either sides of moving locomotives before the volcanic plateau was converted from swamp and shrubland to farms and plantation forests .\npipits are omnivorous , consuming grains , seeds , and small invertebrates . flying invertebrates taken include flies , mayflies , small butterflies and cicadas . foraging methods adapt to the types of prey being targeted . they range from pecking at mat plants , to dashing along the ground and into short flights when after flies , to rising up into the wind over lakes to catch mayflies passing overhead .\nbeauchamp , a . j . 2009 . distribution and habitat use by new zealand pipits ( anthus n . novaeseelandiae ) on the volcanic plateau . notornis 56 : 183 - 189 .\nhiggins , p . j . ; peter , j . m . ; cowling , s . j . ( eds . ) 2006 . handbook of australian , new zealand and antarctic birds . vol . 7 , boatbill to starlings . oxford university press , melbourne .\na slender small - medium long - tailed songbird streaked grey - brown above and off - white below , with brown streaking on the breast , a pale eyebrow stripe , white outer tail feathers . the crown is streaked grey - brown , the bill fine and dark , and the legs long , slender and pale brown .\nof the family motacillidae , resembling the larks in coloration , structure , and habits .\nurltoken unabridged based on the random house unabridged dictionary , \u00a9 random house , inc . 2018\ncollins english dictionary - complete & unabridged 2012 digital edition \u00a9 william collins sons & co . ltd . 1979 , 1986 \u00a9 harpercollins publishers 1998 , 2000 , 2003 , 2005 , 2006 , 2007 , 2009 , 2012\nany of various small passerine birds , mainly from the genus anthus , that are often drab , ground feeding insectivores of open country .\nthis page was last edited on 10 june 2018 , at 00 : 09 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\nvisitors to manchester city centre have just two weeks left to get up close to the cities\u2019 popular pair of peregrine falcons .\nthe rspb wants to bring back the colour to the roadsides of east riding by returning verges to their former glory .\nfind out how you can help the birds in your garden in this summer heat .\na small , dark goose - the same size as a mallard . it has a black head and neck and grey - brown back .\na nocturnal bird that can be seen hawking for food at dusk and dawn .\nmale ring ouzels are particularly distinctive with their black plumage with a pale wing panel and striking white breast band .\nthere ' s so much to see and hear at minsmere , from rare birds and otters to stunning woodland and coastal scenery .\nthis is a delightful oak woodland to walk through \u2013 especially in spring and early summer .\nnature is an adventure waiting to be had . get out , get busy and get wild !\nexplore the little pools of amazing sea life that are left by the tide on the rocks around our coast .\nmeadow pipits are found across the uk but are most common in the west and north . in winter it moves south , to more lowland areas and becomes much commoner in the southern half of the uk . they are found in open country - upland moors to saltmarshes in summer , more agricultural land and marshes in winter . they will even come to suburban parks and playing fields .\n* this map is intended as a guide . it shows general distribution rather than detailed , localised populations .\nyou can see meadow pipits all year round . in summer , they are most common in upland areas which become deserted in winter as birds move to more lowland habitats , with some migrating to continental europe .\ncreate a multi - storey hotel , full of all sorts of natural materials , providing hidey - holes for creatures galore .\nyou can give nature the space it needs to survive and thrive . . .\nthe rspb is a member of birdlife international . find out more about the partnership\n\u00a9 the royal society for the protection of birds ( rspb ) is a registered charity : england and wales no . 207076 , scotland no . sc037654\nwe use cookies on our website to help give you the best online experience . tell me more\nbut since the rats were killed , the pipits have already responded , their numbers exploding now that their eggs and chicks are safe .\nthe story of an imaginary word that managed to sneak past our editors and enter the dictionary .\ntake this quiz and discover 12 words for things you didn ' t know had words .\nnesting in the far north and on mountaintops , american pipits can be found throughout the continent during migration or winter . at those seasons they are usually in flocks , walking on shores or plowed fields , wagging their tails as they go . often they are detected first as they fly over high , giving sharp pi - pit calls .\nsome analyses of christmas bird counts have suggested declining numbers ; however , species is still widespread and common .\ntundra , alpine slopes ; in migration and winter , plains , bare fields , shores . breeds on tundra , both in far north and in high mountains above treeline , in areas with very low growth such as sedges , grass , and dwarf willows . in migration and winter found on flat open ground such as plowed fields , short - grass prairie , mudflats , shores , river sandbars .\nforages by walking on the ground , taking insects from the ground or from low plants . sometimes forages while walking in very shallow water . except in the breeding season , usually forages in flocks .\n4 - 6 , sometimes 3 - 7 . whitish to pale buff , heavily spotted with brown and gray . incubation is by female only , 13 - 16 days . male feeds female during incubation period . young : both parents feed nestlings . female broods young much of the time during first few days ; male may bring food for her and for young . young usually leave nest at about 14 days , are fed by parents for about another 2 weeks .\nboth parents feed nestlings . female broods young much of the time during first few days ; male may bring food for her and for young . young usually leave nest at about 14 days , are fed by parents for about another 2 weeks .\nmostly insects , also some seeds . insects make up great majority of summer diet ; included are many flies , true bugs , beetles , caterpillars , moths , and others . also eats some spiders , millipedes , ticks . migrants along coast may eat tiny crustaceans and marine worms . inland in fall and winter , seeds of grasses and weeds may make up close to half of diet .\nmale performs song - flight display to defend nesting territory and attract a mate . in display , male begins singing on ground , flies up ( often to 100 ' or more ) , then glides or parachutes down again with wings fully opened , singing all the way . nest site is on ground in sheltered spot , usually protected under overhanging grass , small rock ledge , or piece of sod . nest ( built by female only ) is a cup of grass , sedges , and weeds , lined with finer grass and sometimes with animal hair or feathers .\nflight song a weak and tinkling trill ; call a paired , high - pitched pip - pip .\naudio \u00a9 lang elliott , bob mcguire , kevin colver , martyn stewart and others .\nin the broadest and most detailed study of its kind , audubon scientists have used hundreds of thousands of citizen - science observations and sophisticated climate models to predict how birds in the u . s . and canada will react to climate change ."]}
{"id": 439, "summary": [{"text": "hose 's palm civet ( diplogale hosei ) , also known as hose 's civet , is a civet species endemic to the island of borneo .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is listed on the iucn red list as vulnerable because of an ongoing population decline , estimated to be more than 30 % over the last three generations ( inferred to be 15 years ) and suspected to be more than 30 % in the next three generations due to declines in population inferred from habitat destruction and degradation .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "diplogale is a monospecific genus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "hose 's palm civet was named after the zoologist charles hose by oldfield thomas in 1892 .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "hose collected the first specimen in sarawak in 1891 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "what little is known of the species comes primarily from 17 museum specimens worldwide .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "only in 1997 , the first living specimen was obtained and released after 2 months \u2013 there remains no hose \u2019s civet in captivity anywhere in the world . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "hose ' s palm civet", "paragraphs": ["main characteristics hose ' s palm civets have a body length between 47 and 54 cms ( 18 . 5 - 21 . 3 inches ) and a tail length between 28 and 33 cms ( 11 - 13 inches ) . they are dark brown to black in colour with a paler coloured underside . habitat hose ' s palm civets can be found in the mountainous forests of borneo . diet hose ' s palm civets feed on worms and insects . subspecies there are no subspecies of hose ' s palm civet . interesting facts hose ' s palm civet was named after the zoologist charles hose . hose ' s palm civets are only known from 15 museum specimens , the last of which was collected in 1955 . very little is known about this species . similar animals african palm civet asian palm civet banded palm civet golden palm civet masked palm civet owston ' s palm civet small - toothed palm civet sulawesi palm civet\nhose ' s palm civet - buy hose ' s palm civet by surhone , lambert m . | editor ; tennoe , mariam t . | editor ; henssonow , susan f . | editor online at best prices in india - urltoken\nfrancis , c . 2002 . an observation of hose ' s civet in brunei .\nvan rompaey , h . , j . azlan . 2004 . hose ' s civet ,\nhose ' s palm civet ( english , paperback , lambert m . surhone , mariam t . tennoe , susan f . henssonow )\nhose ' s civet is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nyasuma , s . ( 2004 ) observations of a live hose\u2019s civet diplogale hosei . small carnivore conservation , 31 : 5 - 7 .\nyasuma , s . 2004 . observations of a live hose ' s civet diplogale hosei . small carnivore conservation 31 : 3 - 5 .\nthe\nnew\nborneo animal , i speculated , might be an example of a rediscovered ( no longer extinct ) hose\u2019s palm civet ( diplogale hosei ) .\nglenn , c . r . 2006 .\nearth ' s endangered creatures - hose ' s palm civet facts\n( online ) - licensed article from wikipedia : the free encyclopedia . accessed\nyasuma , s . 2004 . observations of a live hose ' s civet diplogale hosei . small carnivore conservation , 31 : 3 - 5 .\nowston ' s palm civets are named after the asian wildlife collector alan owston .\nwikipedia article copyright notice : this article is licensed under the gnu free documentation license . it uses material from the wikipedia article\nhose ' s palm civet\n.\nthe parental investment of hose ' s civets is not known . the closely related\nwilting , a . , j . fickel . 2012 . phylogenetic relationship of two threatened endemic viverrids from the sunda islands , hose ' s civet and sulawesi civet .\nfrancis , c . 2002 . an observation of hose ' s civet in brunei . small carnivore conservation , 26 : 19 .\nfacts summary : the hose ' s palm civet ( diplogale hosei ) is a species of concern belonging in the species group\nmammals\nand found in the following area ( s ) : brunei darussalam , malaysia .\nof 3 months , owston ' s palm civets give birth to 1 - 3 young .\nwith reverso you can find the english translation , definition or synonym for hose ' s palm civet [ diplogale hosei ] and thousands of other words . you can complete the translation of hose ' s palm civet [ diplogale hosei ] given by the english - french collins dictionary with other dictionaries such as : wikipedia , lexilogos , larousse dictionary , le robert , oxford , gr\u00e9visse\nfrancis , c . m . 2002 . an observation of hose ' s civet in brunei . small carnivore conservation 26 : 16 .\nthe wildlife conservation society , upper baram project , malaysia , had obtained an interesting series of camera trap photos in 2004 on the unlogged areas of mount murud kecil , sarawak . one is of this slender unknown civet , shown above , with a very long tail , pale underparts and white around the muzzle , similar to hose\u2019s palm civet . this individual was photographed on the ridge of the mountain , far from the streams which are the hose\u2019s palm civet\u2019s supposed habitat .\nas opposed to this ( 2005 ) media - celebrated \u201cnew animal , \u201d i said it seemed more proper to say this might be a probable \u201crediscovery\u201d of an extinct form , the hose\u2019s palm civet , as can be seen in a drawing from the excellent lioncrusher reference site and shown directly below this paragraph . the hose\u2019s palm civet appeared to me to be what was photographed from borneo .\nnothing is known about the reproductive behavior of hose ' s civets . other members of the\nhose\u2019s civet is endemic to the island of borneo , where it occurs in sabah and sarawak ( malaysia ) and brunei ( 1 ) .\nthe markings on its face resemble a raccoons facial markings . its tail does not have rings , unlike similar palm civet species . the common palm civet has sharp claws which allow it to climb trees and house gutters .\nthe common palm civet ( paradoxurus hermaphroditus ) , also known as the\u2019 asian palm civet\u2019 \u2018musang\u2019 or the \u2018toddy cat\u2019 , is a cat - sized mammal that resides in the southeast asian tropical rainforests . the common palm civet is found from the himalayas and southern china , to the philippines , the malay peninsula and the indonesian islands .\nhose ' s civet is taken as part of general mammal hunting for food across its range . there is no evidence of specific targeting by hunters .\nfrancis , c . m . ( 2002 ) . an observation of hose ' s civet in brunei . small carnivore conservation , 26 : 16 .\nwilting , a . and fickel , j . 2012 . phylogenetic relationship of two threatened endemic viverrids from the sunda islands , hose\u2019s civet and sulawesi civet . journal of zoology , london 288 : 184\u2013190 .\nsars virus , many believe the masked palm civet to be the source of the sars outbreaks in asia in 2003 .\nwilting , a . , j . fickel . 2012 . phylogenetic relationship of two threatened endemic viverrids from the sunda islands , hose ' s civet and sulawesi civet . journal of zoology : 1 - 7 .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - hose ' s civet ( diplogale hosei )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - hose ' s civet ( diplogale hosei )\ntitle =\narkive species - hose ' s civet ( diplogale hosei )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nvan rompaey , h . , j . azlan . 2004 . hose ' s civet , diplogale hosei . small carnivore conservation , 30 : 18 - 19 .\nthe common palm civet is a highly adaptive animal and can live in dense forests , agricultural areas and even alongside humans .\nhose\u2019s civet has a long , sinewy body and short legs ( 4 ) . the elongated head has a pointed muzzle , with long facial whiskers ( 4 ) .\nvan rompaey , h . and azlan , m . j . 2004 . hose ' s civet , diplogale hosei . small carnivore conservation 30 : 18 - 19 .\nthe common palm civets species name comes from the fact that both male and female have scent glands underneath the tail that resemble testicles . it can spray a harmful secretion from these glands . the common palm civet is solitary , nocturnal and arboreal . common palm civets spend the day asleep in a tree hollow . common palm civets are territorial .\njennings ap , mathai j , brodie j , giordano aj , veron g . 2013 . predicted distributions and conservation status of two threatened southeast asian small carnivores : the banded civet and hose\u2019s civet . mammalia 77 : 261 - 671 .\nowston ' s palm civets can be found in the forests and wooded lowlands of northern vietnam , northern laos and southern china .\nbtw , here\u2019s an interesting coincidence . i thought it might be hose\u2019s palm civet , which was first described by thomas in 1892 , 1915 . if it is thomas\u2019 flying squirrel , aeromys thomasi , i see the person that described this animal was hose , in 1900 . it appears hose and thomas were friends , associates , or , at least , overlapped each other in their discoveries . apparently , their lives are intertwined , once again , in this 2003 - 2007 dilemma .\ncommon palm civets reproduce throughout the year although it has been recorded that kittens are most often seen from october to december . kittens are born in a litter of 2 to 5 young . palm civets become sexually mature at 11 to 12 months . in captivity the common palm civet can live up to 22 years .\nthe common palm civet has black markings on its feet , ears and muzzle . it also has three rows of black markings on its main body .\ni compared the photos from mount murud kecil ( directly above ) , with this drawing ( below ) of the newly discovered borneo\ncivet .\ni thought in 2005 that a good case could to be made that the allegedly \u201cnew borneo animal\u201d was the supposedly extinct ( since 1955 ) hose\u2019s palm civet . i observed it might be similar to the above photographed\nunderreported\nunknown civet from mount murud kecil .\nthe wall street journal ran a front page lead story on the palm oil scandal .\nthe borneo rainforest is one of the few remaining natural habitats for the endangered orangutan . it is an important refuge for many endemic forest species , including the borneo elephant , the eastern sumatran rhinoceros , the bornean clouded leopard , the hose ' s palm civet and the dayak fruit bat .\nin 2005 , the world wide fund for nature released photos taken by a night time camera trap of an unknown carnivore ( nicknamed the cat - fox ) on borneo . scientists debate whether this animal is new species of civet , or a known , but rare , species ( such as hose ' s palm civet , thought previously to be extinct ) .\nit is likely that habitat loss and degradation are major threats to hose\u2019s civet , as throughout borneo , forests have been lost to logging and converted for other land - uses ( 7 ) ( 8 ) .\nhon , j . , j . azlan . 2008 .\ndiplogale hosei ( hose ' s civet )\n( on - line ) . iucn red list . accessed october 04 , 2012 at urltoken .\nbrodie , j . and giordano , a . 2011 . small carnivores of the maliau basin , sabah , borneo , including a new locality for the hose\u2019s civet diplogale hosei . small carnivore conservation 44 : 1\u20136 .\nthe mating system of hose ' s civets is not known due to the elusive nature of the species and the lack of individuals in captivity .\nthe elusive hose\u2019s civet ( diplogale hosei ) is so rare that it has only been caught on film once . prior to 2004 , the only descriptions of this species came from observations of fifteen museum specimens ( 2 ) .\nsamejima , h . and semiadi , g . 2012 . first record of hose\u2019s civet diplogale hosei from indonesia and records of other carnivores in the schwaner mountains , central kalimantan , indonesia . small carnivore conservation 46 : 1\u20137 .\njennings , a . p . , mathai , j . , brodie , j . , giordano , a . j . and veron , g . 2013 . predicted distributions and conservation status of two threatened southeast asian small carnivores : the banded civet and hose ' s civet . mammalia 77 : 261\u2013271 .\nbrodie , j . , a . giordano . 2011 . small carnivores of the maliau basin , sabah , borneo , including a new locality for hose ' s civet diplogale hosei . small carnivore conservation , 44 : 1 - 6 .\nwild fires were being set in borneo to clear land for logging and planting of palm oil plantations .\nindustry , and captured civets are kept specifically for the production of \u201ccivet musk . \u201d for this reason the african civet is probably the most economically important viverrid .\nthe conversion of forest to palm oil plantations is of particular concern ( 8 ) . as the demand for palm oil , which is used for food products , detergents , cosmetics and biofuel , grows , the pressure on borneo\u2019s forests is likely to increase ( 9 ) .\nthere are no known direct economic benefits of hose ' s civets , as they are almost unknown to humans and live in an unpopulated area . other members of the\nthe banded palm civet has a long pointed face , reminiscent of insectivorous mammals . it has a long body set on short legs , and five toes on each foot with retractable claws . it looks very similar to owston ' s palm civet ( chrotogale owstoni ) , except that it lacks spots on its body , and the hair on its neck points upwards instead of down along the neck . it is also similar to the rare hose ' s palm civet ( diplogale hosei ) , an endemic of northern borneo - they only differ in shape of muzzle and teeth and hose ' s civet does not have the banded pelage of the banded civet . banded civet has short , dense fur that is generally a dark cream / buff color with four to five dark bands on its back . its tail has two dark bands and the latter half of the tail is dark brown to black . there is a dark brown stripe that extends down the length of the top of the muzzle , and two stripes that extend from the top middle of the eye to the inside corner of the ears . there are two areas of white above and below each eye , and the muzzle is darker than the rest of the face .\npalm oil is principally produced in one area of the world : indonesia and malaysia . just a few years ago indonesia and malaysia accounted for 88 % of world production and 91 % of world trade in palm oil .\nsamejia , h . , g . semiadi . 2012 . first record of hose ' s civet diplogale hosei from indonesia , and records of other carnivores in the schwaner mountains , central kalimantan , indonesia . small carnivore conservation , 46 : 1 - 7 .\nwhile these are the\ntrue civets ,\nother mammalian species in other families also have the common name of civet . the african palm civet ( nandinia binotata ) is a slender - bodied , arboreal mammal that is the only extant member of the family nandiniidae . the malagasy civet or striped civet ( fossa fossana ) is a rare member of the eupleridae family ( a taxon of\nmalagasy carnivores\n) . spotted skunks , comprising the genus spilogale in the even more distant family mephitidae , are sometimes called\ncivet cats .\nas the only individual held in captivity was released after 2 and a half months , the lifespan of hose ' s civets in captivity or the wild is not known .\ncommon palm civets are classed as \u2018least concern\u2019 . it is plentiful in its natural range and is not endangered .\nmatsubayashi , h . , bernard , h . and ahmad , a . h . 2011 . small carnivores of the imbak canyon , sabah , malaysia , borneo , including a new locality for the hose\u2019s civet diplogale hosei . small carnivore conservation 45 : 18\u201322 .\nvirologists have speculated that the source of the sars - cov virus , which had a significant outbreak in asia in 2003 , can be traced back to a particular species of civet , the masked palm civet . many people hunt the masked palm civet for its meat . it has been speculated that through such practices the sars virus was first introduced to humans . however , the possibility remains that the virus may have been contracted in some other unknown animal before infecting the masked palm civet . since this information has been exposed to the public , the ingestion of civets in asia has dropped drastically , going from 51 percent of people that do not eat civets to 72 percent ( ap 2006 ) .\nthe civet produces a musk ( also called civet ) highly valued as a fragrance and stabilizing agent for perfume . both male and female civets produce the strong - smelling secretion , which is produced by the civet ' s perineal glands ( not anal scent glands as in the mustelidae family and in the skunks of the mephitidae family ) .\nmatsubayashi , h . , h . bernard , a . ahmad . 2011 . small carnivores of the imbak canyon , sabah , malaysia , borneo , including a new locality for hose ' s civet diplogale hosei . small carnivore conservation , 45 : 18 - 22 .\npatou ml , chen j , cosson l , andersen dh , cruaud c , couloux a , randi e , zhang s , veron g . 2009 . low genetic diversity in the masked palm civet paguma larvata ( viverridae ) . journal of zoology 278 : 218 - 230 .\nmathai , j . , juat , n . and peter , a . 2010b . carnivore records , including updated records of the endemic hose\u2019s civet diplogale hosei , from a logging concession in the upper baram , sarawak . sarawak museum journal lxvii ( 88 ) : 159\u2013188 .\nthe common palm civet weighs around 3 . 2 kilograms ( 7 pounds ) and has a body length of 53 centimetres ( 21 inches ) . the common palm has a tail length of 48 centimetres ( 19 inches ) . its long , stocky body is covered with coarse , shaggy hair that is usually a greyish colour .\n, hose ' s civets have glands for scent - marking ; how extensively they use them , however , is unknown . vocalizations have not been mentioned in any reported live observations .\nowston ' s palm civets have a body length between 51 and 64 cms ( 20 - 25 inches ) and a tail length between 38 and 48 cms ( 15 - 19 inches ) .\nhose\u2019s civet is legally protected in both sarawak and sabah ( 1 ) . it is also known to occur in a number of protected areas , such as mount kinabulu national park in sabah and ulu temburong national park in brunei ( 1 ) , which may offer its habitat some protection .\nveron g , patou ml , jennings a . p . 2015 . molecular systematics of the small - toothed palm civet ( arctogalidia trivirgata ) reveals a strong divergence of bornean populations . mammalian biology 80 : 347 - 354 .\nchen jp , andersen dh , veron g , randi e , zhang sy . 2008 . isolation and characterization of polymorphic microsatellite markers for the masked palm civet ( paguma larvata ) . biochemical genetics 46 : 392 - 397 .\nwells , k . , biun , a . and gabin , m . 2005 . viverrid and herpestid observations by camera and small mammal cage trapping in the lowland rainforests on borneo including a record of the hose ' s civet , diplogale hosei . small carnivore conservation 32 : 12 - 14 .\nwells , k . , a . biun , m . gabin . 2005 . viverrid and herpesterid observations by camera and small mammal cage trapping in the lowland forests of borneo including a record of the hose ' s civet , diplogale hosei . small carnivore conservation , 32 : 12 - 14 .\nare hunted or farmed for the secretions of their scent glands , which is a valuable substance in the making of perfumes ; however , no record of harvesting hose ' s civets for this purpose exists .\nveron g . 2013 . evolutionary history and biogeography of southeast asia palm civets ( viverridae , carnivora ) . 11th international mammalogical congress . queen\u2019s university of belfast , 11th - 16th august 2013 , belfast , uk .\ncommon palm civets live in tropical forested habitats , parks and suburban gardens where mature fruit trees and fig trees grow and undisturbed vegetation .\nthe navy\u2019s red hill facility is leaking into the ground near or over the aquifer .\nthe banded palm civet ( hemigalus derbyanus ) , also called the banded civet , is a civet found in the sundaic region and occurs in peninsular myanmar , peninsular malaysia , peninsular thailand and in indonesia on the islands of sipura , sumatra and borneo . it is listed as vulnerable because of an ongoing population decline , estimated to be more than 30 % over the last three generations , inferred from over - exploitation , decline in habitat quality , and habitat destruction and degradation .\nthe common palm civet is a nocturnal omnivore . its primary food source is fruit such as chiku ( from a long - lived , evergreen tree native to the new world tropics ) , mango ( a tropical fruit of the mango tree ) and rambutan ( a medium - sized tropical tree ) . it also has a fondness for palm flower sap which , when fermented , becomes \u2018toddy\u2019 , a sweet liquor .\nlittle is known about the habitat of the rarely - seen hose\u2019s civet ( 5 ) . it has been recorded in forest , in places where the ground was exceedingly wet and moss covered the rocks and trees ( 2 ) . it is thought to inhabit areas at elevations between 450 and 1 , 700 metres ( 5 ) ( 6 ) .\nphylogeny of viverridae ( civets , palm civets , genets ) , prionodontidae ( linsangs ) , herpestidae ( mongooses ) and eupleridae ( malagasy carnivores ) .\nkopi luwak , also known as caphe cut chon ( fox - dung coffee ) in vietnam and kape alamid in the philippines , is coffee that is prepared using coffee cherries that have been eaten and partially digested by the asian palm civet , then harvested from its feces .\nin sri lanka , the asian palm civet ( paradoxurus hermaphroditus ) is known as\nuguduwa\nby the sinhala speaking community . the term uguduwa and kalawedda is used interchangeably by the sri lankan community to refer to the same animal . however , the term kalawedda is mostly used to refer to a different species of the civet family , which is similar in appearance to the ring - tailed cat .\nbecause of the few records of hose\u2019s civet and the paucity of research on the species , it is difficult to characterise even the current major threats , let alone minor and future ones . based on the gis exercise as part of this assessment ( see sections on ' range description ' and ' population ' for details of this gis exercise ) , it was predicted that between 2000 and 2010 , only around 3 - 7 % of forests in potentially suitable land - cover classes were lost . this indicates that deforestation rates within the bornean central highlands have been low . although this may be the case , it is projected that higher - elevation forests will come under increasing pressure from the logging industry because much of the lowland forest has already been logged , and also from the expansion of oil palm plantations to higher elevations facilitated by climatic warming and improved cultivars ( brodie in review ) . moreover , the construction of several massive hydro - electric dams in central borneo will cause the displacement of several thousand indigenous people ; this , in turn , is predicted to increase levels of unsustainable and indiscriminate hunting practices such as the use of nets and snares to which many largely ground - dwelling species , plausibly including hose\u2019s civet , are highly susceptible . human displacement caused by hydroelectric dams is also projected to increase shifting agriculture at higher elevations and this , coupled with habitat loss through infrastructure development linked to the dams , logging and oil palm expansion , poses the threat of a fragmented landscape through which habitat specialists such as hose\u2019s civet might be less able to disperse than at present , leading to increasingly isolated populations . based on a combination of such threats , a decline of more than 10 % in the hose\u2019s civet population is very likely over the next 15 years ( approximately three generations ) .\nalthough little is known about hose\u2019s civet , it is assumed to be a nocturnal animal that rests by day in holes in rocks and tree roots . when it leaves its resting place at night , it possibly forages on small fish , shrimp , crabs and frogs near streams . it also may catch insects and other small animals on the mossy ground ( 2 ) .\ncommon palm civets forage mainly at night . the likelihood of encountering predators during the day may have favoured nocturnal foraging behaviour . the activity period , from around 6pm in the evening to 4am in the morning , is influenced by daylight . palm civets become active only after dark and retreat to rest sites just before dawn .\ndead oiled birds and tar balls came ashore at kauai ' s barking sands , polihale , nukoli , fujii , and kipu kai beaches in september 1998 . the u . s . coast guard determined through chemical analysis , that the oil was from a tesoro hose failure between the barbers point shore at the oil / chemical tanker overseas new york .\nhc & s burned bagasse to generate power for its needs . hc & s wanted to sell surplus power to meco but meco needed steady output ( firm power ) . so hc & s added 40 , 000 tons of coal per year to their bagasse , and sold electricity to meco as \u201crenewable energy . \u201d\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\nanother tesoro leak at barber ` s point occurred in 2001 involving the oil / chemical tanker overseas chicago .\n\u201d ( 2010 ) found that in the u . s . 20 , 000 people die prematurely each year from fossil fuel air pollution , and that u . s . health impacts cost $ 120 billion / year .\nthe common palm civet is also fond of coffee cherries . they eat the outer fruit and the coffee beans pass through their digestive tract . an expensive coffee called \u2018kopi luwak\u2019 is supposedly made from these coffee beans . kopi luwak is said to have a gamy flavour and sells for more than $ 100 per pound .\nvery little is known about the habits of hose ' s civet in the wild . most of what is known is based on inferences from physical characteristics , the few specimens spotted or collected , and from the observations of the single individual ever held in captivity . they are most likely nocturnal : camera traps primarily recorded the species at night , and during 2 and a half months of observation the individual in captivity only left its hole after dark . based on this individual ' s behavior and on the few records from the wild , hose ' s civets are mostly terrestrial in habit , rarely using trees for shelter or foraging ; however , a few early specimens were collected from the forest canopy . its partially webbed paws and long whiskers might be adaptations for living in moist areas , suggesting they might be semi - aquatic .\njust as there are no known direct economic benefits to humans provided by hose ' s civets , there are also no known adverse impacts . it is unlikely that they are an important reservoir of diseases that affect humans , due to their low density and range being limited mostly unpopulated areas .\nalthough the african palm civet ( nandinia binotata ) resembles the other civets , it is genetically distinct and belongs in its own monotypic family , nandiniidae ) . the malagasy civet ( fossa fossana ) was initially placed together with the true civets , but it was moved to the family eupleridae when phylogenetic analysis of dna provided strong evidence that all malagasy carnivores evolved from a single common ancestor that was a herpestid ( yoder et al . 2003 ; yoder and flynn 2003 ; gaubert et al . 2005 ) .\nmathai , j . , brodie , j . , meiri , s . , peter , a . , alfred , r . , kramer - schadt , s . and wilting , a . in prep . status of diplogale hosei in borneo .\nnowak , r . m . ( 1999 ) walker\u2019s mammals of the world . the johns hopkins university press , baltimore , maryland .\nmyers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2008 . suborder feliformia ( feliform carnivores ) animal diversity web . retrieved december 26 , 2008 .\nin sri lanka , the palm civet is known as \u2018uguduwa\u2019 by the sinhala speaking community . in most parts of the island , the civets become a menace to the people due to fact that it litters in ceilings and attics of common households and then makes loud noises at night disturbing the sleep of the inhabitants of the house ( noises are mostly due to their movements and fights ) .\njennings a & veron g . 2011 . predicted distributions and ecological niches of eight civet and mongoose species in southeast asia . journal of mammalogy 92 : 316 - 327 .\nmohd naim , andreas dwi advento , sudharto ps , jennings ap , veron g , verwilghen a , caliman jp . 2012 . the presence and distribution of small carnivores in oil palm plantation and their role in controlling rat damage : preliminary results from a camera trapping study . 4th iopri - mpob international seminar : existing and emerging pests and diseases of oil palm . advances in research and management . 13 - 14 december 2012 , bandung , indonesia .\na national academy of science study , conducted at the request of u . s . congress , analyzed energy - induced health impacts . \u201c\nverwilghen a , jennings ap , veron g , raoul f , naim m , aryawan aak , advento ad , sudharto ps , caliman jp , giraudoux p . 2016 . spatial distribution of small carnivores within oil palm plantations . icope 2016 .\nalso , the\nnew\nborneo animal and the unknown mount murud kecil civet reinforced , positively , the use of camera traps , as a method to show\nhidden\nanimals .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nvery little information exists about the ecosystem roles of hose ' s civets . as it seems to live in extremely low densities , it is unlikely that it plays a major role in ecosystem dynamics , or that it is the principal predator , prey , or host of any particular species . as it doesn ' t seem to eat fruit , it is unlikely that it acts as a seed disperser .\npatou ml , debruyne r , jennings ap , zubaid a , rovie - ryan jj , veron g . 2008 . phylogenetic relationships of the asian palm civets ( hemigalinae & paradoxurinae , viverridae , carnivora ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 47 : 883 - 892 .\npatel rp , wutke s , lenz d , mukherjee s , ramakrishnan u , veron g , fickel j , wilting a , f\u00f6rster dw . 2017 . genetic structure and phylogeography of the leopard cat ( prionailurus bengalensis ) inferred from mitochondrial genomes . journal of heredity 108 ( 4 ) : 349 - 360 . doi : urltoken\npatou ml , wilting a , gaubert p , esselstyn ja , cruaud c , jennings a , fickel j , veron g . 2010 . evolutionary history of the paradoxurus palm civets - a new model for asian biogeography . journal of biogeography 37 : 2077 - 2097 .\nyoder , a . d . , m . m . burns , s . zehr , t . delefosse , g . veron , s . m . goodman , and j . j . flynn . 2003 . single origin of malagasy carnivora from an african ancestor nature 42 : 734 - 737 . retrieved december 26 , 2008 .\ncivil defense gave an alert for community members to evacuate if they felt symptoms from pgv ' s hydrogen sulfide release and dispatched the hazardous materials response team to pgv .\njennings ap , mohd naim , andreas dwi advento , anak agung ketut aryawan , sudharto ps , caliman jp , verwilghen a , veron g . 2015 . diversity and occupancy of small carnivores within oil palm plantations in central sumatra , indonesia . mammal research 60 : 181\u2013188 .\nschipper , j . , m . hoffmann , j . duckworth , j . conroy . 2008 . the 2008 iucn red listings of the world ' s small carnivores .\na chevron pipeline ruptured on may 14 , 1996 , discharging 41 , 000 gallons of no . 6 bunker fuel oil into waiawa stream adjacent to heco\u2019s waiau power plant .\ncivet is the common name for various , small , cat - like , almost arboreal mammals in the family viverridae , characterized by a long , lithe body with relatively short legs , a long , pointed muzzle , and relatively short ears . they are native to the tropics of africa and asia . the term civet also refers to the strong - smelling secretion ( musk ) of the perianal glands that is used in perfumes and medicines .\njustification : hose ' s civet is listed as vulnerable because its population is likely to be lower than 10 , 000 mature individuals , based on an area of occupancy ( aoo ) estimated as 28 , 000 km\u00b2 ; the assumption of a very patchy distribution even within this area ; an indicative population density of one individual per km\u00b2 ( based on studies of similar - sized , largely ground - dwelling civets such as malay civet viverra tangalunga in borneo ; e . g . , col\u00f3n 2002 ) in areas considered highly \u2018suitable\u2019 for the species ; and the very low detection rates in other areas suggesting overall density to be much below this . it is also estimated that there will be an ongoing population decline of at least 10 % over the next three generations ( taken as 15 years ) . this decline is expected because of increased pressure on higher - elevation forests as a result of expansion of logging activities and monoculture plantations to higher elevations , coupled with increase in shifting agriculture and indiscriminate hunting practices using nets and snares as a result of human displacement caused by mega hydro - electric dam projects in the centre of borneo . the combination of such human - induced activities poses the threat of a highly fragmented landscape through which habitat specialists such as hose\u2019s civet may be less able to disperse than at present , leading to increasingly isolated populations . although there are no figures to support this ongoing decline in population size , it is precautionary to acknowledge that these threats will probably take place within the next 15 years , and so to classify the species as vulnerable .\ncol\u00f3n , c . p . 2002 . ranging behaviour and activity of the malay civet ( viverra tangalunga ) in a logged and unlogged forest in danum valley , east malaysia . journal of zoology , london 257 : 473\u2013485 .\npatou ml , debruyne r , jennings ap , zubaid a , rovie - ryan jj , veron g . 2008 . phylogenetic relationships of the asian palm civets ( hemigalinae & paradoxurinae , viverridae , carnivora ) . communication . xx international congress of zoology , paris , 26 - 28 aout 2008 .\nhose ' s civets are believed to primarily inhabit montane forests between 450 and 1500 m above sea level , with an additional sighting at 287 m . they are mainly a terrestrial species that forages along mossy stream banks , although some specimens have been collected from the forest canopy . the forests they inhabit are mostly mature mixed dipterocarp , but some sightings have been in recently logged areas , possibly indicating that they have some level of resilience to human activity .\nas they are very elusive animals , the exact status of hose ' s civets is uncertain . it is likely , however , that they have been adversely impacted by human activity such as logging throughout their range . low population densities could make them vulnerable to the region - wide habitat loss and degradation associated with logging and development . because of this , the iucn has listed them as vulnerable . in sarawak , malaysia , they are listed as protected .\npatou ml , wilting a , fickel j , veron g . 2009 . evolutionary history of the palm civets ( paradoxurus hermaphroditus ) - a new model for asian biogeography . communication . 7th international conference on behaviour , physiology and genetics of wildlife , 21st - 24th september 2009 , berlin , germany .\nmiettinen , j . , shi , c . and liew , s . c . 2011 . deforestation rates in insular southeast asia between 2000 and 2010 . global change biology 17 : 2261\u20132270 .\nthe 20 - mile petroleum , oils and lubricants pipeline connected the air force ` s wakakalaua fuel storage annex in wahiawa and kipapa gulch fuel storage annex in waipio with hickam air force base .\ntwo days later on january 7 , 2006 , i posted more , after some research and looking at various other cam photos ( such as these , below ) . i speculated that the animal photographed might be an extinct species of civet rediscovered .\nborneo has significant cave systems . clearwater cave has one of the world ' s longest underground rivers . deer cave is home to over three million bats , with guano accumulated to over 330 feet deep .\nwhile in route from barbers point to ulsan , south korea , the u . s . tank vessel ss omi yukon suffered major explosions and fires in the starboard fuel oil storage tanks and engine room .\njennings ap , zubaid a , veron g . 2010 . ranging behaviour , activity , habitat use , and morphology of the malay civet ( viverra tangalunga ) on peninsular malaysia and comparison with studies on borneo and sulawesi . mammalian biology 75 : 437 - 446 .\nveron g , gaubert p , franklin n , jennings ap , grassman l , 2006 . a reassessment of the distribution and taxonomy of the endangered otter civet , cynogale bennettii ( carnivora : viverridae ) of south - east asia . oryx 40 : 42 - 49 .\nassociated press ( ap ) . 2006 . civets , other wildlife off the chinese menu . fears of bird flu , sars shrink china ' s appetite for wild delicacies . msnbc . retrieved december 26 , 2008 .\nthe county but not the state reacted to community concerns and passed geothermal - based health - related ordinances . the 2016 state legislature proposed stripping the county ` s ability to enact health ordinances related to geothermal emissions .\nmohd naim , aa ketut aryawan , sudharto ps , jennings ap , veron g , verwilghen a , turner ec , putri aulia w , caliman jp . 2014 . understanding the relationship between rat populations and small carnivores in oil palm plantations : outputs for sustainable control of rats . icope 2014 , 12 - 14 feb , kuta , bali , indonesia .\nviverrids are native to africa ( except the area immediately south of the mediterranean ) , madagascar , the iberian peninsula , southern china , and southeast asia . favored habitats include woodland , savanna , and mountain biomes and , above all , tropical rainforest . in consequence , many are faced with severe loss of habitat . several species are considered vulnerable and the otter civet ( cynogale bennettii ) , a semi - aquatic civet found in forests near rivers and swampy areas of the thai - malay peninsula , sumatra , and borneo , is classified as endangered .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\ns . viverrids are among the most poorly known carnivores . they are rarely encountered , being small and secretive inhabitants of forests and dense vegetation . in addition , many species live only on islands or in small areas .\ndelgado s , vidal n , veron g , sire jy . 2008 . amelogenin , the major protein of tooth enamel : a new phylogenetic marker for ordinal mammal relationships . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 47 : 865 - 869 .\nveron g , patou ml , jennings ap . 2013 . systematics of the asian mongooses ( herpestidae , carnivora ) . 11th international mammalogical congress . queen\u2019s university of belfast , 11th - 16th august 2013 , belfast , uk .\njennings ap , veron g . 2013 . ecology of southeast asian civets ( viverridae ) and mongooses ( herpestidae ) . 11th international mammalogical congress . queen\u2019s university of belfast , 11th - 16th august 2013 , belfast , uk .\npools of submerged oil contaminated the ten acre waiawa marsh , a restricted wildlife area and home to the state ' s four endangered species of water birds , the hawaiian stilt , coot , duck , and the moor hen .\nschipper , j . , m . hoffmann , j . duckworth , j . conroy . 2008 . the 2008 iucn red listings of the world ' s small carnivores . small carnivore conservation , 39 : 29 - 34 .\nhawaiian electric company ( heco ) proposed importing palm oil from producers who adhered to just six of these standards as long as the producer was working towards \u201c no child labor \u201d and working towards \u201c free , prior and informed consent \u201d of native peoples at the particular plantation where the biofuel would come from , regardless of what the producers did on their other plantations .\n) , are semiaquatic . viverrids are mostly carnivorous , their diet consisting of small rodents such as mice and voles , birds and their eggs , reptiles , amphibians , fruits , nuts , and insects . some , such as palm civets , eat mostly fruit ; their frugivorous habit is reflected in the molars , which are larger and flatter than those of carnivourous viverrids .\nthe mystery animal\u2019s pictures were initially taken by wwf field researchers in 2003 , but the photos were kept unpublished by the wwf as research continued . the wwf decided to make public the photos with the release of a book about borneo .\njacques h , veron g , allary f , aulagnier s . 2009 . the congo clawless otter aonyx congicus ( mustelidae , lutrinae ) : a review of its systematics , distribution and conservation status . african zoology 44 : 159 - 170 .\nthere is almost no information on population estimates and breeding status of hose\u2019s civet . it has rarely been detected ; with the increasing number of studies in borneo using camera - traps , encounter rates remain very low . the paucity of research on the species prevents reliable quantitative estimates . the wide altitudinal spread of records suggest that the species ought to be common in collections ; the fact that it is not suggests very strongly that something renders it very localised , very low density , or both . moreover , the large survey effort by capable researchers using appropriate techniques in areas that seemingly ought to hold the species ( forest within the documented altitudinal and geographic range ) , still yield low encounter rates ( if at all ) , further corroborating the hypothesis of a highly patchy distribution and low density . unlike other civets , this species is apparently seldom encountered by native hunters . again , this gives credence to the hypothesis of patchy distribution and low density , although other explanations are possible such as , until recently , local hunters not venturing far from their villages or high into the mountains when hunting . as part of this assessment , a gis exercise applying data from the borneo carnivore symposium ( june 2011 ) , for which a habitat suitability analysis ( incorporating a maxent analysis and a respondent opinion assessment ) was conducted ( mathai et al . in prep . ) , estimated about 28 , 000 km\u00b2 of broadly suitable habitat for hose\u2019s civet , restricted to the higher - elevation forests of interior borneo . assuming that about two - thirds of the population are mature individuals , this would give a total of roughly 19 , 000 mature individuals if the population density is taken at 1 individual per km\u00b2 . for a ground - dwelling small carnivore with very low encounter rates , this density is likely to be much at the higher end ( see col\u00f3n 2002 for a study on the much more frequently encountered malay civet viverra tangalunga in borneo ) . hence , it is likely that the overall density in this 28 , 000 km\u00b2 area is 0 . 5 individuals per km\u00b2 ( or less ) , giving a population size of less than 10 , 000 mature individuals .\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nthe coast guard determined that the 1986 accident had two causes : \u201c contamination of the vessel ' s bunkers with flush oil during bunkering through a subsea pipeline and the absence of a flame screen in the after starboard fuel oil tank vent . \u201d\ncosson l , grassman lljr , zubaid a , vellayan s , tillier a & veron g , 2007 . genetic diversity of captive binturongs ( arctictis binturong , viverridae , carnivora ) : implications for conservation . journal of zoology 271 : 386 - 395 .\ncivet , any of a number of long - bodied , short - legged carnivores of the family viverrid ae . there are about 15 to 20 species , placed in 10 to 12 genera . civets are found in africa , southern europe , and asia . rather catlike in appearance , they have a thickly furred tail , small\u2026\naccording to reports in the times of london and other sources the\nonly evidence that exists are photographs taken by an automatically triggered camera on a jungle trail in indonesia in 2003 . infuriatingly , a large leaf obscured the creature\u2019s face as the shutter went off .\nthe musk or\ncivet\nsecreted from the perianal glands of civets is harvested for use as a base for perfumes and medicine ( myers 2000 ) . it is extracted by either killing the animal and removing the glands , or by scraping the secretions from the glands of a live animal . the latter is the preferred method today .\nmichaud m , peign\u00e9 s , veron g , fabre a - c . 2016 . diversification ph\u00e9notypique des eupleridae ( mammalia , carnivora ) , famille end\u00e9mique de madagascar . poster . 9e symposium national de morphom\u00e9trie et evolution des formes , 1 - 2 juin 2016 , paris .\nno definite information about the diet of hose ' s civets in the wild is known . the single individual that has been held in captivity ate mostly small fish , as well as chicken and lunchmeat , but refused fruit , rice , and fish that were too large to eat in a single bite or that had large scales or spines . this , along with their likely adaptations for foraging around streams , seems to indicate that fish make up most of their diet , along with other meat . fruit and other plant matter probably only contributes significantly to their diet when fish or other meat is unavailable . the individual in captivity ate about 100 g of food daily , leaving any excess .\nyoder , a . d . , and j . j . flynn . 2003 . origin of malagasy carnivora pages 1253 - 1256 in s . m . goodman and j . benstead , eds . , the natural history of madagascar . university of chicago press . isbn 0226303063 .\nstorm damage to trees and utility lines made the roads dangerous and impassable for the attempted hazmat response , and they turned back before reaching the site . the same conditions made it dangerous and impossible for residents feeling symptoms from pgv ' s h2s release to evacuate from their homes .\ngoodman sm and veron g . 2017 - in press . syst\u00e9matique des carnivora malgaches end\u00e9miques ( famille des eupleridae ) / systematics of endemic malagasy carnivora ( family eupleridae ) . in : ( s . m . goodman and m . j . raherilalao , eds . ) les aires prot\u00e9g\u00e9es terrestres de madagascar : leur histoire , descriptions et biotes / the terrestrial protected areas of madagascar : their history , descriptions and biota . s . m . goodman & m . j . raherilalao , eds . association vahatra and the university of chicago press , antananarivo and chicago .\nexxon houston spilled about 117 , 000 gallons of oil in march , 1989 , threatening beaches on the island of oahu . exxon sought to shift damages . exxon lost in district court , at the ninth circuit in 1995 , and before the u . s . supreme court in 1996 .\nenglish - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers\nveron g , willsch m , dacosta v , patou ml , seymour a , bonillo c , couloux a , wong st , jennings ap , fickel j , wilting a . 2014 . the distribution of the malay civet viverra tangalunga ( carnivora : viverridae ) across southeast asia : natural or human - mediated dispersal ? zoological journal of the linnean society 170 : 917 - 932 .\nlinsang , any of three species of long - tailed , catlike mammals belonging to the civet family ( viverrid ae ) . the african linsang ( poiana richardsoni ) , the banded linsang ( prionodon linsang ) , and the spotted linsang ( prionodon pardicolor ) vary in colour , but all resemble elongated cats . they grow to a length of 33\u201343 cm ( 13\u201317 inches ) , excluding\u2026\non december 5 , 2005 , the world wide fund for nature ( wwf ) announced that they had discovered the first new carnivore to be found in the region since the tonkin otter - civet emerged in vietnam in 1930 . also , the wwf said it would be the first new mammal to be specifically found on the island of borneo since the borneo ferret - badger in 1895 .\nanimal rights groups , such as the world society for the protection of animals , express concern that harvesting musk is cruel to animals . between these ethical concerns and the availability of synthetic substitutes , the practice of raising civets for musk is dying out . chanel , maker of the popular perfume chanel no . 5 , claims that natural civet has been replaced with a synthetic substitute since 1998 ."]}
{"id": 462, "summary": [{"text": "antispila aurirubra is a moth of the heliozelidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by braun in 1915 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in california .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 7 \u2013 8 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the thorax and forewings are lustrous and of varying colour , according to the direction of light ranging from greenish golden to a brilliant reddish bronze .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the hindwings are dark gray , but purple toward the apex .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on cornus species .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they mine the leaves of their host plant .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the mine has the form of a brownish blotch . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "antispila aurirubra", "paragraphs": ["antispila aurirubra is a moth of the heliozelidae family . it was described by braun in 1915 . it is found in california .\nantispila petryi martini , 1899 ; stettin ent . ztg 59 ( 10 - 12 ) : 398\nmartini , 1899 antispila petryi nov . spec . stettin ent . ztg 59 ( 10 - 12 ) : 398 - 405\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhodges , r . w . et al . , eds . 1983 . check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . e . w . classey limited and the wedge entomological research foundation , london . 284 pp .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\ndistribution data for u . s . states and canadian provinces is known to be incomplete or has not been reviewed for this taxon .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\npoole , r . w . , and p . gentili ( eds . ) . 1996 . nomina insecta nearctica : a checklist of the insects of north america . volume 3 ( diptera , lepidoptera , siphonaptera ) . entomological information services , rockville , md .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\nall documents and related graphics provided by this server and any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server are provided\nas is\nwithout warranty as to the currentness , completeness , or accuracy of any specific data . natureserve hereby disclaims all warranties and conditions with regard to any documents provided by this server or any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , including but not limited to all implied warranties and conditions of merchantibility , fitness for a particular purpose , and non - infringement . natureserve makes no representations about the suitability of the information delivered from this server or any other documents that are referenced to or linked to this server . in no event shall natureserve be liable for any special , indirect , incidental , consequential damages , or for damages of any kind arising out of or in connection with the use or performance of information contained in any documents provided by this server or in any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , under any theory of liability used . natureserve may update or make changes to the documents provided by this server at any time without notice ; however , natureserve makes no commitment to update the information contained herein . since the data in the central databases are continually being updated , it is advisable to refresh data retrieved at least once a year after its receipt . the data provided is for planning , assessment , and informational purposes . site specific projects or activities should be reviewed for potential environmental impacts with appropriate regulatory agencies . if ground - disturbing activities are proposed on a site , the appropriate state natural heritage program ( s ) or conservation data center can be contacted for a site - specific review of the project area ( see visit local programs ) .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\nthe wingspan is 7\u20138 mm . the thorax and forewings are lustrous and of varying colour , according to the direction of light ranging from greenish golden to a brilliant reddish bronze . the hindwings are dark gray , but purple toward the apex .\nthe larvae feed on cornus species . they mine the leaves of their host plant . the mine has the form of a brownish blotch .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence ."]}
{"id": 468, "summary": [{"text": "colombian weasel ( mustela felipei ) , also known as the don felipe 's weasel , is a very rare species of weasel only known with certainty from the departments of huila and cauca in colombia and nearby northern ecuador ( where only known from a single specimen ) .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "both its scientific and alternative common name honours the mammalogist philip \" don felipe \" hershkovitz .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it appears to be largely restricted to riparian habitats at an altitude of 1,100 to 2,700 m ( 3,600 to 8,900 ft ) .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "there is extensive deforestation within its limited distribution within the northern andes of colombia and ecuador , and with less than ten known specimens , it is probably the rarest carnivoran in south america .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is considered vulnerable by the iucn .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is the second smallest living carnivore on average , being only slightly larger than the least weasel ( mustela nivalis ) and slightly smaller than the ermine or stoat ( m. erminea ) .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the upperparts and tail are blackish-brown , while the underparts are orange-buff . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "colombian weasel", "paragraphs": ["colombian weasel how did the colombian weasel become endangered ? colombia , colombian weasel what habitat / biome does the colombian weasel live in ? works cited urltoken the colombian weasel became endangered because they would chase chickens on farmers territory and the farmers would chase them back and sometimes kill one the colombian weasels habitat is colombia and possibly ecuador they like to have there habitat near water , streams , and lakes . urltoken 3 . urltoken 4 . urltoken 5 . urltoken\nhas colombian weasel mustela felipei been overlooked in collections ? | hector e . ram\u00edrez - chaves - urltoken\n* * * as of 1996 , only five specimens of the colombian weasel were known . three of them were originally mis - labeled as the long - tailed weasel , mustela frenata , before the colombian weasel had been identified as a separate species .\nthe colombian weasel is approximately 22cm ( 9 inches ) long , and one weighed 138g ( 5oz ) .\nthere is extensive deforestation in the area where the colombian weasel has been found ; however , it is not yet established whether this is having an adverse effect on the weasel .\nthe colombian weasel is one of the species that live in the tropical andes biodiversity hotspot ( cons . intl . ) .\nthe colombian weasel ( mustela felepei ) has only recently been discovered and has never been studied in the wild . two british and three colombians are hoping to instigate a detailed study of a colombian weasel population , its habitat and the effects of human activity on them .\ndistribution and habitat modelling for colombian weasel mustela felipei in the northern andes | jos\u00e9 f . gonz\u00e1lez - maya and santiago burneo - urltoken\nuntil they were identified as a separate species in 1996 , several colombian weasels were mistaken for the long - tailed weasel ( mustela frenata ) .\naka \u2026 water weasel , don felipe weasel ( after philip hershkovitz who made numerous contributions to south american fauna in the 1950s ) .\nthere have been no studies of reproduction in colombian weasels . however , in temperate\nin english - language popular culture in particular , the term ' weasel ' is associated with devious characters . a cartoon shown on cartoon network is entitled ' i am weasel ' , whose main character is a weasel . two pok\u00e9mon are based on the weasel , buizel and floatzel .\nthe colombian weasel lives in the mountain forests of the andes , from 1500 to 2000m ( 4921 to 6562ft ) over sea level . the climate is subtropical .\nbecause this species is known from so few specimens and has not been observed in the wild , there is very little known about colombian weasel behavior . like other\nin a paper entitled \u201cphylogeographic patterns of mitochondrial differentiation in the long - tailed weasel , mustela frenata \u201c , produced at the 87th annual meeting of the american society of mammalogists , it was stated that \u201cthe first mitochondrial sequences of the colombian weasel ( mustela felipei ) , used in outgroup comparisons suggest that the colombian weasel might prove a closer sister taxon to the long - tailed weasel ( mustela frenata ) than the traditional sister taxon , the american mink ( neovison vison ) .\nnot much information about the diet of the colombian weasel is known . however , weasels in general are carnivores who eat up to 40 % of their body weight each day . their typical diet includes small mammals , birds , and insects . because it is suspected that the colombian weasel may be aquatic , fish might also be a component of their diet .\nthe females are called ' bitch , doe or jill ' and males ' buck , dog , hub or jack ' . a colombian weasel group is called a ' boogle ' .\ndue to the lack of information about this rare weasel , it is assumed that , being a carnivore , the animal has a similar diet to its weasel cousins , i . e . small mammals , insects , etc . however it\u2019s also suspected that , because of its webbed feet , the colombian weasel might also include fish in its diet . habitat\nthe weasel pre - breeding season population is estimated to be 450 , 000 adults .\nas it has webbing between its toes , scientists think that this weasel may be aquatic .\npatagonian weasel ( lyncodon patagonicus , found in western argentina and central and southern chile ) .\nthere have been no reports of mating systems in colombian weasels . in the related and well - studied species ,\nfemale colombian weasels nurture their newborn young and take care of them for 2 to 3 months . in other ,\n* * * the colombian weasel is probably the rarest carnivore in south america . as of 1989 , virtually nothing was known about its distribution , its status or its ecology . ( schreiber et al . 1989 )\nthe eating inclinations of the colombian weasel : generally speaking , they eat up to forty percent of the body mass on a daily basis . the typical diet consists of : mammals , insects and birds . it is a hypothesis ( or assumption ) of some researchers / experts that colombian weasels are in fact aquatic , then it goes without saying that fish are part of their foods . the colombian weasel is basically a carnivore , lest you get confused , they have been known to attack chickens , and because of this , farmers attacked them in return .\nthe weasel ( mustela nivalis ) is the smallest member of the mustelid family and britains smallest carnivore .\nthey are pale / yellowish brown in colour although they can be darker or redder in different parts of their range . sometimes their tail has a dark brown tip and almost always their muzzle has some white colouration . habitat siberian weasels are found in the tundra , mountains and forested areas throughout east asia . they are solitary and mainly nocturnal but sometimes they hunt during the day . diet siberian weasels are ferocious and efficient predators . they mainly feed up on rodents , lizards , small birds , eggs and insects . breeding siberian weasels breed annually in spring and after a gestation period of 28 - 30 days , 2 - 12 ( average 5 ) young are born in a nest . they are taken care of by the female and when they reach a month old their eyes open . they are weaned at 2 months old and they reach sexual maturity at approximately 2 years of age . predators predators of siberian weasels are large owls and birds of prey . subspecies there are four subspecies of siberian weasel : mustela sibirica subhemachalana mustela sibirica moupiensis mustela sibirica canigula mustela sibirica hodgsoni interesting facts siberian weasels are also known as : siberian mountain weasel kolinsky himalayan weasel siberian weasel fur makes the finest water colour or oil paint brushes and is especially sought after by artists . the kolinsky sable - hair brush is produced using the winter fur of the male siberian weasel , not sable . similar animals back - striped weasel colombian weasel least weasel japanese weasel long - tailed weasel malayan weasel mountain weasel patagonian weasel\none colombian weasel weighed 138 g ( 5 oz ) . known specimens have been collected in areas close to water at elevations of 1750 and 2700 m ( 5740 ' and 8900 ' ) , an altitude where cloud forests predominate . one specimen was collected in a region of the upper suaza river valley where the river contains stretches with torrential currents which are interrupted by quiet pools ( schreiber et al . 1989 ) . however , the most recent collection was in rugged terrain but not near water . webbing between the toes and its ( mostly ) riparian distribution suggests that the colombian weasel is aquatic . five specimens of the colombian weasel have been found in the highlands of the cordillera central of western colombia and in the andes of northern ecuador . there is extensive deforestation in the area where it has been found ; however , it is not yet established whether this is having an adverse effect on the weasel .\nas of 1996 , only five specimens of the colombian weasel were known . the colombian weasel has been found in western colombia as well as the andes of northern ecuador . colombian weasels are considered to be riparian - to live near the bank of a body of water or a watercourse . several specimens have been collected in areas close to water at elevations of 1750 and 2700 m ( 5740 ' and 8900 ' ) , an altitude dominated by cloud forests . one collection was in the upper suaza river valley , where the river contains stretches with torrential currents which are interrupted by quiet pools . however , one of the most recent specimens was found in an area of rugged terrain that was not near water .\ncolombian weasels are likely to be important predators of small animals in the riparian habitats they occupy . little is know of mutualisms or parasitisms in this species .\ncolombian weasels may help humans by controlling rodent and insect pest populations in the areas they occupy . their skins are also used for coats and other clothing products .\ncats , owls , foxes and birds of prey will all try to kill weasels , although a weasel will fight hard to defend itself .\nsince the discovery of the colombian weasel , only five specimens have been obtained from western colombia ( provinces of huila and cauca ) and northern ecuador ( nowak , 2005 ) . the species was thought to be endemic to the cordillera central of colombia , but another specimen was found from andean ecuador ( schreiber\nhave broader bodies . an order of magnitude difference in size exists between the smallest and largest mustelid species . the smallest species is the least weasel (\n* * * inhabitants of areas adjoining sites where the colombian weasel was being studied were asked which mammals they were familiar with . almost all farm - dwelling people questioned had seen weasels , and usually thought of them as pests , since most encounters involved predation upon chickens or domestic guinea pigs ( fawcett et al . 1996 ) .\nproject update : 25 / 3 / 98 . the team were the first to study the recently discovered colombian weasel in the wild . the project led on to a research project on another species of weasel by a local student and an environment education poster about cloudforest mammals was initiated by the leader and iucn specialist group . it will be distributed in colombia and possibly ecuador to raise awareness and generate feedback from wardens and communities on the rarer species ( d . fawcett in litt . 1998 ) .\nafrican striped weasel ( poecilogale albinucha , found in southern africa ) . lariv\u00e8re and jennings ( 2009 ) noted that , given recent data indicating that the african striped weasel is the sister taxon to the zorilla ( ictonyx striatus ) ( koepfli et al . 2008 ) , it should probably be placed in the genus ictonyx as well .\nweasels have light brown fur on their backs and their underparts are creamy / white . the weasel is smaller than the stoat and lacks the small white patches under their chin and throat . in many weasel species , populations living at high latitudes moult to a white coat with black fur at the tip of the tail in winter . weasels have sharp eyesight and excellent hearing .\nthere has been extensive deforestation in the area where this particular weasel has been found but , to date , it hasn\u2019t been established whether this is causing an adverse effect on it or not .\nalmost nothing is known of colombian weasel ' s habitat preferences ( schreiber et al . 1989 ) , but its naked foot soles with extensive interdigital webbing and records in areas of riparian habitats suggest that the species is adapted to water - edge environments ( ram\u00edrez - chaves & patterson 2014 ) . the few specimens have been obtained from between 1 , 525 and 2 , 700 m , an altitude range where cloud forests predominate .\nat the time of the review of the family mustelidae by lariv\u00e8re and jennings ( 2009 ) , the iucn listed seven mustelid species as endangered ( giant otter , marine otter , southern river otter [ lontra provocax ] , sea otter , hairy - nosed otter [ lutra sumatrana ] , european mink , and black - footed ferret ) ; five as vulnerable ( nilgiri marten [ martes gwatkinsii ] , marbled polecat , asian small - clawed otter [ aonyx cinereus ] , smooth - coated otter , and colombian weasel [ mustela felipei ] ) ; and four as near threatened ( hog badger , wolverine , eurasian otter , and mountain weasel [ mustela altaica ] ) . of the remaining species , 35 were listed as least concern and six as data deficient . in fact , so little is known about most mustelid species that reliable status assessments are difficult . the colombian weasel ( mustela felipei ) was described only in 1978 ( izor and de la torre 1978 ) and may be the rarest carnivore in south america ( ram\u00edrez - chaves et al . 2012 ) .\ncolombian weasels communicate with vocalizations , vision , touch , and probably with scent cues . individuals of this species stand on their hind legs to search for others and emit a high - pitched sound to alert relatives in times of danger .\nthe ermine , least weasel , and long - tailed weasel ( mustela frenata ) completely change their coats between summer and winter , with a dramatic change from brown to white in the northern parts of the range and at high elevations ( in other areas , the summer coat is dark ) . interestingly , ermine and long - tailed weasels retain the black tail tip in the winter , which experiments have suggested may focus the attention of potential predators away from the body as a weasel makes its escape . japanese weasels ( mustela itatsi ) replace their dark brown summer coat with a much paler yellowish one in the winter .\nizor , r . , l . de la torre . 1978 . a new species of weasel ( mustela ) form the highlands of colombia , with comments on the evolution and distribution of south american weasels . .\none colombian weasel weighed 138 g ( 5 oz ) . known specimens have been collected in areas close to water at elevations of 1750 and 2700 m ( 5740 ' and 8900 ' ) , an altitude where cloud forests predominate . one specimen was collected in a region of the upper suaza river valley where the river contains stretches with torrential currents which are interrupted by quiet pools ( schreiber et al . 1989 ) . however , the most recent collection was in rugged terrain but not near water .\nthe weasel may travel up to 2 . 5 kilometres on a hunting expedition . weasels are good climbers and will often raid birds nests , taking the eggs and young . when ratting , its courage is even greater than the stoats .\ncolombian weasels are recognized as vulnerable with a decreasing population trend by the iucn . very little is known about their life history and population status , but their rarity and the fact that many of the areas they are thought to inhabit have been severely impacted by deforestation suggests that populations are threatened .\n. smaller carnivores that are restricted to small habitat fragments may also be at risk to predation by larger carnivores that can more easily move among fragments . hunting has been a problem for some species , while others , particularly tropical mustelids , do not seem to be declining as a result . endangered mustelids include : colombian weasels (\nadult specimens have averaged 22 cm ( 8 . 7 in ) in length , not counting the 11 . 5 cm ( 4 . 5 in ) tail , and weighed 120 to 150 g ( 4 . 2 to 5 . 3 oz ) . colombian weasels are the second smallest living carnivore , being only slightly larger than least weasels (\nweasels feed on small mammals and in former times were considered vermin since some species took poultry from farms , or rabbits from commercial warrens . certain species of weasel and ferrets , have been reported to perform the mesmerizing weasel \u2018war dance\u2019 , after fighting other animals , or acquiring food from competing creatures . in folklore at least , this dance is particularly associated with the stoat . mice and voles make up 60 % \u2013 80 % of their diet , however , they also eat rats , frogs and birds . their prey is killed with a sharp bite to the back of the neck . prey is usually taken on the ground .\nmain characteristics siberian weasels are a large species of weasel . they have a body length between 30 and 40 . 5 cms ( 12 - 15 . 9 inches ) , a tail length between 18 and 25 . 5 cms ( 7 - 10 inches ) and they weigh approximately 57 g ( 2 oz ) .\nmorphology : most mustelids are small to medium - sized carnivores with long bodies and short limbs ( some , such as the wolverine and badgers , have a stockier body shape ) . the least weasel , which is not only the smallest weasel but also the world ' s smallest carnivore , may weigh in at as little as 25 g when fully grown . sexual size dimorphism in mustelids can be striking , with males often twice the size of females . the largest mustelid is the sea otter , which can reach 45 kg , and on land , the wolverine , which can reach 18 kg . mustelids have five toes on each foot and often strong claws . their ears can be pointed forward or swiveled to the side , but not folded back .\nonly six specimens of colombian weasel , from five localities in four provinces or departments , have been obtained : from western colombia ( departments of choc\u00f3 - valle del cauca , huila and cauca ) and northern ecuador ( province of napo ) . the most northern is from 4\u00b051 ' n , and the most southern from 0\u00b025 ' n . recent re - examination of neotropical mustela specimens in many collections revealed no new m . felipei , re - affirming the conventional view of the rarity of the species ; many published accounts contain records in error or for which the reliability cannot be judged ( r\u00e1mirez - chaves et al . 2012 ) . it is however possible that the species has been under - recorded because , in this part of the andes , weasels in general are extremely challenging to identify in the field : this species is morphologically very similar to long - tailed weasel m . frenata ( r\u00e1mirez - chaves et al . 2012 ) . tirira and gonzalez - maya ( 2009 ) traced records from 1 , 525 to 2 , 700 m a . s . l . ; a record from a lower altitude was considered to be an error of identification by r\u00e1mirez - chaves et al . ( 2012 ) .\nweasels vary in length , but generally , male weasels measure around 20 \u2013 22 centimetres long and have a tail length of 6 . 5 centimetres and female weasels measure around 15 \u2013 18 centimetres long and have a tail length of 4 . 5 centimetres . the average weasel weighs about 198 grams ( 7 ounces ) , however , males usually weigh up to 115 grams and females up to 59 grams .\n) were recognized . they were found in west colombia and also in parts of north ecuador ( andes ) . the colombian weasel is labelled as riparian , and this means , living near water or a water - course , fact is , many individuals were acquired / sighted near bodies of water at elevations of 1700 to 2700 meters . there are of course exceptions , but truly exceptions at that , one recent discovery was from a place far from water . speaking of the five specimens , they had been found at the high lands of western colombia , and these areas were heavily exploited , deforestation - wise . a specimen in the distant past was found in the upper suaza ( it ' s a river ) where the body of water possesses stretches of currents mixed in with\npeaceful\npools ( and when i say mixed , interrupted is what it means here ) .\neach weasel has a territory of 4 \u2013 8 hectares ( 1 hectare is equal to 2 football pitches ) . male territories are larger than females and they may overlap with one another . the size of the territory depends on the food supply ; where there is plenty there is no need to hunt for food far and wide . the individual territories are marked with strong - smelling secretions from the anal scent glands .\nneither the stoat or weasel is in any real danger of extinction in the uk , they are however threatened by hunting , habitat loss , poisoning and both often get run over on the country lanes . they do tend to live around farms as the hedgerow habitat and plentiful food supply suits them . this often leads them into conflict with farmers , especially problematic are stoats who are very able at snatching chickens , eggs as well as game birds .\ncolombian weasels are very rare , and very little is known about them . they are found in riparian areas , near rivers and along the banks of other natural water sources . only six localities have been confirmed in colombia and ecuador . the few specimens that have been obtained were collected from altitudes ranging between 1 , 750 and 2 , 700 m where cloud forests predominate . one specimen was collected in the upper suaza river valley ( cueva de los guacharos national park ) . this part of the suaza river contains a mixture of violent currents and quiet pools .\nthe weasel family is made up of meat - eaters . when searching for food , they can cover a large area . they aren ' t afraid of prey larger than themselves . in general , members of this family live alone . females are always smaller than the males . the males also have a larger territory than the females . while female lives in an area where she can find enough food , the male tries to make his territory large enough to accompany lots of females .\nthe mustelidae ( from latin mustela , weasel ) are a family of carnivorous mammals , including the otters , badgers , weasels , martens , ferrets , minks and wolverines . mustelids are diverse and the largest family in the order carnivora . the internal classification still seems to be rather unsettled , with rival proposals containing between two and eight subfamilies . one study , published in 2008 , questions the long - accepted mustelinae subfamily , and suggests that mustelidae consist of four major clades and three much smaller lineages .\nspecies , fertilized eggs develop for approximately eight days before suspending development for 7 . 5 months . after this time , the embryos resume development , and 6 to 8 young are born 24 days later . all together , the gestation period lasts 200 to 300 days . newborn colombian weasels are blind and hairless . they measure approximately 55 mm in length and weigh up to 2 g each . they quickly develop a soft fur , which is replaced by adult fur after 3 weeks . by week 5 , their teeth have come in . their eyes open by 6 weeks of age , at which point weaning begins .\nhabitat : mustelids can be found in a great diversity of habitats , including marine ( marine otter [ lontra felina ] and sea otter ) , rivers ( north american river otter [ lontra canadensis ] and spotted - necked otter ) , temperate forest ( european pine marten [ martes martes ] and american marten [ martes americana ] ) , dry open woodlands ( african striped weasel ) , and grasslands ( black - footed ferret [ mustela nigripes ] ) . some mustelids have very broad habitat preferences . for example , ermine and least weasels can be found from grasslands to woodlands and honey badgers from forests to deserts .\njustification : colombian weasel is listed as vulnerable under c2a ( i ) , inferring a population size of at least 1 , 350 mature individuals from the current known range and a plausible population density , and assuming a continuing decline in population due to ongoing deforestation ( acknowledging the species may potentially tolerate some level of forest degradation ) . the range is sufficiently extensive to make it highly likely that no one subpopulation holds over 1 , 000 mature individuals . in addition , it is plausible that the species might meet the threshold for vulnerable under d1 ( a total population of 1 , 000 mature individuals or fewer ) if the density is only three - quarters of the arbitrary figure given in the ' population ' section ( and again assuming that the current range is not larger ) . this listing may be slightly evidentiary . indeed , a categorisation of endangered under c2a ( i ) is not out of the question , especially as no subpopulation may hold more than 250 mature individuals ; however , equally , the total population size might also be severely underestimated , especially if the range is larger than currently documented ( implying a larger population than speculated here ) . on balance , it is unlikely that this species ' s the true range has been fully documented so far , especially for a species so difficult to identify by typical mammal survey methods . hence , vulnerable seems to be a more appropriate listing , pending re - assessment when more information becomes available .\ncolombian weasel occurs in a limited geographic area where deforestation is rampant ( nowak 2005 , etter and van wyngaarden 2000 ) ; a significant proportion of the estimated range of the species has been deforested for agriculture and illicit crops . between 1990 and 2010 , forest cover net loss within the species\u00b4s known extent of occurrence ( eoo ) reached 10 % overall , and was 13 % within its suitable habitat ( areas within its eoo ) between 1 , 500 and 2 , 700 m a . s . l . ) ; for the last potential distribution model for the species ( ram\u00edrez - chaves and mantilla - meluk 2009 ) a net forest loss of 26 % was estimated for the period of 1990 - 2010 . forest lost estimates before 1990 indicate even a larger net loss ( etter and van wyngaarden 2000 ) . currently , there is only 36 % of forest cover within the eoo , 35 % within the altitudinally suitable eeo , and 25 % within the last modelled distribution . these deforestation trends are likely to continue given the historical drivers still operating in the area . the extent of the species ' s association with forest is , however , unknown , so the relationship of these deforestation statistics to the species ' s population trend is also unclear . for example , the former could overestimate the latter if the species is not particularly tied to forest , or if densities are higher in degraded and edge areas than in pristine forest ; or they could be an underestimate if the species is tied to a particularly rapidly declining microhabitat .\nweasels , european mink , and polecats ( mustela , 17 species , various species found across much of north america , europe , and asia ; in africa , the european polecat [ mustela putorius ] is present in morocco and the egyptian weasel [ mustela subpalmata ] is found in egypt ; ermine [ m . erminea ] have been introduced to new zealand and least weasels [ m . nivalis ] have been introduced to new zealand , malta , crete , the azores , and apparently s\u00e3o tom\u00e9 island ) . the domestic ferret is believed to be descended from the european polecat and is often referred to as m . putorius furo , but steppe polecats ( m . eversamanii ) may also be among the ancestors of the domestic ferret .\nmustelids vary greatly in size and behaviour . the least weasel is not much larger than a mouse , while the giant otter can measure up to 1 . 7 m ( 5 ft 7 in ) in length and sea otters can exceed 45 kg ( 99 lb ) in weight . the wolverine can crush bones as thick as the femur of a moose to get at the marrow , and has been seen attempting to drive bears away from their kills . the sea otter uses rocks to break open shellfish to eat . the marten is largely arboreal , while the badger digs extensive networks of tunnels , called setts . some mustelids have been domesticated : the ferret and the tayra are kept as pets ( although the tayra requires a dangerous wild animals licence in the uk ) , or as working animals for hunting or vermin control . others have been important in the fur trade \u2014the mink is often raised for its fur .\nsome other mustelids , such as the sable ( martes zibellina ) and american mink , are still highly valued for their fur commercially and african striped weasel skins are used in traditional ceremonies in africa . although american mink are still trapped in the wild , many millions are also bred on farms in the united states , europe , and , more recently , china . the escape of american mink from fur farms has resulted in the establishment of wild populations in europe and asia , which are believed to have negative consequences for competitors , such as european mink , as well as for native prey , such as water voles in britain . in new zealand , ermine and least weasels were introduced deliberately in the 1880s in an effort to reduce populations of introduced european rabbits . ermine have thrived , not only feeding on rabbits but also devastating local fauna , especially flightless birds . today , ermine are present in virtually all forested areas in new zealand , although least weasels are rare , presumably due to the scarcity of the smaller prey on which they specialize ( voles are absent and feral house mice are the only rodents smaller than 50 g ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nizor and de la torre ( 1978 ) suggested that m . africana and m . felipei form a monophyletic group . youngman ( 1982 ) placed m . felipei in subgenus grammogale ; abramov ( 2000 ) placed it in subgenus cabreragale .\none specimen was collected in cueva de los guacharos national park ( ram\u00edrez - chaves et al . 2012 ) . purace national park is also close to a collecting site ( schreiber et al . 1989 ) . in ecuador the species has not been recorded in any protected area ( tirira and gonz\u00e1lez - maya 2009 ) . potentially , according to models , the species could be potentially present in 10 protected areas in colombia ( ram\u00edrez - chaves and mantilla - meluk 2009 , burneo et al . 2009 ) and 14 in ecuador ( burneo et al . 2009 ) ; but no confirmed records exist from any of these areas ( ram\u00edrez - chaves et al . 2012 ) . determining the conservation needs is hampered by the minimal information on the species ' s natural history . it is therefore a high priority to find and study an extant population , particularly its habitat use and threats ( if any ) . at least five field efforts in six localities in colombia ( two adjacent to previous records ) failed to detect the species ( ram\u00edrez - chaves and patterson 2014 , j . f . gonz\u00e1lez - maya pers . comm . 2015 ) . moreover , natural habitat at three of the five known localities have been severely fragmented in recent years .\ngonz\u00e1lez - maya , j . f . , emmons , l . , helgen , k . & arias - alzate , aaa . 2016 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\n1 . profile 2 . tidbits 3 . status and trends ( iucn status , countries where currently found , history of distribution , threats and reasons for decline ) 4 . data on biology and ecology ( weight , habitat , behavior ) 5 . references\nfive specimens have been found in the highlands of the cordillera central of western colombia near san agustin , huila province and popayan , cauca province , and in the andes of northern ecuador .\nburton & pearson 1987 , cons . intl . , emmons & feer 1997 , fawcett et al . 1996 , infonatura , iucn 1994 , iucn 1996 , iucn 2000 , iucn 2003a , iucn 2004 , izor & de la torre 1978 , nowak 1999 , nowak & paradiso 1983 , schreiber et al . 1989\n\u00a9 1999 - 2014 animal info . endangered animals of the world . sj contact us .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nspecimens had been discovered in places at elevations of 5740 ' and 8900 ' , and in case you do not know it , these are altitudes where typical cloud forests are present .\n: these weasels have been killed in the past , because of local superstitious beliefs .\nhi we ' ve designed some great clothing for ferret lovers ! treat yourself or another ferret lover to one of these unique designs . here ' s one for example . click on the image to visit the store\nit\u2019s probably the rarest carnivore in south america and virtually nothing was known about its distribution , its status or its ecology prior to 1989 .\nit\u2019s listed on the iucn red list of threatened species as endangered ( en ) and it\u2019s considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild .\nthese weasels are considered to be riparian , which means that they probably live near the banks of a natural course of water .\nsave my name , email , and website in this browser for the next time i comment .\ncurrently you have javascript disabled . in order to post comments , please make sure javascript and cookies are enabled , and reload the page . click here for instructions on how to enable javascript in your browser .\nguests are limited to images that are no larger than 250kb , and to only jpeg , pjpeg , png file types .\nthis site uses akismet to reduce spam . learn how your comment data is processed .\nhas been observed from western colombia ( provinces of huila and cauca ) to northern ecuador . the species was thought to be endemic to the cordillera central of colombia until another specimen was found in andean ecuador . within this potential distribution there are 34 protected areas ( 20 in colombia and 14 in ecuador ) . there are three confirmed localities for the species in each for colombia and ecuador ; all lie within 1 , 123 to 2 , 700 m elevation .\noccurs in colombia from serrania de los paraguas in the limits between the choc\u00f3 and valle del cauca departments ( 4\u00b051\u2032n , 76\u00b025\u2032w ) through the northern andes of ecuador in mera in the province of pastaza ( 1\u00b027\u2032s , 78\u00b005\u2032w ; schreiber et al . , 1989 ; wozencraft , 2005 ) . according to the international union for conservation of nature and natural resources , there are likely to be serious threats to the protection of this species and they proposed several core regions to protect to ensure its survival . the iucn currently recognizes the species as vulnerable at a b2ab level ( ii , iii , iv , iucn red list of threatened species , 2013 ) .\n(\niucn red list of threatened species .\n, 2013 ;\nmustela\n, 2013 ; hollister , 1914 ; izor and de la torre , 1978 ; llano , et al . , 2010 ; mckelvey , et al . , 2007 ; mesa - gonzalez , 2006 ; nowak , 2005 ; rageot and albuja , 1994 )\n(\nmustela\n, 2013 ; alberico , 1994 ; anderson and martinez - meyer , 2003 ; bernal , 2004a ; eisenberg and redford , 1999 ; hollister , 1914 ; izor and peterson , 1985 ; llano , et al . , 2010 ; mesa - gonzalez , 2006 ; youngman , 1982 )\n. the upperparts and tail are blackish - brown , the underparts are orange - buff , and the fur is quite long . little else is known about its physical appearance , though research indicates it has webbed feet to help provide stability in semi - aquatic habitats .\n( bernal , 2004b ; eisenberg and redford , 1999 ; emmons and helgen , 2013 ; hollister , 1914 ; izor and de la torre , 1978 ; llano , et al . , 2010 ; mckelvey , et al . , 2007 ; mesa - gonzalez , 2006 ; nowak , 2005 ; rageot and albuja , 1994 ; schreiber , et al . , 1989 )\nrange basal metabolic rate 0 . 69 to 0 . 76 cm3 . o2 / g / hr\n, there is a monogamous pair bond , the male is attentive to the female - especially during weaning - and watches the young while she hunts for herself . both parents take care of the offspring for two to three months . however , in other species of\n, males compete for access to mating with multiple females and do not participate in the care of young .\n( eisenberg and redford , 1999 ; hijmans , et al . , 2005 ; hollister , 1914 ; hunter , 2011 ; izor and peterson , 1985 ; izor and de la torre , 1978 ; nowak , 2005 ; rageot and albuja , 1994 ; schreiber , et al . , 1989 ; youngman , 1982 ;\nmustela\n, 2013 ; eisenberg and redford , 1999 ; hijmans , et al . , 2005 ; hollister , 1914 ; hunter , 2011 ; izor and peterson , 1985 ; izor and de la torre , 1978 ; nowak , 2005 ; rageot and albuja , 1994 ; schreiber , et al . , 1989 ; youngman , 1982 )\n( bernal , 2004a ; emmons and helgen , 2013 ; hijmans , et al . , 2005 ; hunter , 2011 ; llano , et al . , 2010 ; mckelvey , et al . , 2007 ; mesa - gonzalez , 2006 ; nowak , 2005 ; rageot and albuja , 1994 ; schreiber , et al . , 1989 ; youngman , 1982 )\n( anderson and martinez - meyer , 2003 ; bernal , 2004b ; bernal , 2004a ; hollister , 1914 ; hunter , 2011 ; izor and peterson , 1985 ; llano , et al . , 2010 ; mckelvey , et al . , 2007 ; schreiber , et al . , 1989 ; youngman , 1982 )\n( hollister , 1914 ; hunter , 2011 ; izor and peterson , 1985 ; izor and de la torre , 1978 ; llano , et al . , 2010 ; nowak , 2005 ; rageot and albuja , 1994 ; schreiber , et al . , 1989 ; youngman , 1982 )\n( anderson and martinez - meyer , 2003 ; bernal , 2004a ; hijmans , et al . , 2005 ; izor and de la torre , 1978 ; llano , et al . , 2010 ; mckelvey , et al . , 2007 ; rageot and albuja , 1994 )\n( bernal , 2004a ; eisenberg and redford , 1999 ; izor and peterson , 1985 ; izor and de la torre , 1978 ; llano , et al . , 2010 ; rageot and albuja , 1994 ; schreiber , et al . , 1989 )\ncousins . because of their webbed feet and occurrence in riparian habitats , they are assumed to eat fish and other aquatic organisms , in addition to terrestrial small mammals and insects .\n( alberico , 1994 ; anderson and martinez - meyer , 2003 ; bernal , 2004b ; bernal , 2004a ; eisenberg and redford , 1999 ; emmons and helgen , 2013 ; izor and de la torre , 1978 ; llano , et al . , 2010 ; mckelvey , et al . , 2007 ; mesa - gonzalez , 2006 ; rageot and albuja , 1994 ; schreiber , et al . , 1989 ; youngman , 1982 )\nlittle is known about predation on or anti - predator adaptations in this species . however , their coloration likely helps them blend in with the environment .\n( bernal , 2004b ; bernal , 2004a ; eisenberg and redford , 1999 ; hollister , 1914 ; izor and peterson , 1985 ; izor and de la torre , 1978 ; llano , et al . , 2010 ; mesa - gonzalez , 2006 ; rageot and albuja , 1994 ; schreiber , et al . , 1989 ; youngman , 1982 )\n(\nmustela\n, 2013 ; alberico , 1994 ; anderson and martinez - meyer , 2003 ; eisenberg and redford , 1999 ; emmons and helgen , 2013 ; hijmans , et al . , 2005 ; hollister , 1914 ; mckelvey , et al . , 2007 ; mesa - gonzalez , 2006 ; nowak , 2005 ; rageot and albuja , 1994 ; youngman , 1982 )\n( emmons and helgen , 2013 ; hijmans , et al . , 2005 ; hollister , 1914 ; hunter , 2011 ; llano , et al . , 2010 ; mesa - gonzalez , 2006 ; schreiber , et al . , 1989 ; youngman , 1982 )\n( alberico , 1994 ; anderson and martinez - meyer , 2003 ; emmons and helgen , 2013 ; hijmans , et al . , 2005 ; mesa - gonzalez , 2006 ; youngman , 1982 )\nkirsten wesner ( author ) , university of wisconsin - stevens point , christopher yahnke ( editor ) , university of wisconsin - stevens point , tanya dewey ( editor ) , university of michigan - ann arbor , shaina stewart ( editor ) , university of wisconsin - stevens point .\nliving in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .\nyoung are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nhaving markings , coloration , shapes , or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment ; being difficult to see or otherwise detect .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nreferring to something living or located adjacent to a waterbody ( usually , but not always , a river or stream ) .\nthe region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .\nreproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .\n2013 .\niucn red list of threatened species .\n( on - line ) . accessed august 10 , 2013 at urltoken .\n2013 .\nmustela\n( on - line ) . accessed august 18 , 2013 at urltoken .\nanderson , r . , e . martinez - meyer . 2003 . modelling species\u2019 geo - graphic distributions for preliminary conservation assessments : an implementation with the spiny pocket mice ( heteromys ) of ecuador .\nbernal , e . 2004 . plan de desarrollo chivat\u00e1 - boyac\u00e1 . alcald\u00eda municipal de chivat\u00e1 .\nemmons , l . , k . helgen . 2013 . iucn red list of threatened species .\nhijmans , r . , s . cameron , j . parra , p . jones , a . jarvas . 2005 . very high resolution interpolated climate surfaces for global landareas .\nhollister , n . 1914 . . descriptions of four new mammals from tropical america .\nizor , r . , n . peterson . 1985 . notes on south american weasels . .\nllano , j . , j . salazar , j . agudelo , a . perez , j . hernandez . 2010 . estado de conocimiento de la fauna silvestre en la juridiccion de corantioquia . corporacion autonoma regional del centro de antioquia .\nmckelvey , k . , k . aubry , m . schwartz . 2007 . using anecdotal occurrence data for rare or elusive species : the illusion of reality and a call for evidentiary standards . .\nmesa - gonzalez , e . 2006 . libro rojo de los mam\u00edferos de colombia .\nnowak , r . 2005 . walker\u2019s carnivores of the world . pp . 300 - 355 in\n. baltimore , usa and london , uk . : johns hopkins university press .\nschreiber , a . , r . wirth , m . riffel , h . van rompaey . 1989 . weasels , civets , mongooses , and their relatives . an action plan for the conservation of mustelids and viverrids .\nyoungman , p . 1982 . distribution and systematics of the european mink mustela lutreola linnaeus .\nto cite this page : wesner , k . 2014 .\nmustela felipei\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\noops . a firewall is blocking access to prezi content . check out this article to learn more or contact your system administrator .\nstand out and be remembered with prezi , the secret weapon of great presenters .\nneither you , nor the coeditors you shared it with will be able to recover it again .\nreset share links resets both viewing and editing links ( coeditors shown below are not affected ) .\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nandienk\u00e4rpp\u00e4\nto\nmustela felipei izor and de la torre , 1978\n.\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nkolumbiank\u00e4rpp\u00e4\nto\nmustela felipei izor and de la torre , 1978\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nsorry , preview is currently unavailable . you can download the paper by clicking the button above .\nenter the email address you signed up with and we ' ll email you a reset link .\nfor full functionality of this site it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions for enabling javascript in your web browser . orcid uses cookies to improve your experience and to help us understand how you use our websites . learn more about how we use cookies .\nother organization identifiers provided by { { group . getactive ( ) . disambiguationsource . value } }\nsource : { { ( group . getactive ( ) . sourcename = = null | | group . getactive ( ) . sourcename = = ' ' ) ? group . getactive ( ) . source : group . getactive ( ) . sourcename } }\n{ { ( work . sourcename = = null | | work . sourcename = = ' ' ) ? work . source : work . sourcename } }\nsource : { { ( work . sourcename = = null | | work . sourcename = = ' ' ) ? work . source : work . sourcename } }\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator ."]}
{"id": 479, "summary": [{"text": "the herons are the long-legged freshwater and coastal birds in the family ardeidae , with 64 recognised species , some of which are referred to as \" egrets \" or \" bitterns \" rather than herons .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "members of the genera botaurus and ixobrychus are referred to as \" bitterns \" , and , together with the zigzag heron or zigzag bittern in the monotypic genus zebrilus , form a monophyletic group within the ardeidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "egrets are not a biologically distinct group from the herons , and tend to be named differently because they are mainly white or have decorative plumes .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "although egrets have the same build as herons , they tend to be smaller .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "herons , by evolutionary adaptation , have long beaks .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the classification of the individual heron/egret species is fraught with difficulty , and no clear consensus exists about the correct placement of many species into either of the two major genera , ardea and egretta .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "similarly , the relationships of the genera in the family are not completely resolved .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "however , one species formerly considered to constitute a separate monotypic family , the cochlearidaeor the boat-billed heron , is now regarded as a member of the ardeidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "although herons resemble birds in some other families , such as the storks , ibises , spoonbills , and cranes , they differ from these in flying with their necks retracted , not outstretched .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "they are also one of the bird groups that have powder down .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "some members of this group nest colonially in trees , while others , notably the bitterns , use reed beds . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "heron", "paragraphs": ["yellow - crowned night - heron the yellow - crowned night - heron has a chunkier body and heavier bill .\nin 1880 , the most common heron occupation in the usa was farmer . 34 % of heron ' s were farmers . farmer , laborer and keeping house were the top 3 reported jobs worked by heron . a less common occupation for the heron family was farm laborer .\nin 1881 , the most common o ' heron occupation in canada was servant . 100 % of o ' heron ' s were servants .\nyou will receive an email ( no more than once per day ) summarizing any new mentions of heron on nameberry . would you like to follow heron ?\nvisit the bent life history for extensive additional information on the great blue heron .\nthe total of apparently occupied grey heron nests in cheshire and wirral , 1980\u20132007 .\ni quite like heron , and i like that it has meaning for you .\na retrospective deep dive into one of heron ' s early fixed income impact investments .\nadult great blue heron ( white - morph ) , captiva is . , fl .\nfigure 1 . range of the black - crowned night - heron in north america .\nadult black - crowned night - heron foraging , lake martin , la , april .\nthe white - faced heron is one of new zealand ' s commonest large birds .\nthe heron is dead in an instant , and two other lions rush into the frame .\nfigure 1 . breeding , nonbreeding , and year - round ranges of the great blue heron .\nthe great blue heron is one of the most widespread and adaptable wading birds in north america .\nto me , heron doesn ' t seem quite as namelike as wren , robin or lark .\nbetween 1948 and 2004 , heron life expectancy was at its lowest point in 1957 , and highest in 1996 . the average life expectancy for heron in 1948 was 44 , and 77 in 2004 .\nkc tsang did it again . on 30th december 2008 he sighted a malayan night heron . . .\nthe earliest occurrence of the heron surname in our family history documents is from 1454 , and we currently have 117 , 847 records where heron appears . here are a few more facts to get you started\u2026\nheron may feel like a very usable nature name - - the heron is a long - legged wading bird - - but it was also the name of a 1st century greek inventor and of an egyptian saint . highly unusual yet easy to understand and meaningful on several levels , heron is a fantastic choice .\nto find your nearest heron foods store , simply enter a place name or postcode in the field below .\nthe tall , long - legged great blue heron is the most common and largest of north american herons .\nlast year a heron took nearly half our adult and young goldfish and golden orfe from our fish pond .\nwhat about heather ? it ' s a nature name with some of the same soft sounds as heron .\nthe great blue heron is a tall , long - legged , long - necked heron with a bluish - gray body , a pale head with a black stripe above the eye , and black streaking on the foreneck .\nthe name heron is a boy ' s name meaning\nhero\n. heron and is often added to lists like unique middle names for boys and discussed in our forums with posts like\nbaby a day\n.\nsimilar species : the white - faced heron is paler and two - toned grey , with an obvious white face when adult . it has a more upright stance , and uses a much wider range of habitats than the reef heron , which is never seen away from the coast . in flight , the reef heron is uniformly dark , whereas the white - faced heron ' s dark flight feathers contrast with the paler grey wing coverts and body .\nthe grey heron is a tall bird with a long neck and legs , and a heavy dagger - like bill .\nwhite - bellied heron \u2013 ardea insignis . avis . indianbiodiversity . org . retrieved on 2012 - 08 - 22 .\ni\u2019m a big heron fan - i always shop locally and i pop into heron at least 3 times a week . love the products and element of surprise offers ! the staff make it extra special . pride in their store is very evident !\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 heron foods . all rights reserved . all offers are subject to availability . prices include vat where applicable .\nas heron continues to optimize our portfolio for mission , some types of impact look great in isolation\u2014but less so in context .\nreef heron . adult stalking . port charles , coromandel peninsula , may 2009 . image \u00a9 neil fitzgerald by neil fitzgerald urltoken\na medium - sized dark grey heron with a long , greyish - yellow bill , and greenish - yellow legs , that is uniformly dark in flight . an all - white form of reef heron also exists but is rare in new zealand .\na grey heron has been seen flying overhead many times over the last few years and occasionally has visited our garden or those of our neighbours , especially in the early morning . several magpies and carrion crows usually\nescort\nand mob the heron .\nan all - white subspecies , the great white heron , is found in coastal areas of southern florida , along with individuals that are intermediate in plumage ( showing a grayish body with a mostly white head and neck ) , known as \u201cw\u00fcrdemann\u2019s heron . \u201d\nwe had never seen a heron here before . we put a net over the pond but the heron still came and made holes in the net to get to what was left of our fish . don\u2019t know how we can protect our fish this year .\nwe recently merged updates to run heron natively using mesos in aws , mesos / aurora in aws , and locally on a laptop .\nin an effort to be as transparent as possible , heron has been posting the performance of its financial portfolio dating all the way back to 1992 . and lately , observant readers have been sending us questions about the way in which heron\u2019s portfolio performed during the 2008 financial crisis .\nthe great blue heron is a large , slim wading bird with a long , curving neck and long legs . most often confused mistaken as a sandhill crane , in flight the great blue heron folds its neck back over its shoulders in an s - shape , while cranes hold their necks outstretched in flight . while hunting , the great blue heron stands nearly motionless , and despite its size can be easily overlooked .\nadams , r . 2013 . reef heron . in miskelly , c . m . ( ed . ) new zealand birds online . urltoken\none of the interesting and critical recent advances in understanding the systematics of herons is that three groups of herons are more primitive than the rest , the tiger herons , the agami heron , and the boat billed heron , the latter being a sister group of all the remaining herons . the tiger heron subfamily includes five species . members of the group have somewhat bittern - like plumage , but differ from bitterns in a number of skeletal characteristics and in behavior . the distributions of the species are scattered in the tropics of america ( tigrisoma ) , new guinea ( zonerodius ) and africa ( tigrionis ) . the old world forms are of conservation concern . the agami heron is a unique and little known heron from the american tropics . the boat billed heron is a polytypic species , also unique and requiring additional study to understand its population structure for conservation purposes .\nwhat made you want to look up heron ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\nwhite - faced heron . adult in breeding plumage . anderson park , taradale , napier , january 2012 . image \u00a9 adam clarke by adam clarke\ni had never thought of heron as a name before , but my initial reaction is that i quite like it . i think heron stands as a lovely full name without need of a nickname , but hera is a beautiful , all - girl nickname . i like herons - i think the great blue heron is a gorgeous , long and lean , elegant bird , and a decent namesake . heron seems a little gender - neutral , but leans feminine to me . and i love a good nature name , even if i can ' t talk my husband into them !\nthe nest will be twiggy , usually at the top of a tall tree , such as a mature oak tree . herons nest in colonies , known as heronries , and one tree may contain up to six heron nests . there have been rare observations of heron nests found on the ground .\nthe tricolored heron is protected by the u . s . migratory bird treaty act and as a state threatened by florida\u2019s endangered and threatened species rule .\njuvenile white - bellied heron released . royal society for protection of nature ( rspn ) , thimphu : bhutan ( 2011 - 09 - 17 ) .\non the plus side , i don ' t think heron needs a nickname . it ' s like simon or emma - simple enough to avoid shortening .\nanother dead juvenile heron stood 1 . 58 m ( 5 . 2 ft ) tall and weighed 8 . 51 kg ( 18 . 8 lb ) .\nthe ' great white heron ' is generally considered a color - morph of the great blue ( a . h . occidentalis ) , though some authorities suggest it is a distinct species . where the dark and white forms overlap in florida , intermediate birds known as ' wurdemann ' s herons ' can be found ; they have the grayish bodies of a great blue heron , but the white head and neck of the great white heron . ; photographer william l . newton\nthe black - crowned night - heron ( nycticorax nycticorax ) is the most widespread heron in the world , breeding on every continent except antarctica and australia , where the genus is represented by the nankeen ( or rufous ) night - heron ( nycticorax caledonicus ) . although widespread and common in north america , its coloration and behavior , as well as its nocturnal and crepuscular feeding habits - - especially outside the breeding season - - render it less noticeable than many diurnal herons . this heron is an opportunistic forager that feeds on a wide variety of terrestrial organisms , but its diet consists primarily of fish and other freshwater and marine organisms .\nthe all - white color morph found in the caribbean and southern florida is often called the great white heron , but it is in fact the same species .\ncrossland , a . c . 1992 . first record of white phase reef heron ( egretta sacra ) in new zealand . notornis 39 : 233 - 234 .\nit ' s a completely androgynous name - i would have no idea whether heron was a boy or girl . that could be a plus or a minus .\nheron ' s size depends on the species . they can reach between 34 and 55 inches in length and weigh between 3 . 3 and 6 . 6 pounds .\nwalters , michael .\nthe correct scientific name of the white - bellied heron\n. bulletin of the british ornithologists ' club 121 ( 4 ) : 234\u2013236 .\nthe tricolored heron is a midsized member of the genus egretta . this species can reach a length between 24 - 26 inches ( 61 - 66 centimeters ) with a wingspan of approximately 36 inches ( 91 centimeters ) . the tricolored heron is named for its distinct coloration . it has a dark slate - blue colored head and upper body , a purple chest , and white underparts . this species also has a long , slender neck and bill , and is the only dark heron with light underparts .\nadams , r . 2013 [ updated 2017 ] . white - faced heron . in miskelly , c . m . ( ed . ) new zealand birds online . urltoken\nif you are near appropriate habitat , consider building a nest platform to attract herons . you can get plans for great blue heron nest platform on our all about birdhouses site .\nwe ' re excited that you have an opinion about the name heron . to rate names on nameberry , please register for an account or log in to an existing account .\nat the species level , many herons are well characterized . but there remains much uncertainty as to the species limits of many forms . the green herons , the little egret group , intermediate egret , great egrets , pond herons , small bitterns , large bitterns , boat billed heron , great blue heron and grey heron are some of the forms for which species limits remain unsettled . as late as 2005 , a new heron species was recognized as being distinct from another . of course this uncertainty may reflect in part difficulty with applying the species concept to widespread forms with isolated populations . but it more fundamentally reflects a lack of behavioural and molecular information available on these birds . research is essential to properly design conservation actions .\ncensus records can tell you a lot of little known facts about your heron ancestors , such as occupation . occupation can tell you about your ancestor ' s social and economic status .\nthe first of a series of retrospective deep dives into a broad selection of heron ' s early fixed income impact investments , featuring the financing of a wind turbine factory in jonesboro , arkansas .\ncensus records can tell you a lot of little known facts about your o ' heron ancestors , such as occupation . occupation can tell you about your ancestor ' s social and economic status .\nwithin the second heron subfamily , the bitterns , botaurus includes four superficially similar species in , north america , south america , australia and eurasia - africa . all species are of conservation concern . eight small bitterns are included in the genus ixobrychus . the most distinctive may be the little known zigzag heron , which is of conservation concern due to the lack of distribution and status information .\nedgar , a . t . 1978 . the reef heron ( egretta sacra ) in new zealand . notornis , 25 : 25 - 58 . available from urltoken ( sighted 22 july 2012 ) .\nthe familiar great blue heron is the largest heron in north america . it is a large bird , with a slate - gray body , chestnut and black accents , and very long legs and neck . in flight , it looks enormous , with a six - foot wingspan . adults sport a shaggy ruff at the base of their necks . a black eyebrow extends back to black plumes emerging from the head . juveniles have a dark crown with no plumes or ruff , and a mottled neck . in flight , a great blue heron typically holds its head in toward its body with its neck bent .\nheron is realtime analytics platform developed by twitter . it is the direct successor of apache storm , built to be backwards compatible with storm ' s topology api but with a wide array of architectural improvements .\na recent announcement by blackrock ceo larry fink that corporations need to pay more attention to their effects on society echoes heron chair buzz schmidt\u2019s call for accountability for enterprises\u2019 positive or negative effect on society\u2019s wherewithal .\nfor naturalists who enjoy the shore and marsh , this heron ' s distinctive call is a quintessential sound of dusk and night . in life histories of north american marsh birds , a . c . bent (\nthe white - faced heron is new zealand ' s most common heron , despite being a relatively new arrival to this country . it is a tall , elegant , blue - grey bird that can be seen stalking its prey in almost any aquatic habitat , including damp pasture and playing fields . because it occupies space also shared with people it is usually well habituated to their presence , and may allow close approach .\ncensus records can give you a fascinating window into the day - to - day lives of your heron ancestors - like hours worked per week , level of education , veteran status , employers , and more .\nthe tricolored heron faces many threats to its population , such as the continued development of wetlands . as with other birds that inhabit estuaries , the exposure to pollutants and pesticides are a threat to the tricolored heron population ( rodgers 1997 , spalding et al . 1997 ) . other threats include alterations to the hydrology of foraging areas , reduced prey abundance , and oil spill impacts to critical breeding , foraging and roosting sites .\nthe white - bellied heron is found in the wetlands of tropical and subtropical forests in the foothills of the eastern himalayas of india and myanmar . it is also spotted in bhutan ' s sub - tropical areas and was once found in nepal . the major threats the heron faces are poaching ( both the bird itself and its eggs ) and habitat destruction ( the cutting of nesting trees and the disappearance of wetlands ) .\ncommon and widespread . see \u2018habitat\u2019 below for examples of the kind of place they can be found . one particularly good location for the grey heron is powderham , which has the biggest nesting colony in devon . *\nthis large heron is plain dark grey above with a long neck . the crown is dark and there are no black stripes on the neck as in the grey heron . in breeding plumage , it has a greyish - white nape plume and elongated grey breast feathers with white centers . the bill is black , greenish near the base and tip and the face is greenish grey . the bill is large and solid , with the\nthe reef heron is a dark grey wading bird most often seen in coastal areas in the north of the north island . one or two birds may be found patrolling a rocky shoreline or nearby estuary . although similar to the common white - faced heron it is not seen as frequently and has slightly different feeding habits . reef herons occur throughout polynesia , and their prevalence in northern new zealand may reflect their preference for warmer climates .\ncensus records can give you a fascinating window into the day - to - day lives of your o ' heron ancestors - like hours worked per week , level of education , veteran status , employers , and more .\nthe white - faced heron is a medium - sized heron with primarily blue - grey plumage . as the name suggests it has white on the face and the front of its neck . the back is medium blue - grey with the chest and underside more brown - toned . in breeding plumage , white - faced herons have strap - like grey plumes on the back , and shorter pinkish brown plumes on the breast . the dagger - like bill is dark grey , dull yellow at the base , and the legs are pale yellow . in flight the white - faced heron usually tucks its head back towards its shoulders in the characteristic heron posture , but it will also fly with the neck out - stretched . its open wings show contrast between the pale grey fore - wing and dark grey main flight feathers on both the upper and lower surfaces . immature birds lack the white face .\nthese example sentences are selected automatically from various online news sources to reflect current usage of the word ' heron . ' views expressed in the examples do not represent the opinion of merriam - webster or its editors . send us feedback .\nmostly fish , but will eat small mammals , amphibians and even smaller birds in the winter when the water the surface of ponds and lakes is frozen over . unfortunately , the heron has been spotted eating the very rare water vole .\n. it is mostly dark grey with a white throat and underparts . this heron is mostly solitary and is found on undisturbed riverside or wetland habitats . the global population has declined and the species is threatened by disturbance and habitat degradation .\nthe shoreline habitat occupied by the reef heron has ongoing threats from encroachment by development , and the birds are vulnerable to disturbance by people and dogs . the conservation status of this species was changed from nationally vulnerable to nationally endangered in 2013 .\nfrederick , peter c . 1997 . tricolored heron ( egretta tricolor ) , the birds of north america online ( a . poole , ed . ) . ithaca : cornell lab of ornithology ; retrieved from the birds of north america online .\nyoung waterbirds are taken in hard weather by full - grown birds . a water - rail has been recovered in a heron ' s stomach . mice and rats are eaten and judging by the fur in pellets , many water - voles .\nhonestly my first thought when i sae the word\nheron\nwas not the bird ( of which i am familiar ) but rather the words :\nheroine\nor the drug\nheroin\n( not sure of the spelling ) .\nherons hunt by quickly straightening their s - shaped neck toward the victim . fish and other prey will be stabbed with sharp bill and swallowed in one piece . heron can die out of suffocation if it tries to swallow some really big prey .\nthe grey heron is the uk\u2019s most widespread predatory bird . it is solitary , until the breeding season , when they come together in large colonies . some herons are resident , some leave for the winter and some overwinter here from northern europe .\n. 2006 ) , and hpon razi wildlife sanctuary and hkakabo razi national park hold small populations . white - bellied heron has been recorded along rivers elsewhere in kachin state , such as the nam sam chaung , although little is known about its status in these areas\nthis heron is classified as critically endangered because it has an extremely small and rapidly declining population . this decline is projected to increase in the near future as a result of the loss and degradation of lowland forest and wetlands , and through direct exploitation and disturbance .\nthe dark grey colour provides the bird with excellent camouflage when it is patrolling the shoreline rocks that are its main habitat . the reef heron is wary , and flies away when approached too closely . it will , however , use man - made structures for nesting .\nheron foods , the frozen , chilled and grocery business with hundreds of stores across the midlands , north of england and south wales has announced they will be opening a new store in netherfield , mk6 , which is scheduled to open on monday , june 25 , 2018 .\nthe white - faced heron feeds on a wide variety of prey , including fish , insects and amphibians . food is obtained in a variety of ways , such as walking and disturbing prey , searching among damp crevices or simply standing in the water and watching for movement .\nwatts , bryan d . 2011 . yellow - crowned night - heron ( nyctanassa violacea ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .\nkelly , j . p . , h . m . pratt , and p . l . greene . 1993 . the distribution , reproductive success , and habitat characteristics of heron and egret breeding colonies in the san francisco bay area . colonial waterbirds 16 : 18 - 27 .\nthe new zealand reef heron population is estimated at only 300 - 500 birds , but they are regularly seen at the sites where they occur , and those populations surveyed appear to have been stable over the past 40 years . they are widespread and abundant elsewhere in their range .\na medium - sized blue - grey heron with white face , long dark grey bill , and pale yellow legs . in flight the open wings show a marked contrast between the pale grey fore - wing and dark grey main flight feathers on both the upper and lower surfaces .\nat heron foods we\u2019ve made it our business to help our customers buy big name bargains for less , for nearly forty years . our customers constantly tell us how much they love our fantastic range of chilled foods , frozen foods and grocery products at prices none of our competitors can match .\nvennesland , ross g . and robert w . butler . 2011 . great blue heron ( ardea herodias ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .\n2012 ) . two adult birds were recorded in phibsoo wildlife sanctuary , sarpang in february 2014 ( anon . 2014 ) . the annual survey of white - bellied heron in bhutan reported 22 birds in 2014 , an increase from 2013 when 20 birds were recorded ( anon . 2014 ) .\n. 2006 ) , and hpon razi wildlife sanctuary . a project studying white - bellied heron began in bhutan in 2003 , and is run in conjunction with the royal society for the protection of nature , the world wildlife fund , the felburn foundation and the international crane foundation . recognising the importance of the riverbed in punakha - wangdue as a primary feeding ground for this species , the royal government of bhutan has declared the area as protected habitat for white - bellied herons . in may 2011 , a white - bellied heron was hatched in captivity for the first time ( tshewang norbu\nbourne , w . r . p . , ashmole , n . p . and simmons , k . e . l . ( 2003 ) a new subfossil night heron and a new genus for the extinct rail for ascension island , central tropical ocean . ardea 91 : 45 - 51 .\nour stores are bright and attractive places to shop . our staff are always on hand to help you track down any one of the hundreds of bargains in - store . call in today to any one of our 240 stores throughout the north and midlands . find your nearest heron foods store now .\neventually a fish will pay the price of carelessness as the heron ' s kinked neck is straightened with startling speed and the sharp bill stabs its prey - sometimes several times . at breydon , herons also known in norfolk as the marshmen ' s harnser , will wade until the body is afloat .\nan unusually short lifespan might indicate that your heron ancestors lived in harsh conditions . a short lifespan might also indicate health problems that were once prevalent in your family . the ssdi is a searchable database of more than 70 million names . you can find birthdates , death dates , addresses and more .\nhonestly , i don ' t love heron as a name . part of the reason is that i don ' t think herons are very attractive birds . larks and wrens are cuter , plus larks are know for their songs . but it ' s probably mostly because i ' m a traditionalist .\nat the genus level , heron taxonomy is in a state of flux , and has been for decades . wca recognizes 17 genera . several species represent monotypic genera , and so are of conservation special interest , pilherodius , syrigma , agamia , zebrilus , zonerodius , tigriornis , nyctinassa , and cochlearius .\nthe reef heron is a medium - sized dark grey heron with a long , greyish - yellow , heavy bill and greenish - yellow legs . during the breeding season it develops long plumes , mainly on its back but with some also on its chest . it has no white face but a small streak of white may sometimes be seen on the throat . in flight it tucks its head back into its shoulders so that the length of its neck is hidden , giving it a hunched appearance . it stays fairly low unless travelling a significant distance when it may fly higher . immature birds are brownish .\nclosely related to ardea are the butorides and ardeola herons . as a whole the butorides herons demonstrate a degree of geographic and individual variation in aspects of plumage unparalleled in extant herons , with many subspecies being recognized . butorides is vagile , with a new population being established in bermuda within the last decade . the species limits within this genus have been a huge problem for decades , particularly as to whether the green heron and striated heron are or are not the same species . this is a genus for which conservation of geographic populations is especially important , irrespective of what the current taxonomic opinions might be .\nmost extant species are part of a single subfamily of \u201ctypical herons , \u201d the ardeinae . this subfamily includes the herons and egrets ( ardea , egretta ) , the green herons ( butorides ) , the pond herons ( ardeola ) , a few monotypic genera , but also the night herons ( nycticorax , gorsachius ) . within the typical heron subfamily , three groups are recognized as tribes , ardeini , egrettini , and nycticoraxini . the second subfamily , botaurinae , encompasses the bitterns ( ixobrychus , botaurus , zebrilus ) . these birds share a number of morphological and behavioural characteristics that differ from the typical herons . several species are quite distinctive from other herons , and from each other . these are the boat billed heron , the tiger herons , and the agami heron , all of which are allocated to separate subfamilies . it is thought they represent ancient lineages of herons , and so are of special conservation concern .\nwidespread and familiar ( though often called\ncrane\n) , the largest heron in north america . often seen standing silently along inland rivers or lakeshores , or flying high overhead , with slow wingbeats , its head hunched back onto its shoulders . highly adaptable , it thrives around all kinds of waters from subtropical mangrove swamps to desert rivers to the coastline of southern alaska . with its variable diet it is able to spend the winter farther north than most herons , even in areas where most waters freeze . a form in southern florida ( called\ngreat white heron\n) is slightly larger and entirely white .\nan unusually short lifespan might indicate that your o ' heron ancestors lived in harsh conditions . a short lifespan might also indicate health problems that were once prevalent in your family . the ssdi is a searchable database of more than 70 million names . you can find birthdates , death dates , addresses and more .\njust like school used to make ! this retro classic is really simply to make with only five ingredients . makes a nice dessert that kids absolutely love . find all of what you need in your local heron foods store . now you just need to decide whether to have it with pink or mint custard ? !\nthe reef heron is a bird of the rocky shore , where it stalks around rock pools and small rivulets of water that may carry fish . it can also be seen on estuary mudflats feeding at low tide and may occasionally be seen wading in the shallow waves on sandy beaches . it is rarely seen inland .\noccupied herons ' nests may be readily told by numerous droppings on the ground beneath them . the pellets are the indigestible portions of heron ' s food . unless blown down by storms the same nest is used each spring . old ones , massive platforms 3ft across , may also provide homes for nesting tree sparrows .\nthese extremely high weights require verification , since they indicate this species can exceed even the typically larger goliath heron in mass . on the ground it walks slowly , moving its neck slowly while looking from side to side . the goliath species , beyond the average size difference , is distinguished by its chestnut neck while the slightly smaller\nlargest of the north american herons with long legs , a sinuous neck , and thick , daggerlike bill . head , chest , and wing plumes give a shaggy appearance . in flight , the great blue heron curls its neck into a tight \u201cs\u201d shape ; its wings are broad and rounded and its legs trail well beyond the tail .\nhothem , roger l . , brianne e . brussee and william e . davis jr . 2010 . black - crowned night - heron ( nycticorax nycticorax ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .\nthe great blue heron weathered the impacts of 20th century north americans relatively successfully . although it was hunted heavily for its plumes and some of its wetland habitats were drained or otherwise degraded , many populations have recovered well . nevertheless , breeding colonies remain vulnerable to disturbance and habitat loss , and climate change and increasing predator populations may bring new challenges .\nup to nine subspecies have been recognized by past researchers , based on differences in plumage color and morphology . researchers have agreed that florida ' s great white heron ( a . h . occidentalis ) , the subspecies most distinctive in color ( entirely white ) , and the pacific great blue heron ( a . h . fannini ) are distinct subspecies . recent reviews ( see systematics ) have suggested that the remaining great blue herons in north america are composed of either one ( a . h . herodias ) , or two ( a . h . herodias , a . h . wardi ) subspecies . owing to this controversy , this account primarily considers ' blue group ' great blue herons ( a . h . herodias , a . h . wardi , a . h . fannini ) , usually referred to as the herodias ( or blue ) group , and ' white group ' great blue herons - the great white heron ( a . h . occidentalis ) , referred to here as the occidentalis ( white ) group great blue herons .\ngreat blue heron numbers are stable and increased in the u . s . between 1966 and 2014 , according to the north american breeding bird survey . however , notable population declines have occurred in some areas , particularly in the \u201cgreat white heron\u201d group in southern florida , where elevated mercury levels in local waterways may be a factor . the north american waterbird conservation plan estimates a continental population of 83 , 000 breeding birds , and rates the species an 8 out of 20 on the continental concern score . the great white form of great blue heron is on the 2014 state of the birds watch list , which lists birds that are at risk of becoming threatened or endangered without conservation action . great blue herons can be found throughout the year all over north america , though most populations in canada are present only during the breeding season , and most populations in mexico are only present during the winter . because great blue herons depend on wetlands for feeding and on relatively undisturbed sites for breeding , they are vulnerable to habitat loss and to impacts such as traffic , logging , motorboats , and other human intrusions that can disrupt nesting colonies . other threats include chemical pollutants or other causes of reduced water quality . although contaminant levels have declined in many areas , pollutants such as pcbs and ddt and newer types of industrial chemicals continue to affect heron habitats and can contribute to factors such as reduced nest site attendance . back to top\nenglish and french ( h\u00e9ron ) : nickname for a tall , thin person resembling a heron , middle english heiroun , heyron ( old french hairon , of germanic origin ) . english : habitational name from harome in north yorkshire , named with old english harum , dative plural of h\u00e6r \u2018rock\u2019 , \u2018stone\u2019 . this surname has evidently become confused with 1 . irish : reduced form of o\u2019heron , an anglicized form of gaelic \u00f3 huidhr\u00edn \u2018descendant of uidhr\u00edn\u2019 , a personal name from a diminutive of odhar \u2018dun\u2019 , \u2018swarthy\u2019 . irish : reduced anglicized form of gaelic \u00f3 hear\u00e1in ( see haren ) . irish : reduced anglicized form of gaelic mac giolla chiar\u00e1in \u2018son of the servant of ( saint ) ciar\u00e1n\u2019 ( see kieran ) .\nvery pretty ! heron is distinguished yet sweet . i personally like helena , or hava for other h names . ( plus hava has a nice hebrew meaning , and could be used as a hebrew name if not given . ) hera for a nickname is cool in my mind - - a greek godess and androgynous bird name all in one ! fantastic !\nthe heron ' s breeding season is prolonged . in early february in a mild season , they may be seen soaring over the nesting wood and chasing one another , tilting from side to side and diving head - long . an exciting performance to watch for next to the mute swan the heron is our largest common bird . endless display takes place on old nest platforms and consists of elaborate neck movements with crest and neck plumes erect and accompanied by bill - snapping and a variety of blood - curdling calls . for short periods the normally yellow - coloured bill and legs change dramatically to deep orange , especially when a group assembles on the ' dancing grounds ' running and skipping first in one direction and then another with open wings .\ntwo hesitations about heron : it ' s gender - ambiguous , but i ' d probably be more likely to guess boy than girl , if that matters to you . it could also be an awkward name to wear if your daughter is a leggy , lanky teenager . heron does feel a bit in - your - face in the sense that it ' s a commonly known bird ( linnet and avocet wouldn ' t ring a bell with most non - birders ) but not one that ' s been commonly used as a name ( people recognize wren and lark as bird names , but we ' re not too surprised to see these names on people ) . it does sound name - like at least : fits the ends - with - n trend , almost rhymes with aaron or erin . . . actually i wouldn ' t be surprised if people misheard it as one of these , if that matters to you . i ' m not sure i ' d do it myself ( maybe more likely as a middle name ) , but i love the story heron has for your family ! what a special , meaningful gift to your daughter .\nthis night - heron ' s diet has magnified its exposure to contaminants , especially ddt , a persistent organochlorine pesticide that appears to have caused reproductive failure in some populations and may have contributed to subsequent local population declines in the 1960s . since then , extensive sampling has shown that while some populations continue to accumulate contaminants , these appear to have had minimal effect on breeding success and population levels .\nin parts of their range where food is not available in the winter , great blue herons are migratory , and some may migrate to washington from points farther north . most of washington ' s breeding population remains in the state year round . in parts of eastern washington where the water freezes , great blue heron populations concentrate along major rivers where food is available , or they hunt rodents on land .\nthe white - faced heron is mostly light blue - grey in colour , with a characteristic white face . in flight , the dark flight feathers of the wing contrast with the paler grey plumage , making this bird easily identifiable when viewed from below . it has a long , slim neck and a pointed grey - black bill . the legs are long and dull yellow in colour . sexes are similar . when breeding , the birds have long feathers ( nuptial plumes ) on the head , neck and back . the white - faced heron has a slow bouncing flight . young white - faced herons are similar in appearance to the non - breeding adults ( no nuptial plumes ) , but are duller , with little or no white on the face . they often have a reddish colour on the underparts .\nhenny , c . j . , e . f . hill , r . a . grove and j . l . kaiser . 2007 . mercury and drought along the lower carson river , nevada : i . snowy egret and black - crowned night - heron annual exposure to mercury , 1997 - 2006 . archives of environmental contamination and toxicology no . 53 ( 2 ) : 269 - 280 . close\nthe variable diet of great blue herons allows them to exploit a variety of habitats . this adaptability also enables them to winter farther north than most herons . fish , amphibians , reptiles , invertebrates , small mammals , and even other birds are all potential prey of the great blue heron . in washington , much of their winter hunting is on land , with voles making up a major portion of their winter diet .\nc . nycticoracis : it was described as a new species based on the presence of a single male with broken spicule from a heron in new south wales ( johnston and mawson , 1941e ) . the description of this species is very brief and the figures provided in the article do not show sufficient detail of taxonomically important features to differentiate it from other contracaceum spp . therefore the validity of c . nycticoracis is questionable .\nadaptable and widespread , the great blue heron is found in a wide variety of habitats . when feeding , it is usually seen in slow - moving or calm salt , fresh , or brackish water . great blue herons inhabit sheltered , shallow bays and inlets , sloughs , marshes , wet meadows , shores of lakes , and rivers . nesting colonies are typically found in mature forests , on islands , or near mudflats , and do best when they are free of human disturbance and have foraging areas close by .\nso if you wish to adhere to tradition , you are not wedded to the letter h as the first initial , although you may choose it if you like . first , find out whether your relative had a hebrew or yiddish name , and if so , ascertain its meaning . then you can brainstorm names with similar sound , initial or otherwise , or meaning . you may , of course , still end up with an h - name and that name might still be heron , but you might also uncover other interesting possibilities .\nyellow - crowned night - herons nest near or over water in trees such as pine and oak\u2014as high as 60 feet or more off the ground\u2014or on lower vegetation such as mulberry , myrtle , hackberry , and mangrove . on islands with limited vegetation , they may nest on rock ledges . the male chooses the location , and the pair may start several nests before completing one . they nest alone or in colonies of up to several hundred pairs , sometimes with other heron species . some colony sites remain in use for more than 20 years .\nforaging great blue herons are not hard to find in appropriate habitat throughout the year . some prominent rookeries can be found on samish island between samish bay and padilla bay ( skagit county ) ; at the dumas bay sanctuary in tacoma ( pierce county ) ; by the ballard locks in seattle , at lake sammamish state park ( both in king county ) ; on vancouver lake ( clark county ) ; and at potholes wra ( grant county ) . when observing great blue heron rookeries , please keep in mind the 1000 - foot disturbance buffer zone .\nardea includes the largest modern heron , ardea goliath , and other \u2018giant\u2019 herons , all of which are of conservation concern . the white - bellied heron is among the world\u2019s most rare and endangered . the three large ardea ( cinerea , herodias and cocoi ) appear closely related . the nearly cosmopolitan cattle egret ( previously placed in bubulcus , ardeola , or egretta ) , the great egret and the eastern great white egret ( previously referred to egretta and casmerodius as well as ardea ) , and the intermediate egret ( previously egretta ) , also are ardea . shifting names may cause some confusion among conservationists . there remain a number of interesting research questions and uncertainties within ardea . these include the possible specific distinctiveness of certain populations , including ardea cinerea monicae in mauritania and ardea herodias in southern florida and the caribbean and the north pacific coast of north america . it remains unclear how many species are in the great egret group . although the great egret and eastern great egret are currently recognized , it is unclear what is the correct delineation of species in this nearly cosmopolitan group . conservation action centering on these populations is critical .\nheron is a bird that can be easily confused with a stork , due to similarities in appearance . there are 64 different species of herons that differ in size , color and type of habitat . herons can be found on each continent except on antarctica . these birds prefer wetlands , swamps , coastlines and areas near rivers , ponds and lakes . pollution of the water with heavy metals and chemicals and habitat destruction are the main factors that decrease number of herons in the wild . at the moment , world population of herons is stable and they are not on the list of endangered animals .\ncheshire is the pond capital of britain , and it is not surprising that it is the heron capital as well . two of the five largest heronries in britain are in cheshire and wirral , and the county holds more than one - in - twenty of britain\u2019s birds . the private wood on the north side of marbury ( budworth ) mere ( sj67n ) holds currently the largest colony of grey herons in britain , 180 apparently occupied nests ( aon ) in 2005 , and that at eaton hall ( sj45e ) \u2013 in existence since at least 1874 \u2013 is the third largest with 149 nests .\nthe herons are a fairly ancient group of birds . although bird fossils are rare , herons are exceptionally rare even by avian standards totaling fewer than 40 identified species . herons first emerge in the fossil record some 60 - 38 million years ago . birds attributable to contemporary genera first occur about 7 million years ago . these include nycticorax , ardea , egretta and ardeola . thus by the miocene , a period characterized by extensive aquatic habitats , herons rather closely resembling modern forms had evolved and had radiated into the kinds of herons known today , day and night herons , and large , medium and small herons . fossils are commoner in more recent times . those from the pleistocene are often assignable to extant species , so contemporary heron species have been around a long time . subfossils from islands often represent recently extinct forms , species or subspecies , particularly of nycticorax . most of these went extinct when humans colonized their islands . these fossils are illustrative of the ever - changing face of heron distribution in the world . herons can make significant changes in range within a matter of decades . as a result , conservation depends on an accurate monitoring of herons\u2019 ranges and with special attention to isolated and outlying populations .\nthe grey heron population of cheshire and wirral , assessed from the bbs transects in 2004 - 05 , was 3 , 050 birds ( with wide confidence limits of zero to 7 , 940 ) . the number of breeding adults is about 1 , 300 so this figure implies more non - breeders than breeders : most grey herons do not nest until two or three years of age , so there are large numbers of immature birds present , and bbs fieldworkers might also have counted some early - fledged juvenile birds . the county figure is 4 . 2 % of the national total of 57 , 220 birds ( newson et al 2008 ) .\nblack - crowned night - herons are opportunists feeders that eat many kinds of terrestrial , freshwater , and marine animals . their diet includes leeches , earthworms , insects , crayfish , clams , mussels , fish , amphibians , lizards , snakes , turtles , rodents , birds , and eggs . they also eat carrion , plant materials , and garbage from landfills . rather than stabbing their prey , they grasp it in their bills . black - crowned night - herons normally feed between evening and early morning , avoiding competition with other heron species that use the same habitat during the day . they may feed during the day in the breeding season , when they need extra energy for nesting . back to top\nequally at home in coastal ( marine ) environments and in fresh water habitats , the great blue heron nests mostly in colonies , commonly large ones of several hundred pairs . such colonies are often located on islands or in wooded swamps , isolated locations that discourage predation by snakes and mammals and disturbance from humans . although the species is primarily a fish eater , wading ( often belly deep ) along the shoreline of oceans , marshes , lakes , and rivers , it also stalks upland areas for rodents and other animals , especially in winter . it has been known to eat most animals that come within striking range . its well - studied , elaborate courtship displays have correlates on the foraging grounds , where this species can be strongly territorial ."]}
{"id": 481, "summary": [{"text": "antheraea pernyi , the chinese ( oak ) tussar moth ( or \" chinese tasar moth \" ) , also known as temperate tussar moth , is a large moth in the family saturniidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "antheraea roylei is an extremely close relative , and the present species might actually have evolved from ancestral a. roylei by chromosome rearrangement .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they are originally from southern china .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "used for tussar silk production , they have been distributed more widely across subtropical and tropical asia .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "unlike the domestic silkmoth which is entirely dependent on human care , tussah silkmoths can survive in the wild if they escape from captivity ; small local populations of such feral stock may thus occasionally occur .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the colour and quality of the silk depends on the climate and soil .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this is one of the major producers of tussar silk .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "it was of commercial importance during the han dynasty and early three kingdoms era , about 200 bc to 250 ad .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "more recently , the hybridogenic species antheraea \u00d7 proylei is being bred for tussah silk production .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it originated from a natural hybrid between male a. pernyi and a. roylei females , f1 females of which were backcrossed to a. pernyi males .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "for reasons unknown , it is a case of paternal mtdna transmission : the mitochondrial genome , normally inherited from the mother only in sexually reproducing organisms , is almost identical to that of the present species . ", "topic": 4}], "title": "antheraea pernyi", "paragraphs": ["cathepsin o is involved in the innate immune response and metamorphosis of antheraea pernyi .\ncathepsin o is involved in the innate immune response and metamorphosis of antheraea pernyi . - pubmed - ncbi\ninsect immunity : isolation and structure of cecropins b and d from pupae of the chinese oak silk moth , antheraea pernyi .\ninsect immunity : isolation and structure of cecropins b and d from pupae of the chinese oak silk moth , antheraea pernyi . - pubmed - ncbi\nthe functions of serpin - 3 , a negative - regulator involved in prophenoloxidase activation and antimicrobial peptides expression of chinese oak silkworm , antheraea pernyi .\nqin l , wang h , jiang y . advance in antheraea pernyi genetics and breeding in china . journal of shenyang agricultural university . 2006 ; 37 ( 5 ) : 677\u2013682 .\nli wl , liu y , li fj , li yj . cloning , identification and expressional analysis of immunity related genes apdorasal from antheraea pernyi . science of sericulture . 2014 ; 40 : 32\u201337 .\nin conclusion , a novel spatzle belonging to the spatzle type 1 family from a . pernyi has been identified . apspz was expressed during all developmental stages of a . pernyi . other genes associated with the toll pathway were mainly expressed in the fat body , suggesting that the toll pathway is important in the a . pernyi innate immune system for defending against pathogenic microorganisms . moreover , infection of a . pernyi with the fungus n . pernyi and the gram - positive bacterium e . pernyi but not by the gram - negative bacterium e . coli activates the toll signaling pathway .\nqu xm , zhang cf , komano h , natori s . purification of a lectin from the hemolymph of chinese oak silk moth ( antheraea pernyi ) pupae . j biochem . 1987 ; 101 : 545\u2013551 pmid : 3298221\nhirai m , terenius o , li w , faye i . 2004 . baculovirus and dsrna induce hemolin , but no antibacterial activity , in antheraea pernyi . insect mol biol . 2004 ; 13 : 399\u2013405 pmid : 15271212\nli f , terenius o , li y , fang s , li w . cdna cloning and expression analysis of pattern recognition proteins from the chinese oak silkmoth , antheraea pernyi . insects . 2012 ; 3 : 1093\u20131104 . pmid : 26466728\nli w , terenius o , hirai m , nilsson as , faye i . cloning , expression and phylogenetic analysis of hemolin , from the chinese oak silkmoth , antheraea pernyi . dev comp immunol . 2005 ; 29 : 853\u2013864 pmid : 15978282\nli f , terenius o , li y , fang s , li w . cdna cloning and expression analysis of pattern recognition proteins from the chinese oak silkmoth , antheraea pernyi . insects . 2012 ; 3 ( 4 ) : 1093 - 1104 .\nsemi - quantitative rt - pcr was performed to examine the expression of genes involved in the toll pathway in different developmental stages and various tissues of the a . pernyi 5th instar larvae ( fig 4 ) . in addition to a . pernyi spatzle , the genes selected were a . pernyi gnbp ( genbank accession no . kf725771 ) , a . pernyi myd88 ( genbank accession no . kf670143 ) , a . pernyi tolloid ( genbank accession no . kf670144 ) , a . pernyi cactus ( genbank accession no . kf670142 ) and a . pernyi dorsala ( genbank accession no . jf488068 ) . to standardize the templates , apactin was used as an internal control [ 25 ] . rt - pcr was performed with the specific primer pairs ( shown in s1 table ) for the each gene .\nlu wx , yue d , hai zj , daihua w , yi zm , fu wc , et al . cloning , expression , and characterization of prophenoloxidase from antheraea pernyi . arch insect biochem physiol . 2015 ; 88 : 45\u201363 . pmid : 25521627\nliu y , chen m , su j , ma h , zheng x , li q , et al . identification and characterization of a novel microvitellogenin from the chinese oak silkworm antheraea pernyi . plos one . 2015 ; 10 : e0131751 . pmid : 26126120\nwu s , xuan zx , li yp , li q , xia rx , shi sl , et al . cloning and characterization of the first actin gene in chinese oak silkworm , antheraea pernyi . afr j agric res . 2010 ; 10 : 1095\u20131100 .\nliu qn , zhu bj , dai ls , fu ww , lin kz , liu cl . overexpression of small heat shock protein 21 protects the chinese oak silkworm antheraea pernyi against thermal stress . j insect physiol . 2013 ; 59 : 848\u2013854 . pmid : 23763950\nliu y , li y , li x , qin l . the origin and dispersal of the domesticated chinese oak silkworm , antheraea pernyi , in china : a reconstruction based on ancient texts . j insect sci . 2010 ; 10 : 180 . pmid : 21062145 .\nwang j , zhang s , xing t , kundu b , li m , kundu sc , et al . ion - induced fabrication of silk fibroin nanoparticles from chinese oak tasar antheraea pernyi . int j biol macromol . 2015 ; 79 : 316\u2013325 . pmid : 25936281\nthe pernyi caterpillars are a little hairier than the polyphemus . this one is wandering over my hand , searching for food .\nto investigate the role of the a . pernyi toll signaling pathway in the response to different pathogens , the relative mrna levels of genes in the toll pathway were assessed by qrt - pcr after a . pernyi was challenged by different pathogenic microorganisms .\nli , f . ; terenius , o . ; li , y . ; fang , s . ; li , w . cdna cloning and expression analysis of pattern recognition proteins from the chinese oak silkmoth , antheraea pernyi . insects 2012 , 3 , 1093 - 1104 .\nthere are significant differences between the domestic silkworm ( bombyx mori ) and the chinese oak silkworm ( a . pernyi ) . unlike the domestic silkworm , a . pernyi larvae are fed on the leaves of oak trees in tussah - feeding oak forests until cocooning during the larval stage . therefore , there is a high risk of a . pernyi larvae infection by different microorganisms in the wild . moreover , substantial economic losses in tussah production are associated with different diseases every year . however , it is evident that a . pernyi must have immune responses to defend against different microorganisms , as tussah production has lasted for hundreds of years . different developmental stages of a . pernyi and survival conditions of a . pernyi larvae are shown in s1 and s2 figs .\nzhang cf , dai ls , wang l , qian c , wei gq , li j , et al . eicosanoids mediate shsp 20 . 8 gene response to biotic stress in larvae of the chinese oak silkworm antheraea pernyi . gene . 2015 ; 562 : 32\u201339 . pmid : 25527122\nli , fengjuan ; terenius , olle ; li , yuan ; fang , suyun ; li , wenli . 2012 .\ncdna cloning and expression analysis of pattern recognition proteins from the chinese oak silkmoth , antheraea pernyi .\ninsects 3 , no . 4 : 1093 - 1104 .\nliu qn , zhu bj , wang l , wei gq , dai ls , lin kz , et al . identification of immune response - related genes in the chinese oak silkworm , antheraea pernyi by suppression subtractive hybridization . j invertebr pathol . 2013 ; 114 : 313\u2013323 . pmid : 24076149\nsericulture was developed in china in ancient times . antheraea pernyi gu\u00e9rin - m\u00e9neville was domesticated at least 2 , 000 yr ago , and chinese farmers developed artificial rearing of a . pernyi before the 17th century . today , > 60 , 000 tons of cocoons are produced in china each year , which accounts for 90 % of the world production . despite the widespread utilization of a . pernyi in china and a long history of domestic research , the knowledge of a . pernyi outside china is limited . therefore , we have in this paper summarized the production , usage , and breeding of a . pernyi . the foremost usage of a . pernyi is as silk producers ; however , about 55\u201370 % is used for other purposes . in this paper , we give examples of how the different developmental stages are used as a food source for human consumption and in traditional chinese medicine , both directly in different preparations and also as a nutrient source for rearing medicinal fungi .\nprevious studies of a . pernyi innate immunity have mainly focused on the prophenoloxidase ( pro - po ) system . it has been reported that lectin increases in response to the intrusion of foreign substances in a . pernyi [ 17 ] . in a . pernyi , the \u03b2 - 1 , 3 - glucan recognition protein ( ap - \u03b2grp ) and lectin - 5 ( aplectin - 5 ) were induced by all microorganisms , including bacillus subtilis , e . coli , antheraea pernyi nuclear polyhedrosis virus ( apnpv ) and saccharomyces cerevisiae , whereas a . pernyi c - type lectin 1 was not induced by gram - positive bacteria , and the genes exhibited significantly different expression levels in different tissues . the results suggest that lectins might have various functions in different a . pernyi tissues [ 18 ] . a 1 , 3 - \u03b2 - d - glucan recognition protein from a . pernyi ( ap - \u03b2grp ) that specifically binds 1 , 3 - \u03b2 - d - glucan from yeast but not e . coli or micrococcus luteus has been identified , and the presence of both 1 , 3 - \u03b2 - d - glucan and ap - \u03b2grp triggered the pro - po system together but not separately [ 19 ] . an a . pernyi c - type lectin ( ap - rctl ) involved in the pro - po activating system plays an important role in a . pernyi innate immunity as a pattern recognition protein that can recognize and trigger the agglutination of bacteria and fungi [ 20 ] . a . pernyi prophenoloxidase ( apppo ) was also cloned , and apppo expression was significantly up - regulated in a . pernyi tissues following microbial infection . recombinant apppo is able to kill bacteria and induce the cecropin transcription in larvae [ 21 ] . additionally , many genes coding for immune proteins from a . pernyi have been cloned , such as hemolin [ 22 ] , which might affect the progress of viral infection in a . pernyi [ 23 ] .\ncitation : sun y , jiang y , wang y , li x , yang r , yu z , et al . ( 2016 ) the toll signaling pathway in the chinese oak silkworm , antheraea pernyi : innate immune responses to different microorganisms . plos one 11 ( 8 ) : e0160200 . urltoken\nzhang c , dai l , wang l , qian c , wei g , li j , et al . 2015 inhibitors of eicosanoid biosynthesis influencing the transcripts level of shsp21 . 4 gene induced by pathogen infections , in antheraea pernyi . plos one . 2015 ; 10 : e0121296 . pmid : 25844646\nliu qn , lin kz , yang ln , dai ls , wang l , sun y , et al . molecular characterization of an apolipophorin - iii gene from the chinese oak silkworm , antheraea pernyi ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) . arch insect biochem physiol . 2015 ; 88 : 155\u2013167 . pmid : 25348706\nxialu w , jinghai z , ying c , youlei m , wenjun z , guoyuan d , et al . a novel pattern recognition protein of the chinese oak silkmoth , antheraea pernyi , is involved in the pro - po activating system . bmb rep . 2013 ; 46 : 358\u2013363 . pmid : 23884102\nin this study , a novel spatzle gene ( apspz ) from the chinese oak silkworm , a . pernyi , was identified while investigating the toll signaling pathway in response to different microorganisms . furthermore , the expression patterns of genes involved in the toll pathway were examined in a . pernyi infected with different microorganisms . the results of this analysis provide a foundation for further investigation of the toll signaling pathway in a . pernyi .\nthe genes involved in the toll pathway were predominantly expressed in immune - responsive fat body tissue , indicating that these genes play a crucial role in a . pernyi innate immunity . further studies of these genes are underway to clarify the immune response of a . pernyi against infection by microorganisms .\nzhu j , fan d , zhao j , zhang h , huang j , zhou w , et al . enhancement of the gelation properties of surimi from yellowtail seabream ( parargyrops edita , sparidae ) with chinese oak silkworm pupa , antheraea pernyi . j food sci . 2016 ; 81 : e396\u2013e403 . pmid : 26709730\nin summary , the toll signaling pathway in a . pernyi was activated by fungi and gram - positive bacteria but not by gram - negative bacteria .\nyoulei m , jinghai z , yuntao z , jiaoshu l , tianyi w , chunfu w , et al . purification and characterization of a 1 , 3 - \u03b2 - d - glucan recognition protein from antheraea pernyi larve that is regulated after a specific immune challenge . bmb rep . 2013 ; 46 : 264\u2013269 . pmid : 23710637\nas shown in fig 5 , after infection with different pathogenic microorganisms , significant changes were observed in the transcriptional levels of toll pathway genes in a . pernyi .\nantheraea pernyi variety shenhuang no . 2 was used in this study . the eggs ( on the fifth day ) , fifth instar larvae ( on the third day ) , pupae and moths were frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at \u201380\u00b0c until use . the epidermis , silk glands , blood , gonads , malpighian tubules , fat body , midgut , and muscle were dissected from fifth instar a . pernyi larvae , immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at \u201380\u00b0c until use . all of the samples were used for rt - pcr .\nthe toll pathway is one of the most important signaling pathways regulating insect innate immunity . spatzle is a key protein that functions as a toll receptor ligand to trigger toll - dependent expression of immunity - related genes . in this study , a novel spatzle gene ( apspz ) from the chinese oak silkworm antheraea pernyi was identified . the apspz cdna is 1065 nucleotides with an open reading frame ( orf ) of 777 bp encoding a protein of 258 amino acids . the protein has an estimated molecular weight of 29 . 71 kda and an isoelectric point ( pi ) of 8 . 53 . apspz is a nuclear and secretory protein with no conserved domains or membrane helices and shares 40 % amino acid identity with spz from manduca sexta . phylogenetic analysis indicated that apspz might be a new member of the spatzle type 1 family , which belongs to the spatzle superfamily . the expression patterns of several genes involved in the toll pathway were examined at different developmental stages and various tissues in 5th instar larvae . the examined targets included a . pernyi spatzle , gnbp , myd88 , tolloid , cactus and dorsala . the rt - pcr results showed that these genes were predominantly expressed in immune - responsive fat body tissue , indicating that the genes play a crucial role in a . pernyi innate immunity . moreover , a . pernyi infection with the fungus nosema pernyi and the gram - positive bacterium enterococcus pernyi , but not the gram - negative bacterium escherichia coli , activated the toll signaling pathway . these results represent the first study of the toll pathway in a . pernyi , which provides insight into the a . pernyi innate immune system .\ninsects possess an innate immune system that responds to invading microorganisms . in recent years , immune response - related genes have become an important focus of a . pernyi research . fifty immune response - related genes and ten stress response genes were identified from a subtractive cdna library in a . pernyi challenged with escherichia coli [ 12 ] . three small heat shock proteins ( shsps ) encoding hsp21 , hsp21 . 4 and hsp20 . 8 ( named as ap - shsp 21 , ap - shsp 21 . 4 and ap - shsp 20 . 8 , respectively ) were isolated from a . pernyi . further studies have shown that these shsps might play important roles in a . pernyi upon challenge with different microorganisms or under stress conditions [ 13 \u2013 15 ] . expression of an apolipophorin - iii ( apolp - iii ) gene from a . pernyi pupae ( ap - apolp - iii ) was significantly up - regulated in response to different microorganisms , and rna interference showed that ap - apolp - iii might function in the a . pernyi innate immune system [ 16 ] .\nthe fifth instar larvae were inoculated by oral feeding with escherichia coli ( ec ) , enterococcus pernyi ( ep ) , or nosema pernyi ( np ) on the first day , and larvae fed sterile water were used as control samples ( ck ) . fat bodies dissected from each group for rna extraction 24 h and 48 h after inoculation were used for qrt - pcr testing .\nhowever , there is limited information on the toll signaling pathway in antheraea pernyi . the chinese oak silkworm ( antheraea pernyi gu\u00e9rin - m\u00e9neville , 1855 ; lepidoptera : saturniidae ) is a well - known wild silkworm used for insect food and silk production . chinese farmers developed rearing methods for the chinese oak silkworm approximately 400 years ago [ 6 ] . currently , the chinese annual output of tussah cocoons is approximately 8\u00d710 4 t , which is nearly 90 % of the total output of wild silk worldwide , and the income from tussah rearing has become the main economic source in many sericultural areas . there are approximately one hundred twenty tussah varieties in china , and they can be divided into four races based on larval skin color : yellow , yellow - cyan , white , and blue [ 7 ] . currently , the products from a . pernyi , such as silk , pupae and moths , are used in many fields . for example , tussah silk fibroin nanoparticles have been used as a sustained drug delivery vehicle [ 8 ] , and tussah pupae homogenates were used to enhance the gelation properties of surimi from yellowtail seabream [ 9 ] . therefore , the use of tussah products is common and wide - ranging . with new developments in biotechnology , more attention has been paid to the functional genes of a . pernyi , and several genes from a . pernyi have been isolated and characterized [ 10 , 11 ] .\nthis species is not very variable in colour , unlike antheraea yamamai , with individuals differing little from the typical fawn colour of the male illustrated below ; however , a chocolate - brown melanic form is known - - f . hartii moore .\nin a . pernyi , many immune genes involved in the toll signaling pathway have been isolated , although there is limited information about toll signaling in this organism . two rel / nf - kb - related genes , apdorasl a and apdorsal b , were cloned from a . pernyi . the cloned genes were differentially expressed in response to different microorganisms , indicating that apdorsal might be involved in the immune response to viruses , fungi and gram - positive bacteria in a . pernyi [ 24 ] . although the sequences of many genes involved in the a . pernyi toll pathway have been submitted to genbank , including gnbp ( accession number : kf725771 ) , myd88 ( accession number : kf670143 ) , tolloid ( accession number : kf670144 ) , and cactus ( accession number : kf670142 ) , there has been no report or record of the spatzle gene in a . pernyi to our knowledge . it is well known that spatzle is a key signal transducer for immune responses , a ligand for toll receptors and a very important functional protein for activating the toll pathway in response to different microorganisms .\nthis silkworm is raised in china for its silk . it is referred to as tussah , chinese tussah , oak tussah , or temperate tussah . it is the source of tussah spinning fiber that we use in the west . it is a relative of the tropical tussah silkmoth , antheraea mylitta of india , and also related to antheraea polyphemus , the american polyphemus silkmoth . in china , they are fed on plantations of specially trimmed oak trees on the hillsides . they began to hatch on may 18 , 2004 .\non the first day , fifth instar larvae were orally administered 20 \u03bcl of different microorganisms separately suspended in sterile water , including e . coli ( ec , 1 . 2\u00d710 7 bacterial cells / ml ) , enterococcus pernyi ( ep , 2 . 0\u00d710 7 cells / ml ) , and nosema pernyi ( np , 5 . 0\u00d710 7 spores / ml ) , and larvae fed sterile water were used as controls ( ck ) . fat bodies dissected from different groups were used for rna extraction 24 h and 48 h after inoculation and were stored at - 80\u00b0c for qrt - pcr testing . a . pernyi larvae were kept in a rearing chamber at 23\u00b12\u00b0c with 70\u00b15 % relative humidity and were fed fresh quercus mongolica leaves .\nthe expression analysis of toll pathway genes associated with a . pernyi orally infected with fungi ( np ) , gram - positive bacteria ( ep ) and gram - negative ( ec ) bacteria revealed specific interactions between host immunity and pathogens , indicating that the toll pathway could be activated by challenge with np and ep . however , no significant differences in toll pathway genes were observed in a . pernyi after infection with ec , indicating that the toll pathway does respond to gram - negative bacteria .\ncathepsins are key members of mammalian papain - like cysteine proteases that play an important role in the immune response . in this study , a fragment of cdna encoding cathepsin o proteinase ( apcathepsin o ) was cloned from antheraea pernyi . it contains an open reading frame of 1170bp and encodes a protein with 390 amino acid residues , including a conserved i29 inhibitor domain and a peptidase c1a ( clan ca of cysteine proteases , papain family c1 subfamily ) domain . comparison with other previously reported cathepsin o proteins showed identity ranging from 45 % to 79 % . quantitative real - time pcr ( qrt - pcr ) and western blot analysis revealed that apcathepsin o was highly expressed in the fat body ; furthermore , the high expression during the pupal stage indicated that it might be involved during metamorphosis . after exposure to four different heat - killed pathogens ( escherichia coli , beauveria bassiana , micrococcus luteus , and a . pernyi nucleopolyhedrovirus ) , the expression levels of apcathepsin o mrna significantly increased and showed variable expression patterns . this indicates that apcathepsin o is potentially involved in the innate immune system of a . pernyi . interestingly , apcathepsin o expression was upregulated after 20 - hydroxyecdysone ( 20e ) injection , which suggested that it might be regulated by 20e . in conclusion , apcathepsin o is a protease that may play an important role in the innate immune response and metamorphosis of a . pernyi .\nthe immune system in the chinese oak silk moth , antheraea pernyi , has been compared with that of the cecropia moth which has been characterized earlier . antibacterial activity against escherichia coli was induced in diapausing pupae by injection of viable e . coli or enterobacter cloacae . the activity reached a maximum on day 7 - 8 after which the response gradually declined . the pupae produced a set of immune proteins with p4 and p5 as major labelled components similar to that earlier found in cecropia . the major antibacterial factor in a . pernyi was cecropin d . a procedure is described for the isolation of cecropin b and d , which is in principle similar to the one used for the isolation of the corresponding cecropins from cecropia pupae . amino acid sequence analyses of the a . pernyi cecropins show the d form to contain 36 amino acid residues and that both cecropins have blocked c - termini . the general structure of cecropins having a charged n - terminal region ( residues 1 - 21 ) followed by a long hydrophobic stretch ( residues 22 - 32 ) is well conserved . cecropin b and d from a . pernyi differ from the corresponding proteins in cecropia by four and three conservative amino acid replacements , respectively . the homology between the cecropins from the two insects suggests that they orginate from a single ancestral gene . the antibacterial activity was tested against nine different bacterial species . evolutionary aspects of the cecropins are discussed .\nwingspan 110 - - 152mm . the similarly marked and coloured sexes are unlike any other european saturniid except the introduced antheraea yamamai , but it can easily be distinguished from that species in having the solid elongated black spot on the outer margin of the hindwing eyespot invaded by yellow . in males , the forewings are distinctly falcate .\nserpins are a superfamily of proteins engaged in various physiological processes in all kingdoms of life . to date , many striking results have demonstrated serpins are involved in the invertebrate immune system by regulating the proteolytic cascades . however , in most insect species , the immune functions of serpins in response against pathogen invasion remain obscure . in this study , we identified a full - length cdna sequence of serpin , named serpin - 3 , from the chinese oak silkworm antheraea pernyi . sequence alignments have indicated that apserpin - 3 might regulate the melanization reaction via inhibiting prophenoloxidases - activating protease ( s ) in plasma . furthermore , it was detected to be primarily transcribed within the fat body , epidermis and hemocytes with significant induction following immune - challenge . further studies have shown that the knockdown of serpin - 3 up - regulated the prophenoloxidases cascade stimulated by pathogen in hemolymph , while the addition of recombinant serpin - 3 along with the same elicitor led to the suppressed activation of prophenoloxidase . besides , the injection of dsrna of serpin - 3 caused the elevated expression of antimicrobial peptides . altogether , we arrived at a conclusion that serpin - 3 might act as a negative - regulator in prophenoloxidases activation and inhibit the production of antimicrobial peptides in antheraea pernyi larvae .\na lectin with affinity to galactose was purified to homogeneity from the hemolymph of diapausing pupae of the chinese oak silk moth , antheraea pernyi . the molecular mass of this lectin was 380 , 000 and it formed an oligomeric structure of a subunit with a molecular mass of 38 , 000 . the hemagglutinating activity in the hemolymph was found to increase with time after immunization with e . coli . studies with antibody against the purified lectin showed that increase in the hemagglutinating activity was due to the same lectin , suggesting that the amount of the lectin increased in response to intrusion of foreign substances . the function of this lectin in the defence mechanism is discussed .\nthe newly - hatched , 5mm long larvae are basically dull black with a glossy , dull orange head . the tubercles are also black , with several white setae . from the second instar the larvae are very similar to those of antheraea yamamai , except for a raw sienna to fawn coloured head , which bears five dark spots on each lobe of the face .\nas shown in fig 4a , the a . pernyi gnbp gene was expressed in larvae and pupae during four developmental stages . apgnbp was expressed in all of the tissues examined except for the midgut , and the highest mrna levels were found in the epidermis and fat body . gnbp is a pattern recognition protein that enables the host to detect invading bacteria [ 37 ] . gnbp and the peptidoglycan recognition protein sa ( pgrp - sa ) jointly activate the toll pathway against gram - positive bacterial infections in drosophila [ 1 , 38 ] . a . pernyi spatzle ( apspz ) was expressed during four developmental stages , including eggs , larvae , pupae and moths , indicating that apspz has an important role throughout the entire life cycle of a . pernyi . the highest mrna levels were observed in the larval stage . apspz was expressed in all of the tissues examined except the midgut , and the highest mrna levels were found in the fat body and muscle ( fig 4b ) . a . pernyi tolloid ( aptoll ) mrna was only expressed in the pupae stage and not in the larvae , which might be due to whole larva sampling . aptoll was expressed in malpighian tubules and the fat body , and the highest mrna levels were observed in the fat body ( fig 4c ) . a . pernyi tolloid is a toll family member and could be assigned to the toll - 1 group with d . melanogaster tolloid ( genbank accession no . aaf56329 ) . d . melanogaster tolloid was detected in blood cells and the fat body , but no transcripts were found in the lymph gland [ 39 ] . a . pernyi myd88 ( apmyd88 ) was expressed in the eggs , larvae and pupae . apmyd88 was expressed in all of the tissues examined except for the epidermis and blood , and the highest mrna levels were found in the fat body ( fig 4d ) . a . pernyi cactus ( apcact ) was expressed in the larvae , pupae and moths , and apcact was expressed in all of the tissues examined except for the midgut . transcript levels were most abundant in the fat body ( fig 4e ) . the a . pernyi dorsala ( apdora ) gene was expressed in the larvae , pupae and moths . apdora was expressed in the silk gland , blood , spermary / ovary , malpighian tubules and fat body and was not detected in the epidermis , midgut and muscle . moreover , the highest mrna levels were found in the malpighian tubules and the fat body ( fig 4f ) , which was consistent with a previous study [ 24 ] .\nthis caterpillar has already dumped out the excess food in his gut , and is about to start spinning . the pernyi caterpillars seem to be particularly shy - they stop whatever they ' re doing when i approach , and put their little feet into this\nprayer\npose and sit quietly . most of the other species just keep on eating or spinning or whatever . july 7 , 2004 .\npattern recognition receptors are known to participate in the activation of prophenoloxidase system . in this study , a 1 , 3 - \u03b2 - d - glucan recognition protein was detected for the first time in antheraea pernyi larvae ( ap - \u03b2grp ) . ap - \u03b2grp was purified to 99 . 9 % homogeneity from the hemolymph using traditional chromatographic methods . ap - \u03b2grp specifically bind 1 , 3 - \u03b2 - d - glucan and yeast , but not e . coli or m . luteus . the 1 , 3 - \u03b2 - d - glucan dependent phenoloxidase ( po ) activity of the hemolymph inhibited by anti - ap - \u03b2grp antibody could be recovered by addition of purified ap - \u03b2grp . these results demonstrate that ap - \u03b2grp acts as a biosensor of 1 , 3 - \u03b2 - dglucan to trigger the prophenoloxidase system . a trace mount of 1 , 3 - \u03b2 - d - glucan or ap - \u03b2grp alone was unable to trigger the propo system , but they both did . ap - \u03b2grp was specifically degraded following the activation of propo with 1 , 3 - \u03b2 - dglucan . these results indicate the variation in the amount of ap - \u03b2grp after specific immune challenge in a . pernyi hemolymph is an important regulation mechanism to immune response .\nin china , tussah silk produced by the chinese tussah or tussur moth ( antheraea pernyi ) is semi - cultivated . this silk is also called tassar . the larvae feed on various species of oaks ( quercus spp . ) . the oaks on which the caterpillars feed are pruned into shrubs 1 . 5 - 2 m high on which the larvae are raised . two annual crops are obtained . the small spring crop is used exclusively as breeding stock for the large autumn crop . the silk of the autumn crop is mostly reeled . yields average approximately 45 kg / ha of reeled fibre and about 68 kg / ha of spinning fibre [ kolander , 1985 ] . the city of dandong , in liaoning province has been a center for tussah silk production for two centuries and in 1980 provided about 70 percent of china\u0092s output . tussah silk production fluctuates ; in 1980 , 75 000 tons were produced and about 50 000 tons were produced each year between 1987 - 1989 ( peigler 1999 ) .\nwe performed transcriptome sequencing on the chinese oak silkworm a . pernyi , and high - quality reads were deposited in the ncbi sra database ( accession numbers : srr2919240 , srr2919241 , srr2919242 and srr2919243 ) . assembly of the high quality reads was performed using the trinity de novo assembly program . a unigene ( comp748335 _ c0 ) annotated manduca sexta spz1a ( genbank accession no . gq249944 . 1 ) encoding 256 nucleotides was selected . based the unigene sequence , a novel spatzle gene ( apspz ) from a . pernyi was first identified using rt - pcr , 5 ' race and 3 ' race . the isolated apspz cdna was 1065 nucleotides with an open reading frame ( orf ) of 777 bp that encodes a 258 amino acids protein . the cdna sequence contains a 212 bp 5 ' - untranslated region ( utr ) and a 76 bp 3 ' - utr with a polyadenylation signal sequence ( aataaa ) at position 1027 and a poly ( a ) tail . the initiation codon atg and the termination codon taa are at positions 213 and 987 , respectively ( fig 1 ) . the predicted molecular weight and isoelectric point ( pi ) of ap spz were 29 . 71 kda and 8 . 53 , respectively . apspz was assigned its name because of its similarity to known spatzle proteins . this cdna sequence has been deposited in genbank under accession no . ku323402 .\ntotal rna was extracted using trizol \u00ae reagent ( invitrogen ) according to the manufacturer\u2019s protocol . rna degradation and contamination were monitored on 1 % agarose gels . the extracted total rna was quantified using a nanodrop 2000 uv - vis spectrophotometer ( thermo scientific , usa ) . first - strand cdna synthesis was performed using an m - mulv first strand cdna synthesis kit ( sangon biotech , china ) . the full - length a . pernyi spatzle cdna was cloned using reverse transcription pcr , 5 ' race and 3 ' race . race was performed using a 5 ' race system ( version 2 . 0 , invitrogen ) and a smarter \u2122 race cdna amplification kit ( clontech ) according to the user manual . the cdnas derived from all of the samples were used for gene expression analysis .\nhomologous alignment of spatzle from a . pernyi ( apspz , ku323402 ) , manduca sexta ( msspz , acu68553 ) , drosophila melanogaster ( dmspz , np _ 524526 ) , and bombyx mori ( bmspz , np _ 001108066 ) was performed using the clustal x program ( fig 2 ) . sequence alignment showed that the amino acid sequence of apspz is most similar to msspz , with 40 % identity , and the gene exhibited 33 . 15 % identity with bmspz and 13 . 58 % identity with dmspz . the putative activation cleavage site of apspz , located after iaqr 163 , is conserved in msspz and bmspz . an activating protease could cleave after the conserved residue arg 163 in apspz , similar to the confirmed cleavages in dmspz and msspz [ 3 , 35 ] . the protein structure prediction showed that apspz matched the template structure for 4bv4 . 1 . a ( protein spaetzle c - 106 ) . although three cys residues in the putative carboxyl - terminal active cystine knot domain in apspz are conserved in m . sexta , d . melanogaster and b . mori , four other cys residues were not found . the results were consistent with d . melanogaster spz8 . 24 , indicating that they are not involved in disulfide formation , and apspz might be similar to dmspz8 . 24 , which is natively unfolded [ 3 , 36 ] .\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\nyou could not be signed in . please check your email address / username and password and try again .\nmost users should sign in with their email address . if you originally registered with a username please use that to sign in .\nto purchase short term access , please sign in to your oxford academic account above .\noxford university press is a department of the university of oxford . it furthers the university ' s objective of excellence in research , scholarship , and education by publishing worldwide\nfor full access to this pdf , sign in to an existing account , or purchase an annual subscription .\na wide range of beneficial non - wood products are derived from organisms that are closely associated with broad - leaved temperate trees , either as parasites , symbionts or saprophytes . these include edible mushrooms , products from insects that feed on this group of trees and parasitic plants . it should be noted that this chapter contains some overlaps with , as well as updates to , a previous publication in the fao non - wood forest products series no . 12 [ fao , 1995 ] since several mushrooms grow both with broad - leaved trees and conifers .\nmushrooms are the reproductive structures of fungi and are also known as sporocarps or fruiting bodies . while some mushrooms are highly toxic and can be fatal if eaten , many species are edible . some are so flavourful that they are major food items in many human cultures throughout the world . many species of edible mushrooms occur in forests and are harvested either commercially or as an outdoor recreation activity .\nfungi are lower plants that lack chlorophyll . they are , therefore , unable to manufacture nutrients from sunlight through photosynthesis as do green plants . in order to survive , fungi must function either as parasites , often causing disease in higher plants or animals ; saprophytes , causing the breakdown of dead organic matter ; or as mutualists or symbionts with green plants . in the case of mutualism or symbiosis , both the fungus and the green plant derive benefits from the association .\nthe predominant form of symbiosis between fungi and trees occurs with tree roots producing structures called mycorrhizae . mycorrhiza means \u0093fungus - root\u0094 and describes the association of specialized soil fungi with the tiny feeder roots of forest trees and shrubs . mycorrhyzal fungi function as an extension of the plant\u0092s root system and are the means by which almost all higher plants take up water and minerals from the soil . only a few higher plants are known to lack mycorrhizal associations [ manion , 1991 ] . the uptake of phosphorus and nitrogen are particularly important functions of these fungi . mycorrhizal fungi directly enhance tree survival and growth [ molina et al . , 1993 ] .\nmany species of forest fungi produce delicately flavoured edible mushrooms that are harvested in large quantities , and some are cultivated under semi - artificial conditions . primarily mycorrhyzal fungi produce them , but several saprophytic and parasitic fungi also produce highly flavourful mushrooms .\nboletus edulis is a mycorrhyzal fungus that grows in association with a wide variety of trees , including both conifers and broad - leaved species . the mushrooms produced by this fungus are widely used in a number of cuisines , especially in europe where it is one of the most sought - after edible mushrooms . it goes by many common names including cep or cepe de bordeaux ( france ) , king bolete or penny bun mushroom ( english ) , porcino ( italy ) , s teinpilz ( germany ) , zhutui mo ( north china ) and dajiao gu ( south china ) .\nthe mushroom produced by this fungus is highly variable , and some mycologists have split the fungus into a number of distinct species . a common characteristic of the mushroom is a wide , barrel - shaped stem that has a fine reticulate pattern on its surface . [ 50 ]\nboletus edulis occurs in temperate zone forests throughout the northern hemisphere and produces fruiting bodies from the soil as scattered individuals or in small groups [ molina et al . , 1993 ] . it is found throughout north america as far south as mexico , in europe from the northern part of the nordic countries south to southern greece ; italy ; and , in the near east , as far east as afghanistan . it is also found throughout china . in the united kingdom , b . edulis is found associated with birch ( betula palustris ) , oaks ( quercus robur and q . petraea ) and beech ( fagus sylvatica ) . in china it grows under mixed forests of pine and oak [ dickinson and lucas , 1979 ] .\nthe strong , distinctive flavour of this mushroom has been appreciated since roman times . dishes containing boletes were often used by the romans to conceal poisons used to assassinate politicians and other public figures . they were also believed to have a number of medicinal properties , including the removal of freckles and blemishes , and a salve was prepared from boletes to treat dog bites [ dickinson and lucas , 1979 ] .\nboletus edulis is harvested in the wild . in poland , it is the principal wild mushroom harvested [ grochowski , 1966 ] . in the casentino , a mountainous area in the region of tuscany , italy , income and benefits derived from harvesting b . edulis are considered to be significant . about 20 percent of the total harvest is for personal use , and the remainder is sold to restaurants , local stores and wholesalers . mushroom collectors are mostly from the lower to middle income classes ; women are the most numerous group of collectors and nearly half of the collectors are between 50 and 60 years old [ farolfi , 1990 ] . chestnut ( castania sativa ) orchards are a favourable habitat for growth of b . edulis in italy , and in some cases the yield of edible king boletes harvested from these orchards is worth more than the chestnut crop . [ 51 ]\nfigure 9 . 1 dried boletus edulis mushrooms . their firm , meaty texture makes them popular ingredients for stews , casseroles and sauces , and they can be stored in dried form for several years .\nboletes are harvested in british columbia , mainly from haida gwaii ( queen charlotte islands ) and the prince george area . in a good fruiting year , approximately 100 000 kg of fresh boletes are harvested . while in a bad year there may be no harvest at all . [ 52 ] on average , pickers are paid $ can 2 . 50 / lb of boletes and exporters receive around us $ 8 / lb of boletes landed and fresh , around us $ 75 . 00 / kg of dried and landed , and around us $ 5 . 00 - 6 . 00 / kg of frozen .\napproximately 90 percent of all harvested boletes are exported dried or frozen and only around 10 percent of the harvest is exported fresh . boletes are one of the first wild food mushrooms to be attacked by pests , and there is currently a world shortage of king boletes [ russel and lipsey , 1999 ] . [ 53 ]\nthis mushroom has a firm , meaty texture that stands up well to prolonged cooking . consequently it is a popular ingredient in a variety of stews , casseroles and sauces . b . edulis can also be easily dried , a form that permits storage for extended periods ( figure 9 . 1 ) . in some parts of europe they are dried on strings and stored for winter use . it is also a common ingredient in dried soup mixes [ dickinson and lucas , 1979 ] .\nthe fungus that produces the northwest matsutake mushroom ( tricholoma magnivelare ) , forms ectomycorrhizal associations with many tree species throughout its natural range in western north america , especially various species of pinus [ molina et al . , 1993 ; ciesla , 1998 ] . in the pacific northwest region of the united states , it is the most valuable of the commercially harvested edible mushrooms [ schlosser and blatner , 1995 ] . this mushroom is sold in large quantities to japan where it is an acceptable substitute for the japanese matsutake ( tricholoma matsutake ) , a species that grows in pinus densiflora forests and commands exorbitant prices .\nthe matsutake mushroom is robust and white in colour when first formed . later it develops pale brown to yellow stains . the stout stem is solid , tough and fibrous . it is smooth above and scaly below the thick , sheathing ring that flares out in young specimens . the mushrooms have a distinct spicy - aromatic odour , reminiscent of sweet cinnamon [ mollina et al . , 1993 ] .\nt . magnivelare is also associated with forests of tanoak ( lithocarpus densiflorus ) in northern california and western oregon . among the karuk , yurok and hupa people , three indigenous tribes which occupy portions of northern california , t . magnivalare is known as the tanoak mushroom and is considered to be an important traditional food . in the karuk language , t . magnivelare is known as haiwish . the earliest documentation of the karuk use of tanoak mushrooms dates from ethnobotanical field studies conducted in 1939 , which reported : \u0093a certain mushroom , found in november , is cooked on coals and eaten . \u0094 [ richards , 1997 ; schenck and gifford , 1952 ] .\nthe high demand for t . magnivelare mushrooms in japan led to a massive increase in commercial harvesting of this species on public lands in the western united states beginning in the late 1980s . until about 1991 , there was little commercial mushroom harvesting on karuk ancestral lands . as commercial pickers arrived in greater numbers , local tribal members complained that their traditional gathering sites , many of which were on lands administered by usda forest service , were being overharvested . in early 1993 , the karuk tribe appealed a decision made by the klamath national forest in northern california to allow a commercial mushroom harvest season . as a result , no commercial permits were issued , and studies on resource values assigned to this mushroom and the basis for the resource conflict were established . resultant work , some of which is still in progress , indicate that the karuk had developed mushroom hunting techniques based on knowledge of favourable sites , weather and phenology of associated plants . they also engaged in harvesting practices that they believed would sustain the population of the fungus . these practices included twisting off the mushrooms so as not to disturb the fungus mycellium , leaving small mushrooms to grow and fruit and replacing leaf litter in sites where mushrooms have been harvested in order to maintain soil moisture and a more favourable habitat for production of fruiting bodies . the effect of these traditional harvesting practices on sustainability of mushroom harvests requires testing in replicated field trials [ richards , 1997 ] .\ntruffles ( tuber spp . ) are rounded , potato - shaped mushrooms with a subterranean habit . they are the fruiting bodies of mychorrhizal fungi associated with the roots of various species of beech , oak and other broad - leaved trees [ dickinson and lucas , 1979 ] . one species , t . gibossum , is associated exclusively with douglas fir ( pseudotsuga menziesii ) in the pacific coast of north america [ molina et al . , 1993 ] .\nseveral european species are considered to be prized delicacies . the black p\u00e9rigord truffle ( tuber melanosporum ) is widely used in italian and french cuisines . this truffle is found in oak forests throughout much of europe but the centre of production of the mushrooms is southwestern france where they occur in light , porous , clay marl . in italy it is known as tartufo nero , and in the region of umbria it is an ingredient in pasta dishes and in an amaro , an after - dinner liqueur [ author\u0092s observation ] . the white piedmont truffle ( t . magnatum ) is the most sought - after species in italy , where it is added in thin slices to a variety of pasta dishes to which they impart a distinctive , musky flavour . this truffle is produced in the region from the astigiano to the canallese rivers in alba ( piedmont region ) , where most collection occurs from october through december [ moora , 1955 ] . the summer truffle ( t . aestivum ) occurs in the beech forests in the chalk downs of the united kingdom , where a cottage industry based on truffle hunting existed during the eighteenth century . truffles were collected and marketed until the 1930s but are now considered to be too small to merit collection [ dickinson and lucas , 1979 ] .\nthe unusual habitat and appearance of truffles caused considerable debate as to their origin . the roman naturalist and writer pliny described truffles as \u0093calluses of the soil\u0094 . the greek biographer plutarch explained that their existence was the combined action of thunder , rain and the warmth of the soil . during the sixteenth century , it was widely believed that truffles were the result of the semen of rutting deer . during the nineteenth century , they were believed to be a gall produced by oak roots . later in that century a theory was postulated that the truffle fly , an insect commonly associated with the fruiting bodies , stung the roots of oak trees causing the gall - like truffles to grow [ dickinson and lucas , 1979 ] .\nwhile much truffle gathering occurs in natural forests , the black p\u00e9rigord truffle has been grown in a more or less organized fashion since about 1810 , using an indirect cultivation procedure . a french farmer by the name of joseph talon established an oak plantation by planting acorns . after a few years , truffles began to appear in the plantation . when he repeated the exercise several years later with the specific intent to produce truffles and succeeded , he had begun an indirect method of truffle cultivation . today a sizeable portion of truffles harvested from france and exported are obtained through establishment of new oak plantings [ dickinson and lyons , 1979 ] . at present truffles are the only ectomycorrhizal food fungus which is in widespread cultivation in the pacific northwest ( only in washington and oregon states ) [ russel and lipsey , 1999 ] ."]}
{"id": 487, "summary": [{"text": "syndemis musculana is a moth of the family tortricidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in europe , china ( heilongjiang , jilin , inner mongolia ) , the korean peninsula , japan , russia ( amur ) and north america .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 15 \u2013 22 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the adults fly from april to july in the temperate parts of their range , such as belgium and the netherlands .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the caterpillars feed on oaks ( quercus ) , birches ( betula ) , spruces ( picea ) , ragworts ( senecio ) and rubus ( brambles and allies ) .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "less usually , they have been recorded to eat plant refuse and dry leaves . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "syndemis musculana", "paragraphs": ["kari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nharmorullak\u00e4\u00e4ri\u00e4inen\nto\nsyndemis musculana h\u00fcbner 1800\n.\nsyndemis musculana ( dark - barred tortrix ) - norfolk micro moths - the micro moths of norfolk .\nhans - martin braun added the english common name\ndark - barred twist\nto\nsyndemis musculana h\u00fcbner 1800\n.\nkari pihlaviita set\nadult - lateral view - close - up - enlarged\nas an exemplar on\nsyndemis musculana h\u00fcbner 1800\n.\n. . . archips podana \u2022 archips xylosteana \u2022 agapeta hamana \u2022 celypha lacunana \u2022 choristoneura fumiferana \u2022 syndemis musculana \u2022 aethes shakibai \u2022 . . .\nsyndemis musculana is a moth of the family tortricidae . it is found in europe , china ( heilongjiang , jilin , inner mongolia ) , the korean peninsula , japan , russia ( amur ) and north america .\ngenus : syndemis herrich - sch\u00e4ffer , 1851 . syst . bearb . schmett . europ . 4 : 275 . [ bhl ]\ntype - species : tortrix musculana h\u00fcbner , 1799 . samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 16 fig . 98 . [ bhl ]\ntype - species : tortrix musculana h\u00fcbner , [ 1796 - 1799 ] . samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 16 , fig . 98 . . [ bhl ]\nalthough cited by neave , 1940 , nomencl . zool . 4 : 368 , as a nomenclaturally available name herrich - sch\u00e4ffer attributed the name to h\u00fcbner and was using syndemis h\u00fcbner , [ 1825 ] .\nthis study was carried out to clarify the fauna of the tribe archipini , which belongs to the family tortricidae in northeast china . in the present study , fifty - four species of the tribe were recognized and enumerated . based on the present study , two species , archips viola falkovitsh and choristoneura evanidana ( kennel ) , are reported for the first time from china . also five species , archips dichotomus falkovitsh , archips similis ( butler ) , argyrotaenia angustilineata ( walsingham ) , choristoneura longicellana ( walsingham ) , and gnorismoneura orientis ( filipjev ) , are newly recorded from northeast china . all available information , including host plant , distributional range , and biological information , are listed .\nfoundation item : this study was support by kosef ( korea science & engineering foundation ) with the program of \u201ckorea and china young scientist exchange program\u201d ( 2002\u20132003 ) .\nbiography : * byun bong - kyu ( 1963 - ) , male , ph . d . , researcher in korea national rrboretum , korea\n( clerk ) in korea [ j ] . korean j . appl . entomol . ,\nbyun , b . k . , bae , y . s . , park , k . t . 1998 . illustrated catalogue of tortricidae in korea ( lepidoptera ) [ r ] . insects of korea , vol . 2 , pp 317 .\nbyun , b . k . , k . t . park and b . y . lee . 1996 . five species of tortricinae new to korea [ j ] . korean j . entomol . ,\nfalkovitsh , m . i . 1965 . new eastern - asiatic species of leaf rollers ( lepidoptera , tortricidae ) [ j ] . ent . obozr . ,\njaros j . , spitzer , k . , havelka , j . and park k . t . 1992 . synecological and biogeographical outlines of lepidoptera communities in north korea [ j ] . insects of koreana ,\nkawabe , a . 1982 . tortricidae and cochylidae [ c ] . in : h . inoue , s . sugi , h . kuroko , s . moriuti , a . kawabe ( eds ) moths of japan , vol . 1 : 62\u2013258 , vol . 2 : 158\u2013183 , pls . 14\u201331 , 227 , 279\u2013295 .\nkuznetsov , v . i . 1973 . leaf - rollers ( lepidoptera , tortricidae ) of the southern part of the soviet far east and their seasonal cycles [ j ] . ent . obozr . ,\nliu youqiao . 1983a . cochylidae and tortricidae [ c ] . in : animal research institute of chinese academy sciences ( ed ) iconographia heterocerorum sinicorum ( 1 ) beijing : science press , p 28\u201356 , pls . : 6\u20138 . ( in chinese )\nh\u00fcbner ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) [ j ] . zool . res . ,\nliu youqiao , bai jiuwei . 1977 . lepidoptera , tortricidae , part 1 [ c ] . in : economic insect fauna of china ( vol . 11 ) . beijing : science press : p 1\u201393 , 24 pls .\nh\u00fcbner ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) with description of two new species [ j ] . acta zool . sinica ,\nliu youqiao , li guangwu . 2002 . insecta , lepidoptera , tortricidae . [ c ] in : editorial committee of fauna sinica , chinese academy sciences ( ed ) fauna sinica ( vol . 27 ) . beijing : science press , pp . 463 , plates . 1\u2013136 , colour plates 1\u20132 .\nh\u00fcbner ( lepidoptera , tortricidae ) [ j ] . acta zool . cracov . ,\nyasuda , t . 1972 . the tortricinae and sparganothinae of japan ( lepidoptera , tortricidae ) . part i [ j ] . bull . univ . osaka prefect . series b ,\nyasuda , t . 1975 . the tortricinae and sparganothinae of japan ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) . part ii [ j ] . bull . univ . osaka prefect . series b ,\nbong - kyu , b . , shan - chun , y . & cheng - de , l . journal of forestry research ( 2003 ) 14 : 93 . urltoken\non this moth , both forewings and hindwings are primarily grey . the forewing ranges from whitish grey to brownish grey , with darker markings , which vary in intensity . some , especially worn specimens , lack discernable markings .\nit is common throughout britain and ireland in a variety of habitats , including mountains , moorlands and woodlands . it flies in the late afternoon and evening in may and june , coming to light after dusk .\n) , and many other trees , shrubs , herbs and grasses . it is active from july to october , overwintering as a full - grown larva to pupate in spring .\nseveral other polyphagous species have similar brown larvae ; see detailed description below for help in distinguishing them .\n. feeds from a leaf spinning or folded leaf , from july to september , overwintering as a full - grown larva to pupate in april - may .\n: light burnt ochre mottled with darker burnt ochre . clypeus and base of antenna translucent white . pitchy black posterolateral mark . stemmatal area pitchy black .\n: translucent yellowish brown . divided by thin inconspicuous whitish medial line . very large pitchy black lateral mark .\n: often , but not always , noticeably paler dorsally than abdomen ; brownish yellow , contrasting with dark brown dorsal line .\n: dorsally and laterally down to spiracles greyish brown ( or olive , or yellowish green ; bts ) . broad subspiracular band of brownish cream . ventrally greyish cream .\n. the head colour , and patterns on the thoracic shield and anal plate should be compared carefully .\n( dark venter . pinacula as body . plates black . lobe on posterior of anal plate ) ,\n( pinacula whitish . dark venter . compare thoracic shield and anal plate . frequent on\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 06 - 29 10 : 57 : 49 page render time : 0 . 3565s total w / procache : 0 . 4073s\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncaracteristic greyish white ground colour and contrasting median fascia . forewing ranges from whitish grey to brownish grey .\nrecorded in 55 ( 80 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 05 . last recorded in 2018 .\nunderlying maps using digital map data \u00a9 norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola\u2122 2018 . \u00a9 james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data \u00a9 nola\u2122 2018\nclick here to support naturespot by making a donation - small or large - your gift is very much appreciated . thank you .\nwingspan 15 - 22 mm . on this moth , both forewings and hindwings are primarily grey . the forewing ranges from whitish grey to brownish grey , with darker markings which vary in intensity . some , especially worn specimens , lack discernable markings .\nit flies in the late afternoon and evening in may and june , coming to light after dusk .\nthe larva feeds from a leaf spinning or folded leaf on bramble birch and oak and many other trees , shrubs , herbs and grasses . it is active from july to october , overwintering as a full - grown larva to pupate in the spring .\nit is common throughout britain and ireland . in the butterfly conservation\u2019s microlepidoptera report 2011 this species was classified as common .\nquite common in leicestershire and rutland . l & r moth group status = a ( common and resident )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nnotes : common in open woodland , mature hedgerows and high moorland throughout the british isles . widespread and common in hampshire and on the isle of wight . wingspan 15 - 22 mm . the greyish white or white ground colour and the contrasting median fascia are characteristic [ bradley ] . larva feeds on bramble , oak and birch , living within a spun or rolled leaf , and over - wintering in a cocoon .\nhave you photo of moth but don ' t know what it is ? read this page . read this page or you can ask an expert you can forward the photos to us and we may be able to name it\nenter your email address to subscribe to this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email .\nwe use cookies to ensure that we give you the best experience on our website . if you continue to use this site we will assume that you are happy with it .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\nans less often on grasses or herbaceous plants . it hibernates in that tube and pupates in the larval habitation or amongst ground litter .\nthe adults have been observed from late april till the end of july . most specimens have been seen in may . they fly in late afternoon till dark and later occasionally come to light and sugar .\nbelgium , limburg , kinrooi , 21 may 2005 . ( photo \u00a9 maarten jacobs )\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nbl\u00e5 punkter visar fynd registrerade i artportalen och \u00f6vriga databaser anslutna till lifewatch . kan inneh\u00e5lla observationer som inte \u00e4r validerade . kartan uppdateras var fj\u00e4rde vecka .\ni det avancerade verktyget kan man s\u00f6ka ut och f\u00e5 fram artlistor , t ex arter i ett visst l\u00e4n , i en viss biotop , substrat , som p\u00e5verkas av en hotfaktor , eller som \u00e4r knutna till en sk v\u00e4rdart , t ex tr\u00e4det alm . dessa kan \u00e4ven kombineras .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , knutna till alm , \u00e4r beroende av d\u00f6d ved och som finns i kronobergs l\u00e4n .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , lever i sm\u00e5vatten och som p\u00e5verkas negativt av igenv\u00e4xning .\ndefaultl\u00e4get i verktyget \u00e4r arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade 2015 och dessa \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga s\u00f6kfaktorer . under fliken r\u00f6dlistekategori kan man dock v\u00e4lja att \u00e4ven inkludera arter som inte \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade . om man v\u00e4ljer att inkludera icke r\u00f6dlistade arter beh\u00f6ver man vara medveten om att samtliga arter inte \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga faktorer . nedan en sammanst\u00e4llning av vad som \u00e4r komplett .\ndenna funktion anv\u00e4nds n\u00e4r du vill skapa din egen lista av arter att hantera . du kan t . ex . navigera mellan arterna i listan genom att klicka p\u00e5 deras namn . du kan ocks\u00e5 v\u00e4lja att anv\u00e4nda knappen \u201dj\u00e4mf\u00f6r arter\u201d f\u00f6r att se bilder , kartor och k\u00e4nnetecken i en j\u00e4mf\u00f6relsevy .\ndu kan komponera ditt eget urval av arter genom att klicka dig fram via sl\u00e4kttr\u00e4det och d\u00e4r v\u00e4lja arter eller artgrupper till din lista . ett annat s\u00e4tt att g\u00f6ra ditt urval \u00e4r att anv\u00e4nda fliken \u201dfiltrera\u201d , d\u00e4r du kan s\u00f6ka p\u00e5 olika egenskaper . ovanf\u00f6r listan med s\u00f6kresultatet finns en knapp \u201dl\u00e4gg i mitt urval\u201d .\nthe mit license copyright ( c ) 2014 - 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2013 sprymedia limited urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright 2008 - 2015 martin wendt , urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\nthe mit license ( mit ) - urltoken copyright ( c ) steven sanderson , the knockout . js team , and other contributors urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright ( c ) 2009\u20132015 permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright 2005 - 2014 openlayers contributors . all rights reserved . redistribution and use in source and binary forms , with or without modification , are permitted provided that the following conditions are met : 1 . redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice , this list of conditions and the following disclaimer . 2 . redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice , this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and / or other materials provided with the distribution . this software is provided by openlayers contributors ` ` as is ' ' and any express or implied warranties , including , but not limited to , the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose are disclaimed . in no event shall copyright holder or contributors be liable for any direct , indirect , incidental , special , exemplary , or consequential damages ( including , but not limited to , procurement of substitute goods or services ; loss of use , data , or profits ; or business interruption ) however caused and on any theory of liability , whether in contract , strict liability , or tort ( including negligence or otherwise ) arising in any way out of the use of this software , even if advised of the possibility of such damage . the views and conclusions contained in the software and documentation are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as representing official policies , either expressed or implied , of openlayers contributors .\ntype specimens : syntype ( s ) europe : ? locality , ( ? depository ) . .\nt @ rts : online world catalogue of the tortricidae ( ver . 2 . 0 )\nby gilligan , t . m . , j . baixeras , j . w . brown & k . r . tuck . 2012 .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\ntype - species designation : by subsequent designation by fernald , 1908 . genera tortricidae types : 11 , 54 .\nthe wingspan is 15\u201322 mm . the adults fly from april to july in the temperate parts of their range , such as belgium and the netherlands .\nthe caterpillars feed on oaks ( quercus ) , birches ( betula ) , spruces ( picea ) , ragworts ( senecio ) and rubus ( brambles and allies ) . less usually , they have been recorded to eat plant refuse and dry leaves .\n. . . wikipedia , l ' encyclop\u00e9die libre . \u2022 olethreutini \u2022 \u2022 celypha lacunana \u2022 classification \u2022 r\u00e8gne \u2022 animalia \u2022 embranchement \u2022 arthropoda . . .\n. . . celypha lacunana ) \u2022 taxonomische indeling \u2022 \u2022 rijk : \u2022 animalia ( dieren ) \u2022 . . .\n. . . ( bladrollers ) \u2022 geslacht : \u2022 celypha \u2022 \u2022 soort \u2022 celypha lacunana denis & schifferm\u00fcller , 1775 \u2022 \u2022 portaal \u2022 biologie . . .\n. . . portaal \u2022 biologie insecten de brandnetelbladroller ( celypha lacunana ) , is een nachtvlinder uit de familie tortricidae , de . . .\n. . . onderwerp horen , zijn te vinden op de pagina celypha lacunana op wikimedia commons . overgenomen van\nhttp : / / nl . . .\n. . . - sch\u00e4ffer \u2022 1851 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 s \u2022 tortricidae \u2022 celypha lacunana \u2022 xxxx xxxx ! xxxx xxxx \u2022 denis & schifferm\u00fcller . . .\na windows ( pop - into ) of information ( full - content of sensagent ) triggered by double - clicking any word on your webpage . give contextual explanation and translation from your sites !\nwith a sensagentbox , visitors to your site can access reliable information on over 5 million pages provided by sensagent . com . choose the design that fits your site .\nthe english word games are : \u25cb anagrams \u25cb wildcard , crossword \u25cb lettris \u25cb boggle .\nlettris is a curious tetris - clone game where all the bricks have the same square shape but different content . each square carries a letter . to make squares disappear and save space for other squares you have to assemble english words ( left , right , up , down ) from the falling squares .\nboggle gives you 3 minutes to find as many words ( 3 letters or more ) as you can in a grid of 16 letters . you can also try the grid of 16 letters . letters must be adjacent and longer words score better . see if you can get into the grid hall of fame !\nmost english definitions are provided by wordnet . english thesaurus is mainly derived from the integral dictionary ( tid ) . english encyclopedia is licensed by wikipedia ( gnu ) .\nthe wordgames anagrams , crossword , lettris and boggle are provided by memodata . the web service alexandria is granted from memodata for the ebay search .\nchange the target language to find translations . tips : browse the semantic fields ( see from ideas to words ) in two languages to learn more .\ncopyright \u00a9 2012 sensagent corporation : online encyclopedia , thesaurus , dictionary definitions and more . all rights reserved .\ncookies help us deliver our services . by using our services , you agree to our use of cookies . find out more\nwe believe that this request has either come from an unwelcome search engine , from a data grabber , or that an attempt is being made to hack the site . as a result your request has been refused . please email us if you believe that our decision is incorrect .\nwir glauben , dass dieser antrag que entweder von einer unwillkommenen suchmaschine gekommen ist , ab dem zeitpunkt grabber , oder que versuch wird gemacht , die website zu hacken . als ergebnis hat ihre anfrage abgelehnt . bitte mailen sie uns , wenn sie que unsere entscheidung glauben , ist falsch .\ncreemos que esta solicitud ha provenir de un motor de b\u00fasqueda no deseado , desde el capturador de fecha , o que un intento que se est\u00e1 haciendo para hackear el sitio . como resultado de su solicitud ha sido rechazada . por favor , correo electr\u00f3nico si usted cree que nuestra decisi\u00f3n es incorrecta .\nnous croyons que cette demande a soit provenir d ' un moteur de recherche importune , de la date grabber , ou que une tentative est fait pour pirater le site . en cons\u00e9quence votre demande a \u00e9t\u00e9 refus\u00e9e . s ' il vous pla\u00eet nous contacter si vous croyez que notre d\u00e9cision est incorrecte .\ncrediamo que questa richiesta \u00e8 sia venuto da un motore di ricerca sgradita , a partire dalla data grabber , o que un tentativo \u00e8 stato fatto per hackerare il sito . di conseguenza la richiesta \u00e8 stata rifiutata . vi preghiamo di inviarci se si ritiene que la nostra decisione non \u00e8 corretta .\nwij geloven que dit verzoek is ofwel afkomstig uit een onwelkome zoekmachine , vanaf de datum grabber , of que een poging wordt gedaan om de site te hacken . als gevolg van uw verzoek is geweigerd . stuur ons een email als u denkt que onze beslissing onjuist is .\nque acreditamos que este pedido tem ou vir de um motor de busca desejados , a partir de uma data grabber , ou que uma tentativa est\u00e1 sendo feita para invadir o local . como resultado o seu pedido foi recusado . por favor envie - nos se voc\u00ea acredita que nossa decis\u00e3o est\u00e1 incorreta .\nws : 14 - 18mm ; bivoltine jul , oct and overwinters ; silver / downy birch ( betula pendula / pubsecens ) ; common in woodland throughout gb . synonym : peronea ferrugana ( pierce & metcalfe ) , acleris tripunctana ( btm )\nground colour pale to reddish ochreous , sometimes with darker strigulation and a few scattered black scales .\nassuming that the illustrations in mbgbi 5 . 1 are incorrectly labelled * : in\nthe aedeagus has a simple apex and 3 short spiniform cornuti . there are also differences in the shape of the sacculus , that of\nthe anterior border of the sterigma has a notch on each side with short lateral projections and shorter medial projections . in\nthe introitus is strongly sclerotised , broader posteriorly and broader than the ductus bursae .\nin razowski ( 1984 , 2001 , 2002 ) are reversed\n- in both sexes . i have not seen these references , but either [ mbgbi5 . 1 has repeated this error ] or [ all other references are incorrect and the synonyms given in mbgbi5 . 1 are reversed ] . images and illustrations showing the preapical aedeagal spine in the male and a notched anterior border to the sterigma with a broad introitus in the female are labelled as\n\u00a71 strumpshaw fen , norfolk ; 01 / 11 / 204 ; fw 7 . 9mm ; female \u00a72 winterton , norfolk ; 09 / 07 / 2015 ; fw 7 . 0mm ; male ; to light \u200b\u00a73 strumpshaw fen , norfolk ; 07 / 08 / 2015 ; male ; fw 7 . 7mm ; to light all images \u00a9 chris lewis"]}
{"id": 491, "summary": [{"text": "asaphida is a large , morphologically diverse order of trilobites found in marine strata dated from the middle cambrian until their extinction during the silurian .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "asaphida contains six superfamilies ( anomocaroidea , asaphoidea , cyclopygoidea , dikelocephaloidea , remopleuridoidea and trinucleioidea ) , but no suborders .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "asaphids comprise some 20 % of described fossil trilobites .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the asaphids generally have cephalon ( head ) and pygidium ( tail ) parts similar in size , and most species have a prominent median ventral suture .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "heads are often flat , and carapace furrows in the head area are often faint or not visible .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "thoracic segments typically number 5 - 12 , though some species have as few as two and some as many as 30 .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "they also generally have a wide doublure , or rim , that surrounds the cephalon .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this causes some specimens to be described as having a characteristic \" snowplow \" shaped cephalon .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "when present , eyes are typically large .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "one asaphida line , the superfamily asaphoidea , shows a continuous evolution of eyestalks , from individuals with stubby eyes to asaphus kowalewskii , a trilobite popular with collectors that sported long eyestalks .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "this line is found in the middle ordovician asery level deposits of the volkhov river region near saint petersburg , russia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "during the ordovician , the region that is now eastern europe was a shallow inland sea .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "this eyestalk development is believed to be an adaptation to changes in turbidity during this time , with eye-stalked trilobites like a. kowalewski presumably arising in a time of increased turbidity .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "one thought is that this trilobite may have lain in wait for prey buried in the bottom sediment with only its periscope eyestalks protruding .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the major extinction event marking the end of the ordovician period reduced the diversity of all trilobite orders with most asaphid families disappearing .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the only surviving asaphids were members of superfamily trinucleioidea , and they too disappeared before the end of the silurian period .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the following families are included : anomocaroidea andrarinidae anomocarellidae anomocaridae aphelaspididae parabolinoididae pterocephalidae asaphoidea asaphidae ceratopygidae trinucleioidea alsataspididae dionididae liostracinidae raphiophoridae trinucleidae dikelocephaloidea dikelocephalidae eurekiidae loganellidae ptychaspididae saukiidae cyclopygoidea cyclopygidae nileidae taishunghaniidae remopleuridoidea auritamiidae bohemillidae hungaiidae idahoiidae remopleurididae", "topic": 14}], "title": "asaphida", "paragraphs": ["zhang & jell 1987 ( trilobita ) , the family tsinaniidae and the order asaphida .\nasaphida .\na dictionary of earth sciences . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nwere also badly affected by this extinction . there are various features that characterise the asaphida , such as the\nasaphida .\na dictionary of earth sciences . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\nthe ontogeny of the advanced members of the asaphida ( e . g . , asaphoidea , trinucleioidea , cyclopygoidea ) are consistent , with an effaced , globular protaspis .\nthe order asaphida is a large and diverse group of trilobites , including approximately a fifth of the entire class . they probably originated in the middle cambrian from the anomocaracea and , except for one genus ,\n) . if so , then the argument of the ventral median suture as a central synapomorphy for the asaphida might require reconsideration . expanded and complete genera listings for the families above are from jell & adrain ( 2003 ) .\n. the asaphids appeared in the middle cambrian and persisted to the lower silurian . order asaphida comprises six superfamilies : anomocaroidea ; asaphoidea ; cyclopygoidea ; trinucleioidea ; dikelokephaloidea ; and remopleuridoidea listed at the bottom of this page . the order contains a very large morphological diversity and number of species ; in fact , some 20 % of known species .\nthe trilobites of order asaphida are notably diverse in number of species and morphology , and interestingly contains about 20 % of known species . the most differentating morphological feature of the asaphid trilobites is the smooth and isopygous similar in size ) cephalon and pygidium , an evolutionary adaptation called effacement believed to have helped trilobites more easily burrow into and hide in sediment . another theory is that the smoothing of the exoskeleton streamlined the trilobite for locamotion . effacement is also evident among the agnostids , and suborder illaenina of order corynexochida . the asaphids appeared in the middle cambrian and persisted to the lower silurian . order asaphida comprises six superfamilies : anomocaroidea ; asaphoidea ; cyclopygoidea ; trinucleioidea ; dikelokephaloidea ; and remopleuridoidea listed at the bottom of this page . .\nfortey & chatterton ( 1988 ) provided an extensive summary of evidence uniting the clades within the suborder asaphina , and later , arguments were presented by fortey ( 1990 ) for the recognition of an emmended order asaphida , as described here . the assumption is that the ventral median suture evolved only one time , thereby uniting all members bearing that feature as a monophyletic group . as a stem group composed of primitive asaphid families ( such as anomocaridae ) , the anomocarioidea is paraphyletic , giving rise to the derived superfamilies , and presumably including the most primitive transitional taxa for each ( such as some auritamiidae ) .\nintroduction : primitive asaphida ( possibly ancestral to some other asaphine groups ) , including families retaining the natant hypostomal condition , as well as other ptychoparioid features ; protaspides resembling those of ptychopariida ( not\nasaphoid\n) ; not all families included may be monophyletic ( i . e . , anomocaroidea as described here is likely a paraphyletic group ) . cephalon : preglabellar field wide ; glabella typically parallel or gently tapering , with 3 or 4 pairs of furrows more or less of ptychoparioid type , palpebral lobes long , sickle - shaped ; natant hypostome , median ventral suture ; natant hypostome , some approaching conterminant . thorax : 10 - 13 + segments . pygidium : typically large , with broad , usually concave border , 2 - 10 axial rings . families : andrarinidae , anomocarellidae , anomocarida e , aphelaspididae , parabolinoididae , pter ocephalidae ( including housiidae ) . genera : andrarinidae : andrarina ( / liostracus ) , groenwallia , groenwallina .\ncephalon : opisthoparian or marginal facial sutures , generally eyeless ; glabella typically convex and pyriform , with 3 or fewer pairs of furrows , preoccipital glabellar tubercle sometimes present ; usually long genal spines . thorax : usually 5 \u2013 8 segments , but only 2 - 3 segments in progenetic raphiophoridae , and up to 30 in seleneceme ( alsataspididae ) , with long , narrow adaxial pleurae . pygidium : wide , typically triangular , narrow axis extending to posterior margin , border strongly declined , doublure very narrow . other : asaphoid protaspis shows common ancestry ; raphiophorus is the only trinucleioid ( indeed the only representative of the order asaphida ) that continues beyond the ordovician - silurian boundary . families : alsataspididae ( including orometopidae ) , dionididae , liostracinidae , raphiophoridae , trinucleidae , genera : alsataspididae : ajrikina , alataupleura , araiopleura , calycinoidia , caputrotundum , clavatellus , falanaspis , hapalopleura , huamiaocephalus , jegorovaia ( = hermosella ) , jiangxiaspis , orometopus , pagometopus , palquiella , paracalymenemene ( / paracalymene liu ) , plesioparabolina , pyrimetopus , rhadinopleura , seleneceme ( = alsataspis ) , sibiriopleura , skljarella ( = proaraiopleura ) , spirantyx , trigocephalus , yumenaspis , zacompsus .\ndoctype public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nform with enrolled doublure ) ; most members also have a median ventral suture ( only secondarily lost via fusion in two advanced families ) .\n: typically 5 \u2013 12 segments , but 2 - 3 in a few trinucleioidea , 13 + in some anomocaroidea , up to 30 in an alsataspidid ( trinucleioidea ) .\nanomocarella ( = psilaspis ; = entorachis ) , eoanomocarella , fissanomocarella , glyphaspis ( = americare ) , hanshania , huayuania , liocare , liopeishania , liopelta , luia , lydiaspis , megalopsis , neoanomocarella , orthodorsum , paranomocarella , peishania , ( = parapeishania ) , peishanoides , plebiellus .\nabharella , afghanocare , amginia , anomocare , anomocarina , anomocarioides , anomocariopsis , callaspis , chondranomocare , dilatalimbus , elandaspis , eocatuniella , forchammeria , formosocephalus , fuquania , glyphanellus , glyphaspellus , guizhouanomocare , hanivella , harataspis , hunanaspis , igarkiella , lohomia , irinia , jimanomocare , juraspis , kokuria , kolbinella , kotuia , leichneyella , lomsucaspis , longxumenia , macrotoxus , metanomocare , nadiyella , palella , paracoosia ( = manchurocephalus ) , parakotuia , paranomocare , pjatkovaspellus , qinlingia , rectifrontinella , sachaspis , schoriecare , schoriella , scintilla , sivovella , usovinurus , wutingshania , yongwolia .\namorphella , aphelaspidella , aphelaspis ( = proaulacopleura ; = clevelandella ; = labiostria ) , apheloides , dicanthopyge , elegantaspis , erixanium , eugonocare , kobayashella , listroa , litocephalus , maduiya , nganasanella ( = tamaranella ) , notoaphelaspis , olenaspella , olentella , paraphelaspis , pseudaphelaspis , pseudeugonocare , taenicephalites , taenora .\nabdulinaspis , apornodocia , boestrupia , croixana , jasmundia , kendallina ( / kendallia ) , minkella , orygmaspis , parabolinoides ( = bernia ) , pedinocephalus , pesaiella , roksaspis , stigmacephaloides , taenicephalops , taemcephalus ( = bemaspis ; = maustonia ) , weishania .\npulchricapitus ( = reaganaspis ) , qilianaspis , sigmocheilus , stenambon , strigambitus , tiantouzhania , tumicephalus , uxunella , xiaoshiella , yingziaspis , yokusenia , yushugouia , zhenania , zhuangliella .\n? ajacicrepida , asiocephalus , boschchekulia , cataplotaspis , ceratopyge , cermatops , charchaqia ( = aplotaspis ) , diceratopyge ( = paraceratopyge ) , dichelepyge ( = bicornipyge ) , dipleuropyge , guozia , haniwoides ( = yuepingia ) , hedinaspis , hunanopyge , hysterolenus ( = ruapyge / hectoria ) , kaltykelina , kaufmannella ( / kaufmannia ) , kogenium , lopnorites , macropyge ( = haniwapyge , = lichapyge ; = macropygella ) , mansuyella , nannopeltis , neohedinaspis , onychopyge ( = prionopyge ) , proceratopyge , promacropyge ( = aksapyge ) , pseudohysterolenus , pseudoyuepingia ( = iwayaspis ; = sayramaspis ) , sinoproceratopyge , tamdaspis ( = psiloyuepingia ) , tropidopyge , wannania , xiaodaositunia .\nblandiaspis , dictyella , esseigania , guluheia , jiwangshania , leiaspis , lonchopygella , paradictyites , shergoldia , taipaikia , tsinania ( = dictyites , dictya ) , zhujia .\naethedionide , digrypos , dionide ( / dione ; / polytomurus ; = dionidepyga ; = trigrypos ) , dionideina , dionidella , huangnigangia , paradionide , tongxinaspis , trinucleoides .\nampyx ( / brachyampyx ) , ampyxella , ampyxina , ampyxinella , ampyxoides , anisonotella , bulbaspis , caganaspis , carinocranium , cerampyx , cnemidopyge , collis , edmundsonia , ellsaspis , endymionia ( / endymion ) , globampyx , jiuxiella ( = miboshania ) , kanlingia , lonchodomas , malinaspis , malongullia ( = ampyxinops ) , mendolaspis , metalonchodomas , miaopopsis , nambeetella , nanshanaspis , parabulbaspis , parampyx , pseudampyxina , pytine , raphioampyx , raphiophorus , raymondella ( / reedaspis ) , rhombampyx , salteria , sinampyxina , sinoluia , taklamakania ( = xinjiangia ) .\nanebolithus , australomyttonia , bancroftolithus , bergamia ( = bohemaspis ; = brandysops ; = cochliorrhoe ) , bettonolithus , botrioides , broeggerolithus ( = ulricholithus ) , costonia , cryptolithoides , cryptolithus , deanaspis , declivolithus , decordinaspis , eirelithus , famatinolithus , furcalithus , guandacolithus , gymnostomix , hanchungolithus ( = ichangolithus ; = yinjiangolithus ) , huenickenolithus , incaia , jianxilithus , lloydolithus , lordshillia , marekolithus , marrolithoides , marrolithus , ? microdiscus , myinda , myindella , myttonia , nankinolithus , ningkianolithus ( = cerato1ithus ; = hexianolithus ) , novaspis , onnia , paratretaspis , paratrinucleus , parkesolithus , pragolithus , protoincaia , protolloydolithus , reedolithus , reuscholithus , salterolithus ( = smeathenia ) , stapeleyelta , telaeomarrolithus , tetrapsetlium , tretaspis , trinucleus ( / edgellia ) , whittardolithus , xiushuilithus , yinpanolithus .\ncephalon : with opisthoparian sutures , glabella typically truncate anteriorly and squat , 1 - 4 pairs of lateral furrows , 1p may be transglabellar ; preglabellar field variable , sometimes absent , palpebral ridge typically well - defined , but separate from axial furrow ( compare to sister group remopleuroidea ) ; genal spines typically present , of various length ; median ventral suture rarely lost to secondary fusion ; hypostome conterminant thorax : 8 - 12 segments , axis convex , pleurae typically wider than length of axis , typically with short , pointed ends ( longer in loganellidae ) . pygidium : micropygous to isopygous , variable shape , axis often extends majority of length , sometimes with post - axial ridge , posterior margin smooth or spined ( 1 - 5 pairs of marginal spines ) families : dikelocephalidae , eurekiidae , ptychaspididae , saukiidae , loganellidae . genera : dikelocephalidae : berkeia , blandicephalus , briscoia , camaraspoides , dikelocephalus , elkia , goumenzia , hoytaspis , iranella , kasachstanaspis , monocheilus , olimus , osceolia , parabriscoia , patalolaspis , princetonella ( / calyptomma ) , pterocephalops rasetti , randicephalus , stigmacephalus , walcottaspis .\nbandalaspis , bayfieldia , corbinia , eurekia , leocephalus , lochmanaspis , magnacephalus , maladia , tostonia .\nalborsella , changia ( = coreanocephalus ; = quadraticephalus ; = fengshania ) , eoptychaspis , eowuhuia , euptychaspis , idiomesus , kathleenella , keithia , keithiella , macronoda ( = promesus ) , plectrella , proricephalus , ptychaspis ( = asioptychaspis ) , saukioides ( / pseudosaukia ; / jeholaspis ) , sunwaptia , wilcoxaspis .\ncephalon : with glabella expanding forward to anterior margin , effaced in later cyclopygids , may be fused with occipital ring ; fixigenae reduced ( except in primitive taihungshaniidae ) , palpebral lobes lack distinct rims , and contact axial furrows at anterior ends , librigenae fused or separated by anterior median suture ; hypostome relatively transverse , impendent , often with tripartite posterior margin ; eye various sized ( may be hypertrophied and convex ( cyclopyge ) , typically closely adjoined to glabella . thorax : 5 - 8 ( 9 ? ) segments . pygidium : medium to large ( subisopygous in nileidae ) , axis usually with 2 - 5 rings ( but up to 20 + in advanced taihungshaniidae ) , may be smooth , or with indistinct furrows . families : cyclopygidae , nileidae , taishunghaniidae genera : cyclopygidae : amicus , aspidaeglina , circulocrania , cyclopyge ( / egle / aeglina ) , degamella , ellipsotaphrus , emmrichops , gastropolus ( = lisogoraspis ) , girvanopyge ( = cremastoglottos ; = gamops ; = nanlingia ) , heterocyclopyge ( = selenoptychus ) , microparia ( = gallagnostoides ) , novakella ( = incisopyge ) , paramicroparia , phylacops , pricyclopyge ( = bicyclopyge ) , prospectatrix , psilacella , quadratapyge , sagavia , symphysops , waldminia , xenocyclopyge .\naocaspis , barrandia , berkutaspis , borthaspidella , bumastides , elongatanileus , homalopteon , illaenopsis ( = eurymetopus ; = procephalops ; = rokycania / pseudobarrandia ) , kodymaspis , ? lakaspis , neopsilocephalina , nileus ( = remopleuridioides ) , parabarrandia , parabumastides , paranileus , ? peraspis , petrbokia , platypeltoides ( / platypeltis ) , poronileus , psilocephalinella ( / psilocephalus / psilocephalina / borthaspis ) , shenjiawania , symphyroxochus , ? symphysurina ( = symphysurinella ; = symphysuroides ) , symphysurus , troedssonia , varvia .\nasaphellina , asaphopsis , omeipsis , pacootella , renhuaia , taihungshania ( = miquelina ) , tungtzuella .\ncephalon : with opisthoparian sutures , glabella bulges tranversely anterior of occipital ring , with up to 3 pairs lateral furrows , eyes medium to very large , with narrow , wire - like socle , palpebral rims inflated , deep rim furrows , extending into axial furrows anteriorly ; genal spines present . thorax : 9 - 12 segments , axis convex , pleural furrows diagonal , pleural tips typically point backward . pygidium : with spinose margin , spines flattened , united at bases , extending to axis ; convex axis not extending to posterior margin , pleural field flat , typically furrowed and backward curving . surface variously sculptured or granulose . families : auritamiidae , bohemillidae , hungaiidae ( including dikelokephalinidae ) , idahoiidae ( including loganellidae ) , remopleurididae ( including kainellidae ) . genera : auritamidae : auritama , metopotropis .\nasaphopsoides ( = dainellicauda ; = xiangxiia ) , ciliocephalus , dactylocephalus , dikella , dikelocephalopsis , dikelokephalina , dikelus , hungaia ( = acrohybus ) , hungioides ( = argentinops ) , leimitzia , meitanopsis , songtaoia , warendia , xiushanopsis .\naguilarella , arrhenaspis , brabbia , comanchia , duibianaspis , elviraspis , langyashania , lauzonella , leviscila , loganellus ( = highgatea ) , maladioidella ( = kuruktagella ; = cedarellus ) , noelaspis , patronaspis , psalaspis , pyttstrigis , saratogia ( = idahoia , = meeria ) , shitaia , valtoressia , wafangia , wilbernia , zhuitunia .\naktugaiella , amphitryon ( / caphyra ; = brachypleura ) , aotiaspis , apatokephalina , apatokephaloides , apatokephalops ( = aristokainella ; = wanliangtingia ) , apatokephalus , apiflabellum , arator , artokephalus , atratebia , auricula , binervus , blosyropsis , cavia , deanokephalus , diplapatokephalus , dislobosaspis , eoapatokephalus , eorobergia , haniwa , hastiremopleurides , hexacopyge , hualongella , hukasawaia , hypodicranotus , ivshinaspis , jiia , jingheella , jinshaella , kainella , kainellina , kainelloides , lacorsalina , lingukainella , lohanpopsis , loshanella , lulongia , makbelaspis , mendosina , menoparia , naustia , oculeus , poletaevia , portentosus , praepatokephalus , proapatokephalops , pseudokainella ( = elkanaspis ; = parakainella ; = fatocephalus ) , pugilator , remopleurella , remopleurides , remopleuridiella , richardsonaspis , richardsonella ( = lakella ; = protapatokephalus ) , robergia , robergiella , scinocephalus , sculptaspis , sculptella , sigmakainella , spinacephalus , taishania , teratorhynchus , tibikephalus , tramoria , yosimuraspis ( = eoyosimuraspis ; = metayosimuraspis ) .\nwhittington ( 2003 ) argues that at least some of the nileidae ( e . g . ,\nfortey , r . a . 1990 . ontogeny , hypostome attachment , and trilobite classification .\nfortey , r . a . 2001 . trilobite systematics : the last 75 years .\nfortey , r . a . and b . d . e . chatterton . 1988 . classification of the trilobite suborder asaphina .\njell , p . a . & j . m . adrain . 2003 . available generic names for trilobites .\nwhittington , h . b . 2003 . the trilobite family nileidae : morphology and classification . palaeontology 46 ( 4 ) : 635 - 46 .\n* different taxonomies are found , most recently with trilobites contained in superclass arachnomorpha in subphylum schizoramia .\n. another theory is that the smoothing of the exoskeleton streamlined the trilobite for locamotion . effacement is also evident among the\nthe major extinction event concluding the ordovician period markedly reduced trilobite diversity across all the orders . among the asaphids , only some members of superfamily trinucleioidea survived , and they too met extinction near the end of the silurian .\n\u00a9 a dictionary of earth sciences 1999 , originally published by oxford university press 1999 .\nurltoken gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the modern language association ( mla ) , the chicago manual of style , and the american psychological association ( apa ) .\nwithin the \u201ccite this article\u201d tool , pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style . then , copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list .\nbecause each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article , urltoken cannot guarantee each citation it generates . therefore , it\u2019s best to use urltoken citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publication\u2019s requirements and the most - recent information available at these sites :\nmost online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers . therefore , that information is unavailable for most urltoken content . however , the date of retrieval is often important . refer to each style\u2019s convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates .\nin addition to the mla , chicago , and apa styles , your school , university , publication , or institution may have its own requirements for citations . therefore , be sure to refer to those guidelines when editing your bibliography or works cited list .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\na taxonomic order within the class trilobita \u2013 trilobites that lived from the middle cambrian to the silurian periods .\nthis page was last edited on 14 may 2017 , at 12 : 53 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nunless otherwise noted , the material on this page may be used under the terms of a creative commons license .\na taxonomic order within the class trilobita \u2014 trilobites that lived from the middle cambrian to the silurian periods .\nplease set a username for yourself . people will see it as author name with your public flash cards .\nall died out in the mass extinction event at the end of the ordovician ( see below ) . why this may be was discussed by\nthis website offers a brief introduction to the group , some of its major sub - groups , morphological features and life habits . a glossary is also provided for reference .\nthanks are given to the palaeontological association for permission to use the diagram of evolutionary relationships given below ."]}
{"id": 492, "summary": [{"text": "the oriental bay owl ( phodilus badius ) is a type of bay owl , usually classified with barn owls .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "it is completely nocturnal , and can be found throughout southeast asia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it has several subspecies .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it has a heart-shaped face with earlike extensions .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the congo bay owl ( phodilus prigoginei ) was formerly classified as a subspecies of oriental bay owl due to insufficient knowledge , but it has turned out that it might not even belong to the same genus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the sri lanka bay owl was also considered a subspecies .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "a population of this species has apparently become extinct on samar island in the philippines during the 20th century .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it was described as phodilus badius riverae and was only ever known from a single specimen , which was lost in a bombing raid in 1945 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the validity of this taxon is uncertain ; it is usually synonymized with the nominate subspecies ( for reasons of biogeography ) or the subspecies saturatus ( from external appearance ) ; it might be a distinct species , however . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "oriental bay owl", "paragraphs": ["the oriental bay owl is a relatively small unusual looking owl with short rounded wings . it is also known as the asian bay owl .\nthese oriental bay owl species inhabit evergreen forests , foothill forests , mangrove forests and deciduous woodlands . there are four recognized subspecies of these birds .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - oriental bay owl ( phodilus badius )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - oriental bay owl ( phodilus badius )\ntitle =\narkive species - oriental bay owl ( phodilus badius )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe breeding season of these oriental bay owl species is from march to may in northeast india . in indonesian islands the breeding season is from october to december .\nthe oriental bay owl is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list 2004 ( 1 ) and is listed under appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) .\nthese oriental bay owl species are mostly sedentary and are residents in their ranges . post breeding dispersal of juveniles takes place . they may make local movements for feeding and breeding .\nthe breeding season of the oriental bay owl varies with region . it nests in hollow trees and tree stumps , laying between three and five eggs . prey is located using extremely sensitive hearing and consists of small mammals , small birds , reptiles , frogs and insects . the oriental bay owl has several calls , including whistles , hoots , wails and screams ( 2 ) .\nthe global population size of the oriental bay owl has not been quantified . the overall population size is considered to be stable . these species have large range and population . the owl species does not approach the thresholds for being vulnerable neither under the population trend criterion nor under the population size criterion .\nthe oriental bay owl is thought to have low population numbers but is not currently considered to be threatened ( 2 ) . international trade in this species is regulated by appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species which requires permits for export of the owl or its body parts ( 3 ) .\nhabits : the oriental bay owl is a nocturnal bird , roosting during the day in holes and hollows in tree trunks , or perched on a branch sheltered by palm leaves or beneath a thick horizontal bend of rattan , usually no more than about 2 metres above the forest floor . this owl is not alert when roosting and is easily approached .\n= 5 ) . smallish owl with rather short legs and wings and short ear - tufts projecting out from sides of head . chestnut - bay above , . . .\nthe iucn ( international union for conservation of nature ) has categorized and evaluated the oriental bay owl species and has listed it as of\nleast concern\n. the cites ( convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ) has listed these owls under appendix ii .\nan unusual looking bird , this species is a relatively small , ' chunky ' owl with short rounded wings .\n23 - 29 cm . chunky , short - winged and short - tailed strictly nocturnal owl with a heart - shaped facial disc . bright rufous upperparts , well spotted and with ochre scapulars . pale buff below with sparse black spotting . similar spp . ceylon bay owl p . assimilis ( previously included with the present species ) is darker and more chestnut above and the tail is more densely barred with eight regular bars across feathers . voice . loud , eerie , hesitant series of quavering whistles with each note after the first rising in pitch . ceylon bay owl has a more complex , slower series of multi - element notes .\nhunting & food : the oriental bay owl feeds on small rodents ( such as rats and mice ) , bats , birds , lizards , frogs , and large insects such as beetles and grasshoppers . they hunt from a perch , flying through dense stands of young trees beneath the forest canopy to make a kill . this is made possible by their relatively short and rounded wings . they also tend to hunt near water .\nthe oriental bay owl is a small nocturnal bird , measuring 22 to 30 cm in length . it is short - winged and short - tailed . the ear - tufts are short and project out from the sides of head . the facial disc is heart shaped . the upperparts are rufous and spotted . the scapular feathers are rusty brown . the underside is whitish brown with sparse black dots . the bill is creamish . their call is a loud , eerie , whistling sound .\nbruce , m . d . , kirwan , g . m . & marks , j . s . ( 2018 ) . oriental bay - owl ( phodilus badius ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe diet of these owl species includes large insects ( beetles , grasshoppers , cicadas etc ) small mammals ( bats , rats and mice ) , birds , snakes , lizards and frogs .\n) belongs to the family of barn owls , tytonidae . these owl species are distributed in northeast india , myanmar , thailand , vietnam , cambodia , laos , southern china , malaysia , philippines and indonesia .\nthese owl species inhabit submontane and montane forests , temperate forests , foothill forests , subtropical or tropical mangrove forests , dense evergreen primary and secondary forests , evergreen wooded areas , hillside forests and valley woodlands . they prefer elevations from 200 to 1500 meters and also nearness to waterbody .\nrecorded from a rubber plantation at knc , near the edge of secondary forest ( gps coordinates not exact ) after dusk . the owl was calling from the nearby understory of the forest . it was seen shortly after this recording , giving great views at near eye level . the bird also hung vertically from a tree trunk ( not while calling ) , and then disappeared into the forest . spectacular !\nhabitat : dense evergreen primary and secondary forest , particularly foothills , sub - montane forest and montane forest up to 1800m in continental southeast asia . in java , the preferred habitat is foothills from 200 - 1000m elevation and sub - montane forest from 1000 - 1500m , but forest destruction has forced this owl to move from hill and middle zones to montane forest . highest elevation recorded is 2300m . also occurs in densely foliaged groves between farmland and rice fields in cultivated areas or in fruit - tree plantations near forest edge .\nthis small to medium sized owl is distinctive in its strikingly marked , angular face - a dark v - shaped marking running down the centre of the face , between the eyes , contrasts with the pale chestnut brown colouration ( 2 ) . the head is broad and there is no narrowing at the neck . the legs are long and fully feathered ( 4 ) . the underside of the body has dark flecks and the back and short , rounded wings are dark chestnut brown , spotted with black and yellow ( 2 ) . the ears are slightly tufted ( 5 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\nphodilus badius and p . assimilis ( del hoyo and collar 2014 ) were previously lumped as p . badius following sibley and monroe ( 1990 , 1993 ) .\nbutchart , s . , ekstrom , j . , martin , r , symes , a . & taylor , j .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nphodilus badius is found in south and south - east asia , from eastern india and southern china , through bangladesh , myanmar , thailand , cambodia , lao , viet nam , peninsular and east malaysia , singapore , brunei darussalem , kalimantan , sumatra , java , and bali , indonesia ( k\u00f6nig and weick 2008 ) .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is considered to be very rare throughout most of its range ( del hoyo et al . 1999 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\nstrictly nocturnal , occurring in dense evergreen primary and secondary forest in lowlands , foothills , submontane and montane forest up to 1 , 700 m in south - east asia , although has been recorded up to 2 , 300 m ( k\u00f6nig and weick 2008 ) . it preferred habitat is foothill forest between 200 and 1 , 000 m and submontane forest up to 1 , 500 m ( k\u00f6nig and weick 2008 ) . it typically occurs alongside water ( k\u00f6nig and weick 2008 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ndescription : the facial disc is elongated and coloured whitish - vinaceous , with a broad vertical chestnut - brown zone through each eye . the feathers of the rim are tipped blackish and chestnut - brown . the forehead is v - shaped and pale brownish - grey , with the upper part of the ' v ' reaching the crown , giving the frontal shield a triangular aspect . eyes are dark brown or brownish - black , and relatively large . the eyelids are whitish . the bill is creamy - yellow or pinkish - horn . the crown and nape are chestnut , speckled with black and buff shaft - spots . the mantle and back , to the uppertail - coverts , is a paler chestnut , spotted with black and buff shaft - streaks , with the feather bases being bright buff , and each mantle feather having 2 - 3 black spots on the shaft . the tail is chestnut with a few narrow dark bars . the outer two primary wing feathers ( 10th & 9th ) have white on the outer webs , and are banded with black or chestnut edges . the 8th & 7th primaries also have white on the outer webs near the tips . the throat is creamy - vinaceous . underparts are vivid pale yellowish - brown , speckled with blackish - brown and buff . tarsi are feathered to the toe joint with pinkish - vinaceous feathers that become paler near the toe joint . toes are yellowish - brown or pinkish - buff , with the claws being paler .\nsize : length 22 . 5 - 29cm . wing length 172 - 237mm . tail length 168 - 239mm . weight 255 - 308g . females are slightly larger than males .\nvoice : a typical song is a series of 4 - 7 or more loud , melancholic fluted whistles , given at about 2 notes per second . the call can last 2 - 8 seconds , and starts loud , with the later notes rising slightly in pitch . these phrases are often repeated many times , sometimes in a descending sequence . these whistles sometimes alternate with a series of different and shorter whistles , kleet - kleet - kleet or kleek - kleek - kleek as the bird moves from place to place . tends to start calling in the early evening . these owls can be very vocal during the breeding season , particularly after midnight .\nbreeding : breeding season is march to may around nepal and sikkim . in java , eggs have been recorded from march to july . nests are in tree holes , rotten tree trunks or stumps , or cavities . has been recorded nesting in leaf layers of palms in java . has also been reported using nest boxes . 3 - 5 white eggs are laid , measuring 38 . 0 - 40 . 6 x 30 . 2 - 31 . 1mm , at about 2 day intervals . incubation starts with the first egg , and is done by the female alone while the male brings in food . incubation and fledging periods are unknown .\ndistribution : nepal , sikkim , assam , nagaland , manipur , burma and thailand , east to south china , south through the malay peninsula to the greater sundas . also recorded on samar island in the philippines .\noriginal description : horsfield , thomas . 1821 . transactions of the linnean society of london , 13 , pt . 1 , spec . 2 , p . 139 .\nboyer and hume . 1991 .\nowls of the world\n. booksales inc .\ndel hoyo , elliott & sargatal . 1999 .\nhandbook of the birds of the world : barn owls to hummingbirds\n. buteo books .\nduncan , james r . . 2003 .\nowls of the world : their lives , behavior and survival\n. firefly books .\nk\u00f6nig , claus & weick , friedhelm . 2008 .\nowls : a guide to the owls of the world ( second edition )\n. yale university press .\ninhabits woodland , plantations and mangrove swamps at altitudes of up to 2200 m ( 2 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nparimal chandra ray department of forestry , north eastern regional institute of science and technology , arunachal pradesh , india , pin - 791109 . parimalcray @ urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nbird begins with a whisper song starting at 1930 and works to a crescendo by 1 or 2 am . almost certainly the same bird as xc299711 .\nbird begins with a whisper song starting at 1930 and works to a crescendo by 1 or 2 am . almost certainly same bird as xc299713 .\na pair ( assumed to be male and female , but both maybe males / females ? ) responding .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nwhat do ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) mean ? learn more about the scoring system .\nrobinson , 1927 \u2013 sikkim and ne india , n & c myanmar and thailand ( except peninsula ) e to vietnam and s china ( s yunnan , sw guangxi zhuang , hainan i ) ; presence in nepal , bhutan and bangladesh unconfirmed .\n( horsfield , 1821 ) \u2013 malay peninsula and greater sundas ( including nias i , off nw sumatra ) ; possibly also e philippines .\nwide variety of calls . in breeding season , once described as surpassing all other owls in appalling . . .\nevergreen and mixed deciduous forest , landward edge of mangroves , partially cleared land and dense . . .\nsmall mammals ( e . g . bats , rats and mice ) , birds , lizards , snakes , frogs and large insects , particularly beetles , but also grasshoppers ; . . .\nnests from mar\u2013may in sikkim , india ; nests with eggs found oct\u2013dec in borneo and mar\u2013jul in java ; calls most frequently . . .\npresumably sedentary , with evidence of some movement , probably post - breeding dispersal of juveniles . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . cites ii . generally considered rare throughout its range , although thought to be relatively common in s malaysia , especially in . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nfront view clinging to thin horizontal branch overhead looking around , just after midnight , one of two calling against each . . .\nmkennewell , paul clarke , john gregory , joe angseesing , ron hoff , josep del hoyo .\njames eaton , mark andrews , jorge chinchilla , gunnar pettersson , budiheran , mark . van . beirs , bird . soong , thomas pleschke , keith heaney , carlos n . g . bocos , khaleb yordan , andrew emmerson , allen levine , irene dy , rusli .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nphodilus badius badius : malay peninsula , borneo , sumatra , java and nias i .\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 296 , 542 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\ncombined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : phodilus badius . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nis distributed in northeast india , myanmar , southern china , vietnam , thailand , cambodia and laos . their occurrence in nepal , bhutan and bangladesh is unconfirmed . the populations in singapore and philippines are extinct .\nis distributed in southern myanmar , southern thailand , malaysia and greater sundas islands ( indonesia ) . the subspecies"]}
{"id": 509, "summary": [{"text": "stephensia brunnichella is a moth of the elachistidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is widespread throughout europe .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "in the north , the distribution extends up to southern sweden and finland and in the east it ranges as far as asia minor and the crimea .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the wingspan is 8 \u2013 9 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the larvae feed on calamintha nepeta , clinopodium vulgare and satureja calamintha .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they mine the leaves of their host plant .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the mine starts as a long , narrow , full depth gallery running toward the leaf tip .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the frass is found in a narrow central line .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "after reaching the leaf tip , the mine becomes a large , full depth , brown blotch .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "here , the frass is deposited in black lumps .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the larvae may vacate the mine and start elsewhere .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "larvae of the first generation hibernate in the mine .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "pupation takes place outside of the mine , in a white spinning , mostly between the leaves of the host plant .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the larvae have a greenish body with a black head .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they can be found from autumn to april and again in july . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "stephensia brunnichella", "paragraphs": ["stephensia brunnichella ( basil dwarf ) - norfolk micro moths - the micro moths of norfolk .\nphalaena brunnichella linnaeus , 1767 . syst . nat . ( ed . 12 ) 1 : 898 . stephensia brunnichella ( linnaeus , 1767 ) .\nenter the name or part of a name you wish to search for . the asterisk character * can be used as wildcard . e . g . ' papilio * ' . keep in mind that the search is only based on the full taxon name .\nwe are still having problems with the search feature . unfortunately we cannot give a timeline when the advanced search will be fixed .\nthe id resolving service for stable taxon ids is currently under maintenance . meanwhile , please use the name search in order to find the taxon page .\nmuseum f\u00fcr naturkunde leibniz - institut f\u00fcr evolutions - und biodiversit\u00e4tsforschung invalidenstr . 43 10115 berlin germany e - mail : fauna - eu ( at ) mfn - berlin . de website : urltoken\nif you would like to help ukmoths by writing a short description for this species , it would be very much appreciated .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 07 - 05 04 : 17 : 01 page render time : 0 . 2518s total w / procache : 0 . 2897s\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\negg at the underside of the leaf , in the basal part , near the midrib . the mine begins as a long , narrow , full depth gallery running towards the leaf tip ; frass here in a narrow central line . after the leaf tip has been reached a large , full depth , brown blotch is made . much silk is deposited within , strongly contracting the mine and making it opaque . frass lies in big black lumps here either in the oldest part , or in the centre , of the blotch . the larvae are capable of leaving their mine and restarting elsewhere , in which case the initial corridor is missing . larvae of the first generation hibernate in the mine . pupation external , in a white spinning , often between the leaves of the hostplant ( bladmineerders van europa ) .\nlarva : the larvae of moths have a head capsule and chewing mouthparts with opposable mandibles ( see video of a gracillarid larva feeding ) , six thoracic legs and abdominal legs ( see examples ) .\nsee steuer ( 1987a ) ; body greenish , head and thoracic plate black ( bladmineerders van europa ) .\npupa : the pupae of moths have visible head appendages , wings and legs which lie in sheaths ( see examples ) .\nsee patocka ( 1999a ) , patocka and turc\u00e1ni ( 2005a ) ( bladmineerders van europa ) .\nadult : the adult is not illustrated in ukmoths ( check for update ) . the species is included in urltoken .\nautumn up to april , and then in july ( bladmineerders van europa ) .\ndistribution in great britain and ireland : britain including bedfordshire , derbyshire , east gloucestershire , east kent , east suffolk , glamorgan , herefordshire , north essex , north hampshire , north somerset , north wiltshire , south wiltshire , stafford , west gloucestershire , west norfolk , west suffolk and worcestershire ( nbn atlas ) .\nalso recorded in the republic of ireland ( karsholt and van nieukerken in fauna europaea ) .\ndistribution elsewhere : widespread in continental europe including austria , belgium , bulgaria , czech republic , danish mainland , european turkey , finland , french mainland , germany , hungary , italian mainland , kaliningrad region , latvia , lithuania , norwegian mainland , poland , portuguese mainland , romania , russia - north , slovakia , sweden , switzerland , the netherlands and ukraine ( karsholt and van nieukerken in fauna europaea ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nnotes : nationally scarce ( nb ) in deciduous woodland and woodland margins , on chalky soils , in england from the wash - mersey line southwards and also in the north ; in wales from glamorgan ( mbgbi vol 3 ) . in hampshire and on the isle of wight this species occurs along the borders of woods on calcareous downland , and has been found in several localities in the county , notably at leckford and stockbridge down in the north , and portsdown nr and oxenbourne in the south . not recorded from the isle of wight since 1938 . wingspan 8 - 9 mm . imago similar to many of the elachista species , although the white band on the antenna at three - quarters is distinctive . larva mines leaves of wild basil .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nleafmine found at alderford common in 2017 ( s . wright , 30 / 09 / 17 ) only modern - day norfolk record .\nrecorded in 3 ( 4 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1874 . last recorded in 2017 .\nunderlying maps using digital map data \u00a9 norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola\u2122 2018 . \u00a9 james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data \u00a9 nola\u2122 2018\nresident but scarce in both vice - counties with records from just three sites in recent times . double - brooded , flying in may and june and again in august and september . the larvae feed on wild basil ( pratt , 2011 ) .\na maximum of five species may be selected . the data for each species can be then viewed on the same page . tick the box below to select this species .\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nrarely observed ; on the common wild - basil . beaten from oak in bentley woods in mid - august ( morley ) ; leiston ( grey ) ; brandon ( barrett ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nthe copyright \u00a9 for this image is with the picture credit given above and it may be used in any non - commercial way provided this is stated , together with the given permalink as source . all other rights reserved .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice ."]}
{"id": 516, "summary": [{"text": "the silvery gibbon ( hylobates moloch ) is a primate in the gibbon family , hylobatidae .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "its coat is bluish-grey in colour , with a dark grey or black cap .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "like all gibbons , silvery gibbons lack external tails , have dorsally placed scapulae , and reduced flexibility in their lumbar regions .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they have long , curved fingers and very long forelimbs relative to their hind limbs .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "on average , they reach 8 kg in weight .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the silvery gibbon lives exclusively on the island of java ( indonesia ) , where it inhabits deeply hidden portions of the rain forests .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is diurnal and arboreal , climbing trees skilfully and brachiating through the forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "brachiation is aided by the possession of mobile wrist joints , full rotation of the upper arm , and the ability to lock elbows in suspension .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "its diet consists of fruits , leaves , and flowers .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "every three years , on average , the female gives birth to a single young , after a seven-month gestation .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the offspring is nursed for about 18 months and lives with the family group until it is fully mature at about eight to ten years old . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "silvery gibbon", "paragraphs": ["pictures : silvery gibbon # 1 ( 7 kb jpeg ) ( kids ecol . corps ) ; silvery gibbon # 2 ( 20 kb jpeg ) ( gibbon research lab )\nthroughout the silvery gibbon ' s region , variations occur with different individuals , allowing females and their territories to be recognized . only the female silvery gibbon sings . (\nsilvery javan gibbon ( h . moloch , 2 subspecies , endemic to west and central java )\nthe silvery gibbon ( hylobates moloch ) , is a primate in the family \u2018hylobatidae\u2019 or gibbon family . the silvery gibbon is only found on the island of java in indonesia . because of their isolated location , it is estimated that there are less than 2000 of these animals currently living in the wild . the silvery gibbon is both diurnal and arboreal .\nthe silvery gibbon is one of the species that live in the sundaland biodiversity hotspot ( cons . intl . ) .\nthe silvery gibbon only occurs on the indonesian island of java . the species has already lost 98 % of its original habitat . only few relict forests remain in west and central java . depending on the estimate only about 4 ' 000 bis 4 ' 500 silvery gibbons survive . the silvery gibbon is endangered by extinction .\nall gibbons are arboreal and diurnal . the silvery gibbon appears to prefer the taller trees for resting , foraging and locomotion .\nalthough indonesia has laws protecting the silvery gibbon , they are not strictly enforced , and silvery gibbons continue to be killed for meat , sport and the pet trade . logging and farming are claiming the last of the primal rainforest which are the silvery gibbon ' s last hold out . money is being raised to build a javan gibbon rescue and rehabilitation center . the project would place donated or confiscated silvery gibbons in a program that would rescue , rehabilitate , breed and possibly reintroduce them to the wild .\nconservation at perth zoo : perth zoo is one of only six institutions in the world successfully breeding javan gibbons . the zoo also works closely with the silvery gibbon project in its efforts to protect this species in the wild . to find out more about the silvery gibbon project , visit urltoken .\nhylobates , their scientific name , means \u2018dweller in the trees\u2019 . silvery gibbons spend most of their lives in the tree tops . they prefer the dense and close canopy of undisturbed primary forest . the silvery gibbon inhabits deeply hidden portions of the rainforests , climbing trees skillfully and swinging through the forests . silvery gibbons travel in small family groups that consist of a mated pair and their offspring in various stages of development .\ncalling in wild silvery gibbons ( hylobates moloch ) in java ( indonesia ) : behavior , phylogeny , and conservation .\nabstract 1 . introduction 2 . gibbon systematics 3 . adopting a systematic framework 4 . gibbon distribution 5 . identifikation key 6 . references\nevery morning , the female silvery gibbon will arise and announce her presence to the forest by shrieking and calling . these calls can be heard for at least one kilometre in all directions .\nthe silvery gibbon has declined and continues to be threatened due to habitat loss because of expanding human populations on java . only 4 % of its original habitat remains ( kool 1992 ) .\nsilvery gibbons are not found in mangrove rainforest , or above 4 , 800 feet ( 1600 metres ) above sea level .\nunlike other gibbon species , the javan gibbon does not sing \u2018duets\u2019 . the female is the dominant vocalist while the male sings only occasionally .\njava is one of the most heavily human populated islands of indonesia and primary rainforest are rapidly disappearing . only 4 % of the silvery gibbon ' s habitat remains . except for gunung halimun national park , which can support a population of 1 , 000 gibbons or more , the remaining population is discontinuous and exists in small isolated remnants which can ' t support a viable gene pool . fewer than 2 , 000 wild silvery gibbons remain . of the 33 silvery gibbons held in zoos around the world , only 6 breeding pairs are having offspring . it has been recommended that the indonesian zoos become more involved in breeding programs to ensure a long - term survival of the silvery gibbon .\ngibbon species western hoolock gibbon ( hoolock hoolock ) , eastern hoolock gibbon ( hoolock leuconedys ) , bornean agile gibbon ( hylobates albobarbis ) , mountain agile gibbon ( hylobates agilis agilis ) , lowland agile gibbon ( hylobates agilis unko ) , kloss ' s or mentawai gibbon ( hylobates klossii ) , white - handed gibbon ( hylobates la r ; four subspecies : h . l . carpenter , h . l . entelloides , h . l . lar , h . l . vestitus , h . l . yunnanensis ) , javan silvery gibbon ( hylobates moloch ; two subspecies : h . m . moloch , h . m . pongoalsoni ) , grey gibbon ( hylobates muelleri ; three subspecies : h . m . abbotti , h . m . funereus , h . m . muelleri ) , pileated or capped gibbon ( hylobates pileatus ) , black crested gibbon ( nomascus concolor ; four subspecies : n . c . concolor , n . c . furvogaster , n . c . jingdongensis , n . c . lu ) , northern white - cheeked crested gibbon ( nomascus leucogenys ) , yellow - cheeked crested gibbon ( nomascus gabriellae ) , hainan black crested gibbon ( nomascus hainanus ) , cao - vit black crested gibbon ( nomascus nasutus ) , southern white - cheeked crested gibbon ( nomascus siki ) and siamang ( symphalangus syndactylus ; 2 subspecies : s . s . continentis , s . s . syndactylus ) .\ncalling in wild silvery gibbons ( hylobates moloch ) in java ( indonesia ) : behavior , phylogeny , and conservation . - pubmed - ncbi\nagile gibbon ( h . agilis , middle and eastern sumatra , malay peninsula )\nbornean white - bearded gibbon ( h . albibaris , endemic to southwestern borneo )\nthe silvery gibbon occupies a specialized niche in the forest canopy . they need the continuous canopy of a primary forest to move around in since they don ' t travel on the forest floor . the foliage needs to be thick , with horizontal growth to allow for the gibbon ' s brachiated form of movement . the silvery gibbons also need a wide variety of tree species which bear fruit at different times of the year , since its diet consists mainly of fruit . secondary forests , or new growth forests have gaps in the canopy , and the growth is sparse , which restricts the gibbon ' s ability to move around . there is also less of a variety of fruiting trees in new growth forest , which can ' t support the dietary needs of the silvery gibbon . silvery gibbons are not found in mangrove rainforest , or above 4 , 800 feet ( 1600 m ) above sea level .\npileated gibbon ( h . pileatus , southeast thailand , western cambodia and southwest laos )\ncowlishaw , g . 1996 . sexual selection and information content in gibbon song bouts .\nthe silvery gibbons primarily diet is fruit . since fruit - bearing trees are usually scattered in the rainforests , they must travel extensively to find food and each gibbon family usually has a territory that they travel through that averages about 42 acres . sometimes these territories will overlap , allowing several families to share the same fruit trees . silvery gibbons have also been known to eat flowers and leaves .\nthe silvery gibbon has a long , dense and shaggy fur . the colour is silvery grey in both sexes and all ages . the cap and chest are darker grey than the rest or even black . both sexes have a pale brow - band . the face is black and naked , the ears are also black and not hidden in the fur . the weight is about 5 . 9 kg .\n1995 : gibbon systematics and species identification . international zoo news 42 , 467 - 501 .\nthe silvery gibbons only live in the scattered remains of rainforest on the western side of the indonesian island of java . they are listed on the iucn\nred list of threatened animals\nas critically endangered , and have a 50 % or better chance of going extinct in the next 10 years . habitat loss , hunting and capture of infants for the pet trade have contributed heavily to the silvery gibbon ' s decline .\nm\u00fcller\u00b4s bornean gibbon ( h . muelleri , 3 subspecies , endemic to north and east borneo )\nsilvery gibbons are fluffy with greyish - white fur with a dark grey or black cap on their heads . silvery gibbons have a white or light grey fringe that surrounds their rather dark face . their fur is very long and dark grey on the top of their round heads . like all gibbons , they have no tail and their arms are long compared to their body which span at least twice their height . silvery gibbons have lean bodies which are specially adapted to swing below the branches suspended by their arms . they hook their fingers over a branch , not actually grabbing it , and sometimes make long swings and let go of the branches entirely . the average weight for an adult silvery gibbon is approximately 13 pounds ( 6 kilograms ) and the males and females are very similar in appearance and size .\nthe javan gibbon is endemic to the western half of the island of java , indonesia ( 3 ) .\nagile gibbon : 4479 individuals in sumatra + a few thousand in thailand ( o\u00b4brien et al . 2004 )\nsilvery gibbons , like most gibbon species , are monogamous and mate for life . there is no breeding season and a female will come into oestrus at any time of the year . the female will produce offspring about every 2 to 3 years . gestation usually lasts 7 to 8 months and only one baby gibbon is born at a time . the infant silvery gibbon is hairless with only some fluff on its head . it is kept close to its mother for warmth and nursed for about a year . the infant lives with the family group until it is fully mature at about 8 years and until they are ready to go off on their own and find a mate . gibbon families are usually very closely linked and they stay close together when traveling . if threatened in their territories , the gibbon female will sing and scream while the male chases off the intruder , usually with a lot of noise and crashing through branches .\nthe silvery gibbon has already lost 98 % of its original habitat and the pressure on the remaining forest is extreme . only an estimated 400 to 3000 silvery gibbons now exist in some 21 discontinuous forest patches . the current fragmented sub - populations are not sufficiently large to be considered evolutionally viable and will require active conservation management for long term survival . ex situ breeding programmes established under an international studbook ( 1991 ) also have a vital role to play in the survival of the species . currently only a few silvery gibbons are held in zoos outside indonesia in coordinated breeding programmes . these zoos participate also in in situ conservation projects . it is highly recommended that indonesia establish such programmes within its zoos .\nbornean white - bearded gibbon : 19 , 000 individuals ( buckley , 2004 ; buckley et al . 2006 )\nhigh in the treetops of the scattered remains of the island of java ' s rainforests , a silvery gibbon female sings a morning song before she and her family move off to spend the day foraging for fruit . her hauntingly plaintive song can be heard over a distance of almost one mile ( 1500 m ) .\nsilvery gibbons travel by swinging from branch to branch , using their long fingers to hook the branches as they swing forward for the next branch . at times , their swings are so powerful that it allows them to be completely airborne and reach greater distances in one swing . silvery gibbons are able to walk on the ground if they need to and they can walk on two legs , holding their arms up above their heads to help balance . in each familys territory , there are trees that are used for specific purposes , like sleeping and calling . silvery gibbons repeatedly use the same trees for these activities .\nlar gibbon ( h . lar , 5 subspecies , yunnan , eastern myanmar , thailand , malay peninsula , sumatra )\nthe gibbon species survival plan \u00ae manages the genetic and demographic health and oversees the care of gibbons in aza zoos .\ngeissmann , t . 2006b . gibbon systematics and species identification . gibbons . de . retrieved april 13 , 2006 .\nin the distinctive gibbon - song of this species , females sing the lead to advertise their territory for all to hear .\ngeissmann , t . 2006a . hoolock gibbons get a new genus name . gibbon journal . retrieved march 12 , 2007 .\nthe silvery gibbon ( hylobates moloch ) is currently listed as critically endangered on the 2007 iucn red list of threatened species . habitat destruction on densely populated java continues to reduce the natural range of the species . many gibbons are also lost to the illegal pet trade , when adult gibbons are slaughtered so that their babies can be sold in the markets as pets . it is estimated that only 4 % of their original native habitat is still available to the species . they are , of course , in danger from poachers who sell their meat , pelts and take the babies for pets . several zoos operate silvery gibbon breeding programs . despite these efforts , the future survival of this species is in question .\nthe silvery gibbon weighs about 6 kg ( 13 lb ) . it is found in lowland , hill and montane forests and eats mostly fruit and leaves . . in the dieng mountains of central java , its habitat consisted of secondary forest with a rather dense and close canopy , and undisturbed primary forest . all gibbons are arboreal and diurnal . the silvery gibbon appears to prefer the taller trees for resting , foraging and locomotion . in a study in the dieng mountains of central java , gibbons were seen on three occasions : a single adult , two adults and a group of seven . an average group size of 3 . 3 individuals has been reported . the silvery gibbon is endemic to the western half of java , indonesia . most populations can be found in the western province , but a few remain in central java . it has declined and continues to be threatened due to habitat loss because of expanding human populations on java . only 4 % of its original habitat remains . remaining populations occur in about 20 forested areas mainly scattered over west java .\nthe taxonomy of the gibbons has changed in recent years ( geissmann , 1995 ) . in the past all gibbon species were considered\ngibbons it is generally accepted that there are 16 to 17 gibbon species in the family hylobatidae . they are divided into four groups ( genera ) : hylobates , hoolock , symphalangus , and nomascus . click here for a list of all the individual gibbon species .\n5 / 1 / 94 .\ngibbon fact sheet\n( on - line ) . accessed september 12 , 1999 at urltoken .\ndescription : javan gibbons have a fluffy appearance because of their very dense and long silvery - grey fur . they have very long forelimbs , long fingers and shorter thumbs which make them great brachiators ( use their arms to swing between branches ) .\nm\u00fcller\u00b4s bornean gibbon : 250 , 000 - 375 , 000 individuals ( meijaard & nijman ( unpubl . data ) , cf . iucn redlist )\ngibbon groups are usually small , consisting of the mated pair , an infant and a juvenile , making the average group size about four individuals .\nthe silvery gibbon is found in lowland , hill and montane forests . in the dieng mountains of central java , its habitat consisted of secondary forest with a rather dense and close canopy , and undisturbed primary forest . although 1600 m is considered to be the upper limit of the species , it has been reported from altitudes up to 2400 ' . ( kool 1992 ; nijman & van balen 1998 )\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - javan gibbon ( hylobates moloch )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - javan gibbon ( hylobates moloch )\ntitle =\narkive species - javan gibbon ( hylobates moloch )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthomas geissmann ' s gibbon research lab . : an introduction to systematics , classification , taxonomy and distribution of the gibbons or small apes ( hylobatidae )\nasquith , n . m . ( 1995 ) javan gibbon conservation : why habitat protection is crucial . tropical biodiversity , 3 : 63 - 65 .\ngeissmann ( 2006a ) noted that it was determined that the molecular distances among these four subgenera are in the same range as seen between humans and chimpanzees , which are in their own genera , and thus the gibbon subgenera should be raised to the genus rank . this has now become widespread . furthermore , the former extant subgroup bunopithecus , whose only living member was the hoolock gibbon , was replaced by the genus hoolock . the bunopithecus sericus is an extinct gibbon or gibbon - like ape that , until recently , was thought to be closely related to the hoolock gibbons ( mootnick and groves 2005 ) .\nthe javan gibbon is classified as endangered ( en ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) , and listed on appendix i of cites ( 7 ) .\nthe silvery gibbons are known as \u2018lesser apes\u2019 . lesser apes differ from great apes ( chimpanzees , gorillas , orangutans and humans ) in being smaller and pair - bonded , in not making nests , and in certain anatomical details in which they superficially more closely resemble monkeys than great apes do .\ndid you know ? that all gibbon species are monogamous ? family groups consist of mated pair and offspring . they establish small , stable home ranges which they will defend .\nsilvery gibbon ( hylobates moloch ) * family : hylobatidae , * genus : hylobates , * species : h . moloch , * phylum : chordata , * class : mammalia , * order : primates , * size : 45 - 64 cm , * type : mammal , * diet : herbivore , * average life span in the wild : about 10 to 20 years , * weight : reach 8 kg , * * hylobates moloch is a primate in the hylobatidae or gibbon family . their skin is bluish grey in colour , with a dark grey or black cap . more info : urltoken or urltoken or http : / / animaldiversity . ummz . umich . edu . . .\nmootnick , a . , and c . p . groves . 2005 . a new generic name for the hoolock gibbon ( hylobatidae ) . international journal of primatology 26 : 971\u2013976 .\nhardly any behavioral data are available for the silvery gibbon ( hylobates moloch ) , an endangered primate that is endemic to the island of java , indonesia . we studied the singing behavior of the easternmost population of this species in the dieng mountains , central java , in 1998 - 1999 . we aimed to document the timing of singing , quantify the amount of singing by the respective sexes , and explore the role of bioacoustics in density estimation . a total of 122 song bouts in at least 12 groups were monitored . no duet songs were heard . most of the song bouts ( 91 . 5 % ) were female solo song bouts or female scream bouts . in contrast to an earlier study on the westernmost population of silvery gibbons , during which few if any male songs were heard , at least 8 . 5 % of the song bouts in our study were male solo song bouts . they were significantly longer in duration than the female songs . all male song bouts uttered before dawn ( 0520 hr ) were produced in a chorus fashion , with at least three individuals participating . choruses occurred about once every 8 . 5 days , and lasted longer and occurred earlier than female solo song bouts . most male songs ( 60 % ) started between 0355 - 0440 hr , when it was still dark . all female songs , in contrast , started after 0500 hr , and female singing activity peaked around 0600 . regular male singing , male chorusing , and regular predawn singing have not previously been reported for silvery gibbons . similarly separated periods of male and female solo songs and the absence of duetting have been observed in kloss ' s gibbons ( h . klossii ) on the mentawai islands , and may represent synapomorphies shared by both species . the pronounced individual - specific song characteristics of silvery gibbons allow accurate mapping of groups . the density of gibbons at our study site was established to be 1 . 9 - 3 . 7 groups / km2 , corresponding to 6 . 7 - 13 . 1 individuals / km2 . we reassess the suitability of gibbon songs as a means of estimating the density and size of gibbon populations , and discuss the proximate causes for the absence of duetting in silvery gibbons .\n\u2191 mootnick , a . , and c . p . groves . 2005 . a new generic name for the hoolock gibbon ( hylobatidae ) . international journal of primatology 26 : 971\u2013976 .\nmost species are threatened or endangered , most importantly from degradation or loss of their forest habitat . gibbon species include the siamang , the white - handed or lar gibbon , and the hoolock gibbons . the siamang , which is the largest of the 13 species , is distinguished by having two fingers on each hand stuck together , hence the generic and species names symphalangus and syndactylus .\nfor example , in the traditional classification of groves ( 1997 ) , the black - crested gibbon was listed as hylobates concolor . in more recent classifications , it is listed as nomascus concolor .\nin a study of the silvery gibbon in gunung halimun reserve in western java , a group density of 2 . 6 groups / sq km ( 6 . 8 groups / sq mi ) was derived . using a reported average group size of 3 . 3 individuals / group ( kappeler 1984b cited in kool 1992 ) , density , within the altitudinal range censused in gunung halimun ( 700 - 1075 m ( 2300 - 3500 ' ) ) , was determined as 8 . 6 individuals / sq km ( 22 individuals / sq mi ) . this is higher than a previous estimate of 2 - 7 individuals / sq km ( 5 - 20 individuals / sq mi ) for hill rain forest ( 500 - 1000 m altitude ( 1600 - 3300 ' altitude ) ) ( kappeler 1984a cited in kool 1992 ) . at higher elevations , the density of the silvery gibbon is lower and has been estimated at 1 - 3 individuals / sq km ( 3 - 8 individuals / sq mi ) for lower montane forest ( kappeler 1984a cited in kool 1992 ) . ( kool 1992 )\nthe silvery or javan gibbon ( hylobates moloch ) has long fluffy silver - grey fur ( 2 ) , with darker markings on the chest and cap ( 4 ) . it has long arms and legs , long fingers and reduced thumbs , all of which are adaptations for brachiation ( swinging through the trees from arm to arm ) ( 2 ) . males produce simple \u2018hoot\u2019 calls , whilst the calls of females are more variable , ending in a \u2018bubble\u2019 . ( 4 ) . both sexes also give a \u2018scream\u2019 alarm call ( 8 ) .\nthe silvery gibbon is endemic to the western half of java , indonesia . most populations can be found in the western province , but a few remain in central java ( nijman & van balen 1998 ) . they occur in about 20 forested areas mainly scattered over west java . many of these smaller populations are considered non - viable in the long term . although recent discoveries show that the central javan population may be larger than previously assumed , population estimates still suggest that intervention will be necessary in order to conserve the species . ( gates 2002 )\nthe available data on gibbons show no birth seasonality . a mated gibbon pair will produce an average of 5 to 6 offspring over their reproductive lifespan of about 10 to 20 years . like most primates ,\nthis taxon is monotypic ( geissman et al . 2002 ; t . geissmann pers . comm . ) , although it has been suggested that there is evidence for two genetically distinct silvery gibbon populations ( andayani et al . 2001 ) , leading to the subsequent recognition of two subspecies by several authors ( hilton - taylor 2000 , supriatna 2006 , supriatna and wahyono 2000 ) , a recent review of the molecular evidence and a comparison of morphological and vocal data casts doubt on this claim ( geissman et al . 2002 , t . geissmann pers . comm . ) .\nsilvery gibbons , like most gibbon species , are monogamous . they live in small family groups of mated pairs and several sub - adult offspring . of all the apes , only singing primates are monogamous . territories of neighboring groups overlap at their borders and are defended by the great calls of the females and the aggressive charges of the male . groups will not contest the common zone unless both groups arrive at a fruiting tree at the same time . the offspring will not join in , but will watch intently as their parents call and scream , and crash through the tree tops .\nthis section offers a comprehensive review of gibbon systematics . parts of the following text have previously been published in the following papers , but the text has been ( and continues being ) updated for the web version .\ninhabits tropical lowland , hill and montane rainforests ( 3 ) between sea level and 1500 metres ( 2 ) . the javan gibbon shows a preference for taller trees for resting , foraging and locomotion ( 3 ) .\nthe historical deforestation that affected java in colonial times still maintains an overriding presence on the landscape , effectively restricting the arboreal silvery gibbon to continuous tracks of forest around mountain and volcano tops . however , habitat disturbance today is relatively slow , and populations of gibbons , while isolated , are substantial in size . wildlife trade exerts an as yet un - quantified effect on hylobates moloch ( nijman 2005 ) . populations seem to have become more or less stabilized in recent years as overall loss of habitat reached a climax some time ago . though habitat loss continues , it is at a much slower rate today .\nasquith , n . , martarinza , m . and sinaga , r . m . ( 1995 ) the javan gibbon ( hylobates moloch ) : status and conservation recommendations . tropical biodiversity , 3 : 1 - 14 .\ncastle - smith , emma : investigation into acoustic variation in javan gibbon ( hylobates moloch ) vocalisations . master ' s thesis , university of plymouth , england . e - mail : emma . castle - smith @ urltoken\nhomepage of yoichi inoue e . g . behavioral observations on wild gray gibbons ( hylobates muelleri ) in northern borneo and study on the cognitive development of a young white - handed gibbon ( h . lar ) . urltoken\nlar gibbon : 15 , 000 - 20 , 000 individuals in indonesia , malaysia and myanmar , probably extinct in china ( geissmann et al . 2006 ; guo & wang 1995 ; lan & wang 2000 ; boonratana 1997 )\nthreats and conservation nearly all gibbon species are classified as endangered by the international union for the conservation of nature ( iucn ) . some species have been reduced to a few hundred individuals . the major threats to gibbons include habitat loss and destruction due to logging , clearing of land for agriculture , palm oil plantations and other forms of human development . hunting for food and for the pet trade is also having a negative impact on wild gibbon populations .\nclarke , e . , u . h . reichard , and k . zuberb\u00fchler . 2006 . the syntax and meaning of wild gibbon songs . plos one 1 ( 1 ) : e73 . retrieved january 18 , 2007 .\nin a study in the dieng mountains of central java , assuming the same reported average group size of 3 . 3 individuals / group as mentioned above ( kappeler 1984b cited in kool 1992 ) , the density of silvery gibbons was estimated to be 3 . 0 - 3 . 6 individuals / sq km ( 7 . 8 - 9 . 4 individuals / sq mi ) ( nijman & van balen 1998 )\nfrom 1994 - 2002 , nijman ( 2004 ) assessed the entirety of the silvery gibbon\u2019s population in its known areas of occurrence by using fixed - point counts and forest transect walks , as well as by a review of literature . their presence was detected by listening for gibbon song , and affirmed by local park officers and residents . he estimates that between 4 , 000\u20134 , 500 individuals remain in over 15 different locations . over 95 % of the gibbons are in populations of more than 100 individuals , and the four largest areas support populations of more than 500 individuals each ( nijman 2004 ) . asquith ( 2001 ) reported that in 1995 nine local populations had gone extinct , though nijman found two of these locales to still harbor silvery gibbons . this is attributed to the effects of habitat disturbance and low population density on calling frequency , and suggests an under - representation of gibbon abundance and number of remaining populations ( nijman 2004 ) . small populations of the species are likely to go extinct ; however , this will not impact the overall population estimate in the immediate future ( nijman pers . comm . ) . median population density ranges are 2 . 7 groups / km 2 or 9 . 0 individuals / km 2 in lowland forest ( < 500 m ) , 2 . 6 groups / km 2 or 8 . 6 individuals / km 2 for hill forest ( 500 - 1 , 000 m ) , and 0 . 6 groups / km 2 or 1 . 5 individuals / km 2 for lower montane forest ( 1000 - 1 , 750 m ) ( geissmann and nijman 2006 ; nijman 2004 ) .\nthe western black crested gibbon occurs in southwestern china , northwestern laos and nothern vietnam . only few relict populations still occur in this region , and only about 1 ' 300 - 2 ' 000 individuals survive . this species is critically endangered of extinction .\nthe javan gibbon has undergone a dramatic population decline principally as a result of habitat destruction ( 6 ) , and also from the trapping of juveniles for the pet trade ( 2 ) . the native forests of java have been cleared for logging , agriculture and development , and the species has declined to fewer than 1 , 000 individuals over the last 25 years ( 4 ) . this gibbon appears to be on the very brink of extinction with only a handful of isolated viable populations remaining ( 6 ) .\nthe hainan crested gibbon only occurs on the island of hainan in the south - chinese sea . as in all crested gibbons ( genus nomascus ) the fur of adult males is black , that of adult females is yellowish . the species has already lost more than 99 % of its original habitat . about 25 indiviudals of this species survive in the bawangling national nature reserve , i . e . in the last forest where this species is known to occur . this gibbon is , therefore , the rarest primate species of the world .\nthere are some protected forest areas , but often they are poorly managed and wildlife laws are not enforced effectively . rural poverty and lack of awareness of the threats facing the gibbons and their forests are additional causes for inadequate gibbon protection . lack of information is not just a local problem - the threats faced by the gibbons are largely unknown on an international level . their current status is extremely alarming ( see below ) , for example the rarest species of ape in the world is the hainan crested gibbon , of which there are less than 30 individuals remaining .\nvocal communication is prevalent in all gibbon species . mated pairs use duets to mark their territory and announce their presence to conspecifics . in addition to vocalizations , gibbons use facial expressions and body postures in communication . tactile communication is of some importance between mates , as well as between parents and their offspring .\naisquith 2001 , burton & pearson 1987 , cons . intl . , gates 2002 , gibbon research lab , iucn 1994 , iucn 1996 , iucn 2000 , iucn 2003a , iucn 2004 , kids ecol . corps , kool 1992 , macdonald 1984 , nijman & van balen 1998 , nowak & paradiso 1983 , schuhmacher 1967\ncheyne , susan m . : gibbon behaviour , feeding ecology and sociobiology . the orangutan tropical peatland project , cimtrop , kampus unpar , tanjung nyaho , jalan yos sudarso , palangka raya , central kalimantan , indonesia , 73112 . study site : sebangau national park , central kalimantan . project website : urltoken project blog : urltoken\nlike all gibbon genera hylobates are threatened with extinction and iucn states that the population trend of all hylobates species is negative . their classification as \u201cendangered\u201d indicates a reduction in population size of more than 50 % in the last 45 years ( 3 generations ) and also shows that populations are expected to decline further in the near future .\npileated gibbon : perhaps more than 35 , 000 in cambodia , smaller population in lao pdr , 13 , 000 - 14 , 000 in thailand ( traeholt et al . 2005 ; duckworth et al . 1999 ; tunhikorn et al . 1994 ; brockelman & srikosamatara 1993 ; phoonjampa & brockelman unpub . data ( cf . iucn redlist ) )\nhylobates means\ndweller in the trees\n. silvery gibbons spend most of their lives in the tree tops . they prefer the dense and close canopy of undisturbed primary forest . their diet consists mainly of fruit , although it will also eat flowers and young leaves . they need a wide variety of tree species which will fruit at different times of the year to support them . they spend their day on the move , foraging through their territory , sometimes stopping to eat at a tree with fruit . they move quietly through the canopy , the only sign that they are there is a moving branch or a piece of falling fruit .\ngibbons produce amazing songs that can be heard up to 2 miles away . these songs are the most complex of all land mammals and are thought to be used to establish territory boundaries as well as for attracting a mate . mated pairs also sing together in beautiful duets that can advertise and even strengthen their bond . gibbon pairs can be identified by their particular song .\nthe silvery gibbons are small apes , weighing 13 pounds ( 6 kg ) , have no tail , and are known as lesser apes . they have long arms and fingers , and lean bodies which are specially adapted to swing below the branches suspended by their arms . they hook their fingers over a branch , not grabbing it , and sometimes make long swings and let go of the branches entirely . their dense , silver - grey fur is quite long , giving them a fluffy look . both males and females have the same coloring . a white or light grey fringe surrounds their rather dark face , and both have a dark gray to black cap .\nthe eastern black crested gibbons only survives in one forest area extending from northeastern vietnam ( cao bang province ) to neigbouring china ( guangxi province ) . the species has already lost more than 99 % of its original habitat . only about 100 individuals survive in the last piece of remaining habitat . this gibbon is , therefore , the second - rarest primate species of the world .\nthey are masters of brachiation , swinging from branch to branch for airborne distances of up to 15 meters ( 50 ft ) and achieving speeds as high as 56 km / h ( 35 mph ) . they can also walk bipedally with their arms raised for balance . one unique aspect of gibbon physiology is the ball and socket joint forming the wrist connecting the hand with the forearm . in comparison with the wrist of humans as an aid for swinging from hand to hand , the gibbon ' s ball - joint wrist greatly reduces both the amount of energy needed in the upper arm and torso and the stress on the shoulder joint . brachiation in gibbons is further aided by their long hands and feet , with a deep cleft between the first and second digits of their hands .\nthe northern white - cheeked crested gibbon is distributed in northern vietnam and northern laos . it orignally occured in the southernmost part of china ' s yunnan province , too , but became extinct there around the year 2000 . although no population estimate is available for this species , it is continuously disapearing from one known locality of its distribution area after another . this species is critically endangered of extinction .\nsilvery gibbons have small , stable territories of about 42 acres ( 17 ha ) and the female will sing her song bout several times during the day to declare their territory . she will climb to the top of one of several singing trees to give her great call . the male of the mated pair will sit quietly , scanning the surrounding forest for intruders , while a sub - adult female may join her mother in a softer , high - pitched voice . strangers , hearing the great call of the resident female , hurry off in the opposite direction . if spotted , it is the resident male ' s duty to chase them off with a great show of crashing branches and incessant loud single screams .\nthis species is endangered . the biggest threat to gibbons is deforestation of the tropical rainforests . habitats are disappearing at an astonishing rate due to logging and agricultural demands . without a sufficient range , gibbon species , along with other tropical species , are finding it much harder to exist . in an effort to help save these primates , reserves and parks are created , but there is no conservation program specifically for\nseveral gibbon species are threatened by imminent extinction in the very near future . gibbons not only include the most endangered apes but also the most endangered primate species of the world . the main reasons for this are habitat loss and degradation , hunting and illegal trade . preservation of the tropical forest is imperative to gibbon survival - if it disappears , so do the gibbons . in china , for instance , the gibbons have already lost 99 % of their habitat . in addition , they are hunted for food and for use in local medicine . also , the illegal pet trade is thriving across the whole of southeast asia . young gibbons are popular pets , but in order to obtain a young animal , its mother must be shot down from the tree tops . often both mother and infant are killed in this process .\nthe major threats to the gibbons are deforestation , habitat loss and hunting . habitat is greatly reduced by deforestation and drainage of swamps ; and coffee , oil palm , rubber and other crop plantations are all expanding industries . the rising price of coffee at the end of the 1990\u00b4s led to the increased development of coffee plantations and this aggravated the decline of the agile gibbon in sumatra . agricultural conversion and infrastructural development in general have led to the building of roads , even in protected areas , and also to the creation of new human settlements . consequently forest clearing takes place , leading to defragmentation and strip building , while simultaneously increasing access for hunters into gibbon habitat . gibbons are hunted for subsistence and also for illegal trade in the pet market ( especially young animals ) and this results in a loss of mature individuals , further exacerbating the problem .\none unique aspect of gibbon physiology contributing significantly to its remarkable brachiation capabilities is the ball and socket joint forming the wrist connecting the hand with the forearm . in comparison with the wrist of humans as an aid for swinging from hand to hand , the gibbon ' s ball - joint wrist greatly reduces both the amount of energy needed in the upper arm and torso and the stress on the shoulder joint . brachiation in gibbons is further aided by their long hands and feet , with a deep cleft between the first and second digits of their hands . their fur is usually black , gray , or brownish , often with white markings on hands , feet , and face . some species have an enlarged throat sac , which inflates and serves as a resonating chamber when the animals call . this structure is enormous in a few species , equaling the size of the animal ' s head .\ngibbons reach maturity at approximately 6 - 8 years of age . they produce offspring about once every two to three years after a gestation period of 7 to 8 months . females generally give birth to a single offspring . infants have the ability to cling to their mothers immediately after birth , which allows females complete range of motion while moving through the forest . males of most gibbon species will participate in caring for the offspring once they are weaned .\ngibbon taxonomy has undergone a number of revisions in recent years . traditionally , they have been placed in the genus hylobates as can be seen in the taxonomies of groves ( 1997 ) , goodman ( 1999 ) , wilson and reeder ( 1993 ) , nowark and walker ( 1991 ) , and napier and napier ( 1985 ) . goodman ( 1999 ) further separated the siamangs into their own genus , symphalangus , but the other taxonomies all included the siamangs in the genus hylobates .\nin light of the status of this species in the wild , a javan gibbon rescue and rehabilitation workshop was conducted in 1997 hosted by conservation international and the university of indonesia ( 2 ) . it was agreed that a rescue and rehabilitation centre was needed and education programmes were proposed ( 5 ) . currently , the only viable protected population is found within the gunung halimun national park ; if this attractive primate is to survive it is vital that protection both within the park and in other areas is increased ( 6 ) .\ngibbon skulls resemble those of the great apes , with very short rostra , enlarged braincases , and large orbits that face forward . gibbons have the typical nose of catarrhine primates with nostrils that are close together and face forward and slightly downward . they lack cheek pouches and their stomach is not sacculated . their teeth also are similar to the great apes , with molars that are bunodont and lack lophs . the upper molars usually have a cingulum , which is sometimes large . the canines are prominent but not sexually dimorphic . the dental formula is :\njavan gibbons have been protected throughout their range by indonesian law since 1924 , and are listed under cites appendix i . three of the 15 locales that support the largest populations of silvery gibbons surveyed by nijman are in national parks , while five are part of , or the entirety of , so - called \u201cstrict nature reserves\u201d . the remaining seven locales are unprotected ; approximately half of the remaining populations collectively reside here . in the interest of this species , it is these areas that require some level of increased protection ( nijman 2004 ) . the second largest population of this species ( for example in the dieng mountains ) is not in a protected area . in 2003 , 56 javan gibbons were maintained at eight indonesian zoos , 15 at four indonesian wildlife rescue centers , with five potential breeding pairs . there is no evidence that the species has bred successfully in captivity in indonesia . outside the range country , 48 javan gibbons were maintained at ten institutions in nine countries , with six breeding pairs . the total ex - situ population is some 120 individuals , the majority of which are wild - caught ( nijman 2006 ) .\nthe protection status of the seven species and their habitats is very different . there are a number of protected areas but not all populations live within these areas and the actual level of protection and law enforcement , especially in remote areas , is questionable ( cf . threads ) . multiple actions are necessary to halt the decline of the hylobates populations . firstly , management of protected areas needs to be improved and conservation activities must be enlarged to control logging ( legal and illegal ) and development activities in protected areas . further , better land management should be implemented , for example community based management programs together with educational efforts could help to change the hunting behaviour of local villagers and to better integrate human needs and habitat protection . gibbon breeding centres have also been suggested as a way to increase population numbers . survey efforts are also of great importance since one of the current issues is a lack of survey data and reliable population estimates . these data could also be used to help establish public awareness campaigns and inform the broader public about the alarming situation of the hylobates .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\n1994 : systematik der gibbons . zeitschrift des k\u00f6lner zoo 37 , 65 - 77 .\n, 1 species ) . a key for the identification of adult gibbons based on visual characteristics is presented , together with distribution maps of all recognised species . a detailed description of fur colour variation and colour photographs of all species are presented in the\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as endangered because its population size is estimated to number fewer than 2 , 500 mature individuals , there is an observed continuing decline in the number of mature individuals , and no subpopulation contains more than 250 mature individuals . the change in status from critically endangered to endangered reflects the availability of better information and does not suggest that the threats have decreased ; in fact , threats continue to increase but do not yet reach the level necessary to be classified as critically endangered . there is concern about the legal status of the largest populations ; this species , therefore , should be periodically reassessed so that current status and persistent threats are monitored .\nhylobates moloch is endemic to java ( indonesia ) . it is mostly confined to java\u2019s western provinces ( banten and west java ) , but is also present in central java ( as far east as the dieng mountains ) .\nhylobates moloch resides in floristically rich patches of relatively undisturbed lowland to lower montane rainforest mostly below 1 , 600 m , but sometimes up to 2 , 000\u20132 , 400 m ( nijman 2004 ) . it can also tolerate moderately disturbed forest . the species is strictly arboreal and diurnal , and mainly frugivorous ( kappeler 1981 , 1984 ) . home ranges in ujung kulon cover about 17 ha ( kappeler 1981 , 1984 ) . inter - birth intervals in wild gibbons are typically 3 - 3 . 5 years ( leighton 1987 ; palombit 1992 ) , and age of sexual maturity and / or the age of dispersal in wild gibbons is about 8 - 10 years ( brockelman et al . 1998 ; geissmann 1991 ) , but the age at first reproduction may be about 10 - 12 years ( brockelman et al . 1998 )\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352"]}
{"id": 518, "summary": [{"text": "the arizona night lizard ( xantusia arizonae ) is a small smooth-skinned gray-brown lizard with dark spots that sometimes form partial lines down the back .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the lizard has a slightly flattened head .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the scales of the underside and tail are larger than those of the upper side .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the lizard grows to a length of 6 to 10 cm .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "despite its name , the arizona night lizard is primarily active during the day .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the lizard 's range extends across west-central arizona .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is usually found in rock crevices or under plant debris .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "its diet consists of insects and spiders .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the young of the lizard are born live , usually one or two around august or september .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "as the lizard tends not to move about and generally avoids humans , not much is known about it . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "arizona night lizard", "paragraphs": ["x . henshawi - granite night lizard x . gracilis - sandstone night lizard x . vigilis - desert night lizard x . r . reticulata - san clemente night lizard\nx . henshawi - granite night lizard x . gracilis - sandstone night lizard x . sierrae - sierra night lizard x . r . reticulata - san clemente night lizard x . wigginsi - baja california night lizard\nwelcome to our desert night lizard webpage for owners and desert night lizard enthusiasts . desert night lizard information - it is a secretive lizard of arid and semi - arid locales . more\narizona night lizard by lambert m . surhone , mariam t . tennoe , susan f . henssonow\narizona night lizard ( xantusia arizonae ) arizona | united states of america , ( usa or u . s . a . ) | pinterest | lizards and reptiles\nthe desert night lizard xantusia vigilis is a night lizard native to southern california east of the sierras and san gabriel mountains into baja california , southern nevada , southwestern utah and extreme western arizona . more\nthe desert night lizard , xantusia vigilis , is a night lizard native to southern california east of the sierras and san gabriel mountains into baja california , southern nevada , southwestern utah and extreme western arizona .\nusa ( w / c arizona ) type locality : yarnell , yavapai county , arizona .\nthis desert night lizard is diligently looking for food . page 1 subscribe to the lizard lounge rss feed subscribe bookmark and share more\na funny thing about me is that i love to be out and about during the day even though i am called the arizona night lizard .\nthe desert night lizard is rarely found outside cover . feeding ecology and diet the desert night lizard is insectivorous , feeding primarily on ants and beetles within the confines of yucca logs and agaves . more\nthe durango night lizard is a diminutive lizard found in the mexican state of durango . it is usually found in niches of agave and yucca plants .\nhi , i ' m the arizona night lizard or sometimes i am called xantusia arizonae . i am commonly found in yavapai county in arizona . i love to explore rocky terrain and hide under boulders or dead dry plants .\ngoldberg , stephen r . and robert l . bezy . 2014 . xantusia arizonae ( arizona night lizard ) reproduction . herpetological review 45 ( 3 ) : 508 - 509\nthe desert night lizard feeds on ants , flies , beetles , a variety of other insects , and spiders .\nbezy , r . l . 1967 . variation , distribution , and taxonomic status of the arizona night lizard ( xantusia arizonae ) . copeia 1967 ( 3 ) : 653 - 661 - get paper here\nsome of the endemic reptiles are the southern alligator lizard ( elgaria multicarinata ) and the yucca night lizard ( xantusia vigilis ) . other reptilian taxa found in the sierra de la laguna pine - oak forests include the baja california rock lizard ( petrosaurus thalassinus ) , baja california rattlesnake ( crotalus enyo ) and the baja california brush lizard ( urosaurus nigricaudus ) .\nbezy , r . l . , 2005 . the night lizards ( xantusia ) of arizona . sonoran herpetologist . 18 ( 2 ) 14 - 19 .\nthe vertical pupil of desert night lizards , like cat ' s eyes , give them away as creatures of the night and dark places . night lizards are live - bearing , with one to three young per brood . more\nthe desert night lizard is classified as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .\nbezy , r . l . 2005 . the night lizards ( xantusia ) of arizona . sonoran herpetologist 18 ( 2 ) : 14 - 19 . - get paper here\nthe desert night lizard is small ( maximum snout - vent length , 1 . 5 in ) and has vertically elliptical pupils lacking eyelids . the lizard is covered with small , granular dorsal scales and 12 longitudinal rows of ventral scales . more\ndesert night lizard elsewhere on the web * wikipedia edit and show details add or delete facts , download data in json or rdf formats , and explore topic metadata . more\nnabhan , gary p . gathering the desert . tucson : university of arizona press , 1985 .\ndesert night lizard xantusia vigilis description : a small ( up to 57 mm or 2 . 25\nfrom snout to vent ) , soft - skinned lizard with small , dark spots or flecks on a light tan , gray - brown , olive gray , or dark gray background . more\ncomments : inactive in cold temperatures and extreme heat . may be active at night during the summer .\nhanson , roseann beggy and jonathan hanson . southern arizona nature almanac . boulder : pruett publishing co , 1996 .\nlike all night lizards , the desert night lizard is viviparous , giving birth to live young and producing 1 to 3 young from august to december . the desert night lizard attains a snout - to - vent length ( svl ) of 1 . 5 to 2 . 75 in ( 3 . 8 to 7 . 0 cm ) with a tail roughly the same length . the lizard ' s coloring is usually gray , yellow - brownish , or olive . despite their name , night lizards are active during the day . they are known to easily to change their color , from light olive ( usually during the evening ) to dark brown during the day . it is a good climber and usually eats termites , small insects , spiders and other arthropods .\nthe night lizards , genus xantusia , have small granular scales on soft skin . xantusia henshawi is shown here .\nhelminths of night lizards in the genus xantusia ( squamata : xantusiidae ) and the effects of host eco . . .\nthe desert night lizard is from the order squamata . species from this order are amphisbaenians , lizards or snakes . there are over 6 , 000 living species belonging to the squamata order - it is the largest order of all reptiles . more\na view of some desert night lizards , discovered underneath dead joshua tree branches in the desert , close up and in motion .\nthe tail breaks off easily and continues wriggling to distract would - be predators long enough for the lizard to run away .\npapenfuss , t . j . , macey , j . r . & schulte ii , j . a . 2001 . a new lizard in the genus xantusia from arizona . scientific papers of the natural history museum , university of kansas ( 23 ) : 1 - 9\nseveral subspecies of xantusia vigilis are traditionally recognized , including two in california - x . v . vigilis , and x . v . sierrae . using nuclear dna studies , leavitt et al , 2007 , provide support for the recognition of new species within the x . vigilis complex , including x . wigginsi in california , but they continue to recognize the subspecies x . v . vigilis and x . v . sierrae . in addition , they identify several major clades , four of which occur in california - x . vigilis , x . wigginsi ( now a full species ) , a yucca valley clade , and a san jacinto clade . the 2008 society for the study of amphibians and reptiles standard names list uses x . vigilis based on sinclair et . al ( 2004 , am . nat . 164 : 396 - 141 ) . alternate and previous names ( synonyms ) xantusia vigilis vigilis - yucca night lizard ( stebbins 2003 ) xantusia vigilis vigilis - common night lizard ( stebbins 1985 ) xantusia vigilis vigilis - desert night lizard ( stebbins 1966 ) xantusia vigilis - yucca night lizard ( stebbins 1954 )\nthe detached tail of a desert night lizard wriggles on the ground . ( it kept wriggling for almost 4 minutes . ) many species of lizards release their tail when they want to escape from a potential predator . the tail then continues to wriggle like a living creature . more\nbowers , janice e . a full life in a small place and other essays from a desert garden . tucson , university of arizona press , 1993 .\nthe following status listings are copied from the april 2018 special animals list and the 2017 endangered and threatened animals list , both of which are published by the california department of fish and wildlife . if no status is listed here , the animal is not included on either cdfw list . this most likely indicates that there are no serious conservation concerns for the animal . to find out more about an animal ' s status , you can go to the natureserve and iucn websites to check their rankings . check here to see the most current complete lists . formerly listed as the subspecies xantusia vigilis sierrae - sierra night lizard , this lizard is now listed as the full species xantusia sierrae - sierra night lizard .\nnorthwestern border , up the western grand canyon to the vicinity of powell plateau , and down into several mountain ranges in southwestern arizona . it occurs at elevations ranging from about 150 m ( 500 ' ) in southwestern arizona to nearly 2 , 000 m ( 7 , 000 ' ) on the peaks of our northwestern ranges .\nthis adult lizard dropped its tail as a defesive measure . ( you can see the tail wriggling after it was dropped off in the video below . )\nthe detached tail of a desert night lizard wriggles on the ground . ( it kept wriggling for almost 4 minutes . ) many species of lizards release their tail when they want to escape from a potential predator . the tail then continues to wriggle like a living creature . the aim is to momentarily distract the predator away from the lizard ' s vulnerable body , allowing it to escape , while the predator is left holding or trying to catch the expendable tail . this tail dropping is called\nautotomy .\nlosing the tail does not seriously harm the lizard , and may save its life , but the loss of a tail might have a negative effect on the lizard ' s social standing . dropped tails do grow back , but these regenerated tails are often not as long or as perfect as the original .\ndue to its small range , the sierra night lizard is very suceptible to any habitat alteration . this lizard needs exfoliated and fissured granite outcrops to survive . it takes thousands of years for this exfoliation and fissuring to occur , so this habitat will not be replaced for many centuries . when flakes and slabs are torn off rock outcrops by someone searching for this lizard or other reptiles , the habitat is irreparably damaged . such rock destruction is illegal in california :\nit is unlawful to use any method or means of collecting that involves breaking apart of rocks , granite flakes , logs or other shelters in or under which reptiles may be found .\n( 2007 regulations 5 . 60 . 4 . ) however , this does not protect the lizard from other sources of rock destruction including human development of its habitat .\nleavitt , dean h . ; robert l . bezy , keith a . crandall and jack w . sites jr 2007 . multi - locus dna sequence data reveal a history of deep cryptic vicariance and habitat - driven convergence in the desert night lizard xantusia vigilis species complex ( squamata : xantusiidae ) . molecular ecology 16 : 4455\u20134481 - get paper here\nthere is a smaller group of annual species that grow only in response to summer rains . annual devil\u2019s claw ( proboscidea parviflora ) and arizona poppy ( kallstroemia grandiflora ) are among the few showy ones .\nlittle is known about this lizard ' s reproduction . related california xantusiids breed in late spring and the young are born live , 1 - 3 per brood , from august to october .\njones , k . b . ; abbas , d . r . & bergstedt , t . 1981 . herpetological records from central and northeastern arizona . herpetological review 12 ( 1 ) : 16 - get paper here\nis found in several mountain ranges within sonoran desertscrub . it inhabits rugged slopes and boulder fields and shelters under dead plants such as agave , yucca , and prickly pear and , in northwestern arizona , in rock crevices .\na small thin lizard with soft skin with fine granular scales on most of the body , a head covered with large plates , lidless eyes with vertical pupils , a gular fold , and a detachable tail . the head and body tend to be flattened , an adaptation to this lizard ' s rock - crevice habitat . dorsal scales in 40 - 44 lengthwise rows at mid - body .\nklauber , laurence m . 1931 . a new species of xantusia from arizona , with a synopsis of the genus . transactions of the san diego society of natural history 7 ( 1 ) : 1 - 16 - get paper here\nlittle is known about the diet of this lizard . presumably it is similar to other related california xantusiids , which eat small invertebrates such as ants , termites , beetles , caterpillars , crickets , and spiders .\ni am commonly found in the yavapai county of arizona . i love rocky terrain with big boulders to build my home under . i also can find shelter in small crevices between rocks or under dead plants like a prickly pear or yucca .\nunusually for a lizard it forms family social groups with a father - mother pair and offspring , which may delay dispersing for years . the young are capable of feeding themselves but will huddle together with their relatives .\nthis species is endemic to the southwestern united states . the range includes only a small area in arizona ; a recent taxonomic change that recognized x . arizonae as a distinct species and that described a new species ( x . bezyi ) in arizona ( papenfuss et al . 2001 ) did not precisely define the range of x . arizonae . a phylogeographic analysis of xantusia by sinclair et al . ( 2004 ) determined that x . arizonae has a smaller range than depicted by stebbins ( 2003 ) .\nwhen frightened , runs away quickly and dashes under cover . the tail breaks off easily and continues wriggling to distract would - be predators as the lizard runs away as you can see in this video . this does not hurt the lizard , although it might suffer from the stress of attempted predation , the loss of fatty energy that is stored in the tail , and have difficulties finding a mate during breeding season due to a less healthy appearance .\nthe range extends from southern utah , western and central arizona , southern nevada , and southern california south to southwestern sonora and throughout most of baja california , mexico ( grismer 2002 , stebbins 2003 ) . some arizona populations formerly included in this species are now regarded as x . arizonae and x . bezyi ( papenfuss et al . 2001 ) . a population in northern durango is now recognized as x . extorrus . see feldman et al . ( 2003 ) for discussion of distribution in the southern sierra nevada region of california .\nin the spring it is time for me to think about having new little night lizards . i will mate in the spring and then in the late summer i will have one or maybe two babies . wow , they can keep me busy !\nvicario , saverio ; adalgisa caccone and jacques gauthier 2003 . xantusiid\nnight\nlizards : a puzzling phylogenetic problem revisited using likelihood - based bayesian methods on mtdna sequences . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 26 ( 2 ) : 243 - 261 - get paper here\ndesert night lizards have a lot of personality , and stalk their insect prey with a cat - like twitching tail . take care if you must handle them , for they may try to escape your grasp , and can be very wiggly . . . more\np rotection stored water in an arid environment requires protection from thirsty animals . most succulent plants are spiny , bitter , or toxic , and often all three . some unarmed , nontoxic species are restricted to inaccessible locations . smooth prickly pear ( opuntia phaeacantha var . laevis ) and live - forever ( dudleya spp . ) grow on vertical cliffs or within the canopies of armored plants . still others rely on camouflage ; arizona night - blooming cereus ( peniocereus greggii ) closely resembles the dry stems of the shrubs in which it grows .\n\u00a9 2018 arizona - sonora desert museum 2021 n . kinney rd . , tucson az 85743 u . s . a . directions \u00b7 hours & rates \u00b7 520 . 883 . 2702 \u00b7 info @ urltoken jobs & volunteers \u00b7 contact \u00b7 faq \u00b7 privacy \u00b7 terms & conditions \u00b7 accessibility\nfirst locality records for mono county were published in 2016 ( herpetological review 47 ( 3 ) , 2016 ) extending the range to the northernmost localities for the species west of utah . the range extends east of california into nevada , arizona , and extreme southwest utah and south barely into mexico .\ni am a petite lizard that can fit in the palm of your hand . i spend my days sunbathing on rocks very close to dwelling to keep warm throughout the day . i will hide under rocks to keep my safe from predators that want to eat me .\na small thin lizard with soft skin with fine granular scales on most of the body , a head covered with large plates , lidless eyes with vertical pupils , a gular fold , and a detachable tail . dorsal scales in 30 - 50 lengthwise rows at mid - body .\nit is a secretive lizard of arid and semi - arid locales . during the day it may be found under fallen debris of desert plants and in rock crevices . it is usually associated with varieties of yucca such as the joshua tree , spanish dagger , and spanish bayonet .\nxantusia vigilis - baird , 1858 - proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia , vol . 10 , p . 255 xantusia vigilis sierrae - bezy , 1967 - journ . arizona acad . sci . , vol . 4 , p . 163 from original description citations for the reptiles and amphibians of north america \u00a9 ellin beltz\ncontinent : middle - america north - america distribution : usa ( s california , s nevada , s utah , w / c arizona ) , mexico ( e durango , baja california ) extorris : durango , zacatecas gilberti : mexico ( baja california sur ) ; type locality : san francisquito , sierra laguna , lower california . type locality : fort tejon , california .\nthis lizard lives in arid and semi - arid habitats among fallen leaves and trunks of yuccas , agaves , cacti , and other large plants , also in crevices of rock outcroppings and under logs and bark of foothill pines ; it ranges locally into pinyon - juniper , sagebrush - blackbrush , and chaparral - oak ( stebbins 2003 ) .\ncomments : this lizard lives in arid and semiarid habitats among fallen leaves and trunks of yuccas , agaves , cacti , and other large plants , also in crevices of rock outcroppings and under logs and bark of foothill pines ; it ranges locally into pinyon - juniper , sagebrush - blackbrush , and chaparral - oak ( stebbins 2003 ) .\nglobal range : ( 20 , 000 - 2 , 500 , 000 square km ( about 8000 - 1 , 000 , 000 square miles ) ) the range extends from southern utah , western arizona , southern nevada , and southern california south to southwestern sonora and baja california ( grismer 2002 , stebbins 2003 ) . some arizona populations formerly included in this species are now regarded as x . arizonae , x . bezyi , and x . wigginsi ( papenfuss et al . 2001 , sinclair et al . 2004 , leavitt et al . 2007 ) . a population in northern durango is of uncertain taxonomic status ( bezy and flores villela 1999 ) . see feldman et al . ( 2003 , herpetol . rev . 34 : 167 ) for discussion of distribution in the southern sierra nevada region of california .\nlittle is known about this lizard . presumably it is similar to other california xantusiids , being diurnal ( contrary to the common name ) and crepuscular . it is certainly secretive - spending most of its life undercover , and a specialized rock - crevice dweller , living under flakes of granite on rocky outcrops and in rock crevices . it is not typically active on the surface away from cover .\nnoonan , brice p . ; jennifer b . pramuk , robert l . bezy , elizabeth a . sinclair , kevin de queiroz , jack w . sites jr . 2013 . phylogenetic relationships within the lizard clade xantusiidae : using trees and divergence times to address evolutionary questions at multiple levels . molecular phylogenetics and evolution , volume 69 , issue 1 , october 2013 , pages 109\u2013122 - get paper here\nwater scarcity is the most important\u2014but not the only\u2014environmental challenge to desert organisms . the aridity allows the sun to shine unfiltered through the clear atmosphere continuously from sunrise to sunset . this intense solar radiation produces very high summer temperatures which are lethal to nonadapted plants . at night much of the accumulated heat radiates through the same clear atmosphere and the temperature drops dramatically . daily fluctuations of 40\u00b0f ( 22\u00b0c ) are not uncommon when the humidity is very low .\ni am a petite lizard that can fit in the palm of your hand . i have little rectangular scales that cover my body . i have small blotches on soft light olive or yellow skin . i enjoy sunbathing on the rocks very close to my shelter to keep warm during the day . my diet includes a variety of spiders and insects . in the late summer i will have one or two babies to keep me busy .\ndescribed by bezy in 1967 . several subspecies of xantusia vigilis are traditionally recognized , including two in california - x . v . vigilis x . v . sierrae using nuclear dna studies , leavitt et al , 2007 , provide support for the recognition of new species within the x . vigilis complex , including x . wigginsi in california , but they continue to recognize the subspecies x . v . vigilis and x . v . sierrae . in addition , they identify several major clades , four of which occur in california - x . vigilis , x . wigginsi ( now a full species ) , a yucca valley clade , and a san jacinto clade . the 2008 society for the study of amphibians and reptiles standard names list uses x . sierrae based on sinclair et . al ( 2004 , am . nat . 164 : 396 - 141 ) . alternate and previous names ( synonyms ) xantusia vigilis sierrae - sierra night lizard ( stebbins 1985 , 2003 )\nmany succulents possess a water - efficient variant of photosynthesis called cam , an acronym for crassulacean acid metabolism . the first word refers to the stonecrop family ( crassulaceae ) in which the phenomenon was first discovered . ( dudleya is in this family , as are hen - and - chickens and jade plant . ) cam plants open their stomates for gas exchange at night and store carbon dioxide in the form of an organic acid . during the day the stomates are closed and the plants are nearly completely sealed against water loss ; photosynthesis is conducted using the stored carbon dioxide . at night the temperatures are lower and humidity higher than during the day , so less water is lost through transpiration . plants using cam lose about one - tenth as much water per unit of carbohydrate synthesized as do those using standard c3 photosynthesis . but there is a trade - off : the overall rate of photosynthesis is slower , so cam plants grow more slowly than most c3 plants . ( an additional limitation is the reduced photosynthetic surface area of most succulents compared with \u201cordinary\u201d plants . )\nwildflower spectacles like the one described above are rare events . mass germination and prolific growth depend on rains that are both earlier and more plentiful than normal . the dazzling displays featured in photographic journals and on postcards occur about once a decade in a given place . in the six decades between 1940 and 1998 there have been only four documented drop - everything - and - go - see - it displays in southern arizona : 1941 , 1978 , 1979 , and 1998 . during that period only the displays of 1978 and 1998 were widespread throughout both the sonoran and mohave deserts .\nwinter annuals provide most of the color for our famous wildflower shows . woody perennials and succulents can be individually beautiful , but their adaptive strategies require them to be widely - spaced , so they usually don\u2019t create masses of color . a couple of exceptions are brittlebush when it occurs in pure stands , and exten sive woodlands of foothill palo verde ( cercidium microphyllum ) . the most common of the showy winter annuals that contribute to these displays in southern arizona are mexican gold poppy ( eschscholtzia mexicana ) , lupine ( lupinus sparsiflorus ) , and owl - clover ( castilleja exserta , formerly orthocarpus purpurascens ) .\ni conducted a wildlife survey in the lower colorado river valley in the 1970s . the site had received almost no biologically effective rainfall for three years . creosote bushes were almost the only plants present ; they were widely - spaced and had shed most of their leaves . yet in the kilometer ( 6 / 10 mile ) long by fifty meter ( 150 foot ) wide transect i trapped one pocket mouse overnight , and in the morning observed a whiptail lizard , a rock wren , and two black - throated sparrows . these are all resident species ; not transitory migrants . what were they living on ?\nt rees and large shrubs are fairly dependable bloomers , though flowers will be sparse in dry years . creosote bush ( larrea tridentata ) and whitethorn acacia ( acacia constricta , shown here ) both bloom mainly in spring and sometimes again in summer . blue palo verde ( cercidium floridum ) turns bright yellow in late april , followed two weeks later by the much more abundant but paler yellow foothills palo verde ( c . microphyllum ) . desert ironwood trees ( olneya tesota ) bloom heavily about every other year with masses of lavender flowers , usually in late may . the abundant ocotillo reliably produces spikes of red flowers throughout april . these species bloom about two weeks earlier in western arizona .\nthe spring flowering season in the arizona upland subdivision spans from mid february to mid june with a peak from mid march to late april depending on rainfall and temperatures during the growing season . in the warmest areas of the lower colorado river valley subdivision it is normally a couple of weeks earlier , though it sometimes starts as early as november . the different life forms which dominate at different times vary in their showyness and reliability . the early - blooming winter annuals can create an incredible display , but do so only rarely . later - blooming species bloom more dependably , but mostly not in great masses of color . the progression of spring bloom described below is for average years near tucson . it may be three weeks earlier or later depending on weather , elevation , and latitude .\npapenfuss et al . ( 2001 ) examined genetic and morphological variation of xantusia and reviewed allozyme data from bezy and sites ( 1987 ) . they concluded that three species are represented in arizona : xantusia vigilis , a yucca - dwelling species ; x . arizonae , a granite - adapted species ; and x . bezyi ( newly described ) , another granite - associated species . crother et al . ( 2003 ) listed x . bezyi and x . vigilis as distinct species but included arizonae as a subspecies of x . vigilis . stebbins ( 2003 ) mentioned the taxonomic changes proposed by papenfuss et al . but did not adopt them . sinclair et al . ( 2004 ) examined phylogeographic patterns in xantusia and concluded that x . bezyi is a valid species ( but more widely distributed than previously known ) and that x . arizonae has a smaller range than previously understood .\nanother diversity - promoting phenomenon is temporal niche separation : the mix of species at the same location changes from year to year . seeds of the various species have different germination requirements . the time of the season ( which influences temperature ) and quantity of the first germination - triggering rain determines which species will dominate , or even be present at all in that year . of the three most common annuals of southern arizona listed above , any one may occur in a nearly pure stand on a given hillside in different years , and occasionally all three are nearly equally abundant . this interpretation of the cause of these year - to - year variations is a hypothesis based on decades of empirical observation . much more research is needed to discover the ecological requirements of most species of desert annuals . and of course the sonoran desert\u2019s two rainy seasons provide two major temporal niches . summer and winter annuals almost never overlap .\nthe annual habit is a very successful strategy for warm - arid climates . there are no annual plants in the polar regions or the wet tropics . in the polar zones the growing season is too short to complete a life cycle . in both habitats the intense competition for suitable growing sites favors longevity . ( once you\u2019ve got it , you should hang onto it . ) annuals become common only in communities that have dry seasons , where the perennials are widely spaced because they must command a large soil area to survive the drier years . in the occasional wetter years , both open space and moisture are available to be exploited by plants that can do so rapidly . the more arid the habitat , the greater the proportion of annual species in north america . ( the percentage decreases in the extremely arid parts of the saharan - arabian region . ) half of the sonoran desert\u2019s flora is comprised of annual species . in the driest habitats , such as the sandy flats near yuma , arizona , up to ninety percent of the plants are annuals .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as least concern because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category ( its populations are probably stable ) .\nthis species is represented by at least several distinct occuurrences or subpopulations . sinclair et al . ( 2004 ) mapped six collection sites . the total adult population size is unknown . population trends have not been documented but presumably are relatively stable .\nthis species is found under exfoliating rock in granite outcrops ( pappenfuss et al . 2001 ) .\nthe level of protection is uncertain , but the rocky habitat is not readily convertible to destructive human uses . better information is needed on the current conservation status of this species .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\nwe request that if you make use of the textual contents of this site in reports , publications , etc . that you cite and credit the author ( s ) and photographer ( s ) . all photos on this website are copyrighted . however , those found in the species account and habitat sections may be used for any noncommercial scientific , educational , or conservation purposes provided that photographs are not altered and continue to bear the copyright symbol and name of the photographer . please contact the photographer regarding commercial use of copyrighted photographs .\ndaytime activity takes place under the cover of rocks or plant debris . crevice - dwelling individuals thermoregulate by basking near the sun - warmed edge of the crevice or under sun - warmed rocks .\nlive bearing . mating presumably takes place in spring and a brood of 1\u20133 young is born in summer .\nstebbins , r . c . 2003 . a field guide to western reptiles and amphibians , third edition . houghton mifflin company , boston , ma .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmy favorite things to eat are spiders and insects . my diet includes juicy beetles , ants and flies if i can catch them . yum ! ! !\ni have small blotches that cover my body like tiny freckles . my skin is soft to the touch and is usually a light olive or yellow background . this helps me to blend in with the rocks and helps me hide from predators . i can grow anywhere between 6 and 10 cm in length . my head is slightly flat and wide and it almost looks like a plate . my eyes do not have lids and my pupils are vertical .\nyou did a great job working on this lesson today . i hope that you had a wonderful time learning about me . so , let\u2019s have fun doing an activity about me . you can work with your friends , parents or teacher . i want you to create a clay model of me . try to include as many of my features that you learned about in the model . after you let your model dry you may paint it too . have fun ! ! !\n- - natureserve explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50 , 000 plants , animals and ecological communtities of the u . s and canada . natureserve explorer provides in - depth information on rare and endangered species , but includes common plants and animals too . natureserve explorer is a product of natureserve in collaboration with the natural heritage network .\nitis reports - - itis ( the integrated taxonomic information system ) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants , animals , fungi , and microbes of north america and the world .\nfws digital media library - - the u . s . fish and wildlife service ' s national digital library is a searchable collection of selected images , historical artifacts , audio clips , publications , and video .\nxantusia arizonae klauber 1931 xantusia arizonae \u2014 klauber 1938 xantusia vigilis arizonae \u2014 bezy 1967 xantusia vigilis arizonae \u2014 stebbins 1985 xantusia arizonae \u2014 papenfuss et al . 2001 xantusia arizonae \u2014 vicario et al . 2003 xantusia arizonae \u2014 sinclair et al . 2004 xantusia arizonae \u2014 leavitt et al . 2007\ncrother , b . i . ( ed . ) 2012 . standard common and current scientific names for north american amphibians , turtles , reptiles , and crocodilians , seventh edition . herpetological circular 39 : 1 - 92\njones , l . l . & lovich , r . e . 2009 . lizards of the american southwest . a photographic field guide . rio nuevo publishers , tucson , az , 568 pp . [ review in reptilia 86 : 84 ] - get paper here\nklauber , laurence m . 1938 . notes from a herpetological diary , i . copeia 1938 ( 4 ) : 191 - 197 - get paper here\nklauber , laurence m . 1940 . notes from a herpetological diary , ii . copeia 1940 ( 1 ) : 15 - 18 - get paper here\nsinclair , elizabeth a . ; robert l . bezy ; kathryn bolles ; jose l . camarillo r . ; keith a . crandall and < br / > jack w . sites , jr . 2004 . testing species boundaries in an ancient species complex with deep phylogeographic history : genus xantusia ( squamata : xantusiidae ) . american naturalist 164 ( 3 ) : 396 - 414 - get paper here\nstebbins , r . c . 1985 . a field guide to western reptiles and amphibians , 2nd ed . houghton mifflin , boston\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nfor additional information on this species , please see the following volumes and pages in the sonoran herpetologist : 2003 apr : 26 - 29 ; 2005 february : 14 - 19 ; 2008 may : 50 - 53 ; 2009 dec : 132 - 133 .\nadult , scissors crossing , san diego county \u00a9 jeff nordland ( xantusia wigginsi has been found at scissors crossing and since appearance alone cannot determine the species , so this could be x . wigginsi . )\n1 . 5 - 2 . 75 inches long from snout to vent ( 3 . 8 - 7 cm ) . ( stebbins 2003 )\ncolor is olive , grayish , or brown with light brown or black spots , sometimes forming narrow stripes . a narrow beige stripe , edged in black , extends from the eye to the shoulder . the underside is whitish and made up of large square scales , usually in 12 rows .\neats small invertebrates inhabiting the decaying vegetation in which it lives including ants , termites , beetles , caterpillars , crickets , and spiders .\nbreeds in late spring . bears live young , 1 - 3 per brood , from august to october .\nutilizes a variety of habitats in arid and semi - arid areas , including those grown with joshua tree , desert scrub , pinon - juniper , basin sagebrush , chaparral , pine - oak woodland , and yucca .\nfound on the desert slopes of the peninsular ranges , throughout the mojave desert , along the east slopes of the sierra nevada mountains north to west of bishop , the inyo and panamint mountains , the greenhorn and piute mountains and upper kern river canyon in the southern sierra nevada mountains , the coastal side of the mountains in upper santa clara river drainage , the headwaters of big tujunga and the upper san gabriel river drainage , and the inner coast ranges at the panoche hills and pinnacles national monument .\nfrom sea level to 9 , 300 ft . ( 2 , 830 m ) . ( stebbins 2003 )\nxantusia vigilis - baird , 1858 - proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia , vol . 10 , p . 255 from original description citations for the reptiles and amphibians of north america \u00a9 ellin beltz\nthe following status listings are copied from the april 2018 special animals list and the 2017 endangered and threatened animals list , both of which are published by the california department of fish and wildlife . if no status is listed here , the animal is not included on either cdfw list . this most likely indicates that there are no serious conservation concerns for the animal . to find out more about an animal ' s status , you can go to the natureserve and iucn websites to check their rankings . check here to see the most current complete lists . this animal is not included on the special animals list , which indicates that there are no significant conservation concerns for it in california .\ncolor is olive , grayish , or brown with light brown or black spots which tend to be interconnected , forming a dark net - like pattern . a broad and conspicuous stripe extends from the eye to the shoulder . the underside is whitish and made up of large square scales , usually in 12 rows .\ninhabits rocky outcrops around granite station in open grassland with scattered oak woodland and low shrubs .\nendemic to california . found only in the southwestern foothills of the sierra nevada mountains along the western edge of the greenhorn mountains around granite station , in kern co .\ncalifornia department of fish and wildlife stebbins , robert c . , and mcginnis , samuel m . field guide to amphibians and reptiles of california : revised edition ( california natural history guides ) university of california press , 2012 . stebbins , robert c . california amphibians and reptiles . the university of california press , 1972 . stebbins , robert c . a field guide to western reptiles and amphibians . 3rd edition . houghton mifflin company , 2003 . behler , john l . , and f . wayne king . the audubon society field guide to north american reptiles and amphibians . alfred a . knopf , 1992 . powell , robert . , joseph t . collins , and errol d . hooper jr . a key to amphibians and reptiles of the continental united states and canada . the university press of kansas , 1998 . bartlett , r . d . & patricia p . bartlett . guide and reference to the turtles and lizards of western north america ( north of mexico ) and hawaii . university press of florida , 2009 . jones , lawrence , rob lovich , editors . lizards of the american southwest : a photographic field guide . rio nuevo publishers , 2009 . smith , hobart m . handbook of lizards , lizards of the united states and of canada . cornell university press , 1946 .\nsecure\u2014common ; widespread and abundant . [ this ranking apparently refers to the full species that this taxa formerly belonged to , xantusia vigilis , and indicates that the status of the species is secure , not the subspecies . ]\ncritically imperiled in the state because of extreme rarity ( often 5 or fewer populations ) orbecause of factor ( s ) such as very steep declines making it especially vulnerable to extirpation from the state .\nsyntype : baird , s . f . 1858 . proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia . 10 : 254 .\nthis taxon is found in the sierra de la laguna pine - oak forest , a mountainous ecoregion which rises from the arid baja california sur , creating islands of unique vegetative communities . there are approximately 694 plant species , approximately 85 of which are endemic to this ecoregion . overall species richness is low to moderate , with a total of only 231 vertebrate taxa . the ecoregion is classified in the tropical and subtropical coniferous forests biome . much of the pine - oak association remains intact due to the inaccessibility of the rugged and inaccessible terrain .\nthe topographical features and geological events that gave rise to this particular region are responsible for the diversity of climates and vegetation in the same area . the highest strata of mountains , situated at 1600 to 2000 metres ( m ) in elevation , are composed of pine - oak forests that transform into oak - pine forests ( 1200 m ) and oak forests ( 800 m ) as elevation decreases . the climate is temperate sub - humid with summer rains and occasional winter rains .\nthese pine - oak forests constitute the wettest portions in the state of baja california sur ( 760 millimetres of precipitation annually ) . slight variations in climatic conditions make up three different vegetation assemblages in the temperate forest . pine forests at the highest elevations are dominated by pinus cembroides ssp . lagunae , and understory taxa such as muhlenbergia spp . and festuca spp . pine - oak forests dominated by associations of pinus cembroides subsp . lagunae with quercus devia , arbutus peninsularis , and quercus tuberculata , and a variety of trees of smaller stature such as calliandra peninsularis and mimosa tricephala , with associated shrubs to complement the landscape .\nonly two amphibian taxa are found in the sierra de la laguna pine - oak forests . the red - spotted toad ( anaxyrus punctatus ) is one anuran found here . the widely distributed california chorus frog ( pseudacris cadaverina ) is another resident of the ecoregion . one other anuran , pseudacris regilla , was previously recognized in the ecoregion , but erecent dna analysis has rendered this taxon of unclear distribution .\nof the approximately 30 mammalian species of mammals present , one of them ( an endemic bat ) lives only in pine - oak forests . the level of endemism is high , and this is well demonstrated by the proportion of endemic species with respect to total recorded species . more than ten percent of the mammalian species found at sierra de la laguna are endemic . one notable mammal found along the far west coast , including california and baja , is the ornate shrew ( sorex ornatus ) . there are several threatened mammals found in the sierra de la laguna pine - oak forests , including : the mexican long - tongued bat ( choeronycteris mexicana nt ) . the isolation of this region has contributed to the scarcity of predators , and to the poor competitive ability of some animals . rodents and lagomorphs are virtually absent from the region\nthe avifauna inhabiting these pine - oak forests is important because half of the bird species breeding at sierra de la laguna only utilize pine - oak forests as breeding habitat . the endemic baja pygmy owl ( glaucidium gnoma hoskinsii ) , along with the white - winged dove ( zenaida asiatica ) and golden eagle ( aquila chrysaetos ) are only a few of the avian species found in this ecoregion . other notable birds in this and the gulf of california xeric scrub ecoregion include the xantus ' s hummingbird ( hylocharis xantusii ) and the endangered peninsular yellowthroat ( geothlypis beldingi en ) . .\nnon - migrant : yes . at least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations . juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration .\nlocally migrant : no . no populations of this species make local extended movements ( generally less than 200 km ) at particular times of the year ( e . g . , to breeding or wintering grounds , to hibernation sites ) .\nlocally migrant : no . no populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km .\ncomments : eats insects ( e . g . , termites , ants , beetles , and flies ) , spiders , and other arthropods ( behler and king 1979 ; stebbins 1985 ) .\nnote : for many non - migratory species , occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations .\ncomments : this species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations ( e . g . , see map in bezy 1982 ) .\ncomments : total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10 , 000 and probably exceeds 100 , 000 .\nbreeding occurs may to june ( behler and king 1979 ) . female gives birth to 1 - 3 young / brood , august - october ( stebbins 1985 ) .\nhammerson , g . a . , frost , d . r . & santos - barrera , g .\nlisted as least concern in view of the probably relatively stable extent of occurrence , area of occupancy , number of subpopulations , and population size . no major threats are known .\nthis species is represented by many occurrences or subpopulations ( e . g . , see map in bezy 1982 ) . the total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 10 , 000 and probably exceeds 100 , 000 . no evidence of a significant overall decline has been reported . the species is common in mexico .\nno major threats have been identified , but locally the species likely is locally declining where its habitat has been degraded by commercial and residential development .\ncomments : no major threats have been identified , but locally the species likely is declining where its habitat has been degraded by commerical and residential development .\nat least several occurrences are in national parks . other than some general research activities , no direct conservation measures are needed for this species as a whole .\nthey do not receive any direct care from their parents and older siblings and it is not yet known what the advantages of staying with their parents are .\nthe baby lizards are well - camouflaged and are not much bigger than a toothpick .\nbaird sf . 1859 . description of new genera and species of north american lizards in the museum of the smithsonian institution . proc . acad . nat . sci . phildelphia 10 : 253 - 256 . ( xantusia vigilis , new species , p . 255 ) .\nbehler jl , king fw . 1979 . the audubon society field guide to north american reptiles and amphibians . new york : alfred a . knopf . 743 pp . isbn 0 - 394 - 50824 - 6 . ( xantusia vigilis , pp . 551 - 552 + plate 406 ) .\nboulenger ga . 1885 . catalogue of the lizards in the british museum ( natural history ) . second edition . volume ii . . . . xantusiid\u00e6 . london : trustees of the british museum ( natural history ) . ( taylor and francis , printers ) . xiii + 497 pp . + plates i - xxiv . ( xantusia vigilis , pp . 327 - 328 ) .\ngoin cj , goin ob , zug gr . 1978 . introduction to herpetology , third edition . san francisco : w . h . freeman and company . xi + 378 pp . isbn 0 - 7167 - 0020 - 4 . ( xantusia vigilis , pp . 129 , 132 , 148 , 286 ) .\nsmith hm , brodie ed jr . 1982 . reptiles of north america : a guide to field identification . new york : golden press . 240 pp . isbn 0 - 307 - 13666 - 3 . ( xantusia vigilis , pp . 84 - 85 ) .\nstebbins rc . a field guide to western reptiles and amphibians , third edition . the peterson field guide series \u00ae . boston and new york : houghton mifflin company . xiii + 533 pp . isbn 978 - 0 - 395 - 98272 - 3 . ( xantusia vigilis , pp . 307 - 309 + plate 35 + map 76 ) .\ngadsden . h . & santos - barrera , g . ( 2007 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >"]}
{"id": 523, "summary": [{"text": "attercopus is an extinct genus of arachnids , containing one species attercopus fimbriunguis , known from a devonian-aged fossil .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is placed in the extinct order uraraneida , spider-like animals able to produce silk , but which lacked true spinnerets and retained a segmented abdomen bearing a flagellum-like tail resembling that of a whip scorpion .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they are thought to be close to the origins of spiders .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "an important early devonian ( about 390 million years ago ) fossil example from gilboa , new york , was originally described as a member of the extinct order trigonotarbida and named gelasinotarbus ? fimbriunguis .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it was later assigned to a new genus attercopus and reinterpreted as the oldest , and most primitive , example of a true spider ( araneae ) .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "this hypothesis was based on the supposed presence of unique spider features such as silk-producing spinnerets and the opening of a venom gland on the fang of the chelicera .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "further study \u2013 based on new fossils from a comparable devonian locality called south mountain \u2013 and comparison with other material from the permian of russia , i.e. , of permarachne , indicates that attercopus does not actually have spinnerets .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the feature which looked like a tubular spinneret is actually a folded sheet of cuticle .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it would , however , have produced silk from a series of silk gland openings , or spigots , located across plates on the underside of the abdomen .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the opening for the venom gland is also a misinterpretation .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "a segmented tail , or flagellum , also belonged to this animal .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it seems unlikely that attercopus spun webs , but it may have used its silk to wrap eggs , lay draglines or construct burrow walls .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "attercopus fimbriunguis is not a spider , but it is probably close to the type of animals which did give rise to modern spiders today .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "its name is taken from the english dialect word attercop ( \" spider \" ) , which came from old english attorcoppa ( \" poison-head \" ) , from ator ( \" poison \" ) , itself drawn from the proto-germanic * aitra - ( \" poisonous ulcer \" ) and kopp - ( \" head \" ) . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "attercopus", "paragraphs": ["attercopus was spider - like , \u202d \u202cbut was not a true spider . \u202d \u202cattercopus had a segmented tail and silk producing organs , \u202d \u202cbut probably only used silk for constructing shelters and wrapping eggs , \u202d \u202crather than constructing elaborate webs .\nin the original description of attercopus , several chelicerae were illustrated and described . in at least one of these specimens ( 329 . 22 . ar9 ; fig . 1 f ) , a hole near the tip of the fang was interpreted as a poison gland pore . revisiting this specimen raises uncertainty because other apparent holes on the same fang appear to be artefacts of preservation and none of the chelicera specimens show this pore clearly . mesothele spiders lack poison glands ( 16 ) , and to infer their existence in attercopus would require their loss and reacquisition ( by opithotheles ) in araneae . because the preponderance of the evidence now suggests that poison glands were also absent in attercopus , it is more parsimonious to assume that they were acquired only once , in the spider suborder opisthothelae , and are synapomorphic for that taxon , not for spiders as a whole .\nbecause of the different preservational styles of attercopus and permarachne , it is not clear whether the apomorphies of attercopus ( palpal femur spinules , fimbriate tarsal claws , lack of emargination at distal joint of leg patella ) are shared by permarachne . it is possible that the flagellum was uniquely derived and not homologous with that of the pedipalp orders . although we do not presently have evidence of any synapomorphies for this lineage , we wish to draw attention to its distinctiveness and so establish the ordinal name uraraneida selden & shear ord . nov . ( etymology : greek oura , tail , and latin , aranea , spider ; included taxa : attercopus and permarachne ) . uraraneida and araneae are distinguished from the pedipalp orders by 2 characters : the naked ( seta - less ) cheliceral fang and the presence of opisthosomal silk glands and spigots . the existence of permarachne alongside mesotheles in the fossil record indicates that uraraneida was a persistent lineage that only became extinct ( if , indeed , it is ) some time after the late permian .\nsilk production from opisthosomal glands is a defining characteristic of spiders ( araneae ) . silk emerges from spigots ( modified setae ) borne on spinnerets ( modified appendages ) . spigots from attercopus fimbriunguis , from middle devonian ( 386 ma ) strata of gilboa , new york , were described in 1989 as evidence for the oldest spider and the first use of silk by animals . slightly younger ( 374 ma ) material from south mountain , new york , conspecific with a . fimbriunguis , includes spigots and other evidence that elucidate the evolution of early araneae and the origin of spider silk . no known attercopus spigots , including the original specimen , occur on true spinnerets but are arranged along the edges of plates . spinnerets originated from biramous appendages of opisthosomal somites 4 and 5 ; although present in limulus , no other arachnids have opisthosomal appendage homologues on these segments . the spigot arrangement in attercopus shows a primitive state before the reexpression of the dormant genetic mechanism that gave rise to spinnerets in later spiders . enigmatic flagellar structures originally described as arachnida incertae sedis , are shown to be attercopus anal flagella , as found in permarachne , also originally described as a spider . an arachnid order , uraraneida , is erected for a plesion , including these two genera , based on this combination of characters . the inability of uraraneida precisely to control silk weaving suggests its original use as a wrapping , lining , or homing material .\nthe oldest known silk - producing spigots are from the middle devonian of gilboa , new york ( 1 ) . this specimen ( slide 334 . 1b . ar34 , fig . 1 a ) , was described as a nearly complete , fusiform spinneret , consisting of a single article , bearing \u224820 spigots arrayed along the presumed medial surface but more clustered distally . on the basis of the single , simple spigot type and the lack of tartipores ( vestigial spigots from earlier instars ) , the fossil spinneret was compared most closely with posterior median spinnerets of the primitive spider suborder mesothelae . the distinctiveness of the cuticle enabled us to associate the spinneret with remains previously referred tentatively to a trigonotarbid arachnid ( 2 ) . restudy of this material resulted in a fuller description of the animal as the oldest known spider , attercopus fimbriunguis ( 3 ) . the appendicular morphology of attercopus , but little of the body , is now known in great detail . in this article , morphological information on attercopus is described , which significantly alters these earlier interpretations , and provides insights into the evolution of the spider silk system .\nspecimen sm 1 . 11 . 3b ( fig . 2 b ) shows overlapping layers of undoubted attercopus cuticle with both small setal and large macrosetal follicles but no silk spigots . slightly darker and lighter bands of cuticle are interpreted , as in sm 1 . 11 . 3a , as plate edges and interplate membrane , respectively . the few macrosetal follicles are interpreted as those present at the posterior edges of plates ( and the largest of these occurs adjacent to a darker plate edge ) . the plates taper and become narrower to one side ; the widest plate is torn along most of its width and laterally , whereas the narrower ones are more complete . setae on the specimen point toward the side of the specimen with narrower plates , and \u22483 plates are present . we interpret this specimen as the posterior end of the opisthosoma where the plates narrow . both tergite and sternite remains could be present on this specimen , but the posteriormost , at least , appears to be a complete ring . the importance of this specimen is that emerging from the posterior end are two annular segments with thickened posterior collars that bear a row of \u224812 prominent setal follicles . these are clearly part of the same flagellar organ found in association , but hitherto not in direct organic connection , with attercopus ( 2 ) . despite the virtually identical cuticle pattern , including slit sensilla , between these flagella and attercopus , we described them as arachnida incertae sedis because no flagella are known from spiders . the evidence provided by specimen sm 1 . 11 . 3b shows unequivocally that attercopus did , indeed , bear a postanal flagellum of at least 12 segments . in two of the attercopus specimens ( e . g . , fig . 1 e ) , a distinctive terminal article appears that is 2\u20133 times as long as the more proximal articles and densely set with setal sockets .\nattercopus fimbriunguis , devonian of south mountain , new york , macerated from matrix with hf and slide - mounted . ( a ) part of opisthosoma with rows of spigots , sm 1 . 11 . 3a . ( b ) two flagellar segments emerging from posterior part of opisthosoma , sm 1 . 11 . 3b . ( scale bars : 0 . 5 mm . )\nspiders probably evolved about 400 million years ago from thick - waisted arachnid ancestors that were not long emerged from life in water . the first definite spiders , thin - waisted arachnids with abdominal segmentation and silk producing spinnerets , are known from fossils like attercopus fimbriungus . this spider lived 380 million years ago during the devonian period , more than 150 million years before the dinosaurs .\nit seems unlikely that the spigot - bearing plates in attercopus are tergites , and much more probable that they represent ventral plates , because in spiders the spinnerets are invariably ventral . if the ventral plates are appendage - derived , the reactivation of genes ( such as distalless ) that would extend these plates once more into segmented appendages would carry along with them the spigots observed in attercopus to be distributed along the posterior margins of those plates . we suggest that developmental genetic studies to determine the homologies of the ventral plates in the pedipalp orders could provide evidence to resolve this question . further evidence that silk spigots are associated with appendages comes from the recent finding that at least one species of mygalomorph spider has silk spigots on its leg tarsi that produce threads that help the spider cling to smooth surfaces ( 10 ) .\nthe advantage of spigots on spinnerets is that silk production can be controlled to produce complex linear structures , rather than simple , sheet - like masses of threads . our interpretation of spigot location in attercopus suggests that the original use of silk in protospiders was to produce such sheets , perhaps used as burrow linings , to cover egg masses ( 17 ) , or as trails that would allow hunting animals to return to the safety of a retreat ( 18 ) .\nname : attercopus . phonetic : at - ter - coe - pus . named by : p . \u202d \u202ca . \u202d \u202cselden\u202d & \u202cw . \u202d \u202ca . \u202d \u202cshear\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202c1991 . classification : arthropoda , \u202d \u202cchelicerata , \u202d \u202carachnida , \u202d \u202curaraneida . species : a . \u202d \u202cfimbriunguis\u202d ( \u202ctype\u202d ) \u202c . diet : insectivore . size : unavailable . known locations : usa , \u202d \u202cnew york . \u202d time period : mid devonian . fossil representation : almost complete .\nfrom our reevaluation of 334 . 1b . ar34 we conclude that the original description is essentially correct , but note that the specimen consists of a sheet of cuticle folded over twice ; thus , the resemblance of the piece of cuticle bearing spigots to a \u201csemifusiform\u201d spinneret ( 3 ) is fortuitous . in summary , the specimens of attercopus bearing spigots are plate - like in morphology , with 2 rows of spigots along the presumed posterior edge . the spigots are not borne on appendage - like spinnerets .\ntaking the evidence from attercopus and permarachne together , we conclude that both lacked spinnerets but possessed rows of spigots along the margins of sclerotized ventral plates , and a long , multiarticled postanal flagellum . these characters , while evidently plesiomorphic , would exclude attercopus and permarachne from the order araneae as presently defined . removal of permarachne from the mesothelae leaves only one other described mesothele in the fossil record : palaeothele montceauensis from the late carboniferous of france ( 20 ) . a number of other paleozoic fossils have been referred to araneae ; some of these are not spiders at all ( 21 ) , whereas others can be referred to mesothelae with confidence ( p . a . s . , unpublished observations ) . the external mold of the london specimen of palaeothele shows an anal tubercle , and to ascertain whether this continued into a flagellum ( which could place palaeothele as an intermediate between araneae and the order ) , an x - ray computed tomography ( ct ) scan was performed on the specimen by m . d . s . ( fig . 3 d ) . this showed without doubt that there is no flagellum , and therefore palaeothele remains the earliest and only described fossil mesothele spider to date .\na . fimbriunguis specimens were recovered from the rock matrix by digestion in concentrated hydrofluoric acid followed by washing in dilute hydrochloric acid and mounted on plain microscope slides in clearcol mountant . the specimens were studied by using a leica dm2500 m microscope and photographed with a leica dfc420 digital camera attachment . images of the attercopus specimens were captured by using leica firecam software on an apple macbook pro computer and manipulated by using adobe photoshop cs3 software . drawings were made by using a drawing tube attached to the microscope and also by tracing photographic images in adobe illustrator cs3 . all specimens are deposited in the department of invertebrates , american museum of natural history , new york .\nmany other characters demonstrate that both attercopus and permarachne are spider - like in their morphology , without features of other known pulmonate arachnids ( 3 , 11 ) . among pulmonate orders , only uropygids and schizomids have a postanal flagellum , and only in uropygids is the flagellum long and multisegmented . in other pulmonate orders ( amblypygids , trigonotarbids , and spiders ) , the pygidium is a 1 - to 3 - segmented preanal structure with a postanal tubercle . the multisegmented flagellum may be a plesiomorphy of pantetrapulmonata ( 13 ) that has been retained in uropygi ( where it appears to function as a sensory structure used for aiming shots of the acetic / caprylic acid repugnatorial secretion ) , and in our proposed order where the function is unknown , or it could be a homoplasy .\nin permarachne , from the permian of russia , a series of 6 opisthosomal plates are clearly seen ( 11 ) ( fig . 3 a and b ) . in the original description these were interpreted as tergites ( as seen in mesotheles ) even though all other visible structures in the fossil are ventral , a fact originally accounted for by assuming that the specimen represented a molt from which the carapace had been displaced , thus revealing ventral structures in the prosoma . however , these structures are in ventral , not dorsal , view . it now seems more parsimonious to interpret the series of plates as ventral plates , conforming to the ventral view of the rest of the fossil . thus , there is a real probability that , unlike spiders , both attercopus and permarachne bore a series of ventral plates .\na flagellar structure was described in permarachne ( 11 ) , but because such a structure was previously unknown in spiders , yet all other morphological features suggested that permarachne was a mesothele , the structure was interpreted as an elongate , multiarticled spinneret . however , close examination of the specimen shows a complete absence of spigots ; the structure appears to emerge from the posterior of the opisthosoma along the median line ( fig . 3 a and b ) , not laterally as would be expected for a spinneret , and is not matched by any corresponding paired structure on the specimen . spider spinnerets are always paired , except where the anterior median spinnerets are fused into a single cribellar plate or nonfunctional colulus ( 12 ) . in permarachne the flagellum shows setal whorls ( fig . 3 c ) , but only a few segment collars are distinct , because of the poor preservation ; those preserved are similar to the segments of attercopus . extrapolation from the lengths of the more distinct segments , \u224812 articles appear to be present , but the distal end is not preserved .\nsm 1 . 11 . 3a ( fig . 2 a ) consists of a subrectangular mass of overlapping layers of cuticle with \u224833 spigots arrayed in an approximate double row along one long edge and an area of unsculptured cuticle along the opposite edge . the folds have their long axes parallel to the shorter edges . these features , together with the setal arrangement , suggest that the preferred orientation is : unsculptured cuticle anterior , spigots posterior , shorter edges lateral . seven macrosetae and / or their sockets are present on sm 1 . 11 . 3a . one posterolateral corner is missing ; spigots are most numerous at the opposite posterolateral corner . because of the presence of spigots , we interpret sm 1 . 11 . 3a as part of the opisthosoma . living and fossil mesotheles have macrosetae at the rear of each large tergite ( 5 ) , and other spiders that lack tergites commonly bear large setae on the opisthosoma that reflect original segmentation ; thus , the macrosetae on attercopus sm 1 . 11 . 3a could also reflect at least 4 sclerotized plates and the transverse lines could represent plate boundaries ( note : both dorsal and ventral surfaces are present ) .\nattercopus fimbriunguis , devonian of new york ( localities : g , gilboa ; sm , south mountain ) , macerated from matrix with hf and slide - mounted . ( a ) first - described \u201cspinneret , \u201d g 334 . 1b . 34 ; darkness of cuticle reflects number of layers , so this fragment is folded over twice . ( b ) palpal femur , sm 1 . 11 . 12 ; arrow indicates patch of distinctive spinules . ( c ) piece of cuticle from corner of opisthosomal ventral plate showing setae , spigots , and possible silk strand , sm 1 . 11 . 4 . ( d ) close - up of e showing possible silk strand emerging from spigot shaft , sm 1 . 11 . 4 . ( e ) flagellar structure with 12 segments ( including possible distalmost ) from original gilboa locality ; segments show distal collars and setae , g 334 . 1a . 4 . ( f ) close - up of cheliceral fang showing a number of holes ( arrowed ) , the most distal of which had been interpreted as a venom - gland opening , g 329 . 22 . 9 . ( scale bars : 0 . 5 mm , except f , 0 . 25 mm . )\nsm 1 . 11 . 4 ( fig . 1 c and d ) is a smaller piece of cuticle than sm 1 . 11 . 3a . the distribution of setae and spigots enables orientation of the piece . at one lateral side is an even fold that conforms to the curved outline of the posterolateral margin ; this is interpreted as a doublure along the margin of the plate . it is folded at the lateral side and bears \u224815 spigots in an approximate double row along the posterior edge ; the anterior and opposite lateral edges are torn . if sm 1 . 11 . 4 were once joined to sm 1 . 11 . 3a , then it is likely that it is the missing posterolateral corner of sm 1 . 11 . 3a , with its posterolateral concentration of spigots . of especial interest on sm 1 . 11 . 4 is the long , winding filament emerging from the distal end of one spigot ( fig . 1 e ) . detailed study shows that this is a single strand that is inseparable microscopically from the tip of the spigot , thus leading us to hypothesize that this is a strand of silk . no other silk strands have been seen in attercopus material , but silk from modern spiders is identical in size and appearance under the light microscope .\namptes & attircoppes & suche o\u00feer \u00feat ben euere bisy ben maide to schewe man ensaumple of stodye & labour . [ elucidarium of honorius of autun ( wycliffite version ) c . 1400 ]\nit lingered in northern england dialect in the sense\npeevish , ill - natured person\n( c . 1500 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nfurther reading - \u202d \u202cnew terrestrial arachnids from the devonian of gilboa , \u202d \u202cnew york . \u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202camerican museum novitates\u202d \u202c2901 : \u202d \u202c1\u202d\u2013\u202c74 . \u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202cwilliam a . \u202d \u202cshear , \u202d \u202cpaul a . \u202d \u202cselden , \u202d \u202cw . \u202d \u202cd . \u202d \u202ci . \u202d \u202crolfe , \u202d \u202cpatricia m . \u202d \u202cbonamo\u202d & \u202cjames d . \u202d \u202cgrierson\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202c1987 . - \u202d \u202ca spider and other arachnids from the devonian of new york , \u202d \u202cand reinterpretations of devonian araneae . \u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202cpalaeontology\u202d \u202c34 : \u202d \u202c241\u202d\u2013\u202c281 . \u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202cpaul a . \u202d \u202cselden , \u202d \u202cwilliam a . \u202d \u202cshear\u202d & \u202cpatricia m . \u202d \u202cbonamo\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202c1991 . - \u202d \u202ctaxonomic names , \u202d \u202cin a spider and other arachnids from the devonian of new york , \u202d \u202cand reinterpretations of devonian araneae . \u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202cpalaeontology\u202d \u202c34 : 241 - 281 . \u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202cp . \u202d \u202ca . \u202d \u202cselden\u202d & \u202cw . \u202d \u202ca . \u202d \u202cshear\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202c1991 .\ncontent copyright www . prehistoric - wildlife . com . the information here is completely free for your own study and research purposes , but please dont copy the articles word for word and claim them as your own work . the world of prehistory is constantly changing with the advent of new discoveries , as such its best if you use this information as a jumping off point for your own research . privacy & cookies policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nfull reference : w . a . shear , p . a . selden , and w . d . i . rolfe . 1987 . systematic paleontology , in new terrestrial arachnids from the devonian of gilboa , new york ( arachnida , trigonotarbida ) . american museum novitates 2901 : 1 - 74\nedited by may r . berenbaum , university of illinois at urbana\u2013champaign , urbana , il , and approved november 14 , 2008 ( received for review september 14 , 2008 )\nthe defining adaptation of spiders is the production of silk from highly modified appendages called spinnerets , located on the posterior division of the body ( opisthosoma ) . silk emerges from spigots ( modified setae ) arrayed on the spinnerets and connected to internal silk glands capable of producing , in the most advanced spiders , several kinds of chemically and physically distinct fibers . silk is used not only to create webs of various types , but also to produce egg - sac material , for prey wrapping , lining burrows , and to aid in navigation and communication , among other uses . because of the importance of silk and spinnerets in the lives of spiders , clues to the origins of the spinning apparatus are of great importance in understanding the evolution of the group . although silk is important in other animals ( e . g . , moth cocoons ) , no other arthropod group relies so heavily on its use in so many ways . here , we reinterpret old and assess recent fossil evidence , and combine our analysis with developmental genetic studies , to clarify how silk use may have evolved . an unexpected result of the study was the discovery that some paleozoic fossils thought to be spiders represent a hitherto undiagnosed order of arachnida .\ncollections made in 1993 and 1996 in middle devonian strata [ lower frasnian , lowermost onteora formation , 374 ma ( 4 ) ] at south mountain , schoharie county , new york ( 74\u00b016\u203230\u2033e / 42\u00b023\u203255\u2033n ) yielded material that is indistinguishable from a . fimbriunguis from gilboa , and thus presumed to be conspecific . this material includes 3 pairs of chelicerae ( therefore , at least 3 individuals ) , numerous podomeres including a palpal femur showing the distinctive patch of spinules on the inferoanterior surface ( fig . 1 b ) , and two slides with specimens showing spigots . the last are numbered sequentially ( sm 1 . 11 . 3 and sm 1 . 11 . 4 ) , which means they were extracted from the same acid - macerate residue and slide - mounted one after another , and so could be parts of the same animal .\nalthough mesothele spiders and a few mygalomorphs have opisthosomal tergites that can be attributed to the original segmentation of the opisthosoma , no spiders living or fossil have ventral opisthosomal plates . however , these plates are present in all other arachnid orders , including the pedipalpi ( orders amblypygi , uropygi , and schizomida ) , sister group to spiders . there is no evidence for the origin of these plates from genetic studies ; the patterns of expression of hox genes has only been studied in some spiders and mites [ in the latter , with focus on head segmentation , not expression of appendage - determining genes ( 6 ) ] . it has been suggested , on the basis of paleontological and developmental evidence ( 7 ) , that , in scorpions , these plates are not true sternites but are the fused remnants of paired opisthosomal appendages , as indeed seems to be the case for the epigastric plate and book - lung covers of spiders , and the homologous anterior opisthosomal opercula in uropygi ( 8 ) and amblypygi ( 9 ) . in mesotheles the first 2 pairs of book - lung covers are part of continuous sclerotization across the opisthosoma , with distinct posterior margins .\npaleozoic araneae and uraraneida . ( a\u2013c ) permarachne novokshonovi , permian of russia , pin 4909 / 12 . ( a ) holotype part in rock matrix . ( b ) explanatory drawing of a . ( c ) close - up of flagellum showing whorls of setae . ch , chelicera ; cx , coxa ; fe , femur ; mt , metatarsus ; pa , patella ; pl , ventral plate ; st , sternum ; ta , tarsus ; ti , tibia . ( d ) palaeothele montceauensis , carboniferous of france , in 62050a , x - ray ct scan showing appendages buried in the rock matrix ; note , anal tubercle ( arrowed ) is not a flagellum . ( scale bars : b , 1 mm ; c and d , 0 . 1 mm . )\nspider spinnerets are homologs of biramous opisthosomal appendages , still present in the primitive chelicerate limulus , as demonstrated by expression of the developmental genes pdm / nubbin and apterous in embryos of spiders and limulus ( 14 ) . in limulus these appendages consist of a segmented median branch and a lateral branch with a plate covering lamellate gills . in spider embryos , distalless gene expression shows 4 pairs of spinnerets ( anterior and posterior median and lateral pairs ) represented by 2 pairs of appendage buds on opisthosomal somites 4 and 5 ( 15 ) . the appendage buds each later divide in 2 to produce potentially 4 pairs of spinnerets , although in nearly all spiders some of these buds do not develop into functional postembryonic spinnerets . the full complement of 8 spinnerets is today seen only in the primitive mesotheles liphistius and heptathela ( even in these animals the anterior median pair bears no silk - producing spigots ) ( 16 ) . other homologs of opisthosomal appendages in spiders are the book - lung opercula ( 2 pairs in mesotheles and mygalomorphs , on somites 2 and 3 ) and tracheae derived from appendage apodemes in araneomorph spiders on somite 3 . in other arachnids , homologs of opisthosomal appendages can be seen in the gonopods , book - lung opercula , and ventral sacs of pantetrapulmonates , and other organs in diverse groups ( 13 ) . only spiders show expression of appendage homologs on somites 4 and 5 [ although structures in other orders could be silk gland homologs , such as the fusules in female palpigrades ( 17 ) ] . silk glands also occur in many adult male spiders along the anterior edge of the epigastric furrow ( somite 2 ) . these are termed epiandrous or epigastric glands ( 12 ) , and open through simple spigots ( fusules ) . because of their medial position in relation to the more lateral book - lung opercula , epigastric fusules could be serial homologs of the median spinnerets of somites 4 and 5 .\nloss and reappearance of wings in stick insects suggests that genes for appendage development can be suppressed , perhaps by a single disabling mutation , and later reactivated , again perhaps by a reversal of the original mutation or an offsetting mutation that restores gene function ( 19 ) . once these genes were reactivated in the ancestors of spiders , it would be a clear advantage to have the spigots on them as this would confer significantly more control over the use and distribution of silk , as seen in the orb - weaving orbiculariae of today in the construction of their architecturally precise webs .\nthe holotype and only known specimen of permarachne novokshonovi , pin 4909 / 12 , part and counterpart , comes from the koshelevka formation , kungurian stage , cisuralian series ( permian ) , at the krutaya katushka outcrop , left bank of the barda river , upstream of matveyevka , russia , and is deposited in the palaeontological institute of the russian academy of sciences , moscow . the specimen was studied , under ethanol to enhance contrast , by using a wild m7s stereomicroscope , drawn by using a drawing tube , and photographed with a nikon d1x digital camera attached to the microscope .\na specimen of palaeothele montceauensis , in 62050a housed in the natural history museum , london , was submitted to x - ray ct analyses . these were performed on a phoenix v | tome | x \u201cs\u201d x - ray tomography system in the engineering faculty , imperial college , london . x - ray source energy was 160 kv ; the detector was a 16 - bit flat panel 512 \u00d7 512 pixel - direct digital detector using a stepping mode to double initial resolution . analysis and reconstruction of tomographic slices was performed by using the custom spiers software suite ; visualizations are ray - traced isosurfaces of data , manually prepared to remove artefacts and extraneous material .\nwe thank linda hernick ( new york state museum ) and the new york department of forestry for help in field work at south mountain , and kirill eskov ( paleontological institute , moscow ) for discussions on permarachne .\nauthor contributions : p . a . s . and w . a . s . designed research ; p . a . s . and w . a . s . performed research ; m . d . s . contributed new reagents / analytic tools ; p . a . s . and w . a . s . analyzed data ; and p . a . s . and w . a . s . wrote the paper .\nnote : we only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it , and that it is not junk mail . we do not capture any email address .\nmessage body ( your name ) thought you would like to see the pnas web site .\nfirst report of amber with spider webs and microbial inclusions from the earliest cretaceous ( c . 140 ma ) of hastings , sussex\nresearchers used field data from 2012 to 2015 to study mortality and allele frequency changes in the sea star pisaster ochraceus during a mass mortality event in northcentral california , and found that surviving adult and juvenile sea stars experienced 81 % mortality and allele shifts , according to the authors .\na survey of more than 4 , 600 american adults conducted in 1995 - 1996 and in 2011 - 2014 suggests that among individuals of low socioeconomic status , negative affect increased significantly between the two survey waves , whereas life satisfaction and psychological well - being decreased .\na study of cognitive ability in norwegian males born from 1962 to 1991 suggests that environmental factors rather than changing genetic composition of families likely account for most of the change in norwegian population iq .\nthe mathematical tools behind recent gerrymandering cases have brought a modicum of precision into the political arena\u2014but this rigor hasn\u2019t always been enough to spur policy changes .\nspiders were among the earliest animals to live on land , probably evolving about 400 million years ago .\nmost of the early segmented fossil spiders belonged to the mesothelae , a group of primitive spiders with the spinnerets placed underneath the middle of the abdomen ( rather than at the end as in ' modern ' spiders ) . they were probably ground dwelling predators , living in the giant clubmoss and fern forests of the mid - late palaeozoic , where they were presumably predators of other primitive arthropods ( like cockroaches , giant silverfish , slaters and millipedes ) . silk may have been used simply as a protective covering for the eggs , a lining for a retreat hole , and later perhaps for simple ground sheet web and trapdoor construction .\nas plant and insect life diversified so also did the spider ' s use of silk . spiders with spinnerets at the end of the abdomen ( opisthothelae ) appeared more than 250 million years ago , presumably promoting the development of more elaborate sheet and maze webs for prey capture both on ground and foliage , as well as the development of the safety dragline .\nby the jurassic period ( 191 - 136 million years ago ) , when dinosaurs roamed the earth , the sophisticated aerial webs of the orb weaving spiders had developed to trap the rapidly diversifying hordes of flying insects . similarly , the diversification of hunting spiders in litter , bark and foliage niches would have progressed in response to new prey - capture and habitat opportunities .\ndespite this the spider fossil record is relatively poor . during the tertiary period the rich record of amber spider fossils - complete spiders trapped in clear , sticky , tree resins - show us that a spider fauna basically similar to that of the present day existed more than 30 million years ago .\namazingly , segmented mesothelid spiders have survived in eastern asia ( china to indonesia ) from late palaeozoic times to the present day . these large , impressive spiders live in soil burrows with trapdoors in forested areas and caves . segmented spiders are very similar to their ancestors and have virtually remained unchanged . they are not found in australia .\na 300 million year old , half metre long , fossil arachnid , megarachne servinei , was originally described as a spider , but is now thought more likely to represent another type of spider - like ancient arachnid . its unique features include the enormous size , massive shovel - like jaws and ribbed , shield - like covering over the abdomen . an arachnid of this size must have fed on large prey like cockroaches and giant millipedes . but why did this massive predator need such an impressively armoured body - were there even bigger arachnid predators about ?\ndo you have a question or comment ? please contact our search & discover team .\nso here ' s an update to where we are - lloyd has decided to take a backseat role in the band and will no longer be playing bass for us . luckily , we have a fantastic bass player ready to step up to the job : mike edwards . currently we are going through a few old songs , writing some new , and will be ( hopefully ) back out in the field in a couple of months time !\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nwe ' ve detected that javascript is disabled in your browser . would you like to proceed to legacy twitter ?\ntwitter may be over capacity or experiencing a momentary hiccup . try again or visit twitter status for more information .\nyou can add location information to your tweets , such as your city or precise location , from the web and via third - 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{"id": 524, "summary": [{"text": "one of the larger species of tarantula , the chaco golden knee ( grammostola pulchripes ) , formerly known by grammostola aureostriata , can be expected to reach between 20 \u2013 22 cm ( 8.5 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the chaco golden knee tends to be one of the more docile and calm species of tarantula and therefore makes an attractive first pet .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the chaco is an opportunistic burrowing terrestrial tarantula : they tend to burrow while younger and adopt a pre-existing hide as its home when it begins to mature .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "it is quite flashy in appearance , bearing long light-colored hairs all over its body and gold stripes on its legs , particularly at the \" knees \" .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this is a good display species as it often sits in plain view .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "when it was first imported into the pet trade , it was thought to be a variant of the pink zebra beauty species , but it is significantly larger and can easily be distinguished by those familiar with both species . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "grammostola pulchripes", "paragraphs": ["grammostola pulchripes ( formerly grammostola aureostriata ) is also a good ground - dwelling beginner tarantula .\ngrammostola pulchripes are also cool and big if you don ' t completely hate the idea of a grammostola sp .\ncommon name : chaco golden knee tarantula scientific name : grammostola pulchripes ( formerly g . aureostriata )\ngrammostola pulchripes a . k . a chaco golden knee sling . . | my pets | pinterest\ntanya higgins added the english common name\nchaco tarantula\nto\ngrammostola pulchripes ( simon 1891 )\n.\nthe chaco gold knee ( grammostola pulchripes ) formally ( grammostola aureostriata ) is one of my favorite species and exceedingly docile . never had a\nhissy fit\nonce .\ntanya higgins added the english common name\ngolden knee tarantula\nto\ngrammostola pulchripes ( simon 1891 )\n.\ntanya higgins added the english common name\nchaco golden stripe tarantula\nto\ngrammostola pulchripes ( simon 1891 )\n.\ntanya higgins added the english common name\nchaco golden knee tarantula\nto\ngrammostola pulchripes ( simon 1891 )\n.\ngabriel , r , 2009 , notes on the taxonomic placement of eurypelma borellii ( simon 1892 ) and grammostola pulchripes simon 1892 ( araneae : theraphosidae ) , exotiske insekter no . 73 . 7 - 13 the species avicularia borelli is moved to the genus grammostola , grammostola auriostriata is the junior synonym of g . pulchripes . ray\nthe chaco golden knee , grammostola pulchripes , had a different species name a few years ago , which was aureostriata . why the name change ?\nso is this saying the g . mollicoma is really a g . pulchripes ?\ntarantula mythbuster vid 20 : detailed vid on g . pulchripes ( chaco golden knee )\nmy grammostola pulchripes ( chaco golden knee ) tarantula . in pre - molt , so her colours aren ' t too showy at the moment , but still an awesome tarantul\u2026 | pinteres\u2026\nfirst of all , another tarantula has that name already : h . pulchripes , the golden blue - legged baboon .\nwhat about g . mollicoma ( ausserer , 1875 ) ? wasn ' t g . pulchripes supposed to be synonim for g . mollicoma ?\nthis molt belonged to my female g . pulchripes , notice that there is a tiny tongue - like flap just between the upper booklungs .\ngrammostola rosea is the most common first tarantula . this is because it is docile and generally easy to care for . this specie are ground - dwellers .\ngrammostola pulchripes is definitely not one of the faster growing tarantulas . i don ' t think storm76 was saying they ' re not slow growers , he was saying it won ' t necessarily take 6 - 10 years to mature . 4 years to 6\nis still slow , just not g . rosea or some aphonopelma slow .\neven if i can ' t acquire a grammostola or brachypelma in exchange . . . . i ' ll be happy knowing my c . darlingi will be in more capable hands .\ngrammostola rosea are common in most pet stores but i recommend that you buy from breeders or private users of this forum for an example . look for a female in a relative young age .\ncheers , does this mean that g . aureostriata is no longer a valid name and that it ' s now pulchripes ? i only have a limited understanding of taxonomy terms .\nthe chaco golden knee tarantula ( grammostola pulchripes ) , bristling with hair and boasting leg spans of up to 8 inches , may appear formidable , but they are among the calmest spiders in the pet trade . their needs are simple , and they live for a long time - - 15 years or more . bear that in mind before rushing to add one to your menagerie .\nfor the time being , my main goal is finding someone willing to take my c . darlingi . a trade for either b . albopilosum , b . vagans or g . pulchripes is secondary .\n+ 1 for the growing not slow . i ' ve read numerous reports online , in books , and from the pros on here , that g . pulchripes is one of the faster growing tarantulas .\nmy opinion : a very large , attractive , docile tarantula . they are popular with beginners but often not as readily available as other starter tarantulas such as the mexican red knee and chile rose . they were formally known as grammostola aureostriata .\ni have an a adult female g . pulchripes and she now at 6 inch rather that all . i have been used this caresheet as basis on how to care on her . really great job this one helps me a lot : )\nnice care sheet . so comprehensive and in - depth . the only thing i ' ve done differently with my g pulchripes is that i gave mine a water dish right from the start . have you written ones for any other species ?\ni got one of my new 1 / 4\ng . pulchripes slings out to let it walk around on my hand a little bit . almost immediatley i felt pressure and when i went to put it back in the deli cup i realized it was anchored to my finger by it ' s fangs . there was a little pain at the bite location and i think it may have swollen a little bit . i was very surprised that a g . pulchripes sling was my first bite .\ng . pulchripes are easy to keep . any random ( appropriately sized ) jar will work for slings . idk if a viv would be ideal , as ime g . pulchripes like it pretty dry . i just use cocofiber substrate , a well ventilated lid and nothin else for my sling . when its bigger i may place it in a decorated tank . unless your home gets below high 60 ' s or 70 degrees ( comfort zone ) no additional heat is needed . see how i house mine here >\ngrammostola species can be predictable sometimes . one day they can be all sweet and cuddly , and downright evil the next . i think being in post molt is also a factor . give it a few weeks . feed it some more . if her attitude doesnt change , than theres nothing we can do about it .\nthis species is one of the best species suitable for any beginner tarantula owner . the reason for this statement is because g . pulchripes ( formerly g . aureostriata ) has a very pleasing demeanour . they have a docile , calm and hardy nature which are essential characteristics for a starter tarantula .\nhi al , my name is jessica ( as well ) and i am about to receive my grammostola and a l . klugi . i am very excited and will definitely be giving you a shout if i need any advice . but thank you kindly for sharing this awesome care sheet with us ! your knowledge and research is greatly appreciated .\ni wouldn ' t bother with the isopods as g . pulchripes are a dry environment species the isopods will just die . also i think a sling would take about 6 - 10 years to mature depending on your feeding ( powerfeeding makes it grow quicker but will reduce its lifespan drastically from what i ' ve read )\nit ' s the fastest growing specie in the grammostola genus and it can grow up to be over 20 cm ( 8 inches ) and live up to 5 + years ( male ) or 20 + years ( female ) which is desirable for beginners . it ' s also a very docile tarantula and it rarely flick hairs . you can feed it with crickets , coackroaches etc .\nmy collection : - support captive breeding 0 . 1 . 0 grammostola rosea 0 . 1 . 0 aphonopelma sp . new river 0 . 0 . 1 ephobopus murinus 0 . 1 . 0 avicularia versicolor 0 . 1 . 0 brachypelma smithi 1 . 0 . 0 brachypelma albopilosum 0 . 0 . 1 haplopelma albostriatum 0 . 0 . 1 lasiodora parahybana 0 . 0 . 1 avicularia avic .\nyou can feed them with crickets or smaller cockroaches or other insects ( see links below ) . an adult grammostola rosea has a tendency to stop eating for a long period of time so dont freak out if it just suddenly stops eating ! they can grow to be 15 cm ( 6 inches ) and live up to be 5 + years ( male ) or 20 + years ( female ) .\nmy g . pulchripes 4 . 5 - 5inches hasn ' t been eating for 2 weeks now , i ' m really worried . i haven ' t experience this with my other t ' s . i even think she shrunk : ( she ' s not in pre - molt , her abdomen is not even big yet . reply please , i don ' t know what to do .\nand just for the record again , the tend to take some time before they get used to their\nnew\nsurroundings . i ' ve tried feeding my g . pulchripes tonight , with no luck . she just moved away from it , so i took the cricket out again and won ' t try before the weekend . she ' s well - fed anyways , so no big deal .\ni had a similar experience with an obt . i just realized that it ' s not really necessary . what happens is , you psyche yourself out . . . often for nothing . yes , c . darlingi is fast , especially at this size . and it , like most new worlds , are a bit on the aggressive side . of course , any tarantula in the hobby can be unpredictable . and that includes brachypelma and grammostola species .\nchaco golden knee tarantulas can easily be identified by the striking golden stripes on each knee . they can grow leg spans up to 8 inches measured diagonally , which makes them more desirable for beginners . they also are the fastest growing of the grammostola genus and have a lifespan of over 5 years for males and over 15 years for females . and unlike most beginner tarantula species which has very little activity , this specie will keep itself busy . these little critters are mini - bulldozers .\nobviously there will be some mechanical damage due to the puncture wound , depending on the size of your tarantula . fortunately , the venom from this specie isnt that potent . i have had a bite from a grammostola rosea ( chillean rose tarantula ) which is closely related to the chaco golden knee . it got swollen , a bit itchy and numb , and it went away within the day . best be careful , theres a very slim chance that you might be allergic to the venom . very rare cases .\nthanks . glad you liked it . they dont call it g . auriostriata anymore . now its g . pulchripes . and i believe its the same specie . you see , people who make a business out of selling these pets come up with\nmarketing\nstrategies such as making up a completely outrageous names and sell them as a completely\nnew\nor\nrare\nspecie . if youre new to the hobby i suggest learning the binomial names for each specie you encounter . dont be intimidated . make it a hobby to use binomial names . it helps a lot .\nand since i ' ll be sticking with these two genus from now on . . . my 5 t wishlist became a whole lot easier . maybe a bit pricier , but oh well . 1 . g . rosea 2 . b . boehmei 3 . g . pulchripes 4 . b . albopilosum 5 . b . vagans so the last 3 are relatively common and inexpensive . if i am to extend my list to 5 more eventually , g . pulchra , b . smithi , b . emilia , b . klaasi and b . auratum are what i ' d be really looking into . - luc\nso , i have an emp scorp and want to add a good t to my home . i ' ve settled on getting a g . pulchripes and want to know general advice for sling care . as well , i ' m going to a reptile show in indianapolis to find a good specimen , ( trying to find a cb preferably ) and i want to know what you guys think i should look for / avoid . also , what should i do for heating ? i ' m going to use a custom made glass vivarium i ' m currently building ( pics later ) . thanx all in advance .\nhi , i have an emergency question about a t . other than the g . pulchripes . i put in a superworm in my a . seemanni cage and she had a nice little burrow going on . i didn ' t crush the superworms head before i put it in the cage which now was an afterthought . i believe she is in premolt and didn ' t bother to eat it and then the superworm just rolled down the burrow . i need help as far as if i should dig up her cage to get the superworm out before it becomes a beetle and a bigger problem . help please ! ! !\nthis is where people will tell you to get g . pulchripes , g . rosea , g . pulchra , avic avic , and many many others the h . lividum i have is very fast but it hasn ' t tried to bite yet . all you need to remember is that some t ' s will be good and some t ' s will be nasty , t ' s can be fine one second and flip out the next . if i was to give you a suggestion try to look at a avic , they are arboreal , good size , they might be able for you to get used to the speed of the t .\ni ' ve become too afraid of my c . darlingi sling . i should ' ve known i was way over my head when i ordered that . i can ' t even muster the courage to open the kk lid and pick up cricket remains . it ' s that bad . didn ' t get a threat pose yet . . . but i know the chances of it bolting out when i least expect it are pretty high . therefore i ' ve chosen to trade it off for another brachypelma or grammostola . i ' m simply afraid of either killing it by accident while trying to get it back into the enclosure or being bitten and causing harm to the hobby should the incident be reported to the media . i feel so embarassed , but i can ' t help it . . . it ' s dawning upon me now that old world species aren ' t for me . i ' m even thinking of merely\nspecialising\nwith the brachypelma and grammostola genus , mostly because of their somewhat docile temperament , slow speed , low toxicity , ease of care and extreme hardiness . surely i can ' t be the only one that feels like this . i ' ve posted an ad in the respective forum . this would be interesting and worthwhile mostly to eastern atlantic canadian members . just let me know i ' m not alone in feeling that old worlds are completely out of my league . - luc\nwhen i first time had my g . pulchripes sling , i put her in a pretty big container ( for her size ) which is 20 x 15 cm , then she looks so stressed out , she always hanging on the top of the cage , i was thinking that the substrate is too wet , but after i change the substrate , there ' s still no much different . at the end i tried to change the cage to a smaller one , just a pretty small plastic container , and guess what . . she looks so calm and never hanging on the top of the container anymore , some people said that a big container will make a ts feel unsafe . guess that it ' s true\n2 inches is still considered a sling , 3 inches is considered as a juvenile . it is measured in diagonal leg span . from leg no . 1 on one side to leg no . 4 on the other side . usually for a chaco of that size they eat 3 - 5 days after molting . what are you feeding it ? whats the size of the prey items ? as i have said , chaco and other tarantulas of the grammostola genus sometimes go on fasts which can last from a couple of weeks to over half a year . just keep on offering it food every 3 days . dont disturb it too much . tarantulas who are stressed out will often refuse food . i have noticed that if you handle your tarantula before feeding it , it will refuse the food . it is best not to bother it before feeding it .\nso i shouldnt expect him / her to jump at a meal ? as well , i bought a slate rock that makes a pretty nice hide since i read that they prefer rocks due to the fact that burrowing in their natural habitat is typically difficult , so they hide under rocks , i have three containers for three potential size , a pill bottle if i get a sling w nothing but air holes and substrate i will moisten , a small tupperware container with substrate , holes for good ventilation , and a small small bit of cork bark , and then i have a good sized but short plastic kritter keeper on the off hand chance i get a mature g . pulchripes . i was going to get isopods for keeping it all nice and clean . thoughts ? oh , also , that big slate rock is in the container i have if i get an adult .\ngood day everyone a while back i sold my entire collection and yes i was rather depressed but nothing i could do about it at the time . however , i have recently decided to start up again so i ' m searching for the following : avic avic ( pinktoe ) p . irminia ( suntiger ) t . cupreus ( violet tree spider ) p . fasinata ( sri - laken ornimental ) l . klugi - ( scarlet birdeater ) l . parahybana ( salmon pink ) g . pulchripes ( golden knee ) c . cyaneopub ( green bottle blue ) those are the ones i would like to buy first before i get into the p . metallic and m . bal ect i would ideally prefer spiderlings ( 2 - 3cm ) in size as i have a certain way of raising them ( if you can call it that ) . thanks in advance splurge read more . . .\nmy collection : - support captive breeding 0 . 0 . 1 haplopelma minax 0 . 0 . 1 haplopelma hainanum 1 . 0 . 1 cyriopagopus schioedtei 0 . 0 . 1 poecilotheria rufilata 0 . 1 . 0 heteroscoda maculata 0 . 1 . 2 haplopelma lividum 0 . 1 . 0 grammostola rosea 0 . 1 . 1 haplopelma longipes 0 . 0 . 1 brachypelma vagans 0 . 0 . 5 aphonopelma iodius 0 . 1 . 0 ornithoctonus aureotibialis / sp ' nakorn ' 0 . 1 . 0 ornithoctonus aureotibialis 0 . 0 . 4 haplopelma albostriatum 0 . 0 . 1 aphonopelma abberans 0 . 0 . 1 ornithoctonus sp ' koh samui ' 0 . 0 . 1 chromatopelma cyaneopubescens 1 . 0 . 0 poecilotheria striata 0 . 0 . 1 chilobrachys dyscolus 0 . 0 . 1 haplopelma schmidti 0 . 0 . 2 yamia sp koh samui 0 . 0 . 1 psalmopeus cambridgei 0 . 0 . 1 chilobrachys sp aladdin 0 . 1 . 0 lampropelma violaceopes 0 . 0 . 1 lampropelma nigerrimum\nour privacy / cookie policy contains detailed information about the types of cookies & related technology on our site , and some ways to opt out . by using the site , you agree to the uses of cookies and other technology as outlined in our policy , and to our terms of use .\nnative to the grasslands of argentina and paraguay , the chaco golden knee tarantula is a ground - living species that burrows when he can . the chaco golden knee ' s natural habitat remains warm throughout the year , with dry spells alternating with periods of heavy rainfall .\ntarantulas don\u2019t need enormous tanks , but chaco golden knees are large specimens , so you\u2019ll need a habitat with capacity of at least 15 gallons . they\u2019ll feel more secure with a shelter , such as a large piece of bark or a plastic hut . provide a thick layer , at least 6 inches , of a safe substrate such as coconut fiber or chemical - free potting compost , and a shallow water dish . keep the tank in a warm room and out of direct sunlight ; if the room ' s not warm year - round , you may have to invest in supplemental heat - - but this creature doesn ' t need a particularly warm habitat that would necessitate a heat source , generally .\nlike other tarantulas , the chaco golden knee subsists on a diet of smaller invertebrates , mostly arthropods , in the wild . feed your captive tarantula crickets , roaches , grasshoppers and similar nontoxic insects . she probably won\u2019t eat that often , about once or twice a week . remove any insect parts afterward . if she hasn\u2019t eaten a prey item after a few hours , she\u2019s not hungry . remove it from the tank and feed her again after a day or so - - unless she starts to molt , in which case don\u2019t feed her anything until the process is over .\nkeep the substrate fairly dry - - it doesn\u2019t need to be dry as dessicated dust , but don\u2019t let it become soggy , except perhaps under the water bowl . tarantulas produce very little waste and do not appreciate their habitat being disturbed , so limit cleaning out the tank to once or twice a year .\nalthough generally sweet - natured , the chaco golden knee , like many other tarantulas , may flick irritating hairs at people when alarmed . avoid scaring your pet with sudden movements or by picking her up with your bare hands , especially early on . the hairs and venom of this species should cause only minor irritation in most people , but if you are prone to allergies , talk to your doctor before acquiring any tarantula as a pet . never handle or feed your golden knee while she is molting - - your hands or a prey insect could do immense damage at this vulnerable time .\njudith willson has been writing since 2009 , specializing in environmental and scientific topics . she has written content for school websites and worked for a glasgow newspaper . willson has a master of arts in english from the university of aberdeen , scotland .\nwillson , judith .\nthe needs & habitat of the chaco golden knee tarantula .\nanimals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / needs - habitat - chaco - golden - knee - tarantula - 5814 . html . accessed 09 july 2018 .\nwillson , judith . ( n . d . ) . the needs & habitat of the chaco golden knee tarantula . animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / needs - habitat - chaco - golden - knee - tarantula - 5814 . html\nwillson , judith .\nthe needs & habitat of the chaco golden knee tarantula\naccessed july 09 , 2018 . urltoken\nnote : depending on which text editor you ' re pasting into , you might have to add the italics to the site name .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nif this is your first visit , be sure to check out the faq by clicking the link above . you may have to register before you can post : click the register link above to proceed . to start viewing messages , please register with your real full name as per the rules and regulations , select the forum that you want to visit from the selection below .\nhi craig yep that is what it means . the paper is available as a download from the downloads section of this site . ray\n. mr gabriel in his paper rejects this synonymy , i . e . treats\nspider myths | curious taxonomy | the world spider catalog - theraphosidae\nwe are all taxonomists .\n- judith winston\nthe laws of biology are written in the language of diversity .\n- edward osborne wilson\nprinciple of priority - the oldest fool is always right !\n- h . segers & y . samyn\npowered by vbulletin\u00ae version 4 . 2 . 2 copyright \u00a9 2018 vbulletin solutions , inc . all rights reserved .\nlightning speed from a big 6\ntarantula . you ' re looking at some nice kills , hope you enjoy the video ! music : vivaldi - the four seasons - summer - presto for more tarantula videos you can visit my channel ; )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nhabitat : the climate of paraguay is subtropical . at asunci\u00f3n average temperatures range from about 17\u00b0c ( about 63\u00b0f ) in july to about 27\u00b0c ( about 80\u00b0f ) in january . in the chaco and other points to the north temperatures often reach 38\u00b0c ( 100\u00b0f ) . annual rainfall averages some 1 , 120 mm ( 44 in ) in the asunci\u00f3n area , some 815 mm ( 32 in ) in the gran chaco , and some 1 , 525 mm ( 60 in ) in the eastern forest regions . the chaco has heavy rainfall in the summer and almost no rain in the winter .\ntemp / humidity : 65 \u00b0 - 78 \u00b0 / 55 % - 65 % humidity i keep this species temperature at 78 \u00b0 degrees and the humidity at 65 % .\nsubstrate : i use four inches of substrate . ( i use a mixture of peat moss , vermiculite , coconut fiber and dirt for firmness , as the substrate ) .\nretreat / hide : this is an opportunistic burrower , therefore i placed a bark for a starter burrow hide .\nfood consumption : i fed the new born spiderling fruit flies , then when they reached 1 / 2\ni introduced baby crickets . i feed my adult chaco stripe knee two ( 2 ) one - inch b . dubia roaches or 7 adult crickets weekly . this species is a laid back eater . the only time this tarantula refuses food is when it is near a molt .\nwater requirements : i keep a water dish in the tank . i have never seen mine drink . i keep the substrate in the terrarium dry .\ngrowth rate : the growth rate of this species is medium . i purchased this tarantula as a juvenile .\nadult size : i read that they get seven - eight inches ( 17 . 78 - 20 . 32cm ) . after eight years my chaco has grown to a solid seven inches ( 17 . 78cm ) , easily .\ntemperament : this is a laid back , easy to handle species . it has never kicked hair at me nor given a threat pose . she is always out in the open and is friendly .\ncomments : this is one of my favorite tarantulas . she is large and is a beautiful display specimen . the larger it gets , the more colorful it becomes . check the pictures out and the colors . the colors are natural not enhanced . she always accompany me when i do events . this spider has a personality , and i believe it likes attention . every hobbiest must have this species .\nall photos on this website are courtesy of mike basic tarantula unless stated otherwise . it ' s prohibited to copy without permission of author .\nthis site uses cookies . by continuing to use this site , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . learn more .\nthe review & report forums are closed to new posts . please use our new reviews & reports section to leave reviews & reports . if you do not see a review item for a seller , please contact them and request they create their own review item . if you would like to leave a breeding / bite / sting report , please contact an administrator with the species name that you would like to report and what type of report you would like to leave . we will create an item for you . the seller / buyer / shop inquiries / warnings forum is still open for new posts .\ntoday . unpacking a sling order and they were pretty active and my gf wanted to hold one . next thing i know she is like oh ! ow ! holy _ _ _ _ ! that hurts . ( no i did not step on her foot ! ) this sling is about 1 / 4\nand she felt no pain other than the bite , there was no swelling and no redness . medical attention was : i had to give her a hug to make her feel better . symptoms lasted less time than it took her to say\nouch that hurt , get him back in his container\nthis happened sometime in early december . this t has been finally been proven to be a chaco and i ' m certain it was a bite .\ni was putting the chaco back into the container , while i was wearing gloves ( i react to the urticating hairs ) . it had walked on to the back of my right hand . the chaco was three inches at the time . unforunately , even though i was being quite careful , it started to slip a little bit as i was putting it back in it ' s container . it panicked and apparently used it ' s fangs to help hold on .\ni was not sure i had been bitten until after i washed my hands and sat back down at the computer . i later pulled out the gloves and examined them for a bite mark . there were two tiny little holes in the gloves . right hand ring finger was bitten . right ring finger turned slightly reddish , and was slightly swollen . i don ' t recall much , if any pain . i did have a strong itching burning sensation however . about an hour or two later i went to bed without any problems . no swelling in the finger the next day , and no burning sensation .\ni was rather concerned for a couple of days , about the tarantula having bitten latex but it was ( and is ) fine . so there you go , there ' s my stupid newbie bite experience .\nyou never know , i have a 7 in . female chaco . have handled her many times and so have my sons , 6 and 12 . i saw her on the screen top of her cage and as usual i took her out . sitting at the computer , all of a sudden i felt some pressure . she had her fangs out , about 1 / 2 in long , and was hanging on with them . not biting but gripping . one fang did lightly pierce skin . if she really wanted to , i would have two large holes in my hand .\nmy little 2\nchaco was my first tarantula , and it had just molted . . . i missed this , but knew it was imminent , so of course i wanted to check in on the spider because i had read somewhere that problems can occur with molting and was way too overconcerned . i saw something crumpled with its legs under it in the corner of the webbed in burrow area and freaked out , so go diving in to discover the old skeleton and brush my hand against the shiny new ultra defensive soft spider in the process . it nailed me on the inside of the left wrist with both fangs , i barely felt the bite , i noticed the venom a few minutes later as the area became warm and itchy . this continued for a half hour or so before being joined by pain in the joints of my wrist and hand , the pain wasn ' t bad , but just kindof there . this lasted about 3 hours with minor swelling , but really wasnt nearly as bad as i had expected .\nneedless to say , i wont go rushing in with a just molted spider again .\nwas bitten last night by my sub adult male . my own fault though , he had hooked himself onto my shirt and wouldn ' t let go anymore . trying to get him of resulted in being bitten ( plus getting him loose ) . he didn ' t get a very good grip , only one fang was inserted and it wasn ' t a dry bite ( substance could clearly be seen around the place of insertion ) . had no reaction at all , only that my hands were itchy cause of urticating bristles ( possibly from working inside the aureo ' s exo - terra .\nnot much to report , but i figured i would anyway cause i did have some symptoms , and i believe any info is useful .\ni got a 1 / 2\ng . aureostriata today and was handling it to get some pics , and i thought\noh , i think it may have bit me\ncause it was so small that i couldnt feel it walking on me , but definitely felt a small prik . well i got it on the third knuckle , no pain , slight local swelling and redness , and ichyness . 15 min after my hand felt a little like it just woke up from being asleep , all tingly , and that went away in 5 min . not bad at all , there really isnt much to expect from a 1 / 2\nsling .\nsp . , here is a bit of first - hand experience . this is se7en , my new 7 - legged\nduring se7en ' s initial handling session , i apparently got tagged . . . . . twice ! ! ! ! she must have fanged me during that session , because the itchyness started about an hour afterwords . i didn ' t even notice the two bite marks until the next day , though the webbing between my right middle and ring finger was experiencing small bouts of being itchy as hell . i thought she haired me at first , but the sensation was more like a mild bee sting that would come and go . when i saw the bite marks the next day , that ' s when i put it together that i had been tagged .\nsecond , the bite is nothing to worry about . i didn ' t feel it when it happened ( 2 bites delivered without any indication i had been fanged ) , and the symptoms were\nbetween the time i was bitten , and the time i realized it , i had handled my girl three times , pinch - grabbed her for a ventral shot , and fed her . she has been handled since , and without incident or protest . because of the mild effects of the venom , and the fact that her temperament is really calm , i am not frightened in the least to take another hit from her . love her lots , though ! ! !\ni got bit about 3 hours ago by an chaco golden knee . it jumped at me and bit my thumb while i was transferring her to a new enclosure . it only bit me for a second but the pain was real intense . it was burning pretty bad and my whole hand and arm have started cramping . it only got me with one fang since i only see one puncture wound .\nregistration is free , and dedicated forums exist for the discussion of tarantulas , true spiders , centipedes & scorpions . we also have classifieds , reviews , bite / sting / breeding reports and more ! .\nthis very popular tarantula has some fantastic qualities . it makes a great display spider because of the beautiful patterns and coloration it sports , it stays out in the open most of the time , and it is one of the more active tarantulas . it is known to move things around and rearrange its habitat , especially as a juvenile . this species is also one of the most docile tarantulas available . its calm demeanor , slower movements , and hardiness make it appealing to beginner and advanced collectors alike .\nnew world . opportunistic burrower size : 7 - 8\u201d growth rate : medium natural habitat : argentina , paraguay , uraguay housing needs : terrestrial setup with burrow or hide available . temperament : calm and docile .\netudes arachnologiques . 23e m\u00e9moire . xxxviii . descriptions d ' esp\u00e8ces et de genres nouveaux de la famille des aviculariidae .\ntwo new species of guyruita guadanucci et al . , 2007 ( araneae , theraphosidae ) from brazil\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nget the facts , not the hype !\nvisit urltoken stay informed and join the fight to keep your pets ! this is extremely important right now , there are several new laws being passed and many states are jumping on the anti - reptile bandwagon . if you enjoy being able to keep your pets you need to keep up to date on what is going on . you also may be asked to do something as simple as write some letters . we can ' t stress enough how important it is to do this !\ncopyright \u00a9 - twin cities reptiles - all rights reserved . proudly presented by , nativ3 , a minneapolis web development agency !\n. why the name change ? i couldn ' t find any information on the web , and it just makes no sense . first of all , another tarantula has that name already :\nif there are multiple possible names , the oldest one will generally take precedence . it doesn ' t matter if the newer name sounds cooler or has a more descriptive meaning .\nonly the binomial ( genus + species ) must be unique . you can find lots of examples where the species component of the name is used more than once . ( this is especially common when species are named after people or places . )\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nit is difficult to give a size for the spiders as stock is constantly changing . generally , the small size is a spiderling up to 1 . 5cm body length ( small will be small ) , juvenile is a grown on spiderling with a body length of about 1 . 5cm , medium 2cm to 4cm and a large is 4cm to fully adult ( but a lot depends on the species ! )\nif you would like me to measure the body length of any medium or large spider , please send me an email . i cannot measure the body length of small and juvenile size spiders as they are constantly changing .\ncockroaches ( species & sizes will vary ) i sometimes only have one species of cockroach av . .\ncommon name : ghost porcelain cockroach scientific name : gyna caffrorum size : vari . .\ncommon name : headlight cockroach scientific name : lucihormetica subcincta size : adult . .\ncommon name : black beauty stick insectscientific name : peruphasma schulteisize : adult / sub - adultstat . .\ncommon name : hissing cockroach scientific name : gromphadorhina species size : adult / s . .\nthe chaco golden knee tarantula is a ground - living species that burrows where it can . the chaco golden knee\u2019s natural habitat remains warm throughout the year , with dry spells alternating with periods of heavy rainfall .\nthe chaco golden knee tarantula can be expected to reach between 20\u201322 cm ( 8 . 5 in ) . it bears long light - colored hairs all over its body and gold stripes on its legs , particularly at the \u201cknees\u201d .\nno human is ever known to have died from a tarantula bite ! a tarantula bite is no worse than a bee sting in terms of toxicity .\nleast concern : the chaco golden knee tarantula is common or abundant and is likely to survive in the wild .\nadoption is simple . show how much you care about animals all year round by selecting your favorite animal from our adoption list .\nthe diet of a tarantula is typically crickets , grass - hoppers , locusts , moths , mealworms , and cockroaches with the occasional small animal . in a zoo environment , they are fed one cricket per week .\nevery visit to the zoo is a unique experience that awakens your senses . with a buffalo zoo membership you may visit the zoo as often as you like \u2013 and your admission is absolutely free .\n10 : 00 a . m . - 4 : 00 p . m . ( grounds close at 5 : 00 p . m . ) reptile house is closed until the spring of 2019\nthis is a care sheet dedicated to the chaco golden knee tarantula , a medium - large sized specie from argentina , paraguay & uraguay . this is also a standard care sheet applicable to most terrestrial tarantula species .\nthis care sheet is based on books , articles and information that i have gathered and my personal opinion , observations and experiences dealing with this specie . some information may be incorrect or insufficient . this care sheet is , and will always be a work in progress . if the reader finds any misinformation and have any corrections or suggestions , please feel free to leave a comment so i may address your concerns .\nit is advisable for 1 st time tarantula keepers to talk to someone who owns tarantulas before getting one . research about the tarantula you want and never hesitate to ask questions .\nkeeping of this species is fairly easy . spiderlings , or often referred to as\nslings\nare more suitable for beginners , because slings will almost never bite , the mere size of your hand is enough to intimidate them . by the time your tarantula is juvenile - sized , you will already have an idea of its personality .\nif you are getting adult specimen then a female is recommended since they live longer and grow larger than the males . males , after reaching maturity will have the tendencies to turn aggressive and defensive , this is because mature males aim on securing a mate . males will also have about a year or two left to live after reaching maturity .\nit is also wise to check the health and temperament of a potential tarantula . adult tarantulas should have abdomens bigger than its carapace or cephalothorax . how it stands or walks will also give you an idea of the tarantula\u2019s health ; healthy tarantulas should stand and walk on the tips of their toes like ballerinas , their abdomens shouldn\u2019t be dragged on the substrate ( ground ) when they walk . looking at the back of the abdomen will also tell you about their temperaments . hair - flickers will have bald spots on their abdomens . this specie rarely flicks . a tarantula\u2019s temperament can be checked by gently touching the back of its abdomen or hind legs with a paintbrush / stick , if it simply walks away , then it can be handled , if it runs away , then it might be a little nervous or skittish so exercise caution if you want to handle this tarantula , if it raises its fangs and its 1 st and 2 nd pairs of legs , then its aggressive . the latter reaction is known as the threat posture , any tarantula that is sporting this position will readily strike . they shouldn\u2019t be handled . if a tarantula turns towards the point where you made contact , it might be hungry or irritated .\nsexing tarantulas is a very tricky business . even experts have a hard time sexing a tarantula . a male tarantula could easily be taken for a female if it gets too big .\nthe best and accurate way to sex your tarantula is to wait until they are fully mature . females can be identified by looking into their molts for their ovaries . female specimens will have a skin - like flap in their sexual opening also called the epigastric furrow , just between the upper booklungs , this is called spermathecae . females will store a male\u2019s sperm in the spermathecae . female tarantulas are bulkier and have larger abdomens compared to the males .\nmale tarantulas have smaller bodies and the tips of their pedipalps ( short leg - like appendages located next to the fangs ) will look like boxing gloves . also males of this specie will develop tibial hooks or spurs on their 1st legs when they reach maturity ( tibial hooks are not present in some of the species ) . these hooks are used mainly to hold the female\u2019s fangs while mating .\nslings can easily be kept in small deli containers . be sure to have air wholes on the sides . the container should be big enough for your sling to walk around but not too big for it to get lost . most tarantulas prefer smaller enclosures . enclosures shouldn\u2019t be too high as this specie lives on the ground . 1inch ( or more ) substrate should be provided . 1 sling per enclosure .\njuveniles and adults should be kept in either low tanks or critter keepers or shoebox sized containers . be sure that there are air holes on the sides and on the top . an ideal tank cover would be glass / plexi - glass with air holes on it . for larger tanks , a hide should be provided . emptied coconut shells , hollowed tree barks and other hollowed ornaments will be suitable for the job . at least 3 inches of substrate should be provided for juveniles and 5 inches of substrate for adults ; more is appreciated since this specie likes to dig . do not put more than one tarantula in a single enclosure .\nto avoid ants , you can coat the legs of the table where you keep your enclosures or the bottom part of the sides of the enclosures with a generous amount of petroleum gel . just wipe clean and reapply every month or as needed . a swarm of ants can easily kill your tarantula . there are also other methods to avoid ants but from my experience , petroleum gel works best .\n1 . feed your tarantula before rehousing or transferring it to a new enclosure . tarantulas will not eat for days when transferred to a new enclosure . they need time to acclimate to the new environment .\n2 . do not feed your tarantula for a few days to a week after rehousing or transferring it .\n3 . if your tarantula stops being inactive or starts pacing around the enclosure or keeps on sticking to the sides of the enclosure , it is a sign that the tarantula is uncomfortable with the enclosure . you may need to change the whole enclosure or provide it with dryer substrate .\norganic potting soil , coconut fibre mulch , peat moss or any combination of 2 or more of these will be ideal . perlyte or vermiculite can optionally be added to help retain humidity .\nmoist your substrate with water and squeeze out the water , if the substrate holds the shape after its squeezed then it is perfect . never use wood shavings as they are highly abrasive and may contain oils that may be toxic to your tarantula , particularly oils from cedar .\nsubstrate should be replaced twice or thrice a year . to treat substrate , simply pour a generous amount of boiling water on it and let it sit for 10 minutes before draining . another way is to put dampen the substrate and put it in an oven at 350 degrees for 10 minutes .\nmost pet shops sell blocks of substrate . they are simple to use , affordable , and since they are heat treated to compress , they are sterile . all you need to do is soak the blocks in water and wait a few minutes , then break them off and squeeze the water out . if possible , use fresh substrate rather than recycled\ntreated\nsubstrate .\nnote : be sure that your substrate can retain water and hold humidity , but be sure your enclosure will not be overly damp as tarantulas don\u2019t like wet substrate .\ntip : always have dry substrate handy . if your tarantula is rejecting your substrate , try adding a layer of dry substrate over the damp one .\nadult and juveniles will need a hide if they are kept in a larger enclosure . a hollowed bark is perfect since it provides both shelter and climbing spots for your tarantula . for this specie , it is recommended to set the hollowed log horizontally . if flora should be added , use fake ones . real plants will attract mites and other pests . leave the real plants to the hardcore experts . also , do not put too much flora since this will only create hiding spots for the prey . rocks are also optional to add beauty , just be sure that there are no sharp edges . other accessories may be added as d\u00e9cor .\ncaution : in setting up your enclosure , be sure that everything will stay into place . things that might get knocked down or fall or roll out of place could potentially hurt and kill your tarantula . remember that this specie likes to dig . accessories should be rooted in place ."]}
{"id": 527, "summary": [{"text": "hagfish , the class myxini ( also known as hyperotreti ) , are eel-shaped , slime-producing marine fish ( occasionally called slime eels ) .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "they are the only known living animals that have a skull but no vertebral column , although hagfish do have rudimentary vertebrae .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "along with lampreys , hagfish are jawless ; they are the sister group to vertebrates , and living hagfish remain similar to hagfish from around 300 million years ago .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "the classification of hagfish had been controversial .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the issue was whether the hagfish was a degenerate type of vertebrate-fish that through evolution had lost its vertebra ( the original scheme ) and was most closely related to lampreys , or whether hagfish represent a stage that precedes the evolution of the vertebral column ( the alternative scheme ) as is the case with lancelets .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "recent dna evidence has supported the original scheme .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the original scheme groups hagfish and lampreys together as cyclostomes ( or historically , agnatha ) , as the oldest surviving class of vertebrates alongside gnathostomes ( the now-ubiquitous jawed vertebrates ) .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the alternative scheme proposed that jawed vertebrates are more closely related to lampreys than to hagfish ( i.e. , that vertebrates include lampreys but exclude hagfish ) , and introduces the category craniata to group vertebrates near hagfish . ", "topic": 10}], "title": "hagfish", "paragraphs": ["6 . hagfish are ancient . the only known fossil hagfish , which is 330 million years old , looks very similar to modern hagfish .\npacific hagfish hatch into fully functional , small hagfish . there is no parental involvement after egg - laying .\nprobably diverged from hagfish approximately 530 million years ago . hagfish can go several months without eating . one adult pacific hagfish can fill a seven - liter bucket with slime in minutes .\nkogot , a biochemist , displays a sample of synthetic hagfish slime recreated from alpha and gamma proteins of the pacific hagfish .\na mature pacific hagfish female will produce between 20 - 30 eggs per reproductive cycle . there is no known reproductive season or cycle length for hagfish .\nthe discovery of sophisticated eyes in a fossilized hagfish has dethroned the modern blind hagfish as the only observable so - called intermediate form in eye evolution .\nsimilarly , hagfish slime is not necessarily all about lubrication during knotting . there is evidence that hagfish sometimes actively hunt other fish , and in this case the slime helps the hagfish clog the gills of their prey and kill it .\nhagfish are normally deep - sea dwellers , scavenging on\u2014and sometimes living in\u2014dead bodies .\nas discussed by hagfish expert dr . douglas fudge , associate professor of integrative biology , university of guelph , in \u201cfun with silly string & hagfish\u201d at urltoken .\nuse golgi labelling of hagfish retina to investigate the connectivity of different cell classes .\nwicht h , northcutt rg . retinofugal and retinopetal projections in the pacific hagfish ,\nwicht h , northcutt rg . ontogeny of the head of the pacific hagfish (\nhagfish , they say , bite through tough flesh by tying themselves in knots .\nhagfish have guts , but they also absorb nutrients through their skin and gills .\nof course , in its natural environment on the seafloor , the hagfish has other uses for this secret weapon . ( read seven reasons why hagfish are amazing . )\n8 . hagfish can go months without eating . hagfish have slow metabolisms and can survive months between feedings . they can also absorb nutrients across their skin and gills .\ncontroversy has long surrounded the interrelationship between hagfish , lampreys and jawed vertebrates . one view is that hagfish are basal , having diverged before lampreys split from gnathostomes , whereas an alternative view is that hagfish have degenerated from a lamprey - like ancestor , with hagfish and lampreys forming an agnathan clade , the cyclostomes ( round mouths ) (\nas for their status as a delicacy , fudge says he\u2019s never tried hagfish meat .\naccording to thaler , the pacific northwest has a pretty active hagfish fishery . this particular shipment of hagfish was bound for south korea , where they are considered a delicacy .\nsupport for cyclostome monophyly ( i . e . hagfish and lampreys as a clade )\nextant hagfish display the vertebrate characteristic of delaminating neural - crest - like cells 142 , but this does not distinguish whether hagfish are basal or a sister group of lampreys .\n. first fossil hagfish ( myxinoidea ) : a record from the pennsylvanian of illinois .\npacific hagfish produce large amounts of mucilaginous slime , and can tie and untie knots in their body to evade predators . the primary predators of pacific hagfish are harbor seals (\nthe idea that some features of hagfish biology are best viewed through the point of view of hagfish feeding makes sense to chris glover at athabasca university in alberta , canada .\npacific hagfish have two pair of primitive , yet effective , rasps on the tongue used primarily for grasping . after establishing a firm hold on a food source , the hagfish ties and unties a knot within its own body to generate a ripping force . pacific hagfish feed on a variety of dead or dying organisms , including fish and mammals , but also probably include marine invertebrates in their diet . male hagfish may eat hagfish eggs .\nour studies examining reproductive cycles in hagfish are a good start in our understanding of the growth and reproduction of atlantic hagfish . these data along with future extensive studies on hagfish reproduction are needed in our understanding to prevent the exploitation of the atlantic hagfish off the new england coastline so that the fishery and the resource can be managed for the long term .\nthe hagfish is preyed upon by some marine mammals and large sea living invertebrates . most animals do however stay away from the hagfish since they risk being suffocated by the slime .\npacific hagfish are crucial for eliminating dead and dying organsims , and the effect of large - scale removal on the ecosystem could be significant as hagfish are important for recycling nutrients .\nhagfish slime isn ' t actually slime\u2014it ' s more like a gel made of filaments .\npacific hagfish are not currently exhibited . this information is supplied for use as a reference .\nevolutionists have long seen hagfish as a living transitional form in the story of eye evolution .\ndiscovery of complex eyes in an ancient hagfish fossil robs evolutionists of their supposed intermediate form .\nnow in light of new discoveries in the fossil record , evolutionists must abandon the hagfish as the last living candidate for an intermediate , evolutionary form of eyes . why ? because careful study of fossilized hagfish reveals hagfish once had nicely developed eyes ! evolutionists must regroup and imagine that hagfish and lampreys shared an even more ancient eyeless ancestor for which there is no living or fossil evidence at all . thanks to the vision of ancient hagfish , what evolutionists once thought they could demonstrate using hagfish blindness has changed in the proverbial blink of an eye .\n. 4 . ( a ) gonadal developmental stages identified in the medium hagfish ( 35\u201345 cm ) . ( b ) gonadal developmental stages identified in large hagfish ( 45\u201355 + cm )\n. development of a northwest atlantic hagfish fishery . a final report national marine fisheries service .\nthe idea suggests that body knotting is no mere hagfish party trick . instead , the ability to tie itself in knots is a vital component of the hagfish ' s feeding behaviour .\n) . first fossil hagfish ( myxinoidea ) \u2013 a record from the pennsylvanian of illinois .\ntheir bodies , too , are simple , resembling tubes . hagfish are also largely blind .\nrecent studies on estimates of population density of atlantic hagfish indicate that hagfish populations are high in certain areas in the gulf of maine . however , a decline in abundance and a decrease in catch per unit effort with intense fishing activity has been reported for pacific hagfish ( eptatretids ) off the coast of california and for atlantic hagfish within the gulf of maine . thus , there is an urgent need for basic research on the reproductive biology and ecology of hagfish .\nhagfish are not easily eaten or attacked by other animals . this is because the hagfish secretes a sticky slime that stops the predator in catching the hagfish and consuming it . the sticky slime is called as mucus which reacts with water to form a micro fibrous slime . this makes the hagfish body to be slippery and it also confuses the predator . by making themselves into a knot position the hagfish get rid of their slime and then return back to their original position\nthe most common species of hagfish is myxine glutinosa , but there are about 60 identified species , including the pacific hagfish , eptatretus stoutii , which is also known as the slime eel .\ninterpretation of the molecular\u2013genetic differences will be greatly assisted once the entire genome of a hagfish is available . in the meantime , the identification of hagfish opsin genes might resolve the phylogenetic positioning .\n, with the exception that the hagfish eye is arranged bilaterally . behaviourally , the hagfish seems to be almost blind , and its weak response to light is unaffected by removal of its eyes\nlittle is known about hagfish embryology or juvenile hagfish due to the remarkably low numbers of hagfish embryos available for study . no fertilized hagfish embryos of eptatretus have been collected for study since 1905 ( gorbman , 1997 ) . developing eggs in their natural environment have never been observed ( gorbman , 1997 ) . in addition , there is little known about how the hagfish feed , grow , or sexually mature ( martini , 1998 ) . due to these and other factors , it is imperative that further research be conducted to understand the basic reproduction and ecology of hagfish .\ncurrently , there are no regulations governing the harvesting of hagfish on the east coast . since there is little or no information on age determination , age and time of reproduction , seasonality of reproduction and growth of atlantic hagfish , the level at which a sustainable fisheries for this species can be maintained is unknown . in order for fisheries management to manage its hagfish stocks and develop a sustainable commercial hagfish fishery , an information base is needed for optimum use of the hagfish resource .\nhagfish - it would probably scare people off a little bit !\nlaughs tim winegard .\nsouth koreans drink in front of hagfish before it is broiled at a seafood restaurant in seoul .\nso what happens to the sea if there are too few hagfish ? no one is sure .\nforster , m . e . ( 1990 ) confirmation of the low metabolic rate of hagfish .\nmallatt , j . and paulsen , c . ( 1986 ) gill ultrastructure of the pacific hagfish\nthe hagfish is a jawless fish . modern hagfish are blind , and their eyes are missing so many parts that they hardly qualify as eyes . but ancient hagfish , scientists recently learned , had complex eyes like a lamprey\u2019s . this discovery means that hagfish can no longer be used as an example of an intermediate evolutionary step in eye evolution . image by pbsouthwood , via wikimedia commons .\nholmberg k , \u00f6hman p . fine structure of retinal synaptic organelles in lamprey and hagfish photoreceptors .\nthe metabolism of the hagfish is remarkably slow and up to seven months can pass between meals .\n\u201c atlantic hagfish \u201d , sea and sky . retrieved on 2008 - 03 - 28 . urltoken\nchapter 2 . reproductive neuroanatomy and gnrh in the primitive vertebrate order myxiniformes ( hagfish spp . )\nimmunohistochemical detection of gonadotropin - like material in the pituitary of brown hagfish ( param . . .\nmorphology and kinematics of feeding in hagfish : possible functional advantages of jaws . - pubmed - ncbi\nevidence supporting the presence of gth in the hagfish is not conclusive . matty et al . ( 1976 ) identified only limited abnormalities in the testes and ovaries of 150 hypophysectomized hagfish during a 7 month study . gametogenesis appeared to be unaffected by hypophysectomy suggesting that the hagfish gonad was independent of hypophysial gonadotropic control . however , patzner and ichikawa ( 1977 ) observed a decrease in the number of follicles containing spermatocytes and only a few follicles containing spermatides in hypophysectomized hagfish when compared to sham operated hagfish . these results suggested that the development of the hagfish gonad was under hypophysial gonadotropic control .\nonce a month for 18 months , 200 - 300 hagfish will be caught off the new england coast . total length , body weight , egg size and gonadal weight of hagfish will be recorded . forty hagfish will be subsampled for brains and gonads . gonads will be prepared for histological evaluation .\ncurrently , there are no regulations governing the harvesting of hagfish on the east coast . a decline in abundance and a decrease in catch per unit effort with intense fishing activity has been reported for pacific hagfish ( eptatretids ) off the coast of california and for atlantic hagfish within the gulf of maine . since there is little or no information on age determination , age and time of reproduction , seasonality of reproduction and growth of atlantic hagfish , the level at which a sustainable fisheries for this species can be maintained is unknown . in order for fisheries management to manage its hagfish stocks and develop a sustainable commercial hagfish fishery , an information base is needed for optimum use of the hagfish resource .\n. thus , the hagfish \u2018eye\u2019 seems not to subserve vision ; instead , it seems more likely to function as a circadian organ , similar to the gnathostome pineal complex ( which hagfish lack ) .\nhere at benthic labs , we are hagfish crazy ! there aren\u2019t many like us as hagfish are widely considered to be the most disgusting animals on earth . don\u2019t believe us ? see for yourself !\nhagfish feed on other fishes that are living as well as death fishes . the feeding of hagfish is quite different from other types of creatures . the hagfish enters the fish body through the mouth , gills or anus and start eating the prey after feeding they exit the corpse . this different eating habit hagfish can live for months without feeding . they also prey on small fish , crabs , and shrimps . the hagfish eat only the soft parts of the prey and leaves the bones and skin .\nan east coast fishery for atlantic hagfish , myxine glutinosa , started in 1992 . the landings for hagfish off the coast of maine and massachusetts have ranged from one to three million pounds each year during 1996 - 1999 . however , there is little known about reproduction and the reproductive success in hagfish .\na hagfish has no jaws , and its slime serves as a valuable form of self - defence .\nbut despite their small size , a single hagfish has hundreds of kilometres of slime thread inside it .\ninstead , scientists hope to make proteins like the ones found in hagfish slime artificially in the lab .\nno - one has made a spool of hagfish thread yet , but scientists are working on it .\n, has been tentatively included with the hagfish , but lacks the distinctive tentacles of all other species .\n\u201chagfish are slime - spewing monsters ! that ' s part of what makes them so wonderful . \u201d\nscientists and some fishermen fear that , without solving the mystery of hagfish reproduction , the us and other countries could unwittingly follow korea and japan in blotting out their hagfish populations . ( there\u2019s some concern that this already might be underway in new england , where hagfish catches collapsed after their 2000 peak . )\nfor these hagfish in oregon , though , it looks like they\u2019ve hit the end of the road .\nhannah waters , \u201c14 fun facts about hagfish , \u201d smithsonian , october 17 , 2012 , urltoken .\nin asia , over fishing has led to a significant decrease in the local hagfish population and asian fisheries have therefore begun to show an interest in the hagfish populations in the atlantic . while this might be beneficial for local economies along the atlantic coasts , it could also pose a threat to the atlantic hagfish population . care and caution must be exercised unless we wish to see the atlantic hagfish population go the same way as the asian one . as mentioned above , studies indicate that the hagfish female only produces a low number of eggs each breeding period and hagfish are therefore extra sensitive to over - fishing .\nestimated life span of pacific hagfish in the wild is 40 years , and 17 years in captivity .\nbiologists have known for decades that hagfish will sometimes tie their long rope - like body into a knot . an illustration of a knotted hagfish even made it onto the cover of scientific american in 1966 .\nthis developmental progression is explained most parsimoniously if we assume that lampreys inherited their eyes from an ancestor that they had in common with hagfish , and that this hagfish - like larval eye is present in the larva but transforms to a vertebrate - like eye in the adult , and thus that lampreys arose from a hagfish - like ancestor . alternatively , it is possible that extant hagfish correspond to an arrested form of lamprey development , and that hagfish are effectively a neotenous sister group to lampreys ( box 1 ) .\nwhen studied , hagfish females have produce up to 30 yolky one inch long eggs with tough shells . if this low number is true for all hagfish , it means that it might take a long time for a hagfish population to recover when harmed , e . g . by over - fishing or pollution .\nin most parts of the world hagfish is viewed as a useless by - catch , but there are a few countries in south east asia where hagfish is appreciated on the dinner table . nearly 5 million pounds ( 2 268 000 kg ) of hagfish meat is for instance consumed in south korea each year .\nauthor\u2019s note : october 15 th is hagfish day , a holiday created by urltoken to remind people that even the ugliest creatures need our conservation efforts . whether you decide that the best way to celebrate hagfish day is by eating a hagfish or by not eating one is up to you . i won\u2019t judge .\nwe know very little about hagfish reproduction , and no - one has ever gotten hagfish to breed in captivity - amazing as that sounds ,\nsays douglas fudge , who heads the guelph research project .\nother examples of simplicity are : that the semicircular canals of the labyrinth number just one in hagfish , but two in lampreys and three in jawed vertebrates 140 , and that the hagfish heart is not innervated .\nthat ' s right \u2014 a new study has shown that hagfish can absorb nutrients through their skin and gills . and once inside a carcass , the hagfish is surrounded by a high concentration of dissolved nutrients .\nother members of the team are trying to make threads using genetically engineered bacteria , bypassing the hagfish entirely .\nprofessor collin said the researchers studied a very primitive fish , the hagfish , to discover the missing link .\nwhile the recent hagfish slime ordeal may seem surreal to the average bystander , thaler wasn\u2019t all that fazed .\nhagfish do not have a larval stage , in contrast to lampreys , which have a long larval phase .\nhagfish secrete their mucus from lines of slime glands that run the length of their body . \u201cthere\u2019s really no place where you can bite a hagfish without having slime come shooting out at you , \u201d fudge says .\nfernholm , b . and holmberg , k . ( 1975 ) the eyes in three genera of hagfish (\nview image of an inshore hagfish ( eptatretus burgeri ) ( credit : nature production / naturepl . com )\nview image of a pacific hagfish ( eptatretus stoutii ) ( credit : brandon cole / naturepl . com )\nview image of an atlantic hagfish ( myxine glutinosa ) ( credit : florian graner / naturepl . com )\nbut first , the experts need to work out how to increase the slime production . it ' s unlikely that we will ever see massive hagfish farms . hagfish don ' t seem to respond well in these conditions .\ncorrection : this story initially identified hagfish as invertebrates because they don\u2019t have vertebrae . verge commenter bennyfactor pointed out that hagfish are in fact considered \u201codd\u201d or \u201cdegenerate\u201d vertebrates . he\u2019s correct , and the story has been updated .\nthe hagfish needs the salinity in its habitat to be stable , because these fishes have virtually no osmoregulation and are therefore highly vulnerable to salinity changes . the hagfish is the only known vertebrate with body fluids isosomotic with seawater . this means that the body fluids of the hagfish have the same total osmotic pressure or osmolality as seawater .\n, but because of their slow metabolism , hagfish may go for up to seven months without eating any food .\n1 . hagfish are scaleless with soft skin . the skin of the hagfish has been described as covering its body like a loosely fitting sock . colors vary with the species , and range from pink to blue - gray .\nextant hagfish are placed in the family myxinidae within the order myxiniformes ( hyperotreti ) and subphylum or class myxini .\njohn bocskay , \u201cthe good , the bad , and the hagfish , \u201d sweet pickles and corn , urltoken .\nprediction 1 : the phototransduction cascade components of tunicate ocelli should be homologous with those of hagfish and lamprey photoreceptors .\nidentify the g protein of ciona intestinalis photoreceptors and compare it with those of hagfish , lampreys and jawed vertebrates .\nmeasure the electrical light responses and light adaptation of hagfish photoreceptors , and compare these with cone and rod responses .\nota kg , kuraku s , kuratani s . hagfish embryology with reference to the evolution of the neural crest .\nthis study presented a remarkable breakthrough in the investigation of hagfish embryology that provided unequivocal evidence for neural crest cells .\nbullock th , moore jk , fields rd . evolution of myelin sheaths : both lamprey and hagfish lack myelin .\nmore than 99 % of living vertebrates possess opposable jaws ,\nsays clark . but hagfish do not .\nview image of some of the slime from a pacific hagfish ( credit : brandon cole / naturepl . com )\ngross as the goo may be , the highway hagfish catastrophe highlights a nagging problem . hagfish serve an important ecological role : by gnawing apart animal carcasses like dead whales , hagfish are crucial to keeping sea floors clean and ocean ecosystems in balance . so we want to make sure to keep them around . there\u2019s just one problem . much about hagfish existence mystifies scientists\u2014and has for centuries , making it hard to know whether their numbers are shrinking . and that happens to explain why 7 , 500 pounds of oregonian hagfish came to be cruising down highway 101 last week .\nus fishermen used to freeze their hagfish catches at sea before shipping them across the pacific . but as asian hagfish populations have dwindled into nothingness , koreans will pay a lot more for live hagfish that can be grilled fresh on demand . so pacific northwest fishermen have taken to capturing , and transporting , their slimy quarry to port alive ( pdf , p . 7 ) . though volumes are still relatively small , the returns on hagfish landing have climbed steadily .\nhagfish are found in temperate seas in both hemispheres , but hagfish has not been found in the red sea . a majority of the species live in rather cold environments where the water is at least 20 meters ( 66 feet ) deep . when hagfish live in warmer parts of the world , they are normally only found in really deep waters . hagfish can survive at remarkable depths and have been found 1700 metres ( 5600 feet ) down into the ocean .\nhagfish are referred to as \u201cliving fossils\u201d as they strongly resemble fossils of their 300 million year old ancestors . this does not mean that hagfish have stopped evolving , rather that their body plan and strategy is still very successful today .\nhagfish appear to have branched off from the chordates before the vertebral column appeared ( lee 2002 ) . a single fossil of hagfish shows that there has been little evolutionary change in the last 300 million years ( marshall 2001 ) . there have been claims that the hagfish eye is significant to the evolution of more complex eyes ( uq 2003 ) .\nthe inshore hagfish , eptatretus burge , is listed on the iucn red list as near threatened . this hagfish species is commonly found in the western north pacific off the coasts of southern japan , south korea , northern , and northwestern taiwan . in these geographic locations hagfish is a native ( endemic ) species . they are very heavily fished in the china sea for their skin and for food . approximately five million pounds of hagfish meat is eaten yearly in korea .\nanother hagfish species that may occur in california is the black hagfish ( eptatretus deani ) ; it is found in deeper water , is darker in coloration ( purplish black ) , and has a shorter head in proportion to the body .\nan adult hagfish can secrete enough slime to turn a large bucket of water into gel in a matter of minutes .\nfrank , t . 2004 . disgusting hagfish and magnificent sharks . noaa ocean explorer . retrieved may 31 , 2008 .\nwhile the recent hagfish slime ordeal may seem surreal to the average bystander , thaler wasn ' t all that fazed .\nmunz , f . w . and morris , r . w . ( 1965 ) metabolic rate of the hagfish ,\nsome living hagfish have light - detecting , pigmented eyespots , but they do not have the equipment to resolve images .\nit is possible that the role of \u2018long - branch attractions\u2019 might have been underestimated in previous molecular phylogenies of hagfish .\nthere is insufficient evidence to determine whether the hagfish eye has degenerated from a lamprey - like ancestor or is basal .\ndelarbre c , gallut c , barriel v , janvier p , gachelin g . complete mitochondrial dna of the hagfish ,\nhagfish reproduction is poorly understood , but evidence has been found indicating sequential hermaphroditic periods thought to arise from population pressures .\nhagfish are often called \u201cslime eels\u201d . however they are in the class agnatha along with lampreys . this class of animals incorporates jawless fish . there are 76 species of hagfish the world over and approximately 100 species in the class agnatha .\nvery little is known about hagfish reproduction . only one of the 76 species has been successfully bred in captivity . hagfish are thought to be hermaphroditic with a sex ratio of 100 : 1 in favour of females observed in many species .\nview image of hagfish are some of the most unusual fish alive ( credit : visuals unlimited / naturepl . com )\nother pressures might have led hagfish to lose their backbone - like structures , says barley .\npredation springs to mind . to escape predators , hagfish have become adept burrowers and display unusual anti - predator ' coiling ' behaviour .\ncoiled like sleeping snakes in the bottom of live tanks at carvalho ' s waterfront dock , the hagfish are peaceful .\natlantic hagfish are considered an important species in the gulf of maine for the following reasons as summarized by martini et al . ( 1997 ) : 1 ) hagfish play a significant role in the benthic ecosystem throughout the gulf of maine ; 2 ) hagfish have both important direct and indirect effects on commercial fisheries in the gulf of maine , and 3 ) atlantic hagfish are targeted by american and canadian fishermen to meet the south korean demand for \u201ceelskin\u201d used to manufacture leather goods .\nhagfish have no jaws . in fact , hagfish are in a very primitive division within the entire chordate classification scheme . while they have a skull , they have no vertebral column . recent literature suggests that hagfish might rather be classified as non - vertebrates . while chordates , they are often put into the sub - phylum craniata . despite the classification , and where scientists place them , hagfish are remarkable aquatic animals . in total there are about 60 species in 5 genera .\nif hagfish did once have a primitive spine - like structure , they must have lost it a very long time ago . in 1991 a palaeontologist described a 300 - million - year - old fossil found in illinois , which looks remarkably like a living hagfish . as far as external appearances go , hagfish have hardly changed through that vast expanse of time .\nas a deep - sea ecologist , andrew thaler says hagfish are common visitors anywhere there\u2019s free food , like whale carcasses .\na sketch by bashford dean of a hagfish caught on the line . in the slime that surrounds it lies five eggs .\ntoo few hagfish could also be bad for the food chain . while hagfish eat huge quantities of deep - sea worms , they also serve as tasty meals for seals and other marine mammals ( which apparently don\u2019t mind a mouthful of slime ) .\ndirtsailor2003 , ' slime eels ! ! ! ! aka hagfish , ' via flickr . cc by - nd 2 . 0\na hagfish usually swims slowly along the seafloor in a snake - like fashion although it may have occasional bursts of speed .\nhagfish have one of the animal kingdom ' s gooiest secret weapons : they shoot gill - clogging slime at their enemies .\njosh kogot , michelle kincer and ryan kincer demonstrate the elasticity of the slime secreted from a pacific hagfish in a lab .\nthe hagfish \u2018eye\u2019 and retina are very simple , and resemble the pineal organ of vertebrates ( see main text ) . furthermore , during lamprey metamorphosis , the eye develops from a simple hagfish - like form to a vertebrate - like adult form .\nkuraku s , kuratani s . time scale for cyclostome evolution inferred with a phylogenetic diagnosis of hagfish and lamprey cdna sequences .\n. the occurrence and distribution of gnrh in the brain of atlantic hagfish , an agnatha , determined by chromatography and immunocytochemistry .\nthe tough and soft skin of the hagfish is also a popular commodity and is used to make wallets , purses , handbags , boots and similar items . the skin is normally market under the name \u201ceelskin\u201d or \u201ceel skin\u201d , not hagfish skin .\n( pacific hagfish ) are found in cold marine waters of the antitropical north and south pacific ocean on muddy sea floors .\npacific hagfish are found typically on muddy bottoms to depths of 633 meters , but can also be found occasionally on rocky bottoms . they are more common at shallower depths , from 40 to 100 meters . pacific hagfish may make small migrations from shallow waters in the fall into deeper water . although this is unconfirmed , it is consistent with seasonal migrations in other hagfish .\nhagfish have slime glands along their body - length which allow them to produce a slimy solution that aids in deterring predators . sometimes hagfish have been called slime eels because of this ( even though they are not related to the true eels ) . hagfish are able to get themselves out of the slime they produce by tying themselves in a knot and squeezing away the slime .\nthe obvious question here is , what\u2019s up with all that mucous ? do hagfish hate modern highway infrastructure or harbor some sort of vendetta against priuses ? apparently , the hagfish uses slime for self - defense against predators or alternatively , for hunting prey .\nthe fish leather market began to flounder when it became apparent that many pacific hagfish had inferior skins . buyers looked to the east coast , whose hagfish skins were of higher quality . the atlantic - side fishery now supplies 80 percent of the market .\nhagfish represent the oldest extant craniates and are an important link between invertebrates and vertebrates . however , key elements of the reproductive system have not been elucidated in hagfish . there is new evidence from our recent studies that atlantic hagfish may have a seasonal reproductive cycle . these data include seasonal changes in gonadotropin - releasing hormone , gonadal steroids , . . . [ show full abstract ]\nscientists believe hagfish slime or similar proteins could be turned into tights or breathable athletic wear , or even bullet - proof vests .\nhagfish eggs are approximately one inch long , and encased in a tough shell . these eggs are large for a fish , and a female can therefore not produce very many . despite the low number of eggs laid , hagfish exist in large numbers , with populations of up to 15 , 000 occurring in a relatively small area . this suggests that hagfish have a low mortality rate .\nin a truly sci - fi scenario , thousands of mucus - spewing hagfish\u2014destined for dinner plates in asia\u2014coated a road in oregon .\nit is estimated that hagfish may live 40 years in the ocean and 17 years in a protected environment such as an aquarium .\nidentify the ciliary opsin ( or opsins ) of hagfish and determine its ( or their ) phylogenetic relationship to other ciliary opsins .\na jawless fish within the chordate phylum ( agnatha is greek for \u2018no jaw\u2019 ) . the two extant groups are hagfish and lampreys\nholmberg , k . and \u00f6hman , p . ( 1976 ) fine structure of retinal synaptic organelles in lamprey and hagfish photoreceptors .\n\u201d disgusting hagfish and magnificent sharks \u201d , tammy frank , noaa ocean explorer . retrieved on 2008 - 03 - 28 . urltoken\npacific hagfish hatch from an egg in fully functional form without any intermediate larval stage . determining the sex of pacific hagfish below 35 cm in length is difficult as a copulatory organ is absent . despite over a century of searching , only 200 fertilized eggs of\ntable 1 : list of predatory fish species , recorded and observed in video footage , whose gills were clogged by hagfish slime .\nsome people call hagfish the\nvultures of the sea\n, because they seem to get most of their food by scavenging .\nafter plenty of careful observation , uyeno , clark and their colleagues think they can explain how hagfish get the job done . what ' s more , their idea might go a long way towards explaining many of the hagfish ' s other unusual biological features .\nthat is speculative for now . but if it ever does come to pass , one day a hagfish could save your life .\n10 . hagfish slime could be the fiber of the future . hagfish slime contains tens of thousands of very thin ( 100 times smaller than a human hair ) protein threads . the threads are extremely strong , and when stretched and dried out they resemble spider silk . like spider silk , scientists think hagfish slime could be woven together to produce super - strong fabrics . potentially , hagfish slime could be used to create material with the strength of nylon or plastic , and applications range from bulletproof vests to artificial tissues .\nthere\u2019s still much and more we don\u2019t know about hagfish and their slime , but the closer you look , the more weirdness you\u2019ll find . hagfish can tie themselves into knots , they sometimes take up residence in dead bodies , and their hearts beat without oxygen .\nthe obvious question here is , what ' s up with all that mucus ? do hagfish hate modern highway infrastructure or harbour some sort of vendetta against priuses ? apparently , the hagfish uses slime for self - defence against predators or alternatively , for hunting prey .\nthe hagfish is famous for its ability to emit mucus and even its scientific name is derived from the greek word for slime . one single hagfish can fill a milk jug with slime in no time . the slime is probably a way for the hagfish to fend of predators , since the slime can be used to form a protective slime - cocoon . if a fish tries to eat the cocoon , the slime can clog its gills and make it suffocate . if you try to chew hagfish slime , it will expand .\n. . . commercial interest in the hagfish has increased as traditional fishery stock harvests have receded in some regions . while attention has recently turned to the hagfish as a potential source of edible meat and skin , there are no regulations on hagfish harvesting throughout america ' s eastern seaboard at present ( powell et al . , 2005 ) . as fascinating as hagfish may be in their abstract and conceptual role in supplying missing pieces to the vertebrate evolutionary puzzle , there are important practical reasons to study them , too . . . .\nthe largest species of hagfish can reach about 4ft ( 1 . 2m ) , though most are around 1ft ( 30cm ) long .\nto protect hagfish populations in the face of all the unknowns , several us states have made moves ( pdf , p . 7 ) to monitor their fairly unregulated hagfish fisheries . in the meantime , they might want to think about some tiny seat belts , too .\nhagfish are also known as slime eels , thought they are not eels . they belong to the class agnatha , fish without jaws .\nthe largest hagfish , eptatretus goliath , can grow to more than four feet , while the smallest species reach only several inches long .\nto wipe its slime away , the hagfish will tie itself into a knot and work the knot from its head to its tail , scraping off the slime as it goes . if its nostril fills with slime , the hagfish will \u201csneeze\u201d to clear out the clog .\nwe show hagfish diverging either before the divergence of lampreys or else after lampreys separated from the line that would become the jawed vertebrates .\na system of sensory organs resembling taste buds , called schreiner organs , are found throughout the epidermis . the distribution of these organs is more extensive than taste buds in nearly any vertebrate , giving hagfish the ability to sense prey in dark and muddy habitats . this sensory system has no direct homologue in vertebrates and seems specific to hagfish . hagfish also have well - developed nasal organs used in olfaction .\nyou can argue quite strongly that hagfish are ' designed to dine ' ,\nsays glover .\ni think that uyeno and clark have provided robust evidence that the loose skin of hagfish certainly does appear to be a critical component facilitating the knotting behaviour .\nwhen they ' re comfortable , they curl up ,\nchu said , gently drawing a net through the mass of hagfish .\nhagfish have no external sex organs , which means they probably don\u2019t do internal fertilization ( but then again , they might be like coelacanths , which pull it off without the usual equipment ) . but we\u2019re not sure ; attempts to observe mating in captivity have proven similarly futile . one hagfish authority compares hagfish to giant pandas , in that they refuse to get it on in captivity , reported the wsj .\n\u201c [ hagfish ] are primitive jawless fishes with an eel - like body , \u201d deep sea ecologist andrew david thaler told gizmodo . \u201cyou can immediately tell you\u2019re dealing with a hagfish if , rather than a jaw , it has a horrifying tooth - lined rasping opening where its mouth would be that looks like something out of hr geiger\u2019s sketchbook . also , if there\u2019s slime , it\u2019s a hagfish . \u201d\ndean\u2019s hagfish egg collection came from monterey bay fishermen who spent a summer dangling baited lines from rowboats . in their alarm at having been hooked , the hagfish released slime , encasing them as they struggled on the line . stuck within those gobs of slime were the eggs .\n\u201cbut our research suggests hagfish did not degenerate from lamprey - like ancestors , but are instead the remnants of an earlier sister group . \u201d\nhagfish originally had good eyes and lost them , but this is not reverse evolution because eye complexity did not evolve in the first place .\nprediction 5 : if hagfish are monophyletic with lampreys , then they might represent a form with arrested development , rather than a degenerate form .\ngroups . pacific hagfish have changed little over the past 330 million years , and closely resemble the first craniates . the evolutionary path leading to\nbut glover says it is less clear whether there are clear links between body knotting and some of the other strange features of hagfish biology .\na modern hagfish , the pacific hagfish eptatretus ( top ) , shows some of the diagnostic features of the group : the tentacles surrounding the snout , the left oesophagocutaneous opening ( in the rear of the gill openings ) , and the series of large , ventrolateral slime glands . the earliest known fossil hagfish , myxinikela , from the late carboniferous of illinois , had a much stouter body shape but clearly shows the tentacles .\nonly little information is known about the reproduction of hagfish . at present the sex ratio of hag fish is found to be 100 : 1 favor of females . in some species of hagfish they have both the ovaries and testes and the female gonads do not function until the individual has attained the particular lifecycle stage . the female hagfish lay 20 to 30 eggs which are yolky and the eggs do not have a larval stage\nif there\u2019s one thing you really don\u2019t want scattered across a highway , it\u2019s live hagfish . but last week , five vehicles collided on an oregon highway , flinging 7 , 500 pounds of hagfish\u2014also known as \u201csnot snakes\u201d and \u201cslime eels\u201d\u2014across the blacktop , and making a very unusual mess .\nthe hagfish family , myxinidae , is the only family in the order myxiniformes ( also known as hyperotreti ) , which itself is the only order in the class myxini . thus , hagfish is variously used for any of the three taxonomic levels ( itis 2003 ; nelson 1994 ) .\nbecause of their inaccessibility , hagfish reproduction and early development have escaped observation . the reproductive patterns of most species of hagfish are unknown . to date , no one has been able to successfully reproduce any hagfish species in captivity . there is limited information on reproduction in one hagfish species in japan . the japanese hagfish , e . burgeri , is the only known species of hagfish that has a regular annual reproductive cycle and undergoes an annual migration ( ichikawa et al . , 2000 ; kobayashi et al . , 1972 ; nozaki et al . , 2000 ) . a study by martini et al . ( 1997 ) suggested that atlantic hagfish have limited reproductive potential based on the small number of eggs produced ( less than 30 per female ) , about 25 % of the animals examined did not have visible gonadal tissue and the small number of males ( less than 6 % of the population ) , gravid females ( less than 1 % ) and postovulatory females ( less than 5 % ) .\ncurrently , there are no regulations governing the harvesting of hagfish along the east coast . discard rates of hagfish from the fishery reach up to 50 to 60 % ( noaa / nmfs ) ( martini , 1998 ) . since there has been little or no information about the life history of hagfish including growth rate , age determination , reproductive biology , life span , and larval size at hatching , the level at which a sustainable fisheries for this species can be maintained is unknown . in order for fisheries management to manage its hagfish stocks and develop a sustainable commercial hagfish fishery , an information base is needed for optimum use of the hagfish resource ( barss , 1993 ) . to address these issues , the new england fishery council has begun the process of developing regulations in 2003 although it will likely take a few years to develop a fisheries management plan .\nthis is the part where we talk about hagfish : a wormlike creature , neither vertebrate nor invertebrate , that survives by secreting a special kind of fibrous slime that effectively closes up attackers ' gills ; a single hagfish can produce quarts of the stuff . when hagfish are hungry \u2014 they can survive for as long without food as a bedbug \u2014 they are fond of burrowing into the bellies of their victims and consuming them from the inside out . if a fisherman is unlucky enough to pull up hagfish in his or her net , the other fish in the catch will be ruined . how does a hagfish clear away excess slime ? it quite literally ties itself into a knot , which moves along its horrible length .\nit ' s actually a thin film of hagfish proteins . this skin collapses , forming a short fibre . she twirls it between her fingers .\nscientists have been studying hagfish for centuries - darwin even took notes on them . but there are many basic facts they still don ' t know . we are still in the dark on how they reproduce and how to tell how old a hagfish is . bony fish usually have otoliths , which act like tree rings , and are used as a way of telling how old they are - but hagfish don ' t have these .\nactually , thaler adds , \u201cslime\u201d isn\u2019t even really the right word . ( see\nhagfish slime could be eco - friendly fabric .\n)\nthese fish are affected by the trash and chemicals that we put into the ocean . pacific hagfish are a crucial part of the cycle of life as they eliminate dead and dying organisms . there could be a significant impact on the ecosystem should there be a large scale removal of hagfish .\nscientists have demonstrated that they can use mild conditions to convert artificial hagfish slime into one of the stiffest protein - based fibres ever reported . 1\nmolecular\u2013genetic analysis of mitochondrial and nuclear genes has provided strong support for the notion that hagfish and lampreys are sister taxa 56 , 135 \u2013 139 .\nprediction 4 : the hagfish retina should not contain bipolar cells , and its photoreceptors should synapse directly onto the projection neurons ( ganglion cells ) .\nexamine the phylogenetic relationship between cyclostome genes ; in particular , examine the relationship between the opsin genes to estimate the stage at which hagfish diverged .\nthat realisation encouraged uyeno to reassess what drove the evolution of the other unusual features of hagfish biology , in a paper published in june 2016 .\nthe hagfish has been called the nastiest and most disgusting creature in the sea . in south korea , it\u2019s called dinner . check it out :\nthe condition of hagfish eyes has proved particularly influential in scenarios of eye evolution . in contrast to lampreys , which possess a sophisticated eye with a lens , iris and eye muscles , hagfish eyes lack such structures and , unlike almost all other vertebrates , including lampreys , the retinal epithelium of hagfish is devoid of pigment granules . this condition has been interpreted to reflect a rudimentary intermediate evolutionary grade in the gradual assembly of the vertebrate eye .\nthere has been long discussion in scientific literature about the hagfish being classified as vertebrates versus invertebrates . given their classification as agnatha , hagfish are seen as an elementary vertebrate in between prevertebrate and gnathostome . they tend to be classified either under the subphylum vertebrata or as an invertebrate within subphylum craniata .\nbecause it is so deficient in necessary parts , \u201cit has been postulated that the hagfish eye reflects a failure in eye development to proceed beyond that of an earlier stage in vertebrate eye evolution , \u201d gabbott\u2019s team writes . 10 they recall the commonly accepted contribution of the hagfish to evolutionary understanding :\nd . bardack . 1991 . first fossil hagfish ( myxinoidea ) : a record from the pennsylvanian of illinois . science 254 : 701 - 703 .\nhanson , c . a . and sidell , b . d . ( 1983 ) atlantic hagfish cardiac muscle : metabolic basis of tolerance to anoxia .\nhagfish with complex eyes were designed by a wise creator god , but they have degenerated like so many other things in this sin - cursed world .\n) , with rather poorly organized outer - segment membranes . in each of these respects the hagfish eye resembles the pineal organ of non - mammalian vertebrates\nthe resulting paired lateral photoreceptive organs would have resembled the \u2018eyes\u2019 of extant hagfish , lacking any image - forming apparatus and subserving non - visual functions .\nas late as 2006 , a new member was added to the hagfish family myxinidae when the goliath hagfish was scientifically described by mincarone & stewart and given the name eptatretus goliath . eptatretus goliath was described from a specimen caught at a dept of 811 metres ( 2 , 661 feet ) at the head of the hauraki canyon off the northeast north island in new zealand . the species was named goliath since it was a true giant in the world of hagfish ; the specimen measured an astonishing 127 , 5 cm ( approximately 50 inches ) . this makes eptatretus goliath the largest known species of hagfish ."]}
{"id": 551, "summary": [{"text": "nerice bidentata , the base-streaked prominent moth or double-toothed prominent moth , is a moth of the family notodontidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in from nova scotia to florida , west to texas and north to saskatchewan .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 30 \u2013 40 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults have a two-coloured forewing .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the lower half is greyish brown and the upper half is light to dark brown .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "these are separated by a doubly toothed blackish band with a variable white edging .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are brown , although somewhat darker toward the margin .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "they are on wing from april to september and again from may to august in one generation per year in the north .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the larvae feed on the leaves of ulmus species .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they are chalky-green and are similar to the leaf edges of the host plant .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "larvae can be found from june to october . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "nerice bidentata", "paragraphs": ["species nerice bidentata - double - toothed prominent - hodges # 7929 - bugguide . net\nnot surprisingly , double - toothed prominents are a favorite around here . we love how accurately their double - toothed backs imitate the double - toothed elm leaves on which they live and feed . we love searching for them on little sunburnt elm trees along roadsides . we love their scientific name , nerice bidentata , which has inspired us to nickname them \u201ccrazy old nerice , \u201d a deeply obscure reference to disney\u2019s beauty and the beast .\ntoday , we discovered another reason to love the double - toothed prominent : a delightful old article describing the species . in june 1892 , caroline g . soule\u2019s \u201cthe early stages of nerice bidentata\u201d was published in the cambride entomological club journal , psyche . in her nine succinct paragraphs , soule made me feel as if i\u2019d never really even looked at the double - toothed prominent . she\u2019s meticulously descriptive :\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\n: fw grayish with black double - toothed bar running from the base to mid outer margin , fading to brown at the costa . sub - apical dash shaded with white . hw brown , darker toward margin .\ncaterpillars of eastern north america david l . wagner . 2005 . princeton university press .\ncheck list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . hodges , et al . ( editors ) . 1983 . e . w . classey , london . 284 pp .\npeterson field guide to moths of northeastern north america david beadle and seabrooke leckie . 2012 . houghton mifflin .\npeterson field guides : eastern moths charles v . covell . 1984 . houghton mifflin company .\ncaterpillars of eastern forests david l . wagner , valerie giles , richard c . reardon , michael l . mcmanus . 1998 . u . s . dept of agriculture , forest health technology enterprise team .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\neasily recognized by the doubly toothed blackish band that separates grayish brown lower half of forewing from light to dark brown upper half . note variable white edging along toothed band . hindwing brown , darker toward margin .\nthe caterpillar lab fosters greater appreciation and care for the complexity and beauty of our local natural history through live caterpillar educational programs , research initiatives , and photography and film projects . we believe that an increased awareness of one\u2019s local environment is the foundation on which healthy and responsible attitudes towards the broader natural systems of this world is built .\n\u201caug . 23 . 3d moult . 5 / 8in . long . head large , round , bilobed , smooth , green with dark face lines\u2026 4th segment had a double dorsal hump , tipped with brown ; 5th , a much larger double hump , yellow green , tipped with brown , the brown extending down the front and back like a dorsal line lifted by the hump ! 6th to 10th segments had similar humps , but smaller , like that on 4th\u2026 spiracles , heretofore unnoticeable , green with a brown line on each side , and from them spread white lines like veins , distinct on the green sides of the larva . \u201d\n\u201csept . 8th . \u2026 the pupa was very active , rolling a foot or more at a time . \u201c\ninterestingly , caroline soule lived in brookline , massachusetts , just a few miles from where our executive director sam jaffe was born and raised . caterpillar love and keen observation skills must be in the water down there !\npsyche is an open - access journal that\u2019s been in publication since 1874 . you can read caroline soule\u2019s full article on pysche\u2019s website here : urltoken ( just click \u201cfull - text pdf\non the right ) .\neach week ( or at least some weeks ! ) the caterpillar lab features a\ncaterpillar of the week .\neach featured caterpillar is a species we ' ve raised at our lab in keene , nh . we hope you enjoy meeting the caterpillars of new england !\n80x5 - 240x3 - 240x4 - 320x1 - 320x2 - 320x3 - 640x1 - 640x2 set display option above . click on images to enlarge .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nbiokids is sponsored in part by the interagency education research initiative . it is a partnership of the university of michigan school of education , university of michigan museum of zoology , and the detroit public schools . this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation under grant drl - 0628151 . copyright \u00a9 2002 - 2018 , the regents of the university of michigan . all rights reserved .\na double - toothed prominent moth in anne arundel co . , maryland ( 6 / 9 / 2016 ) . identification verified by roger downer / bamona . photo by timothy reichard . ( mbp list )\na double - toothed prominent moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 5 / 28 / 2014 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na double - toothed prominent moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 6 / 13 / 2017 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na double - toothed prominent moth in baltimore co . , maryland ( 6 / 2 / 2017 ) . determined by john s . ascher / bugguide . photo by emily stanley . ( mbp list )\na double - toothed prominent moth in prince george ' s co . , maryland ( 5 / 12 / 2004 ) . specimen provided by bob patterson . photo by larry line . ( mbp list )\na double - toothed prominent moth in howard co . , maryland ( 5 / 19 / 2005 ) . photo by larry line . ( mbp list )\na double - toothed prominent moth collected in frederick co . , maryland ( 8 / 7 / 2003 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na double - toothed prominent moth caterpillar in baltimore co . , maryland ( 9 / 1 / 2013 ) . photo by bob cammarata . ( mbp list )\na double - toothed prominent moth in howard co . , maryland ( 9 / 7 / 2015 ) . verified by brandon woo / bugguide . photo by bonnie ott . ( mbp list )\na double - toothed prominent moth larva in frederick co . , maryland ( 8 / 31 / 2016 ) . photo by bob cammarata . ( mbp list )\na double - toothed prominent moth caterpillar in calvert co . , maryland ( 8 / 29 / 2003 ) . photo by arlene ripley . ( mbp list )\nuse of images featured on maryland biodiversity project is only permitted with express permission of the photographer ."]}
{"id": 563, "summary": [{"text": "the greater adjutant ( leptoptilos dubius ) is a member of the stork family , ciconiidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "its genus includes the lesser adjutant of asia and the marabou stork of africa .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "once found widely across southern asia , mainly in india but extending east to borneo , the greater adjutant is now restricted to a much smaller range with only two small breeding populations ; one in india with the largest colony in assam and the other in cambodia .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "populations disperse after the breeding season .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "this large stork has a massive wedge-shaped bill , a bare head and a distinctive neck pouch .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "during the day , they soar in thermals along with vultures with whom they share the habit of scavenging .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they feed mainly on carrion and offal ; however , they are opportunistic and will sometimes prey on vertebrates .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the english name is derived from their stiff \" military \" gait when walking on the ground .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "large numbers once lived in asia , but have declined greatly , possibly due to improved sanitation , to the point of being endangered .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the total population in 2008 was estimated at around a thousand individuals .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "in the 19th century , they were especially common in the city of calcutta , where they were referred to as the \" calcutta adjutant \" .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "known locally as hargila ( derived from the bengali words for \" bone-swallower \" ) and considered to be unclean birds , they were largely left undisturbed but sometimes hunted for the use of their meat in folk medicine .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "valued as scavengers , they were once used in the logo of the calcutta municipal corporation . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "greater adjutant", "paragraphs": ["purnima devi barman explains the religious importance of the greater adjutant stork in a temple courtyard .\nthe greater adjutant is a huge stork named for its slow , measured gait , which resembles that of a military adjutant , or officer .\nthe greater adjutant is found only in two small , separate breeding populations in india and cambodia .\na conservation brigade of 70 villagers has created a safe haven for the endangered greater adjutant stork .\ngreater adjutant storks feeding on garbage dumping site in boragaon . . . . . purnima devi barman . .\nthe other 400 or so greater adjutant storks are found in the eastern indian state of bihar and in cambodia .\nsuch accomplishments have encouraged the brigade to expand their protections to other greater adjutant nesting colonies in the brahmaputra valley .\nthe diet of the greater adjutant consists of a range of animal species , and it will even take injured ducks .\ngreater adjutant storks stand near a garbage dump on the outskirts of gauhati , india , on june 5 , 2012 .\ngreater adjutant storks feeding on garbage dumping site in boragaon . . . . . purnima devi barman . . - youtube\na teacher of sankardev sishu niketan school draws a greater adjutant stork on a blackboard at dadara village , west of guwahati .\nthe greater adjutant stork is one of the most endangered bird species widely distributed in the plains of the brahmaputra valley of assam . the present global population of the greater adjutant stork is about 1 , 500 \u2014 around 900 of them are in assam .\nalthough the longest lifespan of a captive greater adjutant was 43 years , the longevity of these birds in the wild remains unknown .\nthe greater adjutant in assam takes to roosting in tall trees , a majority of which is now in privately - owned lands .\nthe greater adjutant was formerly found in south and southeast asia , but there are now just two small and separate breeding populations ; one in assam , india and one in cambodia . a migratory bird , the greater adjutant also visits viet nam , thailand and burma when not breeding\nthe greater adjutant retracts its neck in flight , probably due to the heavy bill . the large wings allow the bird to soar easily .\nyoung boys carry carcasses of greater adjutant storks , which have either succumbed to the poison laced on the garbage or plastic mixed with waste .\na greater adjutant scans a lily - filled pond for fishes . the bird ' s wetland habitat is slowly being encroached upon by construction sites .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - greater adjutant ( leptoptilos dubius )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - greater adjutant ( leptoptilos dubius )\ntitle =\narkive species - greater adjutant ( leptoptilos dubius )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe greater adjutant was formerly found in south and southeast asia , but there are now just two small and separate breeding populations ; one in assam , india and one in cambodia . a migratory bird , the greater adjutant also visits viet nam , thailand and burma when not breeding ( 3 ) .\nin january more than two dozen greater adjutant storks were found dead in a neighbourhood near guwahati . forensic testing is being done to learn the cause .\nchoudhury , a . 2008 . counting large gatherings of globally threatened greater adjutant leptoptilos dubius . indian birds 4 ( 4 ) : 133 - 135 .\nthe greater adjutant is the most endangered stork of the world . the iucn , international wetland research bureau ( iwrb ) specialist group on stork , ibis and spoonbill ( sis ) and the international council of bird preservation ( icbp ) have all declared the greater adjutant stork as first priority species for conservation .\nrahmani , a . , g . narayan , l . rosalin . 1990 . status of the greater adjutant ( leptoptilos dubius ) in the indian subcontinent .\ngoswami , s . k . ; patar , p . j . 2007 . fall in the number of greater adjutant nests in nagaon , assam , india .\nin this june 5 , 2012 photo , a greater adjutant stork flies by its fellow birds near deepor beel wildlife sanctuary , on the outskirts of gauhati in assam .\nsingha , h . , a . rahmani , m . coulter , s . javed . 2002 . nesting ecology of the greater adjutant stork in assam , india .\nthe greater adjutant in non - breeding plumage has bluish - grey upperparts contrasting with pale grey greater coverts and tertials . the tail is dark grey . on the underparts , body and wing - coverts are whitish . the undertail feathers are blackish .\nassam has about two - thirds of the greater adjutant stork in the world , largely in three villages just northwest of state capital guwahati . photos : anupam nath / ap\nthe greater adjutant ( leptoptilos dubius ) is a member of the stork family , ciconiidae . its genus includes the lesser adjutant of asia and the marabou stork of africa . once found widely across southern asia , mainly in india but extending east to borneo , the greater adjutant is now restricted to a much smaller range with only two small breeding populations ; one in india with the largest colony in assam and the other in cambodia .\nthe greater adjutant ( leptoptilos dubius ) is a member of the stork family , ciconiidae . its genus includes the lesser adjutant of asia and the marabou stork of africa . once found widely across southern asia , mainly in india but extending east to borneo , the greater adjutant is now restricted to a much smaller range with only two small breeding populations ; one in india with the largest colony in assam and the other in cambodia .\nthe greater adjutant is classified as endangered ( en ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and is listed under schedule iv of the wildlife act 1972 ( 3 ) .\ngreater adjutants are important scavengers of large carrion and likely contribute to sanitation and disease control in the environment . like many birds , greater adjutants are hosts to avian lice including\nseptember at dadara . when the village women group was offering prayers to god for the welfare of greater adjutant and for a successful breeding season ahead , they were stunned and speechless .\nrange : the greater adjutant is found in e nepal , n india and n bangladesh and indochina ( mainly in cambodia ) . it breeds only in assam valley , bihar and cambodia .\nintroduction : the greater adjutant is a huge , bulky stork of ne india and se asia . like the lesser adjutant and the marabou stork , it has a huge , thick bill and bare skin on the head . the large wingspan allows the bird to soar easily , but it flies with retracted neck due to the heavy bill . the name \u201cadjutant\u201d is derived from it stiff gait while walking on the ground . the greater adjutant has very small population that is declining rapidly . this species is threatened by habitat destruction , pollution and persecution . it is currently classified as endangered .\nsingha , h . , a . rahmani , m . coulter , s . javed . 2003 . surveys for greater adjutant leptoptilos dubius in the brahmaputra valley , assam , india during 1994\u20131996 .\ngreater adjutant stork , the world\u2019s most endangered of the stork species , has found a secure home to breed in two nondescript villages of assam\u2019s kamrup district , heralding a new chapter in its conservation .\ntree of life web project . 2008 . leptoptilos dubius . greater adjutant . version 27 june 2008 ( temporary ) . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 01 / 08 / 2013 ) .\nin a few months , the greater adjutant stork\u2014called hargilla , which means\nswallower of bones\nin sanskrit\u2014will descend on this hamlet , situated in assam ' s brahmaputra valley , to breed in large numbers .\na group of women in the brahmaputra river valley are leading a community - based effort to protect the greater adjutant ( a stork also known as the hargilla ) , which once ranged from pakistan to cambodia .\ncalls and songs : the greater adjutant is often silent away from the nest . like other ciconiidae , it performs bill - clattering during the displays , but also produces low grunting , croaking and roaring sounds .\na vast expanse of stinking garbage has become one of the favoured feeding grounds of the rare greater adjutant stork . one shudders to think of the toxic substances that these scavengers must be ingesting along with their food .\na huge stork species , the greater adjutant ( leptoptilos dubius ) has a naked pink head , a very thick yellow bill and a low - hanging neck pouch . the neck ruff is white and , other than the pale grey leading edge of each wing , the rest of the greater adjutant\u2019s body is dark grey . juveniles have a narrower bill , thicker down on the head and neck and entirely dark wings ( 2 ) .\nbarman , p . d . and sharma , d . k . in press . conservation of endangered greater adjutant stork in assam , india . wildlife institute of india envis : 192 - 199 ( in press ) .\nsometimes the women even play the part of greater adjutants themselves , donning masks in street - corner plays .\nearlier , widely distributed throughout northern and eastern india and many countries of south and south - east asia , the greater adjutant stork is currently distributed only in assam and bihar in india and a few other locations in cambodia .\nthe greater adjutant ( leptoptilos dubius ) is the largest stork species in the world , reaching 1 . 5 meters in height , and is listed on the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) red list as endangered .\nbehaviour in the wild : the greater adjutant feeds mainly at carcasses and often scavenges through garbage disposal areas . the digestive system of these large storks allows them to eat and swallow bones , giving them the name \u201chargila\u201d ( bone swallower ) .\nthe greater adjutant in breeding plumage has blackish face and forehead , whereas head and neck are redder . we can see an inflated hanging gular pouch and a reddish bulge at base of the rear neck . the upperparts are paler bluish - grey with silvery greater coverts and tertials . the neck pouch becomes bright saffron - yellow whereas the upper tibia is reddish .\n\u201cwe had to involve the locals because the bird nests on trees owned by individual households . the future of the greater adjutant stork depends on individual tree owners who used to fell trees earlier to get rid of the nests , \u201d barman said .\nsingha , h . ; rahmani , a . r . 2006 . ecology , population and conservation of greater adjutant leptoptilos dubius in assam , india . journal of the bombay natural history society 103 ( 2 - 3 ) : 264 - 269 .\nthe greater adjutant usually disperses after breeding and it is locally migratory and subject to wandering movements . it was formerly more widely distributed in india and bangladesh . it is a non - breeding visitor in nepal . but current / former status is unclear .\nphnom penh , july 27 ( xinhua ) - - globally endangered greater adjutant chicks have successfully fledged from 175 nests in the prek toal ramsar site in northwest cambodia ' s battambang province and disbursed across the country , a conservationist group said on thursday .\nthe lesser adjutant ( leptoptilos javanicus ) is a large wading bird in the stork family ciconiidae . like other members of its genus , it has a bare neck and head . it is however more closely associated with wetland habitats where it is solitary and is less likely to scavenge than the related greater adjutant . it is a widespread species found from india through southeast asia to java .\nsingha , h . , rahmani , a . r . , couller , m . c . and javed , s . ( 2002 ) nesting ecology of the greater adjutant stork in assam , india . waterbirds , 25 ( 2 ) : 214 - 220 .\nbut thanks to the efforts of the hargilla army , a conservation brigade of 70 local women , the region is now\nthe biggest greater adjutant nesting colony in the world ,\nsays purnima devi barman , a wildlife biologist with aaranyak , a conservation nonprofit in assam .\nmishra , a . ; mandal , j . n . 2009 . discovery of a breeding ground of the greater adjutant leptoptilos dubius and their conservation in the floodlands of bihar , india . journal of the bombay natural history society 106 ( 2 ) : 190 - 197 .\nandheria , a . ( 2003 ) .\nfirst sighting of lesser adjutant - stork leptoptilos javanicus from sanjay gandhi national park , mumbai\n.\nthe greater adjutant stork is the most threatened stork in the world and its population is decreasing . many historic breeding colonies of this colonial nesting bird are missing now and the bird is probably facing extinction threat . brahmaputra valley in assam is considered as the last stronghold for endangered greater adjutant and supports more than 90 % of its global population . it is now utmost important to know the current population scenario of the bird to initiate conservation measures and habitat recovery plans . the present project is aimed to initiate greater adjutant conservation programmes across the entire distribution range in assam and , based on results and recommendations of a previous project , the team will involve communities and help policy makers to improve and secure its conservation status . the current project will concentrate on the entire distribution range of greater adjutant in brahmaputra valley of assam , india . community based organisations will help to collect information on the species , spread conservation awareness messages to the masses and for save nest fall chicks in the nesting colony areas . a long term conservation action plan will be prepared and published to support existing government conservation initiatives so that the population decline can be stabilised .\nsayam u . chowdury & msh sourav ( 2012 ) .\ndiscovery of a lesser adjutant leptoptilos javanicus breeding colony in bangladesh journal = birdingasia\n.\nhowever , the greater adjutant also forages in shallow , drying pools where it searches for insects , frogs , large fish , crustaceans , and sometimes injured ducks or waders . it forages by using a tactile technique , holding its beak open underwater and waiting for passing prey between the open mandibles .\nbut fast - vanishing wetlands in and around the city has now become a major threat for the survival of the stork . guwahati has the largest concentration of the endangered greater adjutant storks in the world , and forage for food at the city\u2019s main dumping ground near the deepor beel wildlife sanctuary .\nlittle is known about the territory size for greater adjutants . male greater adjutants will advertise their claim on a suitable nesting branch with beak clattering . they are known to build nests relatively close to one another , so breeding territory size is likely small and limited to a nesting branch .\nsingha , h . ; rahmani , a . r . ; coulter , m . c . ; javed , s . 2003 . breeding behaviour of the greater adjutant - stork leptoptilos dubius in assam , india . journal of the bombay natural history society 100 ( 1 ) : 9 - 26 .\nprek toal is home to the world ' s second largest greater adjutant breeding colony after that in assam , india , the release said , adding that the site is the premier freshwater wetland area on the tonle sap great lake , and is well known for its incredible biological , social and economic resources .\nhuge , dark stork with very thick bill and pendulous neck - pouch . pinkish naked head , white neck - ruff . pale grey greater coverts and tertials contrasting with otherwise dark upperwing . underwing - coverts paler than flight feathers . juvenile has narrower bill than adult , denser head and neck - down and , initially , all dark wings . similar spp . lesser adjutant l . javanicus is smaller , lacks neck pouch , has black greater coverts and tertials\nthe national green tribunal has issued a notice to the assam government on the mass death of 26 greater adjutant storks at a garbage dump adjoining deepor beel , near guwahati . there are two ironies here : the greater adjutant , a towering , endangered stork standing over five feet tall , has been routinely documented to be subsisting almost entirely on trash in guwahati . this is a tragicomic adaptation for a hunting and scavenging bird that otherwise eats fish , rats and snakes . the second irony is that nearly all of guwahati\u2019s waste is illegally going into deepor beel , a wetland that is notified as a sanctuary and internationally considered to be important .\ntree and animal species are symbols of gods and goddesses in indian culture making ritual beliefs an important consideration as we seek to protect our rich biodiversity . indeed , i have found ritual beliefs to be a major tool for conservation awareness during my entire journey with the greater adjutant stork in a small assamese village called dadara .\nprotection / threats / status : the greater adjutant is threatened by habitat loss , both feeding and nesting habitats , through drainage of wetlands , disturbance , pollution and persecution , owing to its pest status . reduction of open rubbish dumps with carcasses and foodstuffs is a significant threat for these scavengers . the population has declined catastrophically with a recent estimation of 800 / 1 , 200 mature individuals , equating to 1 , 200 / 1 , 800 individuals . this population is rapidly decreasing . the greater adjutant is currently classified as endangered , in spite of legal protection within the range , and its presence in some protected national parks in assam , india .\ndhritiman das ' s photo of storks foraging in a dump was joint overall runner - up . the greater adjutant stork is the world ' s most endangered stork . the world ' s largest concentration of the birds is found in the urban garbage dumps of guwahati city in india , because of the destruction of surrounding wetlands .\nin their native range , where they are primarily scavengers of large carrion , greater adjutants are known by the name\nhargila ,\nmeaning bone swallower . they were once prevalent in calcutta , where their tendency to consume human corpses left to rot in the streets was valued . one record indicates that a single greater adjutant effortlessly swallowed two buffalo vertebrae , measuring approximately 30 cm in length , in less than five minutes . greater adjutants are most commonly found scavenging in mixed flocks near human garbage dumps or large carcasses . they can also be seen foraging independently near drying pools where they hunt insects , frogs , large fish , crustaceans and injured waterfowl . when foraging , greater adjutants use a method of tactile foraging where they hold their beaks open underwater and patiently wait for a prey item to swim between the open mandibles .\nthe greater adjutant feeds by sweeping its bill under the surface of the water , or by probing into the substrate . it will consume carrion , fish , frogs , reptiles , crustaceans , large insects and even injured ducks . it is also known to feed in human refuse dumps , where it will take food from other scavengers , including vultures\nwhilst legally protected in india , bangladesh , burma , thailand , cambodia and laos , and occurring in three national parks in assam , india , the greater adjutant still suffers from hunting and egg collection due to poor enforcement of protection . there has been some successful control of egg and chick collection following efforts by the wildlife protection office staff in cambodia , which resulted in higher numbers of storks the following year . it has been proposed that the greater adjutant should be moved from schedule iv to schedule i of the indian wildlife act of 1972 to give it greater priority . effective land management is necessary for the survival of this species , particularly the control of pesticide use around feeding areas and the protection of feeding areas and nesting sites found outside protected areas . further research into the seasonal movements of these birds and the threats that face them is also important ( 3 ) .\nthe greater adjutant stork breeds singly , semi - colonially or colonially in arboreal sites that have been in use for many years . characteristically , they to place their nest on very tall trees \u2014 most of them are located now on privately - owned land . the nests are usually located within within 300 metres of human habitation in densely - populated urban areas .\n135 - 150 numbers of greater adjutants are found evryday in boragaon garbage dumping site near deepar beel ramsar site ( guwahati city ) , assam . photopurnima devi barman . .\ngathering in compact colonies at the start of the dry season in october , the greater adjutant nests on large , widely branched trees with few leaves ( 4 ) . it constructs a large platform of sticks with an outer layer of bamboo stems and lines this with leaves . two to four eggs are laid between november and january . after 28 to 30 days , the eggs hatch , and the nestlings are cared for until april . at the start of the wet season , the greater adjutants migrate to northern india ( 3 ) .\nthe greater adjutant feeds by sweeping its bill under the surface of the water , or by probing into the substrate . it will consume carrion , fish , frogs , reptiles , crustaceans , large insects and even injured ducks . it is also known to feed in human refuse dumps , where it will take food from other scavengers , including vultures ( 3 ) .\nelliott , a . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . greater adjutant ( leptoptilos dubius ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . and de juana , e . ( eds ) , handbook of the birds of the world alive , lynx edicions , barcelona .\ngreater adjutants are valuable scavengers of discarded human waste , including unburied corpses as well as other large carrion . this service may have a role in preventing the spread of disease .\nguwahati : the greater adjutant stork used to be an object of revulsion in northeast india . it\u2019s not a pretty bird , with its large , dull - orange bill and gray , black and white plumage . a carnivore and scavenger , it left bits of dead animals in its nests . people thought it brought bad luck , so they destroyed nests and sometimes poisoned the birds .\nmaust , m . , clum , n . and sheppard , c . ( 2007 ) .\nontogeny of chick behavior : a tool for monitoring the growth and development of lesser adjutant storks\n.\ndadara and two nearby villages , pasariya , and singimari , are flanked by food - rich wetlands and brimming with tall trees perfect for nesting . the region has become a major stronghold for this homely creature : due mostly to deforestation and widespread development of wetlands , only between 800 and 1 , 200 greater adjutant storks remain in india and cambodia , according to the international union for conservation of nature .\nwhile greater adjutants pose no threat to humans they are often looked upon with disgust because of their general appearance , habit of defecating on their own legs , as well as diet of carrion .\nassam is the international stronghold of the greater adjutant stork , carnivore and scavenger . according to estimates from the international union for conservation of nature and natural resources only 1 , 200 of the large storks survive . assam has about two - thirds of them , largely in three villages just northwest of state capital guwahati . but the locals here felt that it brought bad luck , so they destroyed nests and sometimes poisoned the birds .\nelliott , a . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . greater adjutant ( leptoptilos dubius ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\n, which may have a negative impact upon the species in the future . young birds may also become entangled in fishing nets and the species may suffer from the disturbance of arboreal animals , competition for nesting habitat from the lesser adjutant\nbut , the fortunes of the species changed as the local women took it upon themselves to save this bird . the women known as the \u2018hargila\u2019 army , for the bird\u2019s name in the assamese language , sing hymns and weave scarves and other items on handlooms with motifs of the bird to create awareness about the need to protect the species . the other 400 or so greater adjutant storks are found in the eastern indian state of bihar and in cambodia .\nreproduction of this species : the breeding season takes place between october - december and february in burma , cambodia and india . the greater adjutant nests in colonies , but now more restricted to small colonies of less than 30 pairs and scattered solitary pairs . it shares these colonies with other species such as the lesser adjutant , the asian openbill and some pelicans . the colonies are established in large trees with sparse foliage , in order to make easier both landing and take - off for these large birds . the stick nest is a large , bulky structure with a deep cup lined with fresh vegetation , placed in tree between 12 and 30 metres above the ground , and sometimes on rock ledges .\nhabitat : the greater adjutant frequents freshwater marshes and pools , freshwater swamp forest and sometimes ricefields and open areas . the species occurs in lowlands , but it may occasionally reach 1500 metres of elevation in nepal , in himalayan foothills . at other times , the birds can be seen foraging at urban disposal sites . they often gather around carcasses and at rubbish dumps in open fields but also near towns . it can be seen perched on houses and wandering about by markets for food .\nmany consider greater adjutants to be the most endangered stork in the world . captive breeding programs have failed thus far , but efforts to protect natural habitats are active . unfortunately , their tendency to nest near human settlements may prove fatal .\ni am proud of working with my team to conserve this rare bird and am happy to see greater adjutants and other important waterbirds living and breeding safely here ,\nsaid chhan chhoum , former egg collector and a nest protector .\nin the early part of the 20th century , the population size of greater adjutants is said to have numbered in the millions . they were common in northern india , bangladesh , nepal and southern vietnam . beginning in the mid 1980 ' s the population began to decline heavily . today an estimated 1 , 000 birds remain and likely breed only in the politically unstable assam state of northern india . populations are still declining and the iucn red list lists greater adjutants as endangered .\nboth male and female greater adjutants participate in nest building . after the eggs are laid , both parents also incubate the clutch for 28 to 30 . the altricial chicks are cared for by both parents until they fledge at 5 months old .\ngreater adjutants lack vocal muscles so they rely on unique behaviors and tactile forms of communication to interact with each other . males often utilize beak clattering to advertise their territory and ward off other males . males attract mates by presenting them with fresh twigs and later holding their beaks close to the female . breeding pairs also perform head bobbing rituals that likely reinforce their pair - bond . like all birds , greater adjutants perceive their environments through visual , auditory , tactile , and chemical stimuli .\nfelling of large nesting trees , pollution of freshwater systems and a decline in the disposal of human corpses in public trash dumps are all thought to contribute to the rapid loss of this species . in assam , recent reports of disease in this species also seems to be a contributing factor in its decline . results of a survey of assam residents revealed that only 30 % of those polled knew greater adjutants are endangered . greater community awareness of this unique species may help in its recovery .\nthe greater adjutant stork ( hargila in assamese ) is a threatened bird and assam is considered its last global strong hold . hargila make their nesting colonies mainly in tall , privately owned trees . with about 500 birds in three villages , the area hosts the largest nesting colony of this species in the world . the global population of this bird is about 1 , 000 individuals . the key to the survival of this species is achieving the good wishes of the villagers towards this bird . this is our work .\nthe greater adjutant is monogamous , but the pair bond does not always last for life . it is colonial nester . the males advertise their territories by perching on the nesting branch while performing bill - clattering with the bill upwards . if some females perch close to the males , they present some twigs as courtship , but they also adopt ritualized postures , holding the huge bill close to a potential mate or hiding her head under the chin . both mates perform other displays together , especially up - down bobbing motions .\n) are exceedingly rare in their range from northern india to indochina and may breed exclusively in the brahmaputra valley of assam . in the early part of the 20th century , large breeding populations of greater adjutants were common throughout northern india , bangladesh , nepal and southern vietnam .\ngreater adjutants are often seen foraging alone or in small groups . in general they are a non - migratory species but some make local movements to winter nesting sites . the name ' adjuntant ' comes from their distinctive , military - style gait . their large wingspans facilitate soaring and they are frequently found near thermals . due to their hot environments , greater adjutants defecate on their legs and the evaporation lowers body temperature ( also known as urohydrosis ) . as a result of this cooling mechanism , legs of these birds are often stained white with uric acid .\nit is possible , however , that the pandemic\u2019s close association with world war i may have caused this amnesia . while more people died from the pandemic than from world war i , the war had lasted longer than the pandemic and caused greater and more immediate changes in american society .\nthe juvenile has narrower bill than adults and the eyes are brownish - blue to bluish - brown . head and neck show denser hair - like feathering . the upperparts are duller . the wings are all - dark first , before to acquire a brown band across greater coverts and tertials .\nsingha , h . ; goswami , s . k . ; phukan , r . ; talukdar , b . k . 2006 . rehabilitation of captive - reared greater adjutants leptoptilos dubius in assam . journal of the bombay natural history society 103 ( 2 - 3 ) : 315 - 320 .\ngreater adjutants are large birds , ranging in height from 120 to 152 cm with an impressive 250 cm wingspan . a long , thick yellow bill precedes the sparsely feathered , yellow to pink head and neck . the head is typically dappled with dark scabs of dried blood and characterized by the presence of a pendulous , inflatable gular pouch . the legs are naturally dark in color but frequently appear ashen due to regular defecation on the legs . when in flight , greater adjutants are recognizable by their white underside feathers and tendency to retract their necks like a heron . a mixture of white and gray feathers , which appear darker during the non - breeding season , adorn the rest of the body . juvenile greater adjutants resemble adults , but have duller plumage and more feathers around the neck . the mass of these birds is unknown in the wild , but is estimated to be the heaviest of the storks .\ndadara proved that community driven conservation is the key to protect wildlife . there were 15 nesting trees of greater adjutants in the village in 2008 when i started my work . last year we counted 171 nests . kudos to the tree owners that from 2010 , there was not a single tree cut down in the villages .\nfor instance , the presence of storks in garbage dumps in guwahati has come to be so accepted that the state government and civil society are using the dump as release sites for birds . the same dump is also the repository for biomedical waste , which veterinarians say could potentially kill any animal if it were to be ingested . in 2016 , a greater adjutant chick that had fallen out of its nest was nursed back to health . when deemed fit for release , it was let go in a garbage dump in boragoan area of the city , which in turn leads into deepor beel . while the chick would be surrounded by trash , there was also a colony of storks living in the area to keep it company .\nscavenging in toxic environments is a harsh reality for birds . nonetheless , storks eating trash may not be a preferred choice . in assam , storks are also found in nagaon ( where they do not eat garbage ) . in bihar , greater adjutant storks have never been seen eating garbage . there are breeding populations of the species in kadwa kosi diara in the ganges and in khagaria . \u201cthis could possibly be because the garbage dumps here are smaller and the areas where the storks breed don\u2019t have significant non - vegetarian demographics , \u201d says wildlife conservationist arvind mishra . \u201cof course there is also the fact that there are natural wetlands for the storks to feed in . they eat snakes and rats in paddy fields , and fish from waterbodies . \u201d\n145 - 150 cm . huge , dark stork with very thick bill and pendulous neck - pouch . pinkish naked head , white neck - ruff . pale grey greater coverts and tertials contrasting with otherwise dark upperwing . underwing - coverts paler than flight feathers . juvenile has narrower bill than adult , denser head and neck - down and , initially , all dark wings .\nexaminations had to be adapted to the limitations of time , place , and available equipment . \u201d when fitzsimons informed hillman later that new recruits were arriving at the hospital with tuberculosis , he responded almost plaintively . \u201ci am working with the adjutant general to devise some method by which every volunteer for enlistment in the regular army will have a chest x - ray and serological test before acceptance . \u201d he asked for all available evidence of sick recruits , explaining that \u201cdata on regular army men of short service now in fitzsimons with tuberculosis will help me get the thing across . \u201d as the data and advice accumulated , in january 1942 , the adjutant general required that all voluntary applicants and reenlisting men be given chest x - rays . finally , on 15 march 1942 , mobilization regulations made chest x - rays mandatory in all induction physicals .\non average , the greater bamboo lemur consumes ten times the amount of cyanide that would be lethal to other mammals of its size . the toxin is found in the critically endangered lemur ' s main food source , madagascan giant bamboo ; how the animal safely swallows it is not yet understood . the judges highly commended this shot of a lemur munching on a toxic tidbit . ( photo : peggy boone )\na large stork with an upright stance , a bare head and neck without a pendant pouch , it has a length of 87\u201393 cm ( 34\u201337 in ) ( outstretched from bill - to - tail measurement ) , weighs from 4 to 5 . 71 kg ( 8 . 8 to 12 . 6 lb ) and stands about 110\u2013120 cm ( 43\u201347 in ) tall . [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] the only confusable species is the greater adjutant , but this species is generally smaller and has a straight upper bill edge ( culmen ) , measuring 25 . 8\u201330 . 8 cm ( 10 . 2\u201312 . 1 in ) in length , with a paler base and appears slightly trimmer and less hunch - backed . the skullcap is paler and the upper plumage is uniformly dark , appearing almost all black . the nearly naked head and neck have a few scattered hair - like feathers . the upper shank or tibia is grey rather than pink , the tarsus measures 22 . 5\u201326 . 8 cm ( 8 . 9\u201310 . 6 in ) . the belly and undertail are white . juveniles are a duller version of the adult but have more feathers on the nape . [ 5 ] during the breeding season , the face is reddish and the neck is orange . the larger median wing coverts are tipped with copper spots and the inner secondary coverts and tertials have narrow white edging . the wing chord measures 57 . 5\u201366 cm ( 22 . 6\u201326 . 0 in ) in length . like others in the genus , they retract their necks in flight . in flight , the folded neck can appear like the pouch of the greater adjutant . [ 6 ] males and females appear similar in plumage but males tend to be larger and heavier billed . [ 4 ] [ 7 ]\ngreater adjutants nest in large , broad - limbed trees with sparse foliage . this choice of nesting tree is thought to facilitate landing and take - off for the large adult birds . nests are constructed out of sticks and several pairs will often occupy the same tree . while females lay 3 eggs per season , an average of 2 . 2 chicks per pair are fledged successfully each year . both parents participate in incubating eggs until they hatch after 28 to 30 days . chicks fledge at 5 months of age .\nbut the impact of garbage and toxins on species is still to be understood . traditionally , greater adjutants used to fly in the sky , alongside vultures , looking for food . as the vulture population crashed , ecologists have wondered what the fate of the storks would be . in guwahati\u2019s huge mountains of garbage , the storks discovered feeding grounds \u2013 but it is certainly an uneasy truce . among bird species , scavengers are especially at risk of poisoning because a single infected carcass can affect many birds . scavenging birds tend to feed en masse .\nthe medical department of the united states army in the world war . communicable and other diseases . washington : u . s . government printing office , 1928 , vol . ix , pp . 171 - 202 . letter , the adjutant general , to commanding generals of all corps areas and departments , 25 oct . 1940 , subject : chest x - rays on induction examinations . m . r . no . 1 - 9 , standards of physical examination during mobilization , 31 aug . 1940 and 15 mar . 1942 long , e . r . : exclusion of tuberculosis . physical standards for induction and appointment . [ official record . ]\norganophosphates were introduced around 1950 , as a replacement for the chlorinated hydrocarbons to which significant resistance had occurred ( shanahan and hart , 1966 ) . these are esters of phosphoric acid and have a wide range of activities against ticks at very low concentration in companion and livestock animals . however , their residual effectiveness is usually shorter than that of chlorinated hydrocarbons , and the risk of causing acute toxicity in livestock is greater ( drummond , 1983 ) . resistance in ticks was first recognized in 1963 and several tick species are now known to be resistant to organophosphorous acaricides ( wharton , 1967 ) .\nthe lesser adjutant tends to be widely dispersed and is very local . it is often found in large rivers and lakes inside well wooded regions . it is found in india , nepal , [ 8 ] sri lanka , bangladesh ( a colony with about 6 nests and 20 individuals was discovered near thakurgaon in 2011 . [ 9 ] ) , myanmar , thailand , vietnam , malaysia , laos , singapore , [ 10 ] indonesia and cambodia . the largest population is in india in the eastern states of assam , west bengal and bihar . it may occur as a vagrant on the southern edge of bhutan . [ 11 ] they are extremely rare in southern india . [ 12 ] [ 13 ]\nother storks are known to be monogamous , but not always paired for life . it is thought that greater adjutants follow this mating system . great adjutants are colonial nesters and will build many nests in the canopy of a single tree . males claim suitable nesting branches and advertise their territory by perching on the branch with bills upward and exhibiting bill - clattering . when females perch nearby , males will present them with twigs as part of courtship . courtship rituals consist more of courtship postures , where males will hold their beaks close to potential mates or tuck the females heads under their chins . pairs also perform up - down bobbing motions together .\nthe lesser adjutant stalks around wetlands feeding mainly on fish , frogs , reptiles and large invertebrates . they rarely feed on carrion . they may also take small birds and rodents particularly during the breeding season . they are solitary except during the breeding season when they form loose colonies . [ 2 ] the breeding season is february to may in southern india and november to january in north - eastern india . [ 14 ] the nest is a large platform of sticks placed on a tall tree . the nest diameter is more than a metre and up to a metre deep . [ 2 ] the clutch consists of three to four eggs . [ 14 ] [ 15 ] they are silent but have been noted to clatter their bill , hiss and moan at the nest . [ 6 ]\nmost people imagine that the police are insensitive to wildlife conservation , but we know differently . the police are resource - rich in emergency situations and if they want to , they can be game changers for the conservation of greater adjutants . the kamrup district superintendent of police , partha sarathi mahanta , in particular , helped us in every possible way and made our mission his own . he alone released four rescued chicks that had been hand reared by a facility run by the wildlife trust of india . the released chicks were named monalisa , lulu , saru and rima ( after the tree owner\u2019s daughters and wife ) and this simple gesture generated even more warmth and support for the birds . i still remember one bird whom we named christina , which attracted media .\nthe species breeds in the dry season ; birds congregate at the nesting areas from october onwards and lay eggs between november and january . the species breeds singly , semi - colonially or colonially in traditional arboreal sites which are sometimes used for many years , often in colonies mixed with other waterbirds , including lesser adjutant . characteristically , adjutants of both species tend to place their nest on very tall trees . of 278 clutches examined in assam , all contained 2 - 3 white eggs . similarly , at the sittang valley colony most clutches contained three eggs , while those at the needong hills comprised 3 - 4 eggs . the incubation period is 28 - 30 days . in assam , 61 . 3 % of eggs in 278 clutches produced fledglings . both sexes share nest building , incubation and feeding of the nestlings . adults wil bring water to juveniles on the nest , either to cool them down or for them to drink .\ninfluenza has long been a global public health priority because of the threat of another global pandemic . although data are available for the annual burden of seasonal influenza in many developed countries , fewer disease burden data are available for low - income and tropical countries . in recent years , however , the surveillance systems created as part of national pandemic preparedness efforts have produced substantial data on the epidemiology and impact of influenza in countries where data were sparse . these data are leading to greater interest in seasonal influenza , including implementation of vaccination programs . however , a lack of quality data on severe influenza , nonrespiratory outcomes , and high - risk groups , as well as a need for better mathematical models and economic evaluations , are some of the major gaps that remain . these gaps are the focus of multilateral research and surveillance efforts that will strengthen global efforts in influenza control in the future .\n2012 ) . in cambodia , the breeding colony at prek toal is a core area of the tonle sap biosphere reserve . greater adjutants historically bred at other sites on the tonle sap , but these colonies were abandoned by 2001 . conservation actions to reduce chick and egg collection and other forms of disturbance to the breeding colony at prek toal have been in place since the late 1990s , with permanent teams of protectors employed since 2001 . since 2001 , c . 95 % of waterbird egg and chick collection has been prevented at prek toal . it is included in waterbird conservation awareness material in laos and cambodia . in kamrup district , assam a successful community conservation programme ran from 2009 to 2014 and during this period there were no records of nesting trees being cut down and the number of successful nests grew from 65 in 2010 - 2011 to 148 in 2013 - 2014 ( barman and sharma in prep . ) .\nthe name of spanish flu came from the early affliction and large mortalities in spain ( bmj , 10 / 19 / 1918 ) where it allegedly killed 8 million in may ( bmj , 7 / 13 / 1918 ) . however , a first wave of influenza appeared early in the spring of 1918 in kansas and in military camps throughout the us . few noticed the epidemic in the midst of the war . wilson had just given his 14 point address . there was virtually no response or acknowledgment to the epidemics in march and april in the military camps . it was unfortunate that no steps were taken to prepare for the usual recrudescence of the virulent influenza strain in the winter . the lack of action was later criticized when the epidemic could not be ignored in the winter of 1918 ( bmj , 1918 ) . these first epidemics at training camps were a sign of what was coming in greater magnitude in the fall and winter of 1918 to the entire world .\nendemic mycoses represent a growing public health challenge in north america . we describe the epidemiology of 1 , 392 microbiology laboratory\u2013confirmed cases of blastomycosis , histoplasmosis , and coccidioidomycosis in ontario during 1990\u20132015 . blastomycosis was the most common infection ( 1 , 092 cases ; incidence of 0 . 41 cases / 100 , 000 population ) , followed by histoplasmosis ( 211 cases ) and coccidioidomycosis ( 89 cases ) . incidence of blastomycosis increased from 1995 to 2001 and has remained elevated , especially in the northwest region , incorporating several localized hotspots where disease incidence ( 10 . 9 cases / 100 , 000 population ) is 12 . 6 times greater than in any other region of the province . this retrospective study substantially increases the number of known endemic fungal infections reported in canada , confirms ontario as an important region of endemicity for blastomycosis and histoplasmosis , and provides an epidemiologic baseline for future disease surveillance . clinicians should include blastomycosis and histoplasmosis in the differential diagnosis of antibiotic - refractory pneumonia in patients traveling to or residing in ontario .\none year later , muraille et al . demonstrated the importance of the myd88 pathway in c57bl / 6 mice , a model of the dominant th1 response with a tendency to cure the cutaneous ulcers caused by leishmania . myd88 \u2212 / \u2212 mice had a greater number of cutaneous lesions than wild - type c57bl / 6 mice ( myd88 + / + ) . the number of lesions of the myd88 \u2212 / \u2212 mice was close to that of balb / c mice , which have a dominant th2 response and a tendency to have an increased number and severity of lesions ( 59 ) . increased levels of il - 4 and decreased levels of ifn - \u03b3 and il - 12 ( p40 ) were also demonstrated . a similar study was performed by debus et al . using c57bl / 6 mice ( myd88 \u2212 / \u2212 ) , and they obtained the same results . they therefore evaluated a group of mice with a monoclonal antibody against il - 4 , which enhanced the th1 response with higher ifn - \u03b3 levels ( 24 ) ."]}
{"id": 568, "summary": [{"text": "coleotechnites ducharmei is a moth of the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from south-western nova scotia , southern quebec , ontario and alberta .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "adults are brownish-grey .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "there is one generation per year with adults on wing in june .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on picea species , including picea rubens , picea mariana and picea glauca .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "young larvae are yellowish with a dark brown head .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "full-grown larvae have a distinctive body pattern consisting of transverse pink bands on a cream-yellow ground colour .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "pupation takes place on the ground .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the species overwinters in the pupal stage . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "coleotechnites ducharmei", "paragraphs": ["coleotechnites citriella chambers , 1880 ; rep . ent . u . s . dep . agric . 1879 : 206\ncoleotechnites ponderosae hodges & stevens , 1978 ; j . lep . soc . 32 : 118 ; tl : colorado , boulder\ncoleotechnites edulicola hodges & stevens , 1978 ; j . lep . soc . 32 : 120 ; tl : 14km n aztec , new mexico\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\neucordylea albicostata freeman , 1965 ; j . res . lepid . 4 ( 3 ) : 217 ; tl : simcoe , ontario\nrecurvaria obliquistrigella ; kearfott , 1903 , j . n . y . ent . soc . 11 : 152 , pl . 9 , f . 2\nlarva on juniperus virginiana freeman , 1965 , j . res . lepid . 4 ( 3 ) : 218\nrecurvaria alnifructella busck , 1915 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 17 ( 2 ) : 82 ; tl : falls church , virginia\nevagora ardas freeman , 1961 ; can . ent . 92 ( suppl . 16 ) : 14\ngelechia argenti - albella [ = argentialbella ] chambers , 1874 ; can . ent . 6 ( 12 ) : 241 ; tl : texas\neucordylea atrupictella dietz , 1900 ; ent . news 11 ( 2 ) : 350 , pl . 1 , f . 1 ; tl : hazleton , pennsylvania\nevagora biopes freeman , 1961 ; can . ent . 92 ( suppl . 16 ) : 14\npulivarvaria carbonaria freeman , 1965 ; j . res . lepid . 4 ( 3 ) : 215 ; tl : simcoe , ontario\nlarva on juniperus sp . freeman , 1965 , j . res . lepid . 4 ( 3 ) : 216\nrecurvaria colubrinae busck , 1903 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 25 ( 1304 ) : 810 ; tl : rockport , texas\nrecurvaria condignella busck , 1929 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 31 ( 1 ) : 13 ; tl : prescott , arizona ; valparaiso , florida\nrecurvaria coniferella kearfott , 1907 ; can . ent . 39 ( 1 ) : 3 ; tl : ottawa , canada\ngelchia cristatella chambers , 1875 ; cincinnati q . j . sci . 2 ( 3 ) : 241 ; tl : kentucky\nlarva on pinus edulis hodges & stevens , 1978 , j . lep . soc . 32 : 122\neucordylea elucidella barnes & busck , 1920 ; contr . nat . hist . lepid . n . am . 4 ( 3 ) : 227 ; tl : san diego , california\nrecurvaria eryngiella bottimer , 1926 ; j . agr . reasearch 33 : 812 , pl . 2 , f . g ; tl : texas , chambers co . , stowell\nevagora florae freeman , 1961 ; can . ent . 92 ( suppl . 16 ) : 19\neucordylea gallicola busck , 1915 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 17 ( 2 ) : 81 ; tl : colorado springs , colorado\nrecurvaria gibsonella kearfott , 1907 ; can . ent . 39 ( 1 ) : 4 ; tl : new jersey\nlarva on juniperus communis kearfott , 1907 , can . ent . 39 ( 1 ) : 4\npublicalvaria granti freeman , 1965 ; j . res . lepid . 4 ( 3 ) : 212 ; tl : boswell , british columbia\nlarva on abies grandis freeman , 1965 , j . res . lepid . 4 ( 3 ) : 212\neucordylea huntella keifer , 1936 ; bull . south calif . acad . sci . 35 : 16 , pl . 6 , f . 1 - 13\nrecurvaria invictella busck , 1908 ; ent . news 19 ( 7 ) : 316 ; tl : san diego , california\nrecurvaria juniperella kearfott , 1903 ; j . n . y . ent . soc . 11 : 157 , pl . 9 , f . 3 , 17 ; tl : caldwell , essex co . , new jersey\nlarva on juniperus communis kearfott , 1903 , j . n . y . ent . soc . 11 : 157\npulicalvaria laricis freeman , 1965 ; j . res . lepid . 4 ( 3 ) : 214 ; tl : ottawa , ontario\nlarva on larix laricina freeman , 1965 , j . res . lepid . 4 ( 3 ) : 215\nevagora lewisi freeman , 1961 ; can . ent . 92 ( suppl . 16 ) : 15\neucordylea mackiei keifer , 1931 ; pan - pacific ent . 8 ( 2 ) : 61\npulicalvaria macleodi freeman , 1965 ; j . res . lepid . 4 ( 3 ) : 213 ; tl : twin elm , ontario\nlarva on tsuga canadensis freeman , 1965 , j . res . lepid . 4 ( 3 ) : 214\npulicalvaria martini freeman , 1965 ; j . res . lepid . 4 ( 3 ) : 209 ; tl : ancaster , ontario\nlarva on picea abies , p . glauca freeman , 1965 , j . res . lepid . 4 ( 3 ) : 210\nrecurvaria milleri busck , 1914 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 16 ( 4 ) : 144 ; tl : yosemite national park , california\nlarva on pinus murrayana busck , 1914 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 16 ( 4 ) : 144\nrecurvaria moreonella heinrich , 1920 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 57 ( 2305 ) : 65 ; tl : cheyenne mtn , colorado\nlarva on pinus scopulorum heinrich , 1920 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 57 ( 2305 ) : 65\nanarsia obliqui - strigella [ = obliquistrigella ] chambers , 1872 ; can . ent . 4 ( 4 ) : 65 ; tl : kentucky\npulicalvaria occidentis freeman , 1965 ; j . res . lepid . 4 ( 3 ) : 216 ; tl : ta ta creek , british columbia\nlarva on juniperus scopulorum freeman , 1965 , j . res . lepid . 4 ( 3 ) : 217\nhapalosaris petulans meyrick , 1917 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1917 ( 1 ) : 37 ; tl : colombia , la crumbre , 6600ft ; ecuador , huigra , 4500ft ; peru , chosica , 2800ft\nlarva on picea mariana kearfott , 1903 , j . n . y . ent . soc . 11 : 155 , picea pungens , p . abies , p . mariana , p . rubens [ me3 ] , 40\nrecurvaria pinella busck , 1906 ; can . ent . 38 ( 6 ) : 212 ; tl : manitou , colorado\nlarva on pinus ponderosa busck , 1906 , can . ent . 38 ( 6 ) : 212\nlarva on pinus ponderosa hodges & stevens , 1978 , j . lep . soc . 32 : 120\nevagora resinosae freeman , 1961 ; can . ent . 92 ( suppl . 16 ) : 16\nrecurvaria stanfordia keifer , 1933 ; calif . dept . agric . , mon . bull . 22 : 354\nrecurvaria thujaella kearfott , 1903 ; j . n . y . ent . soc . 11 : 154 , pl . 9 , f . 8 , 21 ; tl : usa\nlarva on thuja occidentalis kearfott , 1903 , j . n . y . ent . soc . 11 : 154\ngelechia variiella chambers , 1872 ; can . ent . 4 ( 9 ) : 174\n[ afromoths ] de prins , j . & de prins , w . , 2013\nsangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nzeller , 1873 beitr\u00e4ge zur kenntniss der nordamerikanischen nachtf\u00e4lter , besonders der microlepidopteren ( 2 ) verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 23 ( abh . ) : 201 - 334 , pl . 3 - 4\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhodges , r . w . et al . , eds . 1983 . check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . e . w . classey limited and the wedge entomological research foundation , london . 284 pp .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\ndistribution data for u . s . states and canadian provinces is known to be incomplete or has not been reviewed for this taxon .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\ndata and apps idaho fish and wildlife information system bringing information to bear on the management and conservation of fish , wildlife , and plants in idaho ."]}
{"id": 579, "summary": [{"text": "the bigeye shiner ( notropis boops ) is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus notropis .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "this fish is a slender , slivery minnow with a dusky lateral stripe and a maximum total length of about 80 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "its distinct characteristic is its large-diameter eyes .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is a common species in upland streams of the middle mississippi river system .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "bigeye shiners prefer warm , quiet pools with clear water and silt-free substrates .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "siltation , channelization , and gravel dredging are all threats to bigeye shiner populations .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "during spawning season , typically late april to august , bigeye shiners have several clutches of eggs .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "state agencies and the epa have both played a role in the surveying of bigeye shiner populations .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "populations have decreased in ohio due mostly to habitat destruction .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "in addition to habitat destruction by humans , habitat alteration of the small streams and dried pools has also had a significant effect on abundance .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "rivers and streams should not be channelized or modified in any way , which is becoming an increasingly popular trend in urban locations .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "agricultural areas and properties within the watershed should adhere to regulations to prevent runoff into the streams . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "bigeye shiner", "paragraphs": ["there are 19 endangered fish species in illinois : lake sturgeon , western sand darter , bluebreast darter , harlequin darter , cypress minnow , bigeye chub , pallid shiner , northern brook lamprey , redspotted sunfish , sturgeon chub , greater redhorse , river chub , pugnose shiner , bigeye shiner , blacknose shiner , taillight shiner , weed shiner , northern madtom , and pallid sturgeon . the pallid sturgeon is also listed as federally endangered . an additional twelve fish species are threatened : eastern sand darter , longnose sucker , cisco , gravel chub , iowa darter , banded killifish , starhead topminnow , least brook lamprey , bantam sunfish , river redhorse , ironcolor shiner , and blackchin shiner . nine species have become extirpated ( extinct from illinois ) .\nin chapter 1 , i studied the relationship between bigeye shiner populations and variables of habitat patches within the stream , and the land adjacent to the stream ( the riparian zone ) . this work was done in brier creek , a small stream in southern oklahoma . results showed that the number of shiners in a pool was best predicted by habitat variables of the riffle just upstream from a pool . these riffle variables also determined the amount of insect larva drifting from riffles into downstream pools at night , which in turn predicted shiner feeding success . body condition of shiners was best predicted by feeding success . these results illustrate the importance of upstream riffles to the pool - dwelling bigeye shiner , and provide an example of how feeding habits can lead to importance of patch context for a species . when animals consume resources originating in other habitats and\nimported\ninto their occupied patch , connections among habitat patches are important to the species ' survival .\nin chapter 3 , i asked if feeding habits of different fish species determined their dependence on insects entering the stream from the riparian zone ( terrestrial insects ) . using experimental streams , i excluded these insects from half of the experimental units for each fish species , and examined differences in fish diet and body fat . under terrestrial insect exclusion , diet and body fat of the bottom - feeding orangethroat darter were unchanged . bigeye shiner switched their diet from terrestrial insects to aquatic resources , but body fat levels did not change . blackstripe topminnow also switched their diet away from terrestrial insects , but , unlike bigeye shiner , body fat levels decreased when terrestrial insects were unavailable . these results indicate that reducing movement of trophic resources from one habitat to another affects different species in different ways , and that the feeding habits of species may help predict this response . this result is important in light of human landscape modification , which often alters the amount of insects moving into streams from the surrounding landscape . ( abstract shortened by umi . )\nin my dissertation research , i investigated the manner in which trophic ecology links organisms to different habitats within the landscape . i studied three species : the orangethroat darter ( etheostoma spectabile ) , a fish that lives on the stream bottom and feeds on insect larva and other invertebrates ; the bigeye shiner ( notropis boops ) , a minnow that swims in the middle of the water column and feeds on insect larva drifting downstream and terrestrial insects falling into the stream , and the blackstripe topminnow ( fundulus notatus ) , which swims just below the water ' s surface and feeds on insects falling into the stream from streamside vegetation .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this species is listed as least concern in view of the large extent of occurrence , large number of subpopulations , large population size , and lack of major threats . trend over the past 10 years or three generations is uncertain but probably relatively stable , or the species may be declining but not fast enough to qualify for any of the threatened categories under criterion a ( reduction in population size ) .\nlake erie drainage , northwestern ohio ; middle mississippi river basin from central ohio to eastern kansas , south to southern oklahoma , northern louisiana , and northern alabama ; confined mainly to uplands ; common , abundant in ozark - ouachita drainages ; absent from most of former mississippi embayment ; extirpated in many northern localities , including most of ohio and illinois ( page and burr 1991 , lee et al . 1980 ) .\nthis species is represented by a large number of subpopulations and locations . total adult population size is unknown but relatively large . trend over the past 10 years or three generations is uncertain but likely to be relatively stable or slowly declining .\nflowing pools of moderately clear creeks and small to medium rivers with large permanent pools over bottom of clear sand , gravel , or rock ( lee et al . 1980 , page and burr 1991 ) . often at stream margin in beds of emergent vegetation ( smith 1979 ) .\nlocalized threats exist , but on a range - wide scale no major threats are known . decline in north is due to siltation , increased turbidity , and impoundment ( herkert 1992 ) .\ncurrently , this species is of relatively low conservation concern and does not require significant additional protection or major management , monitoring , or research action .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\na misnomer given by rafinesque to shriveled specimens , with the meaning of\nback keel\n; from greek , noton = back ( ref . 45335 )\nfrom the words bo , meaning ox ; and ops , eye ( referring to the extremely large eye ) ( ref . 10294 )\nnorth america : lake erie drainage in northwestern ohio , usa ; mississippi river basin from central ohio to eastern kansas and south to northern alabama , northern louisiana and southern oklahoma in the usa .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 9 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5723 ) ; common length : 4 . 8 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 12193 )\ninhabits flowing , usually clear and rocky , pools of creeks and small to medium rivers . often found near emergent vegetation along the stream margin ( ref . 5723 , 10294 ) . feeds on surface insects ( ref . 10294 ) .\npage , l . m . and b . m . burr , 1991 . a field guide to freshwater fishes of north america north of mexico . houghton mifflin company , boston . 432 p . ( ref . 5723 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00708 ( 0 . 00318 - 0 . 01574 ) , b = 3 . 08 ( 2 . 90 - 3 . 26 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 2 \u00b10 . 40 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 17 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe nonindigenous occurrences section of the nas species profiles has a new structure . the section is now dynamically updated from the nas database to ensure that it contains the most current and accurate information . occurrences are summarized in table 1 , alphabetically by state , with years of earliest and most recent observations , and the tally and names of drainages where the species was observed . the table contains hyperlinks to collections tables of specimens based on the states , years , and drainages selected . references to specimens that were not obtained through sighting reports and personal communications are found through the hyperlink in the table 1 caption or through the individual specimens linked in the collections tables .\ntrautman ( 1981 ) ; page and burr ( 1991 ) ; etnier and starnes ( 1993 ) ; pflieger ( 1997 ) .\nlake erie drainage , northwest ohio ; mississippi river basin from central ohio to eastern kansas and south to northern alabama , northern louisiana , and southern oklahoma ( page and burr 1991 ) .\ntable 1 . states with nonindigenous occurrences , the earliest and latest observations in each state , and the tally and names of hucs with observations\u2020 . names and dates are hyperlinked to their relevant specimen records . the list of references for all nonindigenous occurrences of notropis boops are found here .\nprobable bait bucket introduction into the gasconade river during the 1950s and subsequent dispersal ( pflieger 1997 ) .\nno records exist for this species in tributaries of the missouri river before the 1950s . during the last 30 years it has become abundant and widespread in the gasconade river drainage and other tributaries of the lower missouri ( pflieger 1997 ) .\nleo nico , and pam fuller , 2018 , notropis boops gilbert , 1884 : u . s . geological survey , nonindigenous aquatic species database , gainesville , fl , urltoken revision date : 9 / 4 / 2013 , peer review date : 4 / 1 / 2016 , access date : 7 / 9 / 2018\nthis information is preliminary or provisional and is subject to revision . it is being provided to meet the need for timely best science . the information has not received final approval by the u . s . geological survey ( usgs ) and is provided on the condition that neither the usgs nor the u . s . government shall be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of the information .\nthe data represented on this site vary in accuracy , scale , completeness , extent of coverage and origin . it is the user ' s responsibility to use these data consistent with their intended purpose and within stated limitations . we highly recommend reviewing metadata files prior to interpreting these data .\ncitation information : u . s . geological survey . [ 2018 ] . nonindigenous aquatic species database . gainesville , florida . accessed [ 7 / 9 / 2018 ] .\ncontact us if you are using data from this site for a publication to make sure the data are being used appropriately and for potential co - authorship if warranted . for queries involving fish , please contact pam fuller . for queries involving invertebrates , contact amy benson .\ninhabits flowing , usually clear and rocky , pools of creeks and small to medium rivers . often found near emergent vegetation along the stream margin ( ref . 5723 , 10294 ) . feeds on surface insects ( ref . 10294 ) .\njennifer hammock chose to hide data on\nnotropis boops gilbert , 1884\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n3 _ \u00b5\u00b6\u0088\u00e7 ` k\u00fc9p _ \u00fa\u00ef\u00ea > \u0096q sq\u00b0 # w\u0099\u00e0\u0089\u0002cq\u00f8u\u00f9a\u00f9\u001a\u00e3\u00b1j ) \u0017\u00b8\u00b8 ! \u00b0v\u00f7\u000e [ \u00ee\u009ap\u00b0dj6\u00ef [ \u00e4\u00f1\u00bc3\u008e\u00eb\u0012\u00ae\u0091 } \u009c\u00e5\u00b1b\u00b8\u0014\u0088c\u0087\u00f02m\u0091o3 } \u0018\u00f6 z\u001a2\u00eb\u0006\u00fc\u00a9\u0018c2v\u00ba\u00f5\u00d7\u0098\u0091\u00bd\u00a4l\u00a9\u00bf\u00f8\u00e6\u00b1\u00b5\u00e2\u009e\u00a1\u00e1\u00ea\u000fp / [ \u00b1t0\u008f\u00ec \u00ed\u00bc\u00af\u00b4\u008c9 ) \u0088\u0015\u00ee\u0004\u00b4 / % y7\u00ffb\u00e5p\u00edn\u00e6\u00bdd\u0005h\u00fcdy\u00f9\u00f8bo\u00a3\u009aj\u0004 $ \u00e8\u00a7\u008bp\u00aa\u00f7\u00ba\u00a3\b\u00ee\u00df\u000f\u00a2\u00ff\u0005\u0018\u0000\u0018dv endstream endobj 17 0 obj < < / length 1480 / filter / flatedecode > > stream h\u0089\u0094w\u00ebn\u00ebf \u00fd\u0002\u00ff\u0083wm\u0081x r \u009a\u00f9\u00a6h\u0081\u00ae\u00b2h\u0080\u00bbvl9\u00f6\u008dc\u0007\u0092u } s\u00bf\u00be3 r\u0089g / g\u0013x1m\u0091\u0087\u00e49\u00a4\u00e8 $ \u00e6\u00eb\u00e7\u00f5\u00e2\u00f7\u00e5\u00f1\u008f\u00e5\u00e3\u00f7 \u00e8\u0084\u0010\u0097\u007fl\u00e9y\u001a \\ > \u009e\u00fd\u0007 @ - \u00absb\u00fa\u00f03\u0082\ns\u00e5\u00a2i ] \u009e\u00eb\u00e4\u00fa\u008e\u009es\u00ad\u0083\u00f5\u00ea\u007fcl4 / \u000e\u0089\u00ed\u00e6\u00f2\u00ecmt . \u00a2k ) 0\u00fa6\u00f5a\u009dx\u00e77a\u0006fgc\u0001\u0014\u00078\u0095\u00f8\u0002 { \u00169p\u00f0\u00b9\u008a\u00e6\u00bbb0\u00bf\u0010 \u00b1\u00f1v\u001b\u00e2\u00e2\u00a9l\u00f3\u00e3\u0014 @ \u0011\u0018\u0012\u00e3\u0017\u00eb\u00f5q\u00bf / \u00d7\u00a7\u00f4\u0007\u001bfor\u00f4jj\u0002z\u00f0\u00f5\u008a\u00f0\u00bd\u00e4\u00e1 \u000f\u00fb\u00e4\u00f8\u009d\u009e \\ \u0090\u00f3\u00e0vyx\u00aa ( j\u00e2r\u009b\u00e6t & $ \u0011\u00b9\u00f8\u0086 ^ \u00f4\u009c\u00ea\u00b2x \u0004\u00e8\u00ef\u00e7\u00e5\u00fd\u00e3\u00e2\u00e7 ^ \u00f3w\u009f\u00ff\u00f6\u00ef \u0099g\u00f6\u007f2 \u00bc ; \u00ff\u00e3 { 8 / \u009c\u008b\u009f ~ - \u00fe\u00fc\u0007\u0097\u0000\u00f1i\u00bb\u00f0\u007f\u009ao\u0088 \u0003\u00e2\u0013\u00f1\u0004 : \u00ea\u00e6\u00f3n\u00b07b # 1\u00eah ) \u00a3c { \u00fa\u009d\u00eb\u00e6t\u00f6\u0083\u00ee = \u0096\u009ao\u00f0\u00b0\u00bc\u0015\u00a9 - \u00ef\u0004\u0084pc\u00f9\u00e7\u0006 \b [ \u00a9\u00e7\u0082\u00ee5\u00f5\u001b \u00e62\u0014\u00bdf\u00ea\u00e8y\u00e79\u0015\u00edr } \u00ff \u00e3m\u0092 % j\u00ea\u00fdc\u00bdi\u00fdr\u00a6\u00f2\u0099\u0014\u00e4\u00e4\u00923\u00b5\u008a\u00f0b\u00a4n . \u009a\u00a6l\u0006\u009b\u00e6\u0087\u008b\u00e2\u00f6\u00e2\u00e9 \\ 2\u00e1p\u00f1\u00f6m ] \u0097 ) kp \\ 9\u008f + \u0018\u00f9\u0001 [ ; \u0012\u0087\u0088\u00f6\u0000\u0086 { q\u00b6\u0088 + \u00ef5qj ? \u001a\u00f8\u0096z\u00a2 zjg\u0015z\u00aa\u009e\u00eb\u00f7\u0011k\u00ebi ( kl\u00f2\u00ec\u00aa\u00e3x\u0099d\u009c \u00ab44n3\u008a\u009f7 i\u001ah\u00e8m\u000f\u00bb * m\u00ff\u00ee\u00f6\u0081\u000fn\u008c\u00e0\u00ec\u00a8 / \u00bc\u00a6 ~ < \u008f @ r\u00e1\u00ed\u0002 % \u00ac\u00eb\u009f\u00e5k \u0094 \u00b7\u00fep\u001bd\u00f3\u00fc\u00b0\u00ebsyh\u00aa c\u00e3\u0089\n\u00a8\u00e0qr { \u00f1\u00b9\u00fad \u00ef w * \u00e3\u00ab\u00e1 \u0011o\u00b8p\u008bk > \u00e1\u00fe\u0084\u0001\u00f7\u00f7 % \u00fa r\u00e5 ( * \u00a5 $ g\u008d\u00adc\u00f9\u00bf \u00f6\u0007\u001b\u0011\u00f8 * \u008d [ > lq\u00e1\u00e3\u00fc\u00a5\u00af \\ o\u0013\u001b\u00a8\u009f\u00e1\u00fd\u0011f\u0003\u00be ! \u00fa ! \u00f5\u00a7\u0086o\u00b473g ] / \u00ec\u00e7\u0083\u00ee\u0006 \u00bb\u00fe\u00e6\u00fbz\u00a8\b1x\u0017\u0089l = \u00e6\u00f3 ( \u00e3\u009b + \u00e0\u00fa\u00ae\u00ab\u00ee\u0086\u00b7\u00fa\u00aeq\u00ed\u00a5\u00f0\u00a7\u00ed\u0099\u00e8\u00f2\u00e3\u00b8 + \u00ba\u00e4\u00e3\u00e1\u00e2h\u00e4\u001b\u00bc\u008e\u00e8\u00e9 ! \u008cd\u0007\u0018\u00e3 } \u00a8\u00e9\u00a3\u00aa\u0080\u00efa\u00866\u00f7v , r\u00f3 _ * > \u00df\u00e485r & \u00ed\u00f9 / u ] 5\u00ed4\u00df\u0099\u00e7\u0010\u00f0\u0010 ` \u00b8\u00bd\u00f80\u00e4\u00e2\u0082\u00e5\u00e6r\u0002\u00e032tt\u0002b\u00b4d\u007f\u0017 ] \u0017w\u00ac9\u0097 . \u00e6\u00fees\u00f7\u00fa\u00fc\u009a . \u00faz\u009e # t\u0091\u00e2\u00e3c\u008dv\u0089r\u00006 { isl\u009f\u008f ] \u009b\u00f2\u0002\u00e2\u00e6\u00ba\u00bf\u00b2\u00b7\u00e9\u00f9\u00ab\u0019\u00aa\u0000\u00e7v\u00fb\u00f8\u00ba\u0082 % \u00eae\u0083\u00e7\u0013\u00a8\u001a\u00f4\u00189y\u0001\u008b : \u000f\u008f\u0001\u0005t\u00fd\u00bd 6\u00f5\u00f4 \u00b0\u00be \u00a3\u008d\u001386\u00a8\u00e9e\u00ea\u00ab\u00e6\u00e1\u007f\u00a2p\u007f\u00fa5\u0007\u00bd\u0087\u00f4\u0011 ^ ! o\u00a3r\u00a6kg ^ \u000534\u0082\u0083\u009b\u00faae\u00a2i\u0089\u0004\u000fo ( \u0081mn1\u00e6\u00f3 / \u0013\u00e7 ~ \u0011\u00ec ! \u0084\u00ffqv\u008f\u0089\u00d7\u009fs -\n\u0080 , \u00f0x\u0091 * \u00a1 \u0096ci ( \u00e9\u00d78q \\ s\u0011\u00f4\u00e6\u00a4\u00f1 # \u001a / \u0019\u00ec ^ ; \u00e1 | \u0082p \u0014y ) ) & \u00adi\ni\u00f6\u00f22a\u00fe } + w\u00bb\u00e9\u00bc\u00ef\u00b5 \u00f4x75\u00d7e\u00fa\u00ab % qp < \u00a8 = \u0089\u0082\u00ed\u000f\u0086 ) \u00fa\u00e2\u008c\u0094 | \u0090p\u00b8b - \u00fev\u00f5u\u00aa ? h \u00fd ) \u007fh\u00f3\u000e\u0000\u00f3 \u00eaq\u00f3\u00feu } < \u0089\u00f0\u000f\u00f2\u00f0\u00aab\u00f3\u00f0\u00f8\u00f3\u0094\u00b6\u0003\u0091 ! \u008fd\u000e\n\u00f3\u00fd\u00a1\u00ae\u00eam * u\u00a3q\u00e5 $ \u00ec\u00e8\u00a7 ) } \u00aa\u00fc\u00eb % \u0016\u009cx\u0005\u00f7 ~ s\u00f9\u00bf\u0000\u0003\u00001\u0016j ' endstream endobj 20 0 obj < < / length 1529 / filter / flatedecode > > stream h\u0089\u009cw\u00fbn\u00fbf\u0010\u00fd\u0002\u00fd\u0083 m f\u00f7 ~ y5\u0090\u0006 ) p \u0088\u0005\u00f4 % / \u0094dil $ r ] \u0092i\u00f3\u00af\u00ef\u0092\u009cy\u00f9\u00eb\u00a5 , \u00f5\u00e5\u00b0\u00a4\u00bd\u00ec\u009e\u0099s\u00e6 \u00e9\b ! \u00eb\u00f5\u008f \u00b5\u00e3\u007f\u00ff . ~ \u00f9\u0095 , ) ? \u00ed\u0016\u00feo\u00b3x\n\u0099\u0010f\u00b9\u00fa , \u00be\u00f4\u00eb\u00b2\u00a9 \u0097\u00ab\u00bf\u0016d \\ \u00e3\u00bf\u00ac\u00e03\u00e5\u00ba ? \u00eb / \u00a7b \u00bf , \u00f3 * z\u00bb \u00ef\u008c\b \\ k\u00f8\u00b8\u00f6\u00b9\u00fb \u00f2 * o n3f\u0015l\u0090\u00fa\u008e\u001b\u00a85 & z ; \u00fda\u00f8\u00fc\u00f4\u007f\u00e1 ` \u00b9\u00ea\u00a3\u00ea\u0097\u00bf\u009c\u00ea6z ~ \u0080\u00eff \u00ab\u00ad\u00ee\u008c p\u0018\u00aeax\u008d\u00b6s\u00d7h * \u00df\u00e2\u00e7\u00bfcr\u008c\u001bw . \u00ef\u00fas\u00faa rn ! b ! \u00e3m\u0086 ~ } \u008c\u00f6g\u00e3\u00e7\u008f\u00ab\u00e5\u00f3j\u00e1\u00fd\u0099\u00f0\u00f3\u00eb\u00bfn\u00bf\u0010 & #\nboschung , h . t . and mayden , r . l . 2004 . fishes of alabama . smithsonian institution press , washington , d . c .\nburr , b . m . and warren , m . l . , jr . 1986 . distributional atlas of kentucky fishes . kentucky nature preserves commission , frankfort , kentucky .\ncross , f . b . and collins , j . t . 1995 . fishes in kansas . university of kansas museum of natural history , lawrence , kansas .\ndouglas , n . h . 1974 . freshwater fishes of louisiana . claitor ' s publishing division , baton rouge , louisiana .\netnier , d . a . and starnes , w . c . 1993 . the fishes of tennessee . university of tennessee press , knoxville , tennessee .\nherkert , j . r . ( ed . ) . 1992 . endangered and threatened species of illinois : status and distribution . vol 2 : animals . pp . iv + 142 . illinois endangered species protection board .\niucn . 2013 . iucn red list of threatened species ( ver . 2013 . 1 ) . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 12 june 2013 ) .\nlee , d . s . , gilbert , c . r . , hocutt , c . h . , jenkins , r . e . , mcallister , d . e . and stauffer , j . r . , jr . 1980 . atlas of north american freshwater fishes . north carolina state museum of natural history , raleigh , north carolina .\nmettee , m . f . , o ' neil , p . e . and pierson , j . m . 1996 . fishes of alabama and the mobile basin . oxmoor house , birmingham , alabama .\nnelson , j . s . , crossman , e . j . , espinosa - perez , h . , findley , l . t . , gilbert , c . r . , lea , r . n . and williams , j . d . 2004 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico . american fisheries society , bethesda , maryland .\npage , l . m . and burr , b . m . 1991 . a field guide to freshwater fishes : north america north of mexico . houghton mifflin company , boston , massachusetts .\npage , l . m . and burr , b . m . 2011 . peterson field guide to freshwater fishes of north america north of mexico . houghton mifflin harcourt , boston , massachusetts .\npflieger , w . l . 1975 . the fishes of missouri . missouri department of conservation , columbia , missouri .\nrobins , c . r . , bailey , r . m . , bond , c . e . , brooker , j . r . , lachner , e . a . , lea , r . n . and scott , w . b . 1991 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states and canada . american fisheries society .\nrobison , h . w . and buchanan , t . m . 1988 . fishes of arkansas . the university of arkansas press , fayetteville , arkansas .\nross , s . t . and brenneman , w . m . 1991 . distribution of freshwater fishes in mississippi . freshwater fisheries report no . 108 . d - j project completion report f - 69 . mississippi department of wildlife and freshwater fisheries and parks , jackson , mississippi .\nsmith , p . w . 1979 . the fishes of illinois . university of illinois press , urbana , illinois .\nstauffer , j . r . , jr . , boltz , j . m . and white , l . r . 1995 . the fishes of west virginia . proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia 146 : 1 - 389 .\ntrautman , m . b . 1981 . the fishes of ohio . ohio state university press , columbus , ohio .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\njavascript is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .\nin chapter 2 , i studied differences in feeding ecology among populations of orangethroat darters on riffles in brier creek . results showed significant differences among riffles . the number of prey items consumed varied significantly among riffles , but was not affected by darter body size . prey selection varied greatly among riffles , and for four of seven prey items was explained by habitat differences . contrary to theoretical predictions , diet breadth of darters within riffles was not dependent on the abundance of energetically favorable prey , largely due to a lack of selection for these prey items . these results indicate that variation among riffles can have a strong effect on prey use by the orangethroat darter , and that this is an important spatial scale over which to study diet variation in this and similar species .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nclick here to study / print these flashcards . create your own flash cards ! sign up here .\nichthyology is the study of fishes . scientists know of about 25 , 000 living fish species in 57 orders and 482 families . the number of species of fishes exceeds all other species of vertebrates combined .\nalthough over 97 % of the surface water on earth is saltwater , about 41 % of all species of fishes live in freshwater . fishes in ponds , lakes and streams become isolated from each other , allowing species to diverge .\nillinois has approximately 200 species of fishes in 18 orders . below are some tips to help you identify some of the major groups .\neffects of common carp ( cyprinus carpio ) , an exotic fish , on aquatic ecosystems . january - february 2000\nthe naturalist ' s apprentice : so many fishes ! how can you tell them apart ? . may - june 1999\ndevelopment of an individual - based model to evaluate growth and survival of walleye . may - june 1999\nthe round goby : an example of the\nperfect\ninvader ? . november - december 1998\nthe bighead carp ( hypophthalmicthys nobilis ) in reach 26 of the mississippi river . november - december 1998\nhydroacoustics : a tool for understanding fish - habitat associations in rivers . november - december 1997\ndifferences in food consumption and metabolic rates between walleye stock . july - august 1997\nriver levels and largemouth bass populations in the illinois river . march - april 1997\npredicting juvenile fish abundance from charactersistics of the spring flood . january - february 1997\ncritical factors in the early life history of illinois fishes . november - december 1996\nstatus and management of mississippi river fisheries - h . l . schramm jr .\nthe mississippi river has been variously altered for navigation and flood control but supports a diverse and relatively productive fish assemblage . in the upper , impounded reach , commercial fish harvest has increased for most species since 1945 . the upper reach provides an extensive and moderately used recreational fishery resource . limited information for the lower , un - impounded reach of the mississippi river indicates commercial harvest is increasing . neither the commercial nor recreational fisheries appear to be over harvested ; however , fisheries for sturgeon and paddlefish should be carefully monitored . future fisheries production may be threatened by loss of aquatic habitat , altered spatial and temporal aspects of floodplain inundation and nuisance species invasions . water quality in most reaches has improved substantially from formerly severely degraded conditions . navigation traffic affects fish survival and recruitment and increases in navigation are forecast . future conservation and management of the fisheries and aquatic resources of the mississippi river will require substantial investment in effective assessment programs and achieving societal recognition of the diverse values of the resource .\nthe mississippi river is the largest river in north america . its 3 . 25 million km 2 watershed includes parts of two canadian provinces and parts or all of 31 u . s . states ( figure 1 ) . daily discharge ( measured in the lower river at vicksburg , mississippi ) ranges from 3 568 to 55 558 m 3 s - 1 and averages 17 358 m 3 s - 1 . the mississippi and its major tributaries - the arkansas , illinois , missouri and ohio rivers - have been central to the social and economic development of the united states . as a major transportation corridor , the river has been greatly altered for navigation and by developments in its watershed and floodplain for agriculture , industry and urbanization . comprehensive treatments of the historic and present conditions in the mississippi river are provided in scarpino ( 1985 ) ; fremling et al . ( 1989 ) ; baker , killgore and kasul ( 1991 ) ; rasmussen ( 1994 ) ; weiner et al . ( 1998 ) ; u . s . geological survey ( 1999 ) and fremling and drazkowski ( 2000 ) .\nfigure 1 . mississippi river basin and mississippi river . mississippi river basin figure from meade ( 1995 ) .\nten thousand years ago , the mississippi river was a continuum typical of a floodplain river . beginning as a small stream in the forested headwaters of lake itasca , minnesota , the river flowed through virgin forests and unbroken prairie to its deltaic outlet into the gulf of mexico in louisiana . from headwaters to the mouth , the river increased in size and discharge and decreased in slope . initially , the young river flowed through a small valley bordered by wetlands and lakes . along its downstream course , the river changed from a single to a braided channel in its mid - reaches and finally to a meandering , constantly changing channel downstream . its valley changed rather steadily from a narrow floodplain flanked by tall bluffs upstream to a vast , flat floodplain downstream .\nin its present form , the mississippi river changes dramatically and rather incrementally along its 3 731 km journey from headwaters to the gulf of mexico . the headwaters reach , the upper 824 km from lake itasca to st . anthony falls , minnesota , flows alternately through forests and wetlands . dams have been built to form 11 small reservoirs and modify the elevation and discharge of several natural river lakes . these dams variously function for flood control , electric generation , water supply , or recreation .\nfigure 2 . average stage at upper mississippi river lock and dam 15 tailwaters , rock island , illinois . 1900 - 1925 is pre - impoundment ; 1940 - 2002 is post - impoundment .\nfigure 3 . average stage in the middle mississippi river , chester , illinois . 1900 - 1925 is before mainline levee construction ; 1940 - 2002 is after mainline levee construction .\nclassification of river reaches based on the form and consequences of anthropogenic perturbations is convenient , even desirable , from both ecological and management perspectives . the ecological structure and function of the headwaters , umr and open river segments are expected to differ and these differences should influence assessment and research questions . similarly , management goals and strategies are expected to differ among reaches . however , it also is important to recognize that each reach represents a continuum as the river traverses a latitudinal gradient , grows with each added tributary and the amount of floodplain increases ( schramm , eggleton and minnis 1999 ) .\nfigure 4 . average stage in the lower mississippi river , vicksburg , mississippi . 1900 - 1925 is before mainline levee and cutoff construction ; 1940 - 2002 is after mainline levee and cutoff construction . horizontal dashed line is bank full stage , the stage at which floodplain inundation begins .\nbaker et al . ( 1991 ) used multivariate analyses to delineate habitats . although a progressive and promising approach , the results of such analyses are constrained by inability to measure habitat conditions ( e . g . current direction and velocity are usually measured near the surface ) , by selectivity of fish sampling gear and by temporal fluctuations in river stage and discharge . although baker et al . ( 1991 ) described their resulting habitat delineations as microhabitats , the inherent variability in river conditions over a spatial scale greater than several meters precludes considering a habitat even as homogeneous as a sand bar as a single microhabitat . further , habitat use changes over time as both river conditions and biological requirements follow their seasonal chronology . in the lmr , the abundance of several fishes at steep natural banks ( a microhabitat listed by baker et al . 1991 ) varied significantly when current velocity was reduced , suggesting a single variable changing over time can determine habitat suitability for a species ( schramm et al . 1998 ; schramm et al . 1999 ) . conversely , changes at the macroscopic level also can affect fish abundance . the abundance of fishes collected in a sandbar habitat changed significantly following hydraulic changes in the adjacent channel , even though the physical conditions of the areas sampled remained similar over time ( schramm et al . 1999 ) .\nexcluding marine , diadromous and peripheral species and species not recently collected ( hereafter , resident species ) , 140 species are resident in the mississippi river ; 4 of these species are introduced . sixty - one species are resident in the headwaters , 107 species in the umr and 109 species in the open river . sufficient evidence was available to consider 55 resident species backwater dependent and 17 resident species riverine dependent . of the 137 resident species i was able to assign to habitat zones , none are expected to reside in main channel habitats throughout their life cycle , 24 are expected to occupy one or more channel border habitats throughout their life cycle and 50 species are expected to reside in one or more backwater habitats throughout their life cycle . a substantial number of fish were considered rare by fremling et al . ( 1989 ) or baker et al . ( 1991 ) . including fish not recently collected ( fremling et al . 1989 ) , 23 resident species are rare in the headwaters , 24 species are rare in the umr and 24 species are rare in the open river .\nfish production has not been estimated and biomass estimates are limited . individual estimates are highly variable but tend to range from 300 - 900 kg ha - 1 ( table 2 ) . standing stocks appear greater in the lmr than in the umr , but comparability may be limited by habitat differences . standing stock in umr backwaters , sloughs and side channels was 38 percent commercial species ( excluding catfishes ) , 30 percent gizzard shad , 14 percent panfish ( white bass , sunfishes , crappies , yellow perch ) and 5 percent catfishes ( pitlo 1987 ) . pitlo ( 1987 ) found no longitudinal or temporal trends in total fish biomass but noted decreases in catfish and predator fish and increases in shad and pan - fishes over time . in the lmr backwaters , gizzard shad were 44 percent of the biomass , common carp 15 percent , freshwater drum 7 percent , bigmouth buffalo 6 percent and threadfin shad 5 percent of the total biomass ; collectively , commercial species were 34 percent of the biomass and sport fishes were 10 percent ( lowery et al . 1987 ) . levee borrow pits contained an average of 688 kg ha - 1 ; shads and buffalo fishes dominated the catch ( cobb et al . 1984 ) . lentic dyke pools can contain over 3 800 kg ha - 1 of fish and larger pools average over 2 000 kg ha - 1 ( baker et al . 1991 ) . the high biomass is primarily from abundant shads and occasionally large numbers of buffalo fishes , catfishes , crappies , gars and white bass ( nailon and pennington 1984 ; baker et al . 1991 ) . nailon and pennington ( 1984 ) noted substantial differences between lentic and lotic dyke pools , the latter supporting more blue sucker , blue catfish and flathead catfish .\ntable 1 : distribution and abundance of fishes in the headwaters ( hw ) , upper ( umr ) , or open river ( or ) segments of the mississippi river . fish are resident in the mississippi river unless noted otherwise ( residence ) . data were compiled from fremling et al . ( 1989 ) , baker et al . ( 1991 ) , pitlo et al . ( 1995 ) , and warren et al . ( 2000 ) . fish categorized as strays by fremling et al . ( 1989 ) and marine fishes collected only in the lower 150 km of the mississippi river are excluded . backwater dependent or riverine dependent indicates those taxa that are dependent on backwater or riverine conditions to complete their life cycle . probable zone is the area of the river from which the fish have been or are likely to be collected .\n1 db diadromous , ib introduced , mb marine , pb peripheral , typically occupies tributary streams and rivers but may temporarily enter the mississippi river .\n2 ab abundantly taken in all river surveys . cb commonly taken in most surveys . ob occasionally collected ; not generally distributed but local concentrations may occur . ub uncommon , does not usually appear in survey samples . rb considered rare . h1b taxon has been collected in the mississippi river but no records of collection since 1978 ( fremling et al . 1989 ) . h2b taxon reported as present by warren et al . ( 2000 ) but abundance not known . h3b taxon presumed by warren et al . ( 2000 ) to be present but not verified by collection records .\n5 not listed as present in the open - river reach of the mississippi river by warren et al . 2000 .\n6 warren et al . ( 2000 ) list mississippi stoneroller ( c . a . pullum ) as present in the open - river reach of the mississippi river .\n7 warren et al . ( 2000 ) list pealip redhorse ( m . m . pisolabrum ) as present in the open - river reach of the mississippi river .\n5 the gulf coast strain striped bass is native to the mississippi river . atlantic coast strain striped bass have been introduced into numerous impoundments in the mississippi river basin . escapees from these introductions have colonized the mississippi river and likely contribute to occasional collections of striped bass in the umr and open river .\nfish biomass is usually estimated by recovery of fish after toxicant application ; hence , biomass estimation is typically limited to lentic waters where toxicants can be confined . however , rasmussen , pitlo and van vooren ( 1985 ) and pitlo ( 1987 ) obtained high biomass in channel border habitats using primacord ( explosives ) , suggesting promise for this method . if fish recovery from primacord sampling can be assumed equivalent to that from rotenone sampling , channel borders support fish biomasses similar to backwaters . non - ictalurid commercial fishes averaged 73 percent , catfishes 20 percent and gizzard shad 6 percent of the biomass ( pitlo 1987 ) . dettmers et al . ( 2001 ) estimated biomass of benthic fishes in the main channel in the umr ( pool 26 ) using trawls . although the biomass estimates are low ( and probably conservative ) , the trawl caught a wide variety of species and sizes . hydroacoustic sampling indicated moderate to high densities of fish in lmr main channel and channel border habitats ( baker et al . 1988a , 1988b ) , with densities in the main channel lower than along banks or in dyke pools ( baker et al . 1987 ; baker et al . 1988a , 1988b ) . many of the main channel and channel border fish were small ( 3 - 30 cm ) and the fish were distributed throughout the water column in some areas .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user"]}
{"id": 582, "summary": [{"text": "cotana unistrigata is a moth in the eupterotidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by george thomas bethune-baker in 1904 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in new guinea .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 39 \u2013 43 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are ochre-brown with a broad dark grey-brown nearly straight stripe across the wing , beyond the centre , from the costa to the inner margin .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are ochre-yellow with an oblique dark stripe right across the wing rather in front of the centre . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "cotana unistrigata", "paragraphs": ["males are similar to\ncotana unistrigata\n, but the basal half of the forewings has a buffish cream - colour , and the outer half is buffish grey .\nnervicompressa unistrigata bethune - baker , 1904 ; novit . zool . 11 ( 2 ) : 390 , pl . 4 , f . 5 ; tl : new guinea , angabunga river , dinawa\ncotana ( cotanini ) ; forbes , 1955 , tijdschr . ent . 98 : 131\nhow can i put and write and define cotana in a sentence and how is the word cotana used in a sentence and examples ? \u7528cotana\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528cotana\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528cotana\u9020\u53e5 , cotana meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .\nhave a fact about cotana castaneorufa ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for cotana castaneorufa ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\ncotana rubrescens walker , 1865 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 32 : 549 ; tl : new guinea\nmales are similar to\ncotana lunulata\n, but are larger and the outer one - third of the forewings is much paler and more yellow .\nfemales are very similar to those of\ncotana meeki\n, but are paler and more rufescent on the wings , while the postdiscal white bands are much narrower .\nmales are similar to\ncotana rubrescens\n, but the forewings are paler and less chestnut - brown , and the transverse bands are much thinner and less strongly marked .\nfemales are also similar to\ncotana lunulata\n, but are much darker and the white patch in the basal one - third of the forewings is reduced to a small dot .\n' franco cotana\n' ( marsciano , 22 december 1957 ) is an engineer , scientist and currently a member of the board of directors of the university of perugia from 2014 .\nin 2014 , after several experiences in various boards of public companies - private , prof . cotana became member of the board of directors of the university of perugia as one of the 5 members elected by the university senate representing the engineering , veterinary and agricultural sciences .\nbiostor is built by @ rdmpage , code on github . page images from the biodiversity heritage library .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nlunulata ( bethune - baker , 1904 ) borealis rothschild , 1932 ab . unicolor rothschild , 1932 [ infraspecific ] montium rothschild , 1932 occidentalis rothschild , 1917 satisbona rothschild , 1917\npallidipascia rothschild , 1917 pallidifascia ( sic sensu auct . ) postpallida ( rothschild , 1917 )\nrubrescens walker , 1865 ssp . kapaura rothschild , 1917 [ male ] ssp . oetakwensis rothschild , 1917 [ male ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnb : the taxon name search is for single names only . for example , to locate dysodia vitrina flammata warren , 1904 you should enter flammata only .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\nepicydas ovata bethune - baker , 1908 ; novit . zool . 15 : 175 ; tl : ekeikei , biagi\nhypercydas calliloma turner , 1903 ; trans . r . soc . s . austr . 27 : 23 ; tl : ? n . queensland\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nwalker , 1865 list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 31 : 1 - 322 ( [ 1865 ] ) , 32 : 323 - 706 ( 1865 ) , 33 : 707 - 1120 ( 1865 ) , 34 : 1121 - 1534 ( [ 1866 ] ) , 35 : 1535 - 2040 ( 1866 )\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation ."]}
{"id": 584, "summary": [{"text": "cliniodes ostreonalis , the oystershell metrea moth , is a moth in the crambidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by grote in 1882 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from connecticut , indiana , kentucky , maine , maryland , michigan , new brunswick , new york , ohio , ontario , pennsylvania , quebec , vermont , west virginia and wisconsin .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is 13 \u2013 16 mm for males and 15 \u2013 17 mm for females .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are very light yellow with a nebulous , blackish mesial band .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are white with a pruplish iridescence .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults have been recorded on wing from may to august .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "larvae have been recorded feeding on rhamnus frangula .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the create a web mixed with dead leaves and excrement .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "pupation takes place in a yellowish cocoon , mixed with debris and leaves .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the species overwinters in the pupal stage . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "cliniodes ostreonalis", "paragraphs": ["species cliniodes ostreonalis - oystershell metrea moth - hodges # 4789 - bugguide . net\ncliniodes euphrosinalis m\u00f6schler , 1886 ; abh . senckenb . nat . ges . 14 ( 3 ) : 80 ; tl : jamaica\ncliniodes ostreonalis , the oystershell metrea moth , is a moth in the crambidae family . it was described by grote in 1882 . it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from connecticut , indiana , kentucky , maine , maryland , michigan , new brunswick , new york , ohio , ontario , pennsylvania , quebec , vermont , west virginia and wisconsin .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nfyles , t . w . 1894 : botys urticaloides , n . s . . \u2013 the canadian entomologist , ottawa 26 : 184 .\ngrote , a . r . 1882 c : on certain pyralidae . \u2013 papilio , new york and philadelphia 2 : 73 .\nthe information below is based on images submitted and identified by contributors . range and date information may be incomplete , overinclusive , or just plain wrong .\nhover over black occurrence boxes to see number of images submitted . log in to make states , months and boxes clickable .\none moth can look completely different depending on how it places its wings ! i noticed its colouring and the big yellowish eyes with black spots ( if they are eyes ? ) .\ncontributed by ilze v - g . on 19 august , 2011 - 1 : 40pm last updated 4 july , 2013 - 12 : 51pm\nselect your preferred way to display the comments and click ' save settings ' to activate your changes .\nsudbury , ontario , canada july 4 , 2014 size : ws approx 3 . 2cm\nattracted to the lights at night it was resting on the glass in the pathway of the wgmc at laurentian university .\ncontributed by ilze v - g . on 4 july , 2014 - 10 : 55am last updated 8 july , 2014 - 12 : 41pm\nexarcha ineptalis lederer , 1863 ; wien . ent . monats . 7 ( 10 ) : 340 , ( 12 ) pl . 7 , f . 8 ; tl : venezuela\npyrausta glaucescens hampson , 1899 ; proc . zool . soc . london 1899 : 260 ; tl : ecuador\nniphostola punctata swinhoe , 1904 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1904 ( 1 ) : 156 ; tl : santubong\nbasonga paradisalis m\u00f6schler , 1886 ; abh . senckenb . nat . ges . 14 ( 3 ) : 79 ; tl : jamaica\nthis information is not automatically synchronized with globiz and can sometimes be lagging behind .\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nhistoire naturelle des insectes . species g\u00e9n\u00e9ral des l\u00e9pidopt\u00e9res . tome huiti\u00e9me . deltoides et pyralites\na revision of the moths of the subfamily pyraustinae and family pyralidae . part 1\na revision of the moths of the subfamily pyraustinae and family pyralidae . part 2\nwalker , 1859 list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum . supplement list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 16 : 1 - 253 ( [ 1859 ] ) , 17 : 255 - 508 ( 1859 ) , 18 : 509 - 798 ( 1859 ) , 19 : 799 - 1036 ( 1859 )\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nto view a subset of photographs , use any combination of filters and search boxes . the search boxes can accept full or partial names . all filters are applied together .\nclick on a photograph to view full size , or click on a scientific name to go to a species profile .\n- any - barbados belize bermuda bonaire canada cayman islands costa rica cuba dominican republic el salvador guatemala haiti honduras jamaica mexico nicaragua panama puerto rico st . kitts the bahamas united states"]}
{"id": 585, "summary": [{"text": "eutrichopidia latinus is a species of moth of the noctuidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is known from eastern australia , including queensland , new south wales , the australian capital territory , victoria , south australia and tasmania .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the moth is about 45 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are black with a broad diagonal band across each forewing .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "this band may vary from white to yellow to orange .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the hindwings have a white margin with black dots and the abdomen is tipped with a tuft of orange hairs .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on hibbertia obtusifolia and haloragis teucriodes . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "eutrichopidia latinus", "paragraphs": ["the adult moths of this species are black , with a broad diagonal band across each forewing . this band is varied in colour : anywhere from white through yellow to orange . the hindwings have a white margin containing black dots . the abdomen is tipped with a tuft of orange hairs , and the forelegs have orange hair tufts . the moths are inclined to rest head downward . the moths have a wingspan of about 4 . 5 cms .\nmelbourne university press , 1990 , pl . 22 . 28 , p . 464 .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 7be5da87 - c9af - 4d9e - 850c - d392ec1e2bc1\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : b96346fa - 6c57 - 422b - bb53 - e875180d91bb\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : db89495e - d8b9 - 4ccd - 9f82 - 9d3dfeaa5589\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 396252\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nall data on natureshare is licensed under a creative commons attribution 2 . 5 australia license .\nfree : natureshare is , and will always be , a free and open service .\nwarranty : natureshare services and all software are provided on an\nas is\nbasis without warranties of any kind , either express or implied , including , without limitation , fitness for a particular purpose . your use of the services is at your sole risk . we do not guarantee the accuracy or timeliness of information available from the service .\ncathy powers your id is absolutely correct and the ala image connected with idalima is an incorrect id . good spotting . goes to show you need more than one source and natureshare is a very good one .\ncathy powers yep , a moth . this group is covered in mov 8 which will be available before the end of 2017 .\npowered by naturemapr | canberra nature map operates under creative commons attribution 3 . 0 australia | privacy\nsorry for the photo quality , it wouldn ' t land and sit still .\ncitations are automatically generated and may require some modification to conform to exact standards .\nthis image belongs in a collection . go up a level to see more .\nyou may save or print this image for research and study . if you wish to use it for any other purpose , please visit using the pictures collection\ncopies direct supplies reproductions of collection material for a fee . this service is offered by the national library of australia\nyou may order a copy or use the online copy for research or study ; for other uses contact us .\ncopyright status may not be correct if data in the record is incomplete or inaccurate .\nyour browser either has no support for javascript , or has javascript turned off .\nthis application requires javascript to be enabled . please open your browser preferences and enable javascript , or use a browser with javascript capabilities .\ntrove eresources catalogue version 1 . 33 . 0 - release copyright terms of use privacy disclaimer api"]}
{"id": 604, "summary": [{"text": "scrobipalpa sinica is a moth in the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by bidzilya and li in 2010 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in china ( inner mongolia ) and mongolia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 11 \u2013 12 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are covered with light grey , brown-tipped scales .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the veins are slightly mottled yellow , especially in the basal part of the forewing and there is an indistinct small black spot at the base and at the corner of the cell .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are light grey .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing in august . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "scrobipalpa sinica", "paragraphs": ["scrobipalpa ochrostigma bidzilya & li , 2010 , sp . n . - plazi treatmentbank\nscrobipalpa flavinerva bidzilya & li , 2010 , sp . n . - plazi treatmentbank\nfigures 50 \u2013 53 . female genitalia of scrobipalpa spp . 50 , s . caryocoloides povoln\u00fd ( slide no . l 06140 ) ; 51 , s . sinica sp . n . ( pt , slide no . 258 / 08 ) ; 52 , s . chinensis povoln\u00fd ( slide no . 98 / 08 ) ; 53 , s . ochrostigma sp . n . ( ht , slide no . 87 / 08 ) .\nfigures 33\u201340 . male genitalia of scrobipalpa spp . 33 , s . reiprichi povoln\u00fd ( slide no . l06011 ) ; 34 , s . ochrostigma sp . n . ( pt , slide no . l06039 ) ; 35 , s . chinensis povoln\u00fd ( slide no . 106 / 08 ) ; 36 , s . sinica sp . n . ( ht , slide no . 208 / 08 ) ; 37 , s . sinica sp . n . ( pt , slide no . l07023 ) ; 38 , s . flavinerva sp . n . ( pt , slide no . 194 / 07 ) ; 39 , s . hoenei sp . n . ( ht , slide no . 91 / 08 ) ; 40 , s . paradoxa piskunov ( slide no . l07047 ) .\nfigures 33 \u2013 40 . male genitalia of scrobipalpa spp . 33 , s . reiprichi povoln\u00fd ( slide no . l 06011 ) ; 34 , s . ochrostigma sp . n . ( pt , slide no . l 06039 ) ; 35 , s . chinensis povoln\u00fd ( slide no . 106 / 08 ) ; 36 , s . sinica sp . n . ( ht , slide no . 208 / 08 ) ; 37 , s . sinica sp . n . ( pt , slide no . l 07023 ) ; 38 , s . flavinerva sp . n . ( pt , slide no . 194 / 07 ) ; 39 , s . hoenei sp . n . ( ht , slide no . 91 / 08 ) ; 40 , s . paradoxa piskunov ( slide no . l 07047 ) .\nbidzilya , oleksiy & li , houhun , 2010 , the genus scrobipalpa janse ( lepidoptera , gelechiidae ) in china , with descriptions of 13 new species , zootaxa 2513 , pp . 1 - 26 : 23 - 24\nbidzilya , oleksiy & li , houhun , 2010 , the genus scrobipalpa janse ( lepidoptera , gelechiidae ) in china , with descriptions of 13 new species , zootaxa 2513 , pp . 1 - 26 : 16 - 17\nfigures 9 \u2013 16 . adults of scrobipalpa spp . 9 , s . nigripuncta sp . n . ( ht ) ; 10 , s . strictella sp . n . ( ht ) ; 11 , s . flavidinigra sp . n . ( ht ) ; 12 , s . ochrostigma sp . n . ( ht ) ; 13 , s . chinensis povoln\u00fd ; 14 , s . sinica sp . n . ( pt ) ; 15 , s . flavinerva sp . n . ( pt ) ; 16 , s . hoenei sp . n . ( ht ) .\ntwo new species of gelechiidae , teleiopsis motleella , sp . nov . , and sitotroga pseudopsacasta , sp . nov . , are described from korea . illustrations of adults and male genitalia are provided . scrobipalpa spumata ( povoln\u00fd , 2001 ) , comb , n . , is newly recorded from korea . it was described from the female , and the male genitalia are described and illustrated for the first time .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\na new species of fish , pseudoliparis swirei , published in zootaxa ( 4358 : 161 - 177 ) by gerringer , m . e et al . was voted among top 10 new species described in 2017 .\na new species of madagascan crickets described by mustafa \u00fcnal and george beccaloni in zootaxa was featured in a national geographic story . well done mustafa and george !\na new species of wolf spider , lycosa aragogi , is named after aragog\u2014the famous fictional spider from \u201charry potter\u201d book series by j . k . rowling . the new species is similar to the animatronic puppet version of the character used in the film \u201charry potter and the chamber of secrets\u201d , which is actually based on a wolf spider . the naming of the new species is dedicated to the 20th anniversary of harry potter book series .\nmariah o . pfleger , r . dean grubbs , charles f . cotton , toby s . daly - engel\nidentification of nipaecoccus ( hemiptera : coccomorpha : pseudococcidae ) species in the united states , with descriptions of nipaecoccus bromelicola sp . n . and the male of n . floridensis beardsley\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\n. . . with regard to taxonomic perspective , the nymphalidae along with other butterflies occurring in south korea were further welllisted by several important earlier studies since the beginning work by foreign scientists ( see kim , 2012 ) . the subsequent majority of nymphalidae research in south korea has focused on introduction of individual species in illustrated books ( e . g . , kim , 2002 ) , finding and listing new species through morphological analysis ( e . g . , joo et al . , 1997 ; lee and takakura , 1981 ; park , 1987 ) , and ecological investigation of a limited number of species ( e . g . , kim , 2012 ) . . . .\na new species of parastenolechia kanazawa ( lepidoptera : gelechiidae ) from korea , with a check list o . . .\nparastenolechia suriensis , sp . nov . , is described and illustrated , and p . asymmetrica kanazawa is reported from korea for the first time . a check list of the species of the genus is given .\ntwo new species of gelechiidae ( lepidoptera ) from korea , with notes on the taxonomic status of telph . . .\ntwo new species of the family gelechiidae , concubina trigonalis park and ponomarenko , n . sp . and teleiodes gangwonensis park and ponomarenko , n . sp . are described from korea . telphusa euryzeucta meyrick , 1922 , is transferred to concubina : concubina euryzeucta ( meyrick 1922 ) , n . comb . concubina subita n . omelko and m . omelko , 2004 is considered a new junior synonym of c . euryzeucta .\nsix species of the genus anarsia zeller were recognized from siberia and far east . two of the species are described as new to science ( anarsia gajiensis sp . n . and a . sibirica sp . n . ) , and a . bipinnata meyrick is reported from the primorye territory ( russian far east ) for the first time . key to the species is given .\nnew faunistic data for the family gelechiidae in the korean peninsula and ne china ( lepidoptera : gel . . .\nfrom the result of identification of gelechiids collected in the korean peninsula or mt . changbai - shan , ne china and preserved in the center for insect systematics , korea , 25 species of the family gelechiidae are reported for the first time from korea and three species of them are first known from china . a new synonymy of teleiodes sattler , 1960 ( = dubitationis m . omelko & n . omelko , 1998 , . . . [ show full abstract ]\na new subfamily crocanthinae of lecithoceridae ( lepidoptera ) for the genus crocanthes meyrick and it . . .\na new subfamily , crocanthinae n . subf . , is proposed for crocanthes meyrick and its allies , which have been considered as a monophyletic group with a unique genital character\u2014an absent or remarkably reduced gnathos in the male genitalia . the subfamily includes aprosoesta turner , lamprista park , pacificulla park , hannara park , and gonaepa walker . aprosoesta turner st . rev . is resurrected as a . . . [ show full abstract ]\ntype material . holotype , \u01a5 , china : mt . xinglong , yuzhong county ( 35 \u00b0 53 ' n , 104 \u00b006 ' e ) , gansu province , 2120 m , 4 . viii . 1993 , leg . houhun li , genitalia slide no . 87 / 08 . paratype : 1 3 , dahua , huangyuan county ( 36 \u00b0 43 ' n , 101 \u00b0 17 ' e ) , qinghai province 16 . viii . 1995 , leg . lanfang zhu , genitalia slide no . l06039 .\n) : wingspan 13 . 5 mm . head grey , frons off - white . labial palpus recurved ; segment 2 twice width of segment 3 , underside and outer surface covered with white , black - tipped scales , inner surface white ; segment 3 thin , acute , grey , inner surface with white medial ring . antennal segments black , grey - ringed basally . thorax and tegula grey mottled brown . forewing light brown , posterior margin black from base to half length and in subapical area ; narrow black strip along costal margin from base to twothirds ; ochreous spot at base , at one - third and at two - thirds , respectively ; cilia yellowish - grey . hindwing and cilia grey .\n) : uncus large , broad , more or less widened distally . gnathos basally broad , distal portion narrow , slightly curved . tegumen prolonged . valva digitate , comparatively broad , distinctly shorter than uncus . sacculus about one - fifth length of valva , moderately narrow , curved inwards . paired processes on posterior margin of vinculum broad , sub - triangular , slightly curved outwards apically , about as long as length of sacculus ; medial excision deep , v - shaped . saccus narrow , apex slightly dilated , rounded . aedeagus short , broadened basally , distal portion straight , with distinct apical cornutus .\n) : papilla analis prolonged , sub - oval . segment viii quadrangular . lobes of vaginal plates narrow , broadly separated , weakly sclerotized . postvaginal plates weakly sclerotized . apophysis anterioris about 1 . 5 length of segment viii . ductus bursae moderately narrow . corpus bursae small , rounded , without signum .\nsp . n . is well recognizable externally by the yellowish - brown forewing with three distinct ochreous spots and black posterior margin . the male genitalia are characterized by the broad , prolonged uncus far exceeding the tip of the valva in combination with the broad paired processes on the posterior margin of vinculum and the relatively narrow sacculus . the female genitalia differ from most other\nspecies in the membranous , weakly sclerotized periostial lobes and the absence of signum . the last character has not been observed earlier in the genus\nbiology . host - plant unknown . adults occur in august at 2120 m altitude .\netymology . the specific name is derived from greek ochra \u2013 ochreous , stigma \u2013 marks , in reference to the wing pattern .\nno known copyright restrictions apply . see agosti , d . , egloff , w . , 2009 . taxonomic information exchange and copyright : the plazi approach . bmc research notes 2009 , 2 : 53 for further explanation .\ntype material . holotype , 3 , china : zhaohe , damao qi , baotou ( 40 \u00b0 39 ' n , 109 \u00b0 49 ' e ) , inner mongolia , 1700 m , 11 . viii . 2007 , leg . houhun li and bidzilya . paratypes : 1 3 , same data as holotype , gen . prep . 194 / 07 ; 1 3 , same data as holotype except dated 10 . viii . 2007 , leg . houhun li , genitalia slide no . l06123 ; mongolia : 1 3 , vostochnyi aimak , oz . khuh - nur , 25 . vi . [ 1 ] 976 , leg . kerzhner ( zin\n) ; 1 3 , vostochnyi aimak , tamsag - bulak , 25 . vii . [ 1 ] 976 , leg . kerzhner ( zin\n) : wingspan 14 . 0\u201315 . 0 mm . head , thorax and tegula grey . labial palpus recurved ; segment 2 light grey mottled brown on outer surface ; segment 3 grey , pointed . forewing grey , veins cream , yellowish - white ; fresh specimens with small dark stripe at two - thirds length and small black dot at corner of cell ; cilia light grey . hindwing light grey , with dark veins .\n) : uncus prolonged , about two times longer than wide , sub - triangular distally . gnathos basally broad ; distal sclerite small , slender , weakly curved . tegumen comparatively long and narrow . valva slender , dilated distally , not exceeding top of uncus . sacculus digitate , about one - quarter length of valva ; outer margin weakly curved , inner margin almost straight , apex pointed . paired processes on posterior margin of vinculum very short and narrow , pointed apically ; medial excision deep , v - shaped . saccus triangular , but very broad at base in paratype from mongolia . aedaegus short , slightly inflated at base ; distal portion moderately broad , with distinct down - curved apical cornutus .\nspecies by the grey forewing with distinct cream - coloured veins . the male genitalia are characterized by the very short , narrow , pointed vinculum processes in combination with prolonged uncus and tegumen , as well as digitiform sacculus .\nbiology . host - plant unknown . adults occur from the end of june to middle of august .\netymology . the specific name is derived from the latin flavus \u2013 yellow , nervus \u2013 vein , referring to the wing pattern .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more"]}
{"id": 607, "summary": [{"text": "noctueliopsis aridalis is a moth in the crambidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by barnes and benjamin in 1922 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from arizona , california and nevada .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of deserts .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is 5.5-6.5 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults have been recorded on wing from march to june . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "noctueliopsis aridalis", "paragraphs": ["photographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\npowell , j . a . & p . a . opler , moths of western north america , pl . 22 . 2m ; p . 171 . book review and ordering\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nyou ' d think with those colors and that pattern this one would be easy , but i didn ' t see a match in my holland moth guide .\ninteresting . we don ' t seem to have a guide page for that yet , and i don ' t see it at the moth photographers group either , but i do see one at cal photos . just wish i had had a ring flash and a decent macro lens when i took the photo . ( i had just made the transition to dslr about a month before that trip . )\n. . . . all of the microleps through pyraloidea ( different photos of the same specimens that appear in mwna ) will be on plates and species pages at mpg within a week or so . ( no rsvp , thanks )\nselect your preferred way to display the comments and click ' save settings ' to activate your changes .\nnoctuelia pandoralis barnes & mcdunnough , 1914 ; contr . nat . hist . lep . n . am . 2 ( 6 ) : 244 , pl . 2 , f . 13 ; tl : deming , new mexico\nthis information is not automatically synchronized with globiz and can sometimes be lagging behind .\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\n[ nacl ] ; hodges , 1983 check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico check list lep . am . n of mexico\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\n80x5 - 240x3 - 240x4 - 320x1 - 320x2 - 320x3 - 640x1 - 640x2 set display option above . click on images to enlarge .\na variety of organizations and individuals have contributed photographs to calphotos . please follow the usage guidelines provided with each image . use and copyright information , as well as other details about the photo such as the date and the location , are available by clicking on the\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy ."]}
{"id": 622, "summary": [{"text": "the trillers ( lalage ) are a genus of passerine birds belonging to the cuckoo-shrike family campephagidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "their name comes from the loud trilling calls of the males .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "there are about 12 species which occur in southern asia and australasia with a number of species on pacific islands .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "they feed mainly on insects and fruit .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they build a neat cup-shaped nest high in a tree .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "they are fairly small birds , about 15 to 20 cm long .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they are mainly black , grey and white in colour .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "most species are fairly common but the samoan triller is considered to be near threatened and the norfolk island subspecies of the long-tailed triller has become extinct . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "triller", "paragraphs": ["when entering my new aus sighting , i noticed that variable triller was split and a subsp was named m . triller - but the variable triller no longer appears in the new c / c tax - i am attaching a screen shot .\npolynesian triller ( lalage maculosa ) is a species of bird in the campephagidae family .\ncommon name : norfolk island long - tailed triller the norfolk island long - tailed triller , lalage leucopyga leucopyga , is a conventionally accepted subspecies of the long - tailed triller , lalage leucopyga ( christidis & boles 1994 ; higgins et al . 2006 ; schodde & mason 1999 ) .\nrufous - bellied triller ( lalage aurea ) is a species of bird in the campephagidae family .\n, elevate a subspecies of varied triller ( lalage leucomela conjuncta ) to species rank as mussau triller ( lalage conjuncta ) , following taylor ( 2005 ) . [ ioc : st . matthias is . in the bismarck arch . : ioc ]\nthe varied triller still exists in clements 6 . 7 along with the all of its former subspecies ; minus the one above .\nfind out why 25 million people , including stars like kevin hart , vanessa hudgens and the victoria ' s secret models , are using triller .\nthe norfolk island long - tailed triller was the only subspecies of the long - tailed triller to occur in australia ( higgins et al . 2006a ; schodde & mason 1999 ) . the norfolk island long - tailed triller was restricted to norfolk island in the south - western pacific ocean ( schodde & mason 1999 ) . it was last recorded in 1942 ( schodde et al . 1983 ) and is , thus , presently extinct .\ninitially , triller was just focused on allowing users to create the videos \u2014 you\u2019d make them in the app , then share and watch them elsewhere .\nmobile app triller isn\u2019t just a simple way to make music videos anymore \u2014 it recently added social features that allow users to follow other users and explore their videos .\ntriller is a fantastic video editing app that offers some really fun results . the interface is simple and clean , allowing you to create your masterpiece in only five minutes or less .\nwith the latest update , triller is becoming more of a full - fledged social network , with the ability to follow and be followed . you might follow people you know , or people you discovered through triller famous \u2014 then you can toggle back and forth between the famous feed and your own customized feed . plus , everyone gets a profile showcasing all their publicly shared videos .\ntriller is the easiest way to create flawless video . make celeb - quality music videos , shoot beautiful films , and collaborate with friends to make group videos in seconds . millions have made triller videos on the fly including selena gomez , rita ora , justin bieber , kevin hart + more . just shoot a few takes , tap the triller button , and we quickly edit everything together into an impressive , shareable video . use triller to : * create a professional - looking video with the help of our unique auto - editing algorithm . * look your best with 50 + filters . new filters drop every week . * capture your life from the best angles , or pick from the hottest songs to make your own music video . * personalize your videos with text , drawings , and emojis . * collaborate with friends in group video . * share videos via instagram , twitter , facebook , text , e - mail or save to your camera roll . * * * * * * * * * * * questions ? feedback ? we love it . please write us at : feedback @ triller . co . triller terms : urltoken\ntriller is a video editing app that lets you create spectacular videos in just a few seconds . the only thing you need is your android device , since the app itself offers hundreds of different songs from all genres .\nmanagement documents relevant to the long - tailed triller are at the start of the profile . in addition , the action plan for australian birds ( garnett & crowley 2000 ) summarises critical ecological and conservation data for the subspecies .\nthe only food the norfolk island long - tailed triller was known to take were insects ( hull 1909 ) . the other subspecies eat insects ( both adults and larvae , including caterpillars ) as well as small fruits ( mayr 1945 ) . the norfolk island long - tailed triller foraged on terrestrial insects by pouncing onto them from a suitable perch , such as a stump or fence - post , and took flying insects on the wing ( hull 1909 ) .\nthere is no information on the home ranges or territories of the norfolk island long - tailed triller ( higgins et al . 2006a ) . the other subspecies maintain well - defined territories which are vigorously defended during the breeding season ( bregulla 1992 ) .\ntriller is the simplest way to create flawless videos . make celeb - quality music videos , shoot beautiful films , and collaborate with friends to make group videos in seconds . with triller , it ' s all about capturing the greatest moments in your life and impressing the world with your extraordinary talent . millions have made triller videos on the fly including selena gomez , rita ora , justin bieber , kevin hart , and more . shoot a few takes , tap the triller button , and triller app can quickly edit everything together into an impressive , shareable video for you . use triller to : \u2022 easily create immersive full - screen music videos pick your favorite soundtrack from trending artists and featured genres , record up to a duration of 30 seconds or upload your own videos , and create a professional - looking music video using our unique auto - editing algorithm . \u2022 express your true self capture your life from the best angles . tell your story by singing , dancing and performing in your own style . the world will love you as long as you are enjoying yourself ! \u2022 personalize your videos adjust , trim and edit your videos with text , drawings , and emojis . add cool effects from the selection of 50 + filters . new filters drop every week . \u2022 be creative and have fun together shoot a video with multiple takes , shuffle for the best edit and collaborate with friends in group video . \u2022 go social ! chat , comment , and follow the most talented people in the world . share videos via instagram , twitter , facebook , text , e - mail or save to your camera roll . * * * * * * * * * * * questions ? feedback ? we love it . please write us at : feedback @ triller . co .\nthe long - tailed triller would have been quite distinctive on norfolk island , as it was the only black and white passerine to occur on the island . even during non - breeding , the blackish - brown and white plumage would have allowed easy identification .\nif you only record one take , this will be the final music video . however , if you record several takes , triller can edit all of them together , and create a more professional - looking video . you can also apply different filters to further customize the overall look .\nbut that started to change with the launch of triller famous , a section that highlights a curated selection of user - submitted videos . leiberman said the response was pretty encouraging , with nearly a million users signing up to submit ( he said the app has seen 10 million downloads overall ) .\nthe norfolk island long - tailed triller formed a distinct population separated , geographically , from all other subspecies ( higgins et al . 2006a ; schodde & mason 1999 ) . the subspecies was formerly considered abundant ( schodde et al . 1983 ) , and was reported to occur in ' considerable numbers ' ( hull 1909 ) . however , no population estimates were available . the norfolk island long - tailed triller became extinct by the mid - twentieth century . the other subspecies are assumed to be stable and secure , as they are not listed as declining or threatened ( birdlife international 2000 ; collar et al . 1994 ) .\nthere have not been any comprehensive surveys for the species . there have , however , been a number of ornithological surveys on norfolk island since the extinction of the norfolk island long - tailed triller ( e . g . schodde et al . 1983 ; robinson 1988 ; bell 1990a ) , resulting in no sign of the subspecies .\ntaylor , b . ( 2018 ) . long - tailed triller ( lalage leucopyga ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\ni should probably back up a second and explain what triller is . it\u2019s an iphone and android app that allows you to create a video by taking a snippet of your favorite song , adding a video filter and singing along . co - founder and ceo david leiberman said the app is easy to use , but at the same time , \u201cwe still preserve the illusion of glamour that\u2019s often destroyed in video . \u201d\nthe species as a whole , currently , occurs in five populations , each considered a separate subspecies ( higgins et al . 2006a ; mayr & ripley 1941 ) . consequently , the other extant subspecies of the long - tailed triller occur on islands in the south - western pacific ocean : new caledonia ; vanuatu ; and the solomon islands ( higgins et al . 2006a ; mayr 1945 ; schodde & mason 1999 ; sibley & monroe 1990 ) .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . biak triller ( lalage leucoptera ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe extinction of the norfolk island long - tailed triller is thought to have resulted from predation by the black rat ( rattus rattus ) , which arrived on the island in the 1940s ( garnett & crowley 2000 ; robinson 1988 ) . this also coincided with the clearing of a large area of native forest for the construction of an airport ( garnett & crowley 2000 ) . though it was last recorded in 1942 ( schodde et al . 1983 ) , the subspecies was said to have been abundant just a year before ( schodde et al . 1983 ) .\nthe breeding biology is the only aspect of the ecology of the norfolk island long - tailed triller that is reasonably well known . it was recorded breeding between september and february , when it built a shallow , cup - shaped nest of moss , lichen and root - fibres , and laid a clutch of two pale green eggs with olive - brown speckles ( hull 1909 ; north 1899 ) . norfolk island long - tailed trillers were said to have laid a second clutch of eggs after heavy rainfall , which resulted in an abundance of food ( hull 1909 ) .\nthe norfolk island long - tailed triller is known to have inhabited rainforest ( de ravin 1975 ) , and is thought to have occurred in all wooded habitats on norfolk island ( garnett & crowley 2000 ) . the other subspecies occur in open country with tall trees and shrubs in which to perch , rather than in ' solid forest ' . the species is more likely to be seen at the edge of the forest or in secondary regrowth and it is often recorded in plantations or gardens in villages and towns ( bregulla 1992 ; doughty et al . 1999 ; mayr 1945 ) .\nthe norfolk island subspecies was said to have been bright and lively ( hull 1909 ) , so it was probably readily detectable . the other subspecies of the long - tailed trillers feed quietly in the outer branches of trees , often perching conspicuously in the tops of trees and shrubs , not obscured by the foliage ( bregulla 1992 ; mayr 1945 ) . though the norfolk island long - tailed triller has been extinct since the mid - 20th century , if a presence / absence survey were to be conducted , it should consist of diurnal area searches within a radius of 500 m at various sites , or transect - point surveys ( magrath et al . 2004 ) .\nthe extinct norfolk island long - tailed triller was a small black and white or dark brown and white passerine with a long tail . it was 17 - 18 centimetres long . the male , when in breeding plumage , was glossy black on the top of the head and neck , and off white or pale buff on the face , below the eye . most of the rest of the upperparts were black , except for a white shoulder patch and rump , and a white tip to the tail . the underparts were white or pale buff . plumage of both non - breeding males and females was similar to males ' breeding plumage , except for the glossy black upperparts which were blackish brown ( bregulla 1992 ; higgins et al . 2006 ; mayr 1945 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 290 , 935 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\navibase has been visited 263 , 293 , 933 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nlogin with instagram , improved performance for downloading & playing videos , improved app activity when it returns from background and many bugfixes to improve user\u2019s experience .\nmy friend told me about this app , so i listened and got it . i like musically , they\u2019re fun to make , and she said it\u2019s like that . when i got it . . it was just confusing . i had no clue how to make a video , and when i finally figured how to make one , it looked super bad and it just was not that fun . i mean looking at others trillers are fun , but making your own and being proud of it is what i wanted to do . i\u2019d recommend musically over this . more simple and way easier to figure out . i give this a two because the only part i enjoyed was watching other people who were actually good at them . not the best app , prefer musically and i think you\u2019d prefer it too . \ud83d\udcaf\nsooo i updated the app and my camera isn\u2019t working when i start to record . . i didn\u2019t know if it was the app or my phone so i went to the camera app and my camera worked perfectly fine so then i went back to the app to see if it worked and it didn\u2019t \ud83d\ude44 so i restarted the app and my phone but yet it still didn\u2019t work soo i dont know what\u2019s wrong . . . like i dont know if it\u2019s bug but i don\u2019t want to delete the app and put it back on there cuz i\u2019m scared it\u2019s gonna delete my stuff so . but it seems like i\u2019m not the only \ud83d\ude2d\nhi . i just got back on this app since last year i think and i\u2019m having trouble with posting . when i try to post it says i need to confirm my email address before i can post . i tell it to send me a confirmation email and i never receive them ( my main problem ) . i have checked the email i registered with many times and it is correct . this has stumped me and i\u2019m really sad i cannot post . if you could tell me how to fix this problem or if you could fix it that would be great ! thank you , plz reply asap ! ! !\nrequires ios 10 . 0 or later . compatible with iphone , ipad , and ipod touch . apple tv .\nwith family sharing set up , up to six family members can use this app .\n+ use android shortcuts to quickly make vlogs and music videos ( needs android 7 . 1 + )\nby purchasing this item , you are transacting with google payments and agreeing to the google payments terms of service and privacy notice .\nthe process of creating a video is really simple . to choose a song , you can use the search box to look it up by artist , album , or song title . you can also import one from your device ' s memory .\nonce you choose the song , you need to select 15 seconds of it , which will be the duration of your video . after that , you can start recording . you can use the front or back camera , as well as the zoom to add interesting effects .\nwe ' ve detected that javascript is disabled in your browser . would you like to proceed to legacy twitter ?\ndo you have a sister & brother song like mawee . bulma ? grab your siblings and dance to that song of yours tonight !\niews - tracks - from - possible - ep - with - jeremih - pnb - rock - and - swizz - beatz - news . 54376 . html\ntwitter may be over capacity or experiencing a momentary hiccup . try again or visit twitter status for more information .\nyou can add location information to your tweets , such as your city or precise location , from the web and via third - party applications . you always have the option to delete your tweet location history . learn more\nhere ' s the url for this tweet . copy it to easily share with friends .\nby embedding twitter content in your website or app , you are agreeing to the twitter developer agreement and developer policy .\nnot on twitter ? sign up , tune into the things you care about , and get updates as they happen .\nthis timeline is where you\u2019ll spend most of your time , getting instant updates about what matters to you .\nhover over the profile pic and click the following button to unfollow any account .\nwhen you see a tweet you love , tap the heart \u2014 it lets the person who wrote it know you shared the love .\nthe fastest way to share someone else\u2019s tweet with your followers is with a retweet . tap the icon to send it instantly .\nadd your thoughts about any tweet with a reply . find a topic you\u2019re passionate about , and jump right in .\n\u201cwe\u2019re giving people the opportunity to make a video that doesn\u2019t look like a bad bar mitzvah video , \u201d he added .\nand if you\u2019re like me and not quite ready to show off your lip - syncing / dancing skills , this gives you a reason to browse the app .\n( tristram , 1879 ) \u2013 makira ( san cristobal ) and uki , in se solomons .\nj . p . verreaux & des murs , 1860 \u2013 new caledonia and i of pines .\n17\u201318 cm ; 16\u00b75\u201321 g . male nominate race breeding with forehead , lores , crown , upper ear - coverts and upperparts glossy greenish - black , indistinct white spots on . . .\ngives a short , rasping call note ; loud , melodious song , \u201ctee - zeeia - tee - zeeia - tee - zeeia\u201d . nominate . . .\nlowland and mountain forest ; commoner at forest edges and in open areas . probably occurred in all . . .\nno current information available . on norfolk i ( nominate race , extinct ) foraged in trees , but also seen to forage in wet grass , perching on . . .\nno current information . on norfolk i bred in sept , dec and feb , feb clutches apparently second breeding attempt in response to food . . .\nnot globally threatened . restricted - range species : present in the solomon group eba , vanuatu and temotu eba and new caledonia eba ; extinct in norfolk island eba . common . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nthis page refers only to birds that have gone extinct since the year 1500 and usually were subject to scientific study while alive .\nsince 1500 , over 190 species of birds have become extinct , and this rate of extinction seems to be increasing . the situation is exemplified by hawaii , where 30 % of all known recently extinct bird taxa originally lived . other areas , such as guam , have also been hit hard ; guam has lost over 60 % of its native bird taxa in the last 30 years , many of them due to the introduced brown tree snake .\ncurrently there are approximately 10 , 000 species of birds , with an estimated 1 , 200 considered to be under threat of extinction .\nisland species in general , and flightless island species in particular are most at risk . the disproportionate number of rails in the list reflects the tendency of that family to lose the ability to fly when geographically isolated . even more rails became extinct before they could be described by scientists ; these taxa are listed in late quaternary prehistoric birds .\ngiven below are usually approximations of the actual date of extinction . in some cases , more exact dates are given as it is sometimes possible to pinpoint the date of extinction to a specific year or even day ( the\nits extinction could be timed with an accuracy of maybe half an hour ) . extinction dates in the literature are usually the dates of the last verified record ( credible observation or specimen taken ) ; in many pacific birds which became extinct shortly after european contact , however , this leaves an uncertainty period of over a century because the islands on which they used to occur were only rarely visited by scientists .\nelephant bird , aepyornis maximus and / or a . medius ( madagascar , 16th century ? ) the taxonomy of the elephant birds is not fully resolved ; it is certain that at least one taxon survived until some 1000 years ago at least . judging from geographical data , a . maximus and the smaller a . medius are possibilities .\nupland moa , megalapteryx didinus ( south island , new zealand , late 15th century ? ) generally believed to have been extinct by 1500 , this is the only moa species that according to current knowledge might have survived until later times , possibly as late as the 1830s .\ncrested shelduck , tadorna cristata ( northeast asia , late 20th century ? ) a relict species from northeast asia . officially critically endangered due to recent unconfirmed reports .\namsterdam duck , anas marecula ( amsterdam island , south indian ocean , c . 1800 )\nsaint paul island duck , anas sp . ( saint paul island , south indian ocean , c . 1800 ) only known by a painting from 1793 . might be identical with the amsterdam island duck or a distinct species or subspecies .\npink - headed duck , rhodonessa caryophyllacea ( east india , bangladesh , north myanmar , 1945 ? ) \u2013 a reclassification into the genus netta is recommended but not generally accepted . officially critically endangered ; recent surveys have failed to rediscover it .\nr\u00e9union pochard , aythya cf . innotata ( r\u00e9union , mascarenes , c . 1690s ) a bone of a pochard found on r\u00e9union seems to resolve the reports of canards other than the mauritian duck having occurred on the island . the taxonomic status of this form cannot be resolved until more material is found , however .\nauckland merganser , mergus australis ( auckland islands , southwest pacific , c . 1902 )\nthe pile - builder megapode , megapodius molistructor may have survived on new caledonia to the late 18th century as evidenced by descriptions of the bird named\ntetrao australis\nand later\nmegapodius andersoni\n.\nthe viti levu scrubfowl , megapodius amissus of viti levu and possibly kadavu , fiji , may have survived to the early 19th or even the 20th century as suggested by circumstantial evidence .\nraoul island scrubfowl , megapodius sp . ( raoul , kermadec islands , 1876 ) a megapode is said to have inhabited raoul island until the population was wiped out in a volcanic eruption . it is not clear whether the birds represent a distinct taxon or derive from a prehistoric introduction by polynesian seafarers .\nhimalayan quail , ophrysia superciliosa ( north india , late 19th century ? ) officially critically endangered . not recorded with certainty since 1876 , but thorough surveys are still required , and there was a recent set of possible ( though unlikely ) sightings around naini tal in 2003 . a little - known native name from western nepal probably refers to this bird , but for various reasons , no survey for ophrysia has ever been conducted in that country , nor is it generally assumed to occur there ( due to the native name being overlooked ) .\njavan lapwing , vanellus macropterus ( java , indonesia , mid - 20th century ) officially classified as critically endangered , but as this conspicuous bird has not been recorded since 1940 , it is almost certainly extinct .\nwhite - winged sandpiper , prosobonia ellisi ( moorea , society islands , 19th century ) doubtfully distinct from p . leucoptera .\neskimo curlew , numenius borealis ( northern north america , late 20th century ? ) may still exist ; officially classified as critically endangered , possibly extinct .\nslender - billed curlew , numenius tenuirostris ( western siberia , early first decade of the 21st century ? ) may still exist ; officially classified as critically endangered . a few birds were recorded in 2004 , following several decades of increasing rarity . there was an unconfirmed sighting in albania in 2007 . a survey to find out whether this bird still exists is currently being undertaken by the rspb ( birdlife in the uk ) .\nleguat ' s giant\nor g\u00e9ant , a hypothetical giant rail from the mascarenes described as leguatia gigantea , is based on his descriptions of flamingos , as leguat was not familiar with their french name flamand or thought that it referred to other birds ( it was in his time sometimes used for spoonbills , for example ) .\nantillean cave rail , nesotrochis debooyi known by pre - columbian bones from puerto rico and the virgin islands . stories of an easy - to - catch bird named carrao heard by alexander wetmore in 1912 on puerto rico might refer to this species .\n, the last records were in 1984 and it seems that all available habitat is overrun by feral pigs and dogs , which prey on this bird .\nvava ' u rail , gallirallus cf . vekamatolu ( vava ' u , tonga , early 19th century ? ) this bird is known only from a drawing by the 1793 malaspina expedition , apparently depicting a species of gallirallus . the ' eua rail , gallirallus vekamatolu , is known from prehistoric bones found on ' eua , but this species is almost certainly not g . vekamatolu , as that bird was flightless and hence is unlikely to have settled 3 distant islands . however , it probably was a close relative .\nnorfolk rail , gallirallus sp . may be the bird shown on a bad watercolor illustration made around 1800 .\nkosrae crake , porzana monasa ( kosrae , carolines , c . mid - late 19th century )\nr\u00e9union swamphen or oiseau bleu , porphyrio coerulescens ( r\u00e9union , mascarenes , 18th century ) known only from descriptions . former existence of a porphyrio on r\u00e9union is fairly certain , but not proven to date .\nthe north island takah\u0113 , porphyrio mantelli known from subfossil bones found on north island , new zealand , may have survived to 1894 or later .\nnew caledonian gallinule , porphyrio kukwiedei from new caledonia , melanesia , may have survived into historic times . the native name n ' dino is thought to refer to this bird .\nsamoan wood rail , gallinula pacifica ( savai ' i , samoa , 1907 ? ) probably better placed in the genus pareudiastes , unconfirmed reports from the late 20th century suggest it still survives in small numbers , and therefore it is officially classified as critically endangered .\nmakira woodhen , gallinula silvestris ( makira , solomon islands , mid - 20th century ? ) only known from a single specimen , this rail is probably better placed in its own genus , edithornis . there are some unconfirmed recent records that suggest it still survives , and thus it is officially classified as critically endangered .\nfernando de noronha rail , rallidae gen . et sp . indet . ( fernando de noronha , w . atlantic , 16th century ? ) a distinct species of rail inhabited fernando de noronha island , but it has not been formally described yet . probably was extant at first western contact .\ntahitian\ngoose\n, rallidae gen . et sp . indet . ( tahiti , late 18th century ? ) early travelers to tahiti reported a\ngoose\nthat was found in the mountains . altogether , a species of the rail genus porphyrio seems the most likely choice .\nbokaak\nbustard\n, rallidae ? gen . et sp . indet . ' bokaak '\nan unidentified terrestrial bird is mentioned in an early report from bokaak in the marshall islands . it is described as a\n. in the former case it may have been a vagrant of some still - extant species ; in any case , no bird that could be described as\nbustard - like\nis found on bokaak today .\nrallidae gen . et sp . indet . ' amsterdam island ' unknown rail from amsterdam island , one specimen found but not recovered . extinct by 1800 or may have been straggler of extant species .\nalaotra grebe , tachybaptus rufolavatus ( lake alaotra , madagascar , 1985 ) officially declared extinct in 2010 , 25 years after the last official sighting . declined through habitat destruction and hybridization with the little grebe . disappeared from only known location in the 1980s .\nthe\npainted vulture\n, sarcoramphus sacra , a floridian bird supposedly similar to the king vulture , seems based on a misidentification of the northern caracara . see king vulture article for discussion .\nascension night heron , nycticorax olsoni ( ascension island , atlantic , late 16th century ? ) known only from subfossil bones , but the description of a flightless ascension bird by andr\u00e9 th\u00e9vet cannot be identified with anything other than this species .\nnew zealand little bittern , ixobrychus novaezelandiae ( new zealand , late 19th century ) long considered to be vagrant individuals of the australian little bittern , bones recovered from holocene deposits indicate that this was indeed a distinct taxon , but it might not be a separate species .\nr\u00e9union ibis , threskiornis solitarius ( r\u00e9union , mascarenes , early 18th century ) this species was the basis of the\nr\u00e9union solitaire\n, a supposed relative of the dodo and the rodrigues solitaire . given the fact that ibis ( but no dodo - like ) bones were found on r\u00e9union and that old descriptions match a flightless sacred ibis quite well , the\nr\u00e9union solitaire\nhypothesis has been refuted .\njamaica petrel , pterodroma caribbaea ( jamaica , caribbean ) possibly a subspecies of the black - capped petrel ; unconfirmed reports suggest it might survive . officially classified as critically endangered , possibly extinct .\npterodroma cf . leucoptera ( mangareva , gambier islands , 20th century ? ) a wing of a carcass similar to gould ' s petrel was recovered on mangareva in 1922 , where it possibly bred . no such birds are known to exist there today .\nguadalupe storm petrel , oceanodroma macrodacyla ( guadalupe , east pacific , 1910s ) officially critically endangered , possibly extinct , but a thorough survey in 2000 concluded the species was certainly extinct .\nimber ' s petrel , pterodroma imberi described from subfossil remains from the chatham islands , became apparently extinct in the early 19th century .\nthe chatham penguin , eudyptes sp . ( chatham islands , sw pacific ) , is only known from subfossil bones , but a bird kept captive at some time between 1867 and 1872 might refer to this taxon .\npigeons , doves and dodos for the\nr\u00e9union solitaire\n, see r\u00e9union sacred ibis .\npassenger pigeon , ectopistes migratorius ( eastern north america , 1914 ) the passenger pigeon was once among the most common birds in the world , a single flock numbering up to 2 . 2 billion birds . it was hunted close to extinction for food and sport in the late 19th century . the last individual died in the cincinnati zoo in 1914 .\n) , but bones have not yet been found . it disappeared at the same time .\nrodrigues pigeon , nesoenas rodericana ( rodrigues , mascarenes , before 1690 ? ) formerly in streptopelia . a possible subspecies of the madagascar turtle dove ( n . picturata ) , this seems not to be the bird observed by leguat . introduced rats might have killed it off in the late 17th century .\nliverpool pigeon ,\ncaloenas\nmaculata also known as the spotted green pigeon , the only known specimen has been in liverpool museum since 1851 and was probably collected on a pacific island for edward stanley , 13th earl of derby . it has been suggested that this bird came from tahiti based on native lore about a somewhat similar extinct bird called the titi , but this has not been verified .\nsulu bleeding - heart , gallicolumba menagei ( tawitawi , philippines , late 1990s ? ) officially listed as critically endangered . only known from two specimens taken in 1891 . there have been a number of unconfirmed reports from all over the sulu archipelago in 1995 , however , these reports stated that the bird had suddenly undergone a massive decline , and by now , habitat destruction is almost complete . if not extinct , this species is very rare , but the ongoing civil war prevents comprehensive surveys .\ntanna ground dove , gallicolumba ferruginea ( tanna , vanuatu , late 18th - 19th century ) only known from descriptions of two now - lost specimens .\nthick - billed ground dove , gallicolumba salamonis ( makira and ramos , solomon islands , mid - 20th century ? ) last recorded in 1927 , only two specimens exist . declared extinct in 2005 .\nred - moustached fruit dove , ptilinopus mercierii ( nuku hiva and hiva oa , marquesas , mid - 20th century ) two subspecies , the little - known p . m . mercierii of nuku hiva ( extinct mid - late 19th century ) and p . m . tristrami of hiva oa .\nnegros fruit dove , ptilinopus arcanus ( negros , philippines , late 20th century ? ) known only from one specimen taken at the only documented sighting in 1953 , the validity of this species has been questioned , but no good alternative to distinct species status has been proposed . officially critically endangered , it might occur on panay , but no survey has located it . one possible record in 2002 does not seem to have been repeated .\nfarquhar blue pigeon , alectroenas sp . ( farquhar group , seychelles , 19th century ) only known from early reports ; possibly a subspecies of the comoro or seychelles blue pigeon .\nrodrigues grey pigeon ,\nalectroenas\nrodericana ( rodrigues , mascarenes , mid - 18th century ) a mysterious bird of unknown affinities , known from a few bones and , as it seems , two historical reports .\ndodo , raphus cucullatus ( mauritius , mascarenes , late 17th century ) called didus ineptus by linnaeus . a metre - high flightless bird found on mauritius . its forest habitat was lost when dutch settlers moved to the island and the dodo ' s nests were destroyed by the monkeys , pigs , and cats the dutch brought with them . the last specimen was killed in 1681 , only 80 years after the arrival of the new predators .\nnew caledonian lorikeet , charmosyna diadema ( new caledonia , melanesia , mid - 20th century ? ) officially critically endangered , there have been no reliable reports of this bird since the early 20th century . it is , however , small and inconspicuous .\nwhich also occurred there . it is possible but unlikely that the species survived on \u02bbeua until the 19th century .\nmascarene grey parakeet , psittacula bensoni ( mauritius , possible r\u00e9union as psittacula cf bensoni ) . formerly described as mauritius grey parrot , lophopsittacus bensoni . known from a 1602 sketch by captain willem van westzanen and by subfossil bones described by david thomas holyoak in 1973 . might have survived to the mid - 18th century .\nmascarene parrot , mascarinus mascarinus ( r\u00e9union and possibly mauritius , mascarenes , 1834 ? ) last known individual was a captive bird which was alive before 1834 .\nbroad - billed parrot , lophopsittacus mauritianus ( mauritius , mascarenes , 1680 ? ) may have survived to the late 18th century .\nrodrigues parrot , necropsittacus rodericanus ( rodrigues , mascarenes , late 18th century ) the species n . francicus is fictional , n . borbonicus most likely so .\nglaucous macaw , anodorhynchus glaucus ( n argentina , early 20th century ) officially critically endangered due to persistent rumors of wild birds , but probably extinct .\ncuban macaw , ara tricolor ( cuba , west indies , late 19th century ) a number of related species have been described from the west indies , but are not based on good evidence . several prehistoric forms are now known to have existed in the region , however .\ncarolina parakeet , conuropsis carolinensis ( se north america , c . 1930 ? ) although the date of the last captive bird ' s death in the cincinnati zoo , 1918 , is generally given as its extinction date , there are convincing reports of some wild populations persisting until later . two subspecies , c . c . carolinensis ( east and south of the appalachian range\u2013 extinct 1918 or c . 1930 ) and c . c . ludovicianus ( louisiana parakeet , west of the appalachian range\u2013 extinct early 1910s ) .\nguadeloupe parakeet , aratinga labati ( guadeloupe , west indies , late 18th century ) only known from descriptions , the former existence of this bird is likely for biogeographic reasons and because details as described cannot be referred to known species .\nguadeloupe amazon , amazona violacea ( guadeloupe , west indies , mid - 18th century ) the extinct amazon parrots were originally described after travelers ' descriptions . both are now considered valid extinct species closely related to the imperial amazon .\nrodrigues owl , mascarenotus murivorus ( rodrigues , mascarenes , mid - 18th century ) the preceding two species were variously placed in bubo , athene ,\nscops\n( = otus ) , strix , and tyto before their true affinity was realized .\nnew caledonian boobook , ninox cf . novaeseelandiae ( new caledonia , melanesia ) known only from prehistoric bones , but might still survive .\n1870s ? ) \u2013 circumstantial evidence suggests small remnants survived until the early / mid - 20th century .\nthe puerto rican barn owl , tyto cavatica , known from prehistoric remains found in caves of puerto rico , west indies , may still have existed in 1912 given reports of the presence of cave - roosting owls .\nthe bahaman barn owl , tyto pollens , known from prehistoric remains found on andros ( bahamas ) , may have survived to the 16th century as indicated by the\nchickcharnie\nlegend .\nsiau scops owl otus siaoensis ( 20th century ? ) only known from the holotype collected in 1866 . endemic to the small volcanic island of siau north of sulawesi in indonesia . might still survive as there are ongoing rumors of scops - owls at siau .\ncaprimulgidae - nightjars and nighthawks reclusive ground - nesting birds that sally out at night to hunt for large insects and similar prey . they are easily located by the males ' song , but this is not given all year . habitat destruction represents currently the biggest threat , while island populations are threatened by introduced mammalian predators , notably dogs , cats , pigs and mongoose .\njamaican poorwill , siphonorhis americana ( jamaica , west indies , late 19th century ? ) reports of unidentifiable nightjars from the 1980s in habitat appropriate for s . americana suggest that this cryptic species may still exist . research into this possibility is currently underway ; pending further information , it is classified as critically endangered , possibly extinct .\ncuban pauraque , siphonorhis daiquiri ( cuba , west indies , prehistoric ? ) described from subfossil bones in 1985 . there are persistent rumors that this bird , which was never seen alive by scientists , may still survive . compare puerto rican nightjar and preceding .\nvaurie ' s nightjar ( caprimulgus centralasicus ) is only known from a single 1929 specimen from xinjiang , china . it has never been found again , but the validity of this supposed species is seriously disputed . it was never refuted to be an immature female desert european nightjar .\ncoppery thorntail , discosura letitiae ( bolivia ? ) known only from three trade specimens of unknown origin . might still exist .\nbogota sunangel , heliangelus zusii ( colombia ? ) a mysterious bird known only from a single specimen of unknown origin . long considered a hybrid but confirmed as a valid species in 2009 through dna analysis .\nturquoise - throated puffleg , eriocnemis godini ( ecuador , 20th century ? ) officially classified as critically endangered , possibly extinct . known only from six pre - 1900 specimens , the habitat at the only known site where it occurred has been destroyed . however , the bird ' s distribution remains unresolved .\nimperial woodpecker , campephilus imperialis ( mexico , late 20th century ) this 60 - centimetre - long woodpecker is officially listed as critically endangered , possibly extinct . occasional unconfirmed reports come up , the most recent in late 2005 .\nthe ivory - billed woodpecker ( campephilus principalis principalis ) is most likely extinct , but there is uncertainty on whether or not it was rediscovered in the white river national wildlife refuge of arkansas in 2004 , as intensive searching in the five following years has failed to confirm its survival . the cuban ivory - billed woodpecker ( campephilus principalis bairdii ) was last seen in 1987 and is generally considered extinct , but a few patches of unsurveyed potential habitat remain .\nstephens island wren , xenicus lyalli ( new zealand , 1895 ? ) the species famously ( but erroneously ) claimed to have been made extinct by a single cat named\ntibbles\n.\nbushwren , xenicus longipes ( new zealand , 1972 ) three subspecies : x . l . stokesi ( north island , extinct 1955 ) ; x . l . longipes ( south island , extinct 1968 ) ; x . l . variabilis ( stewart island , extinct 1972 ) .\n, this species has not been recorded since 1956 and although some habitat still exists , it was not found in dedicated searches in the 1990s . nevertheless , its voice\nthe identity of\nstrigiceps leucopogon\n( an invalid name ) , described by lesson in 1840 , is unclear . apart from the holotype supposedly from\nnew holland\n, a second specimen from the\nhimalaya\nmay have existed ( or still exist ) . lesson tentatively allied it to the meliphagidae , and rothschild felt reminded of the kioea .\nmangarevan whistler , ? pachycephala gambierana ( mangareva , gambier islands , late 19th century ? ) tentatively placed here . a mysterious bird of which no specimens exist today . it was initially described as a shrike , then classified as an eopsalteria\nrobin\n, and may actually be an acrocephalus warbler .\neiao monarch , pomarea fluxa ( eiao , marquesas , late 1970s ) previously considered a subspecies of the iphis monarch , this is an early offspring of the marquesan stock .\nnuku hiva monarch , pomarea nukuhivae ( nuku hiva , marquesas , mid - late 20th century ) previously considered a subspecies of the marquesas monarch , this is another early offspring of the marquesan stock .\nwhite - eyed river martin , pseudochelidon sirintarae ( thailand , late 1980s ? ) officially classified as critically endangered , this enigmatic species is only known from migrating birds and it was last seen in 1986 at its former roost site . recent unconfirmed reports suggest it may occur in cambodia .\nred sea cliff swallow , petrochelidon perdita ( red sea area , late 20th century ? ) known from a single specimen , this enigmatic swallow probably still exists , but the lack of recent records is puzzling . it is alternatively placed in the genus hirundo .\nmangareva reed warbler , acrocephalus astrolabii ( marianas ? , mid - 19th century ? ) known from just two specimens found from mangareva island in the western pacific .\nr\u00fcck ' s blue flycatcher , cyornis ruckii ( malaysia or indochina , 20th century ? ) an enigmatic bird known from two or four possibly migrant specimens , last recorded in 1918 . might exist in northeast indochina and might be a subspecies of the hainan blue flycatcher .\ntana river cisticola , cisticola restrictus ( kenya , 1970s ? ) a mysterious bird , found in the tana river basin in small numbers at various dates , but not since 1972 . probably invalid , based on aberrant or hybrid specimens . an unconfirmed sighting was apparently made in 2007 in the tana river delta .\nblack - browed babbler , malacocincla perspicillata ( borneo ? , indonesia , 20th century ? ) known from a single mid - 19th century specimen , this bird may be extinct or could still exist . if the specimen label , usually considered erroneous in claiming\njava\nas the bird ' s origin , is correct , it may have gone extinct earlier .\nrodrigues bulbul , hypsipetes cowlesi ( rodrigues , mascarenes , extinction date unknown , 17th century or 18th century might be possible ) known only from subfossil bones .\nrodrigues\nbabbler\n( rodrigues , mascarenes , 17th century ? ) known from subfossil bones . provisionally assigned to timaliidae , but placement highly doubtful .\nonly one reliable record since 1956 , in 1995 , leaves the species ' survival seriously in doubt .\nbay starling , aplonis ? ulietensis ( raiatea , society islands , between 1774 and 1850 ) usually called\nbay thrush\n( turdus ulietensis ) ; a mysterious bird from raiatea , now only known from a painting and some descriptions of a ( now lost ) specimen . its taxonomic position is thus unresolvable at present , although for biogeographic reasons and because of the surviving description , it has been suggested to have been a honeyeater . however , with the discovery of fossils of the prehistorically extinct starling aplonis diluvialis on neighboring huahine , it seems likely that this bird also belonged to this genus .\nrodrigues starling , necropsar rodericanus ( rodrigues , mascarenes , mid - 18th century ? ) tentatively assigned to sturnidae . the bird variously described as necropsar leguati or orphanopsar leguati and considered to be identical with n . rodericanus ( which is only known from subfossil bones ) was found to be based on a misidentified albinistic specimen of the martinique trembler ( cinclocerthia gutturalis )\noloma\u02bbo , myadestes lanaiensis ( hawaiian islands , 1980s ? ) officially classified as critically endangered because a possible location on moloka\u02bbi remains unsurveyed . two subspecies are known from lana\u02bbi ( m . l . lanaiensis , extinct early 1930s ) , moloka\u02bbi ( m . l . rutha , extinct 1980s ? ) and a possible third subspecies from maui ( extinct before late 19th century ) .\ncozumel thrasher , toxostoma guttatum ( cozumel , caribbean , early first decade of the 21st century ? ) it is still unknown whether the tiny population rediscovered in 2004 survived hurricanes emily and wilma in 2005 . unconfirmed records in april 2006 and october and december 2007 ."]}
{"id": 626, "summary": [{"text": "halobates or sea skaters are a genus with over 40 species of water striders .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "while many are coastal , about five of these are able to survive and stand on the surface of the open ocean , a habitat containing very few insect species .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "they are predators , coastal species feeding mainly on fallen terrestrial insects while the oceanic species feed on plankton .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the coastal species lay their eggs on rocks near the shore , the oceanic species attach their egg masses on floating objects such as cuttlebone , feathers and plastic waste .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "species are found around the world , commonly near the equator .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "most are tiny , the body length being about half a centimeter but with long legs of up to 2 centimeters .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "they are wingless and the abdomen is short and compressed compared to the length of the thorax .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "gravid females may appear to have an elongated abdomen .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they were first collected by johann friedrich von eschscholtz , a doctor who was part of a russian expedition aboard the rurik between 1815 and 1818 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "some species of storm petrel actively feed on halobates , sometimes splashing the water with their feet to attract or detect sea striders .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the five pelagic species of halobates are h. micans , h. germanus , h. sericeus , h. splendens and h. sobrinus of which the last four are found only in the pacific ocean .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "the only species with a wide distribution is halobates micans , which is found in the indian and atlantic oceans .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "a fossil species h. ruffoi is known from 45-million-year-old deposits in verona , italy .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "close relatives of the genus include austrobates and asclepios . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "halobates", "paragraphs": ["reconstructing the evolutionary and ecological history of the sea skaters halobates spp . ( heteroptera : gerridae )\nthe fragments make it easier for the marine insect halobates sericeus to lay its eggs out over the ocean .\nthe marine insect halobates sericeus , also known as a\nsea skater\nor\noceanic water strider .\nreconstructing the evolutionary and ecological history of the sea skaters halobates spp . ( heteroptera : gerridae ) [ peerj preprints ]\nms goldstein explained :\nwe thought there might be fewer halobates if there ' s more plastic - that there might be some sort of toxic effect . but , actually , we found the opposite . in the areas that had the most plastic , we found the most halobates .\nthe team found a strong association between the presence of halobates and the micro - plastic in a way that was just not evident in the data from 40 years ago .\nherring , j . l . ( 1961 ) . the genus halobates ( hemiptera : gerridae ) . pacific insects . 3 : 223 \u2013305 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nso , they ' re obviously congregating around this plastic , laying their eggs on it , and hatching out from it . for halobates , all this plastic has worked out well for them .\nexamples of a not - yet - hatched sea skater ( halobates sericeus ) egg attached to a piece of plastic ( at the top of the image ) , about the size of a grain of rice , and a hatched egg ( bottom ) .\nthe sea strider , halobates sericeus , is related to pond striders seen in freshwater lakes . it usually lays its eggs on floating objects in the ocean , like seashells , seabird feathers , tar lumps and pumice . the researchers compared recently collected plastic to that collected in 1972 under a microscope .\nandersen , n . m . ; cheng , l . ( 2004 ) . the marine insect halobates ( heteroptera : gerridae ) : biology , adaptations , distribution and phylogeny . oceanogr . mar . biol . ann . rev . 42 : 119 - 180 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nikawa , t . ; okabe , h . ; cheng , l . ( 2012 ) . skaters of the seas \u2013 comparative ecology of nearshore and pelagic halobates species ( hemiptera : gerridae ) , with special reference to japanese species mar . biol . res . 8 ( 10 ) : 915 - 936 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nthe genus halobates includes the only five insect species that have been successful in a pelagic marine environment . different scenarios of independent colonization events of that environment have been proposed , considering the appearance of pelagic distribution in several non - sister clades in the phylogeny of the genus . in this paper , we aim to update the phylogenetic hypothesis under the criterion of bayesian inference , calibrate a molecular clock using the only fossil described in the genus and also analyze the diversity pattern of the lineage since its divergence . high support values were found in the phylogenetic reconstruction , which tend to decrease with an increase of the distances from the root . low supports for the most derived clades or relatively recent divergences cast doubt on the delimitation of some species . although the divergence time for halobates was estimated at 42 . 01 mya ( \u00b1 8 . 13 ) the emergence of the lineage probably happened a few million years before , so the estimated time of divergence probably also marked the start of diversification of the marine lineages of this genus . since divergence , the richness of genus showed continuous linear growth for approximately 24 . 4 my , when the lineages began to diversify more quickly with a significantly lower extinction rate . the colonization of the pelagic environment which occurred nearly 42 mya , could also have been the starting point of the colonization of the marine pelagic environment when changes in their morphology , physiology and behaviour enabled them to exploit novel ecological niches . ancestors of pelagic marine insects probably inhabited areas close to the seacoast more than 41 mya ago . the ecological history of halobates was probably not limited to a pair of open water colonization events as indicated by earlier proposals . we hypothesize instead that at least three independent events of open water colonization by halobates species have occurred . in this sense , the ecological character of coastal or pelagic distribution is considered to be a homoplasic character without direct implications on the net diversification of halobates .\nmany colleagues contributed to andersen\u2019s research on halobates and other marine water striders by donating material , cooperating on various projects , etc . in particular , he wished to thank lanna cheng ( scripps institution of oceanography , uc san diego , la jolla ) , john t . polhemus ( englewood , colorado ) , william a . foster ( university museum , cambridge , u . k . ) , tom a . weir ( csiro entomology , canberra ) , jakob damgaard ( zoological institute & museum , copenhagen university ) , and felix a . h . sperling ( university of alberta , edmonton ) . this research was supported by grants from the danish natural science research council , 1990 - 2001 .\nthe quantity of small plastic fragments floating in the north - east pacific ocean has increased a hundred fold over the past 40 years .\nscientists from the scripps institution of oceanography documented the big rise when they trawled the waters off california .\nthey were able to compare their plastic\ncatch\nwith previous data for the region .\nwe did not expect to find this ,\nsays scripps researcher miriam goldstein .\nwhen you go out into the north pacific , what you find can be highly variable . so , to find such a clear pattern and such a large increase was very surprising ,\nshe told bbc news .\nall the plastic discarded into the ocean that does not sink will eventually break down .\nsunlight and the action of the waves will degrade and shred the material over time into pieces the size of a fingernail , or smaller .\nan obvious concern is that this micro - material could be ingested by marine organisms , but the scripps team has noted another , perhaps unexpected , consequence .\nthese\nsea skaters\nor\nwater striders\n- relatives of pond water skaters - need a platform for the task .\nnormally , this might be seabird feathers , tar lumps or even pieces of pumice rock . but it is clear from the trawl results that h . sericeus has been greatly aided by the numerous plastic surfaces now available to it in the pacific .\nms goldstein and colleagues gathered their information on the abundance of micro - plastic during the scripps environmental accumulation of plastic expedition ( seaplex ) off california in 2009 . they then compared their data with those from other scientific cruises , including archived records stretching back to the early 1970s .\nthe natural circulation of water - the north pacific gyre - tends to retain the debris in reasonably discrete , long - lived collections , which have popularly become known as\ngarbage patches\n. in the north - eastern pacific , one of these concentrations is seen in waters between hawaii and california .\nthis scripps study follows another report by colleagues at the institution that showed 9 % of the fish collected during the same seaplex voyage had plastic waste in their stomachs .\nthat investigation , published in marine ecology progress series , estimated the fish at intermediate ocean depths in the north pacific ocean could be ingesting plastic at a rate of roughly 12 , 000 to 24 , 000 tonnes per year .\ntoxicity is the issue most often raised in relation to this type of pollution , but ms goldstein and colleagues say broader ecosystem effects also need to be studied .\nthe abundance of ocean debris will influence the success , or otherwise , of\nrafting communities\n- those species that are specifically adapted to life on or around objects floating in the water .\nbigger creatures would include barnacles and crabs , and even fish that like to live under some kind of cover , but large - scale change would likely touch even the smallest organisms .\nthe study raises an important issue , which is the addition of hard surfaces to the open ocean ,\nsays ms goldstein .\nin the north pacific , for example , there ' s no floating seaweed like there is in the sargasso sea in the north atlantic . and we know that the animals , the plants and the microbes that live on hard surfaces are different to the ones that live floating around in the water .\nso , what plastic has done is add hundreds of millions of hard surfaces to the pacific ocean . that ' s quite a profound change .\nms goldstein ' s co - authors were marci rosenberg , a student at the university of california los angeles , and scripps research biologist emeritus lanna cheng .\ndebris tends to collect within the north pacific subtropical convergence zone . ocean eddies and other small ocean circulation features will further aggregate material into more discrete\ngarbage patches\nthe foreign secretary quits , telling theresa may\nneedless self - doubt\nis leading to\nsemi - brexit\n.\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nyou may be trying to access this site from a secured browser on the server . please enable scripts and reload this page .\nit looks like your browser does not have javascript enabled . please turn on javascript and try again .\nices provides scientific advice on the marine ecosystem to governments and international regulatory bodies that manage the north atlantic ocean and adjacent seas .\n\u200b\u200b\u200b\u200b\u200b\u200b\u200b\u200b\u200byou will find the latest official ices advice on this page . you can also search for our advice by species and ecoregions in the publications library .\neu - long - term management strategy for southern horse mackerel ( trachurus trachurus ) in ices division 9 . a\neu - sentinel fishery for norway lobster ( nephrops ) in functional unit 25 , division 8 . c\nlong - term management strategies for norway pout in ices subarea 4 ( north sea ) and division 3 . a ( skagerrak\u2013kattegat )\nbycatch of small cetaceans and other marine animals \u2013 review of national reports under council regulation ( ec ) no . 812 / 2004 and other information\neu - evaluation of the recovery plan for herring in divisions 6 . a and 7 . b\u2013c\neu - fmsy range for whiting in subarea 4and division 7 . d ( north sea and eastern english channel )\neu - in - year advice on haddock ( melanogrammus aeglefinus ) in division 7 . a ( irish sea )\neu - in - year advice for anchovy ( engraulis encrasicolus ) in division 9 . a ( atlantic iberian waters )\neu - in - year advice for anchovy ( engraulis encrasicolus ) in dvision 9 . a ( atlantic iberian waters ) , december 2017\neu - review the advice for alfonsinos / golden eye perch ( beryx spp . ) in the northeast atlantic\neu - stock unit definition and an increase ininter - area quota flexibility from 2 to 5 % for pollack in ices subarea 7 and divisions8 . a\u2013b , d\u2013e\niceland - evaluation of the harvest control rule for tusk in subarea 14 and division 5 . a\niceland - evaluation of harvest control rules for a management plan for icelandic summer - spawning herring ( division 5 . a )\neu request to ices on in - year advice for anchovy ( engraulis encrasicolus ) in division 9 . a ( atlantic iberian waters )\neu - scientific monitoring fishery for herring in ices divisions 6 . a , 7 . b , and 7 . c\neu - technical service - review of a proposal of an in - yeartac adjustment for 2016 for skates and rays ( srx ) in division 7 . d\nhelcom - technical service - review of the balticboost wp3 . 2 tool to assess the impact of fisheries on seafloor habitats\nnorway - management strategy evaluation for the pandalus fishery in subdivision 3 . a . 20 ( skagerrak ) and division 4 . a east ( norwegian deep )\nthe great pacific garage patch is giving sea striders a place to breed out on the open ocean , changing the natural environment there , new research suggests .\nthe great pacific garbage patch , known to scientists as the north pacific subtropial gyre , is a large patch of mulched up plastic and other garbage , often said to be the size of texas , floating in the pacific ocean .\nthis paper shows a dramatic increase in plastic over a relatively short time period and the effect it ' s having on a common north pacific gyre invertebrate ,\nstudy researcher miriam goldstein , graduate student at the university of california san diego , said in a statement .\nwe ' re seeing changes in this marine insect that can be directly attributed to the plastic .\nthey found that the number of pieces of plastic less than 0 . 2 inches ( 5 millimeters ) in diameter increased about 100 times over the past 40 years . they also found that these tiny plastic pieces gave sea striders more room to lay their eggs , leading to much higher densities of the invertebrate in the garbage patch .\nby giving these insects a place to breed out on the open ocean , the plastic patch is changing the natural environment and could be having an impact on the local food web , the researchers said . this is exactly what they ' ve been worried about , goldstein said . [ video : humans hit the oceans hard ]\nit ' s a general pattern throughout the ocean that the animals that live on hard surfaces are different than the animals that live on soft surfaces , or in the water column . all this plastic has added a lot of hard surfaces to an ecosystem that historically has very few ,\ngoldstein told livescience in an email .\nresearchers collected an alarming amount of small bits of broken down plastic floating across thousands of miles of open ocean .\nthis could be a\ngood\nthing for the insect ' s main predator , crabs , increasing their numbers \u2014 but such a large change could disrupt the oceanic food web , the researchers said . and the items that the insect eats , including tiny animals like zooplankton and fish eggs , could take a big population hit .\nthe garbage patch community seems to have a very low amount of biodiversity , goldstein said , which isn ' t a great thing :\nwe ' re concerned that this might change the flow of energy in this ecosystem , potentially favoring the low - biodiversity rafting community at the expense of the high - biodiversity water column community .\nyou can follow livescience staff writer jennifer welsh on twitter , on google + or on facebook . follow livescience for the latest in science news and discoveries on twitter and on facebook .\njennifer welsh graduated from the university of california , santa cruz ' s science communication graduate program after working at a start up biotech company for three years after getting her bachelor of science in biological sciences from the university of notre dame . she has worked at wiredscience , the scientist and discover magazine before joining the live science team .\nelon musk ' s plan to rescue trapped thai boys ? a kiddie submarine that looks like a coffin .\nthe evolutionary success of insects on land is unparalleled among the metazoans . although many insects occur in marine habitats , the only oceanic habitat colonized by insects is the sea - air interface .\n( hemiptera - heteroptera , gerridae ) are widespread in tropical oceans and both adults and juveniles spend their entire lives on the sea surface . there are an additional 4 1\nspecies in sheltered , coastal marine waters throughout the tropical indo - pacific . after being largely ignored by biologists for decades , sea skaters have recently become much better known and their taxonomy , phylogeny , biology , ecology , and biochemistry have been widely studied .\npeerj preprints\nis a venue for early communication or feedback before peer review . data may be preliminary .\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , reproduction and adaptation in any medium and for any purpose provided that it is properly attributed . for attribution , the original author ( s ) , title , publication source ( peerj preprints ) and either doi or url of the article must be cited .\ncristian rom\u00e1n palacios conceived and designed the experiments , performed the experiments , analyzed the data , contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools , wrote the paper , prepared figures and / or tables , reviewed drafts of the paper .\ndaniela moraga lopez conceived and designed the experiments , performed the experiments , analyzed the data , contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools , wrote the paper , prepared figures and / or tables , reviewed drafts of the paper .\nbefore adding feedback , consider if it can be asked as a question instead , and if so then use the question tab . pointing out typos is fine , but authors are encouraged to accept only substantially helpful feedback .\nfollowing\nis like subscribing to any updates related to a preprint . these updates will appear in your home dashboard each time you visit peerj .\nyou can also choose to receive updates via daily or weekly email digests . if you are following multiple preprints then we will send you no more than one email per day or week based on your preferences .\nnote : you are now also subscribed to the subject areas of this preprint and will receive updates in the daily or weekly email digests if turned on . you can add specific subject areas through your profile settings .\npeerj feeds - atom | rss 1 . 0 | rss 2 . 0 | json peerj computer science feeds - atom | rss 1 . 0 | rss 2 . 0 | json peerj preprint feeds - atom | rss 1 . 0 | rss 2 . 0 | json archives - peerj | peerj computer science | peerj preprints\n\u00a92012 - 2018 peerj , inc | public user content licensed cc by 4 . 0 unless otherwise specified .\nthis site requires the use of cookies to function . it also uses cookies for the purposes of performance measurement . please see our privacy policy .\ncheng , l . ( ed . ) . ( 1976 ) . marine insects . north - holland publishing company : amsterdam , the netherlands . isbn 0 - 444 - 11213 - 8 . xii , 581 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\ncheng , l . ; hill , d . s . ( 1982 ) . marine insects of hong kong . in : morton b , editor . proceedings of the first international marine biological workshop : the marine flora and fauna of hong kong and southern china . hong kong university press , hong kong . 1 : 173 - 183 . [ details ]"]}
{"id": 630, "summary": [{"text": "deltatheridium ( meaning triangle beast or delta beast ) is an extinct species of metatherian .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "it lived in what is now mongolia during the upper cretaceous , circa 80 million years ago .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it was a basal metatherian , which places it near start of the lineage that led to the marsupials , such as kangaroos , wallabies , koalas , and opossums .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it had a length of 15 cm ( 5.9 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its teeth indicate it was carnivorous .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "one specimen of archaeornithoides might attest an attack by this mammal , the skull bearing tooth marks that match its teeth . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "deltatheridium", "paragraphs": ["scientists believe that deltatheridium had characteristics that are very similar to marsupials ( pouched animals ) that live today .\nwe found deltatheridium - - this beautiful , little skull - - at our favorite site , ukhaa tolgod .\ndeltatheridium prerituberculare ( del - tah - ther - id - ee - um ) locality found : mongolia age : cretaceous 80 mya size : 6 inches long prepared for : 2000 museum exhibit fighting dinosaurs characteristics : paleontologists believe that deltatheridium was an early ancestor to modern day marsupials .\nso , what are ya , marsupial or placental ? since the discovery of deltatheridium , scientists knew that it was an early mammal . however , before the late 1990s , they debated about what kind of mammal it was . was it a marsupial ( pouched mammal such as opossums and kangaroos ) or a placental ( a mammal that gives birth to fully developed young , such as rats , bats , and whales ) ? now , thanks to some amazing fossil evidence from the gobi , scientists have the answer . on the mammal family tree , deltatheridium is definitely a marsupial . although deltatheridium ' s descendants went extinct , some of its\ncousins\nbecame the marsupials we know today .\nflashback to 80 million years ago in the gobi desert . deltatheridium scurried among dinosaurs . this cat - sized mammal had sharp canine teeth and triangular molars , much like those of opossums today . this early marsupial probably sunk its teeth into small lizards and insects .\ndeltatheridium is one of the organisms in birthdays the beginning . it was mentioned in the video called birthdays the beginning - \u201ccelebrate\u201d by mr . yasuhiro wada ( ps4 , steam ) presented by nis america on 3 / 14 / 2017 . it appears in the description of no . 174 - andrewsarchus .\nwe describe here two new specimens of the mammal deltatheridium pretrituberculare from the late cretaceous period of mongolia . these specimens provide information on tooth replacement in basal therian mammals and on lower jaw and basicranial morphology . deltatheroidans , known previously from isolated teeth , partial rostra and jaws from the late cretaceous of asia and possibly north america , have been identified variously as eutherians , as basal metatherians ( the stem - based clade formed by marsupials and their extinct relatives ) , or as an outgroup to both eutherians and metatherians . resolution of these conflicting hypotheses and understanding of the early evolution of the therian lineage have been hampered by a sparse fossil record for basal therians . the new evidence supports metatherian affinities for deltatheroidans and allows a comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of basal metatherians and marsupials . the presence of specialized marsupial patterns of tooth replacement and cranial vascularization in deltatheridium and the basal phylogenetic position of this taxon indicate that these features are characteristic of metatheria as a whole . other morphological transformations recognized here secure the previously elusive diagnosis of metatheria . the new specimens of deltatheridium illustrate the effectiveness of fairly complete fossil specimens in determining the nature of early evolutionary events .\nthe evidence for the radical transfer of the famous genus deltatheridium to the marsupialia seems to be partly different from that already presented 1 . the cheek tooth formula , a key character separating marsupials and placentals , is questionable for deltatheridium . there are seven cheek teeth , as usual in both groups , and the fourth is molariform , as in marsupials . this is evidence on phyletic affinity only if the primitive state , that of the latest common ancestor , was otherwise . in a manuscript that has circulated privately since 1963 i have argued from diverse evidence that the seven cheek teeth of each group may well be directly homologous with those of the other , with an ambiguity as to the permanent or deciduous premolars . in other words , p 4 4 or dp 4 4 of placentals may well be homologous to m 1 1 of marsupials . if so , a more or less molariform state of the fourth cheek tooth is primitive to both groups and the often nonmolariform state in more or less primitive placentals is secondary . this was why i suggested 2 that deltatheridium might have one more molar than previously thought ; the suggestion is now confirmed . relative wear of the teeth is a useful but unreliable criterion ( ref . 3 , footnote on page 86 ) .\nmammal , ( class mammalia ) , any member of the group of vertebrate animals in which the young are nourished with milk from special mammary glands of the mother . in addition to these characteristic milk glands , mammals are distinguished by several other unique features . hair is a typical mammalian feature , although in many\u2026\ncretaceous period , in geologic time , the last of the three periods of the mesozoic era . the cretaceous began 145 . 0 million years ago and ended 66 million years ago ; it followed the jurassic period and was succeeded by the paleogene period ( the first of the two periods into which the tertiary\u2026\nrat , ( genus rattus ) , the term generally and indiscriminately applied to numerous members of several rodent families having bodies longer than about 12 cm , or 5 inches . ( smaller thin - tailed rodents are just as often indiscriminately referred to as mice . ) in scientific usage , rat applies to any of 56 thin - tailed , medium - sized rodent\u2026\nmarsupial , any of more than 250 species belonging to the infraclass metatheria ( sometimes called marsupialia ) , a mammalian group characterized by premature birth and continued development of the newborn while attached to the nipples on the mother\u2019s lower belly . the pouch\u2014or marsupium , from which the group takes its name\u2014is a flap\u2026\nplacental mammal , ( infraclass eutheria ) , any member of the mammalian group characterized by the presence of a placenta , which facilitates exchange of nutrients and wastes between the blood of the mother and that of the fetus . the placentals include all living mammals except marsupials and monotremes . although some authorities consider the\u2026\nwe welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles . you can make it easier for us to review and , hopefully , publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind .\nencyclop\u00e6dia britannica articles are written in a neutral objective tone for a general audience .\nyou may find it helpful to search within the site to see how similar or related subjects are covered .\nat the bottom of the article , feel free to list any sources that support your changes , so that we can fully understand their context . ( internet urls are the best . )\nyour contribution may be further edited by our staff , and its publication is subject to our final approval . unfortunately , our editorial approach may not be able to accommodate all contributions .\nour editors will review what you ' ve submitted , and if it meets our criteria , we ' ll add it to the article .\nplease note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors , and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed .\nanimal , ( kingdom animalia ) , any of a group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms ( i . e . , as distinct from\u2026\ncorrections ? updates ? omissions ? let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article ( requires login ) .\nif you prefer to suggest your own revision of the article , you can go to edit mode ( requires login ) .\nour editors will review what you\u2019ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article .\nthank you for visiting nature . com . you are using a browser version with limited support for css . to obtain the best experience , we recommend you use a more up to date browser ( or turn off compatibility mode in internet explorer ) . in the meantime , to ensure continued support , we are displaying the site without styles and javascript .\nall prices are net prices . vat will be added later in the checkout .\nevolution of the therian mammals in the late cretaceous of asia . part i . deltatheriidae .\non the metatherian nature of the deltatheroida , a sister group of the marsupialia .\ncretaceous mammals of southern utah . iii . therian mammals from the turonian ( early late cretaceous ) .\n( eds lillegraven , j . a . , kielan - jaworowska , z . & clemens , w . a . ) 182\u2013191 ( univ . calif . press , berkeley , ( 1979 ) .\n( eds szalay , f . s . , novacek , m . j . & mckenna , m . c . ) 205\u2013215 ( springer , new york , ( 1993 ) ) .\nthe staggered marsupial third lower incisor : hallmark of cohort didelphimorphia , and description of a new genus and species with staggered i3 from the albian ( lower cretaceous ) of texas .\npetrosals of late cretaceous marsupials from north america , and a cladistic analysis of the petrosal in therian mammals .\n( eds szalay , f . s . , novacek , m . j . & mckenna , m . c . ) 182\u2013204 ( springer , new york , ( 1993 ) .\n( eds szalay , f . s . , novacek , m . j . & mckenna , m . c . ) 165\u2013181 ( springer , new york , ( 1993 ) ) .\n( eds givnish , t . & systma , k . ) 129\u2013161 ( cambridge univ . press , cambridge , ( 1997 ) ) .\nwe thank a . davidson for preparation of the fossils ; l . meeker , c . tarka and e . heck for illustrations ; and j . hopson , i . horvitz , m . mckenna , c . de muizon and m . norell for comments on the paper . this work was supported by the nsf , the jaffe foundation , the national geographic society , the eppley foundation , the mercedes - benz corporation , the james carter memorial fund and the frick laboratory endowment of the american museum of natural history .\nby submitting a comment you agree to abide by our terms and community guidelines . if you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate .\nnature is part of springer nature . \u00a9 2018 springer nature limited . all rights reserved .\nstyracosaurus rider / the dreaded shrink ray . . . how do you feel about it ?\nit had a length of 15 cm ( 5 . 9 in ) . apart from preying on insects , its diet was also composed of small reptiles and what it could scavenge from carrion using its sharp canine teeth .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nfull reference : w . k . gregory and g . g . simpson . 1926 . cretaceous mammal skulls from mongolia . american museum novitates 225 : 1 - 20\nsee also gregory and simpson 1926 , kielan - jaworowska et al . 1979 and simpson 1928\ntype specimen : amnh 21705 , a skull ( palate with c - m3 and associated lower jaws ) . its type locality is shabarakh usu ( amnh loc . 12049 ) , which is in a campanian eolian sandstone in the djadokhta formation of mongolia .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\na small , probably carnivorous mammal from the late cretaceous that was once thought to be an insectivore , but the possession of certain dental characters indicates that it was a likely ancestor or sister group to the creodonta and carnivora .\nprinted from oxford reference ( www . oxfordreference . com ) . ( c ) copyright oxford university press , 2013 . all rights reserved . under the terms of the licence agreement , an individual user may print out a pdf of a single entry from a reference work in or for personal use ( for details see privacy policy and legal notice ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ndepartment of anatomical sciences and neurobiology , school of medicine , university of louisville , kentucky 40292 , usa . grougier @ urltoken\nresearch support , u . s . gov ' t , non - p . h . s .\nmammals in the world today make up only a tiny part of all of the mammal species that have ever existed .\nalthough many kinds of mammals lived in north america during the cretaceous , most of their fossils were destroyed .\nearly mammal fossils from north america are no more than teeth and partial jaws . but in the gobi , entire mammal skeletons are commonly found .\nimage credits : courtesy of amnh ; mark norell : courtesy of discovery channel online .\na mouse that migrated from the forest to the plains . it appeared after the propagation of adelobasileus .\nthis page was last edited on 21 may 2017 , at 21 : 41 .\ncontent is available under cc by - nc - sa 3 . 0 unless otherwise noted . game content and materials are trademarks and copyrights of their respective publisher and its licensors . all rights reserved . this site is a part of curse , inc . and is not affiliated with the game publisher ."]}
{"id": 635, "summary": [{"text": "keiferia inconspicuella is a moth in the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by murtfeldt in 1883 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from the south-eastern and mid-western united states , north to new jersey and iowa and west to nebraska and texas .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is 5-5.5 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are grey mottled with dark grey and yellowish orange .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are light to medium grey .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on solanum carolinense and solanum melongena .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they mine the leaves of their host plant .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "full-grown larvae are green and reach a length of 7 \u2013 8 mm . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "keiferia inconspicuella", "paragraphs": ["keiferia brunnea povoln\u00fd , 1973 ; acta univ . agric . 21 ( 3 ) : 610\nkeiferia educata povoln\u00fd , 2004 ; acta univ . agric . brno 52 : ( 15 - 22 )\nkeiferia powelli povoln\u00fd , 2004 ; acta univ . agric . brno 52 : ( 15 - 22 )\nlarvae on s . carolinense in parts of texas can be either k . glochinella or k . inconspicuella . these will have to be reared to the adult stage until the larva of k . glochinella is described with certainty .\nkeiferia rusposoria povoln\u00fd , 1970 ; j . lep . soc . 24 : 6 ; tl : west indies , grenada , balthazar\nkeiferia inconspicuella can be separated from other species in our study by the lack of a dark band on the posterior margin of the prothoracic shield , the trisetose l group on a9 , the rounded head , pale thoracic legs , the eastern united states distribution and the host being either solanum melongena or s . carolinense but not solanum xanti . they tend to mine the edge of the leaves unlike p . operculella that occupies the central portions of the leaf .\nkeiferia dalibori king & montesinos , 2012 ; acta zool . cracov . 55 ( 1 ) : 61 ; tl : hualpen , 12m , chile\nkeiferia altisolani ; powell & povoln\u00fd , 2001 , holarctic lepidoptera 8 ( suppl . 1 ) : 13 ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 28\nkeiferia elmorei ; powell & povoln\u00fd , 2001 , holarctic lepidoptera 8 ( suppl . 1 ) : 14 ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 28 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nkeiferia ( gnorimoschemini ) ; zimmerman , 1978 , ins . hawaii 9 ( 2 ) : 1724 ; [ sangmi lee ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 28 ; [ me6 ] , 206 , 31 ; [ fe ]\nthis species is allied to keiferia altisolani in wing size and color , but it differs in that the male valva is elongate with a triangular apex , and the vinculum processes are vestigial and hump - like , whereas the valva is bifurcate in k . altisolani .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nadults are about 5 . 0 - 5 . 5 mm in forewing length . they are gray mottled with dark gray and yellowish orange . the labial palpus is upturned . the hindwing is light to medium gray and trapezoidal with a long fringe of hairs . the male genitalia have a sickle - shaped uncus with strongly curved base , elongate valva with triangular apex , and posterior margin of the vinculum shallowly excavated medially with paired vestigial hump - like processes . females have a funnel - shaped antrum and a large sickle - shaped signum .\nlarvae when fully grown are about 7 - 8 mm long , cylindrical , slightly flattened in form , and green colored . the head and t1 shield are light brown without a posterior band . the fifth tooth of the mandible , being small and pointed , is easily worn smooth and missed .\nlarvae burrow within the leaf along the edge of the leaf blade . they make a blotch - shaped mine and deposit feces and silk within the mine , causing leaves to turn brown .\nnative to north america . usa ( southeastern and midwestern united states north to about new jersey and iowa and west to nebraska and texas ) .\nthis species was described with the larva observed to cause the leaves of the host plants to turn brown .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\n= ; [ sangmi lee ] ; powell & povoln\u00fd , 2001 , holarctic lepidoptera 8 ( suppl . 1 ) : 13 ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 28\ngnorimoschema altisolani kieffer , 1937 ; bull . dep . agric . calif . 26 : 179\naristotelia chloroneura meyrick , 1923 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 1 - 2 ) : 6 ; tl : brazil , obidos , santarem\ncolombiana povoln\u00fd , 1975 ; acta univ . brno 23 ( 1 ) : 109\nlarva on solanum powell & povoln\u00fd , 2001 , holarctic lepidoptera 8 ( suppl . 1 ) : 14\ntildenia georgei hodges , 1985 ; j . lep . soc . 39 ( 3 ) : 151 ; tl : illinois , mason co . , sand ridge state forest\ngelechia gudmannella walsingham , 1897 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1897 : 77 ; tl : west indies , san domingo , puerto plata\nlarva on solanum carolinense murtfeldt , 1881 , can . ent . 13 ( 12 ) : 244\ncalifornia , cuba , mexico , hawaii , . . . , introduced ( italy ) . see [ maps ]\n= ; sattler , 1973 , bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent . ) 28 ( 4 ) : 216 ; [ nacl ] , # 2047 ; powell & povoln\u00fd , 2001 , holarctic lepidoptera 8 ( suppl . 1 ) : 14 ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 28 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; [ me6 ] , 207\nlarva on lycopersicon esculentum , solanum melongena var ' esculentum ' , s . tuberosum , s . carolinense , s . xanthii , s . bahamese , s . umbelliferum [ me6 ] , 208\nparasites apanteles dignus , horogenes blackburni , panhormius pallidipes zimmerman , 1978 , ins . hawaii 9 ( 2 ) : 1728\nvorax ( meyrick , 1939 ) ( phthorimaea ) ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 89 ( 4 ) : 53\nsangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nn . sp . , ( family gelechiidae ) a leaf feeder on tomato ( lep . )\nzimmerman , 1978 insects of hawaii . microlepidoptera . ( 1 ) : monotrysia , tineoidea , tortricoidea , gracillarioidea , yponomeutoidea , and alucitoidea , ( 2 ) : gelechioidea ins . hawaii 9 ( 1 ) : 1 - 396 , ( 1 ) : 397 - 882 , ( 2 ) : 883 - 1430 , ( 2 ) : 1431 - 1903\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose ."]}
{"id": 652, "summary": [{"text": "satyrium fuliginosum , the sooty hairstreak , is a butterfly of the lycaenidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in western north america from british columbia to central california , east to wyoming and northern colorado .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 24 \u2013 30 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the upperside is drab dark grey .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the underside is grey to greyish brown .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the forewing sometimes has a line of white-bordered dark spots .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing from july to august .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "adults feed on flower nectar .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on lupinus . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "satyrium fuliginosum", "paragraphs": ["sooty hairstreak ( satyrium fuliginosum ) ( w . h . edwards , 1861 )\nsatyrium fuliginosum tildeni mattoon & austin , 1998 . type locality : siskiyou mountains , siskiyou county , california\nsooty hairstreak satyrium fuliginosum ( w . h . edwards , 1861 ) | butterflies and moths of north america\nsatyrium fuliginosum albolineatum mattoon & austin , 1998 . type locality : boardman ridge , north coast range , lake co . , ca\nbutterflies of canada - sooty hairstreak ( satyrium fuliginosum ) ( w . h . edwards , 1861 ) - canadian biodiversity information facility ( cbif )\nsatyrium fuliginosum semiluna klots , 1930 ; bull . brooklyn ent . soc . 25 ( 3 ) : 161 , f . 5 - 6 ; tl : teton co . wyoming\nsatyrium fuliginosum tildeni mattoon & austin , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 53 ) : 682 , f . 5 - 8 ; tl : california , siskiyou co .\nsatyrium fuliginosum albolineatum mattoon & austin , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 53 ) : 684 , f . 9 - 12 ; tl : california , lake co .\nsatyrium fuliginosum maculadistinctum mattoon & austin , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 53 ) : 685 , f . 17 - 20 ; tl : nevada , lyon co .\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) fuliginosa ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 203\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) semiluna ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 203\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) behrii ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 203\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) acadica ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 203\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) californica ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 204\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) sylvinus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 205\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) titus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 206\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) edwardsii ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 206\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) calanus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 207\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) caryaevorus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 208\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) kingi ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 208\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) liparops ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 208\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) auretorum ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 208\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) tetra ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 209\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) saepium ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 209\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) fuliginosa fuliginosa ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 203\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) fuliginosa tildeni ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 203\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) fuliginosa albolineatum ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 203\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) semiluna semiluna ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 203\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) semiluna maculadistinctum ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 203\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) behrii behrii ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 203\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) behrii crossi ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 204\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) behrii columbia ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 204\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) acadica acadica ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 204\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) acadica montanensis ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 204\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) acadica coolinensis ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 204\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) californica californica ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 204\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) californica cygnus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 205\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) californica obscurafacies ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 205\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) californica brashor ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 205\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) californica wapiti ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 205\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) sylvinus sylvinus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 205\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) sylvinus dryope ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 206\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) sylvinus putnami ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 205\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) sylvinus itys ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 205\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) sylvinus desertorum ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 206\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) sylvinus nootka ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 205\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) sylvinus megapallidum ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 205\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) titus immaculosus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 206\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) titus watsoni ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 206\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) titus occidentalis ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 206\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) titus winteri ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 206\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) titus campus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 206\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) edwardsii edwardsii ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 207\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) edwardsii meridionale ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 207\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) calanus calanus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 207\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) calanus falacer ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 207\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) calanus godarti ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 207\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) calanus albidus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 207\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) liparops liparops ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 208\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) liparops strigosa ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 208\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) liparops fletcheri ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 208\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) liparops aliparops ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 208\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) liparops floridensis ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 208\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) auretorum auretorum ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 208\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) auretorum spadix ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 209\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) auretorum fumosum ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 209\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) saepium saepium ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 209\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) saepium chalcis ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 209\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) saepium fulvescens ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 209\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) saepium chlorophora ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 210\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) saepium provo ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 210\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) saepium rubrotenebrosum ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 210\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) saepium caliginosum ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 210\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) saepium subaridum ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 210\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) saepium obscurofuscum ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 210\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) saepium latalinea ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 210\nsierra nevada of california north in mountains through northern california into southern oregon ( west of great basin ) . some populations further north in the cascades show similarities to s . fuliginosum , but are classed as s . semiluna when the two are split as separate species .\n= satyrium fuliginosa fuliginosa ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 203\n= satyrium semiluna maculadistinctum ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 203\n= satyrium behrii behrii ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 203\n= satyrium behrii behrii ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 204\n= satyrium acadica acadica ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 204\n= satyrium californica californica ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 205\n= satyrium sylvinum putnami ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 205\n= satyrium edwardsii edwardsii ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 207\n= satyrium calanus calanus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 207\n= satyrium calanus falacer ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 207\n= satyrium liparops liparops ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 208\n= satyrium liparops strigosa ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 208\n= satyrium liparops fletcheri ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 208\n= satyrium auretorum auretorum ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 209\n= satyrium saepium saepium ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 209\nsatyrium lais ; huang , 2001 , neue ent . nachr . 51 : 76 ( note )\nsatyrium volt ; huang , 2001 , neue ent . nachr . 51 : 77 ( note )\nsatyrium redae ; huang , 2001 , neue ent . nachr . 51 : 77 ( note )\nsatyrium ( fixsenia ) favonius ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 210\nsatyrium ( fixsenia ) ilavia ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 211\nsatyrium ( fixsenia ) polingi ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 211\nsatyrium ( fixsenia ) favonius favonius ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 210\nsatyrium ( fixsenia ) favonius ontario ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 210\nsatyrium ( fixsenia ) favonius autolycus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 211\nsatyrium ( fixsenia ) favonius violae ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 211\nsatyrium ( fixsenia ) polingi polingi ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 211\nsatyrium ( fixsenia ) polingi organensis ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 211\nsatyrium siguniangshanicum murayama , 1992 ; nature & ins . 27 ( 5 ) : ( 39 - 41 )\nsatyrium minshanicum murayama , 1992 ; nature & ins . 27 ( 5 ) : ( 39 - 41 )\nsatyrium neoeximia murayama , 1992 ; nature & ins . 27 ( 5 ) : ( 39 - 41 )\nsatyrium kongmingi murayama , 1992 ; nature & ins . 27 ( 5 ) : ( 39 - 41 )\nsatyrium pseudopruni murayama , 1992 ; nature & ins . 27 ( 5 ) : ( 39 - 41 )\nsatyrium tshikolovetsi bozano , 2014 ; nachr . ent . ver . apollo nf 35 ( 3 ) : 141\nsatyrium mardinus van oorschot , van den brink , van oorschot , 1985 ; ent . berl . 45 : 145\n= satyrium austrina yoshikoae ( koiwaya , 1996 ) ; huang , 2001 , neue ent . nachr . 51 : 77\nsatyrium titus carrizozo holland , 2010 ; j . lep . soc . 64 ( 3 ) : ( 166 - 171 )\ndistinction from s . semiluna as a distinct species from s . fuliginosa is debated , and needs further study in potential areas of contact . s . semiluna is distinguished by the presence ( sometimes faint ) of a\nstigma\nor\nsex brand\non the upper front wing of the males ( lacking in s . fuliginosum ) , and by distribution . zone of contact should be near the east base of the sierra nevada and northward across southwestern oregon .\nsatyrium calanus albidus scott , 1981 ; papilio ( n . s . ) 1 : 5 ; tl : nw hayden , routt co . , colorado\n= satyrium favonius ; robbins & nicolay , 2002 , j . lepid . soc . 55 ( 3 ) : 100 ; [ nl4a ] , # 349\nsatyrium eximium zhejianganum tong , 1994 ; in chou , monographia rhopalocerum sinensium 1 - 2 : 770 , 660 , f . 71 ; tl : longquan , zhejiang\nsatyrium edwardsii meridionale gatrelle , 2001 ; taxonomic rep . 3 ( 2 ) : 5 , f . 2 , 7 ; tl : south carolina , aiken co .\nthis subspecies is a little smaller and grayer than nominate fuliginosum , and the male has a stigma . it occurs widely in the central and southern sierra and in the northern great basin . there is at least one population in siera valley which , however , has only been found once at our study site . males perch atop sagebrush in the midst of shrub - steppe . both sexes can be found far from any blooming nectar sources , but they do visit yarrow , brassicaceae ( e . g . cardaria pubescens ) and sulphur flower ( eriogonum umbellatum ) .\nsatyrium californica brashor kondla & scott , 2006 ; papilio ( n . s . ) 12 : 45 , pl . 4 ; tl : mica creek , near osoyoos , british columbia\nsatyrium californica wapiti fisher , 2006 ; papilio ( n . s . ) 12 : 46 , pl . 6 ; tl : hwy 133 nr oliver , gunnison co . , colorado\nsatyrium sylvinus nootka fisher , 1998 ; papilio ( n . s . ) 11 : 4 , f . 9 - 10 ; tl : wellington , vancouver is . , british columbia\nsatyrium liparops floridensis gatrelle , 2001 ; taxonomic rep . 3 ( 3 ) : 7 , f . 20 - 23 ; tl : withlacoochee state forest , citrus co . , florida\nsatyrium ( superflua ) khowari charmeux , 2004 ; phegea 32 ( 1 ) : 9 , 16 ( list ) ; tl : pakistan , w . chitral , vall\u00e9e du bumburet , 2600m\nsatyrium acaudatum balasagyna korb , 2011 ; zool . zh . 90 ( 5 ) ent . review 91 ( 4 ) : 525 ; tl : kyrgyzstan , kirgizian range , tatyr , golubinyi waterfall\nsatyrium ( superflua ) goniopterum lukhtanov , 1995 ; nachr . ent . ver . apollo nf 16 ( 1 ) : 52 , f . 5 ; tl : usbekistan , s\u00fcdwestlicher teil des ghisar - gebirge , tuda , 2400m\nsatyrium ( superflua ) persepolis eckweiler & ten hagen , 2003 ; nachr . ent . ver . apollo nf 23 ( 4 ) : 213 ; tl : iran , fars , shiraz , kuh - e derak , 2000 - 2300m\nsatyrium xumini huang , 2001 ; neue ent . nachr . 51 : 76 , f . 32 - 33 , 36 , pl . 4 , f . 26 ; tl : 50 km ne of batang , sichuan - tibet border\nno tails . upperside drab dark gray . underside gray to grayish brown ; forewing with a line of white - bordered dark spots which may be lacking .\nmales patrol and occasionally perch to seek receptive females . females lay eggs singly on host plant or at its base in litter .\nlocal within its range . british columbia south to central california , east to wyoming and northern colorado .\ng4 - apparently secure globally , though it might be quite rare in parts of its range , especially at the periphery .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nlycaena suasa boisduval , 1869 . type locality : gold lake , sierra county , california\ntailless , dorsal drab gray , underwing grayish to brown , with the fw usually having a line of dark dots circled in white , and the hw can have some whitish dots .\nsimilar species of blues in genus plebejus will usually show at least some blue scaling above , even in females ( none in sooty hairstreaks ) ; they will have a white fringe ( dull grayish in sooty hairstreaks ) ; and , the front wing will have a very strong black bar at the end of the discal cell ( often there is a second black spot in the middle of the cell as well ) , while this spot is absent to weak and usually not black in sooty hairstreaks . the pattern of the lower side will usually have a\nsmoother\nlook in blues , and will look dirty or\nsooty\nin the hairstreaks . also , the sooty hairstreaks will most often have the dark postmedian spots dull in color ( sometimes only faint ) , while in the blues they are usually bold and black . fresh individuals are much easier to identify than faded worn specimens .\nbutterflies through binoculars : the west : a field guide to the butterflies of western north america ( butterflies and others thr jeffrey glassberg . 2001 . oxford university press .\nbutterflies of north america ( kaufman focus guides ) jim p . brock , kenn kaufman . 2003 . houghton mifflin co .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthis is interpreted as the entity occurring on castle peak and on a tiny area of donner pass . it is larger and darker than subspecies semiluna , and the males lack a stigma . males perch territorially , often on the matted ecotype of bitterbrush ( purshia ) growing along the ridgetop between basin and castle peaks . females walk a lot . both sexes often visit mule ' s ears ( wyethia mollis ) flowers , as well as sulphur flower ( eriogonum umbellatum ) . one flight in the second half of the alpine season , generally july - september . at donner often in june , and disappearing quickly ( presumably because the colony is so small ) . host plants , perennial species of lupinus , including l . arbustus and l . albicaulis .\nspecies - tailless and sooty gray , matching the sooty gray volcanic landscape . they ' re quite common above timberline lodge at mount hood , where their caterpillar host plants , lupines\nmt . hood , clackamas co . , or 8 / 7 / 06 .\n( sulphur - flowered buckwheat ) , which is the most abundant species on mt . hood .\nmt . hood , clackamas co . , or 8 / 8 / 06 .\n, which has a more prominent blackish cell - end bar on the forewing and a whitish fringe .\na worn boisduval ' s would look quite similar to a worn sooty , but even a worn boisduval ' s would show a trace of blue above , which sooty lacks .\nanother thing i ' ve noticed from looking at my photos at high resolution is that the top side of antennal club tips of sooty hairstreak are tan to orange - brown , while those of boisduval ' s blue are white ( though the underside of the antennal clubs can be orangish ) . if this is consistent and still true for very worn individuals , it might help id some tricky individuals .\nthe taxonomic status of various populations of sooty hairstreak is confusing . the high - elevation population of\nphotographed here flies in late summer , but nearby is a middle - elevation population that flies in may . the sagebrush sooty hairstreak\nwas recently elevated to species status . it differs subtly in wing shape and structure from\ncompletely lack . the stigma is on the upper surface of the forewing , so you can ' t see it these photos . andy warren discusses the differences in detail in his 2005 book\nbutterflies of oregon : their taxonomy , distribution , and biology .\nsagebrush sooty hairstreak and square - spotted blue habitat above timberline lodge on mt . hood , clackamas co . , or 8 / 7 / 06 .\ndiagnosis : the small ( wingspan : 24 to 30 mm ) , rounded wings of this drab species are sooty brown on the upper surface and grey to brown , with tiny black white - rimmed spots , on the underside . it looks very much like a female blue .\n, which has the spots on the underside better developed , has been found in southwestern alberta .\nrange : the sooty hairstreak has a spotty distribution in the western u . s . it occurs in canada at osoyoos and keremeos in british columbia , and there is an old record from waterton lakes in alberta .\n) , which has whiter fringes and has a black discal spot in the centre of the forewing below , and often above as well .\nabundance : the sooty hairstreak is uncommon to rare in most of its range .\nhabits : the sooty hairstreak is always found near lupines , often in sagebrush areas at middle altitudes in the mountains . it should be looked for in fields , meadows , and along roadsides where lupines grow .\nremarks : despite its blue - like appearance , foodplant use , and patrolling behaviour , this species is definitely a hairstreak . the reasons for this convergence are unknown , although the fact that the larvae of boisduval ' s blue , like those of many blues , are tended and protected by ants may be a clue .\n\u00a9 2002 . this material is reproduced with permission from the butterflies of canada by ross a . layberry , peter w . hall , and j . donald lafontaine . university of toronto press ; 1998 . specimen photos courtesy of john t . fowler .\nsome split this into several genera . when i get complete information , i may follow . until then , there are some tentative groupings using thegenus name in quotes . as i don ' t have the complete picture , these groupsdo not include all species .\ncallipsyche ( scudder , 1876 ) ; bull . buffalo soc . nat . sci . 3 : 106 ; tl : thecla behrii , edwards\nlycaena fuliginosa edwards , 1861 ; proc . acad . nat . sci . philad . 13 : 164 ; tl : california\nthecla behrii edwards , 1870 ; trans . amer . ent . soc . 3 ( 1 ) : 18 ; tl : lako mono , california\ncallipsyche behrii crossi field , 1938 ; j . kansas ent . soc . 11 ( 4 ) : 130 ; tl : nederland , colorado\ncallipsyche behrii columbia mcdunnough , 1944 ; can . ent . 76 ( 9 ) : 190 ; tl : fairview , b . c .\nthecla acadica edwards , 1862 ; proc . acad . nat . sci . philad . 14 : 55 ; tl :\nnear london\n[ ontario ]\n; f . m . brown , eff & rotger , 1955 , ( missp . )\nstrymon acadica montanensis watson & comstock , 1920 ; bull . amer . mus . 42 ( 10 ) : 451 ; tl : montana\nstrymon acadica coolinensis watson & comstock , 1920 ; bull . amer . mus . 42 ( 10 ) : 451 ; tl : idaho\nthecla californica edwards , 1862 ; proc . acad . nat . sci . philad . 14 : 223 ; tl : california\n600x626 ( ~ 47kb ) underside usa : robinson canyon rd , ( 47\u00b001 ' 01n 120\u00b042 ' 41w ) , kittitas co . , wa , 26 . 7 . 1999 , photo \u00a9 markku savela\n700x882 ( ~ 86kb ) underside usa : robinson canyon rd , ( 47\u00b001 ' 01n 120\u00b042 ' 41w ) , kittitas co . , wa , 26 . 7 . 1999 , photo \u00a9 markku savela\nthecla sylvinus boisduval , 1852 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . ( 2 ) 10 : 287 ; tl : california\n700x745 ( ~ 53kb ) underside usa : fr9705 , ( ~ 47\u00b018n 120\u00b041w ) , kittitas co . , wa , 30 . 7 . 1999 , photo \u00a9 markku savela\n600x738 ( ~ 63kb ) underside usa : dry falls / sun lakes state park , grant co . , wa , 9 . 7 . 2000 , photo \u00a9 markku savela\n700x759 ( ~ 59kb ) underside usa : fr 9705 nr . liberty and lion gulch , ( 47\u00b017 ' 49n 120\u00b039 ' 58w \u00b10 . 5km ) , kittitas co . , wa , 14 . 8 . 2001 , photo \u00a9 markku savela\n:\nplain county , colorado\n[ error , placer co . , california ]\nhesperia titus fabricius , 1793 ; ent . syst . 3 ( 1 ) : 297\n1000x819 ( ~ 93kb ) underside usa : dry falls / sun lakes state park , grant co . , wa , 8 . 7 . 2000 , photo \u00a9 markku savela\n600x810 ( ~ 55kb ) underside usa : dry falls / sun lakes state park , grant co . , wa , 9 . 7 . 2000 , photo \u00a9 markku savela\n1100x917 ( ~ 122kb ) underside usa : utah , uintah co . , ashley national park , start of fr - 020 ( 40\u00b040 ' 35\nn 109\u00b029 ' 14\nw ) , 1 . 8 . 2012 , photo \u00a9 markku savela\n= strymon titus titus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 206\nstrymon titus immaculosus comstock , 1913 ; bull . brooklyn ent . soc . 8 ( 3 ) : 33 , pl . 2 , f . a - g ; tl : provo , utah\nstrymon titus watsoni barnes & benjamin , 1926 ; bull . south . calif . acad . sci . 25 ( 3 ) : 94 ; tl : kerrville , texas\nharkenclenus titus occidentalis austin & emmel , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 42 ) : 507 , f . 27 - 30 ; tl : nevada , pershing co .\nharkenclenus titus winteri gatrelle , 2004 ; taxonomic rep . 4 ( 6 ) : 10 , f . 23 - 26 ; tl : sherborn [ middlesex co . , massachusetts ]\nharkenclenus titus campus gatrelle , 2004 ; taxonomic rep . 4 ( 6 ) : 10 , f . 9 - 18 ; tl : iow , shelby co .\nthecla edwardsii grote & robinson , 1867 ; trans . amer . ent . soc . 1 : 172 ; tl : canada\nrusticus calanus h\u00fcbner , [ 1809 ] ; samml . exot . schmett . 1 : pl . [ 100 ] , f . 1 - 4\n1200x844 ( ~ 120kb ) underside usa : alabama , 22 . 5 . 2002 , photo \u00a9 vitaly charny\n1000x1099 ( ~ 139kb ) underside usa : alabama , 20 . 6 . 2005 , photo \u00a9 vitaly charny\n1000x1072 ( ~ 110kb ) underside usa : alabama , 27 . 5 . 2006 , photo \u00a9 vitaly charny\nstrymon boreale lafontaine , 1970 ; j . lep . soc . 24 ( 2 ) : 83 , f . 1 - 4 , 7\nstrymon falacer godarti field , 1938 ; j . kansas ent . soc . 11 ( 4 ) : 129 ; tl : rosement , teller co . , colorado\nstrymon caryaevorus mcdunnough , 1942 ; can . ent . 74 ( 1 ) : 1 ; tl : merivale , ontario\nstrymon kingi klots & clench , 1952 ; amer . mus . novit . 1600 : 2 ; tl : savannah , georgia\nthecla liparops le conte , 1833 ; hist . l\u00e9p . am . sept . ( 9 / 10 ) : 99 , ( 11 - 22 ) pl . 31 , f . 1 - 4 ; tl : screven co . , georgia\nthecla strigosa var . liparops fletcher , 1904 ; can . ent . 36 ( 5 ) : 124 ( preocc . thecla liparops le conte , 1833 ) ; tl : manitoba , rounthwaite\nstrymon liparops aliparops michener & dos passos , 1942 ; amer . mus . novit . no . 1210 : 3 ; tl : glenwood springs , colorado\nthecla auretorum boisduval , 1852 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . ( 2 ) 10 : 288 ; tl : california\nthecla saepium boisduval , 1852 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . ( 2 ) 10 : 288 ; tl : california\n800x763 ( ~ 61kb ) underside usa : fr9705 , ( ~ 47\u00b018n 120\u00b041w ) , kittitas co . , wa , 30 . 7 . 1999 , photo \u00a9 markku savela\n600x701 ( ~ 50kb ) underside usa : table mtn , kittitas co . , wa , 30 . 7 . 1999 , photo \u00a9 markku savela\n1600x1370 ( ~ 278kb ) underside usa : pike national forest , sugar creek on cr - 67 ( about 39\u00b018 ' n 105\u00b010 ' w ) , douglas co . , co , 29 . 7 . 2012 , photo \u00a9 markku savela\nlarva on ceanothus cuneatus , c . velutinus , c . sanguineus , c . macrocarpus , less cercocarpus betuloides [ nab ]\nargus ( gerhard , 1850 ) ; versuch mon . europ . schmett . ( 1 ) : 4 ; tl : lycaena ledereri , boisduval\ntranscaucasia , asia minor , anatolia , caucasus , caspian , palestine , samos . see [ maps ]\nlycaena ledereri boisduval , 1848 ; bull . soc . ent . fr . ( 2 ) 6 : xxix\ntrancaucasia , kopet dagh ? , ghissar , w . pamirs , turkey , iran , afghanistan . see [ maps ]\nstrymon ledereri hyrcanica riley , 1939 ; novit . zool . 41 ( 4 ) : 360 ; tl : n . persia\narmenia hyrcanica ; [ bru2 ] : 102 , pl . 52 , f . 31 - 39\nfixsenia cyri nekrutenko , 1978 ; dopovidi akad . nauk . ukr . rsr ( b ) 1978 ( 1 ) : 83\neuristrymon ( clench , 1961 ) ; in p & a . erlich ( eds . ) , how to know the butterflies : 184 , 212 ; tl : thecla favonius , smith\nthecla herzi fixsen , 1887 ; in romanoff , m\u00e9m . l\u00e9pid . 3 : 279 , pl . 13 , f . 4 ; tl : korea ,\npung - tung\n( the mountains at about 38\u00b0 n . lat . / 128\u00b0 e . long . )\nnordmannia herzi ; [ bru2 ] : 104 , pl . 53 , f . 10 - 12\n369x300 ( ~ 33kb ) underside male the onon river right bank floodland 5 km upstream of the village nizhnii tsasuchei , onon district , se chita province ( dahuria ) , transbaikalia , siberia , russia . 1st july 1996 , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\nlarva on malus mandschurica , m . baccata [ baru ] , m . pallasiana [ bru2 ] , 104\neu , am , siberia , amurland , korea , japan . see [ maps ]\n533x400 ( ~ 48kb ) underside female an edge of a swampy pine forest at the right branch of the ob ' river , the novosibirsk environs at the village nizhnyaya eltsovka , novosibirsk province , west siberia , russia . 4th july 1993 , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\n400x583 ( ~ 35kb ) underside female the ora rivulet valley 2 km nort of the village motkovo , moshkovo district , novosibirsk province . 28th june 1997 ( on an inflorescence of aegopodium podagraria l . ) , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\n623x899 ( ~ 124kb ) upperside underside male russia : s . tuva , korumnug - taiga mts . ( 1200m ) , 8 - 25 . 6 . 2002 , vashchenko a . & b . leg . photo \u00a9 d . smirnov\n654x657 ( ~ 125kb ) underside russia , moscow area , 12 . 6 . 2010 ( 36\u00b025 ' e , 56\u00b000 ' n ) , photo \u00a9 d . smirnov\nlarva on prunus padus , rubus idaeus [ sprk ] , padus , prunus , sorbus [ baru ] , padus avium , padus asiatica , prunus spp . [ bru2 ] , 104\nthecla pruni var . jezoensis matsumura , 1919 ; thous . ins . japan . addit . 3 : 616 , pl . 48 , f . 1 ; tl : hokkaido\nseu , ceu , asia minor , lebanon , iraq , iran - s . ural . see [ maps ]\nstrymon spini bofilli de sagarra , 1924 ; butll . inst . catal . hist . nat . ( 2 ) 4 ( 9 ) : 200 ; tl : albarracin ( arag\u00f3 ) , 1100m\n647x875 ( ~ 122kb ) upperside underside ukraine : kherson region , 15 . 5 - 20 . 6 . 2003 , makarenko leg . photo \u00a9 d . smirnov\nmelantho ( klug , 1834 ) ( lycaena ) ; in ehrenberg , symbolae phys . , ins . 4 : pl . 40 , f . 10 - 11\ntransbaikalia , amur , ussuri , n . china , korea . see [ maps ]\nthecla spini var . latior fixsen , 1887 ; in romanoff , m\u00e9m . l\u00e9pid . 3 : 271 ; tl : pung - tung [ e . korea ]\nnordmannia latior ; [ bru2 ] : 105 , pl . 53 , f . 31 - 33\n800x600 ( ~ 96kb ) underside male the onon river left bank , shaded by willow thickets , 7 km upstream of the village nizhnii tsasuchei , onon district , chita province , se transbaikalia ( dahuria ) , siberia , russia . 11th july 1996 , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\nlarva on rhamnus davurica , r . ussuriensis , ( ussuri ) armeniaca sibirica , ( transbaikailia ) [ bru2 ] , 105\nceu , seu , am , s . ural , ne . china , korea , japan . see [ maps ]\nmajuscula ( jachontov , 1911 ) ( thecla ) ; mitt . kaukas . mus . 5 : 313\n609x812 ( ~ 87kb ) underside sweden , ekebo , julita , 31 . 7 . 2004 , photo \u00a9 leif wahlberg\nlarva on quercus , ulmus , u . laevis , ulmus propinga , alnus , fraxinus , tilia , ( arboreal rosaceae ) prunus , malus , padus [ baru ]\nceu , seu , caucasus , transcaucasia , s . siberia , transbaikalia , far east\n800x600 ( ~ 70kb ) underside male a tree of ulmus pumila l . on the onon river righht bank floodland , 7 km upstream of the village nizhnii tsasuchei , onon district , se chita region , transbaikalia , siberia , russia , 4th july 1995 , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\n1040x955 ( ~ 376kb ) underside russia , west siberia , omsk , the 30th anniversary of victory park . 15th july 2007 ( on sorbaria sorbifolia ) , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\nstrymon fentoni butler , [ 1882 ] ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1881 ( 4 ) : 854 ; tl : yesso\n: korea ,\npung - tung\n( the mountains at about 38\u00b0 n . lat . / 128\u00b0 e . long . )\nnordmannia eximia ; [ bru2 ] : 105 , pl . 53 , f . 22 - 24\naltai , sayan , transbaikalia , amur , ussuri , mongolia , ne . china , korea . see [ maps ]\nthecla fulvofenestrata fixsen , 1887 ; in romanoff , m\u00e9m . l\u00e9pid . 3 : 279\nnordmannia prunoides ; [ bru2 ] : 106 , pl . 53 , f . 37 - 40\n533x400 ( ~ 54kb ) underside female a rocky ridge crest on the adon - chelon elevation , at the mountain tsagan - obo , 10 km nnw of the village tasyrkhoi , s chita province ( dahuria ) , transbaikalia , siberia , russia . 9th july 1996 ( on its foodplant spiraea aquilegifolia pallas ) , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\nlarva on spiraea media , spiraea spp . , ( not padus or rhamnus ? ) [ bru2 ] , 106\nnordmannia runides ; [ baru , ( note ) ] ; [ bru2 ] : 106 ( note ) , pl . 53 , f . 47 - 48\nseu , ceu , sw . siberia , asia minor , caucasus , transcaucasia , lebanon , s . ural . see [ maps ]\nprinoptas ( zerny , 1932 ) ( thecla ) ; dt . ent . z . iris 46 : 176 ; tl : lebanon\nstrimon [ sic ] esculi neglecta de sagarra , 1926 ; butll . inst . catal . hist . nat . ( 2 ) 6 ( 6 - 7 ) : 136\nnordmannia esculi reisseri de bros & schmidt - kohl , 1979 ; mitt . ent . ges . basel 29 ( 1 ) : 16 ( nom . nud . ) ; tl : chefchaoune ( morocco )\nnordmannia esculi mauretanica ; [ bmat ] : 25 , pl . 9 , f . 8 - 18\nstrimon [ sic ] acaciae fumosa de sagarra , 1926 ; butll . inst . catal . hist . nat . ( 2 ) 6 ( 6 - 7 ) : 135\nnordmannia abdominalis ; [ bru2 ] : 107 , pl . 53 , f . 44 - 46\nlycaena myrtale klug , 1834 ; in ehrenberg , symbolae phys . , ins . 4 : 1 , pl . 40 , f . 15 - 16\nthecla thalia leech , [ 1893 ] ; butts china japan corea ( 2 ) : 367 , pl . 30 , f . 15\nstrymon thalia ; [ bow ] : pl . 206 , f . 35 ( text )\npapilio favonius smith , 1797 ; in smith & abbot , nat . hist . rarer lepid . ins . georgia 1 : 27 , pl . 14 ; tl : georgia\nlarva on quercus virginiana , q . laurifolia , q . ilicifolia , q . alba gifford & opler , 1983 , j . lep . soc . 37 ( 2 ) : 104\nstrymon polingi barnes & benjamin , 1926 ; bull . south . calif . acad . sci . 25 ( 3 ) : 94 ; tl : brewster co . , texas\npseudothecla ( strand , 1910 ) ; ent . rundsch . 27 : 162 ( repl . erschoffia tutt , [ 1907 ] ) ; tl : thecla lunulata , erschoff\nn . iran , kashmir , baluchistan , w . tien - shan , nw . himalaya , chitral - mussoorie . see [ maps ]\nthecla sassanides kollar , [ 1849 ] ; denkschr . akad . wiss . wien . 1 : 51 ; tl : schiraz [ s . iran ]\nlarva on amygdalus bucharica , a . spinosissima , cerasus verrucosa [ bru2 ] , 103\ns . ghissar ? , ghissar - darvaz , w . pamirs . see [ maps ]\nthecla lunulata erschoff , 1874 ; in fedschenko , travels in turkestan . 2 ( 5 ) : 7 , pl . 1 , f . 5 ; tl : [ . . between iori an dashty - kazy in zeravshan valley , uzbekistan ]\nnw . tian - shan , inner tian - shan , darvaz , alai . see [ maps ]\nthecla lulunala f . acaudata staudinger , 1901 ; cat . lep . palaearct . faunengeb . 1 : 70 ; tl : ferg . [ fregana valley , uzbekistan ]\nthecla mirabilis erschoff , 1874 ; in fedschenko , travels in turkestan . 2 ( 5 ) : 7 , pl . 1 , f . 4 - 5 ; tl : zeravshansky mts .\nderia ( moore , 1865 ) ( thecla ) ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1865 ( 2 ) : 507 , pl . 31 , f . 11 ; tl : uper kunawur\nlais ( leech , 1893 ) ( thecla ) ; butts china japan corea ( 2 ) : 363 , pl . 29 , f . 4 ; tl : china\nstrymonidia inouei shir\u00f4zu , 1959 ; konty\u00fb 27 ( 1 ) : 91 , pl . 8 , f . 9 - 10 \u2640 ; tl : vicinity of musha , formosa\nthecla percomis leech , 1894 ; butts china japan corea ( 2 ) : 366 , pl . 29 , f . 5\nthecla patrius leech , 1891 ; entomologist 24 ( suppl . ) : 58 ; tl : pu - tsu - fong , 10000ft\nstrymonidia patrius ; [ bow ] : pl . 10 , f . 32 ( text only )\nthecla v - album oberth\u00fcr , 1886 ; \u00e9tud . d ' ent . 11 : 20 , pl . 4 , f . 23 ; tl : tibet\n? strymon v - album ; [ bow ] : pl . 206 , f . 37\nstrymon ornata ; [ bow ] : pl . 206 , f . 37 ( text )\nstrymon persimilis riley , 1939 ; novit . zool . 41 ( 4 ) : 360 ; tl : yunnan\nstrymon dejeani riley , 1939 ; novit . zool . 41 ( 4 ) : 360 ; tl : siao - lou\nfixenia oenone minyonensis yoshino , 1999 ; neo lepidoptera 4 : 4 , f . 29 - 30 , 33 - 34 ; tl : mt . meilishueshan , deqin , n . yunnan\nfixenai oenone benzilanensis yoshino , 1999 ; neo lepidoptera 4 : 5 , f . 31 - 32 , 35 - 36 ; tl : xiancheng , sw . sichuan\nstrymon marcidus riley , 1921 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 9 ) 8 ( 47 ) : 600 ; tl : persia , harir ; karind gorge\nthecla mera janson , 1877 ; cistula ent . 2 : 156 ; tl : matzabaro , about 200 miles nw of yedo\nstrymonidia mera ; [ bow ] : pl . 10 , f . 30 ( text only )\nthecla myrtale var . armena rebel , 1901 ; ann . hofmus . wien . 16 : 165\njebelia nakamura , 1975 \u00b2 ; j . ent . ( b ) 44 ( 3 ) : ( 283 - 295 )\nthecla eximia watarii matsumura , 1927 ; ins . matsumurana 2 ( 2 ) : 117 , pl . 3 , f . 3 ; tl : formosa\niyonis ( oxta & kusunoki , 1957 ) ; trans . shikoku ent . soc . 5 : 101\nstrymonidia iyonis kibiensis shir\u00f4zu & nanba , 1973 ; ty\u00f4 to ga 23 ( 3 & 4 ) : 65 , f . 1 - 4 ; tl : niimi city , okayama pref .\nlarva on rhamnus yoshinoi , r . japonica , r . japonica var . decipiens shir\u00f4zu & nanba , 1973 , ty\u00f4 to ga 23 ( 3 & 4 ) : 65\nthecla yangi riley , 1939 ; novit . zool . 41 ( 4 ) : 358 ; tl : china , foochow\nsayrium kuboi chou & tong , 1994 ; in chou , monographia rhopalocerum sinensium 1 - 2 : 771 , 661 , f . 72 ; tl : hangzhou , zhejiang\nthecla saitua tytler , 1915 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 24 ( 1 ) : 132 , pl . 3 , f . 25\nthecla formosana matsumura , 1910 ; ent . zs . 23 ( 50 ) : 221 ; tl : formosa , koshun ; horisha\nmuksuria churkin & pletnev , 2010 ; ; tl : tadzhikistan , peter i mts , depshal vill . , 2500m\nzabirovi churkin & pletnev , 2010 ; ; tl : tadzhikistan , pamirs , vanchsky mts , gushkon riv . vall , 2000m\nturkmanica churking & pletnev , 2010 ; turkmenistan , kopetdagh mts . , 15km e of mokhur , ipai - kala vill . , 1100m\nthecla ilicoides gerhard , 1850 ; versuch mon . europ . schmett . ( 1 ) : 3 , pl . 4 , f . 5a - c\nthecla ilicoides var . maculatus gerhard , 1850 ; versuch mon . europ . schmett . ( 1 ) : 3 , pl . 4 , f . 4\nthecla acaciae [ ? ] acaciaeformis verity , 1914 ; boll . soc . ent . ital . 45 : 229\nthe dates of e . j . c . esper ' s die schmetterlinge in abblidungen . . . 1776 - [ 1830 ] ; archives of natural history ( 1981 ) 10 ( 2 ) : 251 - 254\nbutterflies of north america . 2 . scientific names list for butterfly species of north america , north of mexico .\n[ spl ] varis , v . ( ed ) , ahola , m . , albrecht , a . , jalava , j . , kaila , l . , kerppola , s . , kullberg , j . , 1995\n[ \u00b2 ] this may require parentheses or not . i don ' t have the necessary information for this taxon .\n[ l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res recueillis par m . kindermann aux environs d ' odessa et au pied du caucase ]\nlycaenidae\n, pp . 176 - 288 in p & a . erlich ( eds . ) ,\ndescriptions of certain species of diurnal lepidoptera found within the limits of the united states and of british america . - no . [ 1 ] - 3\ndie schmetterlinge in abbildungen nach der natur mit beschreibungen . theil i . die tagschmetterlinge . band 1\nversuch einer monographie der europ\u00e4ischen schmetteringsarten : thecla , polyomattus [ sic ] , lycaena , nemeobius . als beitrag zur schmetterlingskunde\nreport of h . huang ' s 2000 expedition to se . tibet for rhopalocera\nstudies on the family lycaenidae ii . new taxa and records from turkey lycaeniden - studie ii . neue taxa und meldungen aus der t\u00fcrkei ( lep . lycaenidae )\nsystema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum clases , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , symonymis , locis . tomis i . 10th edition\nlist of diurnal lepidoptera collected by capt . a . m . lang in the n . w . himalayas\nsome undescribed rhopalocera from mesopotamia and n . w . persia ; and other notes\nsynonymic list of the butterflies of north america , north of mexico . ( 2 ) rurales\ndie macrolepidopteren des amurgebiets . i . theil . rhopalocera , sphinges , bombyces , noctuae in romanoff ,\na natural history of the british lepidoptera . a text - book for students and collectors\nnotes on some new and interesting butterflies from manipur and the naga hills . part 1 - 3\nzerny , 1932 lepidopteren aus dem n\u00f6rdlichen libanon dt . ent . z . iris 46 : 157 - 191\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\npieridae ( 22 species ) duponchel 1832 . ( whites , orangetips , & sulfurs )\nbutterflies comprise one of the major subdivisions of the insect order lepidoptera . approximately one hundred and twenty species of butterfly and several additional subspecies have been recorded , mostly by amateur observers , in lake and klamath counties , oregon . these insects , well known for the beauty they lend to warm summer days , are also an integral part of the ecosystems they inhabit . many pollinate plants and serve as food sources for birds . recent work has shown that the health of native ecosystems can be be monitored by the abundance and distribution of these insects . recording the species from a geographic area can provide a baseline from which to judge the effects of changes over time that may be occuring .\nthe checklist that follows is an attempt to provide an approximation of the number and kind of species occuring at the present time in this area . anyone who sights a species not on the below list is invited to report their observation to the forest ecologist , robert wooley at 541 - 576 - 7564 . to see a full size photo of the butterflies below click on the image .\nthe branded skipper is one of the most common butterflies in the great basin sagelands and the pine forests of the cascades . it nectars frequently at flowers in the asteraceae or sunflower family .\nbecker ' s white is frequently observed nectaring on thistles and other members of the sunflower family .\na common skipper emerging in late july and august frequently visiting rabbitbrush . this skipper lays its eggs on desert saltgrass a species of alkaline flats .\negg of sandhill skipper on desert saltgrass . observing where butterflies lay their eggs can be a challenging photographic pursuit requiring both physical agility and acute observation skills . information gleaned from making these observations can be very valuable to the conservation of both the insects and plants they interact with .\na male sonora skipper ( on left ) courting a female . male skippers establish territories they patrol . when a female enters their territory courtship ensues with the male displaying and attempting to win the females attention .\ntelling skippers apart requires a fine sense of observing details . the juba skipper has longer more pointed wings than the branded skipper and slightly different markings .\nthere are many species of blue butterflies . telling them apart is often difficult . one of the more easily identified blues is the arrowhead with its distinctive arrowhead shaped white wing marks . the ancient greek word for butterfly is psyche incorporated into the genus name of this species . to the greeks the mysterious metamorphosis that takes place from the ugly caterpillar to the beautiful butterfly was associated with the transformation sometimes seen in the human psyche"]}
{"id": 655, "summary": [{"text": "elachista adscitella is a moth of the elachistidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in all of europe , except iceland , the balkan peninsula , ukraine and lithuania .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 9 \u2013 11 millimetres ( 0.35 \u2013 0.43 in ) .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are pale grey with a whitish head and a white transverse line across the center of the forewing .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "they are on wing from may to july and again in august in two generations per year .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the larvae feed on brachypodium sylvaticum , carex elata , calamagrostis arundinacea , deschampsia cespitosa , deschampsia flexuosa , elymus caninus , festuca altissima , festuca drymeja , festuca gigantea , melica nutans , melica uniflora , milium effusum , phleum species , poa chaixii , poa remota , sesleria albicans , sesleria argentea , sesleria caerulea and sesleria sadlerana .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they mine the leaves of their host plant .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the mine consists of a gradually widening corridor .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it may run up - or down-wards .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the frass is deposited in the first part of the mine .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "two to three larvae may occupy a single mine and more than one mine may be found in a single leaf .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "larvae can be found from october to the end of may and from mid june to the end of july .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "larvae of the first generation hibernate inside the mine . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "elachista adscitella", "paragraphs": ["elachista globulosa elachista globulosa ( c . agardh ) j . agardh , 1848 elachista\nelachista intermedia elachista elachista intermedia p . l . crouan & h . m . crouan , 1867\nelachista adscitella - lauhahitukoi ( det . miika jylkk\u00e4 ) , 10 . 7 . 2017 jyv\u00e4skyl\u00e4\ncephaloziella elachista ( j . b . jack ex gottsche & rabenh . ) schiffn . cephaloziella elachista\nid : group d - forewing dark with a single pale transverse fascia at 1 / 2 > 6 species these 6 species divide into 2 groups of 3 based on the frons being white to ochreous in e . adscitella / obliquella / gangabella and grey - brown or darker or mottled in e . bisulcella / unifasciella / cingillella . in e . obliquella and e . adscitella the terminal cilia are ochreous - white while in e . gangabella the apical cilia are concolorous with the forewing . the key inmbgbi3 separates e . obliquella / adscitella on the basis that in e . adscitella the vertex and neck tufts are ochreous - white while in e . obliquella only the frons is white . however the description of e . obliquella then states\nfrons ochreous - white , slightly brownish on vertex , neck tufts ochreous but brownish at tips\n. there may be a slight difference in the forewing fascia whose margins are\nrather ill - defined\nin e . obliquella and\nsometimes almost obsolete halfway across the wing , with proximal edge more clearly defined than distal\nand usually broader in female in e . adscitella . however , genital dissection is needed to confidently separate these two species . female genitalia : the ovipositor including the antral region and the signa are illustrated for all 6 species in mbgbi3 . none of the females are shown at dissection group or on any other website that i could find . 2 species have the signa as two diffuse spiculate patches , as shown by \u00a71 - e . adscitella and e . bisulcella . the illustrations ( fig . 109h & i ) show the signum of e . adscitella as a rectangular patch of mixed small and very small conical spicules with pointed apices and of e . bisulcella as an irregular oval patch of more evenly sized small spicules some of which are conical with pointed or blunt apices , some of which are rectangular with a square end and some of which are doubled as if two of the spicules were fused . the shape of the signa can be seen to be rectangular in the images below and the shape of the spicules as seen under the microscope was as described for e . adscitella . the illustration of the antral region ( fig . 104h ) does show a small sclerotisation at the colliculum as shown by \u00a71 but it does not clearly show the pouch - like antrum or the rounded defect in the ventral surface of the sterigma shown by \u00a71 . ( none of the other illustrations look any more like \u00a71 ) .\na pale grey moth with whitish head and white transverse line across the middle of the forewing .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 07 - 04 10 : 48 : 13 page render time : 0 . 2707s total w / procache : 0 . 3070s\nbl\u00e5 punkter visar fynd registrerade i artportalen och \u00f6vriga databaser anslutna till lifewatch . kan inneh\u00e5lla observationer som inte \u00e4r validerade . kartan uppdateras var fj\u00e4rde vecka .\ni det avancerade verktyget kan man s\u00f6ka ut och f\u00e5 fram artlistor , t ex arter i ett visst l\u00e4n , i en viss biotop , substrat , som p\u00e5verkas av en hotfaktor , eller som \u00e4r knutna till en sk v\u00e4rdart , t ex tr\u00e4det alm . dessa kan \u00e4ven kombineras .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , knutna till alm , \u00e4r beroende av d\u00f6d ved och som finns i kronobergs l\u00e4n .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , lever i sm\u00e5vatten och som p\u00e5verkas negativt av igenv\u00e4xning .\ndefaultl\u00e4get i verktyget \u00e4r arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade 2015 och dessa \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga s\u00f6kfaktorer . under fliken r\u00f6dlistekategori kan man dock v\u00e4lja att \u00e4ven inkludera arter som inte \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade . om man v\u00e4ljer att inkludera icke r\u00f6dlistade arter beh\u00f6ver man vara medveten om att samtliga arter inte \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga faktorer . nedan en sammanst\u00e4llning av vad som \u00e4r komplett .\ndenna funktion anv\u00e4nds n\u00e4r du vill skapa din egen lista av arter att hantera . du kan t . ex . navigera mellan arterna i listan genom att klicka p\u00e5 deras namn . du kan ocks\u00e5 v\u00e4lja att anv\u00e4nda knappen \u201dj\u00e4mf\u00f6r arter\u201d f\u00f6r att se bilder , kartor och k\u00e4nnetecken i en j\u00e4mf\u00f6relsevy .\ndu kan komponera ditt eget urval av arter genom att klicka dig fram via sl\u00e4kttr\u00e4det och d\u00e4r v\u00e4lja arter eller artgrupper till din lista . ett annat s\u00e4tt att g\u00f6ra ditt urval \u00e4r att anv\u00e4nda fliken \u201dfiltrera\u201d , d\u00e4r du kan s\u00f6ka p\u00e5 olika egenskaper . ovanf\u00f6r listan med s\u00f6kresultatet finns en knapp \u201dl\u00e4gg i mitt urval\u201d .\nthe mit license copyright ( c ) 2014 - 2016 google , inc . urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\nthe mit license ( mit ) copyright ( c ) 2011 - 2015 twitter , inc permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright ( c ) 2008 - 2013 sprymedia limited urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright 2008 - 2015 martin wendt , urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright jquery foundation and other contributors , urltoken this software consists of voluntary contributions made by many individuals . for exact contribution history , see the revision history available at urltoken the following license applies to all parts of this software except as documented below : = = = = permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software . = = = = all files located in the node _ modules and external directories are externally maintained libraries used by this software which have their own licenses ; we recommend you read them , as their terms may differ from the terms above .\nthe mit license ( mit ) - urltoken copyright ( c ) steven sanderson , the knockout . js team , and other contributors urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright ( c ) 2009\u20132015 permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright 2005 - 2014 openlayers contributors . all rights reserved . redistribution and use in source and binary forms , with or without modification , are permitted provided that the following conditions are met : 1 . redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice , this list of conditions and the following disclaimer . 2 . redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice , this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and / or other materials provided with the distribution . this software is provided by openlayers contributors ` ` as is ' ' and any express or implied warranties , including , but not limited to , the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose are disclaimed . in no event shall copyright holder or contributors be liable for any direct , indirect , incidental , special , exemplary , or consequential damages ( including , but not limited to , procurement of substitute goods or services ; loss of use , data , or profits ; or business interruption ) however caused and on any theory of liability , whether in contract , strict liability , or tort ( including negligence or otherwise ) arising in any way out of the use of this software , even if advised of the possibility of such damage . the views and conclusions contained in the software and documentation are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as representing official policies , either expressed or implied , of openlayers contributors .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ntufted hair - grass and blue moor - grass are the main foodplants , the larvae forming gallery mines ( ukmoths ) .\ngradually widening corridor , running either upwards or down . all frass is deposited in the earliest part of the mine . often 2 - 3 larvae in a mine ; in grasses with broad leaves sometimes more than one mine in a leaf ( bladmineerders van europa ) .\nlarva : the larvae of moths have a head capsule and chewing mouthparts with opposable mandibles ( see video of a gracillarid larva feeding ) , six thoracic legs and abdominal legs ( see examples ) .\npupa : the pupae of moths have visible head appendages , wings and legs which lie in sheaths ( see examples ) .\nadult : the adult is illustrated in ukmoths . the species is included in urltoken .\ncomments : festuca gigantea is treated as schedonorus gigantea ( giant fescue ) by stace ( 2010 ) .\nthe larva of the first generation hibernates in the mine and makes a new mine in early spring . larvae from october to end - may , and mid - june to end - july ( bladmineerders van europa ) .\ntime of year - adults : there are two generations flying from may to july and again in august ( ukmoths ) .\ndistribution in great britain and ireland : occurs in woodland habitats in england , wales and locally in ireland ( ukmoths ) ; bedfordshire , derbyshire , durham , flintshire , herefordshire , huntingdonshire , north somerset , south northumberland , shropshire , stafford , west lancashire , westmorland and worcestershire ( nbn atlas ) and the channel is . ( karsholt and van nieukerken in fauna europaea ) .\nalso recorded in the republic of ireland ( karsholt and van nieukerken in fauna europaea ) .\ndistribution elsewhere : widespread in continental europe including austria , belgium , czech republic , danish mainland , estonia , european turkey , finland , french mainland , germany , hungary , italian mainland , latvia , norwegian mainland , poland , romania , russia - central , north and northwest , slovakia , spanish mainland , sweden and switzerland ( karsholt and van nieukerken in fauna europaea ) .\n\u00a71 silverdale , lancashire ; 19 / 06 / 2014 ; fw 4 . 9mm ; female all images \u00a9 chris lewis\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice ."]}
{"id": 681, "summary": [{"text": "gynnidomorpha permixtana , the coast conch , is a species of moth of the tortricidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in china ( anhui , beijing , fujian , gansu , guizhou , hainan , hebei , heilongjiang , henan , hubei , liaoning , ningxia , shaanxi , shandong , shanghai , shanxi , sichuan , tianjin , xizang , zhejiang ) , afghanistan , iran , japan , korea , mongolia , russia and europe .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of waste ground , damp heathland and mosses .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the wingspan is 8 \u2013 12 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on wing yearly year round .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on alisma , gentiana , euphrasia and pedicularis species .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they feed within the stems of their host plant . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "gynnidomorpha permixtana", "paragraphs": ["in evaluation the efficacy of common paddy herbicides on control of some weeds in rice research institute of iran ( rrii ) in 2009 , results showed that few germination of arrow head seeds . detailed investigation revealed that the physical damage to seeds was because of shome moth larva feeding . after rearing moth larva in rrii plant protection laboratory , we found that these larvas belonged to tortricidae family . further systematic studied on this moth was conducted in iranian research institute of plant protection ( iripp ) and the moth was distinagueshed as gynnidomorpha permixtana ( denis & schifferm\u03ccller , 1775 ) . also this species was reaffirmed in spain . larva ' s recollecting in 2010 from field and insect rearing for five generations shows this moth activity on arrow head and larva feeding on seed and flowers of host plant and confirmed pervious surveys results . also life cycle and type of activity on host plant was studied at this survey . at the other hand due to available resource there aren ' t any published reports of this moth activity on arrowheads from the other countries , so this is the first report of gynnidomorpha permixtana ( lepidptera : tortricidae ) activity on sagittaria sp .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nnotes : endangered ( proposed as a future red data book species ) on waste ground , damp heathland and mosses in parts of southern england , wales , scotland and western ireland . not recorded in hampshire or on the isle of wight to date . wingspan 11 - 13 mm . the blackish grey suffusion at the middle of the outer margin of the median fascia and the grey suffusion in the distal half of the forewing are characteristic [ bradley ] . larva feeds within stems of water - plantain , lousewort and flowering rush .\n\u2022 mullet peninsula , co . mayo , ireland . \u2022 \u00a9 michael o donnell\nif you would like to help ukmoths by writing a short description for this species , it would be very much appreciated .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 06 - 17 03 : 06 : 05 page render time : 0 . 3252s total w / procache : 0 . 3670s\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthere remain no validated records of this species , although the most likely come from maresfield ( 1940s ) and eastbourne ( pre - 1973 ) . ( pratt , 2011 ) .\nalthough recorded in sussex , the database has not as yet , been updated to include these records .\nthis translation tool is powered by google . fao is not responsible for the accuracy of translations .\nfarahpour hagani , atousa ; ; yaghoubi , bijan ; ; majidi - shilsar , farzad .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\n2011 - 01 - 26 by & van nieukerken , dr erik j . karsholt , dr ole & by dr leif aarvik\nthis work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - share alike 3 . 0 license\npesi is funded by the european union 7th framework programme within the research infrastructures programme . contract no . ri - 223806 . activity area : capacities . period 2008 - 2011 - website hosted & developed by vliz banner picture : gannet ( morus bassanus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) by karl van ginderdeuren - contact pesi"]}
{"id": 683, "summary": [{"text": "coelacanthopsis is an extinct genus of lobe-finned fish which lived during the carboniferous period .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the coelacanth is the only living example of the fossil coelacanth fishes actinistia .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "they are also the closest link between fish and the first amphibian creatures which made the transition from sea to land in the devonian period ( 408-362 million years ago ) .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "that such a creature could have existed for so long is nearly incredible , but some say that the cold depths of the west indian ocean at which the coelacanth thrives , and the small number of predators it has , may have helped the species survive eons of change .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the coelacanth was first discovered in 1938 by marjorie courtenay latimer , the curator of a small museum in the port town of east london , as she was visiting a fisherman who would let her search through his boat 's catch for interesting specimens .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "ironically , marjorie was only visiting the sea captain to wish him a happy christmas when she first spotted the coelacanth 's oddly shaped , blue-gray fin protruding from beneath a mountain of fish .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "marjorie brought back the specimen to the museum where she compared it against images of known species , and ultimately realized what she had was no ordinary fish .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "after sending a rough drawing of the fish to professor j.l.b. smith , at rhodes university , grahamstown , who in turn confirmed that the creature she had discovered on the boat 's deck was indeed a prehistoric fish , a coelacanth to be exact .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "since then , coelacanth populations have been found near indonesia , south africa , and other unexpected places .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "while there have been enough sightings of the creature to indicate that there is more than one area where the species exists , it remains a highly protected and mysterious animal , a living fossil which may , or may not be the only creature from our past which has survived millions of years of evolution .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "some place it in the family rhabdodermatidae . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "coelacanthopsis", "paragraphs": ["coelacanthopsis is an extinct genus of lobe - finned fish which lived during the carboniferous period .\ncoelacanthopsis is an extinct genus of lobe - finned fish which lived during the carboniferous period . the coelacanth is the only living example of the fossil coelacanth fishes actinistia . they are also the closest link between fish and the first amphibian creatures which made the transition from sea to land in the devonian period ( 408 - 362 million y . . .\n\u0086 diplocercides heiligenstockiensis ( jessen , 1966 ) upper devon locality : bergisch - gladbach , germany .\ngenus : \u0086 chinlea - late trias locality : dockum group . usa : texas . north america\n\u0086 miguashaia grossi ( forey et al . , 2000 ) middle devon locality : lode formations , latvian\ngenus : \u0086 sassenia - lower trias locality : sticky keep formation , sassendalen gr . west spitsbergen\ngenus : \u0086 rebellatrix - lower triassic locality : sulphur mountain fm . british columbia , canada\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nwe don ' t know when or if this item will be back in stock .\nlist & earn rs . 250 * extra . available in bangalore , mumbai , chennai , hyderabad .\nenter your mobile number or email address below and we ' ll send you a link to download the free kindle app . then you can start reading kindle books on your smartphone , tablet , or computer - no kindle device required .\nprime members enjoy unlimited free , fast delivery on eligible items , video streaming , ad - free music , exclusive access to deals & more .\nafter viewing product detail pages , look here to find an easy way to navigate back to pages you are interested in .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\ncopyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 ebay inc . all rights reserved . accessibility , user agreement , privacy , cookies and adchoice\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken"]}
{"id": 694, "summary": [{"text": "japalura splendida , the japalura tree dragon also called banana split mountain lizard , chinese tree dragon , dragon agama , or neon tree dragon , is an agamid lizard found in southwestern china in the provinces of hunan , hubei , guizhou , yunnan , sichuan , gansu , and henan , and also in the southeast of tibet .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "in captivity the japalura tree dragon requires a warm , humid environment .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "they are an active and arboreal species , and should only be kept in a medium to large size vivarium , with plenty of limbs and ledges in which to seek elevation .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "they can be fed on a variety of domestically bred insects , and need a bowl of water to bathe in .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the japalura tree dragon , like many arboreal lizard species , will drink from water droplets found on leaves , often from rain or dew , so they will require a drip or misting system to stimulate this in captivity .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "in the wild , these lizards will also bask to absorb heat and ultraviolet radiation from the sun , so sufficient lighting should be provided in a captive environment to replicate this .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "tree dragons are typically not territorial towards other lizards , although males should never be kept together , and they are very dominant feeders due to their voracious appetite , which may present additional hassles when they are kept in a communal setting .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "they are not aggressive towards humans , however , they may be skittish and attempt to flee .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "this may make handling a difficulty due to their speed . ", "topic": 16}], "title": "japalura splendida", "paragraphs": ["japalura splendida barbour & dunn 1919 japalura splendida \u2014 pope 1935 : 467 japalura splendida \u2014 smith 1935 : 175 japalura splendida \u2014 wettstein 1938 : 177 japalura splendida \u2014 wermuth 1967 : 68 japalura splendida \u2014 manthey & schuster 1999 : 75 japalura splendida \u2014 manthey et al . 2012\nhello . i ' ve just started with japalura splendida . | reptile forums - information\nmass - mortality in green striped tree dragons ( japalura splendida ) associated with multiple viral infections .\njapalura variegata . . . biancia niger japalura microlepis japalura yunnanensis the variegated mountain lizard japalura variegata is an agamid lizard found in n india ( sikkim , west bengal darjeeling . . .\nlist of endemic species of taiwan - endemic reptiles . . . gecko \u2013 lepidodactylus yami ota kikuchi ' s gecko \u2013 gekko kikuchii ( oshima ) lue ' s japalura \u2013 japalura luei ota , chen shang maki ' s japalura \u2013 japalura makii ota swinhoe ' s japalura \u2013 japalura . . .\nimage in elaphe 12 ( 4 ) : 33 . similar species : j . splendida . previous reports of japalura splendida in yunnan may represent j . slowinskii .\ntanya higgins added the english common name\ndragon agama\nto\njapalura splendida barbour & dunn 1919\n.\nmass - mortality in green striped tree dragons ( japalura splendida ) associated with multiple viral infections . - pubmed - ncbi\nlaue , e . 2005 . zur haltung und vermehrung der chinesischen bergagame japalura splendida barbour & dunn 1919 . elaphe 13 ( 1 ) : 20 - 30\nlittle is known about the long - term care and breeding of japalura splendida but following the guidelines for green anoles ( anolis carolinensis ) is a suggested starting point .\nschradin , h . 2004 . haltung und nachzucht der chinesischen bergagame ( japalura splendida ) . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 9 ( 49 ) : 56 - 66 - get paper here\nmy new vivarium for my 1 . 2 japalura splendida . i used the concrete over polystyrene method to create a 2 1 / 3 wall background and water wall . enjoy !\nin 2010 , neon tree dragon refers to japalura splendida which is pictured above . its adult size is 10 to 12 inches total length . in the past , this was sometimes used\npurchasing a japalura splendida . . . the japalura is only recently hitting pet stores in the united states as of the addition to this article ( june 2009 ) and many pet stores do not carry . . . however , the care of the japalura is similar to that of the chinese water dragon ( a member of the physignatus genus ) . . . when purchasing a japalura , look for the following signs of health . . .\njapalura splendida - housing and habitat . . . in the wild , japaluras reside in humid , temperate jungles . . . the japalura can reportedly grow 8 to 16 inches in length ( including the tail ) . . . for the lizard to bask on and plants ( live or artificial ) for the japalura to climb on or hide within . . .\nlaue , e . 2009 . erfahrungen mit krankheiten und verlusten bei der langj\u00e4hrigen pflege und nachzucht cer chinesischen bergagame japalura splendida , veranschaulicht durch drei fallbeispiele . iguana rundschreiben 22 ( 1 ) : 21 - 30\njapalura splendida are generally quite skittish with a curios nature . they are extremely active and rarely sit still . extremely adept at climbing and jumping so care must be taken when handling . they jump for england .\nfor information on the following species , see the agamidae : japalura page at the tigr reptile database .\nwettstein , o . 1938 . eine neue japalura aus cambodja . zool . anz . 122 : 175 - 177\njapalura is a genus of lizards in the family agamidae . species of japalura are native to pakistan , india , myanmar , china , vietnam , taiwan , and japan . china has the most species , [ 1 ] including many endemics . [ 2 ]\nthere are some twenty species of lizards in the genus japalura . one of the general common names for this agamid genus is mountain lizard .\nthere are some twenty species of lizards in the genus japalura . one of the general common names for this agamid genus is mountain lizard .\n_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 0 . 1 . 0 leopard gecko ( gary ) thought he was a she ! ! lol 1 . 0 . 0 chinese tree dragon ( japalura splendida ) ( mojo ) r . i . p tigerlily\nbefore the japalura i was leaning toward a gecko but a snake would be interesting . i ' ve heard that the cornsnake and ball python are good choices .\ngao , xue - yuan ; wu , hong - bo ; zhao , shen ; fu , mei - li ; li , zong - yun . 2006 . analysis of pachyten chromosome karyotype and micro - chrosomes of japalura splendida . sichuan journal of zoology 25 ( 2 ) : 237 - 240 . [ in chinese ] - get paper here\nota , h . 1989 . a new species of japalura ( agamidae : lacertilia : reptilia ) from taiwan . copeia 1989 ( 3 ) : 569 - 576 - get paper here\nhad a single male japalura splendida ( neon tree dragon , though it has a lot of common names ) and decided to get him a female companion . this is a very short time after they were introduced to each other . the male mostly did a lot of head bobbing and push ups , but wasn ' t overtly aggressive with her . this is just a very short clip showing the head bobbing behavior .\nthe chinese tree dragon ( japalura splendida ) may be called the banana - split mountain lizard , dragon agama or neon tree dragon . it ' s an agamid species , native to the trees in the rain forests of southeastern asia , only recently been brought into the u . s . pet trade . when determining the sex of an adult chinese tree dragon , you have a few differentiating physical characteristics to study .\nvery nice viv mate i hope to get my splendida viv planted in the near future . i loved it to start with but now its annoying me but there away to get a bigger viv so will try and ger round to it then\ntwo weeks ago i started a terrarium with two japalura splendida . after 2 days one of them became lethargic and died . the pet store gave me a replacement and it too died a couple of days later . all of these reptiles seemed healthy at the store . my current lizard is from the original two and now he seems to becoming lethargic . my terrarium is well foilaged with ample water and lighting . the temp ranges from 72 - 82 degrees farenheit . what should i be looking for ?\ni ' m sorry to hear about your japalura . if it is any comfort to you most of them are wild caught and they are fairly new on theherp scene so there is still a lot that needs to be figured out about them .\nmanthey , ulrich ; wolfgang denzer , hou mian & wang xiaohe 2012 . discovered in historical collections : two new japalura species ( squamata : sauria : agamidae ) from yulong snow mountains , lijiang prefecture , yunnan , pr china . zootaxa 3200 : 27\u201348\nin 2010 , neon tree dragon refers to japalura splendida which is pictured above . its adult size is 10 to 12 inches total length . in the past , this was sometimes used for calotes versicolor . all of the lizards sold as\nneon tree dragons\nare very territorial and easily stress in crowded conditions . they do best housed with no more than 2 dragons per 20 gallon tank with at least one hiding spot ( such as a hollow piece of cork ) and one bright basking spot per lizard . lots of plastic plants or live plants are needed to break up the sight lines so the lizards can hide from each other easily .\nhey guys i was wondering if any of you know a good place to get japalura splendida in the ne of england ? have done some looking around and did inquire at coasttocoase they did seem to have some but they thought they are 2 males . i ' m after a male and a female if possible . i am quite new to it all but done a lot of reading up on the specs . this care sheet was really helpfull . was hoping to get a cb but from what i understand from everyone is that thats close to impossible in the uk . so was hoping maybe you guys know somewhere or maybe are willing to part with some hatchlings from a unrelated pare ? any advise or help ?\nin spring 2011 , high mortality in association with skin lesions , systemic haemorrhages and necrosis occurred in a group of green striped tree dragons ( japalura splendida ) which were imported from southwestern china via florida to germany . infections with various endoparasites were diagnosed in coprological examinations . different antiparasitic and antibiotic treatments over a period of three months did not reduce the mortality rate . the remaining animals were therefore euthanased and submitted for additional testing . predominant findings in pathological examination were granulomatous and necrotising inflammation of the skin , vacuolar tubulonephrosis of the distal renal tubules , hyperaemia and liver necrosis . eosinophilic intranuclear and basophilic intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies were detected in the liver . virological testing ( pcr and virus isolation methods ) demonstrated the presence of ranavirus , adenovirus and invertebrate iridovirus .\nhey guys i was wondering if any of you know a good place to get japalura splendida in the nw ( cumbria ) of england ? have done some looking around and did inquire at coasttocoase they did seem to have some but they thought they are 2 males . i ' m after a male and a female if possible . i am quite new to it all but done a lot of reading up on the specs . this care sheet was really helpfull . was hoping to get a cb but from what i understand from everyone is that thats close to impossible in the uk . so was hoping maybe you guys know somewhere or maybe are willing to part with some hatchlings from a unrelated pare ? or is it possible to introduce a female later on ? any advise or help ?\nwell , i ' m\nherp - less\nnow . my japalura splendida died last night . i haven ' t had him for long and the pet store that i purchased him from is issuing me a credit for the loss . so , i don ' t want to give up on herps but i do want to clean the enclosure and start fresh with something else . i ' m using a 29 - gallon tank with a lockable screen top . obviously , i don ' t want to purchase another reptile without researching it first and allowing me the chance to set up the terrarium in advance . i don ' t have a preference as to what i raise but i would like something that won ' t outgrow my set up . any suggestions , recommendations or comments appreciated .\nj . andersoniana j . brevipes j . chapaensis j . dymondi j . fasciata j . flaviceps j . grahami j . hamptoni j . kaulbacki j . kumaonensis j . luei j . major j . makii j . micangshanensis j . planidorsata j . polygonata j . polygonata polygonata , j . p . ishigakiensis . okinawan ( sakishima ) tree lizard . j . sagittifera j . splendida j . swinhonis j . tricarinata j . varcoae j . variegata j . yunnanensis\nj . andersoniana j . brevipes j . chapaensis j . dymondi j . fasciata j . flaviceps j . grahami j . hamptoni j . kaulbacki j . kumaonensis j . luei j . major j . makii j . micangshanensis j . planidorsata j . polygonata j . polygonata polygonata , j . p . ishigakiensis . okinawan ( sakishima ) tree lizard . j . sagittifera j . splendida j . swinhonis j . tricarinata j . varcoae j . variegata j . yunnanensis\njapalura splendida feed on insects and arthropods , their eyes capture the movement of the prey and require a naturalistic hunting environment as feeding with tweezers in not natural and not recommended . they prefer flies , moths and wasps . crickets and locust can also be used as part of their diet as long as their big enough . although i have found that they do like wax worms and mealworms as a treat . also honey worms have been suggest and even zophobas and cockroaches . any food should be no bigger than the reptiles head . the food should also be gut loaded before feeding , this is done by providing the food with food ( e . g . potato , carrots ( very good ) , oats ) . all food must be dusted with a vitamin supplement for them to get an ample amount of vitamins and minerals into their body . they do not bother with earthworms , woodlice and springtails that are in the substrate and as a result are not eaten .\nfor breeding you will need a male and at least one female , but i ' m sure you already knew that ( you will also need a suitable place for eggs to be laid , though don ' t be surprised if the female completely refuses to use the place you have set up for her like mine did . to be able to tell the difference in gender the best way is with pictures . some detailed information on determining gender of japalura splendidas can be found at\nmaybe better posting a wanted ad in the classifieds than on a care sheet thread . my best advice would be to keep an eye on monkfield ' s stock list , they update it every monday . they seem to be the more common supplier of j . splendida around - but you ' ll need to contact a shop who use them as they don ' t sell direct to customers . if you want cb , hamm is probably your best bet , or wait and see if myself , kirky or some of the other keepers on here have any luck this year .\n_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1 . 0 . 0 coastal carpet 1 . 0 . 0 bearded dragon 1 . 2 . 0 crested geckos 1 . 0 . 0 royal python 0 . 1 . 0 boa constrictor 0 . 0 . 1 western hognose 0 . 2 . 0 horned frog 1 . 0 . 0 giant madagascan day gecko 2 . 0 . 0 tokay geckos 0 . 1 . 0 japalura sp . 0 . 2 . 0 african pygmy hedgehog 1 . 0 . 0 siberian husky facebook . . . . urltoken\n[ font = & quot ] hey everyone . i am fairly new to the herp hobby . i have always stayed aquatic and now have herp fever as well . lol i don & # 8217 ; t think my house is big enough for this lmao . well i picked up a japalura splendida about 6 months ago and fell in love with the little guys . ( i know they are pretty common but they are fun ) anywho , i recently rescued one from petco a couple days ago . i normally don & # 8217 ; t buy anything there usually just go to look but i felt so bad for the little girl i had to bring her home . i was wondering if anyone could help me . i was wondering if both of mine are female ( i think so from what little info i have found on them ) and any breeding or other info would be greatly appreciated . i want to pick up a male and possibly build a walk in terrarium to house about 10 maybe more , ( but that & # 8217 ; s later down the road ) . added some pics . the first 4 are ryu the first little girl i got . the last 2 are my new little girl tatsu that is currently in a quarantine tank till i nurse her back to health and fatten her up .\nas someone else said , i haven ' t really ever heard of silver city serpentarium either . though i would sadly have to say that big apple herp does not have any of these beautiful lizards , i am happy to say that i know lll reptile should have some ( listed as green tree calotes there , but they are the same - - - - this lizard actually has a multitude of names [ i . e . , japalura splendidas , banana split lizards , neon tree dragons , chinese tree dragons , green tree calotes , calotes , calotes whatever , green calotes , dragon agamas , chinese bergagame , neon agama , etc . ] and there are so many inaccurate care sheets out there because really don ' t know very much of anything about these lizards ) , which is probably why the care sheets are so inaccurate they have too many names .\nsuper sale : colorado river toads ( adults ) 199 . 99 \u2022 red sliders turtles 4 . 99 \u2022 bearded dragon\u0092s 49 . 99 \u2022 ball pythons ( babies ) 29 . 99 \u2022 savannah monitors ( c . b . babies ) 19 . 99 \u2022 customer reviews / testimonials\nour job is to search out the very best . our commitment to you is nothing less .\ntype locality : from the gorge of the yangtze river near tchang , hupeh , central china .\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\nananjeva , natalia b . ; xianguang guo and yuezhao wang 2011 . taxonomic diversity of agamid lizards ( reptilia , sauria , acrodonta , agamidae ) from china : a comparative analysis . asian herpetological research 2 ( 3 ) : 117 - 128 - get paper here\nbarbour , thomas & dunn , emmett reid 1919 . two new chinese japaluras . proc . new england zool . club 7 : 15 - 19 - get paper here\ncalder\u00f3n - espinosa , martha lucia & guido fabian medina - rangel 2016 . a new lepidoblepharis lizard ( squamata : sphaerodactylidae ) from the colombian guyana shield . zootaxa 4067 ( 2 ) : 215\u2013232\nhallermann , j . 2005 . the bizarre arboreal agamids . reptilia ( gb ) ( 42 ) : 8 - 15 - get paper here\nhallermann , j . 2005 . mit h\u00f6rnern , k\u00e4mmen und gleith\u00e4uten - die bizarren baumagamen . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 10 ( 51 ) : 18 - 25 - get paper here\nkunz , k . 2012 . bild sch\u00f6n ! fotografie von terrarientieren . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 17 ( 94 ) : 20 - 26 - get paper here\nlaue , esther 2009 . die chinesische bergagame . vivaria verlag , 96 pp .\nmacey , j . r . , j . a . schulte ii , a . larson , n . b . ananjeva , y . wang , r . pethiyagoda , n . rastegar - pouyani , t . j . papenfuss 2000 . evaluating trans - tethys migration : an example using acrodont lizard phylogenetics . systematic biology 49 ( 2 ) : 233 - 256 - get paper here\nmanthey u 2010 . agamid lizards of southern asia . draconinae 2 - leiolepidinae . terralog 7b , edition chimaira , frankfurt , 168 pp .\nmanthey , u . & schuster , n . 1999 . agamen , 2 . aufl . natur und tier verlag ( m\u00fcnster ) , 120 pp . - get paper here\npope , clifford h . 1935 . the reptiles of china . turtes , crocodilians , snakes , lizards . amer . mus . nat . hist . , new york , nat . hist . central asia , 10 : lii , 1 - 604\nsmith , m . a . 1935 . the fauna of british india , including ceylon and burma . reptiles and amphibia , vol . ii . sauria . taylor and francis , london , 440 pp .\nzhao , e . & adler , k . 1993 . herpetology of china . ssar , oxford / ohio , 1 - 522\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nneon tree dragon is a common name used in the pet trade for a variety of small agamid lizards from southeast asia . agamid lizards are an old world family of lizards that include bearded dragons and uromastyx lizards .\nin addition to a basking spot that hits 90 - 95\u00b0f during the day , neon tree dragons need strong uvb light for at least 10 hrs a day or else they readily develop nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism ( a form of metabolic bone disease ) . they also need high humidity and frequent spraying as they only drink from droplets . if they do not get enough humidity , they will retain shed skin ( as may be seen on the tip of the nose of the dragon at the top of this page ) . however , they also need plenty of fresh air or else they develop skin infections .\nthey do best with crickets no longer than the space between the dragon ' s eyes . some will eat waxworms . it is important to dust the insects at every meal with a calcium supplement containing d3 such as zoomed ' s calcium with d3 and a once a week dusting with a multivitamin containing pure vitamin a such as zoomed ' s reptivite .\nthis neon tree dragon has a broken back as a result of a metabolic bone disease ( red arrow ) . there is also a change in color ( blue arrow ) showing where there is unshed skin .\nunfortunately the neon tree dragons are almost always wild - caught imports and suffer from a variety of intestinal parasites and other infectious diseases . it is extremely important to have your new neon tree dragon checked for parasites by submitting a fresh fecal sample to a veterinarian within the first few days of bringing it home .\ndid you know arizona exotics carries a complete line of products for your turtles and tortoises , geckos , iguanas and other reptiles ? check out our reptile and amphibian supplies here .\nschedule an appointment online now and make sure your pet is as healthy as can be .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nright guys , i ' ve decided to post this caresheet up as there is next to nothing on decent information about these stunning little reptiles on the internet ( thats in english anyway ) . i ' ve managed to translate and retype this caresheet , so that anyone looking into keeping a tree dragon can fully understand that they are not a beginners reptile and do take abit of knowledge on keeping them . although , i found that once you have the setup perfected then they are no harder than other tropical lizards . just want to say thanks to kirky1980 for getting me into the amazing reptiles and helping me through the steps to keeping them . also the original german caresheet was provided by him , if it wasn ' t for him i would ' nt of stumbled across these beauties !\nat least 50cm in depth , width of about 100cm and height about 100cm for a trio , ( 1 male and 2 females ) never put 2 males in one enclosure ! around a 20 gallon tank should be big enough for one , but due to these reptiles being arboreal height is more important than length . adequate ventilation is also needed .\n- tree dragons do not recognise glass , so there needs to be a generous amount of plants all over .\nthe ground plays a big role in the attitude of the tree dragons . it is mainly for egg laying by the female . it needs to be around 10 - 20cm deep . a good substrate is important in the humidity and climate of the terrarium also . a mixture of terrarium humus , pine bark , peat , soil and sand . pine bark is very good as it has natural germ killing properties , also the humus and bark will retain a lot of moisture in the terrarium .\ntropical woodlice , springtails and earthworms are also highly recommended for cleaning purposes of the terrarium as they will clean up any faeces , mould and other biodegradable rubbish in the terrarium , this will also make the substrate bioactive and if maintained properly will rarely need changing .\ntree dragons only recognise running water , this is why it is vital or at least highly recommended to have either a stream or waterfall in the terrarium . they can absorb water in this way no problem , they do prefer a trickling stream or waterfall rather than a pool as they do not swim . it is very important for tree dragons to take in water as this will help them successfully shed their skin . it is vital that all the skin is shed as it can cause complications with the tree dragons . they also do not require a water bowl and would not use one as it is not running water .\nit is important that when constructing a waterfall or stream that there is plenty of water in there as it has been mentioned that they do like to lie in the water , although it needs to be ensured that it is not too deep they will drown . it needs to be dug in deep enough that the female does not dig any of the appliances out when laying eggs .\na well designed landscape is needed , with a watercourse added and a number of plants in the substrate and also in the walls if able to do so . odd shaped branches and vines should be running constantly through the enclosure along with rock formations to enable plenty of different climbing spaces for the dragons . all equipment and decoration must be sterilised before putting them in the terrarium , this is done by either heating them in the oven or freezing them in a freezer to kill any parasites .\nas the tree dragons are arboreal they require a lot of higher growing vegetation and plants , live plants work very well in the terrarium as they provide an increased amount of oxygen and also increase the humidity . the leaves of the plants also need a good spraying 2 - 3 times daily for many reasons ; personal hygiene and cleaning , the lizards will drink the water from the leaves , increase the humidity and to water the plants . it is important to find plants that thrive well in the conditions required for the dragons as they have to tolerate a lot of moisture and offer the lizards a \u201cforest of leaves\u201d to hide in a move around .\na styrofoam design is good as they come with many terrariums , but if constructing one yourself it should be laminated with epoxy resin and covered with natural substrates such as bark and humus .\nthe temperature should be staggered from bottom to top of around , mid to low 80sf ( 27c to 30c max ) around basking spot and mid to low 70sf ( 21c to 25c ) cool end or the terrarium floor . night time temperatures can vary between around 64f to 70f ( 18c to 21c ) , in the substrate it should be around 12c . the tank lights should turn on around 08 : 00 , at the same time the waterfall should start and the tank should be sprayed with plenty of water , the heat should increase only slightly around 10 : 00 and the humidity should fall slightly , eventually reaching a maximum temperature of around 86f ( 30c ) by 16 : 00 the tank should then start to cool down . the humidity should rise as the tank is cooling and should cool no lower than 64f ( 18c )\nin the day the humidity should be around 50 % and 90 % but no higher , although i don\u2019t like to let mine drop below 70 % . at night the humidity should be at least around 90 % . as stated above the higher the temperature the lower the humidity , which requires more spraying of the tank . the waterfall and plants will aid the humidity of the terrarium but does require spraying around 2 - 3 times daily but , a mini fogger or rain system is a good idea to keep the humidity up , although there needs to be enough drainage layer for the rain system .\nfluorescent tubes ( lsr ) are the preferred choice and provide a good output of light on a lower power consumption and minimal heat radiation in the area , although coils are ok to use , but they can be expensive . the lighting should be on at least a 12 hour cycle , although i do have mine on about 14 hours , dependant on the amount of daylight outside and for viewing purpose until the dragons are asleep .\nas the lizards are diurnal they require uv light , uva and uvb light is very important to them as their entire calcium balance depends on the intensity of these rays , as they allow the vitamin d3 to be made in the skin . the absence of this lighting will prevent the correct vitamins being made and will cause bone disease in the reptiles , they will also refuse food , have shedding difficulties , a weakened immune system , inertial motion and in turn a disturbed body care .\na 5 - 6 % fluorescent tube is probably the best uv lighting to use , but make sure the reptiles have a place to hide from it if they wish . also keep in mind that some glass filters uv light so it is best to place the light on a gauze mesh above the tank .\nthis means adding vitamins , minerals and essential fatty acids in a concentration form as they are vital for the animal . ensure calcium is in the supplement . this will prevent the diseases and the deficiency of some vitamins and minerals . i also like to place a calcium dish in the terrarium for the dragons to find at their leisure as it is especially important in the production of eggs , although they should be getting enough from dusting their food so this is not necessary .\nthanks for taking the time to read this , i hope that it has given you a lot more information on what is required of these lizards and whether you think they are for you or not .\nif you think i have missed any information on these please don ' t hesistate to ask and i ' ll try do my best to sort it .\nvery nicely done its something iv been meaning to do for a long time but never got round to it . but its there in all its glory now , if people follow that care guide then they will have very happy tree dragons hows yours doing anyway mate ? ?\nged i and a lot of other people on the forum would never recommend mixing species if only there is no risk and if it is benefically e . g . tropical woodlice and crested geckos , so i would say no as it ' s not worth the risk .\nyer he ' s sound ! just refurb his enclosure , its looking loads better but still needs filling up more . i ' m going to get a fogger for it i think as i ' m going away next week and need to keep the humidity up .\nyer mate , i thought its about time i posted it , its been sitting on my laptop for ages ! yer he ' s sound ! just refurb his enclosure , its looking loads better but still needs filling up more . i ' m going to get a fogger for it i think as i ' m going away next week and need to keep the humidity up . hows yours doing ? how did the eggs turn out ? ?\nahh nice one then glad to hear it . my lot will be in there new viv as soon as i get back from my holidays with kids next week and cant wait lol one big ass exo terra will be fully kitted out very soon lol didnt any joy with my eggs im affraid but i do have 2 gravid females again im pretty sure but we will see soon enough\nhaha well its handy for me now i get a ton off messages about these guys all the time and now i have an easy option haha ahh nice one then glad to hear it . my lot will be in there new viv as soon as i get back from my holidays with kids next week and cant wait lol one big ass exo terra will be fully kitted out very soon lol didnt any joy with my eggs im affraid but i do have 2 gravid females again im pretty sure but we will see soon enough\nsounds awesome mate ! i really want to get a bigger tank , its just the money ! ahhh thats shit mate , well hopefully the next batch will be better . i ' m still after another female , can ' t seem to get one from anywhere : s\npowered by vbulletin\u00ae version 3 . 8 . 8 copyright \u00a92000 - 2018 , vbulletin solutions , inc . content relevant urls by vbseo 3 . 6 . 0\nvbulletin security provided by vbsecurity v2 . 2 . 2 ( pro ) - vbulletin mods & addons copyright \u00a9 2018 dragonbyte technologies ltd . copyright \u00a9 2005 - 2011 , reptile forums ( rfuk\u0099 )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nget the facts , not the hype !\nvisit urltoken stay informed and join the fight to keep your pets ! this is extremely important right now , there are several new laws being passed and many states are jumping on the anti - reptile bandwagon . if you enjoy being able to keep your pets you need to keep up to date on what is going on . you also may be asked to do something as simple as write some letters . we can ' t stress enough how important it is to do this !\ncopyright \u00a9 - twin cities reptiles - all rights reserved . proudly presented by , nativ3 , a minneapolis web development agency !\naka , banana split dragon , banana tree dragon , neon tree dragon , banana mountain lizard , etc , etc . this is why scientific names are helpful . beautiful animals no matter what you call them . eating great and ready to go !\nthe category page you are looking for might have been removed , had its name changed , or is temporarily unavailable .\nopen the urltoken home page , and then look for links to the information you want .\nif you typed the page address in the address bar , make sure that it is spelled correctly .\nstay up to date on the latest product releases and offers by signing up to our newsletter .\n\u00a9 2018 copyright livefoods by post ltd all rights reserved . prices may vary between online and instore .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nbehncke h 1 , st\u00f6hr ac , heckers ko , ball i , marschang re .\nimport - export peter hoch gmbh , august - jeanmaire - str . 12 , waldkirch 79183 , germany .\ncontinent : asia distribution : se tibet ( salween valley ) , sw china ( szechuan , guizhou , yunnan ? ) type locality : from the gorge of the yangtze river near tchang , hupeh , central china .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthat ' s pretty fast to just die . did you build the terrarium yourself ?\nyes , thats odd . tell us about your setup a bit more . photos would be good . what type of soil did you use ?\nhere ' s a photo of my set up . it ' s a 29 gallon tall tank . i used 100 % fir bark for the bedding . the black hoses that you see are a for a manual misting system . i ' ve attached a photos of my agama from a week or so ago with his eyes wide open and photos of him today . when i pick him up he quickly crawls up to my shoulder but doesn ' t open his eyes . what do you think ?\ni have no idea , unless if the whole bunch from the store is infected with something . i really don ' t know anything about them . i asked about substrate because lots of times people use stuff that isn ' t good , like potting soil with fertilizer . my theory is , when in doubt , see a vet .\nyou said climbs up your shoulder ? i know that won ' t cause death , but the little dude is probably under a lot of stress . you should pretty much leave him alone for a few weeks , with just going into his tank for food , water and cleaning . let him get used to the new surroundings .\nwith such quick deaths my first guess would be stress . many of these lizards are carrying internal parasites and are already physically and psychologically stressed out before you even buy them .\nyou could also try smelling the bedding . fir trees are an evergreen . if it smells reminiscent of pine or cedar , that could be your problem . those trees contain toxins that are unsuitable for any animal , especially small ones like your splendid tree lizards .\nthanks for the suggestions . the pet store ( pet world warehouse ) didn ' t have a lot of info on these agamas except to say that they prefer room temperatures not below 70 degrees and to feed them dusted crickets as their main food . the substrate that i purchased is made by zoo med and is called premium repti bark . it has a woodsy smell . almost like moss or dirt . it holds moisture but i don ' t track the humidity level as of yet . the info that i ' ve found on this lizard says that they like humidity but not so much the uv ' s . my terrarium has a 20w 7 . 0 uvb florecent daylight bulb , a 60w red - night bulb , and a 60w black - night bulb . with any combination of bulbs being on , the tanks upper half stays between 72 - 85 degrees . as far as what i ' m dusting the crickets with i ' m using tetrafauna ' s reptocal with calcium and vitamin d3 . i ' ve only recently handled the agama . more or less to see if he ' s still with us .\nthat doesn ' t sound too bad . the caresheet looks ok for the most part too , though i wouldn ' t say it ' s the most reliable source of information . i skimmed it , and with false statements like\ntwo males have never successfully lived together in any of the reptile species .\nand\npart of the genus agama . . .\n, and not going specific enough when talking about uv rays ( uvb is the critical one ) , i wouldn ' t call the caresheet a bible for splendid tree lizards by any means .\nfor starters with a 29 gal tank you could go with a leopard gecko or a cornsnake .\ncorns are great snakes . easy to handle and keep , docile , and easy feeders .\nobviously , with any animal , there are a lot of opinions and recommendations as to their overall care . as an owner of corn snakes what are your most important observations or guideliness ? i ' ve found several internet sellers of corn snakes and would consider going that route when purchasing one .\nwelcome to herpcenter . . . . . sorry to hear of your losses . . . . hopefully you will have better luck with something new . . . . best wishes . . .\n\u201cif we save our wild places , we will ultimately save ourselves . \u201d ~ steve irwin\nwould like to know if there are any good reads for them . from what i have collected there isnt much info on them besides the very basics which vary of course . from what i have read they are very similar to some species of chameleons husbandry wise . same lights , arboreal lizards that drink from leaves , high humidity etc etc .\nanyway , i got one yesterday after i came to the conclusion that they are quite similar to chameleons . i am not usually interested in anything but chameleons but this guy caught my eye . the first day i checked him out and he appears to be in great shape . no missing toes , full tail , clean mouth , alert , highly active , etc etc , so . . . . . . . . . .\nas usual , the lizards i like , there is next to no information . any experience is appreciated . will try to get some pics up at some point in time .\nbert langerwerf wrote of his short experiment breeding them , but i can ' t remember if the info you want is in his water dragon book , a back issue of reptiles magazine , or reptiles magazine site online ( can ' t remember the name of that site either lol ) .\ni have a pair right now ( and some eggs incubating ) - i have had them about 6 - 8 months now ! they are very active during the day . mine love to run upside down on the screen top . i feed them crickets and mealworms . i have a 40 wt bulb and a 5 . 0 uvb light . i have pics from a previous post of their setup . they are very funny to watch !\ni like the colors and patterns also . ill have to look up your thread .\nthanks , flux . its neat to know bert was working with them also . ill have to try and find his article . if you do come across it though let me know .\nsorry to necro this thread , but i am trying to find someone who has successfully hatched these . have had a number of failed clutches . trying to find out what the eggs are supposed to be like when freshly laid and best incubating parameters - can ' t find a lot online at all .\nclick the button below to add the caiman lizards for sale ( dracaena guianensis ) to your wish list .\nawesome baby caiman lizards for sale that are farm bred . limited supply as we only pick the very best for our customers . they will be shipped feeding on ground turkey , cat food , shrimp , and zoomed can o ' snails .\nall our caiman lizards undergo a 2 week treatment to ensure parasite free , established , beautiful animals . the new hatch batch is arriving after xmas 2017 , and will be ready for shipping in two weeks but you can order now to reserve .\nwe ship our lizards fed ex overnight . most packages arrive by 10 : 30am . if you live in a smaller town , or in a rural area it may arrive between 12 - 4pm .\nwe also offer hold for pickup at your closest fedex center , so you can pick the package up after work / school . our shipping days are monday - thursday . reptile orders placed before 2pm usually get shipped the same day . reptile orders placed after 2pm , get shipped the following day . ex : if you place your order at 5pm monday , we will ship tuesday , and you will receive wed . morning . you may request an alternate shipping day . please email us at albinoturtles @ urltoken to let us know what day works for you .\nsomeone must be present to sign for the package or our live arrival guarantee is void . please see live arrival guarantee page .\nwe pack your reptiles in the safest , most efficient way possible . all reptile orders are shipped in a styro - foam lined cardboard box used specifically for shipping reptiles . depending on weather conditions , we may include an ice pack or heat pack at no charge for the safety of the animals . if weather conditions are too severe to ship , we will notify you and arrange a future shipping date . this is all done for the safety of the animal !\nwe promise to never spam you , and just use your email address to identify you as a valid customer .\ni got my boy about 9 months ago . he had a good reason to be grumpy but he came in healthy and chubby with wonderful skin and color . he mostly tamed out in 6 months he has been the most rewarding reptile i own . sas was easy to work with and easy to contact too and was a great expereance . the only thing i wish they knew how to do is sex the caiman lizards . its really easy to tell about a 4 - 6 weeks after hatching . i did get a male ( which i wanted ) but i would have liked a guarantee of the sex i wanted .\nreceived my little guy and i couldn ' t be happier . first , the fed ex guy was extra careful , as he told me he kept him next to him for the whole time making sure he was not too hot or cold . ( right on fed ex ! ) he arrived very muscular and well fed , but he didn ' t eat for a week , and was sleeping a lot , so i e - mailed mike and he told me to increase the ambient temperature from the 80deg i had it at to 82deg and increased his basking spot from 90deg to 100deg . that did the trick . hes eating like a pig , still very shy , but nothing i can ' t work with . thanks mike and snakes at sunset !\ni received a healthy , and luckily tame , caiman lizard . he ate out of bowls perfectly and climbed up my hand whenever he can . sleeps in his water a lot too ! very curious , inquisitive , and an amazing pet overall !\nmy little guy arrived by 10 : 30am of the next day after i ordered . it was very stressed , and is still rather defensive , but it just started eating today ( after 2 days ) and it really seems to be coming around . i suggest if you order one , do your research . if you have any questions , either email or talk to snakesatsunset on their facebook page , they always respond with helpful advice .\nhad one delivered to me the other day and it ' s already gotten attached to me . has been eating since it got it and is thriving . purchasing one of these babies are worth it .\nmale yearling caiman lizard came in and i am very happy with him , very active and healthy . ate for me next day . i would highly recomend snakesatsunset to anyone purchasing a reptile online\ni got my baby caiman lizard about three days ago he ' s beautiful healthy and loving his enclosure would definitely recommend snakes at sunset . thank you guys !\nboth caiman lizards came in active and healthy . they started eating within an hour of being in their new cage . i ' m very happy with what i received and would highly recommend buying from snakes at sunset .\nordered one of these caiman lizard babies in early february . mike was very helpful in solving shipping issues due to the cold snaps we have been getting here in chicago . i always received a reply to any emails sent . the lizard arrived in great condition . packaging kept stress on the animal to a minimal . animal ate within the first few hours of its arrival . it ' s taking a variety of foods from snails and shrimp to cat food and lean turkey . this is very important at this young stage and i was very pleased . the caiman lizard is easy to handle and has hand tamed very well . just starting to clicker train it with great success . overall , i am very pleased with this purchase and look forward to doing business with snakes at sunset in the future !\nhello ! i ' m getting a bearded dragon tomorrow and i ' ve been researching for a while to ensure i am ready . i have printed off a few care sheets and just wanted to clear up a few things . first of all i ' ll be purchasing a baby beardie rather than an adult . i have a viv that is 40\nx 20\nx 20\n, will this be satisfactory for the beardie ? the other thing is the heating , is it 3 different sources the beardie requires ? i see that they require around 12 hours of uv light which i have a tube for . they also need 24 hours of heat so would i just leave a heat lamp on at all times on one side of the viv ? also i have seen\nmoonlights\nin petshops . when it gets to night time do i turn the heat lamp on and use this instead till i wake up ? sorry , little confused there . the final thing is will play sand be okay to use as the bedding ? the final thing was water , i hear you use a water bowl for the beardie to bathe in and then spray it in the face ( o _ o ? ) as it will lick the droplets and spray the walls too . thanks for any clearing up ! jack p . s - i have a herman ' s tortoise too , now i ' m not going to put them in the same viv but would it be okay to introduce them ? : p"]}
{"id": 698, "summary": [{"text": "dichomeris fuscalis is a moth in the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by park and hodges in 1995 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in china ( hong kong ) and taiwan .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 16-17 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "there is a dark brown fascia on the anterior margin of the forewings , connected with the median fascia , but separate from a small discal streak .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is a subterminal fascia , followed by a greyish-orange line .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are dark grey .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on millettia nida . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "dichomeris fuscalis", "paragraphs": ["asura fuscalis is a moth of the family erebidae . it is found in india .\ndichomeris fuscalis park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 16 ; tl : taipei co . , taiwan\nsynaphe fuscalis is a species of moth of the pyralidae family . it was described by amsel in 1966 . it is found in morocco .\ndichomeris fuscalis is a moth in the gelechiidae family . it was described by park and hodges in 1995 . it is found in china ( hong kong ) and taiwan .\nhypsopygia fuscalis is a species of snout moth in the genus\nhypsopygia\n. it was described by hampson in 1891 . it is found in india .\nnephopterix fuscalis is a species of snout moth in the genus\nnephopterix\n. it was described by kenrick in 1907 . it is found in new guinea .\nparacymoriza fuscalis is a moth in the crambidae family . it was described by yoshiyasu in 1985 . it is found in japan and china ( hubei , guizhou ) .\nparacataclysta fuscalis is a moth in the crambidae family . it was described by hampson in 1893 . it is found in south - east asia ( including sri lanka and borneo ) , northern australia and africa .\ndichomeris fuscalis ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 60 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21 ; li , zhen , kendrick & sterling , 2010 , shilap revta lepid . 38 ( 149 ) : 76\ndichomeris acmodeta ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 12\ndichomeris agorastis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13\ndichomeris albula ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13\ndichomeris apicispina ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris apludella ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris bifurca ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 15\ndichomeris bomiensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris bucinaria ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris consertella ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris cuprea ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris cuspis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris diffurca ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris fareasta ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris fuscahopa ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris fuscanella ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris gansuensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris hodgesi ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris jiangxiensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris lativalvata ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris lespedezae ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris lutilinea ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris manticopodina ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris menglana ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris millotella viette , 1956 ; nat . malgache 8 ( 2 ) : 212\ndichomeris minutia ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris mitteri ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 27\ndichomeris molybdoterma meyrick , 1933 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 12 ) : 353\ndichomeris ningshanensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 27\ndichomeris nivalis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 27\ndichomeris paulianella viette , 1956 ; nat . malgache 8 ( 2 ) : 213\ndichomeris polygona ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29\ndichomeris polypunctata ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29\ndichomeris qingchengshanensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30\ndichomeris quadratipalpa ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30\ndichomeris quadrifurca ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30\ndichomeris sexafurca ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 31\ndichomeris shenae ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 31\ndichomeris spicans ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris spuracuminata ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris stasimopa meyrick , 1937 ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 3 ) : 94\ndichomeris strictella ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris synergastis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris tersa ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris varifurca ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 34\ndichomeris violacula ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 34\ndichomeris wuyiensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 34\ndichomeris yuebana ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 34\ndichomeris yunnanensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 35\ndichomeris zymotella viette , 1956 ; nat . malgache 8 ( 2 ) : 215\ndichomeris junisonensis matsumura , 1931 ; 6000 illust . insects japan . - empire : 1082\ndichomeris acritopa meyrick , 1935 ; mat . microlep . fauna chin . prov . : 72\ndichomeris dolichaula meyrick , 1931 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 2 - 4 ) : 67\ndichomeris loxonoma meyrick , 1937 ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 4 - 5 ) : 123\ndichomeris nyingchiensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 254\ndichomeris fuscahopa li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 242\ndichomeris fuscusitis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 243\ndichomeris gansuensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 247\ndichomeris hodgesi li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 232\ndichomeris jiangxiensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 244\ndichomeris junisonis [ sic ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris yunnanensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 254\ndichomeris cuspis park , 1994 ; insecta koreana 11 : 19 ; tl : gangweon prov . , korea\ndichomeris derasella ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 19 ; [ fe ]\ndichomeris fareasta park , 1994 ; insecta koreana 11 : 15 ; tl : gangweon prov . , korea\ndichomeris lamprostoma ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23 ; [ fe ]\ndichomeris mitteri park , 1994 ; insecta koreana 11 : 17 ; tl : gangweon prov . , korea\ndichomeris praevacua ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 :\ndichomeris strictella park , 1994 ; insecta koreana 11 : 11 ; tl : gangweon prov . , korea\ndichomeris acritopa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 12\ndichomeris adelocentra ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13\ndichomeris albiscripta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13\ndichomeris allantopa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13\ndichomeris amphichlora ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13\ndichomeris ampliata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris anisospila ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris antiloxa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris antisticta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris asodes ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 15\ndichomeris barymochla ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 15\ndichomeris brachygrapha ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris brachyptila ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris caerulescens ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris cellaria ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris centracma ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris ceponoma ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris charonaea ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris chartaria ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris chinganella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris chlanidota ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris cinnabarina ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris citharista ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris clarescens ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris cocta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris contentella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris corniculata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris crepitatrix ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris deceptella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 19\ndichomeris deltoxyla ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 19\ndichomeris diacrita ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 19\ndichomeris dicausta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 19\ndichomeris doxarcha ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris eridantis ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris eucomopa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris excoriata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris ferrata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris ferruginosa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris frenigera ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris fungifera ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris geochrota ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris horoglypta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris ignorata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris illicita ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris illucescens ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris imbricata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris immerita ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris indiserta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris intensa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris isoclera ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris leptosaris ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris leucothicta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 24\ndichomeris levigata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 24\ndichomeris lissota ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 24\ndichomeris litoxyla ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 24\ndichomeris lupata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris macroxyla ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris malachias ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris malacodes ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris melanortha ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris melitura ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris mesoglena ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris metatoxa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris metuens ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris microdoxa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris microsphena meyrick , 1921 ; zool . meded . leyden 6 : 166 ; tl : java , buitenzorg\ndichomeris oceanis ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 27\ndichomeris olivescens ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 28\ndichomeris ostracodes ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 28\ndichomeris pelitis ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 28\ndichomeris petalodes ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 28\ndichomeris planata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29\ndichomeris polyaema ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29\ndichomeris praealbescens ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29\ndichomeris procrossa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29\ndichomeris pseudometra ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30\ndichomeris ptychosema ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30\ndichomeris sciodora ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 31\ndichomeris semnias ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 31\ndichomeris siranta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 31\ndichomeris summata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris synclepta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris tephroxesta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris testudinata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris tetraschema ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris thyrsicola ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris toxolyca ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris traumatias ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris uranopis ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris viridella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 34\ndichomeris indigna ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 54 ( note )\ndichomeris ceratomoxantha ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 63 ( note )\ndichomeris adelocentra meyrick , 1920 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 10 ) : 305 ; tl : java , butenzorg\ndichomeris albula park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 22 ; tl : taipei co . , taiwan\ndichomeris baccata meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 621 ; tl : brazil , teff\u00e9\n= dichomeris bisignella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris brachygrapha meyrick , 1920 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 10 ) : 305 ; tl : assam , khasis\ndichomeris bucinaria park , 1996 ; tinea 14 ( 4 ) : 230 ; tl : pintung co . , taiwan\ndichomeris chalcophaea meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 434 ; tl : queensland , brisbane\ndichomeris fida meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 620 ; tl : brazil , para\ndichomeris fusca park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 49 ; tl : taichung co . , taiwan\ndichomeris harmonias meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 16 ) : 504 ; tl : china , shanghai\ndichomeris horiodes meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 620 ; tl : brazil , parintins\ndichomeris horoglypta meyrick , 1932 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 7 ) : 202 ; tl : hasimoto , japan\ndichomeris ingloria meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 621 ; tl : peru , lima\ndichomeris leptosaris meyrick , 1932 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 7 ) : 202 ; tl : hokkaido , japan\ndichomeris leucothicta meyrick , 1919 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 8 ) : 235 ; tl : bombay , dharwar\ndichomeris lucrifuga meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 620 ; tl : brazil , para\ndichomeris lutivittata meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 434 ; tl : queensland , brisbane\ndichomeris mesoctenis meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 434 ; tl : queensland , brisbane\ndichomeris mesoglena meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 619 ; tl : coorg , pollibetta\ndichomeris metuens meyrick , 1932 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 7 ) : 201 ; tl : seneng , java\ndichomeris ochthophora meyrick , 1936 ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 2 ) : 46 ; tl : taihoku , formosa\ndichomeris orientis park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 36 ; tl : kaohsiung co . , taiwan\ndichomeris praevacua meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 16 ) : 504 ; tl : china , shanghai\ndichomeris quercicola meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 433 ; tl : punjab , kangra\ndichomeris saturata meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 621 ; tl : brazil , obidos\ndichomeris sciodora meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 16 ) : 504 ; tl : assam , khasis\ndichomeris symmetrica park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 20 ; tl : taitung co . , taiwan\ndichomeris syndias [ sic , recte syndyas ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris thermodryas meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 621 ; tl : peru , iquitos\ndichomeris trilobella park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 42 ; tl : pingtung co . , taiwan\ndichomeris anisospila meyrick , 1934 ; dt . ent . z . iris 48 : 34 ; tl : guangdong , china\ndichomeris argentaria meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 304 ; tl : barberton\ndichomeris cotifera meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 303 ; tl : barberton\ndichomeris cuprea li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 237 ; tl : shaanxi\ndichomeris exsecta meyrick , 1927 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 12 ) : 354 ; tl : rhodesia , mazoe\ndichomeris ignorata meyrick , 1921 ; zool . meded . leyden 6 : 165 ; tl : java , preangor , 5000ft\ndichomeris melanortha meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 16 ) : 510 ; tl : bombay , poona\ndichomeris monorbella viette , 1988 ; bull . soc . ent . fr . 93 ( 3 - 4 ) : 104\ndichomeris squalens meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 282 ; tl : british guiana\nresupina omelko , 1999 ; keys ins . russian far east 5 ( 2 ) : 107 ; ts : dichomeris okadai moriuti\ndichomeris tactica meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 5 ) : 152 ; tl : ecuador , huigra , 4500ft\ndichomeris acrolychna meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 112 ; tl : brazil , para\ndichomeris allantopa meyrick , 1934 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 16 - 17 ) : 512 ; tl : nilambur , madras\ndichomeris alogista meyrick , 1935 ; mat . microlep . fauna chin . prov . : 72 ; tl : hunan , china\ndichomeris brachymetra meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 620 ; tl : peru , chosica , 2800m\ndichomeris brachyptila meyrick , 1916 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 19 ) : 584 ; tl : upper burma , myitkyina\ndichomeris ceponoma meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 5 ) : 151 ; tl : coorg , dibidi , 3500ft\ndichomeris davisi park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 35 ; tl : taiwan , taipei co . , sirin\ndichomeris ellipsias meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 114 ; tl : peru , iquitos\ndichomeris lushanae park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 22 ; tl : taiwan , taipei co . , sozan\ndichomeris moriutii ; li , zhen , kendrick & sterling , 2010 , shilap revta lepid . 38 ( 149 ) : 73\ndichomeris physocoma meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 9 ) : 286 ; tl : sierra leone , mabang\ndichomeris procyphodes meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 115 ; tl : brazil , parintins\ndichomeris rhodophaea meyrick , 1920 ; in alluaud & jeannel , voyage afr . orientale , ins . l\u00e9p . 2 : 73\ndichomeris simaoensis ; li , zhen , kendrick & sterling , 2010 , shilap revta lepid . 38 ( 149 ) : 74\ndichomeris stratigera meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 111 ; tl : brazil , parintins\ndichomeris subdentata meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 113 ; tl : brazil , santarem\ndichomeris testudinata meyrick , , 1934 ; dt . ent . z . iris 48 : 34 ; tl : guangdong , china\ndichomeris thalamopa meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 112 ; tl : brail , t\u00e9ffe\ndichomeris xanthodeta meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 305 ; tl : three sisters\ndichomeris zonata ; li , zhen , kendrick & sterling , 2010 , shilap revta lepid . 38 ( 149 ) : 74\ndichomeris liui li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 234 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris qinlingensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 235 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris aequata meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 282 ; tl : british guiana , bartica\ndichomeris agathopa meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 85 ; tl : rhodesia , umtali\ndichomeris anisacuminata li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 231 ; tl : china , jiangxi\ndichomeris antizyga meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 303 ; tl : barberton , pretoria\ndichomeris aphanopa meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 83 ; tl : rhodesia , umtali\ndichomeris apicispina li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 241 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris asteropis meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 83 ; tl : rhodesia , umvuma\ndichomeris attenta meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 84 ; tl : rhodesia , umvuma\ndichomeris bifurca li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 251 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris bodenheimeri ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16 ; [ afromoths ]\ndichomeris bomiensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 238 ; tl : china , xizang\ndichomeris cachrydias meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 283 ; tl : british guiana , mallali\ndichomeris decusella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 19 ; [ afromoths ]\ndichomeris diffurca li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 253 ; tl : fujian , china\ndichomeris eustacta meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 84 ; tl : rhodesia , umtali\ndichomeris excepta meyrick , 1914 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 9 ) : 279 ; tl : nyassaland , mt . mlanje\ndichomeris hylurga meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 83 ; tl : rhodesia , salisbury\ndichomeris impigra meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 305 ; tl : barberton , haenertsburg\ndichomeris indiserta meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 9 ) : 285 ; tl : malay states , kuala lumpur\ndichomeris lativalvata li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 248 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris manticopodina li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 239 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris menglana li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 257 ; tl : yunnan , china\ndichomeris ningshanensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 245 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris nivalis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 249 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris opsonoma meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 281 ; tl : british guiana , bartica\ndichomeris pladarota meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 84 ; tl : rhodesia , umtali\ndichomeris polygona li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 243 ; tl : sichuan , china\ndichomeris qingchengshanensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 245 ; tl : sichuan , china\ndichomeris quadratipalpa li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 238 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris quadrifurca li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 252 ; tl : fujian , china\ndichomeris sexafurca li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 249 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris shenae li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 246 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris spicans li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 247 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris spuracuminata li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 230 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris stromatias meyrick , 1918 ; ann . transv . mus . 6 ( 2 ) : 23 ; tl : zululand , nkwaleni\ndichomeris tersa li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 241 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris varifurca li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 250 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris violacula li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 237 ; tl : gansu , china\ndichomeris wuyiensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 255 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris xestobyrsa meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 82 ; tl : rhodesia , salisbury\ndichomeris yuebana li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 236 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris obscura li & zheng , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 223 ; tl : fengxian , shaanxi , 1600m\ndichomeris angustiptera li & zheng , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 228 ; tl : fengxian , shaanxi , 1600m\ndichomeris acrogypsa turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 168 ; tl : queensland , rosewood\ndichomeris aculata ; ponomarenko & ueda , 2004 , trans . lepid . soc . japan 55 ( 3 ) : 147 ( note )\ndichomeris ampliata meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 175 ; tl : khasis\ndichomeris cirrhostola turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 169 ; tl : queensland , adavale\ndichomeris deltaspis ; ponomarenko & ueda , 2004 , trans . lepid . soc . japan 55 ( 3 ) : 155 ( note )\ndichomeris excoriata meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 174 ; tl : khasis\ndichomeris ferrata meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 174 ; tl : khasis\ndichomeris ferrogra li & wang , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 225 ; tl : mengla , yunnan , 630m\ndichomeris ferruginosa meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 173 ; tl : khasis\ndichomeris heteracma meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 622 ; tl : brazil , teff\u00e9 ; peru , iquitos\ndichomeris instans meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 619 ; tl : peru , iquitos ; brazil , teff\u00e9\ndichomeris lividula park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 57 ; tl : taiwan , hualien co . , pianau - col\ndichomeris oleata meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 305 ; tl : barberton , three sisters\ndichomeris ostracodes meyrick , 1916 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 19 ) : 583 ; tl : upper burma , lashio , 3000ft\ndichomeris petalodes meyrick , 1934 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 16 - 17 ) : 512 ; tl : nilambur , madras , india\ndichomeris pleuroleuca turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 169 ; tl : queensland , eidsvold\ndichomeris ptychosema meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 175 ; tl : khasis\ndichomeris rectifascia li & zheng , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 220 ; tl : kangxian , gansu , 800m\ndichomeris simaoensis li & wang , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 221 ; tl : simao , yunnan , 325m\ndichomeris summata meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 172 ; tl : khasis\ndichomeris varronia busck , 1913 ; ins . inscit . menstr . 1 ( 7 ) : 89 ; tl : kitty , british guiana\ndichomeris ventosa meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 304 ; tl : barberton , three sisters\ndichomeris zonata li & wang , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 222 ; tl : simao , yunnan , 325m\ndichomeris tostella ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 72 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ]\ndichomeris amphicoma meyrick , 1912 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1911 ( 4 ) : 695 ; tl : brazil , santos\ndichomeris antisticha meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 9 ) : 285 ; tl : costa rica , vulkan irazu , 4000ft\ndichomeris fluitans meyrick , 1920 ; ann . s . afr . mus . 17 ( 4 ) : 284 ; tl : natal , howick\ndichomeris litoxyla meyrick , 1937 ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 4 - 5 ) : 123 ; tl : yakovlevka , primorkii krai , russia\ndichomeris nessica walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 95 ; tl : panama , la chorrera\ndichomeris taiwana park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 48 ; tl : taiwan , nantou co . , sunmoon lake , 760m\ndichomeris zomias meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 283 ; tl : british guiana , bartica and mallali\ndichomeris hirculella busck , 1909 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 11 ( 2 ) : 89 ; tl : east river , connecticut\ndichomeris clarescens meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 174 ; tl : maskeliya , ceylon\ndichomeris dysorata turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 170 ; tl : new south wales , syndey\ndichomeris elegans park , 2001 ; insecta koreana 18 ( 4 ) : 308 ; tl : taiwan , pingtung co . , kenting park , 50m\ndichomeris jugata walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 97 ; tl : mexico , tabasco , teapa\ndichomeris mengdana li & zheng , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 227 ; tl : mengda , xunhua , qinghai , 2240m\ndichomeris miltophragma meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 115 ; tl : brazil , para , obidos , parintins\ndichomeris ptilocompa meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 113 ; tl : brazil , teff\u00e9 ; peru , jurimaguas\ndichomeris substratella walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 93 ; tl : mexico , tabasco , teapa\ndichomeris vadonella viette , 1955 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . 123 : 108 ; tl : ne . madagascar , maroantsetra , ambodivoangy\ndichomeris xerodes walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 100 ; tl : mexico , tabasco , teapa\n= dichomeris setosella ; sattler , 1973 , bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent . ) 28 ( 4 ) : 221\ndichomeris glenni clarke , 1947 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 49 ( 7 ) : 187 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris aomoriensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14 ; ponomarenko , 1998 , far east . ent . 67 : 12\ndichomeris ardesiella walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 96 ; tl : mexico , vera cruz , cordova\ndichomeris arotrosema walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 95 ; tl : mexico , vera cruz , atoyac\ndichomeris asodes meyrick , 1939 ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 89 ( 4 ) : 54 ; tl : telawa , java\ndichomeris erixantha ; meyrick , 1921 , ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 83 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ afromoths ]\ndichomeris eucomopa meyrick , 1939 ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 89 ( 4 ) : 54 ; tl : telawa , java\ndichomeris loxospila ; [ nhm card ] ; li , zhen , kendrick & sterling , 2010 , shilap revta lepid . 38 ( 149 ) : 77\ndichomeris lypetica walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 91 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft\ndichomeris crepitatrix meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 173 ; tl : n . coorg , 3500ft\ndichomeris dignella walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 91 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft\ndichomeris excavata busck , 1914 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 47 ( 2043 ) : 18 ; tl : porto bello , panama\ndichomeris hexasticta walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 94 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft\ndichomeris imbricata meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 175 ; tl : n . coorg , 3500ft\ndichomeris lutea park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 59 ; tl : taiwan , nantou co . , meifeng , 30km s tayuling , 2200m\ndichomeris lutilinea ponomarenko & park , 1996 ; korean j . appl . ent . 35 ( 2 ) : 118 ; tl : chuncheon , kangweon prov .\ndichomeris metrodes meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 172 ; tl : hambantota , ceylon ; bombay\ndichomeris olivescens meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 175 ; tl : kandy and maskeliya , ceylon\ndichomeris thalpodes meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 111 ; tl : brazil , para ; peru , r . napo\ndichomeris tristicta busck , 1914 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 47 ( 2043 ) : 17 ; tl : trinidad river , panama\ndichomeris melanophylla ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 114 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ]\ndichomeris angulata ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 14 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris bulawskii ponomarenko & park , 1996 ; korean j . appl . ent . 35 ( 2 ) : 114 ; tl : 27km sw slavjanka , primorskii krai\ndichomeris fusca ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 60 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 49\ndichomeris linealis ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 83 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 24\ndichomeris lividula ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 83 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 24\ndichomeris lushanae ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 86 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris lutea ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 86 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris ochreata ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 102 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 27\ndichomeris taiwana ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 135 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris trilobella ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 141 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris illusio hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 101 , pl . 2 , f . 38 ; tl : hastings , florida\ndichomeris imitata hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 104 , pl . 3 , f . 5 ; tl : devers , texas\ndichomeris angulata park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 43 ; tl : taiwan , nantou co . , leinhauchi forest station , 15km sw puli , 750m\ndichomeris aprica ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 15 ; li & sattler , 2012 , zootaxa 3373 : 57\ndichomeris enoptrias ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris hoplocrates ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris issikii ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris ochreata park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 32 ; tl : taiwan , nantou co . , mei - feng , 30km s tayuling , 2200m\ndichomeris pyrrhoschista ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30\ndichomeris sciritis ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 31 ; li & sattler , 2012 , zootaxa 3373 : 57\ndichomeris synergastis ponomarenko & park , 1996 ; korean j . appl . ent . 35 ( 2 ) : 116 ; tl : yong - in , kyunggi prov .\ndichomeris viridescens ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 34\ndichomeris offula hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 117 , pl . 3 , f . 21 ; tl : ithaca , new york\ndichomeris crepida hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 118 , pl . 3 , f . 22 ; tl : mcclellanville , south carolina\ndichomeris santarosensis hodges , 1985 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 87 ( 2 ) : 456 ; tl : santa rosa national park , guanacaste , costa rica\ndichomeris nenia hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 40 , pl . 4 , f . 2 ; tl : bandera co . , texas\ndichomeris hypochloa walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 102 , pl . 3 , f . 23 ; tl : mexico , sonora\ndichomeris caia hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 62 , pl . 4 , f . 7 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris laetitia hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 88 , pl . 2 , f . 22 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris aleatrix hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 91 , pl . 2 , f . 27 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris furia hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 93 , pl . 2 , f . 30 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris baxa hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 105 , pl . 3 , f . 10 ; tl : presidio of monterey , california\ndichomeris cinnamicostella ; walsingham , 1911 , biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 103 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris costalis busck , 1914 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 47 ( 2043 ) : 18 ; tl : tabogilla i . and porto bello , panama\ndichomeris habrochitona walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 102 , pl . 3 , f . 26 ; tl : panama , tabernilla\ndichomeris quercicola ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30 ; ponomarenko , 1998 , far east . ent . 67 : 13\ndichomeris carycina ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 43 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris caryophragma ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 43 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris diacnista ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 43 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris lypetica ; [ nhm card ] ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 54 ( note ) ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris tactica ; [ nhm card ] ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 60 ( note ) ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris latescens ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 63 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris siren hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 64 , pl . 4 , f . 9 ; tl : henson creek , oxon hill , maryland\ndichomeris vindex hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 83 , pl . 2 , f . 9 - 10 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris gleba hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 87 , pl . 2 , f . 18 - 20 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris legnotoa hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 101 , pl . 4 , f . 10 ; tl : largo , pinellas co . , florida\ndichomeris mimesis hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 101 , pl . 2 , f . 39 ; tl : salmon , anderson co . , texas\ndichomeris simulata hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 104 , pl . 3 , f . 4 ; tl : canadian , hemphill co . , texas\ndichomeris percnopolis walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 93 , pl . 3 , f . 11 ; tl : guatemala , zapote , 2000ft\ndichomeris renascens walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 96 , pl . 3 , f . 14 ; tl : mexico , tabasco , teapa\ndichomeris xuthostola walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 101 , pl . 3 , f . 18 ; tl : mexico , tabasco , teapa\ndichomeris sylphe hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 58 , pl . 1 , f . 22 ; tl : archbold biological staion , lake placid , florida\ndichomeris ardelia hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 62 , pl . 4 , f . 8 ; tl : archbold biological station , lake placid , florida\ndichomeris kimballi hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 71 , pl . 1 , f . 30 ; tl : archbold biological staion , lake placid , florida\ndichomeris aglaia hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 85 , pl . 2 , f . 15 ; tl : lake placid , florida , archbold biological station\ndichomeris anisacuminata ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14 ; li , zhen , kendrick & sterling , 2010 , shilap revta lepid . 38 ( 149 ) : 74\ndichomeris argigastra walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 99 , pl . 3 , f . 16 ; tl : mexico , vera cruz , atoyac\ndichomeris autometra ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 15 ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 )\ndichomeris crambaleas ; [ nhm card ] ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris melanota walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 94 , pl . 3 , f . 13 ; tl : mexico , vera cruz , cordova\ndichomeris okadai ; [ nhm card ] ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 28\ndichomeris prensans meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 111 ; tl : brazil , para , parintins , manaos ; peru , iquitos ; british guiana , bartica\ndichomeris sciastes walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 90 , pl . 3 , f . 10 ; tl : mexico , vera cruz , atoyac\ndichomeris gausapa hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : pl . 1 , f . 8 ; tl : madera canyon , 4880 ' , santa rita mts , arizona\n= dichomeris acuminata ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 34\ndichomeris solatrix hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 48 , pl . 1 , f . 15 ; tl : pe\u00f1a blanca canyon , santa cruz co . arizona\n= dichomeris punctidiscella ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 56 ; [ nhm card ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 36\ndichomeris copa hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 92 , pl . 2 , f . 28 ; tl : snyder heights 1100 ' , ithaca , new york\ndichomeris achne hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 87 , pl . 2 , f . 34 ; tl : parker is . , highlands co . , florida\ndichomeris euprepes hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 110 , pl . 4 , f . 11 ; tl : big black mnts , letcher co . , kentucky\ndichomeris carinella walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 99 , pl . 3 , f . 20 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft\ndichomeris fuscusitis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21 ; zhao , park , bae & li , 2017 , zootaxa 4273 ( 2 ) : ( 216 - 234 )\ndichomeris intensa meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 173 ; tl : maskeliya and puttalam , ceylon ; cuddapah , 4000ft , n . coorg\ndichomeris leucostena walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 94 , pl . 3 , f . 12 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft\ndichomeris blanchardorum hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 43 , pl . 1 , f . 10 - 11 ; tl : laguna atascosa , cameron co . , texas\ndichomeris gnoma hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 106 , pl . 3 , f . 11 ; tl : shingle creek road , keremeos , british columbia , canada\ndichomeris mercatrix hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 110 , pl . 3 , f . 15 ; tl : mclean bogs reserve , tompkins co . , new york\ndichomeris bulawskii ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16 ; ponomarenko & ueda , 2004 , trans . lepid . soc . japan 55 ( 3 ) : 151 ( note )\ndichomeris diva hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 57 , pl . 1 , f . 21 ; tl : 1 mi s patagonia , santa cruz co . , arizona\ndichomeris fistuca hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 68 , pl . 1 , f . 25 ; tl : wedge plantation , mccellanville , charleston co . , south carolina\ndichomeris atomogypsa ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 72 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 15\ndichomeris alphito hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 88 , pl . 2 , f . 21 ; tl : madera canyon , 4880 ' , santa rita mts , arizona\ndichomeris pelta hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 99 , pl . 2 , f . 36 ; tl : wedge plantation , mcclellanville , charleston co . , south carolina\ndichomeris acrochlora ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 112 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 12\ndichomeris sybilla hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 121 , pl . 3 , f . 24 ; tl : madera canyon , 4880 ' , santa rita mts , arizona\ndichomeris evitata walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 99 , pl . 3 , f . 15 ; tl : panama , volcan de chiriqui , 2000 - 3000ft"]}
{"id": 704, "summary": [{"text": "the scarlet-banded barbet ( capito wallacei ) is a species of bird in the capitonidae family .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "discovered in 1996 and formally described in 2000 , the scarlet-banded barbet is endemic to humid highland forest growing on a ridgetop known as peak 1538 in the remote cordillera azul national park in south-western loreto , peru ( mistakenly listed as being in ucayali , peru , in its formal description ) .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "while it remains fairly common , its range is tiny and the total population has been estimated at less than 1000 individuals .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "consequently , it is rated as vulnerable by birdlife international and iucn .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "a strikingly coloured species , it measures 19 cm ( 7.5 in ) long .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the cap and nape are scarlet , while a broad white supercilium separates the crown from the black ear coverts .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "most of the upperparts are black , except for the yellow back and large white rump patch .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "below , the throat and upper breast are white , bordered below by a broad scarlet band , while the rest of the underparts are yellow . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "scarlet - banded barbet", "paragraphs": ["nobody uploaded sound recordings for scarlet - banded barbet ( capito wallacei ) yet .\nso what ' s so special about this bird then ? the scarlet - banded barbet was only discovered in 1996 ( and described in 2000 ) by dan lane and dr . john o ' neill on a\nwhile scarlet - banded barbet and cordillera azul antbird are our main target many other birds which have been recorded will also be searched for as well . these include chestnut - tipped toucanet , scaled , fiery - throated and scarlet - breasted fruiteaters , the foothill form of long - tailed woodcreeper which is soon to be described as a new species .\nscarlet - banded barbet was discovered in 1995 on an isolated peak in the cordillera azul , the head waters of rio cushabatay and was formally described to science in 2000 . for many years the only way to see it was doing a 10 day expedition with a 2 - 3 grueling hike to reach the peak .\nalso known as the scarlet - belted barbet , this stunningly beautiful bird constitutes one of the most dramatic ornithological discoveries of recent years . to date it is known solely from an isolated plateau covered in cloud forest between the rivers huallaga and ucayali , in north - central peru , where the population is estimated to number fewer than 1000 individuals . in consequence , birdlife international treats the scarlet - banded barbet as vulnerable to extinction . fortunately , the barbet\u2019s montane home is remote , which should help serve to protect it . the cap and nape are scarlet , while a broad white supercilium separates the crown from the black ear coverts . most of the upperparts are black , relieved by the yellow back and large white rump patch . below , the throat and upper breast are white , bordered below by a broad scarlet band , while the rest of the underparts are yellow , becoming paler distally .\n19 cm . very striking , recently discovered barbet . cap and nape scarlet . broad white supercilium starting from just in front of eye . black lores , area below eye and ear - coverts . scapulars mostly black ( yellow\nv\nin female ) . back yellow , large white rump and black tail . throat and upper breast white , bordered below by a broad scarlet band . lower breast and belly bright yellow , fading to yellowish - white in undertail coverts .\nshort , l . l . , horne , j . f . m . & de juana , e . ( 2018 ) . scarlet - banded barbet ( capito wallacei ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nc . 19\u00b75 cm ; 65\u201378 g . distinctive black , white , yellow and red barbet . male has red cap , with red extending to middle of back , white and yellow mid - back to . . .\nthe morning of the 15th dawned and my luck did not appear to be in as i missed a green jay near the tents . after an early breakfast it was back on the trail , stopping only to fill all the water bottles from the stream , located in a steep gully about 30 minutes from camp . with the park guards re - cutting the trail through the steep and dense rainforest it appeared that it had been a long time since anyone had walked this way . when it became apparent that we were ascending a ridge to the peak , the habitat dramatically changed to epiphyte - laden cloud forest with trees of reduced stature . trailing behind the main group , i realised that if any barbets were flushed by them , then my chances of connecting with the barbet were reduced . i was the only birder in the group although most of the others were keen to see what all the fuss was about . with a one - track mind i struggled on to get to the front , stopping only to note some blue - winged mountain - tanagers and slate - throated redstarts . it was here that i heard soft\nbrrrr\ncalls from two birds i was unable to locate . catching up with my colleagues i found them talking excitedly - two of them had observed a scarlet - banded barbet . taking the lead from this point and with my senses in a heightened state of alert , i searched along the trail for my very own barbet . suddenly i was surprised to find the habitat opening out , scrub taking over from tree cover , and the open sky . we had reached the top !\nexpedition to a remote corner of rainforest in peru in a range of hills known as the cerro cinco puntas . this finding was remarkable in many respects . while it resembles other barbets , its plumage is unique - boldly patterned with conspicuous red , yellow , black and white . the bird was found on an unnamed peak in an area which had never been surveyed or explored before due its remoteness . the cloud forest habitat favoured by the barbet is fairly small and restricted to a small altitudinal zone near the top of a mountain which has come to be known as barbet peak or peak 1538 .\n1 . o ' neill , john p . daniel f . lane , andrew w . kratter , angelo p . capparella & cecilia fox . 2000 . a striking new species of barbet ( capitonidae : capito ) from the eastern andes of peru . the auk 117 ( 3 ) : 569 - 577 .\nit was remarkable how small the cloud forest habitat was - probably only a couple of hundred metres in elevation around the peak looked suitable , and we had passed up through it so quickly . taking a few photographs and then ignoring a canopy flock coming through , i headed back down to where today ' s barbet had been sighted . after an hour i was beginning to panic and some of the party were beginning to head back down . i tried to locate more of the soft\nbrrr\ncalls which i had heard earlier . they appeared to be uttered by some hidden birds which were also making tapping sounds on the branches . suddenly agustine came racing up the trail to tell me had seen five barbets ! i was down at the spot in no time and very soon . . . there they were . a splendid pair of scarlet - banded barbets . observing them call i realised i had been hearing them all along . then , another pair . yes , they are striking birds but so are many of the common birds in south america . what made these moments particularly special was the knowledge that very few people had shared the same experience of the species . and then a slightly uncomforting thought . the habitat here seems so small , perhaps even fragile , on the ridge of this peak - what is its future in the face of climate change ? this year was one of the driest periods in recent times in the amazon and we have all seen the reports in the news . i feel extremely fortunate to have seen the barbet and its magical habitat and thank everyone involved in this expedition .\ninlcudes hotel ( but not dinner ) in tarapoto on the night prior to day 1 , guiding , camping equipment including sheets , blankets and pillows , tranport and all the food until lunch on day 4 . note that there will be a $ 500 per group for hiring the 4 wd needed to get to the barbet site . this means one person pays the full $ 500 , and a group of two pays $ 250 per person etc .\ni was lucky enough to be working for several weeks in the parque nacional cordillera azul - peru ' s newest national park - and even luckier to be on barbet peak after many days travel and field work from contamana on the rio ucayali and rio cushabatay . so , i ' ll pick up the story on 13 august 2005 when , after several days in a peque - peque , my colleagues ( prof . james mallet , dr . kanchon dasmahapatra & laura roberts ) and i finally left the boat behind to begin our trek to towards the peak . we camped that night on the bank of the rio cushabatay at boca de chambira and set off early next morning with two inrena guardaparques ( agustine and raul from puesto de control 106 and 16 respectively ) and three bearers ( milton and his two brothers ) to help us re - cut the trail and carry food and equipment . by lunchtime we reached quebrada paco after several hours of continuous walking . although this stretch of the trek is fairly flat , the combined heat , humidity and a large rucksack made for less than a pleasant experience . however , this was nothing compared with next two days of continuous uphill struggling .\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nneotropical birds is an authoritative , online resource for life histories of neotropical birds . these accounts are intended primarily for ornithologists , especially those based in the neotropics , but will also prove useful to wildlife biologists , conservationists , amateur ornithologists with strong interests in avian natural history , and biology teachers and students .\nhelp build the world ' s best resource for neotropical birds . contribute text , photos , audio , video , maps , translations , and sightings .\nwe want any information , photos , audio , video , or map data you have about a species . full articles are great , smaller sections are just as valuable . both receive full publication credit and peer recognition .\na brief review of some of the important species - level changes that are incorporated in the 2014 revisions to the ebird / clements checklist .\nfebruary 14 - 17 ( friday to monday ) is the 17th annual great backyard bird count ( gbbc ) . to participate , just go birding during this timeframe and make sure to enter your checklists in ebird .\nauthority : o ' neill , lane , kratter , capparella et al . , 2000\nthis recently described species is only known from one small mountain top where its population must be very small , and it is therefore listed as vulnerable . however , further investigation through the 50 - km long mountain ridge may reveal the species to be less at risk .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : capito wallacei . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nsister - species of c . fitzpatricki ( which see ) ; perhaps also close to c . hypoleucus , c . quinticolor or c . niger . monotypic .\nnc peru e of andes : known only from isolated low plateau nw of contamana , between r huallaga and r ucayali .\nsong a fast , low - pitched trill of c . 2 seconds , \u201ctdddddd - \u201d , resembles distant . . .\nmontane and submontane forest , wet and moss - festooned , some of it stunted , at 1350\u20131500 m . . . .\nfruits and their seeds ; most likely insects , as well . occurs in mixed - species foraging flocks , at up to 10 m in trees .\nmoult and gonadal condition of jul specimens indicate season probably mar\u2013may . nest and eggs undescribed , and no other information .\nvulnerable . discovered only in jul 1996 , and currently known only from two very small and isolated areas in nc peru ; has not been located in other areas of peru , and is . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\ntraditionally , all barbets were lumped into a single family under this name . in recent decades , increasing weight of evidence # r # r # r # r indicates : separate families should be recognized for species from america ( capitonidae ) , asia ( megalaimidae ) and africa ( lybiidae ) ; american barbets further divisible by recognition of aberrant family semnornithidae ; and american barbets are closer to toucans than to old world barbets .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 294 , 036 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\n. 2000 ) . the ridge is on the east bank of the upper r\u00edo cushabatay , 77 km west - north - west of contamana in loreto . the ridge is long ( > 50 km ) and narrow ( o ' neill\n. 2000 ) and , in spite of searches at suitable elevations in the adjacent cordillera azul , this species remains known only from peak 1538 ( d . lane and t . s . schulenberg\nthe population is estimated to number 250 - 999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records , descriptions of abundance and range size . this is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size , and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated extent of occurrence is likely to be occupied . this estimate is equivalent to 375 - 1 , 499 individuals in total , rounded here to 350 - 1 , 500 individuals . trend justification : this species is suspected to lose 12 . 8 % of suitable habitat within its distribution over three generations ( 26 years ) based on a model of amazonian deforestation ( soares - filho et al . 2006 , bird et al . 2011 ) . it is therefore suspected to decline by < 25 % over three generations .\n. 2007 ) . epiphytes , especially bryopytes , bromeliads and orchids , cover most of the trunks and large branches of the short trees ( 10 - 20 m ) . the predominant trees near the summit are melastomes and clusias . the forest floor has a deep ( up to 1 m ) spongy cover of mosses intermixed with leaf litter and soil . the wet , epiphyte - covered montane forest changes abruptly to taller and drier subtropical forest below 1 , 250 m .\nthere is little human habitation in the watershed , and none above 300 m . only a small amount of hunting is conducted by infrequent visitors . however , deforestation is extensive on the west slope of the adjacent cordillera azul , especially in the drainage of the r\u00edo biabo .\nsearch for the species on the western slope and in the northern cerros del sira . assess the size of its population . gather more information on its ecology and life history . seek protected status for the isolated ridge .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nbarbets ( capitonidae ) are small , brightly coloured birds with proportionally large heads , prominent bills and characteristic bristles around the beak area . closely related to toucans , there are 83 known species distributed across the tropics of africa , asia and central & south america . the neotropics host 15 species , seven which occur in peru in two genera\non the 14th we began the climb to the 1086 metre camp . after five hours of determined trekking , the occasional impressive vista and stop to gulp down some water , we reached pucacurillo . the camp here showed signs from the few previous expeditions here . feeling the effects of dehydration and the disheartening news that the nearest water was another 30 minutes walk away we resorted to acquiring some liquid from a nearby trickle / stagnant - looking pool . in what may have been a bit of overkill , the resulting water was filtered , boiled and treated with iodine . that night i slept like a log , troubled only by that feeling that any twitcher ( not that i belong to that tribe of birders ) knows - how bad would i feel , after having the extreme fortune to be here , to leave without laying eyes on the capito ? tomorrow was the final ascent to the peak where this very special bird had hidden from the ornithological world for so long .\n2 . clements , james f & noam shany . 2001 . a field guide to the birds of peru . ca : ibis publishing company . lynx edicions .\nsouth america | north america | asia | c . america & caribbean | europa | africa | australia and oceania\nrecently a new site has been discovered very near an extremely rough but nonetheless a road allowing much easier access . this is still a rough trip with camping and extremely bumpy 4wd ride to get to the base , but the rewards are high with a number of other seldom seen birds in the same area . in 2017 , a new species of antbird was described from this same area - cordillera azul antbird . read more about it on urltoken .\nif the departure dates don ' t fit you , please suggest another date .\nwe shall travel to bellavista after with stop at the dry scrub of quebrada upaquihua to check for birds as huallaga slaty antshrike , ashy - headed greenlet , planalto hermit , rufous casiornis , mishana tyrannulet , comb duck , stripe - chested antwren and others . night in bellavista hotel monteverde .\nit takes about four hours by 4wd to get to the village which will serve as our base camp . on the way we shall look for napo sabrewing which has been seen along the road .\ngrey - tailed piha , rose - fronted parakeet , foothill and slaty antwren , rufous - breasted antthrush . scaled antpitta , foothill schiffornis , short - tailed antthrush , ash - browed and chestnut - throated spinetails , yellow - throated spadebill , yellow - cheeked becard , andean lanisoma , roraiman flycatcher and jet , yungas and blue - rumped manakin .\ngrey - mantled wren , and many tanagers such as blue - browed , golden - eared and straw - backed tanagers . the local form of white - crowned tapaculo also needs some attention as this complex surely includes more than one species based on the difference in the songs . at night we can search for vermiculated screech - owl and band - bellied owl .\nadditional birding in the morning , until early afternoon if necessary . on the way down we\u2019ll make stops to look for birds we may have missed . we drive to tarapoto , where we may take a late evening flight back to lima or stay overnight to continue to explore more of northern peru .\ntelephone : + 51 - 1 - 652 76 89 . from the us : 011 - 51 - 1 - 652 76 89 . cell : 988 555 938 ( gunnar ) or 999 007 886 ( elia gallo ) - email : kolibriexp @ urltoken"]}
{"id": 713, "summary": [{"text": "oneida lunulalis , the oak gall snout moth , is a species of snout moth in the genus oneida .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in most of eastern north america , from quebec and ontario to illinois and florida .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 24 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are silvery grey or light brown .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are grey with a white fringe .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing from june to august .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on the leaves and galls on oak . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "oneida lunulalis", "paragraphs": ["species oneida lunulalis - orange - tufted oneida - hodges # 5588 - bugguide . net\nan orange - tufted oneida moth in prince george ' s co . , maryland . photo by bob patterson . ( mbp list )\nsimilar to oneida grisiella and o . luniferella which occur in the west ( compare images of all 3 species by jim vargo at mpg )\norange - tufted oneida moth in howard co . , maryland ( 8 / 8 / 2005 ) . photo by larry line . ( mbp list )\nfarther review of the camp wood hills specimen and the three species of oneida , i now think it is o . grisella . what do you think ?\nan orange - tufted oneida moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 6 / 8 / 2018 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\nan orange - tufted oneida moth in baltimore co . , maryland ( 7 / 26 / 2014 ) . photo by emily stanley . ( mbp list )\nan orange - tufted oneida moth in worcester co . , maryland ( 5 / 28 / 2014 ) . photo by scott housten . ( mbp list )\nan orange - tufted oneida moth in calvert co . , maryland ( 6 / 16 / 2006 ) . photo by arlene ripley . ( mbp list )\nan orange - tufted oneida moth in howard co . , maryland ( 7 / 14 / 2004 ) . photo by larry line . ( mbp list )\nan orange - tufted oneida moth in st . mary ' s co . , maryland ( 7 / 25 / 2017 ) . photo by tyler bell . ( mbp list )\nan orange - tufted oneida moth in howard co . , maryland ( 6 / 30 / 2002 ) . determined by john glaser . photo by larry line . ( mbp list )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nterry , it could be but as i read the photos the\ntuft\nis more orange and the coloration below the tuft rather green and does not have a distinct line below . i tend to favor but i realize it is even further out of range or o . grisella which has been see in the big bend area . not much information on this genus but i think we see more\nout of range\nmoths here from az and nm .\nafter looking at the three species more carefully , i think it is most likely o . grisella . makes the most since .\nselect your preferred way to display the comments and click ' save settings ' to activate your changes .\nin maryland a moderately common species of oak forests ( glaser , micromoths ) .\nuse of images featured on maryland biodiversity project is only permitted with express permission of the photographer .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhodges , r . w . et al . , eds . 1983 . check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . e . w . classey limited and the wedge entomological research foundation , london . 284 pp .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\ndistribution data for u . s . states and canadian provinces is known to be incomplete or has not been reviewed for this taxon .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users ."]}
{"id": 722, "summary": [{"text": "incisitermes minor is a species of termite in the family kalotermitidae known commonly as the western drywood termite .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is native to western north america , including the western united states and northern mexico .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it has been found in many other parts of the united states , all the way to the east coast .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it has been reported from toronto .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it has been introduced to hawaii .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it has been noted in china and it is not uncommon in japan .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "this is an economically important pest of wooden structures , including houses .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "in california and arizona alone its economic impact is estimated to be about $ 250 million per year .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "within a single colony there are three types of termites , the alates , soldier , and worker .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "this eusocial species is a dark brown color and has an orange head .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the colonies are most active during the spring and summer , preferring to be active in higher temperatures . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "incisitermes minor", "paragraphs": ["compound eye formation in the termite incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nphysiological and behavioral adaptations of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) ( . . .\nspecies status of incisitermes spp . ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) in japan : status of incisitermes spp . in japan\ninfluence of environmental factors on activity patterns of incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) in naturally infested logs .\ninfluence of environmental factors on activity patterns of incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) in naturally infested logs . - pubmed - ncbi\nnesting ecology and cuticular microbial loads in dampwoof ( zootermopsis angusticollis ) and drywood termites ( incisitermes minor , i . schwarzi , crytotermes cavifrons ) .\nfigure 1 . alate of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . photograph by b . j . cabrera , university of florida .\nfigure 2 . locations of confirmed records of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . map by john warner , university of florida .\nindrayani y . , yoshimura t . , imamura y . a novel control strategy for dry - wood termite incisitermes minor infestation using a bait system .\nspecies incisitermes minor - western drywood termite . ( bugguide . net / node / view / 469117 ) . accessed august 16 , 2016 . [ images ]\nfigure 3 . head capsule of a western drywood termite soldier , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . photograph by r . h . scheffrahn , university of florida .\nfigure 5 . king and queen of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . photograph by r . h . scheffrahn , university of florida .\nharvey ( 1934 ) provides a highly detailed description of the biology and life history of incisitermes minor . the life cycle is typical for that of other drywood termites .\n2013 - 0504 - eb060704 - iso00099 - incisitermes _ minor [ 1057h39s , e , i , tree - oak - bark ] { exd } - g . jpg\nthe most destructive drywood termites in the u . s . include the western drywood termite ( incisitermes minor ) and the tropical rough - headed drywood termite ( cryptotermes brevis ) .\nmessenger mt , scheffrahn rh , su n - y . 2000 . first report of incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) in louisiana . florida entomologist 83 : 92 - 93 .\nfigure 7 . fecal pellets collecting under a door that is infested by the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . photograph by b . j . cabrera , university of florida .\ngrace jk , cutten gm , scheffrahn rh , mcekevan dk . 1991 . first infestation by incisitermes minor of a canadian building ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) . sociobiology 18 : 299 - 304 .\nthe western drywood termite is not a\ntypical\nincisitermes in that several characteristics ( color , wings , ocellus , arolium , soldier eye , etc . ) are distinct from most other species of incisitermes .\nfigure 9 . soldiers , alates and\nworkers\n( pseudergates ) of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . photograph by r . h . scheffrahn , university of florida .\nthe western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) , is the most common structure - infesting drywood termite in the southwestern united states . originally described as kalotermes minor by hagen ( 1858 ) , incisitermes minor was reclassified into the genus incisitermes by krishna ( 1961 ) . in california , incisitermes minor infestations are still sometimes referred to by some pest control operators as\nkalos\nand designated with a\nk\non termite inspection reports . currently , there is only one kalotermes species in the united states ( kalotermes approximatus ( snyder ) , found in florida and the southeastern u . s . north to virginia ) . some members of the kalotermitidae are called drywood termites because colonies live entirely within sound , dead , dry wood . drywood termites do not require any contact with the ground .\nthe distribution and biology of the common dry - wood termite , kalotermes minor , pp . 201\u2013207\nincisitermes minor is found in the coastal and lower montane regions of southern california . its range extends up the coast to northern california and onward in a discontinuous distribution along the coasts of oregon and washington . it is also found extensively in the central valley of california up to sacramento and in isolated pockets in the high desert where trees are present . towards the east , incisitermes minor ' s range extends to central arizona and southward it extends into baja california and sonora , mexico . the relative ease of intracontinental travel and commerce coupled with the fact that infested wood can be easily transported has resulted in isolated occurrences of incisitermes minor infestations throughout the united states , including florida .\nfigure 6 . characteristic damage and galleries in wood made by the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . ( wood in galvanized metal funnel ) . photograph by b . j . cabrera , university of florida .\nlewis v , leighton s , tabuchi r , haverty m . seasonal and daily patterns in activity of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . insects . 2011 ; 2 ( 4 ) : 555 - 563 .\nlewis , v . ; leighton , s . ; tabuchi , r . ; haverty , m . seasonal and daily patterns in activity of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . insects 2011 , 2 , 555 - 563 .\nhowever , lenz questioned whether reproductive decision - making in i . minor had a similar response as that of in c . secundus ( lenz and yoshimura , personal communication ) . an experiment set up in orphaned i . minor colonies using the same ratio model of nest value and colony size , as in c . secundus , drove a much slower response in the neotenic production rate . incisitermes minor did not produce the same response as c . secundus , suggesting that the model might not fit [ 36 ] . this inference contradicts harvey\u2019s description [ 10 ] about the emergence of replacement reproductives in i . minor colonies . further work is necessary to unravel the factors that trigger and regulate neotenic numbers in orphaned i . minor groups .\nlewis , vernard ; leighton , shawn ; tabuchi , robin ; haverty , michael . 2011 .\nseasonal and daily patterns in activity of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) .\ninsects 2 , no . 4 : 555 - 563 .\nthen the major question arises : to what extent does \u201cthe suitable environmental condition\u201d facilitate the emergence of reproductives in i . minor ?\nfigure 4 . comparison of the fecal pellets of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) ( right ) , and smaller west indian powderpost drywood termite , cryptotermes brevis ( walker ) ( left ) . photograph by b . j . cabrera , university of florida .\ninfestation of the invasive dry - wood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) was first reported in japan in 1976 at a residential house in tokyo . since then , records of i . minor have steadily increased , and more than half of the prefectures in japan are listed as infested areas at present . the integrated management of i . minor consists of two phases : the individual technological phase and the regional phase . recent research efforts have been overcoming the technological issues , and the regional systematization of management system will be the next target . the development of novel preventive / remedial strategies against i . minor may have a positive effect on the wood preservation industry in japan .\ninfestation of the invasive dry - wood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) was first reported in japan in 1976 at a residential house in tokyo . since then , records of i . minor have steadily increased , and more than half of the prefectures in japan are listed as infested areas at present . the integrated management of i . minor consists of two phases : the individual technological phase and the regional phase . recent research efforts have been overcoming the technological issues , and the regional systematization of management system will be the next target . the development of novel preventive / remedial strategies against i . minor may have a positive effect on the wood preservation industry in japan .\nalthough harvey ( 1934 ) acknowledged secondary reproductives may appear in the colony to supplement egg production , the existence of more than one pair of functional reproductives in an incisitermes minor colony - - even in older , larger ones - - remains unlikely . luykx ( 1986 ) believed that what appeared to be extra reproductives in colonies of incisitermes schwarzi were probably the result of a mixture of two different colonies . atkinson ( unpublished ) examined the caste composition of 38 incisitermes minor colonies and never found more than one pair of reproductives in a colony . however , he noted that some replacement reproductives may not have been fully melanized ( darkened ) and could have been overlooked in colonies in which no reproductives at all were found .\ncabrera , b . j . and m . k . rust . 1994 . the effect of temperature and relative humidity on the survival and wood consumption of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) . sociobiology . 24 ( 2 ) : 95 - 113 .\nhimmi sk , yoshimura t , yanase y , oya m , torigoe t , akada m , imadzu s . nest - gallery development and caste composition of isolated foraging groups of the drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) . insects . 2016 ; 7 ( 3 ) : 38 .\nnest - gallery extension from natal colony to adjacent timber activity by an i . minor colony . ( a ) entrance hole in spruce a timber ; and ( b ) i . minor colony emerged from the attic floor to attack the adjacent bottom surface of spruce b and sugi timbers .\ninfestations have also been found in arkansas , iowa , maryland , new jersey , new york , oklahoma , ohio , and texas . a heavily infested structure was reported in toronto , canada ( grace et al . 1991 ) . recently , incisitermes minor has been found in georgia ( scheffrahn et al . 2001 ) , south carolina ( hathorne et al . 2000 ) and louisiana ( messenger et al . 2000 ) . the latter is significant to florida because incisitermes minor was taken from a park tree in new orleans indicating that it can survive outdoors in a non - mediterranean , subtropical climate . this apparently was the case with three boat infestations in florida where termites and damage were found in wood located outside the cabins . in southern california and florida , yachts , sailboats , and small pleasure craft harboring mature colonies may serve as floating sources of introduction outside incisitermes minor ' s native range as they set sail for ports of call around the world .\nvernard r . lewis , shawn leighton , robin tabuchi , james a . baldwin , michael i . haverty ; influence of environmental factors on activity patterns of incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) in naturally infested logs , journal of economic entomology , volume 106 , issue 1 , 1 february 2013 , pages 338\u2013346 , urltoken\nin california , incisitermes minor occurs naturally in oak and riparian woodlands , river washes and canyons with trees . colonies are often found in the dead portions of california laurel , willow , cottonwood , oak , and sycamore trees and in stumps , downed logs , and large , dead branches on the ground . in urban and suburban areas , incisitermes minor is often found in rose , pyracantha , and oleander bushes , and alder , almond , apricot , ash , avocado , carob , cherry , citrus , elderberry , mulberry , ornamental pear , peach , plum and walnut trees . the western drywood termite infests sound , dry wood in human - made structures , as well as furniture and other wooden items .\nin one case study , conducted in the laboratory at the university of florida , fort lauderdale research and education center , incisitermes minor workers in structural lumber initiated a large infestation . in april 1990 , western drywood termite - infested wood was cut into sections and placed on a laminate - covered plywood bench top not previously exposed to incisitermes minor . a few days later , workers were observed trailing from the exposed wood galleries to the juncture between the bench top and wall . over the years , fecal pellets were observed falling from the bench top . in 2000 , the entire 24 foot length of the bench top had pellets falling from it . known flights from the bench top occurred in september 1999 and july 2001 .\nincisitermes minor is the most common species of drywood termite infesting structures in the southwestern portion of the united states . these termite swarmers ( alates ) are dark brown with smoky - black wings and a \u00bd - inch long body . soldier termites have a large , brown - colored head and two large mouthparts that look like teeth extending well beyond the head .\nhimmi , s . k . ; yoshimura , t . ; yanase , y . ; oya , m . ; torigoe , t . ; akada , m . ; imadzu , s . nest - gallery development and caste composition of isolated foraging groups of the drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) . insects 2016 , 7 , 38 .\nhimmi , s . k . ; yoshimura , tsuyoshi ; yanase , yoshiyuki ; oya , masao ; torigoe , toshiyuki ; akada , masanori ; imadzu , setsuo . 2016 .\nnest - gallery development and caste composition of isolated foraging groups of the drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) .\ninsects 7 , no . 3 : 38 .\nthe galleries of incisitermes minor are typical of other drywood termite species , albeit a bit larger and more cavernous . they consist of irregular excavations that extend throughout the sapwood , across both spring and summerwood , and sometimes into the heartwood . some galleries are spacious enough to accommodate large aggregations of termites while others are so narrow that termites can only pass through in single file . another characteristic feeding behavior is that incisitermes minor will excavate towards the outer surface of the wood without actually breaking through it , thus leaving a paper thin , outer protective layer . infested wood sometimes appears sound , but upon close inspection and mechanical probing this outer shell can be easily broken , revealing the underlying galleries and large amounts of frass ( fecal pellets ) .\nthere are three common species of drywood termites found in the south . you can identify the species by looking at certain features of either the swarming termites or solider termites . incisitermes snyderi are the most common species found . the reproductive termites are light yellow in color and are 7 / 16 inch long . the wings are uniformly transparent . their swarming tends to occur at night , and tend to swarm towards lights . cryptotermes brevis are similar in appearance to incisitermes snyderi . the body of the swarmers for incisitermes minor are dark and measure approximately 9 / 16 inch long . their wings are yellow , brown or colorless and will swarm during the day - time . for both species of incisitermes , the soldiers are about 5 / 16 inches long with dark yellow - brown heads with strong mandibles . the head of the soldier for cryptotermes brevis is square shaped , black in color with very short mandibles . the worker termites are smaller than the soldiers with soft , white bodies .\ntermite nest architecture has important biological attributes , as the whole structure represents a morphological expression of the sum of behavioral patterns which relate to a better understanding of their feeding ecology . the nest - gallery system of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor , inside naturally infested wood was visualized by x - ray computed tomography . drywood termites are . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe hypothesis that western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) , nymphs are negatively phototactic was tested . significantly more nymphs were found under the covered half of a petri dish than under the uncovered half exposed to either incandescent or fluorescent light , whereas there was no significant preference for either the covered or uncovered side when exposed to red darkroom . . . [ show full abstract ]\n. . . the hypothesis that western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) , nymphs are negatively phototactic was tested . significantly more nymphs were found under the covered half of a petri dish than under the uncovered half exposed to either incandescent or fluorescent light , whereas there was no significant preference for either the covered or uncovered side when exposed to red darkroom light . t . . .\nluykx p . 1986 . termite colony dynamics as revealed by the sex - and caste - ratios of whole colonies of incisitermes schwarzi banks ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) . insectes soc . 33 : 221 - 248 .\nthree of the more common home - invading termite species are eastern subterranean termites , pacific dampwood termites , and southeastern drywood termites . their scientific names are reticulitermes flavipes , zootermopsis angusticollis , and incisitermes snyderi , respectively .\nthe western drywood termite , incisitermes minor , is california\u2019s second most important termite pest after the subterranean termite and is the most common species of drywood termite . it is a native insect that has been here millions of years , mostly infesting dead wood in trees along rivers , washes , and arroyos . drywood termites are commonly found along the pacific coastal region extending into the central valley and deserts of southern california .\nnumber of i . minor ( hagen ) individuals of various castes dissected from five infested and two uninfested loquat [ eriobotrya japonica ( thunb . ) lindl . ] logs after completion of all experiments\nmean ae ring down counts resulting from the constant temperature experiment correlated with the total number of i . minor dissected from each of the five infested logs . data were transformed to the natural log .\nthe documentation of colonization process of foraging groups of i . minor in previously unoccupied timbers using x - ray ct has provided better understanding on how isolated groups of i . minor develop and maintain the nest - gallery system ; as well as to sustain the colony . in establishing nest - gallery , i . minor showed selective foraging activities and adaptability to different timber enviroments . stigmergic behaviors were observed in the way of isolated groups of i . minor maintain the nest - gallery system , which was expressed in sealing a tunnel gallery that ends at the outer edge of the timber ; and transporting fecal pellets to particular chambers located beneath timber surface . the isolated groups of i . minor showed dynamic change in caste composition to sustain the colony . in both groups in which the primary reproductive are absent , a replacement reproductive has emerged from pseudergate stage . however , the sexes of replacement reproductive , time interval and the suitable conditions to facilitate the emergence of replacement reproductive are not been fully understood yet .\nan x - ray computed - tomographic examination of nest - gallery development from timbers naturally infested by foraging groups of incisitermes minor colonies was conducted . this study documents the colonization process of i . minor to new timbers and how the isolated groups maintain their nest - gallery system . the results suggested that development of a nest - gallery within a suitable wood item is not random , but shows selection for softer substrate and other adaptations to the different timber environments . stigmergic coordinations were expressed in dynamic changes of the nest - gallery system ; indicated by fortification behavior in sealing and re - opening a tunnel approaching the outer edge of the timber , and accumulating fecal pellets in particular chambers located beneath the timber surface . the study also examines the caste composition of isolated groups to discover how i . minor sustains colonies with and without primary reproductives .\nwe quantified the response of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) , to heat within two galleries routed into a wood cross . nymphs were placed in the gallery of the right arm and after 2 h , the gallery temperature was raised > 40\u00b0c . trials also were conducted with the addition of alates or soldiers to groups of nymphs . termites moved only as far as necessary to avoid . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe nesting biology of the drywood termite , incisitermes minor , is poorly understood . to date , no published data are available regarding the in situ nest - gallery development of i . minor . three naturally infested sitka spruce ( picea sitchensis bong . carriere ) timbers were analyzed by x - ray computer tomography to observe the structure of the first royal chamber and the termite\u2019s nest - founding behavior . one timber was infested by a group of termites which emerged from their natal nest . the other two timbers were infested by dealate reproductives from the nuptial flight . the study revealed that the drywood termite engages in outside foraging activity and has great foraging flexibility . computer tomographic images also revealed that i . minor reproductives showed anatomical selectivity in their nest - founding activity . the structure of the initial royal chambers varied to follow the anatomical texture of the timbers , which resembled either a european pear shape or a cashew nut shape .\nthree - min ae ring down counts from 24 november 2009 until 26 january 2010 , for five sensors ( 1\u20135 ) in i . minor - infested logs and two sensors ( 6\u20137 ) in uninfested logs under constant temperature conditions .\n. . . those larvae that did not meet either early larvae ( lem ) or late larvae body size criteria were considered mid larva ( lm ) . observations from this study failed to produce characteristics separating late i . minor larvae in to either a worker or nymphal caste , consistent with the notion that i . minor follows a basically linear pathway ( cabrera and rust 1999 ) . thus , late larvae would act as workers ( reviewed in watanabe et al . 2014 ) . . . .\nafter a drywood termite colony has matured ( several years ) , winged alates ( swarmers ) are produced that leave the colony to establish new colonies . swarming activity ( nuptial flights ) generally occurs at dusk or during the night and they tend to fly towards areas of greatest light intensity , gathering around lights or illuminated windows . however , the dark western drywood termite ( incisitermes minor ) is a daytime swarmer . swarming of arizona species occurs in early to late summer with certain species swarming during the winter months of january and february also .\nlemaster et al . ( 1997 ) found no periodicity in feeding of i . minor in a 24 - h day . however , the investigation only ran for 1 wk and was conducted under constant temperature conditions . indrayani et al . ( 2006 ) also used ae technology to monitor i . minor feeding when affected by different laboratory temperatures and relative humidity ; however , they did not report diurnal or seasonal ae activity . using ae monitoring during an investigation of local chemical treatments in a field study in southern california , activity of i . minor infestations in untreated locations of structures declined during winter months ( v . lewis , unpublished data ) . because this field study involved only four posttreatment inspection dates , it was not possible to make definitive statements on seasonal foraging of drywood termites .\ntwenty - four different combinations of six temperatures ( 15\u00b0 , 20\u00b0 , 25\u00b0 , 30\u00b0 , 35\u00b0 , and 40\u00b0c ) and four relative humidity ( rh ) ( 60 % , 70 % , 80 % , and 90 % ) conditions were used for pseudergates of the western dry - wood termite incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . the feeding activities of the termites were monitored by the detection of generated acoustic emission ( ae ) events from feeder wood blocks in a test chamber . temperature and rh showed independent and interactive significant effects on the feeding activity of i . minor . the optimal temperature and rh conditions for the feeding activities were 35\u00b0c and 70 % , respectively , and the optimal combinations were 35\u00b0c - 70 % and 35\u00b0c - 80 % with an exceptionally higher feeding activity at the combination condition of 30\u00b0c - 70 % .\nlittle research has been conducted on the movement patterns of drywood termites . currently , only the speed of locomotion of i . minor ( 1 . 4 cm / s ) in response to temperature and light is known ( cabrera and rust 1994 , 1996 , 2000 ) . rust et al . ( 1979 ) inferred movement of the drywood termite incisitermes fruticavus rust from studies that measured daily changes in temperature inside galleries for the jojoba shrub , simmondsia chinensis ( link ) ; however , the daily or seasonality of movement of drywood termites within structures in california remains poorly understood .\nby examing the color of neotenic bodies in the isolated groups from both spruce timbers and comparing it with harvey\u2019s description , it seems that the neotenics in those groups had just emerged . the fact that we didn\u2019t find any eggs indicated that the secondary reproductives had not yet reached complete development . harvey described that secondary reproductives emerged in perfect molt just one month after isolation ; however , our case in both spruce timbers indicates a much longer time for the colony to adjust its caste composition . atkinson [ 33 ] reported that seasonal trends in colony composition were relatively weak in i . minor . he observed that all or most of the alates in i . minor colonies appeared to emerge whenever suitable environmental conditions were present . this might mean that the emergence of replacement reproductives in the isolated groups of i . minor in spruce timbers occurred when the groups met \u201csuitable environmental conditions\u201d [ 33 ] .\nplots of ae ring down counts over time under constant darkness from 19 august 2009 to 25 august 2009 for five sensors that contain live colonies of i . minor . the smooth line is a running average of the ae ring down counts for 30 min before until 30 min after the data points .\n. . . in addition , individual late - larval workers ( pseudergates ) may deviate from this straight developmental pathway through regressive or stationary molts ( miller 1969 ; noirot and pasteels 1987 ) . cabrera and rust ( 1999 ) observed caste differentiation in i . minor and reported four larval instars and two nymphal instars aside from alates and soldiers . luykx ( 1986 ) and luykx et al . ( 1986 ) described three larval stages and four immature worker stages along with pseudergates , nymphs , soldiers , reproductives , and alates for i . schwarzi , a close relative of i . minor . . . .\nincisitermes minor has at least seven instars and it probably takes more than a year for a nymph to develop from the egg to an alate or soldier ( harvey 1934 ) . the duration of each instar is variable depending on prevailing environmental conditions and available resources . the average size of the fifth to seventh instar ranges from approximately 6 . 5 to 9 . 5 mm long and they weigh from 10 to 15 mg . western drywood termite nymphs have relatively large amounts of fat body and the larger nymphs are very robust . the percent fat content of dry weight of late instar nymphs is approximately 18 percent ( k . haagsma , unpublished data ) .\nnymphs of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) , were tested for their feeding preferences on wood and extracts of 11 tree species . the amount of wood consumed was inversely proportional to its specific gravity , but methanol extracts of least preferred woods were also least preferred when termites were confined to paper treated with extracts . in choice tests , only paper treated with extract of wood from which the colony developed and untreated and methanol - treated controls were significantly fed upon . ponderosa pine extract applied to douglas fir and sugar pine significantly decreased the amount of wood consumed . resistance to termite feeding appeared to depend on the presence of repellent chemicals in the wood .\nin florida , incisitermes minor has a spotty distribution from the panhandle down to miami ( where it was probably first introduced into florida [ hickin 1971 ] ) and has been found on both coasts of the peninsula . scheffrahn et al . ( 1988 ) reported two incidences of infestation and since then there have been 22 more confirmed records ( scheffrahn , unpublished data ) . of all records , three occurred on boats - - two of these from southern california - - that were subsequently fumigated . three other infestations were associated with furniture that was traced to the pacific coast . so far , all the florida infestations have only been found in structural lumber , not in natural wood .\nbecause drywood termites ( family kalotermitidae ) are single piece nesters and can live deep in wood , there are few reports of seasonal or daily cycles of feeding or foraging behavior . seasonal activity patterns of drywood termites are very important for their detection and treatment . a common seasonal activity for drywood termites is swarming . in california , the western drywood termite incisitermes minor ( hagen ) , swarms during the day , starting in summer and continuing into fall ( ebeling 1978 ) . feeding and foraging are important drywood termite activities ; however , little is known about when they occur or what drives them . the cryptic behavior of drywood termites inside wood hinders studies that explore their normal feeding and foraging behavior . acoustic emission ( ae ) technology has been used to detect the presence of drywood and dampwood termites in wood ( lewis and lemaster 1991 , lemaster et al . 1997 ) and recently has been used to explore seasonal and daily patterns foraging and feeding activity of i . minor ( lewis et al . 2011 ) .\n. . . however , it might well be that hodotermes mossambicus exhibit aggressive behaviour at the nest entrance under more natural conditions in the field . the fact that nestmate discrimination in the trophallaxis bioassay was primarily found when larvae were used as donors might just reflect that this group is under natural conditions much more involved in the behaviour of feeding nestmates than any other caste , as has been demonstrated in incisitermes minor by cabrera and rust ( 1999 ) . in addition , non - nestmates recognized by larvae are almost certainly intruders which should be discriminated in the context of nestmate feeding behaviour , whereas foragers might meet non - nestmates frequently outside the nests in behavioural contexts where nestmate discrimination does not pay . . . .\nthe purpose of our study was to explore for patterns of seasonal or daily feeding and movement of i . minor in naturally infested logs as measured by ae technology . such knowledge would greatlyimprove inspection success , pre - and post - treatment evaluations of remedial measures againstinfestations and enable more detailed investigations into the natural history of drywood termites .\nthree types of experiments were designed to evaluate the performance of a bait system intended to control incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . in the first type of experiment , type i , the effectiveness of the bait in a small wood specimen was evaluated . in the second type , type ii , the bait effectiveness was evaluated in a larger wood specimen . feeding arena lumber with artificial galleries was prepared for the type iii experiment so that the response of the insects to the gel could be observed . in general , the average percentage of termites that died after being exposed to the gel formulation in all three types of experiment was more than 60 % , and in the gel control the average percentage of live termites was more than 95 % in types i and iii , and more than 75 % in type ii . these results suggest that the gel bait system used in this study has the potential to eliminate i . minor colonies . further investigation will be necessary to increase the reliability of the bait system as a control measure against dry - wood termites .\nmean daily activity patterns for i . minor in each of five logs ( sensors 1\u20135 ) . the heavy , dark line is the mean ae ring down count . the gray line is the temperature trace ( \u00b0c ) collected simultaneously for each ae data point . ae data for all logs were collected from 15 june 2008 to 15 may 2009 .\nincisitermes minor is a tremendous pest in california and arizona with an estimated annual economic impact of $ 250 million ( m . rust , unpublished ) , mainly in damage and treatment costs . a survey of structural inspection reports conducted in san bernardino , riverside , and orange counties in southern california between september 1992 and april 1993 revealed that the western drywood termite accounted for approximately 55 percent of the total inspections for wood - destroying organisms . near the coast , they accounted for > 75 percent of the inspections ( t . atkinson , unpublished data ) . the western drywood termite will continue to torment homeowners and keep termite control companies busy , especially in newly developed areas in california where urban sprawl is running rampant . further infestations are likely to be discovered in florida .\nthere are few reports of diurnal or seasonal ae activity data for i . minor . using 100 i . minor workers contained in an artificially infested wooden block held at constant temperature and humidity , lemaster et al . ( 1997 ) reported ae events results from a single sensor during a 7 - d test . there was no statistically significant cycling or periodicity found in ae activity . the plot of ae activity appeared flat and hovered between the values of 100 and 200 events per hour . no ring down count data were reported . the maximum ae event results reported by lemaster et al . ( 1997 ) compared favorably with the maximum events reported for the current study , although we report here only ae ring down count data . indrayani et al . ( 2006 ) conducted a second ae activity study . for this laboratory study i . minor workers ( 10 ) also were used in small wooden blocks to test the affects of varying temperature and humidity . the tests were of short duration , only 12 h . this study reported that the optimum temperature for peak ae activity was 30\u00b0c .\ntwo kinds of nest - founding activities have been identified in drywood termites [ 5 ] : ( 1 ) from nuptial flight by pairing dealate reproductives ; or ( 2 ) from nest - gallery extension through colony foraging to a new piece of adjacent timber [ 8 ] . in this paper , we present a case study of nest - gallery development from timbers naturally infested by an i . minor colony through foraging activity . the study was intended to capture the colonization process of foraging groups of i . minor in previously unoccupied timber and how the groups maintain their nest - gallery system . the study also examines the caste composition of isolated groups in search of a better understanding of how one - piece nester types sustain their colonies .\nthe introduction of x - ray computed tomography ( ct ) as a non - destructive approach to analyzing termite nests has brought us a better understanding of the nesting biology of this cryptic insect . fuchs et al . [ 1 ] were the first to introduce ct as a useful tool for providing a three - dimensional ( 3d ) view of the hidden gallery system of drywood termite cryptotermes secundus , though at a low - resolution display . perna et al . presented detailed images of gallery networks [ 2 ] of cubitermes sp . and used them to analyze their topological defense strategy [ 3 ] and efficiency [ 4 ] , while himmi et al . [ 5 ] used x - ray ct to analyze the initial structure of the royal chamber of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor .\nwhen we were certain that we had completed all experimentation by using the five i . minor - infested logs , we dissected these five logs , as well as the uninfested logs , and counted all live individuals by caste ( table 1 ) . the single alate found in each of the untreated logs was because of natural swarming activity from some of the logs in the test building . we regressed the line ( ln ) of the mean ae ring down counts from the constant temperature experiment ( the most recent experiment before log dissection ) for all seven logs against the ln of the total number of individuals remaining . a highly significant relationship was found ( r 2 = 0 . 92 ) between the i . minor population and ae activity ( fig . 7 ) .\n. . . the timbers were laid in random positions , without considering whether tangential sections , radial sections , sapwood parts , and heartwood parts were oriented in any particular direction . the experimental set - up was conducted on august 3 , 2012 , 1 month before i . minor swarming season in the wakayama area , which was reported to be in september [ 10 ] . . . .\nthe mean daily ae ring down count ( black line ) from five sensors ( 1\u20135 ) in i . minor - infested logs ( 1\u20135 ) and two sensors ( 6\u20137 ) in uninfested logs under constant temperature conditions . the mean has been smoothed with a loess ( nonparametric regression ) smoother . the gray line is the smoothed mean temperature profile across all observations . ( online figure in color . )\nseasonal activity patterns of drywood termites have an important impact on our ability to detect these structural pests and treat infestations . for example , the presence of alates and shed wings within infested structures are often the first signs of the presence of drywood termites . in california , the annual dispersal flights of incisitermes minor ( hagen ) occur during the day in the fall [ 1 ] . feeding and foraging , including excavation of wood , are important drywood termite activities ; however , little is known whether they occur randomly or follow an underlying pattern . the cryptic behavior of drywood termites hinders studies on their feeding and foraging biology . because direct observation is impossible in wood naturally infested by drywood termites , we must rely on indirect methods of observation . a method that has proven extremely useful is the quantification of vibrations within termite - infested wood using acoustic emission ( ae ) technology .\nthe purpose of this study was to investigate the nature of the circadian cycle of activity in i . minor : the role or influence of temperature and light on patterns of feeding and foraging as measured by vibrational activity in naturally infested wood . by knowing when drywood termites are most active and whether physical features of their environment affect their activity , inspections and posttreatment evaluations of remedial treatments could be greatly improved .\nthe hourly averages for ae ring down counts for each active and inactive log , as well as temperature and relative humidity , were plotted for the 11 - month period . the mean daily activity pattern for i . minor in each of the five logs ( sensors 1\u20135 ) , represented by ae ring down counts , was graphed in relation to the mean temperature ( \u00b0c ) over a 24 - hour period .\nplots of ae ring down counts under constant darkness as a function of temperature in five i . minor - infested logs and two uninfested logs . the temperature values are \u201cjittered\u201d so that they do not land exactly on top of each other . all sensors associated with infested logs show a positive relationship with temperature . each data point represents 3 - min recordings taken at least two times / h / d / sensor over 7 d .\nactivity of colonies of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor , was measured with acoustic emission ( ae ) technology in five loquat ( eriobotrya japonica ) logs . termite activity , whether it was feeding , excavation or movement , was monitored for 11 months under ambient conditions in a small wooden structure maintained at the university of california richmond field station . ae , temperature , and humidity data were measured in 3 - minute increments . termite activity was greater during the warmer summer months compared to the cooler winter months . termites in all five logs displayed a similar daily cycle of activity , peaking in the late afternoon . seasonal and daily fluctuations in termite activity were significantly associated with temperature , whereas humidity did not appear to have a noticeable effect on termite activity . possible mechanisms that drive the seasonal and daily cycles in termite activity , as measured by ae technology , and the possible implications for inspections and post - treatment analysis are discussed .\nsummary : differences in feeding and trophallaxis among castes of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) , were determined using rubidium ( rb ) as a tracer . both 5th - and 6th - instar nymphs and 3rd - and 4th - instar larvae fed directly on rb - treated paper and acted as both donors and recipients in trophallactic exchanges with other larvae and nymphs , and as donors for soldiers and alates . soldiers and alates did not feed on rb - treated paper suggesting that they do not feed directly on wood and are completely dependent on nymphs for their nutritional needs . larvae paired with rb - fed nymphs received the greatest amount of rb suggesting that there may be a hierarchy of trophallaxis in drywood termites . transfer efficiency , the percentage of the total rb intake of donors that is passed to the recipients , ranged from 1 . 1 % ( nymphal donors to alate recipients ) to 16 . 6 % ( larval donors to nymphal recipients ) .\nthere is considerable variance in the number of i . minor extracted from naturally infested logs and structural wood , and ranges from 7 to 2 , 943 [ 19 , 21 , 30 - 32 ] . also clearly evident , larger colonies and infestations produce greater ae activity . and also clearly evident is that when drywood termites are allowed to search and forage for wood naturally under ambient conditions , their activity follows a cyclic pattern common to many terrestrial animals .\n. . . naturally , new colony dissemination is facilitated by swarming activities in the dispersal flight season . swarming occurs during the summer to the fall on bright , sunny days which attract alates to emerge from the colonies ( positive phototaxis ) 10 111213 . in addition to information on swarming activities , information on the nutritional ecology of i . minor and its feeding preferences for various timbers are also very important for investigating initial nest - gallery establishment . . . .\nthere are only a few reports available on seasonal or daily activity for i . minor as measured by ae technology . using 100 workers contained in an artificially infested wooden block held at constant temperature and humidity , lemaster et al . [ 22 ] presented ae event results over seven days from a single sensor . no statistically significant cycling or periodicity in ae measurements could be detected . the plot of termite activity appeared flat and ranged from just 100 to 200 ae events per hour .\nlittle research has been conducted on the movement patterns of drywood termites . currently , only the speed of locomotion of i . minor ( 1 . 4 cm / s ) in response to temperature and light is known [ 26 , 27 ] . movement of the drywood termite i . fruticavus rust was inferred from studies that measured daily changes in temperature inside galleries for the jojoba shrub , simmondsia chinensis ( link ) [ 28 ] ; however , the seasonal movement of drywood termites within structures remains poorly understood .\nstaurojoenina is a large and structurally complex genus of hypermastigont parabasalians found in the hindgut of lower termites . although several species of staurojoenina have been described worldwide , all staurojoenina observed to date in different species of north american termites have been treated as the same species , s . assimilis . here , we characterize staurojoenina from the north american termite neotermes jouteli using light microscopy , scanning electron microscopy , and phylogenetic analysis of small subunit ribosomal rna , and compare it with s . assimilis from its type host , incisitermes minor . the basic morphological characteristics of the n . jouteli symbiont , including its abundant bacterial epibionts , are similar as far as they may be compared with existing data from s . assimilis , although not consistently identical . in contrast , we find that they are extremely distantly related at the molecular level , sharing a pairwise similarity of ssu rrna genes comparable to that seen between different genera or even families of other parabasalians . based on their evolutionary distance and habitat in different termite genera , we consider the n . jouteli staurojoenina to be distinct from s . assimilis , and describe a new species , staurojoenina mulleri , in honor of the pioneering parabasalian researcher , miklos muller .\nn2 - staurojoenina is a large and structurally complex genus of hypermastigont parabasalians found in the hindgut of lower termites . although several species of staurojoenina have been described worldwide , all staurojoenina observed to date in different species of north american termites have been treated as the same species , s . assimilis . here , we characterize staurojoenina from the north american termite neotermes jouteli using light microscopy , scanning electron microscopy , and phylogenetic analysis of small subunit ribosomal rna , and compare it with s . assimilis from its type host , incisitermes minor . the basic morphological characteristics of the n . jouteli symbiont , including its abundant bacterial epibionts , are similar as far as they may be compared with existing data from s . assimilis , although not consistently identical . in contrast , we find that they are extremely distantly related at the molecular level , sharing a pairwise similarity of ssu rrna genes comparable to that seen between different genera or even families of other parabasalians . based on their evolutionary distance and habitat in different termite genera , we consider the n . jouteli staurojoenina to be distinct from s . assimilis , and describe a new species , staurojoenina mulleri , in honor of the pioneering parabasalian researcher , miklos muller .\nab - staurojoenina is a large and structurally complex genus of hypermastigont parabasalians found in the hindgut of lower termites . although several species of staurojoenina have been described worldwide , all staurojoenina observed to date in different species of north american termites have been treated as the same species , s . assimilis . here , we characterize staurojoenina from the north american termite neotermes jouteli using light microscopy , scanning electron microscopy , and phylogenetic analysis of small subunit ribosomal rna , and compare it with s . assimilis from its type host , incisitermes minor . the basic morphological characteristics of the n . jouteli symbiont , including its abundant bacterial epibionts , are similar as far as they may be compared with existing data from s . assimilis , although not consistently identical . in contrast , we find that they are extremely distantly related at the molecular level , sharing a pairwise similarity of ssu rrna genes comparable to that seen between different genera or even families of other parabasalians . based on their evolutionary distance and habitat in different termite genera , we consider the n . jouteli staurojoenina to be distinct from s . assimilis , and describe a new species , staurojoenina mulleri , in honor of the pioneering parabasalian researcher , miklos muller .\nabstract =\nstaurojoenina is a large and structurally complex genus of hypermastigont parabasalians found in the hindgut of lower termites . although several species of staurojoenina have been described worldwide , all staurojoenina observed to date in different species of north american termites have been treated as the same species , s . assimilis . here , we characterize staurojoenina from the north american termite neotermes jouteli using light microscopy , scanning electron microscopy , and phylogenetic analysis of small subunit ribosomal rna , and compare it with s . assimilis from its type host , incisitermes minor . the basic morphological characteristics of the n . jouteli symbiont , including its abundant bacterial epibionts , are similar as far as they may be compared with existing data from s . assimilis , although not consistently identical . in contrast , we find that they are extremely distantly related at the molecular level , sharing a pairwise similarity of ssu rrna genes comparable to that seen between different genera or even families of other parabasalians . based on their evolutionary distance and habitat in different termite genera , we consider the n . jouteli staurojoenina to be distinct from s . assimilis , and describe a new species , staurojoenina mulleri , in honor of the pioneering parabasalian researcher , miklos muller .\n,\n. . . because of this hidden ecology , i . minor can be easily transported around the world within an infested piece of wood as a result of human activities . originally from the southwestern usa and northern mexico [ 2 ] , infestations of this invasive species have been reported in canada [ 4 ] , china [ 5 ] , and hawaii [ 6 ] , and more than half of the prefectures in japan are listed as infested areas789 10 . in our modern and mobile society , the introduction of such wood - inhabiting termites to new areas is very hard to prevent . . . .\nlewis et al . ( 2011 ) investigated activity of colonies of i . minor with acoustic emission ( ae ) technology in naturally infested logs . activity , whether it was feeding , excavation , or movement , was monitored for 11 mo under ambient conditions in a small wooden structure . ae , temperature , and humidity data were measured in 3 - min increments . termite activity was greater during the warmer summer months compared with the cooler winter months . termites in all logs displayed a similar daily cycle of activity , peaking in the late afternoon . seasonal and daily fluctuations in termite activity were significantly associated with temperature , whereas humidity had a less noticeable effect on termite activity ."]}
{"id": 740, "summary": [{"text": "elachista illectella is a moth of the elachistidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from arizona , illinois , indiana , kentucky , maine , mississippi , ohio , oklahoma , ontario , tennessee , texas and west virginia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of deciduous forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the wingspan is 6 \u2013 8 millimetres ( 0.24 \u2013 0.31 in ) .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are sexually dimorphic .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the forewings of the males are fuscous , but the base of the paler scales is grayish white .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "females have darker and more evenly dark brown or black forewings than males .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the hindwings are fuscous and also darker in females .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults have been recorded on wing nearly year round .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on poa ( including poa pratensis ) , agrostis , hystrix , elymus , oryzopsis , bromus and phleum species .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they mine the leaves of their host plant .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the mine starts as a fine line , gradually increases in breadth .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae are greenish yellow .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "mining larvae can be found almost year round .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "pupation takes place beneath a dense white web of silk strands . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "elachista illectella", "paragraphs": ["# 1129 \u2013 elachista illectella | st . louis mo 10 / 7 / 15 quote f\u2026 | flickr\nfigure 9 . elachista illectella . adult , reared from leaf mine on a woodland grass ( poaceae ) .\nthis is definitely one of the elachista spp . formerly ascribed to the genus cosmiotes , and in the eastern usa , illectella is the most commonly encountered species of this group . therefore , illectella would be the odds - on favorite determination here .\ncosmiotes illectella clemens , 1860 has been placed in elachista by : kaila , l . 1999 . phylogeny and classification of the elachistidae . systematic entomology 24 : 139 - 169 .\nthis genus was synonymized under elachista in the phylogeny of kaila ( 1999a ) .\nfigure 1 . elachista leucofrons . pupa , of the type representative of most elachistidae ( dorsal aspect ) .\nfigure 2 . elachista epimicta . adult , reared from leaf mine on a woodland grass ( poaceae ) .\nfigure 7 . elachista albicapitella . adult , reared from leaf mine on a woodland grass ( poaceae ) .\nthis genus , as with cosmiotes , was subsumed into elachista in the phylogeny of kaila ( 1999a ) .\nfigure 3 . elachista acenteta . adult , collected at light , iroquois county , illinois , mid - june .\nelachista illectella ( fig . 9 ) is a grass leaf miner , with larvae occurring\nalmost throughout the year , even in the winter . . . on many species of grass\n( braun 1948 ) . included in the host list given by braun are poa praetensis , poa spp . , agrostis spp . , hystrix sp . , elymus sp . , oryzopsis sp . , bromus sp . , and phleum . the adult , which commonly appears at light in deciduous forest , is somewhat smaller than most of the elachista species . the color and pattern are of the\nblackish with white markings\ntype , but the white fasciae and patches on the forewing are more diffuse , with the dark areas more heavily suffused with white scaling , than in the other elachista spp . of this color pattern .\nfigure 8 . closeup of head and thorax of adult elachista leucofrons ( left ) and e . albicapitella ( right ) showing the color differences cited above .\nfigure 5 . elachista madarella . larva ( removed from leaf mine ) ; leaf mine on a sedge , carex sp . ( cyperaceae ) ; and adult moth .\nquote from terry harrison regarding this moth ,\nwell , i consider any sight id in this group to be equivocal compared to a dissection - based id , because there are so many look - alike spp . , so it certainly wouldn ' t be incorrect to add a\nprobable\ndenotation to the id , as we ' ll never really know for sure . in this case , however , it would be ok to be assertive and say that your moth is e . illectella , because it does appear to be in the\ncosmiotes\ngroup ( all of the spp . of which look alike ) , and because , from what i have seen , illectella is overwhelmingly the odds - on favorite\ncosmiotes\nspecies to be found in this part of the country .\nthe larva of elachista glenni ( fig . 4 ) most likely feeds as a leaf miner on a sedge or a rush ( possibly scirpus sp . ) . the adult appears in june .\nfigure 6 . elachista leucofrons . top : left , larva ( removed from leaf mine ) ; right , adult moth ; bottom : occupied leaf mine on a woodland grass ( poaceae ) .\nthe blackish elachista species with metallic or white markings on the forewing are somewhat similar to some mompha spp . ( coleophoridae : momphinae , treated here as family momphidae , to coincide with the 1983 checklist ) , but moths of these two groups can be differentiated by the fact that the black - and - white mompha spp . have raised tufts of scales on the forewings , whereas elachistids do not . as for the white elachista species , the only other common , similarly - sized illinois microleps in which the forewing is flat - finish white are some of the species of coleophora ( coleophoridae ) . coleophora , however , have relatively narrower , more elongate forewings than do elachista , and they display a distinctive resting posture in which the antennae are held together and projected straight forward . other illinois microleps that are predominantly or entirely white either are considerably larger than elachista , e . g . , yucca moths ( prodoxidae ) or are considerably smaller and more shining - opalescent white , e . g . , phyllonorycter , phyllocnistis ( gracillariidae ) , argyresthia ( argyresthiidae ) , pseudopostega ( opostegidae ) .\nthe larva of elachista brachyelytrifoliella ( fig . 10 ) occurs from july through october , in a noticeably whitish leaf mine on any of several grass species . according to braun ( 1948 ) , muhlenbergia spp . are preferred , but the larva also has been recorded from brachyelytrum aristatum and uniola latifolia .\nelachista epimicta ( fig . 2 ) is a large elachistid , the larva of which is a leaf miner on grasses . it matures in the third week of april in central illinois . braun ( 1948 ) cited hystrix patula ( preferred ) and elymus spp . as hosts . the larval leaf mine occupies the apical one third or so of the host leaf .\nelachista madarella ( fig . 5 ) is a leaf miner on sedges of the genera carex and scirpus , with mines occurring from february through early may . the leaf mine of this species usually appears to be unoccupied , but close examination reveals that the larva extends the mine to the very base of its host leaf , and it is there that the larva usually can be found . in central illinois , the adult of this species is common at light in deciduous forest in late june .\nelachista leucofrons ( fig . 6 ) is a leaf miner on grasses of low - lying deciduous forest ; according to braun ( 1948 ) , elymus canadensis and e . virginicus are preferred , with hystrix sp . less commonly recorded as a host . active mines appear from late february through mid - april ; apparently , there is only one generation per year . unlike e . madarella , the larva of e . leucofrons does not mine to the base of its host leaf ; therefore , in an occupied mine , the larva can be seen in the main part of the leaf mine at all times , as shown in fig . 6 .\nnothing is known of the larval biology of elachista acenteta ( fig . 3 ) . the largest numbers of adults have been collected in southeastern canada . as for usa records , kaila ( 1997 ) reported the species as occurring in colorado and nebraska . in illinois , e . acenteta has been collected in a wet sand area in iroquois county , in mid - june ; james vargo has collected it in the same habitat in an adjacent county in indiana , also in mid - june . these represent the first records of this species from these two states , and they provide something of a connecting point between the two geographically - remote areas of previously - known occurrence .\nthe traditional definition of this group ( elachistidae sensu strictu ) , which is followed here , in accordance with the revision by braun ( 1948 ) and the hodges et al . ( 1983 ) checklist , includes elachista plus a few allied genera ( about 60 described species , in eight genera , in north america as of the 1983 checklist ; moderately well represented in illinois ) . an expanded concept of elachistidae , in which traditional elachistidae was included as a subfamily , elachistinae , was presented by hodges ( 1999 ) . a phylogeny of elachistidae s . s . was published by kaila ( 1999a ) and revisited by kaila and sugisima ( 2003 ) . the former author also has covered nearctic components of elachistidae in several excellent taxonomic papers ( kaila 1995a , 1995b , 1996 , 1997 , 1999b ) .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nselect your preferred way to display the comments and click ' save settings ' to activate your changes .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhodges , r . w . et al . , eds . 1983 . check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . e . w . classey limited and the wedge entomological research foundation , london . 284 pp .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\ndistribution data for u . s . states and canadian provinces is known to be incomplete or has not been reviewed for this taxon .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nkaila , l . 1999a . phylogeny and classification of the elachistidae . systematic entomology 24 : 139 - 169 .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\nall documents and related graphics provided by this server and any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server are provided\nas is\nwithout warranty as to the currentness , completeness , or accuracy of any specific data . natureserve hereby disclaims all warranties and conditions with regard to any documents provided by this server or any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , including but not limited to all implied warranties and conditions of merchantibility , fitness for a particular purpose , and non - infringement . natureserve makes no representations about the suitability of the information delivered from this server or any other documents that are referenced to or linked to this server . in no event shall natureserve be liable for any special , indirect , incidental , consequential damages , or for damages of any kind arising out of or in connection with the use or performance of information contained in any documents provided by this server or in any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , under any theory of liability used . natureserve may update or make changes to the documents provided by this server at any time without notice ; however , natureserve makes no commitment to update the information contained herein . since the data in the central databases are continually being updated , it is advisable to refresh data retrieved at least once a year after its receipt . the data provided is for planning , assessment , and informational purposes . site specific projects or activities should be reviewed for potential environmental impacts with appropriate regulatory agencies . if ground - disturbing activities are proposed on a site , the appropriate state natural heritage program ( s ) or conservation data center can be contacted for a site - specific review of the project area ( see visit local programs ) .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\nlarvae of elachistidae are blotch leaf miners , almost always on grasses ( poaceae ) or on sedges / rushes ( cyperaceae ) , but with a few species using dicots , e . g . , wild oregano , cunila origanoides , in the mint family ( lamiaceae ) . active leaf mines of some elachistid species can be found very early in the year ; apparently , these larvae overwinter in the mine and resume feeding as early as february in the second year . the great majority of elachistid species in illinois are insects of deciduous forest , which is where their leaf mines should be sought . despite their grass - mining larval habits , in illinois they are not seen to be a component of grass - dominated communities such as prairies .\nelachistid leaf mines on grasses and sedges can be differentiated from those of cosmopterix spp . ( cosmopterigidae ) , which likewise are blotch leaf miners and which use many of the same host plants as elachistidae , by the fact that , in elachistidae , the larval frass is retained within the mine , where it can be seen scattered throughout , whereas in cosmopterix , frass is removed from the mine , where it can be seen as a small blackish accumulation at one end of the mine . also , in general , elachistid mines tend to be whitish , whereas cosmopterix mines tend to be yellow , but exceptions to this may occur .\nafter it finishes feeding , the elachistid larva leaves the mine to pupate , often in the depressed crease that occurs at the midvein of a leaf of the host plant . some species pupate under a slight lattice - like sheet of silk , whereas others do not spin at all . the articulation between the front and hind parts of the pupal abdomen allows the posterior part of the abdomen to move only in the sagittal plane ; this is similar to the situation seen in certain other microlepidoptera groups ( e . g . , depressariinae ) . the pupa of one species , dicranoctetes brachyelytrifoliella , is adorned laterally with spiky cuticular projections . pupae of typical elachistidae species lack the cuticular projections seen in dicranoctetes , but they present a distinctive appearance via being laterally and dorsally keeled ( fig . 1 ) .\nadult elachistidae display distinctive male genital morphology , in which the valve is elongate and apically rounded , and the gnathos is spined ( and sometimes bifid ) . sight recognition of elachistidae is best effected on basis of coloration and pattern , which fall into several categories , shown below ( these groupings are presented here strictly for convenience of recognition ; they are not meant to represent monophyletic units , whether or not they actually do so ) .\n, so that both moths sometimes emerge in the same rearing lot . the adult of\n( fig . 8 ) . there are also differences in male genital morphology .\nthe genus onceroptila , which was erected by braun ( 1948 ) to accommodate two western - nearctic elachistid species , was synonymized under perittia by kaila ( 1995b ) .\nthe only species of this genus that is likely to be encountered in illinois is perittia herrichiella ( fig . 11 ) , which is a european species that has become established in eastern north america . kaila ( 1995b ) reported it from eastern canada . more recently , james vargo , who kindly provided the specimen shown here , has collected a series of adults of p . herrichiella at light in northern indiana ; collection dates range from late may through mid - july , with a concentration in early to mid - june . this apparently is the first usa record for p . herrichiella . given this , the species might reasonably be expected to be found elsewhere in the north - central and northeastern usa . in europe , the larva of p . herrichiella makes a typical elachistid leaf mine ( full depth , with frass retained inside ) on honeysuckle , lonicera sp . ( caprifoliaceae ) . according to dr . george balogh ( who generously provided the mined leaf shown here ) , p . herrichiella has been established for several years in michigan , where it feeds on woody non - native ( eurasian ) species of lonicera , with leaf mines being especially common in disturbed and secondary forests in which exotic honeysuckle occurs as an invasive species . it is not known whether the moth has expanded its host range in north america to include any of the native nearctic species of caprifoliaceae .\nfigure 11 . perittia herrichiella . left , adult , collected in northern indiana , specimen courtesy of james vargo ; right , leaf mine on invasive eurasian bush honeysuckle , lonicera sp . ( caprifoliaceae ) , collected in michigan by dr . george balogh .\n. the forewings of the males are fuscous , but the base of the paler scales is grayish white . females have darker and more evenly dark brown or black forewings than males . the hindwings are fuscous and also darker in females . adults have been recorded on wing nearly year round .\nthe leaves of their host plant . the mine starts as a fine line , gradually increases in breadth . the larvae are greenish yellow . mining larvae can be found almost year round . pupation takes place beneath a dense white web of silk strands .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 9 / 20 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files ."]}
{"id": 745, "summary": [{"text": "coleophora haloxyli is a moth of the coleophoridae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in turkestan and uzbekistan .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the larvae feed on haloxylon persicum .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they create a leafy case , consisting of six sections of branches which gradually enlarge toward the anterior end .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "there is a small tube at the caudal end of the case through which frass is ejected .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the length of the case is 8 \u2013 9 mm and it is chocolate-brown to yellow in color .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "larvae can be found from september to october . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "coleophora haloxyli", "paragraphs": ["coleophora succursella herrich - sch\u00e4ffer , 1855 = casignetella succursella ( herrich - schaffer , 1855 ) = coleophora artemisiae herrich - sch\u00e4ffer 1855 .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwe believe that this request has either come from an unwelcome search engine , from a data grabber , or that an attempt is being made to hack the site . as a result your request has been refused . please email us if you believe that our decision is incorrect .\nwir glauben , dass dieser antrag que entweder von einer unwillkommenen suchmaschine gekommen ist , ab dem zeitpunkt grabber , oder que versuch wird gemacht , die website zu hacken . als ergebnis hat ihre anfrage abgelehnt . bitte mailen sie uns , wenn sie que unsere entscheidung glauben , ist falsch .\ncreemos que esta solicitud ha provenir de un motor de b\u00fasqueda no deseado , desde el capturador de fecha , o que un intento que se est\u00e1 haciendo para hackear el sitio . como resultado de su solicitud ha sido rechazada . por favor , correo electr\u00f3nico si usted cree que nuestra decisi\u00f3n es incorrecta .\nnous croyons que cette demande a soit provenir d ' un moteur de recherche importune , de la date grabber , ou que une tentative est fait pour pirater le site . en cons\u00e9quence votre demande a \u00e9t\u00e9 refus\u00e9e . s ' il vous pla\u00eet nous contacter si vous croyez que notre d\u00e9cision est incorrecte .\ncrediamo que questa richiesta \u00e8 sia venuto da un motore di ricerca sgradita , a partire dalla data grabber , o que un tentativo \u00e8 stato fatto per hackerare il sito . di conseguenza la richiesta \u00e8 stata rifiutata . vi preghiamo di inviarci se si ritiene que la nostra decisione non \u00e8 corretta .\nwij geloven que dit verzoek is ofwel afkomstig uit een onwelkome zoekmachine , vanaf de datum grabber , of que een poging wordt gedaan om de site te hacken . als gevolg van uw verzoek is geweigerd . stuur ons een email als u denkt que onze beslissing onjuist is .\nque acreditamos que este pedido tem ou vir de um motor de busca desejados , a partir de uma data grabber , ou que uma tentativa est\u00e1 sendo feita para invadir o local . como resultado o seu pedido foi recusado . por favor envie - nos se voc\u00ea acredita que nossa decis\u00e3o est\u00e1 incorreta .\nhaloxylon persicum , the white saxaul , is a small tree belonging to the family amaranthaceae .\nal - qassim region ( \u0645\u0646\u0637\u0642\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0635\u064a\u0645 , local najdi arabic pronunciation ) , also spelled qassim , al - qaseem , al - qasim , or gassim internationally , is one of the thirteen administrative regions of saudi arabia .\narabic literature ( \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062f\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a / ala - lc : al - adab al - \u2018arab\u012b ) is the writing , both prose and poetry , produced by writers in the arabic language .\narabic poetry ( arabic : \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0650\u0639\u0652\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u064e\u0631\u064e\u0628\u064a / ala - lc : ash - shi\u2018ru al - \u2018arab\u012byu ) is the earliest form of arabic literature .\nbiodiversity in israel , the west bank , and the gaza strip is about the fauna and flora in the geographical region of israel , the west bank , and gaza strip .\ncistanche deserticola is a holoparasitic member of the orobanchaceae family of plants , commonly known as desert - broomrape .\nfrancis bin fathallah bin nasrallah marrash ( arabic : \u0641\u0631\u0646\u0633\u064a\u0633 \u0628\u0646 \u0641\u062a\u062d \u0627\u0644\u0644\u0647 \u0628\u0646 \u0646\u0635\u0631\u0627\u0644\u0644\u0647 \u0645\u0631\u0651\u0627\u0634 / ala - lc : frans\u012bs bin fat\u1e25 all\u0101h bin na\u1e63rall\u0101h marr\u0101sh ; june 1836 & ndash ; 1873 ) , also known as francis al - marrash or francis marrash al - halabi , was a syrian writer and poet of the nahda movement\u2014the arabic renaissance\u2014and a physician .\nhaloxylon is a genus of shrubs or small trees , belonging to the plant family amaranthaceae .\nthe saxaul , black saxaul , sometimes sacsaoul or saksaul ( saksaul , which is from seksevil , scientific name haloxylon ammodendron ) , is a plant belonging to the amaranthaceae .\nthe sands of samar , also called the samar sands or samar sand dunes , are an expanse of sand dunes in the arava region of southern israel .\nunionpedia is a concept map or semantic network organized like an encyclopedia \u2013 dictionary . it gives a brief definition of each concept and its relationships .\nthis is a giant online mental map that serves as a basis for concept diagrams . it ' s free to use and each article or document can be downloaded . it ' s a tool , resource or reference for study , research , education , learning or teaching , that can be used by teachers , educators , pupils or students ; for the academic world : for school , primary , secondary , high school , middle , technical degree , college , university , undergraduate , master ' s or doctoral degrees ; for papers , reports , projects , ideas , documentation , surveys , summaries , or thesis . here is the definition , explanation , description , or the meaning of each significant on which you need information , and a list of their associated concepts as a glossary . available in english , spanish , portuguese , japanese , chinese , french , german , italian , polish , dutch , russian , arabic , hindi , swedish , ukrainian , hungarian , catalan , czech , hebrew , danish , finnish , indonesian , norwegian , romanian , turkish , vietnamese , thai , greek , bulgarian , croatian , slovak , lithuanian , filipino , latvian , estonian and slovenian . more languages soon .\nall the information was extracted from wikipedia , and it ' s available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license .\ngoogle play , android and the google play logo are trademarks of google inc .\nunderlying maps using digital map data \u00a9 norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola\u2122 2018 . \u00a9 james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data \u00a9 nola\u2122 2018"]}
{"id": 751, "summary": [{"text": "the sailfin roughshark ( oxynotus paradoxus ) is a species of dogfish shark in the family oxynotidae , found in the eastern north atlantic from scotland to senegal between latitudes 41 \u00b0 n and 11 \u00b0 n , at depths of between 265 and 720 m ( 869 and 2,362 ft ) .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "its length is up to 1.2 m ( 3.9 ft ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its reproduction is ovoviviparous .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "o. paradoxus is thought to be a slow-moving predator of small benthic animal .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the sailfin roughsharks is found near the eastern atlantic ocean at those depths .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "however , it has been reported to be found on the shores of morocco , recently reported in the mid-atlantic ridge , and in the azores water .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "this species is an uncommon bycatch of bottom trawls , though there is insufficient information for the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) to assess its conservation status . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "sailfin roughshark", "paragraphs": ["en - sailfin roughshark , fr - humantin , sp - cerdo marino velero .\naverage size of the sailfin roughshark is 29 . 5 inches . maximum total length recorded was 46 . 4 inches .\nposted in creature feature . tags : deep sea , oxynotus paradoxus , sailfin roughshark , shark biologist . leave a comment \u00bb\nthe angular roughshark ( oxynotus centrina ) is a rough shark of the family oxynotidae . [ 1 ]\nhurst , richard .\nfactsheet : angular roughshark .\nfactsheet : angular roughshark . n . p . , n . d . web . 30 november 2013 . < urltoken > archived december 5 , 2013 , at the wayback machine . .\nbiologist carl linnaeus described the angular roughshark , o . centrina , in 1758 . this name was later finalized and accepted by the scientific community as the official name for the species in 1976 . [ 2 ]\njustification : the sailfin roughshark ( oxynotus paradoxus ) is an uncommon deepwater bottom shark found at depths from 265\u2013720 m . the species reaches a maximum reported size of up to 118 cm total length . moderately abundant in deeper offshore waters off the british isles . the species is probably taken as bycatch of offshore trawling fleets but no information is available on frequency . the species\u2019 known depth range is entirely within the range of deepwater fisheries operating in the northeast atlantic , although the mid - atlantic ridge and southern part of its range probably offer some refuge from fishing pressure . furthermore , it is possible that the sailfin roughshark is continuously distributed along the northeast and eastern central atlantic floor , deeper than presently known . alternatively , separate slope and ridge populations may exist . given the paucity of information available on this species it is assessed as data deficient . research is needed to better define the distribution , population structure and the impact of fisheries on the species .\ndownward we descend to explore more mysterious creatures in the deep ! the sailfin roughshark ( oxynotus paradoxus ) is another deep water species about which little information has been discovered . what we do know about this deep water shark is based on what scientists have visually observed . their bodies are a triangular shape , short and bluntly snouted with large denticles ( skin teeth ) covering the surface of their skin . the dorsal fins are very noticeable with tall sail - like fins which contains spines . as for the anal fin , well , it doesn\u2019t have one , which is somewhat atypical for a shark . you will find this uncommon species along the atlantic slope from scotland to senegal .\nscientific synonyms and common names oxynotus paradoxus frade , 1929 synonyms : oxynotus paradoxus frade , 1929 oxynotus paradoxus frade , 1929 , bull . soc . port . sci . nat . , 10 ( 22 ) : 263 - 267 , fig . 1 - 2 ( off morocco ) . holotype : mb no . t 114 . oxynotus paradoxus : frade , 1932 : pl . xx norman , 1932 : 77 - 79 , fig . 1 , pl . i fraser - brunner , 1935 : 320 tucker & palmer , 1949 : 930 - 931 krefft , 1955 : 158 - 160 , fig . i tortonese , 1956 : 168 bigelow & schroeder , 1957 : 1417 rae & lamont , 1960 : 78 cadenat , 1961 : 232 blacker , 1962 : 264 , 266 rae & pirie , 1967 : 30 ; 1968 : 201 went , 1968 : 36 wheeler , 1969 : 63 - 64 , fig . wheeler & blacker , 1969 : 313 maurin & bonnet , 1970 : 14 - 15 , fig . 9 ledoux , 1970 : 320 - 321 , fig . 3 . centrina paradoxa : cadenat , 1950 : 312 . common names : sailfin roughshark [ en ] humantin [ fr ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nnortheast atlantic : along the atlantic slope from scotland ( including the northern north sea ) , to ireland , southern england , france , spain , portugal , madeira , the canary islands , the azores ( compagno in prep , azevedo , sousa and brum 2003 ) . also recently reported from the mid - atlantic ridge ( hareide and garnes 2001 ) . eastern central atlantic : morocco , mauritania , sahara , senegal , and possibly southwards to the gulf of guinea . not recorded in the mediterranean ( compagno in prep ) . based on the presence of this species in the azores and mid - atlantic ridge , a bathybenthic habitat has been suggested , with spring reproductive migrations to the continental shelf . this represents a significant westward extension of its previously known geographic distribution . it is possible that o . paradoxus is continuously distributed along the north - eastern atlantic floor , deeper than presently known . alternatively , separate slope and ridge populations may exist ( azavedo et al . 2003 ) .\nfrance ; mauritania ; morocco ; portugal ( azores , madeira , portugal ( mainland ) ) ; senegal ; spain ( canary is . , spain ( mainland ) ) ; united kingdom ( great britain ) ; western sahara\nmoderately abundant off the british isles . catches in the waters of the british isles indicate that o . paradoxus is rare in inshore waters ( three individuals were reported from irish inshore waters by quigley and flannery 1994 ) , but numerous others have been caught in deeper offshore waters ( ni mhurachu and o\u2019connor 1987 , henderson 1996 , quigley and flannery 1996 ) .\nan uncommon deepwater bottom shark found on the continental slope at depths from 265\u2013720 m . its maximum size is about 118 cm total length ( tl ) , while size at birth about 25 cm tl . reproduction is ovoviviparous .\nthis species is an uncommon bycatch of offshore trawling fleets ( compagno 1984 ) . there is a continuing trend for deepwater fisheries in the northeast atlantic , with overall concern for the status of deepwater species . trawl and gillnet fisheries operate throughout the species\u2019 known depth range in areas of the northeast atlantic ( see ices 2006 , 2007 for further information on the fisheries ) , but no information is available on the bycatch of this species . the mid - atlantic ridge and southern part of the species\u2019 range , off the western africa coast , may offer some refuge from fishing pressure , particularly if the species\u2019 is continuously distributed along the northeast and eastern central atlantic floor , deeper than presently known .\nno measures are in place . further research is required to determine the true extent of the range of the species . like many poorly known deepwater species , research is also required into life history characteristics .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngreek , oxys = sharp + greek , noton = back ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; bathydemersal ; depth range 265 - 720 m ( ref . 35388 ) . deep - water ; 41\u00b0n - 11\u00b0n , 13\u00b0w - 3\u00b0w ( ref . 54694 )\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 120 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 35388 ) ; common length : 85 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . )\nfound on the continental slope . probably feeds on small bottom invertebrates and fishes . ovoviviparous .\ncompagno , l . j . v . , 1984 . fao species catalogue . vol . 4 . sharks of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date . part 1 - hexanchiformes to lamniformes . fao fish . synop . 125 ( 4 / 1 ) : 1 - 249 . rome , fao . ( ref . 247 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5625 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00389 ( 0 . 00180 - 0 . 00842 ) , b = 3 . 12 ( 2 . 94 - 3 . 30 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 0 \u00b10 . 60 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( fec assumed to be < 100 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : high vulnerability ( 63 of 100 ) .\ndiagnosis : small sharks with body triangular in cross - section , very deep and very compressed .\nbigelow , h . b . ; schroeder , w . c . 1957 . a study of the sharks of the suborder squaloidea . bull . mus . comp . zool . harv . , 117 ( 1 ) : 1 - 150 , fig . 1 - 16 , pl . iiv .\nblacker , r . w . 1962 . rare fishes from the atlantic slope fishing grounds . ann . mag . nat . hist . , ( 13 ) 5 : 261 - 271 , fig . 1 - 2 .\ncadenat , j . 1950 . note sur les merlus de la c\u00f4te occidentale d ' afrique . congr . p\u00eaches p\u00eacher . un . franc . d ' outre - mer , inst . col . marseille : 128 - 130 .\ncadenat , j . 1961b . notes d ' ichtyologie ouest - africaine . xxxiv . liste compl\u00e9mentaire des esp\u00e8ces de poissons de mer ( provenant des cotes de l ' afrique occidentale ) en collection \u00e0 la section de biologie marine de l ' i . f . a . n . \u00e0 gor\u00e9e . bull . inst . fr . afr . noire , ( a ) 23 ( 1 ) : 231 - 245 .\nfrade , f . 1929 . une nouvelle esp\u00e8ce ou une aberration individuelle de l ' oxynotus centrina ( l . ) . bull . soc . port . sci . nat . , 10 ( 22 ) : 263 - 267 , fig . 1 - 2 .\nfraser - brunner , a . 1935 . new or rare fishes from the irish atlantic slope . proc . r . ir . acad . , 42 ( b - 9 ) : 319 - 326 , fig . 1 - 5 .\nkrefft , g . 1955 . ichthyologische mitteilungen aus dem institut f\u00fcr seefischerei der bundesforschungsanstalt f\u00fcr fischerei . iv . 6 . weitere bemerkenswerte fische aus den gew\u00e4ssern des island - f\u00e4r\u00f6er - r\u00fcckens . zool . anz . , 154 ( 7 / 8 ) : 157 - 164 , fig . 1 - 2 .\nledoux , j . c . 1970 . les dents des squalid\u00e9s de la m\u00e9diterran\u00e9e occidentale et de l ' atlantique nord - ouest africain . vie milieu , 21 ( 2a ) : 309 - 362 , 21 fig .\nmaurin , c . ; bonnet , m . 1970 . poissons des c\u00f4tes nord - ouest africaines ( campagnes de la ' thalassa ' , 1962 et 1968 ) . rev . trav . inst . ( scient . tech . ) pech . marit . , 34 ( 2 ) : 125 - 170 , fig . 1 - 26 .\nnorman , j . r . 1932 . note on a shark , oxynotus paradoxus frade , new to the british fauna . proc . zool . soc . lond . , ( 5 ) : 77 - 79 , fig . 1 , pl . i .\nrae , b . b . ; pirie , s . f . 1968 . scottish records of rare fishes 1967 . annls biol . , copenh . , 24 ( 1967 ) : 201202 .\ntortonese , e . 1956b . leptocardia , ciclostomata , selachii . fauna ital . , 2 : 334 p . , 163 fig .\ntucker , d . w . ; palmer , c . 1949 . new british records of two rare deep - sea fishes : oxynotus paradoxus frade and aphanopus carbo lowe . nature , lond , 146 ( 4178 ) : 930 - 931 , 1 fig .\nwent , a . e . j . 1968 . rare fishes taken in irish waters in 1967 . ir . nat . j . , 16 : 35 - 39 .\nwheeler , a . 1969 . the fishes of the british isles and north - west europe . macmillan , london , melbourne and toronto : i - xvii + 1 - 163 , 5 + 177 fig . , + 392 fig . ( princ . sp . ) + 92 n . num . fig . , 16 pl . , maps .\nwheeler , a . ; blacker , r . w . 1972 . rare and little - known fishes in british seas in 1968 and 1969 . j . fish biol . , 4 : 141 - 170 , 1 fig .\nvery little has been documented on this particular shark . they have a short , blunt snout , high , sail - like dorsal fins with spines , no anal fin . first dorsal spine inclined backward , high , thick , triangular body with large , rough denticles .\nthis species has lanceolate upper teeth , and lower bladelike teeth in less than 12 rows .\nnortheast atlantic : scotland to canaries , azores , senegal , and possibly gulf of guinea . they inhabit continental slope , from depths of 869 . 4 feet to 2 , 362 . 2 feet .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nenglish - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers\nsorry , no definitions found . check out and contribute to the discussion of this word !\nlog in or sign up to get involved in the conversation . it ' s quick and easy .\nwordnik is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organization , ein # 47 - 2198092 .\na female angular rough shark ca . 60 cm of tl , from the sea of marmara . | fishbase link : urltoken learn more about it at urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndogfish sharks are the second largest of shark orders with 119 species . dogfish come in all shapes , sizes , and colors and they live in almost every ocean habitat and depth . this group of sharks are an exercise in extremes . dogfish are represented by what is thought to be the smallest shark species ( dwarf lantern shark , which only grows to about 6 inches ) and some of the largest ( greenland and sleeper sharks ) .\nthese sharks can also be found at extreme depths , down to thousands of meters ! some species have nasty - looking spines accessorizing their dorsal fins , while others hardly look like a shark at all with tall sail - like dorsal fins . other species are bioluminescent , with dazzling displays of vivid greenish bands potentially used to attract and confuse prey , or to hide from predators . dogfish sharks are an excellent example of the exciting biodiversity that can be found among sharks !\nmarine ; most species bottom oriented . widely diversified and wide - ranging , dogfish sharks are in coastal and oceanic waters , from cool temperate to deep tropical waters\ndiverse as are the species . range from boney fishes , crustacea , to marine mammals\ncarpet sharks derive their name from both their bottom - dwell [ . . . ]\nmackerel sharks include the most famous sharks such as the t [ . . . ]\ndogfish sharks are highly diverse with the second largest gr [ . . . ]\nbullhead sharks are relatively inelegant for a shark , living [ . . . ]\nsawsharks resemble sawfish , with a long , toothy , sword - like [ . . . ]\nshark savers is a program of wildaid , a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organization . copyright \u00a9 2018 wildaid . all rights reserved .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\n: urltoken contains images of sharks , skates , rays , and a few chimaera ' s from around the world . elasmodiver began as a simple web based\nto help divers find the best places to encounter the different species of sharks and rays that live in shallow water but it has slowly evolved into a much larger project containing information on all aspects of shark diving and shark photography .\nthere are now more than 10 , 000 shark pictures and sections on shark evolution , biology , and conservation . there is a large library of reviewed shark books , a constantly updated shark taxonomy page , a monster list of shark links , and deeper in the site there are numerous articles and stories about shark encounters . elasmodiver is now so difficult to check for updates , that new information and pictures are listed on an elasmodiver updates page that can be accessed here :\nthe taxonomy of sharks and rays is a subject that remains in hot debate . although the majority of elasmobranch families have been nailed down there will always be individual species that don ' t quite fit the characteristics of their sibling species . consequently species are occasionally reclassified or simply listed as awaiting review . one of the most confusing of families is the potamotrygonidae - the fresh water stingrays of south america . not only do these ray species adopt extremely varied patterns that are sometimes visually indistinguishable from other species , they also produce hybrids in certain parts of their ranges leaving us wondering what exactly a true species is anyway .\namong shark taxonomists conservative estimates of the number of known shark species is now approaching 500 . combined with the 700 or more species of rays and skates there are well over a thousand valid species of elasmobranches . in the past many more species were described only to be discounted later as being synonymous with elasmobranches already described from other geographic areas . in recent years this problem has lessened because taxonomic data has become easier to share over the internet . however , taxonomists are as vain as the rest of us and in their efforts to be the first to describe ( and name ) a new species there is often a counterproductive lack of collaboration .\nsome abyssal species have been described from only one or two specimens captured during deep water trawls . this implies that in all likelihood there are many shark and ray species lurking on the abyssal plain that have not yet been seen or captured . the best example being the relatively recent discovery of the megamouth shark . if this large and slow moving shark could remain hidden until the 1980 ' s , who knows how many other elasmobranches have gone unnoticed .\nfollowing is a list ( in need of an update ) of all the described species of elasmobranchs . included at the bottom are the holocephali ( the chimaeras or ghost sharks ) that share many characteristics with modern sharks and rays but are thought to be descended from a different group of cartilaginous fishes that thrived during the late devonian period .\noccasionally new species of sharks and rays are described by science . in some cases they have been well known for a while e . g . the western wobbegong but no one has gotten around to describing them . more exciting is when a deep water trawl or a lucky diving expedition uncovers a species that the scientific community was completely unaware of . this page on elasmodiver highlights the discovery of these species . many thanks to helmut nickel who somehow manages to find out whenever a new species is described and diligently informs the rest of the lay community of shark fanatics through shark - l . without his input i wouldn ' t have a clue .\nif you have information about a species i have overlooked please email me the information and i will add it to the list .\nincludes a key to identifying the genus of the dasyatidae ( whiptail stingrays ) .\nincludes a key to identifying the genus of the potamotrygonidae ( river stingrays ) .\nphylum chordata - animals that at some point in their life cycle have the following : pharyngeal slits ( a series of openings connecting the inside of the throat to the outside of the neck . in fish these become gill slits ) , dorsal nerve cord ( a bundle of nerve fibres running down the back , connecting the brain with the organs and extremities , a notochord ( a cartilaginous rod supporting the nerve cord ) , post anal tail ( an extension of the ' back ' past the anal opening ) .\nsubphylum vertebrata - animals with a vertibral column or backbone and neural crest cells which are released as the nerve cord is forming , these cells move through the body to form major nerves , neural ganglia , and many head and facial features . other features that separate vertebrates from other chordates include : a relatively well - developed brain , paired complex eyes , a muscularized mouth and pharynx , and a well - developed circulatory system with a heart .\nclass chondrichthyes - cartilaginous fishes lacking true bone . chondrichthyes can be split into two distinct subclasses elasmobranchii and bradyodonti .\nsubclass elasmobranchii - sharks , skates and rays ( and some fossil relatives ) . elasmobranchs have an upper jaw that is not fused to the braincase and separate slitted gill openings .\nsubclass holocephali - includes forms with an upper jaw fused to the braincase and a flap of skin , the operculum , covering the gill slits . the holocephalii includes the chimaeras and ratfishes , which are relatively rare , often deep - water , mollusc - eating forms .\nnarcine brevilabiata - ( offshore species found on continental tropical waters , known from a depth of 49 m ) .\nnarcine prodorsalis - ( continental waters both inshore and offshore . known from a depth of 49m ) .\nnarcine vermiculatus - vermiculate electric ray ( benthic on soft bottoms in protected coastal areas ) .\ntemera hardwickii - pari karas ( malay / indonesian . found inshore and offshore )\nj . p . c . b . da silva & m . r . de carvalho , 2011\ntarsistes philippii jordan , 1919 no common name . known from one dried head from chile\nrhynchobatus immaculatus peter r . last1 , hsuan - ching ho2 , 3 , * & rou - rong chen3 2013\ncallorhinchus milii ( elephantfish ) occurs on continental shelves of cool temperate areas of australia and new zealand to depths of at least 200 m . migrates into large estuaries and inshore bays in spring to breed .\nchimaera monstrosa ( rabbit fish ) atlantic . upper continental slopes , 40 to 100m .\nhydrolagus affinis ( smalleyed rabbitfish , atlantic chimaera ) eastern atlantic , mediterranean . continental slopes to deep - sea plains .\nhydrolagus lemures ( blackfin ghostshark ) common and wide - ranging chimaera of the australian outer continental shelf and upper slopes .\nhydrolagus mirabilis ( large - eyed rabbitfish ) moderately common on continental slopes . feeds on small fishes and invertebrates . oviparous\nharriotta haeckeli ( smallspine spookfish ) north atlantic , taken in 1800 - 2600 m ; specimens collected by russian vessels from submarine seamounts of the indian ocean in 1400 - 1730 m ; off st . helens ( tasmania ) in 1480 - 1700 m .\np . o . box 8719 station central , victoria , bc . , v8w 3s3 , canada\nhtml public ' / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en ' ' urltoken '\noxynotus paradoxus frade , 1929 , bull . soc . portugaise sci . nat . , 10 ( 22 ) : 22 , fig . 1 . holotype : in museu bocage , lisbon , apparently lost in a fire that destroyed the museum . type locality : off morocco .\nfieldmarks : short , blunt snout , high , sail - like dorsal fins with spines , no anal fin , first dorsal spine inclined backward , high , thick , triangular body with large , rough denticles , lanceolate upper teeth , lower bladelike teeth in less than 12 rows , blackish coloration .\nspiracle small and circular . supraorbital ridges not greatly expanded and not forming a knob in front of spiracles . apices of dorsal fins narrowly triangular , posterior margins strongly concave ; first dorsal spine inclined backward . blackish or dark brown , without prominent markings .\nan uncommon deepwater bottom shark found on the atlantic continental slope , at depths from 265 to 720 m . moderately abundant off british isles . ovoviviparous .\ncaught in bottom trawls . used for fishmeal . uncommon as a bycatch of offshore trawling fleets .\nfao species catalogue vol . 4 . sharks of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date part 1 - hexanchiformes to lamniformes . compagno , l . j . v . 1984fao fisheries synopsis . , ( 125 ) vol . 4 , part 1 .\nhabitat : coral covered and muddy bottoms , deepwater location : southwest pacific , west atlantic , east atlantic , mediterrean , caribbean , and west pacific size : description : their is very little known about roughsharks due to limited studies . they are identified by their triangular fin and large eyes . diet : worms , crustaceans , mollusks , and small fish feeding habits : slow swimmers offspring : 7 - 23 pups per litter lifespan : unknown status : not evaluated threatened by : bycatch\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nroughsharks ( oxynotidae ) are a group of small sharks that are mostly bottom - dwellers . they have a stout , laterally - compressed body , no anal fin , and a prominent ridge along the abdomen . their lower teeth point backwards and the upper teeth are larger in the back of the mouth .\nkento furui added an unknown common name in an unknown language to\nzameus\n.\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30d3\u30ed\u30a6\u30c9\u30b6\u30e1\nto\nzameus squamulosus ( g\u00fcnther , 1877 )\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ngeonetwork opensource allows to easily share geographically referenced thematic information between different organizations . for more information please contact\nthe raster dataset of soil drainage has a spatial resolution of 5 * 5 arc minutes and is in geographic projection . information with regard to soil drainage was obtained from the\nderived soil propert\ncr\u00e9\u00e9e le 28 janvier 1976 , la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 fran\u00e7aise d\u2019ichtyologie s\u2019est d\u00e9velopp\u00e9e et internationalis\u00e9e rapidement . malgr\u00e9 un changement de statut en 1988 , ses objectifs n\u2019ont pas vari\u00e9 depuis 1976 . c\u2019est pour r\u00e9pondre au quatri\u00e8me point de ses objectifs \u2013 assurer la liaison entre ses membres par la diffusion d\u2019une publication sp\u00e9cifique \u2013 que la revue cybium fut cr\u00e9\u00e9e d\u00e8s 1977 . la sfi a pris aussi l\u2019initiative de publier ou d\u2019aider \u00e0 publier certains ouvrages qui ont fait l\u2019objet ou non de num\u00e9ros sp\u00e9ciaux de la revue .\ncybium , \u00e9dit\u00e9e par la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 fran\u00e7aise d\u2019ichtyologie , publie des articles originaux , des articles de synth\u00e8se , des r\u00e9sum\u00e9s de th\u00e8se , des analyses bibliographiques et des informations int\u00e9ressant les membres de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 ou l\u2019ensemble des ichtyologistes . les sujets trait\u00e9s doivent avoir un rapport direct avec l\u2019ichtyologie g\u00e9n\u00e9rale , fondamentale ou appliqu\u00e9e , qu\u2019il s\u2019agisse de poissons d\u2019eau douce ou de poissons marins , actuels ou fossiles .\nthe europeen society of marine biotechnology ( esmb ) and the tunisian association of bioressources valorization ( atvab ) will organize the international congress for marine biotechnology on 17th - . . . lire la suite\nvous trouverez ci - dessous le le compte rendu des rif18 ainsi que le livre des r\u00e9sum\u00e9s et quelques photos .\nseminiferous tubule number and surface : validation of objective parameters to estimate reproduction activity of male european anchovy ( engraulis encrasicolus , l . )\nphysiculus sudanensis paulin , 1989 , a junior synonym of p . dalwigki kaup , 1858 ( teleostei , gadiformes , moridae ) , with a redescription of p . dalwigki\ng . prestes - carneiro , p . b\u00e9arez , k . dillenseger , t . yunoki\nfound on the continental shelf and upper slope to at least 430 m ( ref . 247 ) . feeds on bony fish , also shrimp , mysids and squid ( ref . 5578 ) . ovoviviparous ( ref . 50449 ) , with 5 to 7 young in a litter ( ref . 247 ) . probably uses its saw to stun and kill prey ( ref . 5578 ) . sometimes caught by sports anglers ( ref . 5578 ) .\nwarm - temperate and subtropical continental shelves and upper slopes from the western cape of south africa to southern mozambique and southeastern madagascar . normally absent from the cold - temperate west coast of south africa , north from cape town . depth range 37 m to at least 500 m . bimodal distribution off the southern cape coast of south africa . most records are from between 20 and 21 on the outer continental shelf of the western cape ( cape agulhas and cape infanta , 60 to 160 m , mostly 70 to 140 m ) and between 25 and 27 longitude on continental shelf and upper slope of eastern cape from port elizabeth to port alfred ( 70 to 290 m , mostly 80 to 120 m ) . few intermediate records between these two areas , no records below 300 m on the cape coast . possible pupping grounds in eastern cape ( near algoa bay ) and off kwazulu - natal . off central kwazulu - natal , occurs at 73 to 430 m , mostly below 110 m . has been taken at 360 m off delagoa bay , mozambique and at 425 to 500 m off southeastern madagascar ( compagno in prep . a ) .\nwestern indian ocean : off madagascar and from southern mozambique to cape agulhas , south africa .\nfound on the continental shelf and upper slope to at least 430 m . feeds on small fish ( including @ champsodon @ ) , crustaceans and squids . adults are partially segregated from young by occuring in greater depths . ovoviviparous , with 5 to 7 young in a litter ( others have 7 to 17 developing eggs ) .\nthe only shark with a saw - snout and 6 pairs of gill slits ( ref . 5578 ) . pale brown above , white below ( ref . 6587 ) .\noffshore benthic and epibenthic species on the warm - temperate and subtropical continental shelves and upper slopes of southern africa and madagascar at 37 m to at least 500 m , with apparent tropical submersion northeastwards along its range and onto the uppermost slopes . bimodal distribution in south african cape waters may be linked to restricted habitat ( possibly related to feeding ) . biology , ecology and behaviour sketchily known . ovoviviparous , with 5 to 7 pups / litter ( but 7 to 17 developing eggs recorded ) . populations partially segregated ; young occur in shallower water than adults off kwazulu - natal , south africa . possible pupping grounds in eastern cape ( near algoa bay ) and off kwazulu - natal . feeds on small fish , crustaceans and squid . predators poorly known but include tiger shark ( compagno in prep . a ) . known life history parameters size at maturity : 110 cm total length ( tl ) ( females ) ; 83 cm tl ( males ) . maximum size : at least 112 cm tl ( males ) and 136 cm tl ( females ) . size at birth : 35 to 37 cm tl . average annual fecundity or litter size : 5 to 7 young per litter in two females ; others with 1 to 17 eggs .\ndepth range based on 138 specimens in 1 taxon . water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 90 samples . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 42 - 915 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 8 . 693 - 18 . 507 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 6 . 303 - 21 . 685 salinity ( pps ) : 34 . 738 - 35 . 415 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 4 . 287 - 4 . 730 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 525 - 1 . 634 silicate ( umol / l ) : 7 . 117 - 24 . 114 graphical representation depth range ( m ) : 42 - 915 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 8 . 693 - 18 . 507 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 6 . 303 - 21 . 685 salinity ( pps ) : 34 . 738 - 35 . 415 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 4 . 287 - 4 . 730 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 525 - 1 . 634 silicate ( umol / l ) : 7 . 117 - 24 . 114 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .\ndepth : 60 - 430m . from 60 to 430 meters . habitat : demersal . found on the continental shelf and upper slope to at least 430 m . feeds on small fish ( including @ champsodon @ ) , crustaceans and squids . adults are partially segregated from young by occuring in greater depths . ovoviviparous , with 5 to 7 young in a litter ( others have 7 to 17 developing eggs ) . sometimes caught by anglers ( ref . 5578 ) .\ndemersal ; marine ; depth range 60 - 430 m ( ref . 5578 ) , usually 60 - ? m\nfeeds on fish , cephalopods , benthic invertebrates and zooplankton ( ref . 5578 ) .\novoviviparous , with 5 to 7 young in a litter ( others have 7 to 17 developing eggs ) . size at birth about 35 cm . embryos feed solely on yolk ( ref . 50449 ) .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there is 1 barcode sequence available from bold and genbank .\nbelow is the sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .\npliotrema warreni is a southern african endemic with a relatively restricted geographic distribution , depth range of 37 m to at least 500 m , and possibly a discontinuous habitat distribution . likely a relatively unproductive species , with fairly small litters and relatively large size at maturity compared with some other sawsharks . vulnerable to net gear because of its morphology . taken as discarded , unmonitored bycatch in demersal trawlers throughout much of its range . although population and trend data are lacking , levels of bycatch of this species are considered likely to be unsustainable . p . warreni is assessed as near threatened due to concerns regarding its vulnerability to this unmonitored fishing pressure and its restricted distribution .\nbycatch of demersal bottom trawlers off south africa and southern mozambique . intensive offshore trawl fisheries occur in its known range , but trends in occurrence of this species as bycatch are unmonitored . it is apparently unutilized and discarded ( compagno in prep . a ) . probably not sufficiently common in bycatch to be worth marketing .\nthe sixgill sawshark , pliotrema warreni , the only member of the genus pliotrema , is a sawshark of the family pristiophoridae . presence of 6 pairs of gill slits highlights this genus among sharks ; outside hexanchiformes order , pliotrema is the only shark with more than 5 gill slits . unlike other sawsharks , the barbs on this shark ' s rostrum continue onto the sides of the head . its barbels are also closer to its mouth than in other species . at maximum , females can reach over 136 cm long , and males can reach over 112 cm long .\n, at depths of between 37 and 500 m . this shark lives in the\nzones of the continental shelf . adults are partially segregated from juveniles , as they naturally tend to aggregate at lower depths .\n, sixgill sawsharks are able to find their prey and then incapacitate them with their rostrum . their known diet includes small fish , crustaceans , and squids . the only observed predator of the sixgill sawshark is the\n, though it is likely other large sharks predate this species . these sharks , like other sawsharks , are\n. they are thought to breed annually , giving birth to around five to seven pups per litter . it is possible that they come to inshore pupping grounds to give birth . the pups are around 35 cm at birth , and they later mature at around 83 cm if they are male , and around 110 cm if they are female .\n. this is because of their restricted geographical range , small litters , high age of maturity , and extreme vulnerability to bottom trawling fishing . though they are not sought after in any market , they are frequently caught as by - catch and disposed . because of their deep habitat , sixgill sawsharks are not considered a threat to people .\nfowler , s . l . 2004 . pliotrema warreni . in : iucn 2013 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2013 . 2 . < urltoken > . downloaded on 30 december 2013 .\ncompagno , leonardo , dando , marc and fowler , sarah . sharks of the world . princeton university press . 2005 . pg 131 - 132 .\nfroese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2006 ) .\npliotrema warreni\nin fishbase . may 2006 version .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nmax length : 120 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 35388 ) ; common length : 85 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . )\nmarine ; bathydemersal ; depth range 265 - 720 m ( ref . 35388 )\ndeep - water , preferred 18\u00b0c ( ref . 107945 ) ; 41\u00b0n - 11\u00b0n , 13\u00b0w - 3\u00b0w ( ref . 54694 )\npd 50 = 0 . 5625 many relatives ( e . g . carps ) 0 . 5 - 2 . 0 few relatives ( e . g . lungfishes )\nlow , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( fec assumed to be < 100 )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhow do you become a shark biologist ? first , stay in school ! you would need to study hard and earn a masters or phd . it might seem hard or scary , but it is worth it to be able learn and become an expert in something that interests you . you can do it ! as a shark biologist you will learn all about shark life processes , answering questions about how large they grow , how fast they grow , their mating rituals , the physics of sharks\u2019 movements , behavior , diet , and diseases . there is so much to learn and discover , and if you want to , you can be the discoverer !\nas a shark biologist , you generally would focus your studies on one species in great detail , though you may learn lots about other species as well . because sharks in the wild can be hard to observe , it can take many years to collect information and address one question . you may use many different types of technology to help in your exploring endeavors . you would spend time in the field but you would also work in a lab as you experiment and analyze data . then , of course , you would dedicate a good amount of time to reading and studying to further knowledge , helping you on your pathway to understanding .\nso if you love the water and you are flexible , hard worker , and outside the box thinker , you might just be a shark biologist in the making . you can practice now by researching your very own question on sharks .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\ncontrary to popular belief , sharks do occur around the coasts of britain . in fact we have over 40 species ! including some of the fastest , rarest , largest and most highly migratory in the world !\nat least 21 species live in british waters all year round . you\u2019re very unlikely to encounter one during a trip to the beach . yet , you may find evidence of smallspotted catsharks or nursehounds . these species reproduce by laying eggs . and you can often find their empty eggcases washed up in the strandline .\nhelp us search the coastline for shark , skate and ray eggcases ! eggcase hunting is great fun for all the family and you\u2019ll be helping shark conservation . \u25ba visit our great eggcase hunt project to find out more .\nas well as the 21 resident sharks , there are at least 11 deepwater shark species . including the portuguese dogfish , black dogfish , kitefin shark and gulper shark .\nsadly , over 50 % of our british sharks are now under threat . this includes the once common angelshark , which is now rarely encountered . today they ' re listed as critically endangered on the iucn red list . in 2008 , we helped to secure domestic protection for them in uk waters . and now they\u2019re one of the most heavily protected sharks in the northeast atlantic .\nin the warmer months you may be lucky enough to spot the world\u2019s second largest fish . the filter - feeding basking shark ! often seen basking in the sun ( thus it ' s name ) and feasting on plankton . basking shark season tends to be may - october . and there are a few hotspots around the british isles where you ' ll most likely spot them . find out more by visiting our basking shark project .\nother seasonal visitors include the blue shark and shortfin mako . blue sharks are highly migratory and can travel over 5 , 700 miles ( 9 , 200 km ) in a single trip . the shortfin mako is the fastest shark on record . they can reach speeds of up to 30mph ! enabling them to catch fast - swimming prey such as tuna and swordfish .\nsome sharks , such as the smooth hammerhead and frilled shark , may occasionally enter our waters .\nthere ' s much debate about whether white sharks are in british waters . but , as exciting as that would be , it ' s very unlikely . there ' s been no confirmed sightings or strong evidence to suggest they ' re here . yet , british waters do provide good conditions for white sharks , so it ' s not impossible . the closest confirmed report was of a female white shark . captured in 1977 in the northern bay of biscay \u2013 168 miles off land\u2019s end , cornwall . in 2014 , a tagged white shark called lydia was documented as the first of its species to cross the mid - atlantic ridge . although she was still 1 , 000 miles from british shores .\nwe keep a close eye on such reports . so , if a white shark were to be sighted in uk waters , we\u2019d be the first to know .\nshark sightings are all too often sensationalised in the media to generate news . causing unnecessary concern and even fear .\nonly a few sharks are potentially dangerous to humans . none of these have ever been reported in british waters . there have also been no unprovoked shark bites in british waters since records began in 1847 . with so many shark species under threat we think that seeing a shark in british waters should be a cause for celebration . not alarm .\nthere are many ways you can help sharks . from getting involved in our projects , becoming a member or adding your voice to one of our campaigns . find out more by visiting our get involved page .\n\u00a9 2018 shark trust ( unless otherwise attributed ) . registered charity no . 1064185 . registered company no . 3396164 . website by fear of mice .\nyour id and password were blank . would you like to create a new account ?\nthe source code for the wiki 2 extension is being checked by specialists of the mozilla foundation , google , and apple . you could also do it yourself at any point in time .\nwould you like wikipedia to always look as professional and up - to - date ? we have created a browser extension .\nit will enhance any encyclopedic page you visit with the magic of the wiki 2 technology .\ni use wiki 2 every day and almost forgot how the original wikipedia looks like .\nof perfecting techniques ; in live mode . quite the same wikipedia . just better .\nat birth , they are less than 25 cm ( 9 . 8 in ) and they mature at about 50 cm ( 20 in ) . most records are of individuals less than 1 m ( 3 . 3 ft ) , but they can reach about 1 . 5 m ( 4 . 9 ft ) . their litter size is seven or eight pups off angola to 23 in the mediterranean . they have ridges over their eyes that expand into large , rounded knobs , which are covered with enlarged denticles \u2013 these are absent in other species of rough sharks . they possess very large spiracles that are vertically elongated , being almost as high as the length of their eyes . their first dorsal spine is oriented slightly forward . they feed on worms , crustaceans , and mollusks . [ 3 ]\noxynotus centrina has a compressed body , triangular in cross section , with a broad and flattened head . the snout is flat and blunt . just like all of the oxynotus species , they have two relatively large dorsal fins that are sail - like , and no anal fin . their color scheme is grey ogayr grey - brown dorsally with dark blotched on its head and sides . however , one identifying feature is the light horizontal line below the eyes on the cheek . [ 4 ]\nsince it shares the northeast atlantic with another species of oxynotus , other distinguishing features include the extremely large spiracles , their dorsal fins , and their large dermal denticles above their eyes . like most of the oxynotus species , o . centrina has lanceolate upper teeth and blade - like lower teeth , with 12 rows of teeth on either side . [ 4 ]\noxynotus centrina usually moves by gliding on the bottom of the sea , sometimes hovering over the sandy or muddy surfaces of the seabed . [ 5 ]\nthey occur in the eastern atlantic from norway to south africa , including the entire mediterranean . they may also occur off mozambique . they prefer coralline algal and muddy bottoms on continental shelves and upper slopes at depths of 50 to 660 m ( 160 to 2 , 170 ft ) , but occur mostly below 100 m ( 330 ft ) . [ 3 ]\nmale and female angular roughsharks are reported to mature at about 50\u201370 cm . although , some studies have shown that females mature at a slightly larger size than males . being an ovoviviparous species , o . centrina produces 10 - 12 pups usually between 21 and 24 cm in length . [ 4 ]\nsome data has been gathered on this species of oxynotus in the period from 1994 to 1999 in the mediterranean . o . centrina was only present in 0 . 6 % of the tows during this period at a depth of 100 to 200 m . regional indexes indicate this species is more common in the western central mediterranean and lower index in the western and eastern mediterranean . however , o . centrina was completely absent from the eastern central mediterranean . [ 2 ]\nin 1948 , trawl surveys indicated that o . centrina was once present , but uncommon , in the adriatic . although , the species has been absent in subsequent studies in the adriatic , suggesting a possible extinction of that species in the area . however , recent studies , done by lipej in 2004 , show that some juveniles have been caught in the central adriatic . also , some data collected during the surveys in the balearic sea and the ionian sea found one specimen at 800 m in the western ionian sea , suggesting that the population of o . centrina , in the east - central mediterranean , has an unknown population . [ 2 ]\nhowever , this species was absent in the northeast atlantic in a study of deepwater longline fishing for sharks near the canary islands . this is important because this species was abundant in this region until 1997 . [ 2 ]\noxynotus centrina in a minor bycatch of offshore fisheries such as trawl fleets . although this can have a negative impact on the species , as stated above , the species had been thought extinct in the adriatic , decreased fishing has led to their rediscovery . [ 2 ]\nthis species , sometimes caught by fishermen in the mediterranean , has little to no commercial value . also , it is thought to bring bad luck to fisherman if caught and kept . although when released , it has never been reported to survive . [ 2 ]\nthe iucn red list of threatened species has deemed this species of oxynotus as vulnerable due to consistent landings by fisherman and bycatch by deepsea fisheries . [ 2 ]\nfroese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2006 ) .\noxynotus centrina\nin fishbase . july 2006 version .\noxynotus centrina .\n( angular rough shark ) . n . p . , n . d . web . 1 december 2013 . < urltoken > .\ncompagno , l . , dando , m . and fowler , s . sharks of the world . princeton field guides isbn 0 - 691 - 12072 - 2\nangular rough shark ( oxynotus centrina ) .\nangular rough shark videos , photos and facts . n . p . , n . d . web . 1 december 2013 . < urltoken > .\nthis page was last edited on 16 february 2018 , at 15 : 12 .\nbasis of this page is in wikipedia . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 unported license . non - text media are available under their specified licenses . wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation , inc . wiki 2 is an independent company and has no affiliation with wikimedia foundation .\nthat give them a\nsmooth\nappearance . both species are slender - bodied with long heads , two\nin honor of henry b . bigelow ( who , along with william c . schroeder and\nthis species may also be referred to as the smooth lanternshark or the blurred smooth lanternshark .\n, the blurred lanternshark has a slender body , large head , and short tail . the snout is wedge - shaped and slightly flattened , tapering to a point . the\nare large , with short flaps of skin in front . the eyes are oval in shape with a deep anterior notch in the\nthan the pelvic fins , and bear a straight , grooved spine in front . the second dorsal fin is half again as tall as the first and bears a longer , curved spine . the pectoral fins are rounded at the tips , with the distance between them and the medium - sized , angular pelvic fins about equal to the distance between the dorsal fins . the\nwith a well - developed lower lobe and a broad upper lobe with a ventral notch near the tip . the small , blocky dermal denticles are densely but irregularly arranged , each with a flat , truncate crown . the coloration is brown or gray above , with a pale spot over the\n, and black below extending in faint markings over the sides of the head , under the pectoral fins , over the pelvic fins , and below the caudal peduncle .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 11 / 7 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files ."]}
{"id": 756, "summary": [{"text": "nacaduba cyanea , the tailed green-banded line-blue , is a species of butterfly in the family lycaenidae , and formerly considered a member of the genus danis .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in the indonesia ( irian jaya , maluku ) , papua new guinea , the solomon islands and australia ( queensland ) .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 30 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adult males are blue with a dark brown wing margin .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is a pale blue to white patch on the hindwing .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "females are white with a broad black border and a row of blue edged black spots .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on entada phaseoloides and entada scandens .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they are bright green with pale brown head .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the larvae are attended by ants of the anonychomyrma genus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "pupation takes place in a brown pupa with dark markings", "topic": 11}], "title": "nacaduba cyanea", "paragraphs": ["tennent wj ( 2015 ) a new subspecies of nacaduba cyanea cramer , 1775 , from woodlark island , milne bay province , papua new guinea ( lepidoptera , lycaenidae ) . . nachrichten des entomologischen vereins apollo n . f . , 36 ( 4 ) : 219 - 220 .\n\u201c across the world , natural - history collections hold thousands of species awaiting identification . in fact , researchers today find many more novel animals and plants by sifting through decades - old specimens than they do by surveying tropical forests and remote landscapes . an estimated three - quarters of newly named mammal species are already part of a natural - history collection at the time they are identified . they sometimes sit unrecognised for a century or longer , hidden in drawers , half - forgotten in jars , misidentified , unlabelled . \u201d museums : the endangered dead ( c . kemp , nature 518 ( 7539 ) : 292\u2013294 , london , 19 th february 2015 ) a new subspecies of nacaduba cyanea ( cramer , 1775 ) , n . c . sanane ssp . n . , from the indonesian island of buru is described and illustrated . it is compared with nominotypical cyanea ( tl : \u201cwest - indi\u00ebn\u201d [ = west indies ] ; recte : \u201coost - indi\u00ebn\u201d [ = east indies ] ) and n . c . obiana ( fruhstorfer , 1915 ) ( tl : obi ) . all eight currently recognised moluccan subspecies of n . cyanea , including n . c . sanane ssp . n . , are illustrated and a map depicting their distribution in the moluccas is presented .\nthe male adults are blue with a dark brown edge around each wing . the hindwings have a pale blue or even white patch across them , and each hindwing has a tail near the\nunderneath , both sexes are similar , with white forewings having a wide dark brown edge . the wings underneath are white with wide black\nof each hindwing , each spot surrounded by an iridescent green ring . the butterflies have a wing span of about 3 cms .\nthe eggs are white , round , and flattened , with a finely pitted surface . they are laid singly on tendrils and young growth of a foodplant .\n, csiro publishing , melbourne 2000 , vol . 2 , pp . 786 - 787 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies . by continuing to browse the site you are agreeing to our use of cookies .\nbrill\u2019s mybook program is exclusively available on brillonline books and journals . students and scholars affiliated with an institution that has purchased a brill e - book on the brillonline platform automatically have access to the mybook option for the title ( s ) acquired by the library . brill mybook is a print - on - demand paperback copy which is sold at a favorably uniform low price .\n< ? xml version =\n1 . 0\nencoding =\nutf - 8\n? > < event > < eventlog > < portalid > brill < / portalid > < sessionid > plgmgxfa2s7s3s _ a _ yr - 32bk . x - brill - live - 02 < / sessionid > < useragent > python / 3 . 5 aiohttp / 3 . 3 . 2 < / useragent > < identityid > guest < / identityid > < identity _ list > guest < / identity _ list > < ipaddress > 35 . 238 . 145 . 138 < / ipaddress > < eventtype > personalisation < / eventtype > < createdon > 1531168680333 < / createdon > < / eventlog > < eventlogproperty > < item _ id > urltoken < / item _ id > < type > favourite < / type > < / eventlogproperty > < / event >\ncramer , p . [ & stoll , c . ] , 1775\u20131790 . de uitlandsche kapellen voorkomende in de drie waereld - deelen asia , africa en america , 1 ( 1\u20137 ) : xxx , 16 , 1\u2013132 , pl . 1\u201384 ( 1775 ) , 1 ( 8 ) : 133\u2013156 , pl . 85\u201396 ( 1776 ) , 2 ( 9\u201316 ) : 157\u2013208 , pl . 97\u2013192 ( 1777 ) , 3 ( 17\u201321 ) : 1\u2013104 , pl . 193\u2013252 ( 1779 ) , 3 ( 22\u201324 ) : 105\u2013176 , pl . 253\u2013288 ( 1780 ) [ by cramer ; published by stoll after cramer\u2019s death ] , 4 ( 25\u201326a ) : 1\u201328 , pl . 289\u2013304 ( 1780 ) [ by cramer ; published by stoll after cramer\u2019s death ] , 4 ( 26b\u201328 ) : 29\u201390 , pl . 305\u2013336 ( 1780 ) [ this and subsequent parts by stoll ] , 4 ( 29\u201331 ) : 91\u2013164 , pl . 337\u2013372 ( 1781 ) , 4 ( 32\u201334 ) : 165\u2013252 , pl . 373\u2013400 ( 1782 ) , suppl . ( 1 ) : 1\u201342 , pl . i\u2013viii ( 1787 ) , ( 2 ) : 43\u2013162 , pl . ix\u2013xxvi ( 1790 ) , ( 3 ) : 163\u2013184 , pl . xxxvii\u2013xlii ( 1790 ) , s . j . baalde , amsterdam , netherlands .\n. a generic classification of the tribe polyommatini of the oriental and australian regions ( lepidoptera , lycaenidae , polyommatinae ) . \u2013 bulletin of the university of osaka prefecture ( b ) 44 ( supplement ) : 1\u2013102 .\n] ) , buru , bali , and misol . \u2013 novitates zoologicae 22 : 105\u2013144 , 209\u2013227 .\ng . vierbergen ; h . kucharczyk and w . d . j . kirk\nk . - g . heller ; k . m . orci ; g . grein and s . ingrisch\nthis entry needs a photograph or drawing for illustration . please try to find a suitable image on wikimedia commons or upload one there yourself !\nthis page was last edited on 29 november 2017 , at 14 : 14 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\nthe source code for museums victoria collections is available on github under the mit license .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\ngrose - smith , h . & kirby , w . f . 1896 , vol . 2 , pp . 259 pp . , gurney & jackson , london\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 1ade9441 - bef6 - 4292 - a67c - b3c046426aad\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 2d7a590f - efd4 - 458c - b687 - c8fa0de25b40\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 504837f2 - 3067 - 4052 - 8113 - 34f9c765e5fc\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 50fef073 - 33b1 - 4229 - ba1c - 45b770ef12c0\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 7702b2d6 - b053 - 4a82 - 9c7d - 3e68d39236b3\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : ba1292e2 - 4a2a - 4ab2 - 9f8a - ae2906001deb\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 55ac199e - e8f3 - 4603 - 832b - c6886db0ff98\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 400096\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 14f833ba - cf8f - 4364 - b7e0 - 17f00e8ea0e4\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 2a45fc01 - a59b - 4e4d - 9433 - d700faa54ebf\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 578db563 - 50a6 - 4f2a - 904c - ec7a77c9a5d2\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 73e6cf11 - 6cdf - 4bd4 - b597 - e332743d4eea\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : ec18b51e - 3c66 - 4ef8 - ab02 - f33808cd2b37\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f1082456 - a628 - 46b5 - 8409 - 0a127bfb2c94\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 1cdf4c13 - 67d2 - 4cf9 - 96fe - 75ff364fff14\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 302869\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnote : wildlife statistics are based on information that has been submitted to the des wildnet database and converted to a 10km\u00b2 grid . the grid information has been intersected with the mapping polygons to determine the species lists . click here to view the species grid metadata .\ndisclaimer : while every care is taken to ensure the accuracy of this product , the queensland government and australian government make no representations or warranties about its accuracy , reliability , completeness or suitability for any particular purpose and disclaim all responsibility and all liability ( including without limitation , liability in negligence ) for all expenses , losses , damages ( including indirect or consequential damage ) and costs which might be incurred as a consequence of reliance on the product , or as a result of the product being inaccurate or incomplete in any way and for any reason .\n( 2015 ) the poetry bug . an anthology of writing by poets , entomologists , intellectuals , musicians and more . . . . . . . tennent wj ( eds ) . parthian books : cardigan . 405 .\nnaba names committee ( 2015 ) interim report of the naba names committee [ 1 ] ( with contributions from braby , m . , edwards , a . , epstein , m . , glassberg , j . , hall , p . w . , heath , f . , hsu , y - f . , larsen , t . , lohman , d . , pierce , n . , scoble , m . , springer , j . , tennent , j . , vane - wright , [ r . i . ] , viloria , a . , west , j . & yen , s . h ) . . american butterflies , 24 ( 4 ) : 20 - 33 .\ntennent wj ( 2015 ) african queens and their kin . a darwinian odyssey , by david a . s . smith . entomologist\u2019s gazette , 66 ( 4 ) : 276 - 278 .\ntennent wj ( 2015 ) survival stories : storm tossed , in : facing fear ( pioneer edition ) , wedner d ( eds ) . national geographic explorer collection , cengage learning : washington d . c . . 17 .\ntennent wj ( 2015 ) a review of cethosia cydippe linnaeus , 1767 ( lepidoptera : nymphalidae , heliconiinae ) from the eastern parts of its range ( milne bay province , papua new guinea ) . . butterflies , 68 : 8 - 20 .\ntennent wj ( 2015 ) a new subspecies of cupha prosope fabricius , 1775 ( lepidoptera , nymphalidae ) from the trobriands island of kitava , milne bay province , papua new guinea . . butterflies , 68 : 4 - 7 .\ntennent wj , clapp g , clapp e ( 2015 ) a checklist of the hawkmoths of woodlark island , papua new guinea ( lepidoptera , sphingidae ) . . nachrichten des entomologischen vereins apollo ( n . f . ) , 36 ( 1 ) : 55 - 61 .\ntennent wj , russell pjc ( 2015 ) notes on some hawkmoths ( lepidoptera : sphingidae ) from the cape verde islands . . zoologica caboverdiana , 5 ( 2 ) : 105 - 110 .\ntennent wj , russell pjc ( 2015 ) butterflies of the cape verde islands ( insecta , lepidoptera ) . . zoologica caboverdiana , 5 ( 2 ) : 64 - 104 .\ntennent wj ( 2015 ) book review : a naturalist\u2019s guide to the butterflies of peninsular malaysia , singapore and thailand , by laurence kirton . entomologist\u2019s gazette , 66 ( 1 ) : 78 - 79 .\ntennent wj ( 2015 ) book review : guide to the butterflies of the palearctic region . pieridae part ii , subfamily coliadinae , tribe coliadini , by josef grieshuber ( edited by g . c . bozano ) . entomologist\u2019s gazette , 66 ( 1 ) : 79 - 80 .\ntennent wj ( 2014 ) euploea eurianassa hewitson , 1858 , in milne bay province , papua new guinea with description of a new subspecies from the remote island of nasikwabu ( lepidoptera : danainae ) . butterflies ( teinopalpus ) , 66 : 46 - 49 .\ntennent wj ( 2014 ) first record of the invasive lycaenid species chilades pandava ( horsfield , 1829 ) , from papua new guinea ( lepidoptera , lycaenidae ) . nachrichten entomologischen vereins apollo n . f . , 35 ( 1 / 2 ) : 43 - 46 .\ntennent wj ( 2014 ) entomologische notiz . correction to : \u201cthe butterflies described by bernard d\u2019abrera in three editions of \u2018butterflies of the australian region ( 1971 , 1977 , 1990 ) ( lepidoptera , rhopalocera ) \u2019 . nachrichten entomologischen vereins apollo n . f , 35 ( 3 ) :\ntennent wj ( 2014 ) book review : guide to the butterflies of the palaearctic region . nymphalidae part vi , subfamily limenitidinae , by e . gallo & c . della bruna ( edited by g . c . bozano ) . entomologist\u2019s gazette , 65 ( 3 ) :\ntennent wj ( 2014 ) book review : lepidoptera , papilionoidea , by enrique garcia - barros , miguel munguira , constantin\u00ed stefanescu & antonio vives moreno . fauna iberica 37 . entomologist\u2019s gazette , 65 ( 4 ) : 255 - 256 .\ntennent wj ( 2014 ) two new subspecies of mycalesis terminus ( fabricius , 1775 ) , from the islands of milne bay province , papua new guinea ( lepidoptera , satyrinae ) . tropical lepidoptera research , 24 ( 2 ) : 62 - 66 .\nmonastyrskii al , tennent wj , o\u2019dell j ( 2014 ) further evidence of disjunctions in ranges of east asian satyrines butterflies : a new subspecies of rhaphicera dumicola ( oberth\u00fcr , 1876 ) from northern vietnam ( lepidoptera , nymphalidae : satyrinae ) . atalanta , w\u00fcrzburg , 45 ( 1 - 4 ) : 163 - 165 .\nm\u00fcller cj , tennent wj ( 2014 ) a new species of hypochrysops felder & felder , 1860 , from waigeo island , indonesia ( lepidoptera , lycaenidae ) . suara serangga papua , , 8 ( 4 ) : 109 - 115 .\nrawlins a , schr\u00f6der s , cassidy ac , m\u00fcller cj , tennent wj ( 2014 ) an illustrated and annotated checklist of jamides h\u00fcbner , 1819 , taxa occurring in the indonesian provinces of north maluku and maluku ( lepidoptera , lycaenidae ) . nachrichten entomologischen vereins apollo n . f . , 35 ( 1 / 2 ) : 5 - 39 .\ntennent wj , m\u00fcller cj , peggie d ( 2014 ) two new butterflies ( lepidoptera : lycaenidae ) from the collections of the museum zoologi bogor , indonesia . tropical lepidoptera research , 24 ( 1 ) : 10 - 14 .\ntennent wj , treadaway cg ( 2014 ) a new subspecies of mycalesis aramis hewitson , 1866 , from the island of mindoro , philippines ( lepidoptera , nymphalidae , satyrinae ) . nachrichten entomologischen vereins apollo n . f . , 35 ( 3 ) : 139 - 140 .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice ."]}
{"id": 769, "summary": [{"text": "the american soles are a family ( achiridae ) of flatfish occurring in both freshwater and marine environments of the americas .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the family includes about 35 species in seven genera .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "these are closely related to the soles ( soleidae ) , and have been classified as a subfamily of it , but achirids have a number of distinct characteristics .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "eyes are on the right side , and the eyed-side lower lip has a distinctive fleshy rim .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the dorsal and anal fins are usually separate from the caudal fin .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the pectoral fins are small or nonexistent .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "they are fairly small ; only achirus achirus is known to surpass 30 cm ( 1 ft ) in length . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "american sole", "paragraphs": ["glassdoor gives you an inside look at what it ' s like to work at american sole , including salaries , reviews , office photos , and more . this is the american sole company profile . all content is posted anonymously by employees working at american sole .\n\u202620 species family achiridae ( american sole s ) eyes small , dextral ; sensory papillae on head ; margin of preoperculum represented by a superficial groove ; dorsal and anal fins free from caudal fin ; right pelvic fin attached to anal fin . 7 genera and about 30 species . marine and freshwater , along the atlantic and\u2026\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ngreek , acheir , - eiros = without hands ( ref . 45335 ) .\nthe list below must not be used as an authority reference synonymy list like those found in scientific published revisions , which must be the source to be used and cited eventually when they exist .\nrather , it reflects the current content of fishbase , and the progress with respect to synchronization with the catalog of fishes . however , we think it can be useful for users to assess the quality of information in fishbase , to start new work on the family , or to cross - check with other lists .\nbut we appreciate to be cited in publications when this list has been of any working value . in particular , for published scientific , we suggest then to cite it in the material and method section as a useful tool to conduct the research , but again , not as a taxonomic or nomenclatural authority reference .\nunless it is explicitly precised , the list is not complete , please search all original names published for the family in the catalog of fishes ( genera , species ) , including those with uncertain or unknown status , that are not included in fishbase when they are not attached to a valid species .\nthis list uses some data from catalog of fishes ( not shown but used to sort names ) .\nin the column coff , the digit indicates the status of synchronization with coff : 0 : not checked ; 1 : same status ; 2 : different status ; 3 : other combination ; 4 : synonym in coff ; 5 : species / subspecies issue ; 6 : synonym of another species in coff ; 7 : not in coff ; 8 : should not be in coff . the coff version currently used is the one published on 23 - 07 - 2014 ( ref . 97102 ) .\nwhen subfamilies are recognized , nominotypical subfamily first then other subfamilies by alphabetical order .\ntype genus of the family first ( or of subfamily when subfamilies are recognized ) then other genera by chronological order of description ( and alphabetical order ) .\ntype species of the genus first by chronological order ( and alphabetical order ) , with last listed misapplied names in a light gray font .\neagle creek expansetm collection awd 26 ( stone grey ) l . . . 191163489990\nsanuk casa vintage ( brindle vintage ) men ' s slip on sh . . . 190108481082\nastral loyak water shoe - men ' s navy / brown , 11 . 0 818040014525\nthis is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .\nanimal , ( kingdom animalia ) , any of a group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms ( i . e . , as distinct from\u2026\ndog , ( canis lupus familiaris ) , domestic mammal of the family canidae ( order carnivora ) . it is a subspecies\u2026\ncfm script by eagbayani , 28 . 08 . 01 , php script by cmilitante , 04 / 03 / 10 , last modified by cmilitante , 11 / 12 / 12\nfirst , try refreshing the page and clicking current location again . make sure you click allow or grant permissions if your browser asks for your location . if your browser doesn ' t ask you , try these steps :\nat the top of your chrome window , near the web address , click the green lock labeled secure .\nin the window that pops up , make sure location is set to ask or allow .\nyou ' re good to go ! reload this yelp page and try your search again .\nif you ' re still having trouble , check out google ' s support page . you can also search near a city , place , or address instead .\nat the top of your opera window , near the web address , you should see a gray location pin . click it .\nif you ' re still having trouble , check out opera ' s support page . you can also search near a city , place , or address instead .\nclick safari in the menu bar at the top of the screen , then preferences .\nunder website use of location services , click prompt for each website once each day or prompt for each website one time only .\nmacos may now prompt you to enable location services . if it does , follow its instructions to enable location services for safari .\nclose the privacy menu and refresh the page . try using current location search again . if it works , great ! if not , read on for more instructions .\nback in the privacy dialog , click manage website data . . . and type urltoken into the search bar .\nyou ' re good to go ! close the settings tab , reload this yelp page , and try your search again .\nif you ' re still having trouble , check out safari ' s support page . you can also search near a city , place , or address instead .\nat the top of your firefox window , to the left of the web address , you should see a green lock . click it .\nin the window that pops up , you should see blocked or blocked temporarily next to access your location . click the x next to this line .\nyou ' re good to go ! refresh this yelp page and try your search again .\nif you ' re still having trouble , check out firefox ' s support page . you can also search near a city , place , or address instead .\nclick the gear in the upper - right hand corner of the window , then internet options .\nuncheck the box labeled never allow websites to request your physical location if it ' s already checked .\nyou ' re good to go ! click ok , then refresh this yelp page and try your search again .\nat the top - right hand corner of the window , click the button with three dots on it , then settings .\nclick show more , then make sure only the box labeled location permissions is checked .\noops ! we don ' t recognize the web browser you ' re currently using . try checking the browser ' s help menu , or searching the web for instructions to turn on html5 geolocation for your browser . you can also search near a city , place , or address instead .\nsomething broke and we ' re not sure what . try again later , or search near a city , place , or address instead .\nwe couldn ' t find you quickly enough ! try again later , or search near a city , place , or address instead .\nwe couldn ' t find an accurate position . if you ' re using a laptop or tablet , try moving it somewhere else and give it another go . or , search near a city , place , or address instead .\nthis place does what it does very well and thoroughly . that is , selling flip - flops . they have hundreds of brands and varieties across a range of prices to satisfy nearly all beachgoers in need of some soles . they have havaianas in tons of fun colors , rainbow , reef , the classier , fancier bernardo ( around $ 100 a pair , if that ' s your style ) , and many others i can ' t remember .\nclaim this business to view business statistics , receive messages from prospective customers , and respond to reviews .\nyour trust is our top concern , so businesses can ' t pay to alter or remove their reviews . learn more .\nheads up : from now on , other yelpers will be able to see how you voted . want to chime in ?\nwe calculate the overall star rating using only reviews that our automated software currently recommends .\nsorry , we just need to make sure you ' re not a robot . for best results , please make sure your browser is accepting cookies .\nprime members enjoy free two - day shipping and exclusive access to music , movies , tv shows , original audio series , and kindle books .\nafter viewing product detail pages , look here to find an easy way to navigate back to pages you are interested in .\nglassdoor will not work properly unless browser cookie support is enabled . learn how to enable cookies .\nexplore the many benefits of having a premium branded profile on glassdoor , like increased influence and advanced analytics .\ncopyright \u00a9 2008\u20132018 , glassdoor , inc .\nglassdoor\nand logo are proprietary trademarks of glassdoor , inc .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nyour monthly guide to nola ' s foods , drinks , music and more .\nthis location is either currently closed or we are unable to contact someone at this location to determine its status .\nyou are now subscribed to our new orleans e - newsletter and we ' ll send you the news each month . you can unsubscribe at any time directly from any mailing .\nthe official tourism site of the city of new orleans : urltoken all contents \u00a9 1996 - 2018 new orleans tourism marketing corporation unless otherwise specified herein . all rights reserved"]}
{"id": 770, "summary": [{"text": "cudonigera houstonana , the juniper budworm moth , is a species of moth of the tortricidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from arizona , california , kansas , mississippi , new hampshire , new jersey , new mexico , north carolina , oklahoma , tennessee and texas .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 20 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults have a mottled tan and brown colour pattern on their wings , resembling dead foliage of the host plant .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "adults have been recorded on wing from april to november .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "there are up to two generations per year .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the larvae feed on the foliage of juniperus ashei .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they construct silken tubes .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "pupation occurs in the larval shelter .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the species overwinters in the larval stage . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "cudonigera houstonana", "paragraphs": ["choristoneura houstonana ( grote , 1873 ) was formerly in the genus cudonigera , zootaxa . 3729 ( 1 ) : 25 .\npowell , j . a . & n . s . obraztsov . 1977 . cudonigera : a new genus for moths formerly assigned to choristoneura houstonana ( tortricidae ) . journal of the lepidopterists ' society , 31 ( 2 ) : 119 - 123 .\nty - jour ti - cudonigera : a new genus for moths formerly assigned to choristoneura houstonana ( tortricidae ) t2 - journal of the lepidopterists ' society . vl - 31 ur - urltoken pb - lepidopterists ' society , cy - [ new haven , conn . ] : py - 1977 sp - 119 ep - 123 sn - 0024 - 0966 er -\nheinrichs , e . a . 1971 . external morphology of larvae of choristoneura houstonana ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) . the canadian entomologist 103 ( 1 ) : 12 - 17 .\nheinrichs , e . a . & h . e . thompson . 1968 . the biology of choristoneura houstonana ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) , a pest of juniperus species . canadian entomologist 100 ( 7 ) : 750 - 763 .\n@ article { bhlpart145284 , title = { cudonigera : a new genus for moths formerly assigned to choristoneura houstonana ( tortricidae ) } , journal = { journal of the lepidopterists ' society . } , volume = { 31 } , copyright = { in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder . } , url = urltoken publisher = { [ new haven , conn . ] : lepidopterists ' society , 1959 - } , author = { } , year = { 1977 } , pages = { 119 - - 123 } , }\n< mods xmlns : xlink =\nurltoken\nversion =\n3 . 0\nxmlns : xsi =\nurltoken\nxmlns =\nurltoken\nxsi : schemalocation =\nurltoken urltoken\n> < titleinfo > < title > cudonigera : a new genus for moths formerly assigned to choristoneura houstonana ( tortricidae ) < / title > < / titleinfo > < typeofresource > text < / typeofresource > < genre authority =\nmarcgt\n> < / genre > < note type =\ncontent\n> 31 < / note > < relateditem type =\nhost\n> < titleinfo > < title > journal of the lepidopterists & # 39 ; society . < / title > < / titleinfo > < origininfo > < place > < placeterm type =\ntext\n> [ new haven , conn . ] : < / placeterm > < / place > < publisher > lepidopterists & # 39 ; society , < / publisher > < / origininfo > < part > < detail type =\nvolume\n> < number > 31 < / number > < / detail > < extent unit =\npages\n> < start > 119 < / start > < end > 123 < / end > < / extent > < date > 1977 < / date > < / part > < / relateditem > < identifier type =\nuri\n> urltoken < / identifier > < accesscondition type =\nuseandreproduction\n> in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder . < / accesscondition > < / mods >\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\ndombroskie , j . j . & f . a . h . sperling , 2013 . phylogeny of the tribe archipini ( lepidoptera : tortricidae : tortricinae ) and evolutionary correlates of novel secondary sexual structures . zootaxa , 3729 ( 1 ) : 1 - 62 .\npowell , j . a . & p . a . opler , moths of western north america , pl . 19 . 13f ; p . 151 . book review and ordering\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nadult - checkered with raised patches of pale rust and rose lavender scales . hindwing white .\nduring the spring and early summer of 2002 , an unusual outbreak of the juniper budworm was documented across the following central texas counties : travis , hayes , comal , and blanco .\nashe juniper ( juniperus ashei ) is apparently the only food in central texas for the juniper budworm . texas county range map of j . ashei per usda .\nthe larva of juniper budworm goes through 8 - 11 instars , or caterpillar stages , as it grows . then it changes to a pupa from which the adult moth emerges . life history studies on this insect were done in kansas where one generation per year was reported . however , records of adult moths in the texas a & m ; university insect collection indicate there are probably two generations per year in texas ( labeled specimens showed moths were collected in june and october ) .\nas the larvae feed in the juniper foliage , they construct silken tubes and pupation occurs in the shelter where the larvae fed . adult moths appear shortly after pupation occurs . in kansas , larvae overwinter in the infested juniper trees , pupate in late june and july , and emerge as adult moths in july . in texas , however , the overwintering stage is not known , but it is probably the egg stage or as very young larvae .\nthe adult moths are about 1 / 4 - inch long and are similar to the color of dead ashe juniper foliage . they have a mottled tan and brown color pattern on their wings . they are active mostly at night and are attracted to lights . they generally remain at rest on the host plant during the day and only fly when disturbed . unless they fly , they are difficult to detect . ( texas forest service )\nit is closely related and similar in appearance to the spruce budworm ( choristoneura fumiferana ) , a major defoliating insect pest of true firs in the eastern and western forests of the united states and canada .\ndombroskie , j . j . & f . a . h . sperling . 2013 . phylogeny of the tribe archipini ( lepidoptera : tortricidae : tortricinae ) and evolutionary correlates of novel secondary sexual structures . zootaxa 3729 ( 1 ) : 1 - 62 . ( pdf )\ngrote , a . r . , 1873 . i . description of new north american moths .\npowell , j . a . 1980 . nomenclature of nearctic conifer - feeding choristoneura ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) : historical review and present status . usda forest service general technical report pnw - 100 . usda forest service 18pp .\npowell , j . a . 1995 . biosystematic studies of conifer - feeding choristoneura ( lepidoptera tortricidae ) in the western united states . university of california press , berkeley . 275 pp .\nquinn , m . a . 2000 . abundance and distribution of potential arthropod prey species in a typical golden - cheeked warbler habitat . unpublished thesis . texas a & m ; university , college station . ix + 182 pp .\ni . description of new north american moths . augustus radcliffe grote . 1873 . bulletin of the buffalo society of natural sciences 1 : 1 - 16 .\nnorth - american torticidae thomas , lord walsingham . 1879 . illustrations of typical specimens of lepidoptera heterocera in the collection of the british museum . 4 .\ncheck list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . hodges , et al . ( editors ) . 1983 . e . w . classey , london . 284 pp .\nabundance and distribution of potential arthropod prey species in a typical golden - cheeked warbler habitat . quinn , m . a . 2000 . unpublished thesis . texas a & m ; university , college station . ix + 182 pp .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\n80x5 - 240x3 - 240x4 - 320x1 - 320x2 - 320x3 - 640x1 - 640x2 set display option above . click on images to enlarge .\na variety of organizations and individuals have contributed photographs to calphotos . please follow the usage guidelines provided with each image . use and copyright information , as well as other details about the photo such as the date and the location , are available by clicking on the\n[ nacl ] ; hodges , 1983 check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico check list lep . am . n of mexico\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome ."]}
{"id": 784, "summary": [{"text": "nites maculatella is a moth in the depressariidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by august busck in 1908 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from vermont , ontario , pennsylvania , ohio , indiana , kentucky , maine , maryland and west virginia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 21 \u2013 23 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are ochreous white , suffused with brown and irrorated ( speckled ) and streaked with blackish fuscous , with much ochreous scaling .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is a transverse blackish fuscous line at the extreme base , from the costa to the inner angle , interrupted at the middle by the white ground color .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is a poorly defined white discal spot at the basal third , preceded by some blackish fuscous scales and there is a similar spot at the end of the cell .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "between the two is a conspicuous longitudinal , blackish-fuscous streak .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "veins nine and ten are strongly marked with blackish fuscous and the bases of the other veins less conspicuously so .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is a blackish-fuscous spot on the costa , about the middle and a series of blackish-fuscous spots from the apical third of the costa , around the termen to the inner margin .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are whitish fuscous , darker apically .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on carpinus caroliniana . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "nites maculatella", "paragraphs": ["nites species , tentatively identified as nites maculatella . photographed at portage lake , parry sound , ontario on 23 august 2009 .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhodges , r . w . , 1974 . moths of america north of mexico , fascicle 6 . 2 , p . 80 ; pl . 5 . 22 , 24 . order\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnb : the taxon name search is for single names only . for example , to locate dysodia vitrina flammata warren , 1904 you should enter flammata only .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nlectotype \u2642 collected by a . w . hanham , ontario , canada , nmnh .\nclarke , j . f . g . 1942 . revision of the north american moths of the family oecophoridae , with descriptions of new genera and species .\nrevision of the north american moths of the family oecophoridae , with descriptions of new genera and species j . f . gates clarke . 1941 . proceedings of the united states national museum 90 ( 3107 ) : 33 - 286 .\nthe moths of america north of mexico fascicle 6 . 2 gelechioidea , oecophoridae ronald w . hodges . 1974 . e . w . classey ltd . and rbd publications inc .\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 12 september , 2013 - 11 : 04pm last updated 20 september , 2013 - 2 : 10pm\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nmarsh fern moth ( fagitana littera ) . photographed at portage lake , parry sound district , ontario on 5 july 2015 . \u00a9 david beadle .\nuse of images featured on maryland biodiversity project is only permitted with express permission of the photographer .\nbiokids is sponsored in part by the interagency education research initiative . it is a partnership of the university of michigan school of education , university of michigan museum of zoology , and the detroit public schools . this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation under grant drl - 0628151 . copyright \u00a9 2002 - 2018 , the regents of the university of michigan . all rights reserved ."]}
{"id": 800, "summary": [{"text": "rumatha bihinda is a species of snout moth in the genus rumatha .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by dyar in 1922 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in north america , including california , texas , new mexico , arizona and nevada .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 30 \u2013 35 mm for males and 32 \u2013 36 mm for females .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the palpi , head , thorax , forewings and abdomen are dark fuscous , dusted with white .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the hindwings are white and semihyaline .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on cylindropuntia species .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they are solitary feeders within the stems of their host plant . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "rumatha bihinda", "paragraphs": ["rumatha heinrich , 1939 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 86 ( 3053 ) : 363 ; ts : zophodia bihinda dyar\ntype - species : zophodia bihinda dyar , 1922 . insec . inscit . menstr . 10 : 173 . [ bhl ]\ngenus : rumatha heinrich , 1939 . proc . u . s . natn . mus . 86 : 336 , 337 [ key ] , 363 . [ bhl ]\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nneunzig , h . h . , 1997 . moths of america north of mexico , fascicle 15 . 4 : p . 75 ; pl . 2 . 10 . order\npowell , j . a . & p . a . opler , moths of western north america , pl . 26 . 25m ; p . 196 . book review and ordering\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nreflect all aspects of basic and applied entomological science . there are no geographical restrictions regarding publication , although priority will be given to manuscripts that reflect the fauna of the western hemisphere , or are of great interest to entomologists in this region . each\nvols . 1 no . 1 ( 1917 ) to present are available . features : browse quarterly volumes by date . table of contents is displayed for each volume .\nvols . 1 no . 1 ( 1917 ) to present are available . features : search for articles by author , title , or keywords in the text .\nflorida entomologist authors may add infolinks to their articles . an infolink is a link to a file of the authors\u2019 creation . it is clickable from the online table of contents that lists the authors\u2019 article , and allows the authors to publish supplementary material ( e . g . , color illustrations , complete data sets , audio clips ) and , in most cases , to add to and correct the supplementary material .\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nselect your preferred way to display the comments and click ' save settings ' to activate your changes .\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\n80x5 - 240x3 - 240x4 - 320x1 - 320x2 - 320x3 - 640x1 - 640x2 set display option above . click on image to enlarge .\na variety of organizations and individuals have contributed photographs to calphotos . please follow the usage guidelines provided with each image . use and copyright information , as well as other details about the photo such as the date and the location , are available by clicking on the\n80x5 - 240x3 - 240x4 - 320x1 - 320x2 - 320x3 - 640x1 - 640x2 set display option above . click on images to enlarge .\nthis information is not automatically synchronized with globiz and can sometimes be lagging behind .\n[ nacl ] ; hodges , 1983 check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico check list lep . am . n of mexico\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more"]}
{"id": 828, "summary": [{"text": "euchloe guaymasensis , the sonoran marble or sonoran white , is a species of butterfly in the family pieridae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is native to sonora in mexico and has been seen once in arizona in the united states .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "this butterfly has a wingspan of 31 to 37 millimeters .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the upperside is pale yellow .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the forewing has a black tip and a black bar toward the front edge .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the underside is marbled with green .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this species occurs in rocky desert habitat .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "its host plant is western tansymustard ( descurainia pinnata ) .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "adults fly in february and march .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "this species was first collected in 1983 from a microwave relay 40 miles north of guaymas in sonora . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "euchloe guaymasensis", "paragraphs": ["no one has contributed data records for euchloe lotta x euchloe guaymasensis yet . learn how to contribute .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\nif is associated with an alamy account you ' ll receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password .\nenter your log in email address and we\u0092ll send you a link to reset your password .\nsorry , this image isn ' t available for this licence . please refer to the license restrictions for more information .\non the alamy prints site ( powered by art . com ) choose your frame , the size and finish of your photo .\nenter your log in email address and we ' ll send you a link to reset your password ."]}
{"id": 834, "summary": [{"text": "the indus river dolphin ( platanista gangetica minor ) is a subspecies of freshwater river dolphin found in the indus river ( and its beas and sutlej tributaries ) of india and pakistan .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this dolphin was the first discovered side-swimming cetacean .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "it is patchily distributed in five small , sub-populations that are separated by irrigation barrages .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the indus dolphin does not form easily defined groups who interact .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "instead , they 're typically found in loose aggregations .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "from the 1970s until 1998 , the ganges river dolphin and the indus dolphin were regarded as separate species ; however , in 1998 , their classification was changed from two separate species to subspecies of a single species ( see taxonomy below ) .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it has been named as the national mammal of pakistan . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "indus river dolphin", "paragraphs": ["blind river dolphin , ganges dolphin , ganges susu , indus river dolphin , south asian river dolphin , susu .\nhome \u00bb platanista gangetica ssp . minor ( indus dolphin , indus river dolphin , susu )\nthe indus river dolphins is one of only a handful of freshwater dolphins in existance today ; others include the chinese river dolphin , ganges river dolphin and amazon river dolphin .\nthe indus river dolphin as the name suggests can be found swimming in the indus river which is located in pakistan .\nthe indus river dolphin , indus blind dolphin or locally known in pakistan as bhulan , is one of two subspecies of the south asian river dolphin ( platanista gangetica ) .\nan indus river dolphin ( platanista minor ) being released as part of a dolphin rescue operation in pakistan . the indus river and ganges river dolphins are from the same genus .\nindus river dolphins are found only in pakistan . like other freshwater dolphins , the indus river dolphin is an important indicator of the health of a river .\npictures : indus river dolphin # 1 ( 3 kb jpeg ) ( cetacea ) ; indus river dolphin # 2 ( 31 kb jpeg ) ( swiss cet . soc . )\n* * * the indus river dolphin is one of the world ' s rarest mammals .\nthe indus river dolphin comes to the surface to breathe about every 30 - 120 seconds .\nthe indus river dolphin is one of around 80 known species of cetacea and one of around 40 known species of dolphin .\nplataniste or ganges river dolphin ( platanista gang\u00e9tica ) , karnaphuli river , bangladesh .\nplataniste or ganges river dolphin ( platanista gangetica ) , karnaphuli river , bangladesh .\nthe indus river dolphin occurs in the indus river delta & rann of kutch global 200 ecoregion . ( olson & dinerstein 1998 , olson & dinerstein 1999 )\nthe indus river dolphin sometimes carries its young on its back , above the surface of the water .\ndespite researchers best efforts the indus river dolphin is not well known and research regarding these marine mammals remains scarce .\nunlike other species of dolphin the indus river dolphin appears to form loose bonds with other dolphins and has a preference towards smaller pods rather than large aggregations .\nbangladeshi fisherman with a plataniste or ganges river dolphin ( platanista gang\u00e9tica ) , karnaphuli river , bangladesh .\nwhen the indus was a free - flowing river , the indus river dolphin would migrate upstream into the smaller tributaries during the monsoon rains and migrate downstream to the main channels in the dry season .\nsinha , r . 2002 . an alternative to dolphin oil as a fish attractant in the ganges river : conservation of the ganges river dolphin .\n2006 : occurs in the indus river system in pakistan ( iucn 2006 ) .\nin addition to the name indus river dolphin it has also been referred to as the \u201cside swimming dolphin\u201d because it is often seen swimming on its side and the \u201cblind dolphin\u201d due to its extremely poor eyesight .\nbecause the indus river dolphin is considered blind it has to rely primarily on echolocation to navigate the ocean and search for food .\nthe survey was started on march 21 from chashma barrage and concluded at sukkur barrage , covering the entire indus river dolphin distribution range .\nbhaagat , h . b . 1999 . introduction , distribution , conservation and behavioural ecology of indus blind dolphin ( platanista indi ) in river indus ( dolphin reserve ) , sindh - pakistan . tiger paper 26 : 11 - 16 .\nwwf monitors the indus river dolphin populations and tracks their movements with radio tags . these tags revealed for the first time that the dolphins can cross the barrage gates in both upstream and downstream directions . in 2001 , wwf coordinated the largest indus river dolphin survey ever conducted .\nsukkur barrages , legally designated as the indus dolphin reserve . the habitat of this subspecies is reduced to\nthe indus river dolphin is endemic to the rivers of the lower indus river basin in pakistan . historically it occurred in the indus river mainstem and the sutlej , beas , ravi , chenab , and jhelum tributaries . it ranged from the indus delta upstream to the himalayan foothills where rocky barriers or shallow water prevented further upstream movement . currently the distribution of the indus river dolphin is severely fragmented and dramatically reduced in extent . the linear extent of its occurrence has declined from approximately 3 , 400 km ( 2100 mi ) of indus river mainstem and its tributaries in the 1870 ' s to approximately 1 , 000 km ( 600 mi ) of the mainstem at present . an estimated 99 % of the indus river dolphin population occurs in only 690 linear km ( 430 mi ) . currently the indus river dolphin is limited to three subpopulations in the indus mainstem located between the chashma and taunsa , taunsa and guddu , and guddu and sukkur barrages . ( iucn 2006 )\nhe further said that the population of indus river dolphins is assessed every five years . the first comprehensive study conducted by wwf - pakistan in 2001 revealed that about 1 , 100 dolphins exist in the indus river . the survey in 2006 revealed a total abundance of 1 , 750 dolphins in the indus river . while , the population of the indus river dolphin was about 1 , 452 , according to a survey conducted in 2011 .\nthe indus river dolphin is endemic to the rivers of the lower indus river basin in pakistan . historically , it ranged from the indus delta upstream to the himalayan foothills where rocky barriers or shallow water prevented further upstream movement . currently the distribution of the indus river dolphin is severely fragmented and dramatically reduced in extent . the linear extent of its occurrence has declined from approximately 3 , 400 km ( 2100 mi ) of indus river mainstem and its tributaries in the 1870 ' s to approximately 1 , 000 km ( 600 mi ) of the mainstem at present . currently the indus river dolphin is limited to three subpopulations in the indus mainstem located between the chashma and taunsa , taunsa and guddu , and guddu and sukkur barrages . ( iucn 2006 )\nbhaagat , h . b . 2002 . status , population abundance , strandings and rescues of indus blind dolphin ( platanista minor ) in river indus ( pakistan ) . tiger paper 29 : 9 - 12 .\nsome communities who rely heavily on fishing think of the indus river dolphin as competition for fish so poaching still occurs sporadically despite a ban on hunting .\nthe indus river dolphin is a marine mammal which means it\u2019s warm - blooded , breathes air , gives birth and produces milk to feed its young .\nthe indus river dolphin was considered by some researchers as a distinct species for several decades ( 1970s\u20131990s ) and was listed as such in the 1996 red list . its range is disjunct with that of the other subspecies , ganges river dolphin ,\nthe problem is further exacerbated by climate change ; reduced glacial cover and weakening monsoon rains in northern pakistan are predicted to dramatically reduce indus river discharge within 50 years . declining river flows have been highlighted as perhaps the greatest threat to the long - term survival of the indus river dolphin .\nthe study stresses maintenance of river flows , mortality monitoring , arrangements for rescue and community involvement as methods to help conserve the indus dolphin , which may otherwise go the way of china\u2019s now extinct \u2018baiji\u2019 dolphin .\nindus river dolphin ( platanista gangetica minor ) skulls collected by georgio pilleri and stored in the stuttgart museum of natural history , germany . photo : gill braulik\nreeves , r . r . and chaudhry , a . a . 1998 . status of the indus river dolphin platanista minor . oryx 32 : 35\u201344 .\nreview of status , threats , and conservation management options for the endangered indus river blind . . .\nthe indus river dolphin ( platanista gangetica minor ) is a freshwater cetacean that occurs only in the indus river system in pakistan and india . this review provides a comprehensive summary of issues surrounding indus dolphin conservation , and includes a description of their distribution , the threats they face and a discussion of conservation and research activities , options and priorities . . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthese dolphins are located in the lower to mid sections of the indus river which is located in pakistan .\n* * * in pakistan , conservation is a provincial responsibility . the government of sind has given the indus river dolphin full legal protection and established the indus river dolphin reserve . the legal protection was widely publicized in an intensive campaign at all levels of government and society , and seems to be observed . the dolphin population in the reserve appears to be increasing . ( klinowska 1991 )\nthe indus river dolphin ( platanistagangetica minor ) is a freshwater cetacean and a global priority species . it is endemic to the indus river system in pakistan and is listed as endangered in the international union for the conservation of nature ( iucn ) red list of threatened species .\ncurrently the indus river dolphin has been placed in conservation by the government of sind and there appears to be an increase in reproduction for dolphins currently in the reserve .\nkarachi : wwf - pakistan , in collaboration with the wildlife departments of sindh , punjab and khyber pakhtunkhwa , successfully concluded the fourth indus river dolphin survey on tuesday .\nsomething sorrowful is happening with the indus river dolphin : there are only about 1 , 100 individuals left in the wild , mainly in the part of the indus river in pakistan , which makes this species one of the most threatened in the world . why is this happening ?\nsince 2000 , wwf and the sindh wildlife department have rescued 80 dolphins from irrigation canals . wwf also educates fishermen who are engaged in promoting ecotourism activities , particularly dolphin watches , about the importance of protecting the indus river dolphin .\nindus river dolphins generally travel in pairs although they have been spotted in pods consisting of 10 or more dolphins .\nthe presence of dolphin in a river system signals a healthy ecosystem . since the river dolphin is at the apex of the aquatic food chain , its presence in adequate numbers symbolizes greater biodiversity in the river system and helps keep the ecosystem in balance .\nthe indus and ganges river dolphin populations , previously treated as separate species , have recently been reduced to subspecies of a single species . the new species is named the\nganges river dolphin\n( platanista gangetica ) , with two subspecies - the ganges river dolphin ( platanista gangetica gangetica ) and the indus river dolphin ( p . g . minor ) . under this new assignment of scientific names , the newly named species as well as the two subspecies retain the listing of\nendangered\nby the iucn . ( iucn 2003a , reeves 2004 )\nthe indus river dolphin ( platanista gangetica minor ) is one of the world\u2019s most threatened cetaceans . it is endemic to the indus river system in pakistan . its population is fragmented into five sub - populations due to six irrigation barrages on the indus river . the largest sub - population of this subspecies is found between guddu and sukkur barrages , legally designated as the indus dolphin reserve . the habitat of this subspecies is reduced to one fifth of its historic distribution range . the main threats to the indus dolphin are illegal fishing , water pollution and stranding in irrigation canals . there is also a potential risk of inbreeding due to the confined population in the indus dolphin reserve . escalating illegal fishing activities in sindh province are the consequences of revised fisheries legislation , which subsequently increased dolphin mortality in its high density areas . illegal fishing practices include overnight netting across the river and use of poisonous pesticides to maximize fish catches , and both of these activities have increased dolphin by - catch in sindh province .\nthe dolphin ' s vision has probably degenerated because of the poor visibility of the waters in the ganges river .\nthe indus river dolphin measures between 1 . 5 - 2 . 5 m ( 5 - 8 ' ) in length and weighs 80 - 90 kg ( 180 - 200 lb ) .\nthe indus river is a major river that runs through packistan , afghanistan , india and china allowing various locals to travel and transport goods from one location to the next .\nthe main reason for the decline of the indus river dolphin was the construction of numerous dams and barrages , starting in the 1930 ' s , that have fragmented the population and reduced the amount of available habitat . another severe threat to the survival of the indus river dolphin is probably the increasing withdrawal of water . dolphins no longer occur in the lower reaches of the indus because upstream water extraction leaves downstream channels virtually dry for several months each year .\n, chemical pollution and depleting flows , is now largely confined to a 189 - kilometre stretch of the indus falling within the sindh dolphin reserve .\ndespite its great physical resemblance to the ganges river dolphin , this subspecies differs from the other by some physical characteristics .\n) make up a majority of the ganges river dolphin ' s diet . other fish , such as a gobies (\nis \u201cblind river dolphin\u201d . their external ears might help receive echolocation signals , which are intermittent pulses rather than continuous whistles . though indus river dolphins are very vocal , they use sounds for communication only about 5 % of the time that they vocalize .\nthis toothed cetacean is closely related to the ganges dolphin ( platanista gangetica gangetica ) , and with this dolphin , they form a small group of surviving dolphins belonging to a family of river cetaceans .\nwdc funded gill braulik to undertake two projects in pakistan , focusing on the indus river dolphin . listed as \u2018endangered\u2019 by the world conservation union , indus river dolphin are among the world\u2019s most endangered dolphins . the remaining populations are severely fragmented by dams and barrages , have suffered enormous ( 50 - 80 % ) range declines in the last hundred years and are threatened by declining freshwater supplies , pollution , capture in fishing nets and hunting .\npilleri , g . and zbinden , k . 1973\u201374 . size and ecology of the dolphin population ( platanista indi ) between the sukkur and guddu barrages , indus river . investigations on cetacea 5 : 59 - 69 .\nthe indus river dolphin has a long beak and a stocky body . it has a low triangular hump on its back in place of a ' true ' dorsal fin . it is gray - brown in color , sometimes with a pinkish belly . the eyes are extremely small , resembling pinhole openings slightly above the mouth . the indus river dolphin measures between 1 . 5 - 2 . 5 m ( 5 - 8 ' ) in length and weighs 80 - 90 kg ( 180 - 200 lb ) . the indus river dolphin generally occurs in the deepest river channel and is less common in secondary channels and small braids . reported habitat preferences include channel constrictions , confluences , and deep , low - velocity water .\n\u2018the indus dolphin is a marvel of evolutionary adaptation and the department is taking all relevant organizations on board for conservation and protection of the mammal , \u2019 he added .\n\u2013 river traffic . the high traffic in the river cause collisions with the propels of boats that injure them severely .\nuntreated sewage from communities that reside along irrigation canals and the banks of the indus river directly pollutes the water . washing clothes and utensils in the river also causes pollution . industrial pollution has allegedly caused a massive quantity of fish deaths in urban areas , which affects the indus river dolphins\u2019 food supply . pesticides from sugarcane and cotton crops also pollute the riverbank .\nindus river dolphins use their echolocation abilities combined with their highly toothed , long snouts to forage for many bottom - dwelling animals including fish and invertebrates .\nchaudhry , a . a . and khalid , u . 1989 . indus dolphin population in punjab . proceedings of the pakistan congress of zoology 9 : 291 - 296 .\nto mitigate the identified threats , wwf encourages local communities along a 164km - stretch of important dolphin habitat in the upper ganges river to use natural fertilizers ; not to dispose of domestic sewerage in the river ; to improve sewerage management ; to reforest the river bank ; and to ban commercial fishing and sand - mining activities . wwf also monitors dolphin populations and threats in important dolphin habitats in other areas of the country .\nbraulik , g . t . 2004 . conservation and status of the indus river dolphin , platanista gangetica minor , in 2001 . draft report , in preparation for journal submission . [ direct inquiries to : gillbraulik @ downstream . vg ]\nindus river dolphins each eat about a kilogram of benthic fish and invertebrates daily , it is not clear how strongly they impact any of their prey populations .\ndr sandeep behera , wwf - india\u2019s freshwater species coordinator , patrolling for gharials and ganges river dolphins on the chambal river .\nindus river dolphint limiting factors * some limiting factors found in my dolphin ' s ecosystem are food and habitat . dolphins normally travel together , so maybe they can ' t get the food they need . also , when humans build dams , it gives less space for them . biotic / abiotic factors * some biotic factors in my dolphin ' s ecosystem are the other animals and plants that share the same habitat , there could also be some trees near the river . * some abiotic factors are the rocks that lie near by . also , the ecosystem * the indus river is located in asia . * the temperature in the river part located in the river part located in sindh and punjab is endangerment * the indus river dolphin is endangered because people are hunting them for oil , skin , and meat . * if my animal became extinct the prey that the dolphin eats would over populate and the other animals wouldn ' t do so well in the river . to save my dolphin endangerment part 2 from becoming extinct , fishermen are now using different methods to catch fish , and people stopped hunting them . but poachers still hunt them . * so far the indus river dolphin ' s population is in the 100s , there are not many anymore left . ecosystem part 2 normally 100 degrees f . in jacobabad it is often 120 degrees f , in summer time . * in the indus river , the dolphins prefere murky , fresh , and brackish water . * the human interaction within the indusriver is that some humans go to swim ecosystem part 3 or catch fish and dolphins . usually , when they catch fish , the dolphins get caught in the fishing nets . food web / energy consumers - indus river dolphin , catfish , gobies producers - algae , grass , plants * my animal on the food web is the top predetor . biotic / abiotic factors river that the dolphin lives in is an abiotic factor . limiting factors part 2 * it can impact the indus river dolphin because if it cannot have enough food , it can die from starvation . and if the dam is providing little amount of space , the dolphin wouldn ' t have room to swim . * food and habitat are biotic factors . references urltoken urltoken urltoken part 2 urltoken urltoken\nthe ganges subspecies is hunted locally for food , and to extract oil which is used as a fish attractant . the indus dolphin is no longer used by humans or for trade .\n* * * although its eye lacks a lens , and it is sometimes referred to as being blind , the indus river dolphin ' s eye does seem to function as a direction - finding device by using the direction and intensity of light .\nsmith , b . , b . ahmed , m . edrise ali , g . braulik . 2001 . status of the ganges river dolphin or shushuk\nthe main reason for the decline of the indus river dolphin was the construction of numerous dams and barrages , starting in the 1930 ' s , that have fragmented the population and reduced the amount of available habitat . another severe threat to the survival of the indus river dolphin is probably the increasing withdrawal of water . dolphins no longer occur in the lower reaches of the indus because upstream water extraction leaves downstream channels virtually dry for several months each year . accidental capture in fishing nets ; pollution ; and hunting for meat , oil and traditional medicine have also had an impact . ( iucn 2006 )\nreeves , r . r . 1998 . conservation status of the indus rver dolphin in pakistan . ibi reports ( international marine biological research institute , kamogawa , japan ) 8 : 1\u20139 .\nthe indus river dolphin , as suggested by its name , inhabits the river of the same name in pakistan , in an area of \u200b\u200b690 kilometers . in the past , these cetaceans swam freely along the 3 , 500 kilometers of the river , but the problems associated with the growth of human population and its activities confined them to a small part of the river . there are populations between the dams of sukkur , guddu , chashma and taunsa .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - ganges river dolphin ( platanista gangetica )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - ganges river dolphin ( platanista gangetica )\ntitle =\narkive species - ganges river dolphin ( platanista gangetica )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nsome people hunt indus river dolphins for their meat and oil . people in some areas eat the dolphin meat , while others use it as a fishing lure , though studies indicate that fish flesh is just as effective . the dolphin\u2019s oil is used for medicinal purposes , its supposed effectiveness as an aphrodisiac , and to rub on one\u2019s skin .\nthe indus and ganges - brahmaputra river systems have existed for at least 40 million years and evidence suggests they have been largely separate for at least five million years . although the indus and ganges are ancient rivers , historically rivers near the indus - ganges drainage divide have been captured repeatedly and it is possible that there was faunal exchange between river systems even in relatively recent times . the fish fauna is similar between the two river systems , however there has been speciation of some catfish and carp species .\nwwf has initiated a project to survey ganges river dolphin populations in the karnali river and its tributaries . the project will also analyze threats to the dolphins and their habitats , and provide recommendations to decision and policy makers on dolphin conservation . awareness - raising activities will also be carried out at a local level .\nkasuya , t . and nishiwaki , m . 1975 . recent status of the population of indus dolphin . scientific reports of the whales research institute ( tokyo ) 27 : 81 - 94 .\nbecause these marine mammals live in the indus river they do not face the same natural threats other dolphins are known to face such as attacks from sharks or killer whales .\npublic awareness and support for conservation of the ganges river dolphin is virtually non - existent , and although the wildlife protection act of india mandates dolphin conservation as a priority , little has been done at the government level to implement or enforce the law .\nnowak , r . 2003 . ganges and indus dolphins , or susus . pp . 128 - 130 in\nthe ganga river dolphin platanista gangetica roxburgh , 1801 is a globally endangered cetacean found in the river system of ganga , brahmaputra and meghna in bangladesh and india . a survey and research were conducted from 2012\u20132014 to explore the behaviour , abundance , habitat use and potential threats of the dolphin in the lower , middle and upper stretches of the river ganga and its tributaries . . . [ show full abstract ]\nover 37 , 000 miles of irrigation canals lead to dolphins becoming stranded in the irrigation canals and because these instances usually go unreported and many indus river dolphins die without being rescued .\nmirza , a . h . and khurshid , s . n . 1996 . survey of the indus dolphin platinista minor in sindh . world wide fund for nature - pakistan & sindh wildlife department . 17 pp .\nalthough it is not usually considered to be gregarious , relatively high densities of the indus river dolphin are found at sites where rivers join , in areas where the current is relatively weak , off the mouths of irrigation canals , and near villages and ferry routes . in the indus , about 40 - 45 % of the dolphin population is found at junctions of tributaries with the mainstream , at least during the dry season , presumably being attracted to these areas by concentrations of prey . ( culik 2003c )\nthe indus river dolphin generally occurs in the deepest river channel and is less common in secondary channels and small braids . reported habitat preferences include channel constrictions , confluences , and deep , low - velocity water . as water levels drop in the winter , dolphins are concentrated in the remaining deep areas , including the head ponds upstream of barrages . ( iucn 2006 )\nit is a dolphin not commonly seen by humans and therefore , little studied . evidently lonely , it swims alone or in small groups of 2 or 3 individuals in shallow waters . like its relative the ganges river dolphin ( platanista gangetica gangetica ) , it usually swims sidewards .\n, however , they most likely spend much time and energy on their offspring . since females are pregnant for up to 11 months , newborns are about half the size of their mothers at birth , calves nurse up to a year after birth , indus river dolphin offspring are probably very costly .\ncurrently exists only in the freshwater indus river . however , some paleontologists believe that river dolphins might have evolved from marine - dwelling relatives that eventually moved to estuaries and then rivers as seawater levels rose and fell during the miocene . though this species prefers water deeper than 3 meters , indus river dolphins have special adaptations such as swimming on their sides that enable them to exist in shallower waters as well . the temperature of the water ranges from 8 - 33 degrees c .\nin 1997 , wwf india developed a plan of action for the conservation of the ganges river dolphin . wwf ' s objective for freshwater cetaceans is to ensure that habitat degradation and fisheries bycatch do not threaten any species of freshwater cetacean . specifically for the ganges river dolphin , wwf aims to reduce or eliminate the threats caused by fisheries bycatch and habitat degradation by 2012 .\na long thin snout , rounded belly , stocky body and large flippers are characteristics of the ganges river dolphin . although its eye lacks a lens ( this species is also referred to as the\nblind dolphin\n) , the dolphin still uses its eye to locate itself . the species has a slit similar to a blowhole on the top of the head , which acts as a nostril .\nthe indus is a highly managed river and during the dry season all of its flow is diverted for irrigation and municipal uses . for several months of the year large scale water extraction causes the river downstream of hyderabad to be completely dewatered ( i . e . dry ) before reaching its delta . this large - scale and increasing diversion of water from the indus river has severally reduced the quantity of dolphin habitat and is the primary reason for its extirpation from 80 % of its former range . the remaining dolphins are concentrated into the only section of the indus river that is consistently flowing throughout the year . pakistan is one of the most water stressed countries on earth , its semi - arid climate combined with large ( 167 million in 2006 ) and rapidly expanding ( 2 . 09 % ) population are placing enormous and unsustainable pressure on existing water sources particularly the indus river . available water per capita is plummeting and is approaching 1000 cubic meters per person down from 5600 cubic meters per capita in 1947 . the country is entering a water crisis and as its greatest source of freshwater is the indus river system there are numerous plans to further exploit the river by constructing dams and increasing water diversion with little consideration of the environmental and social impacts this may cause .\non the behaviour , abundance , habitat use and potential threats of the gangetic dolphin platanista ga . . .\ndeliberate killing for meat and oil was a traditional and widespread practice until at least the early 1970s ( pilleri and zbinden 1973 - 74 ) . the indus dolphin became a protected species in the early 1970s and within a few years , and following some prosecutions in the courts , dolphin hunting largely ceased ( bhatti and pilleri 1982 ) .\nin 1972 , indus dolphins were protected under the wildlife act of sindh and in 1974 the government of sindh declared the indus river between the sukkur and guddu barrages a dolphin reserve . the government of punjab prohibited deliberate killing of dolphins in the punjab wildlife protection act in 1974 and established the taunsa wildlife sanctuary and chashma wildlife sanctuary in 1983 and 1984 , respectively ( chaudhry 1989 , reeves et al . 1991 , reeves and chaudhry 1998 ) . enforcement of regulations prohibiting dolphin hunting appears to have arrested the rapid population declines reported by pilleri and zbinden ( 1973 - 74 ) for these river segments . a long - term programme to rescue dolphins trapped in irrigation canals and return them to the indus mainstem has had good success in reducing mortality .\nthe indus river dolphin feeds on several species of fish ( e . g . gobies , catfish and carp ) , invertebrates ( e . g . prawns ) , and possibly turtles and birds . it does much of its feeding at or near the bottom , using echolocation , swimming on one side , and probing the river bottom with its snout and its flipper . ( culik 2003c )\nindus river dolphins are one of only four river dolphin species and subspecies in the world that spend all of their lives in freshwater . they are believed to have originated in the ancient tethys sea . when the sea dried up approximately 50 million years ago , the dolphins were forced to adapt to its only remaining habitat\u2014rivers . only 1 , 816 exist today in the lower parts of the indus river in pakistan . numbers declined dramatically after the construction of an irrigation system . most dolphins are confined to a 750 mile stretch of the river and divided into isolated populations by six barrages . they have adapted to life in the muddy river and are functionally blind . they rely on echolocation to navigate , communicate and hunt prey including prawns , catfish and carp .\nthe ganges river dolphin , or susu , inhabits the ganges - brahmaputra - meghna and karnaphuli - sangu river systems of nepal , india , and bangladesh . this vast area has been altered by the construction of more than 50 dams and other irrigation - related projects , with dire consequences for the river dolphins . the ganges river dolphin lives in one of the world ' s most densely populated areas , and is threatened by removal of river water and siltation arising from deforestation , pollution and entanglement in fisheries nets . in addition , alterations to the river due to barrages are also separating populations . a recent survey conducted by wwf - india and its partners in the entire distribution range in the ganga and brahamaputra river system - around 6 , 000 km - identified fewer than 2 , 000 individuals in india . this dolphin is among the four\nobligate\nfreshwater dolphins - the other three are the baiji now likely extinct from the yangtze river in china , the bhulan of the indus in pakistan and the boto of the amazon river in latin america . although there are several species of marine dolphins whose ranges include some freshwater habitats , these four species live only in rivers and lakes .\nbhatti , m . u . and pilleri , g . 1982 . status of the indus dolphin population ( platanista indi blyth 1859 ) between sukkur and guddu barrages in 1979 - 1980 . investigations on cetacea 13 : 245 - 52 .\nthis subspecies is endemic to the rivers of the lower indus basin in pakistan . historically it occurred in the indus mainstem and the sutlej , beas , ravi , chenab , and jhelum tributaries . it ranged from the indus delta upstream to the himalayan foothills where rocky barriers or shallow water prevented further upstream movement . development of the vast indus basin irrigation system has severely fragmented the dolphin population within a network of barrages ( low , gated , diversion dams ) and water diversion has dramatically reduced the extent of dolphin habitat . current occupancy is effectively limited to three subpopulations in the indus mainstem located between the chashma and taunsa , taunsa and guddu , and guddu and sukkur barrages . a few individuals still remain above chashma barrage and below sukkur barrage ( braulik 2003 , reeves and chaudhry 1998 , reeves 1998 ) ( see figure 1 in the supplementary material ) .\nthis species inhabits parts of the ganges , meghna and brahmaputra river systems in india , nepal , bhutan and bangladesh , and the karnaphuli river in bangladesh ( 6 ) .\nalthough the killing of this dolphin for meat and oil is thought to have declined , it still occurs in the middle ganges near patna , in the kalni - kushiyara river of bangladesh , and in the upper reaches of the brahmaputra . in fisheries for large catfish in india and bangladesh , dolphin oil and body parts are used to lure prey , and ganges river dolphins are used to this end .\nganges river dolphins are top predators in their river ecosystems . they are important in controlling and maintaining healthy fish and crustacean populations , their primary sources of food . unfortunately , these river dolphins are experiencing the adverse effects of human environmental impacts and are highly endangered .\ncommenting on the current survey , he said that the current population trend looks positive and official results will reflect efforts made by wwf - pakistan with support of wildlife departments to conserve a viable population of the indus river dolphin by reducing fatalities due to canal stranding through rescue operations , capacity building sessions with officials of concerned departments and community awareness .\nindus river dolphins have extremely poor eyesight , perhaps since vision is nearly useless to navigate the murky rivers in which they live . they instead rely on echolocation to perceive their environment . indeed , one of the common names for\nthe movements of the ganges river dolphin follow seasonal patterns , although the details are not well known . however , it seems that animals travel upstream when water level rises , and from there enter smaller streams .\ndr . gillian t . braulik , member international union for the conservation of nature ( iucn ) cetacean specialist group , and a dolphin conservation expert provided the survey team with initial technical assistance based on her expertise of previously leading dolphin surveys .\nprevious population and distribution this species was once common throughout the indus river system in pakistan , from the himalayan foothills to the mouth of the indus , and in the main tributaries between . as early as in the early 1970s , the range and population size had declined dramatically and most of the remaining population lived between the sukkur and guddu barrages in sind province . current population and distribution the species is now present in only about one - fifth of its nineteenth - century range . the construction of the indus irrigation system has contributed to the dramatic decline of dolphins . today , only fragmented , small populations remain in a 1 , 375 - km stretch of the indus river , separated by irrigation weirs or barrages . this dolphin is distributed from jinnah to kotri barrages , but the largest numbers are found from taunsa to sukkur . the centre of abundance , a 170 - km stretch between guddu and sukkur barrage , was declared as a sanctuary for the species in 1974 . a survey coordinated by wwf and carried out in 2001 with partners showed that the total population of the indus dolphin is approximately 1 , 100 .\nreeves , r . r . , chaudhry , a . a . and khalid , u . 1991 . competing for water on the indus plain : is there a future for pakistan\u2019s river dolphins ? environmental conservation 18 : 341\u2013350 .\ntotal length of the river is 3 , 180 km ( 1 , 980 mi ) .\nbraulik , g . t . 2003 . indus dolphin conservation project . comprehensive survey and status report . march - april , 2001 . report for the world wide fund for nature \u2013 pakistan , po box 5160 , ferozepur road , lahore , 54600 , pakistan .\nthe indus ( platanista gangetica minor ) and ganges ( platanista gangetica gangetica ) river dolphins occur only in freshwater in the separate indus and ganges - brahmaputra river systems in south asia . both subspecies are listed as \u2018endangered\u2019 by the world conservation union , and they are among the world\u2019s most endangered dolphins . both river dolphin populations are severely fragmented by dams and barrages , have suffered enormous ( 50 - 80 % ) range declines in the last hundred years and are threatened by declining freshwater supplies , pollution , capture in fishing nets and hunting . the two subspecies are the only members of the genus platanista which is a very primitive and ancient cetacean group only distantly related to modern delphinids .\na new wwf survey says there are now an estimated 1 , 816 indus river in pakistan\u201450 % more than the 1 , 200 dolphins estimated after an initial census in 2001 when the species appeared to be on the brink of extinction .\nthe indo river dolphin has a carnivorous diet being fish the principal part of its food . herring , common carp , gobio , mahseer fish , and catfish are some of the species included in the diet of platanista gangetica minor . additionally , this dolphin eats prawns , clams , and shrimp , consuming about 1 kg of food per day .\ndolphins are expected to have been extirpated from the subansiri river because of periodic dramatic declines in river discharge from the newly completed lower subansiri hydroelectric project ( baruah et al . 2012 ) .\ninhabits the ganges and indus rivers and the many associated tributaries and connected lakes . this species is restricted to freshwater . there are two subspecies :\nwwf and the sindh agriculture extension department improve agricultural practices near dolphin habitat to reduce pollution in the indus river . farmer field schools are used to create widespread awareness among farming communities about how inappropriate irrigation practices and the indiscriminate use of toxic chemicals affects dolphins . experts work with participating farmers to demonstrate the benefits of using less water and chemicals on cash crops like cotton .\nrashmi sanghi . our national river ganga : lifeline of millions . springer science & business media ,\nthe main reason for the initial decline of the indus river dolphin population was the construction of numerous dams and barrages that began in the 1930s . this construction split the population into small groups , degraded their habitat and impeded migration . now the major threats include accidental capture in fishing nets , plus they are hunted for their meat , oil and for use in traditional medicines .\nthe indus river dolphin ( platanista gangetica minor ) is found in primarily 3 subpopulations separated by irrigation barrages ( low , gated - dams ) . the populations are estimated as 602 ( guddu - sukkur ) , 258 ( taunsa - guddu barrages ) and 84 ( chashma - taunsa barrages ) individuals . the metapopulation was estimated to number approximately 1 , 200 animals in 2001 .\nindus dolphins generally occur in the deepest river channel and are less common in secondary channels and small braids ( braulik 2006 ) . during the low - water season ( october to april ) , barrages divert almost all river water such that dolphin habitat downstream of sukkur barrage and in some tributary segments has been eliminated and so have the dolphins . as water levels drop in the winter , dolphins are concentrated in the remaining deep areas , including the head ponds upstream of barrages . a comprehensive habitat study demonstrated that indus dolphins selected locations in the river with significantly greater mean depth , maximum depth , cross - sectional area , and hydraulic radius , and significantly narrower river width and a lower degree of braiding than areas where dolphins were absent ( braulik et al . 2012 ) . channel cross - sectional area was the most important factor affecting dolphin presence and abundance , with the area of water less than 1 m in depth exerting the greatest influence . indus dolphins avoided channels with small cross - sectional area ( < 700m 2 ) , presumably owing to the risk of entrapment and reduced foraging opportunities .\nthe ganges river dolphin was recognised as a separate species in the 1970s , although some controversy remains surrounding its relationship with the indus river dolphin ( p . minor ) ( 5 ) . it has a fairly stocky body with a long beak that thickens at the tip , with light grey - brown skin that becomes paler on the body , often with a tinge of pink ( 6 ) . the flippers are large and the dorsal fin is undeveloped , being more of a triangular ridge than a fin . the forehead rises steeply and the eyes are very small . females tend to be larger than males ( 5 ) . the local name \u2018susu\u2019 is said to refer to the noise this dolphin makes when it breathes ( 6 ) .\nbeing a mammal , the ganges river dolphin cannot breathe in the water and must surface every 30 - 120 seconds . because of the sound it produces when breathing , the animal is popularly referred to as the ' susu ' .\nthe indus river dolphin feeds mostly on several species of fish and invertebrates . it does much of its feeding at or near the bottom , using echolocation , swimming on one side , and probing the river bottom with its snout and its flipper . although it is not usually considered to be gregarious , relatively high densities are found at sites where rivers join , in areas where the current is relatively weak , off the mouths of irrigation canals , and near villages and ferry routes .\nkhan , m . and niazi , m . 1989 . distribution and population status of the indus dolphin , platanista minor . in w . f . perrin , r . l . brownell jr . , k . zhou and j . liu ( eds ) biology and conservation of the river dolphins , pp . 77 - 80 . iucn species survival commission occasional paper no . 3 .\nthe ganges river dolphin or susu , lives in one of the most densely populated regions of the world . one of the main threats to the species is loss of habitat due in large part to the creation of dams and irrigation projects .\nin the 19th century , ganges river dolphins were once found in ' large schools ' close to urban centres along the river . nowadays , groups are considerably smaller , and individuals may also be found alone . the average size of a number of groups surveyed recently in the ganges river system was two individuals .\nin 1972 , dolphins were protected under the wildlife act of sindh and in 1974 the government of sindh declared the indus river between the sukkur and guddu barrages a dolphin reserve . the government of punjab prohibited deliberate killing of dolphins in the punjab wildlife protection act in 1974 and established the taunsa wildlife sanctuary and chashma wildlife sanctuary in 1983 and 1984 , respectively ( reeves et al . 1991 , reeves and chaudhry 1998 , chaudhry and khalid 1989 ) . enforcement of regulations prohibiting dolphin hunting appears to have arrested the rapid population declines reported by pilleri and zbinden ( 1973\u201374 ) for these river segments . a programme sponsored by the united nations development programme ( undp ) to rescue dolphins trapped in irrigation canals and return them to the indus mainstem has had some success in reducing mortality ( braulik 2002 , bhaagat 2002 ) .\ndespite their relatively high profile as endangered dolphins very little is known about these animals and there is confusion and uncertainty about their taxonomy . on the basis of very little morphological information the accepted classification of these river dolphins has changed multiple times from subspecies to separate species and back again . the reclassification in 1998 of the two dolphin populations from species to subspecies has caused confusion in south asia where the dolphins occur , has reduced the perceived importance of the indus dolphin inside pakistan and may have negatively impacted conservation efforts by lowering their priority for allocation of international funds .\nlast month ( december 2015 ) recommends translocating the 1 , 200\u20141 , 700 surviving dolphins upstream of the indus , which flows from the himalayas to the arabian sea .\nmake a symbolic dolphin adoption to help save some of the world ' s most endangered animals from extinction and support wwf ' s conservation efforts .\nindus river dolphins are roughly the same color as the river , gray or brown , though they sometimes are lighter on their undersides . their \u201cbeaks\u201d are distinctively swollen at the tip and very long , reaching 20 % of the length of their bodies , with large , visible teeth . in contrast to their \u201cbeaks\u201d , their dorsal fins are rather small and reduced compared to other river dolphins . large flippers and flukes , combined with long and remarkably flexible necks , probably help the dolphins navigate effectively .\nas a result , there has been a serious decrease in fish production , while the extraction of river water and siltation from deforestation are also degrading the species ' habitat . in some cases , habitat alterations have resulted in the genetic isolation of dolphin populations .\nganges river dolphins occupy freshwater river systems in southern asia . they inhabit the ganges and indus river systems and their many tributaries , streams , and connecting lakes . they are found in tributaries that run through the hills and lowlands in nepal ( roughly 250 meters above sea level ) and sometimes in flood plains and areas of rivers with heavy currents . these river dolphins prefer areas that create eddy countercurrents , such as small islands , river bends , and convergent tributaries . since these animals occupy a vast area of river systems , they can tolerate a wide variance of temperatures ; some as cold 8 degrees celsius to warm waters above 33 degrees celsius ( 46 . 4f to 91 . 4f ) . they inhabit depths from 3 to 9 meters and must surface every few minutes for air . in the monsoon season , ganges river dolphins locally migrate to tributaries and then back to larger river channels in the dry , winter season . they also move along the coast of the bay of bengal when monsoons flush freshwater out along the southeastern coast of india .\nindus river dolphins generally occur in the deepest river channel and are less common in secondary channels and small braids ( bhatti and pilleri 1982 , braulik 2003 ) . reported habitat preferences include channel constrictions , confluences , and deep , low - velocity water ( kasuya and nishiwaki 1975 , khan and niazi 1989 , braulik 2004 ) . during the low - water season ( october to april ) , barrages divert almost all river water such that dolphin habitat downstream of sukkur barrage and in some tributary segments has been eliminated . as water levels drop in the winter , dolphins are concentrated in the remaining deep areas , including the head ponds upstream of barrages .\nthis project aimed to understand which hydrological habitat ( depth and velocity ) dolphins depend upon in the dry season . this information is vital to understanding the impact of decreasing river flows on dolphins , will provide valuable information for managing the dolphin population and for lobbying the government and water management authorities to maintain sufficient water in the river for a functioning ecosystem which includes dolphins ."]}
{"id": 843, "summary": [{"text": "tetragnatha virescens , is a species of spider of the genus tetragnatha .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is found in bangladesh , sri lanka to indonesia , and philippines .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the species is more commonly found during the early vegetative growth stage of the rice plant , where they are important predators .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "male is about 5.9 to 7.8 mm in length without chelicerae .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "anterior row of eyes occupying the full width of carapace .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "maxilla are nearly parallel .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "all legs with spines and hair .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "female is larger than male , usually about 6.55 to 8.25 mm in length .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "body is light green in color , which is suitable for the survival among paddy leaves . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "tetragnatha virescens", "paragraphs": ["no one has contributed data records for tetragnatha virescens yet . learn how to contribute .\ntetragnatha virescens okuma , 1979a : 73 , f . 1 - 9 ( d m f ) . tetragnatha virescens vungsilabutr , 1988 : 70 , f . 4a - i ( m f ) . tetragnatha virescens okuma , 1988c : 194 , f . 9a - k ( m f ) . tetragnatha virescens okuma et al . , 1993 : 41 , f . 37a - g ( m f ) . tetragnatha virescens barrion & litsinger , 1994 : 324 , f . 1707 - 1710 , 1713 - 1714 ( m f ) . tetragnatha virescens barrion & litsinger , 1995 : 302 , f . 307a - e , 308a - i ( m f ) . tetragnatha virescens zhu , song & zhang , 2003 : 193 , f . 104a - g , 105a - g ( m f ) .\ntetragnatha virescens ( okuma ) and tetragnatha javana ( thorell ) - six tetragnatha species are common in rice fields . all are web builders belonging to the family tetragnathidae . of these , t . virescens okuma and t . javana ( thorell ) are the most common during the early vegetative growth stage of the rice plant .\nokuma , c . ( 1979a ) . a new species of the genus tetragnatha ( araneae : tetragnathidae ) from tropical asia . esakia 14 : 73 - 77 . - - show included taxa\nvungsilabutr , w . ( 1988 ) . the spider genus tetragnatha in the paddy fields of thailand ( araneae : tetragnathidae ) . thai journal of agricultural science 21 : 63 - 74 . - - show included taxa\nokuma , c . ( 1988c ) . a revision of the genus tetragnatha latreille ( araneae , tetragnathidae ) of asia , part ii . journal of the faculty of agriculture kyushu university 32 : 183 - 213 . - - show included taxa\nlsid : [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 014389 ]\nbarrion , a . t . & litsinger , j . a . ( 1994 ) . taxonomy of rice insect pests and their arthropod parasites and predators . in : heinrichs , e . a . ( ed . ) biology and management of rice insects . wiley eastern , new delhi , pp . 13 - 15 , 283 - 359 . - - show included taxa\nbarrion , a . t . & litsinger , j . a . ( 1995 ) . riceland spiders of south and southeast asia . cab international , wallingford , uk , xix + 700 pp . - - show included taxa\nokuma , c . , kamal , n . q . , hirashima , y . , alam , m . z . & ogata , k . ( 1993 ) . illustrated monograph of the rice field spiders of bangladesh . institute of postgraduate studies in agriculture ( salna , gazipur , bangladesh ) . japan international cooperation agency project publication , 1 , 93 pp . - - show included taxa\nzhu , m . s . , song , d . x . & zhang , j . x . ( 2003 ) . fauna sinica : invertebrata vol . 35 : arachnida : araneae : tetragnathidae . science press , beijing , vii + 418 pp . - - show included taxa\n( oi . ) - the smallest of all rice field spiders . has a strong preference for young instar nymphs of hoppers . it can kill at least fifty second instar nymphs of green leafhoppers per day . atypena belongs to the family linyphiidae commonly known as dwarf spiders .\noxyopes javanus ( thorell ) - common name lynx spider , is a member of the family oxyopidae . it is an excellent hunter of immature and adult rice insect pests because of its hexagonal eye pattern . an adult consumes two to three leaf folder moths per day .\nargiope catenulata ( doleschall ) is a large , beautiful , web - spinning spider . its large , sticky web is effective in catching flying pests , such as the short - horned grasshopper and other flies .\nin the next lesson , we will learn about important beetles in the rice field .\nyour browser doesn ' t support javascript or you have disabled javascript . please enable javascript , then refresh this page . javascript is required on this site .\neuropean union funding : for a one - year period ( 2017 - 12 - 16 to 2018 - 12 - 15 ) , eppo has been awarded an eu grant for the further development of the eppo code system ( agreement nb : sante / 2017 / gs / eppo / s12 . 768842 ) . the eu commission is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information from this project subsequently included in the eppo global database .\nthis translation tool is powered by google . fao is not responsible for the accuracy of translations .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nokuma , c . , kamal , n . q . , hirashima , y . , alam , m . z . & ogata , k . ( 1993 ) . illustrated monograph of the rice field spiders of bangladesh . institute of postgraduate studies in agriculture ( salna , gazipur , bangladesh ) . japan international cooperation agency project publication , 1 , 93 pp ."]}
{"id": 844, "summary": [{"text": "neargyractis slossonalis , the dimorphic leafcutter moth , is a moth in the crambidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by dyar in 1906 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in cuba and the south-eastern united states , where it has been recorded from alabama , florida , south carolina , georgia and mississippi .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 13 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults have been recorded on wing year round .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "larvae are aquatic and live amongst submerged roots of plants growing in and along streams and lakes .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "they feed on young roots and periphyton .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae are pale to light grey-brown with a dark brown head .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "full-grown larvae reach a length of about 20 mm .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "pupation takes place underwater amongst the roots . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "neargyractis slossonalis", "paragraphs": ["species neargyractis slossonalis - dimorphic leafcutter moth - hodges # 4769 - bugguide . net\nneargyractis slossonalis ( lepidoptera : pyralidae , nymphulinae ) : larval description and biological notes dale h . habeck . 1988 . the florida entomologist 71 ( 4 ) : 588 - 592 .\nthe mature larva of neargyractis slossonalis ( dyar ) is described and illustrated . larvae of this southeastern united states species live among submerged roots of plants growing in or along streams and lakes . larvae ingest young roots , but may also feed on periphyton . pupation occurs under water among the roots .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndyar , h . g . 1906 . the north american nymphlinae and scopariinae .\nthe north american nymphulin\u00e6 and scopariin\u00e6 harrison g . dyar . 1906 . journal of the new york entomological society 14 ( 2 ) : 77 - 107 .\ncheck list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . hodges , et al . ( editors ) . 1983 . e . w . classey , london . 284 pp .\narthropods of florida and neighboring land areas : lepidoptera of florida j . b . heppner . 2003 . florida department of agriculture 17 ( 1 ) : 1 - 670 .\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 26 may , 2013 - 8 : 02pm last updated 23 october , 2013 - 5 : 28pm\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthis translation tool is powered by google . fao is not responsible for the accuracy of translations ."]}
{"id": 850, "summary": [{"text": "the grotto salamander ( eurycea spelaea ) \u2014 also called the ozark blind salamander \u2014 is a species of salamander in the family plethodontidae .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "it is now considered a member of the genus eurycea , but was originally described as typhlotriton speleus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is endemic to the united states , specifically the karst regions beneath the springfield and salem plateaus of the ozark mountains part of arkansas , kansas , missouri , and oklahoma .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitats are freshwater springs , inland karsts , and caves .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it is not currently threatened , but vulnerable to changes in groundwater quality and reduction in bat population .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the grotto salamander was discovered in 1891 on the ozark plateau , and described by leonhard hess stejneger in 1892 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "this plateau remains the only area in which grotto salamanders have been found . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "grotto salamander", "paragraphs": ["grotto salamander ( typhlotriton spelaeus ) = kansas : endangered federal : n / a grotto salamander photo by suzanne l . more\njim stout has discovered that a rare species of grotto salamander has a diet much different from what was expected . more\ngrotto salamanders can be found from southern missouri south to adjacent northern arkansas and west to northeast oklahoma and extreme southeast kansas . within the midwest the grotto salamander is only found in missouri . more\nthe grotto salamander population was larger than we thought the cave could support ,\nstout said .\nthings didn ' t add up at first .\nthe researchers also noticed a significant drop in the grotto salamander population when the migrating bats were not there . more\nthe grotto salamander is classified as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .\nthe only known kansas populations of grotto salamanders are found in the ozark plateau region of cherokee county .\nthe grotto salamander ( typhlotriton spelaeus ) is a species of salamander in the plethodontidae family . it is monotypic within the genus typhlotriton . it is endemic to the united states . its natural habitats are freshwater springs , inland karsts , and caves . more\nand the grotto salamander , typhlotritron spelaeus . there is some question whether the southern redback in caves is just a confusion with the ozark zigzag salamander , plethodon dorsalis , as the outward appearances of the two are similar , and they are closely related . more\ngrotto salamander typhlotriton spelaeus photo by cryptobranchidae\n. . . . when the adult cave salamanders disappear , their larva soon appear in the same mud filled pools that the adults were previously in . more\nfenolio db , niemiller ml , bonett rm , graening go , collier ba , stout jf . life history , demography , and the influence of cave - roosting bats on a population of the grotto salamander (\nbowles bd , sanders ms , hansen rs . ecology of the jollyville plateau salamander (\nchippindale pt , price ah , hillis dm . a new species of perennibranchiate salamander (\ngeorgetown : williamson county conservation foundation ; 2012 . ecological studies of the georgetown salamander (\ntumlison r , cline gr . further notes on the habitat of the oklahoma salamander ,\nmcallister , c . t . , bursey , c . r . , trauth , s . e . , and fenolio , d . b . ( 2006 ) . ' ' helminth parasites of the grotto salamander ,\nonly at grotto falls can you actually walk behind the cascading waterfall , one of the most unique views and photo opportunities in the great smoky mountains national park . take the roaring fork motor nature trail and then follow the trillium gap trailhead to reach grotto falls .\nthe grotto salamander is most abundant in caves that harbor high numbers of bats ( hendricks and kezer 1958 ; bonett and chippindale 2004 ; brandon 1971 ) . from late april to october , and particularly during the summer , gray bats (\nlowe wh . linking dispersal to local population dynamics : a case study using a headwater salamander system .\na roundtrip hike to grotto falls measures 2 . 6 miles and generally takes the average hiker about two to three hours\u2014allowing for a casual stroll to enjoy nature and the scenic landscape . during your time on the grotto falls trail , you will cross four small streams without the help of a bridge .\npierce ba , mcentire kd , wall ae . population size , movement , and reproduction of the georgetown salamander ,\nus fish and wildlife service endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; 4 ( d ) rule for the georgetown salamander .\ndiaz ph , fries jn , bonner th , alexander ml , nowlin wh . mesohabitat associations of the threatened san marcos salamander (\nhillis dm , chamberlain da , wilcox tp , chippindale pt . a new species of subterranean blind salamander ( plethodontidae : hemidactyliini :\nthis is the only species of blind salamander in missouri . adults are true troglobites , living in total darkness and requiring caves with a spring or stream running through them . the delicate balance of cave ecosystems , grotto salamanders and their spring and cave habitats need to be protected from disturbance , including water and groundwater pollution .\nsteffen m , irwin k , blair a , bonett r . larval masquerade : a new species of paedomorphic salamander ( caudata : plethodontidae :\nbesharse , j . c . , and brandon , r . a . ( 2005 ) . ' ' postembryonic eye degeneration in the troglobitic salamander\nstejneger , l . ( 1892 ) . ' ' preliminary description of a new genus and species of blind cave salamander from north america . ' '\ndyer , w . g . ( 1975 ) . ' ' parasitism as an indicator of food sources in a cave - adapted salamander habitat . ' '\nbendik nf , morrison ta , gluesenkamp ag , sanders ms , o\u2019donnell lj . computer - assisted photo identification outperforms visible implant elastomers in an endangered salamander ,\nhaurwitz rkm . amphibian finds itself in middle of austin debate : endangered or not , the tiny barton springs salamander is becoming center of urban - growth argument .\nmartin sd , harris ba , collums jr , bonett rm . life between predators and a small space : substrate selection of an interstitial space - dwelling stream salamander .\nthe cave salamander inhabits underground fresh and well - oxygenated water systems in karst formations , where the water temperature is cool ( between 6\u00bac and 12\u00bac ) ( 3 ) .\ngrotto salamanders are 3 - 5 inches long and have a brownish purple to pinkish white body color . adults are blind and are found only in cave interiors . larvae of this species have functional eyes and live in streams or spring flows near cave openings .\nhendricks , l . j . , and kezer , j . ( 1958 ) . ' ' an unusual population of a blind cave salamander and its fluctuation during one year . ' '\na popular scientific film dealing with our studies of biological peculiarities of endemic cave salamander supports this presentation and was recently created in collaboration with national tv of slovenia ( bulog et al . 2003 ) .\nin the peculiar ecosystem within a cave , grotto salamanders function as predators to insects and other small prey . meanwhile , they and their larvae serve as prey to larger creatures , such as mammals venturing into caverns . even their bodies , after they die , serve as nutrients for future cave life .\nschegel , p . ; bulog , b . ( 1997 ) .\npopulation - specific behavioral electrosensitivity of the european blind cave salamander , proteus anguinus\n. journal of physiology ( paris ) 91 : 75\u201379 .\ndurand , j . p . ( 1976 ) . ' ' ocular development and involution in the european cave salamander , proteus anguinus laurenti . ' ' the biologial bulletin , 151 ( 3 ) , 450 - 466 .\nschlegel p . ( 1996 ) . ' ' behavioral evidence and possible physical and physiological mechanisms for earth magnetic orientation in the european blind cave salamander , proteus anguinus . ' ' m\u00e9moires de biosp\u00e9ologie , 23 , 5 - 16 .\nschlegel p . ( 1996 ) . ' ' behavioral evidence and possible physical and physiological mechanisms for earth magnetic orientation in the european blind cave salamander , proteus anguinus . ' ' m\u00e3\u00a9moires de biosp\u00e3\u00a9ologie , 23 , 5 - 16 .\nthe grotto falls hike is definitely worth your time ! the beautiful trail winds uphill through lush vegetation and past mountain streams . since the hike to the fall is uphill , your return trip is completely down hill . don\u2019t miss your opportunity to walk behind a waterfall \u2013 you may get a little wet , but you won\u2019t get drenched .\n) make use of caves as maternity roosts ( hendricks and kezer 1958 ; bonett and chippindale 2004 ; brandon 1971 ) . bats deposit feces ( guano ) within the cave , leading to an increase in invertebrates associated with the guano . grotto salamander larvae eat isopods , fly larvae , and snails ( brandon 1971 ; petranka 1998 ) , but in a highly unusual move for animals that are normally thought of as strictly carnivorous , grotto salamander larvae also consume bat guano ( fenolio et al . 2006 ) . bat guano is a source of high nutrition in a resource - poor environment ( the cave ) since bats have short digestive tracts and fast digestion times and do not extract the full nutritive value of food items . guano has been found to contain twice the protein content and about two - thirds the calories of an equivalent volume of big mac hamburger . microbial biofilms on the guano may provide extra nutritive value . the nutritive value of guano was found to be higher in terms of protein content , caloric density , and essential mineral content than a potential prey item , cave - dwelling gammarid amphipods ( fenolio et al . 2006 ) .\nyou\u2019ll enjoy the soothing sounds of the falling water and maybe catch sight of a salamander or two at this natural oasis . many visitors describe the experience of walking behind the thunderous power of waterfall to be the highlight of the trip .\nen route to the 25 - foot waterfall , be prepared for a gentle , but steady ascent\u2014an elevation gain of 585 feet . the trail is considered an easy to moderate hike , requiring sturdy shoes and the ability walk along an uneven , unpaved nature trail . at the end of the grotto falls trail , you will reach the magnificent waterfall !\ngori\u010dki , s . , and trontelj , p . ( 2006 ) . ' ' structure and evolution of the mitochondrial control region and flanking sequences in the european cave salamander proteus anguinus . ' ' gene , 378 , 31 - 41 .\nschegel , p . , and bulog , b . ( 1997 ) . ' ' population - specific behavioral electrosensitivity of the european blind cave salamander , proteus anguinus . ' ' journal of physiology ( paris ) , 91 , 75 - 79 .\n) . inclusion of ca and mh categorical site - level covariates improved upon the continuous covariates model , decreasing the aic value by over 8 units . mh was positively correlated with salamander presence , while ca was negatively correlated , though not significantly (\nthe species authority is : stejneger , l . ( 1892 ) . ' ' preliminary description of a new genus and species of blind cave salamander from north america . ' ' proceedings of the united states national museum , 15 , 115 - 117 .\nisteni\u010d , l . and bulog , b . ( 1984 ) . ' ' some evidence for the ampullary organs in the european cave salamander proteus anguinus ( urodela , amphibia ) . ' ' cell and tissue research , 235 , 393 - 402 .\nisteni\u010d , l . ; bulog , b . ( 1984 ) .\nsome evidence for the ampullary organs in the european cave salamander proteus anguinus ( urodela , amphibia )\n. cell tissue res 235 : 393\u2013402 . doi : 10 . 1007 / bf00217865 .\nbizjak - mali , l . and bulog , b . ( 2004 ) . ' ' histology and ultrastructure of the gut epithelium of the neotenic cave salamander , proteus anguinus ( amphibia , caudata ) . ' ' journal of mophology , 259 , 82 - 89 .\nthe cave salamander is dependent on large aquatic cave systems . tourism , economic changes and industrial pollution are the main threats to this species as the caves are affected by the land - use above . its populations are also under pressure from collectors for the aquarist trade ( 3 ) .\ngrotto salamanders are most active during spring and summer months when moisture levels in caves are high , food is abundant , and courtship is taking place . adults feed on aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates , including flies , mosquito larvae and beetles . adults may function as a top predator in some cave systems . predators have not been reported although larvae are likely to be vulnerable to crayfish ( brandon 1971 ; petranka 1998 ) .\nguillaume , o . ( 2000 ) . ' ' role of chemical communication and behavioral interactions among conspecifics in the choice of shelters by the cave - dwelling salamander proteus anguinus ( caudata , proteidae ) . ' ' canadian journal of zoology , 78 ( 2 ) , 167 - 173 .\nkos , m . ; bulog , b . et al . ( 2001 ) .\nimmunocytochemical demonstration of visual pigments in the degenerate retinal and pineal photoreceptors of the blind cave salamander ( proteus anguinus )\n. cell tissue res 303 : 15\u201325 . doi : 10 . 1007 / s004410000298 .\ngrotto salamanders are protected by the kansas nongame and endangered species conservation act and administrative regulations applicable thereto . any time an eligible project is proposed that will impact the species\u2019 preferred habitats within its probable range , the project sponsor must contact the ecological services section , kansas department of wildlife , parks and tourism , 512 se 25th ave . , pratt , kansas 67124 - 8174 . department personnel can then advise the project sponsor on permit requirements .\nfenolio , d . b . , graening , g . o . , collier , b . a . , and stout , j . f . ( 2006 ) . ' ' coprophagy in a cave - adapted salamander ; the importance of bat guano examined through nutritional and stable isotope analyses . ' '\nguillaume , o ( 2000 ) .\nrole of chemical communication and behavioural interactions among conspecifics in the choice of shelters by the cave - dwelling salamander proteus anguinus ( caudata , proteidae )\n. can . j . zool . 78 ( 2 ) : 167\u2013173 . doi : 10 . 1139 / z99 - 198 .\nthe trillium gap trail leading to grotto falls offers views of vibrant foliage , including large hemlock trees and a variety of wildflowers . you\u2019ll see both yellow and white trillium , from which the trail takes its name as well as snowy white violets and the delicate blooms of stitchwort . dutchman\u2019s breeches also can be found along this trail . look for the white blooms that resemble men\u2019s pants hanging by their cuffs from a clothesline . the wildflowers are especially vibrant in may ( late spring ) .\ncaves represent a fragile ecosystem vulnerable to disturbance and pollution . long - term monitoring will be needed to determine population trends of these animals ( petranka 1998 ) . this species occurs within several protected areas , but local threats include degradation of ground water quality and forest clear - cutting , which indirectly affects the salamander by changing bat populations ( hammerson 2004 ) .\n) . it is unclear whether this demographic pattern is due to dispersal from their natal site , as eggs were not observed during our study ( and are rarely observed in the wild ; n bendik , pers . obs . , 2015 ) . juveniles may actively avoid adults to escape predation or drift downstream in the current after hatching from their natal sites , as in other aquatic salamander larvae (\nbulog b . , schlegel p . et al . ( 2002 ) . non - visual orientation and light - sensitivity in the blind cave salamander , proteus anguinus ( amphibia , caudata ) . in : latella l . , mezzanotte e . , tarocco m . ( eds . ) . 16th international symposium of biospeleology ; 2002 sep 8\u201315 ; verona : societ\u00e9 internationale de biosp\u00e9ologie , pp . 31\u201332 .\nproteus anguinus lives in the subterranean fresh water biotopes of the dinaric karst , from the isonzo - soca river in south - eastern venezia guilia , italy through the southern half of slovenia , southern croatia , and parts of bosnia and herzegovina to the trebisnjica river in eastern herzegovina ( sket 1997 ) . it has been introduced in the parolini grotto , vicenza , northern italy and tular near kranj in slovenia . it may occur in montenegro but this has not yet been confirmed ( kalezic and dzukic 2001 ) . the variant known as the black olm ( formerly described as the subspecies proteus anguinus parkelj ; see comments ) is found in bela krajina , southeast slovenia ( stet and arntzen 1994 ; griffiths 1996 ) .\nwas 0 . 92 and 0 . 74 , respectively . model - averaged estimates of bi - weekly survival and detection probability based on mean body length ( 24 . 8 mm ) ranged from 0 . 61\u20130 . 66 and 0 . 11\u20130 . 55 , respectively . movement probability , corrected for imperfect detection , was 0 . 15 ( se = 0 . 07 ) for an average length salamander . a full list of model selection results and model - averaged parameter estimates for both capture - recapture analyses are provided in\na cave - dwelling salamander . this is the only known blind , troglobitic salamander which undergoes a complete metamorphosis . adults are white , pinkish white , or light brown on the dorsum and venter . the reduced eyes are dark spots visible through the partially fused eyelids . adults are 36 - 70 mm snout to vent length ( 75 - 135 mm total length ) with 16 - 19 costal grooves . sexually mature males have a slightly swollen upper lip and a pair of cirri ( papilla - like extensions from the upper lip ) . like many other plethodontid salmanders , males also have a mental gland , a raised area on the chin used in courtship . hatchlings are 13 mm snout to vent length ( 17 mm total length ) . the larvae have bushy gills and a moderately high dorsal tail fin . larvae are lightly pigmented ( tan dorsally , often weakly stippled or mottled ) and have functional eyes . the eyes become atrophied and the eyelids fuse at metamorphosis ( brandon 1970 ; 1971 ; petranka 1998 ; besharse and brandon 2005 ) .\nproteus anguinus lives in subterranean waters , and is therefore a difficult subject for field observations . it does occur in caves that are accessible to humans , but as these contain hardly any adults , these accessible parts of caves must be seen as marginal parts of the biotope . most observations on the life history of this salamander have been made in captivity . they have been bred in the subterranean laboratory of the cnrs , in the french pyrenees ( station d ' ecologie exp\u00e9rimental du cnrs , at moulis , france ) for more than 50 years , since 1955 . the following life history account is made using data from observations on captive salamanders .\nproteus anguinus is thought to be the longest - lived amphibian species . using data spanning more than 50 years from a 400 - animal captive breeding colony at the cnrs in moulis , france , the predicted maximum lifespan is over a century , and the average adult olm lifespan is 68 . 5 years ( voituron et al . 2010 ) . if the predicted maximum lifespan is accurate , it is more than double that of the next longest - lived species , the japanese giant salamander ( andrias japonicus , at 55 years . individual specimens have been kept under semi - natural conditions in concrete basins for up to 70 years ( prof . b . bulog , personal communication ) . this species reaches sexual maturity at 15 . 6 years and lays 35 eggs every 12 years , on average ( voituron et al . 2010 ) .\nwe performed two studies to examine e . tonkawae ecology at the individual , population and metapopulation scale to understand surface habitat use of this threatened , aquatic salamander endemic to the metropolitan area of austin , texas . our first study was motivated by the surface critical habitat initially proposed for this and two similar species , which was based on the maximum distance ( 50 m ) e . naufragia had been recorded to move during a single study near a spring ( us fish and wildlife service , 2012 ) . using data from repeated capture - recapture surveys during a single season , we generated estimates of superpopulation size at various distances upstream and downstream from the spring , quantified the movement of individuals between these areas , and documented the demographic structure of the population to determine whether the proposed critical habitat boundaries adequately reflect habitat used or potentially used by e . tonkawae .\nthe cave salamander is a rare amphibian with an unusual appearance , shaped by several million years of living in dark , subterranean caves in central europe ( 2 ) . its skin lacks pigment , giving its body a white , pasty appearance . it also has a pink hue due to blood capillaries near the skin , and as its translucency shows the contours of the internal organs . this strange fleshy skin led to this species ' common name , the human fish , as people thought this bizarre amphibian resembled a small human ( 3 ) . this cave dwelling amphibian ' s four limbs are short and feeble , and its eyes are so poorly developed that it is blind ( 2 ) . its head is elongated with a round snout , and on each side of the head there are three distinctive scarlet gill tufts that are used in respiration , although adults develop lungs as well ( 2 ) . males are smaller than females , and can be distinguished from females during breeding season by their larger cloaca ( 3 ) .\nelongate and slender salamander with small , thin extremities . the front legs bear three toes , the rear legs two toes . the flattened tail is markedly shorter than the trunk . the head is elongated with a rounded snout . eyes are poorly developed and covered by skin in the nominate subspecies . there are three pink external gills on each side of the head . the translucent skin also shows the contours of the internal organs on the ventral site of the body , making it easy to determine the sex of adults . juveniles sometimes show a faded spotting . dark pigmentation can be induced by exposure to light . this shows that these animals do not display albinism , as commonly thought , because they still possess the ability to produce melanin . the variant previously described as a subspecies ( p . anguinus parkelj , the black olm , now shown to be phylogenetically nested well within p . anguinus ; see comments ) has a permanent dark pigmentation of the skin , and probably functional eyes . it also has a shorter head than p . a . anguinus .\ncritical habitat for many species is often limited to occupied localities . for rare and cryptic species , or those lacking sufficient data , occupied habitats may go unrecognized , potentially hindering species recovery . proposed critical habitat for the aquatic jollyville plateau salamander ( eurycea tonkawae ) and two sister species were delineated based on the assumption that surface habitat is restricted to springs and excludes intervening stream reaches . to test this assumption , we performed two studies to understand aspects of individual , population , and metapopulation ecology of e . tonkawae . first , we examined movement and population demographics using capture - recapture along a spring - influenced stream reach . we then extended our investigation of stream habitat use with a study of occupancy and habitat dynamics in multiple headwater streams . indications of extensive stream channel use based on capture - recapture results included frequent movements of > 15 m , and high juvenile abundance downstream of the spring . initial occupancy of e . tonkawae was associated with shallow depths , maidenhair fern presence and low temperature variation ( indicative of groundwater influence ) , although many occupied sites were far from known springs . additionally , previously dry sites were three times more likely to be colonized than wet sites . our results indicate extensive use of stream habitats , including intermittent ones , by e . tonkawae . these areas may be important for maintaining population connectivity or even as primary habitat patches . restricting critical habitat to occupied sites will result in a mismatch with actual habitat use , particularly when assumptions of habitat use are untested , thus limiting the potential for recovery .\nalthough adults aggregate in suitable spots as in cracks and under rocks , males establish a territory when breeding , which is furiously protected from competing males . when a female enters such a territory , the courtship begins . the male fans with his tail in the direction of the female ' s head . the male touches the female ' s cloaca with his snout . the female then touches the male ' s cloaca with her snout and then follows the male who walks 5 - 10 cm forward after which the male deposits a spermatophore . the pair then moves forward again until the female can take up the spermatophore with her cloaca . courtship can be repeated several times within a few hours . after leaving the male ' s territory , the female establishes an egg - laying territory . after 2 - 3 days the female starts to lay eggs and can continue doing so for up to 25 days , laying a total of up to 70 eggs under rocks . eggs are guarded by the female . the diameter of the eggs directly after laying is 4 - 5 mm and can increase through water uptake to 8 - 9 mm . unconfirmed historical observations of vivipary exist ; it was long thought that female proteus gave birth to only two well - developed young at lower temperatures and laid eggs at higher temperatures , but this has not been confirmed by rigorous observations . the eggs develop in 182 days at 8\u00bac , 140 days at 10\u00bac , 123 days at 11\u00bac , and in 86 days at 15\u00bac . development of larvae is highly temperature - dependent . at 10\u00bac it takes another 14 years to reach sexual maturity . there is no clear metamorphosis ; p . anguinus is a neotenic salamander , maintaining external gills , tail fin and other juvenile characteristics throughout its life .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthis species can be found in the salem and springfield plateaus in the ozark region of missouri , oklahoma , arkansas , and kansas , usa ( conant and collins 1991 , collons 1993 , johnson 2000 ) .\njohnson ( 2000 ) mapped occurrences in 25 counties in missouri . most of the rest of the range is in arkansas , where an out - of - date review by brandon ( 1970 ) indicated 12 locations ( he showed 15 in missouri ) .\nadults inhabit caves . larvae are found in surface spring runs as well as in cave waters . most abundant in caves that have a large number of bats . probably attaches eggs to rocks in or near water .\nit is unthreatened range wide , but vulnerable to factors that degrade ground water quality or that negatively impact bat populations ( such as water pollution , and clear - cutting of forest ) .\nlong - term monitoring is needed to assess the viability of populations ( petranka 1998 ) . it occurs in several protected areas .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nfind local mdc conservation agents , consultants , education specialists , and regional offices .\nadults are beige to pink . a cave - dweller , this species lacks gills and is partly or completely blind . the head is rather wide and flat . the tail is long , rounded and finless . there are 16\u201319 grooves along the side . eyes are small , reduced and covered or partially covered by a fusion of the eyelids . the eyes may appear sunken . larvae have gills , functional eyes , broad tail fins and more pigment , being brown to dark gray , sometimes with spots or streaking on the sides and tail .\nadults eat mainly small insects . they occur in greater abundance in caves with many bats , probably because they feed on insects attracted to the bat guano . larvae probably eat tiny freshwater amphipods and other small aquatic invertebrates .\nthe survival of this species requires healthy cave ecosystems , which in turn require clean groundwater and lack of disturbance by humans . a species of conservation concern .\nthis species breeds during the period of greatest food supply , which for them is in winter and early spring . fertilization is internal ( as with most salamanders ) , and the eggs are probably attached to stones in or near water in caves . the larvae are aquatic and inhabit cave streams and sometimes also springs or streams that flow out of caves or grottoes . they may take 2\u20133 years to transform into adults .\nthe smooth gracefulness of these vulnerable pink salamanders , reminds us of the overall delicacy of their cave ecosystem . it is important to be extremely careful to respect caves , their inhabitants and the archaeological artifacts they contain . \u201cwalk softly , and leave no trace . \u201d\nmissouri\u2019s herptiles comprise 43 amphibians and 75 reptiles . amphibians , including salamanders , toads , and frogs , are vertebrate animals that spend at least part of their life cycle in water . they usually have moist skin , lack scales or claws , and are ectothermal ( cold - blooded ) , so they do not produce their own body heat the way birds and mammals do . reptiles , including turtles , lizards , and snakes , are also vertebrates , and most are ectothermal , but unlike amphibians , reptiles have dry skin with scales , the ones with legs have claws , and they do not have to live part of their lives in water .\nwe protect and manage the fish , forest , and wildlife of the state . we facilitate and provide opportunity for all citizens to use , enjoy , and learn about these resources .\nrestricted to two plateaus in the ozark region of southern missouri , extreme southeastern kansas , and adjacent areas in arkansas and oklahoma . missouri distributions in 25 counties were mapped by johnson ( 2000 ) . adults are not known outside of the twilight and dark zones of caves and sinkholes , but larvae are found in cave entrances and springs as well as nearby creeks . adults may be found in water or on moist vertical rock walls which extend out of the water . sandy or gravelly substrates are preferred by the larvae ( hendricks and kezer 1958 ; brandon 1970 , 1971 ; petranka 1998 ; trauth et al . 2004 ) .\ncourtship has not been described . mating occurs from late spring through summer . oviposition likely occurs from late summer to fall when females disappear from the surface . oviposition sites have not been documented , but presumably are in rocky crevices . female attendance of eggs is likely . clutch size from one female was 13 ( brandon 1971 ; petranka 1998 ) .\nthe larval period lasts from 1 - 3 years ( brandon 1971 ) or 2 - 6 years or longer depending on locality and conditions . adults are known to live for at least 12 years in captivity , but their lifespan in the wild is unknown . if\nis comparable to cave fish and crayfish their lifespan may be considerably longer , 20 - 25 years , than terrestrial salamanders as a response to energy resource limitations ( fenolio et al . 2014 , fenolio , personal communication ) .\nthis species is unique in that it starts life as a fully sighted larva but then metamorphoses underground into a terrestrial adult that loses its pigment and becomes blind , with the eyelids eventually fusing ( brandon 1970 ; 1971 ; petranka 1998 ; besharse and brandon 2005 ) . however , it is likely that some light sensitivity remains in the eye structures because adults have photophobic behavior . there three main hypotheses explaining why the eye forms but then becomes vestigial and loses its color . the first is that there is a link between the genes that code for skin pigment and eye pigment . however , this would not explain the loss of the structure in the eye . the second hypothesis is that early development of the eye plays a role in skull development . this hypothesis is supported by the fact that many blind cavefish also have eyes early in development that are completely loss after the skull is formed . the third hypothesis is that the loss of the eye helps the species conserve energy ( fenolio personal , communication ) . the energy economy hypothesis for loss of eyes was reviewed by jeremy niven ( 2015 ) , who argued that the cost of developing and maintaining eyes is substantial as illustrated by a positive correlation in eye and brain size in fish in comparisons of cave , intermediate / hybrid , and terrestrial fish , which indicates that when eyes are present a substantial portion of the brain is needed for visual processing , and oxygen consumption rates . energy savings from loss of eyes could reduce the amount of time needed for foraging and allow energy to be re - invested in other physiological processes , including reproduction . this hypothesis is reasonable for\nconsidering the resource limitation it experiences . lastly , hypotheses two and three are not mutually exclusive and may both be accurate explanations ( fenolio , personal communication ) .\ncould be retained as a clade name , for example in phylocode . because mitochondrial dna sequence divergence within\nbonett , r . , and chippindale , p . t . ( 2004 ) . ' ' speciation , phylogeography , and evolution of life history and morphology in plethodontid salamanders of the\namerican society of ichthyologists and herpetologists , 84 . 1 - 84 . 2 .\n( caudata : plethodontidae ) , from northern arkansas and southern missouri , u . s . a . ' '\ntrauth , s . e . , robison , h . w . , and plummer , m . v . ( 2004 ) .\nmeredith j . mahoney , additions by david b . wake and k . whittaker ( molge at yahoo . com ) , museum of vertebrate zoology , uc berkeley\nedited by kellie whittaker ; updated by ann t . chang ( 2016 - 02 - 22 )\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .\nstatewide comprehensive outdoor recreation plan ( s . c . o . r . p )\nas defined by kansas administrative regulations , critical habitats include those areas documentedas currently supporting self - sustaining population ( s ) of any threatened or endangered species of wildlife as well as those areas determined by the kansas department of wildlife , parks and tourism to be essential for the conservation of any threatened or endangered species of wildlife .\nall caves and associated spring flows within that portion of cherokee county lying south and east of a line beginning at the kansas - missouri border junction with u . s . highway 66 at sec . 13 , t34s , t25e , then extending westerly and southerly along u . s . 66 to the kansas - oklahoma border at sec . 14 , t35s , r24e .\nrecent molecular studies have shown that it is a close relative of species of the genus eurycea that occur nearby . it differs strikingly from these species in its larger size and cave - related features , but because it is phylogenetically nested within the euryea multiplicata complex , bonett and chippindale placed it in eurycea . thus its name was change from typhlotriton spelaeus to eurycea spelaea ( bonett and chippindale 2004 ) .\nin an alternative to linnean classification , the name typhlotriton could be retained as a clade name , for example in phylocode . because mitochondrial dna sequence divergence within e . spelaea is relatively great , some of the populations might be recognized as distinct species ( two additional species were described in the past but now included within e . spelaea ; bonett and chippindale 2004 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nbehler , j . l . , and f . w . king . 1979 ( 1987 ) . the audubon society field guide to north american reptiles and amphibians . 3rd ed . alfred a . knopf , new york . 743 pp .\nconant , r . , and j . t . collins . 1998 . a field guide to reptiles and amphibians of eastern and central north america . 3rd ed . , expanded . houghton mifflin co . , boston . 616 pp .\ntrauth , s . e . , h . w . robison , and m . v . plummer . 2004 . amphibians and reptiles of arkansas . university of arkansas press , fayetteville . 421 pp .\nerror . page cannot be displayed . please contact your service provider for more details . ( 26 )\nvisitors have the opportunity to hear the fall\u2019s power and see the water cascaded into the pool in front of them . walking behind a large waterfall is an experience like none other and not to be missed !\nafter the waterfall , if you wish to continue to the summit of mount leconte , use our trillium gap trail hike review .\nthe most authoritative source for restaurants , attractions , & cabin rentals in the smoky mountains .\n> stream x\u00fa\u00ect\u00dfksq\u0014 ? \u00f7\u00ee\u00d7\u00fd\u000fc\u00b3\u00ed\u00a65\u00b9\u00ea0\u00b3\u0019\u0003\u00ed\u0097p\u00b6\u0010\u00f3\u00b2tk\u00f6\u0010\u0083er1\u00e9\u00a5 r\u0088\u000f\u00bbkrq\u00e14a\u00ed\u0084 % > x\u0019\u00ac\u0090j\u00f9\u00e3tz\u0090j\u00ea\u00920 _ \u0084 | \u00f1 ^ * | \u00e8\u00a1\u0087\u00ee\u00f7\u00fep + \u00ff\u0081 . \u00df\u00fb\u00fd ~ \u00ee9\u009fs\u00ee\u00e7\u00b0\u00fd / \u0000\u00f0\u0000\u008a * p\u00e2\u00ee\u0000\u0013\u00a4 \u0013\u00fa\u00f4\u00f821\u00e1\u00a4\u008c\u00b8\u0019\u0081\u00a2 ( \u00e08 ' \u00e9\u00eax\u00f4\u00b3 | \u009d\u00ebb\u00e2\u00b0\u00b87\u0002 + u\u00f4 [ \u00be . 8\u00e9jn \u00b8\u00e9\u008e\u00f0\u00e3\u00ea - \u00ba\u0087\u00f7bt\u00ed\u0013 ) , 6\u0097\u00ecj\u00aalt\u0003eu\u009d ] \u007f\u00ec\u0016 ] n\u00fa\u00ae\u00f5im\u00aao\u00bc\u00bb\u009f\u00ed\u00e9 ; \u00bd\u00b5 + \u00ef\u00ff\u00f2\u0081\u00eak\u00b7s\u00fe ` \u00b4\u00e6\u0013 + ~ m ) \u00d7u\u00a9\u00ba\u00e81\u00aa11\u00ea\u00f27 : \u0002\u00e6 ~ u @ u \u00f8 ~ og\u00b3\u00b7\u0013\u00ee\u00e1\u00bd\u00bf\u00b4u\u00ea * \u00fa\u0002\u00e5\u0084\u00e9\u00e0\u00b5\u00b5 # \u00f6\u00a9\u0081\u00f8\u00f4\u00f0\u00f0\u00f0j | dd\u00e5\u00f5\u00f4\u00f4\u00e0\u00fd\u00f9\u00f9 { c\u00af\u00e3\u00f1\u00a1\u00a1\u00f8\u0000n\u00ab\u00ab\u00f1\u00f8\u00b6z\u00e3\u00ed { \u00fb\u00bc ` \u00f6\u0094\u00f5\u00a8\u00bex\u00a16\u0086\u0004\u00ec ~ \u00e7\u00be\b : sa\u00ebq1\u00a41\u00a3\u00b9\u0014\u00ae4g ; \u00ec\u009fri\u008dor\u00ba\u00b1\u0095\u00b1\u00f9zk\u009d\u00be \\ j\u0099 % \u00a6\u00e6\u00d7 - \u0098r\u00f4\u00dfq\u00a2\u00fe\u00b2\u00e7 / \u00fb [ \u0090\u007f\u00ba\u0001a\u009d ) b\u00f3\u00ea\u00eb - j\u0017\u00bf\u00fcoz\u00f9\u00ef\u0094\u00ea aibv\u00a5\u00bd\u00e6\u00f5q\u008b\u0004\u00bf\u00fc\u00e8 zb\u0084p ` ? 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\u00e3m\u00fb } \u00e31 i\u00b8\u0004u a\u00a8\u0019\u00f8\u0007 ? jj\u0096w\u0005\u008f\u0014\u00aev\u0084\u00e2\u00fa\u00ed \\ \u009f\u00b5na\u00e3\u00fda\u00a4\u0097q\u00ba\u008c\u007f\u00e7\u00ec\u00ff\u0000\u00f7\u00f0\u00f0\u00e1x\u009c\u0003qh @ \u00e6w\n\u0081 ; \u0012 . \u00a5v\u00e9\u00e4\u00f3\u0006\u00f7\u0090\u00f3\u001bq\u00b9\u00e1o\u00b5l\u0000\u00eb\u0089 tev\u00e9s\u00f8p\u0017\u00e5 \u009e ; \u00e2\u00a9\u0010\u00ebb\u00f6\u00e9\u00e3\u00ea\u00fck\u0083\u00f0\u00ef5 \u00fa\u00ef ? \u00e7\u00ea _ \u00fb\u00ec\u00f3p\u0082\u0080\u0080 @ \u00a4\u00ea\u00f3\u00b8\u008e } \u00a21\u00e0\u00e7\u00f2\u008fc\u00f2\u00949\u0004\u0011\u00f4u\u00f7\u00ab7 \u0091\u00e9\u00b5\u0013 ue\u0091t\u0001 # * \u00bb \u00eavf\u0000epk8\u00e6\u00ef\u00e5q\u0094 ; \u0003 ( \u00e0\u00ff\u0000\u00b5s\u0004 \u00e5h , \u000fr { s\u0019\u00027\u001b\u00b2 : \u0003\u00e6i\u0088\u008dp\nthe average total length lies between 23 - 25 cm . they may grow up to 30 cm and rarely more than 30 cm . black proteus can grow up to 40 cm or more . males are somewhat smaller than females . other sexually dimorphic characteristics include the shape and size of the cloaca during breeding activity , with the males having a larger and more elongated swollen cloaca than the females .\nsket and arntzen ( 1994 ) described black populations of proteus as a separates subspecies , and defended this taxonomic decision based on the limited amount of morphological ( morphometric ) differentiation that arntzen and sket ( 1997 ) observed between the two subspecies . however , goricki and tronteltj ( 2006 ) found little differentiation between the two subspecies at the molecular level and questioned whether the designation of subspecies was appropriate . subsequently tronteltj et al . ( 2007 ) reported that both\nsubspecies\nwere nested within a southeastern slovenian clade of p . anguinus and that the division was in fact simply intra - lineage diversity .\nproteus is the only cave - adapted vertebrate in europe . current genetic research under the direction of dr . boris sket of the university of ljubljana suggests that proteus anguinus is actually a complex of several species , with phylogenetic analysis revealing six cryptic lineages ( see trontelj et al . 2007 ) .\nfunctional - morphological and environmental studies of proteus have been performed at the department of biology , biotechnical faculty ( bf ) , university of ljubljana , slovenia for more than thirty years , with the most recent twenty years under the guidance of prof . dr . boris bulog .\narntzen , j . w . , and sket , b . ( 1997 ) . ' ' morphometric analysis of black and white european cave salamanders , proteus anguinus . ' ' journal of zoology ( london ) , 241 ( 4 ) , 699 - 707 .\nbizjak - mali , l . ( 1995 ) . histological , histochemical and ultrastructural analysis of the digestive tract of proteus anguinus ( amphibia , caudata ) , master of science thesis . university of ljubljana , biotechnical faculty , department of biology , slovenia .\nboehme , w . , grossenbacher , k . , and thiesmeier , b . ( 1999 ) . handbuch der reptilien und amphibien europas , band 4 / i : schwanzlurche ( urodela ) . aula - verlag , wiesbaden .\nbons , j . and beniez , p . ( 1996 ) . amphibiens et reptiles du maroc ( sahara occidental compris ) . asociacion herpetologica espa\u00f1ola , barcelona .\nbulog b . ( 1989 ) . ' ' differentiation of the inner ear sensory epithelia of proteus anguinus ( urodela , amphibia ) . ' ' journal of morphology , 202 , 325 - 338 .\nbulog b . et al . ( 2003 ) . black proteus : mysterious dweller of the karst in bela krajina . ljubljana : tv slovenia , video tape\nbulog b . , and schlegel , p . ( 2000 ) . ' ' functional morphology of the inner ear and underwater audiograms of proteus anguinus ( amphibia , urodela ) . ' ' pfl\u00fcgers archive , 439 ( 3 ) , 165 - 167 .\nbulog , b . , mihajl , k . , jeran , z . , and toman , m . ( 2002 ) . ' ' trace element concentrations in the tissues of proteus anguinus ( amphibia , caudata ) and the surrounding environment . ' ' water , air , and soil pollution , 136 ( 1 - 4 ) , 147 - 163 .\ndumas , p . and chris , b . ( 1998 ) . ' ' the olfaction in proteus anguinus . ' ' behavioural processes , 43 , 107 - 113 .\ngasc , j . - p . ( 1997 ) . atlas of amphibians and reptiles in europe . societas europaea herpetologica , bonn , germany .\ngriffiths , r . a . ( 1996 ) . newts and salamanders of europe . t . and a . d . poyser , london .\nhonegger , r . e . ( 1981 ) . threatened amphibians and reptiles in europe . akademische verlagsgesellschaft , wiesbaden .\nisteni\u010d , l . and bulog , b . ( 1979 ) . ' ' the structural differentiations of the buccal and pharyngeal mucous membrane of the proteus anguinus laur . ' ' biolo\u0161ki vestnik , 27 , 1 - 12 .\nisteni\u010d , l . and sojar , a . ( 1974 ) . ' ' oxygen consumption of proteus anguinus . ' ' acta carsologica , 6 , 299 - 305 .\nistenic , l . and ziegler , i . ( 1974 ) . ' ' riboflavin as ' ' pigment ' ' in the skin of proteus anguinus l . ' ' naturwissenschaften , 12 , 686 - 687 .\nkalezic , m . , and dzukic , g . ( 2001 ) . ' ' amphibian status in serbia and montenegro ( fr yugoslavia ) . ' ' froglog , 45 .\nkos , m . ( 1992 ) . ' ' fine structure of of the skin of proteus anguinus laurenti ( urodela , amphibia ) and comparison of the skin of the pigmentless and pigmented specimen . unpublished dissertation . ' '\nkos , m . , bulog , b . , sz\u00e9l , a . , and r\u00f6hlich p . ( 2001 ) . ' ' immunocytochemical demonstration of visualpigments in the degenerate retinal and pineal photoreceptors of the blind cavesalamander ( proteus anguinus ) . ' ' cell and tissue research , 303 ( 1 ) , 15 - 25 .\nn\u00f6llert , a . and n\u00f6llert , c . ( 1992 ) . die amphibien europas . franckh - kosmos verlags - gmbh and company , stuttgart .\nschlegel p . a . , briegleb w . , bulog b . , steinfartz s . ( 2006 ) . ' ' revue et nouvellesdonn\u00e9es sur la sensitivit\u00e9 a la lumiere et orientation non - visuelle chez proteus anguinus , calotriton asper et desmognathus ochrophaeus ( amphibiens urodeles hypog\u00e9s ) . ' ' bulletin de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 herp\u00e9tologique de france , 118 , 1 - 31 .\nsket , b . ( 1997 ) . ' ' distribution of proteus ( amphibia : urodela : proteidae ) and its possible explanation . ' ' journal of biogeography , 24 , 263 - 280 .\nstet , b . , and arntzen , j . w . ( 1994 ) . ' ' a black , non - troglomorphic amphibian from the karst of slovenia : proteus anguinus parkelj n . ssp . ( urodela : proteidae ) . ' ' bijdragen tot de dierkunde , 64 ( 1 ) , 33 - 53 .\nstuart , s . , hoffmann , m . , chanson , j . , cox , n . , berridge , r . , ramani , p . , and young , b . ( eds ) ( 2008 ) . threatened amphibians of the world . lynx edicions , iucn , and conservation international , barcelona , spain ; gland , switzerland ; and arlington , virginia , usa .\nstumpel - rieks , s . e . ( 1992 ) . nomina herpetofaunae europaeae . aula - verlag , wiesbaden .\ntrontelj , p . , douady , c . , fi\u0161er , c . , gibert , j . , gori\u010dki , s . , lef\u00e9bure , t . , sket , b . , and zak\u0161ek , v . ( 2007 ) . ' ' a molecular test for cryptic diversity in ground water : how large are the ranges of macro - stygobionts ? ' ' freshwater biology , 54 , 727 - 744 .\nuiblein , f . , durand , j . p . , juberthie , c . , and parzefall , j . ( 1992 ) . ' ' predation in caves : the effects of prey immobility and darkness on the foraging behaviour of two salamanders , euproctus asper and proteus anguis . ' ' bahavioural processes , 28 , 33 - 40 .\nvoituron , y . , de fraipont , m . , issartel , j . , guillaume , o . , and clobert , j . ( 2010 ) . ' ' extreme lifespan of the human fish ( proteus anguinus ) : a challenge for ageing mechanisms . ' ' biology letters , published online before print july 21 , 2010 , doi : 10 . 1098 / rsbl . 2010 . 0539 .\nbons , j . and beniez , p . ( 1996 ) . amphibiens et reptiles du maroc ( sahara occidental compris ) . asociacion herpetologica espa\u00e3\u00b1ola , barcelona .\nbulog b . , and schlegel , p . ( 2000 ) . ' ' functional morphology of the inner ear and underwater audiograms of proteus anguinus ( amphibia , urodela ) . ' ' pfl\u00e3\u00bcgers archive , 439 ( 3 ) , 165 - 167 .\nisteni\u010d , l . and bulog , b . ( 1979 ) . ' ' the structural differentiations of the buccal and pharyngeal mucous membrane of the proteus anguinus laur . ' ' biolo\u00e5\u00a1ki vestnik , 27 , 1 - 12 .\nkos , m . , bulog , b . , sz\u00e3\u00a9l , a . , and r\u00e3\u00b6hlich p . ( 2001 ) . ' ' immunocytochemical demonstration of visualpigments in the degenerate retinal and pineal photoreceptors of the blind cavesalamander ( proteus anguinus ) . ' ' cell and tissue research , 303 ( 1 ) , 15 - 25 .\nn\u00e3\u00b6llert , a . and n\u00e3\u00b6llert , c . ( 1992 ) . die amphibien europas . franckh - kosmos verlags - gmbh and company , stuttgart .\nschlegel p . a . , briegleb w . , bulog b . , steinfartz s . ( 2006 ) . ' ' revue et nouvellesdonn\u00e3\u00a9es sur la sensitivit\u00e3\u00a9 a la lumiere et orientation non - visuelle chez proteus anguinus , calotriton asper et desmognathus ochrophaeus ( amphibiens urodeles hypog\u00e3\u00a9s ) . ' ' bulletin de la soci\u00e3\u00a9t\u00e3\u00a9 herp\u00e3\u00a9tologique de france , 118 , 1 - 31 .\ntrontelj , p . , douady , c . , fi\u00e5\u00a1er , c . , gibert , j . , gori\u010dki , s . , lef\u00e3\u00a9bure , t . , sket , b . , and zak\u00e5\u00a1ek , v . ( 2007 ) . ' ' a molecular test for cryptic diversity in ground water : how large are the ranges of macro - stygobionts ? ' ' freshwater biology , 54 , 727 - 744 .\nthe species is restricted to subterranean aquatic habitats within the dinaric alps , ranging from southern slovenia and adjoining north - east italy through coastal croatia and karst regions of bosnia and herzegovina . it has yet to be officially recorded in western parts of montenegro despite considerable anecdotal evidence of its presence ( kalezic and dzukic , 2001 ) . the species has been introduced to a cave of the subterranean laboratory of the cnrs france in the pyrenees ( c . miaud pers . comm . ) , and one of the north - eastern italian populations ( in the vicenza area ) was introduced in the 1800s ( p . edgar pers . comm . ) ."]}
{"id": 854, "summary": [{"text": "the levant sparrowhawk ( accipiter brevipes ) is a small bird of prey .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it measures 32 \u2013 38 cm ( 13 \u2013 15 in ) in length with a wingspan of 65 \u2013 75 cm ( 26 \u2013 30 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the female is larger than the male , but the difference is not as marked as with eurasian sparrowhawk .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the adult male is blue-grey above , with dark wingtips , and barred reddish below .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the adult female is slate-grey above with darkish wingtips .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "she is barred reddish brown below , and may show a dark throat line .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the juvenile is dark brown above and has dark-streaked underparts .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it shows a dark throat line .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "it breeds in forests from greece and the balkans east to southern russia .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is migratory , wintering from egypt across to southwestern iran .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "it will migrate in large flocks , unlike the more widespread eurasian sparrowhawk .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the levant sparrowhawk nests in trees , building a new nest , lined with green leaves , each year .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the normal clutch is 3 \u2013 5 eggs .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "it hunts small birds , insects and lizards in woodland , relying on surprise as it flies from a perch to catch its prey unaware .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "this bird is a small raptor with short broad wings and a longish tail , both adaptations to manoeuvring through trees .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is similar to the eurasian sparrowhawk , but its shorter tail and more pointed wings give it a more falcon-like appearance .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the flight of this hawk is a characteristic flap \u2013 flap \u2013 glide .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the call is a sharp kee-wick . ", "topic": 16}], "title": "levant sparrowhawk", "paragraphs": [", the levant sparrowhawk prefers deciduous forests [ mebs & schmidt 2006 , grin 2010 ] .\nbu aramada levant sparrowhawk kelimesinin s\u00f6zl\u00fck anlam\u0131 ve e\u015fanlam\u0131 nedir , nas\u0131l okunur hakk\u0131nda bilgi verilmektedir . levant sparrowhawk kelimesinin etimolojik ve e\u015fanlamlar\u0131 ile ilgili a\u00e7\u0131klamalar ve bilgiler eksiksiz ve hatas\u0131z olarak an\u0131lmamal\u0131d\u0131r . burada yer alan levant sparrowhawk kelimesi ile ilgili t\u00fcm a\u00e7\u0131klamalar bilgi ama\u00e7l\u0131d\u0131r . eksik ve hatal\u0131 \u00e7evirileri l\u00fctfen bildiriniz . more\nthe levant sparrowhawk is a very secretive species and therefore is hard to count . more research is needed here .\ngorman g 1 998 : the status of levant sparrowhawk in europe . alula 4 : 1 44 - 1 47 .\n, the levant sparrowhawk is a strictly migratory species . it leaves it ' s european breeding range in the second half of august and the first half of september [ mebs & schmidt 2006 ] . the levant sparrowhawk migrates in small flocks ( the\nlevant sparrowhawk - a species for which we know not much about . . . we have some idea that they . . . more\n[ grin 2010 ] global raptor information network . 2010 . species account : levant sparrowhawk accipiter brevipes . downloaded from urltoken on 11 dec 2010\nrecommended citation : global raptor information network . 2018 . species account : levant sparrowhawk accipiter brevipes . downloaded from urltoken on 9 jul . 2018\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - levant sparrowhawk ( accipiter brevipes )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - levant sparrowhawk ( accipiter brevipes )\ntitle =\narkive species - levant sparrowhawk ( accipiter brevipes )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nwhile there are currently no specific conservation measures in place for the levant sparrowhawk ( 1 ) , it occurs in several protected areas ( 7 ) .\nbankovics a 1 991 : levant sparrowhawk ( accipiter brevipes , sev . 1 850 ) at the p\u00e9teri - lake . aquila 98 : 1 87 .\nthe levant sparrowhawk is classified as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .\nthe levant sparrowhawk nests in trees , building a new nest , lined with green leaves , each year . the normal clutch is 3 - 5 egs .\nbreuer g 1 955 : kish\u00e9ja a dun\u00e1nt\u00falon [ the levant sparrowhawk in the dun\u00e1nt\u00fal area ] . aquila 59 - 62 : 379 . [ in hungarian ]\nthe levant sparrowhawk is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) .\nin europe only in the south - east . the levant sparrowhawk can be found on the balkan , in russia , ukraine , turkey and eastwards to iran .\naspects of the topic levant sparrowhawk are discussed in the following places at britannica . assorted references * description ( in sparrowhawk ( hawk group ) ) . . . dark gray above and brown barred white below , is a common inhabitant of wooded areas throughout europe , in coastal northwestern africa , and in temperate to sub - arctic forests of asia . the levant sparrowhawk , or shikra ( a . more\nthe levant sparrowhawk ( accipiter brevipes ) is a small bird of prey in the family accipitridae which also includes many other diurnal raptors such as eagles , buzzards and harriers .\nthe levant sparrowhawk ( accipiter brevipes ) is a small bird of prey in the family accipitridae which also includes many other diurnal raptors such as eagles , buzzards and harriers .\ngreschik j 1 934 : kis h\u00e9ja : accipiter brevipes severtz . moh\u00e1cson [ the levant sparrowhawk accipiter brevipes at moh\u00e1cs ] . k\u00f3csag 7 : 73 . [ in hungarian ]\nnumbers may have had a negative effect on the levant sparrowhawk population . along the migration route in israel the number of migrating individuals also declined [ mebs & schmidt 2006 ] .\nthe levant sparrowhawk ( accipiter brevipes ) is a small bird of prey in the family accipitridae which also includes many other diurnal raptors such as eagles , buzzards and harriers . more\nfilmed at neot smadar israel 26 . 4 . 2013 latin name : accipiter brevipes levant sparrowhawk is a migrant spices in israel and about 80 , 000 are passing twice a year trough israel\nlevant sparrowhawk is 30 - 37 cm long with a 63 - 76 cm wingspan . the female is larger than the male , but the difference is not as marked as with sparrowhawk . the adult male is blue - grey above , with dark wingtips , and barred reddish below .\nthe levant sparrowhawk ( accipiter brevipes ) is a small bird of prey in the family accipitridae which also includes many other diurnal raptors such as eagles , buzzards and harriers . it breeds in forests from greece and the balkans east to southern russia . it is migratory , wintering from egypt across to southwestern iran . it will migrate in large flocks , unlike the more widespread eurasian sparrowhawk the levant sparrowhawk nests in trees , building a new nest , lined with green leaves , each year . more\n[ birdlife international 2004 ] birdlife international . 2004 . birds in europe : population estimates , trends and conservation status . birdlife interntional . cambridge , uk . ( levant sparrowhawk species account available at :\nthe levant sparrowhawk has been recorded over a large range , from south - east europe , east through southern russia to western kazakhstan ( 2 ) , and south through the middle east to the united arab emirates ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 5 ) . a migratory species , the levant sparrowhawk is believed to spend the winter in the east sahel zone of sub - saharan africa ( 2 ) .\nt\u00f3th i , marik p & forg\u00e1ch b 1 998 : a kis h\u00e9ja f\u00e9szkel\u00e9se b\u00e9k\u00e9s megy\u00e9ben [ breeding of the levant sparrowhawk in b\u00e9k\u00e9s county ] . crisicum 1 : 229 - 242 . [ in hungarian ]\nlevant sparrowhawk is 30\u201337 cm ( 12\u201315 in ) long with a 63\u201376 cm ( 25\u201330 in ) wingspan . the female is larger than the male , but the difference is not as marked as with eurasian sparrowhawk . the adult male is blue - grey above , with dark wingtips , and barred reddish below .\nm\u00e9sz\u00e1ros c 201 0 : a kis h\u00e9ja els . bizony\u00edtott f\u00e9szkel\u00e9se csongr\u00e1d megy\u00e9ben [ the first documented breeding of the levant sparrowhawk in the csongr\u00e1d county ] . heliaca 7 : 11 5 . [ in hungarian with english summary ] m\u00e9sz\u00e1ros c & t\u00f3th i 201 0 : kis h\u00e9ja \u00e1llom\u00e1ny adatok - 2009 [ accounts on the status of the levant sparrowhawk - 2009 ] . heliaca 7 [ 2009 ] : 69 . [ in hungarian with english summary ]\nsmall ( l 30 cm ) and slender sparrowhawk with difference in size and in colour between sexes . the levant sparrowhawk is highly selective in its choice of nesting habitats , rarely occurring outside of fragmented deciduous forest alterning with open grasslands , primarly along river valleys . the principal food comprises lizards , small fledging birds and large insectes . resident .\nthe levant sparrowhawk is commonly encountered alone or in a pair around clearings on the edges of woods and sometimes on the outskirts of human settlements . an efficient predator , this species mainly consumes large insects , such as beetles , grasshoppers and locusts , as well as lizards , a variety of small birds , and mice and voles . while most hunting occurs during the day , the levant sparrowhawk has also been observed feeding on agile , aerial prey such as bats at dusk ( 2 ) .\naradi c 1 964 : levant sparrow hawk nesting in the nagyerd . ofdebrecen . aquila 69 - 70 : 250 - 251 .\nendes m 1 992 : kis h\u00e9ja ( accipiter brevipes sev . ) \u201eadataim\u201c - n\u00e9mi aprop\u00f3val [ my \u201cdata\u201d on the levant sparrowhawk ( accipiter brevipes ) - with a little apropos ] . calandrella 6 ( 1 ) : 33 - 37 . [ in hungarian ]\nit is migratory , wintering from egypt across to southwestern iran . it will migrate in large flocks , unlike the more widespread sparrowhawk\na handsome , small - bodied bird of prey , the levant sparrowhawk can be distinguished by its barred underparts and striking , dark red eyes . the sexes differ in size and plumage colouration , with the male being significantly smaller than the female and . . . more\nthe levant sparrowhawk feeds on small birds , small mammals like voles and lizards . large insects and even bat are also taken . hunts either from a perch or from flight low above the ground and then surprises the victim [ mebs & schmidt 2006 , grin 2010 ] .\nthe levant sparrowhawk , or shikra ( a . bre vipes ) , is gray above and brown barred white below . it occurs from southeastern europe throughout most of continental southern asia and subequatorial africa . for the small falcon called sparrow hawk in the united states , see kestrel .\nlevant sparrowhawk is being thoroughly studied at the international birding and research centre in eilat ( israel ) during migration . 4 . 25average : 4 . 3 ( 4 votes ) your rating : none voting is for registered members only . please login or create a new account . more\nthe levant sparrowhawk nests in trees , building a new nest , lined with green leaves , each year . the normal clutch is 3\u20135 eggs . it hunts small birds , insects and lizards in woodland , relying on surprise as it flies from a perch to catch its prey unaware .\nkunysz p 1 992 : pierwsze stwierdzenie krogulca kr\u00f3tkonogiego ( accipiter brevipes ) na ziemiach polskich [ first record of a levant sparrowhawk ( accipiter brevipes ) in poland ] . notatki ornitologiczne 33 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 57 - 1 59 . [ in polish with english summary ]\nkov\u00e1cs g 2004 : kis h\u00e9ja accipiter brevipes ( severtzov , 1 850 ) [ the levant sparrowhawk accipiter brevipes ( severtzov , 1 850 ) ] , 21 2 . in : ecsedi z ( ed ) , a hortob\u00e1gy mad\u00e1rvil\u00e1ga [ the birds of hortob\u00e1gy ] . hortob\u00e1gy term\u00e9szetv\u00e9delmi egyes\u00fclet , winter fair .\nthere are no known major threats to the levant sparrowhawk\u2019s survival at present . although this species\u2019 global population size and trends are not well known , it is estimated to number between 10 , 000 and 100 , 000 individuals , and does not appear to be undergoing a significant decline ( 1 ) ( 2 ) .\nthe levant sparrowhawk typically occurs in wooded plains , particularly within river basins , as well as amongst foothills and mountain slopes . in the caucasus mountains this species can be found up to elevations of 1 , 000 metres , although in armenia , it has been recorded as high as 2 , 000 metres ( 2 ) .\nstark , h . and liechti , f . ( 2008 ) do levant sparrowhawks accipiter brevipes also migrate at night ? . ibis , 135 : 233 - 236 .\nmarik p , forg\u00e1ch b , t\u00f3th i & t . gye j 1 997 : megfigyel\u00e9sek a kis h\u00e9ja ( accipiter brevipes ) \u00fajabb magyarorsz\u00e1gi f\u00e9szkel\u00e9s\u00e9vel kapcsolatban [ notes on the recent breeding of levant sparrowhawk ( accipiter brevipes ) in hungary ] . t\u00fazok 2 ( 2 ) : 49 - 59 . [ in hungarian with english summary ]\nthe remaining habitat must be protected and destroyed habitat should be restored where possible . killing of levant sparrowhawks in the wintering quarters and along the migration route must be stopped .\nbela g & typiak j 2011 : pierwsze stwierdzenie krogulca kr\u00f3tkonogiego accipiter brevipes na pomorzu [ the first occurrence of the levant sparrowhawk accipiter brevipes in pomoria ] . ptaki pomorza 2 : 1 41 - 1 43 . [ in polish with english summary ] bijlsma rg 1 997 : accipiter brevipes lewant sparrowhawk , 1 58 . in : hagemeijer ejm & blair mju ( eds ) , the ebcc atlas of european breeding birds : their distribution and abundance . t & ad ; poyser , london , 903 .\nthe levant sparrowhawk ( accipiter brevipes ) is a small bird of prey in the family accipitridae which also includes many other diurnal raptors such as eagles , buzzards and harriers . range / distribution : it breeds in forests from greece and the balkans east to southern russia . it is migratory , wintering from egypt across to southwestern iran . more\nlevant sparrowhawk is 30 - 37 cm long with a 63 - 76 cm wingspan . the female is larger than the male , but the difference is not as marked as with sparrowhawk . the adult male is blue - grey above , with dark wingtips , and barred reddish below . the adult female is slate - grey above with darkish wingtips . she is barred reddish brown below , and may show a dark throat line . the juvenile is dark brown above and has dark - streaked underparts it shows a dark throat line . more\na handsome , small - bodied bird of prey , the levant sparrowhawk can be distinguished by its barred underparts and striking , dark red eyes . the sexes differ in size and plumage colouration , with the male being significantly smaller than the female and possessing dull blue - grey upperparts , along with a pale breast and belly which are lightly marked with pinkish or reddish bars . in contrast , the female is brown above with heavily barred underparts and a dark streak on the throat . the juvenile resembles the adult female , but has streaked rather than barred underparts and a pale spot on the nape ( 2 ) . the levant sparrowhawk produces a shrill \u201ckeeveck - veck - veck\u201d , which is uncharacteristic of sparrowhawks and more akin to the call of the tawny owl ( 4 ) .\nother species : pandion haliaetus : osprey ; gyps fulvus : griffon vulture ; neophron percnopterus : egyptian vulture ; circaetus gallicus : short - toed snake eagle ; circus macrourus : pallid harrier ; circus pygargus : montagu ' s harrier ; circus aeruginosus : western marsh harrier ; accipiter brevipes : levant sparrowhawk ; accipiter nisus : eurasian sparrowhawk ; buteo buteo : common buzzard ; buteo rufinus : long - legged buzzard ; aquila pomarina : lesser spotted eagle ; aquila heliaca : eastern imperial eagle ; hieraaetus pennatus : booted eagle ; falco naumanni : lesser kestrel ; falco tinnunculus : common kestrel ; falco subbuteo : eurasian hobby .\nit breeds in forests from greece and the balkans east to southern russia . it is migratory , wintering from egypt across to southwestern iran . it will migrate in large flocks , unlike the more widespread eurasian sparrowhawk\norta , j . & marks , j . s . ( 2018 ) . levant sparrowhawk ( accipiter brevipes ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nit breeds in forests from greece and the balkans east to southern russia . it is migratory , wintering from egypt across to southwestern iran . it will migrate in large flocks , unlike the more widespread eurasian sparrowhawk .\nthe adult levant sparrow - hawks feed mostly on small birds and small ground mammals , plus occasionally bats . the immatures eat many insects . adults also occasionally eat insects . prey is seized either from the ground or in flight .\non may 1 5 , 201 2 an individual of levant sparrowhawk accipiter brevipes was observed at the southern edge of trebi\u0161ov town in eastern slovakia , situated in the v\u00fdchodoslovensk\u00e1 rovina lowlands . the sighting was documented with photographs . this is the first recorded occurrence of this species in terms of the bird fauna of slovakia . the present article describes in detail its distribution and breeding in eastern hungary and western romania , based on an isolated population in the pannonian basin at the north - western edge of its breeding range . the occurrence of the levant sparrowhawk beyond the boundaries of its breeding range and outside the pannonian basin consists mostly of rare movements by young individuals ( northern moravia , central and northern poland ) far north of its breeding range . an adult male was observed in south - eastern poland in the pre - breeding period , and in slovakia an adult female was observed in the breeding period .\negg - laying takes place during may and early june , with a clutch of three to five eggs deposited in a nest constructed from sticks and twigs , which is placed on a tree branch . the eggs are incubated by the female levant sparrowhawk for around 30 to 35 days , while the male brings food . the chicks fledge after around 45 days , but remain dependent on the parent birds for several weeks afterwards . sexual maturity is reached at one year old ( 2 ) .\na handsome , small - bodied bird of prey , the levant sparrowhawk can be distinguished by its barred underparts and striking , dark red eyes . the sexes differ in size and plumage colouration , with the male being significantly smaller than the female and possessing dull blue - grey upperparts , along with a pale breast and belly which are lightly marked with pinkish or reddish bars . in contrast , the female is brown above with heavily barred underparts and a dark streak on the throat . more\nthis bird is a small raptor with short broad wings and a longish tail , both adaptations to manoeuvring through trees . it is similar to the sparrowhawk , but its shorter tail and more pointed wings give it a more falcon - like appearance .\nthe levant sparrowhawk leaves the breeding grounds in september , migrating south to its african wintering grounds ( 2 ) . during migration , large flocks may form , which travel by day and by night and hunt together . as a trade - off between conserving energy and reducing time spent migrating , this species employs a combination of passive soaring and gliding , as well as energetic flapping flight . the latter technique is particularly used towards the end of migration when individuals become separated from the main migratory stream ( 6 ) .\nthis bird is a small raptor with short broad wings and a longish tail , both adaptations to manoeuvring through trees . it is similar to the eurasian sparrowhawk , but its shorter tail and more pointed wings give it a more falcon - like appearance .\nother species : pandion haliaetus : osprey ; gyps fulvus : griffon vulture ; neophron percnopterus : egyption vulture ; circaetus gallicus : short - toed snake eagle ; circus cyaneus : northern harrier ; circus macrourus : pallid harrier ; circus pygargus : montagu ' s harrier ; circus aeruginosus : western marsh harrier ; accipiter brevipes : levant sparrowhawk ; accipiter nisus : eurasian sparrowhawk ; accipiter gentilis : northern goshawk ; buteo rufinus : long - legged buzzard ; buteo lagopus : rough - legged hawk ; aquila pomarina : lesser spotted eagle ; aquila clanga : greater spotted eagle ; aquila nipalensis : steppe eagle ; hieraaetus pennatus : booted eagle ; falco naumanni : lesser kestrel ; falco tinnunculus : common kestrel ; falco vespertinus ; red - footed falcon ; falco subbuteo : eurasian hobby ; falco cherrug : saker falcon .\nother species : pandion haliaetus : osprey ; pernis apivorus : european honey buzzard ; haliaeetus albicilla : white - tailed eagle ; gyps fulvus : griffon vulture ; neophron percnopterus : egyptian vulture ; gypaetus barbatus : bearded vulture ; circus cyaneus : northern harrier ; circus macrourus : pallid harrier ; circus pygargus : montagu ' s harrier ; circus aeruginosus : western marsh harrier ; accipiter brevipes : levant sparrowhawk ; accipiter nisus : eurasian sparrowhawk ; accipiter gentilis : northern goshawk ; buteo rufinus : long - legged buzzard ; aquila clanga : greater spotted eagle ; aquila nipalensis : steppe eagle ; aquila heliaca : eastern imperial eagle ; aquila chrysaetos : golden eagle ; hieraaetus fasciatus : bonelli ' s eagle ; hieraaetus pennatus : booted eagle ; falco naumanni : lesser kestrel ; falco tinnunculus : common kestrel ; falco vespertinus : red - footed falcon ; falco columbarius : merlin ; falco subbuteo : eurasian hobby ; falco cherrug : saker falcon ; falco peregrinus : peregrine falcon .\nother species : pandion haliaetus : osprey ; milvus migrans : black kite ; gyps fulvus : griffon vulture ; neophron percnopterus : egyptian vulture ; circaetus gallicus : short - toed snake eagle ; circus cyaneus : northern harrier ; circus macrourus : pallid harrier ; circus pygargus : montagu ' s harrier ; circus aeruginosus : western marsh harrier ; accipiter brevipes : levant sparrowhawk ; accipiter nisus : eurasian sparrowhawk ; accipiter gentilis : northern goshawk ; buteo buteo : common buzzard ; buteo rufinus : long - legged buzzard ; aquila clanga : greater spotted eagle ; aquila nipalensis : steppe eagle ; aquila heliaca : eastern imperial eagle ; aquila chrysaetos : golden eagle ; hieraaetus fasciatus : bonelli ' s eagle ; hieraaetus pennatus : booted eagle ; falco naumanni : lesser kestrel ; falco tinnunculus : common kestrel ; falco vespertinus : red - footed falcon ; falco eleonora e : eleonora ' s falcon ; falco columbarius : merlin ; falco subbuteo : eurasian hobby ; falco biarmicus : lanner falcon ; falco cherrug : saker falcon ; falco peregrinus : peregrine falcon .\nmovements : complete long distance migrant ( bildstein 2006 ) , with birds moving through the eastern mediterranean basin and the sinai peninsula , egypt , sudan , and arabia , and wintering in sub - saharan africa . migrates in small flocks instead of singly , as is the case with the eurasian sparrowhawk ( nikolaus 1984 ) . more . . . .\nother species : pandion haliaetus : osprey ; milvus milvus : black kite ; haliaeetus albicilla : white - tailed eagle ; aegypius monachus : cinereous vulture ; gyps fulvus : griffon vulture ; neophron percnopterus : egyptian vulture ; circaetus gallicus : short - toed snake eagle ; circus cyaneus : northern harrier ; circus macrourus : pallid harrier ; circus pygargus : montagu ' s harrier ; circus aeruginosus : western marsh harrier ; accipiter brevipes : levant sparrowhawk ; accipiter nisus : eurasian sparrowhawk ; accipiter gentilis : northern goshawk ; buteo rufinus : long - legged buzzard ; buteo lagopus : rough - legged hawk ; aquila clanga : greater spotter eagle ; aquila heliacal : eastern imperial eagle ; aquila chrysaetos : golden eagle ; aquila nipalensis : steppe eagle ; hieraaetus fasciatus : bonelli ' s eagle ; hieraaetus pennatus : booted eagle ; falco naumanni : lesser kestrel ; falco tinnunculus : common kestrel ; falco vespertinus : red - footed falcon ; falco eleonorae : eleonora ' s falcon ; falco columbarius : merlin ; falco subbuteo : eurasian hobby ; falco biarmicus : lanner falcon ; falco cherrug : saker falcon ; falco peregrinus : peregrine falcon .\nother species : pandion haliaetus : osprey ; pernis apivorus : european honey buzzard ; milvus milvus : red kite ; milvus migrans : black kite ; aegypius monachus : cinereous vulture ; gyps fulvus : griffon vulture ; neophron percnopterus : egyptian vulture ; gypaetus barbatus : bearded vulture ; circaetus gallicus : short - toed snake eagle ; circus cyaneus : northern harrier ; circus macroucus : pallid harrier ; circus pygargus : montagu ' s harrier ; circus aeruginosus : western marsh harrier ; accipiter brevipes : levant sparrowhawk ; accipiter nisus : eurasian sparrowhawk ; accipiter gentilis : northern goshawk ; buteo rufinus : long - legged buzzard ; aquila pomarina : lesser spotted eagle ; aquila clanga : greater spotted eagle ; aquila nipalensis : steppe eagle ; aquila heliaca : eastern imperial eagle ; aquila chrysaetos ; golden eagle ; hieraaetus fasciatus : bonelli ' s eagle ; hieraaetus pennatus : booted eagle ; falco naumanni : lesser kestrel ; falco tinnunculus : common kestrel ; falco vespertinus : red - footed falcon ; falco eleonorae : eleonora ' s falcon ; falco concolor : sooty falcon ; falco columbarius : merlin ; falco subbuteo : eurasian hobby ; falco biarmicus ; lanner falcon ; falco peregrinus : peregrine falcon ; falco pelegrinoides : barbary falcon .\nother species : pandion haliaetus : osprey ; pernis apivorus : european honey buzzard ; milvus migrans : black kite ; gyps fulvus : griffon vulture ; neophron percnopterus : egyptian vulture ; circaetus gallicus : short - toed snake eagle ; circus macroucus : pallid harrier ; circus pygargus : montagu ' s harrier ; circus aeruginosus : western marsh harrier ; accipiter brevipes : levant sparrowhawk ; buteo rufinus : long - legged buzzard ; aquila pomarina : lesser spotted eagle ; aquila clanga : greater spotted eagle ; aquila heliaca : eastern imperial eagle ; hieraaetus fasciatus : bonelli ' s eagle ; hieraaetus pennatus : booted eagle ; falco naumanni : lesser kestrel ; falco tinnunculus : common kestrel ; falco vespertinus : red - footed falcon ; falco eleonorae : eleonora ' s falcon ; falco subbuteo : eurasian hobby ; falco biarmicus : lanner falcon ; falco cherrug : saker falcon ; falco peregrinus : peregrine falcon .\nhabitat and habits : during the breeding season , it prefers river valleys and wooded gorges , abandoned walnut and apricot orchards , stands of willows , and scattered groves of trees ( adamian and klem 1999 ) . more of a ground hunter than the eurasian sparrowhawk , relatively slow in flight , but more maneuverable in highly vegetated habitat ( baumgart 2006 ) . alternates between gliding and flapping when increasing speed or height ( adamian and klem op cit . ) . more . . . .\nother species : pandion haliaetus : osprey ; milvus milvus : red kite ; gyps fulvus : griffon vulture ; neophron percnopterus : egyptian vulture ; circus cyaneus : northern harrier ; circus pygargus : montagu ' s harrier ; circua aeruginosus : western marsh harrier ; accipiter nisus : eurasian sparrowhawk ; accipiter gentilis : northern goshawk ; buteo buteo : common buzzard ; falco naumanni : lesser kestrel ; falco tinnunculus : common kestrel ; falco columbarius : merlin ; falco subbuteo : eurasian hobby ; falco peregrinus : peregrine falcon .\nthe males are particularly striking at close range , with their plain blue faces and red eyes and the juveniles have distinctive lines of dark spots down their underparts . the females are basically similar to a female sparrowhawk but with a neat dark stripe down the middle of the chin . in flight , their gregarious behaviour is usually enough to identify them but you ' ll also notice that the males in the flock are conspicuously pale below with contrastingly dark wingtips . even if plumage details aren ' t visible , lone birds can be identified by their shapes , since , compared to common sparrowhawks , their wings are longer and more pointed , almost falcon - like .\nother species : pandion haliaetus : osprey ; milvus milvus : red kite ; milvus migrans : black kite ; neophron percnopterus : egyptian vulture ; gyps fulvus : griffon vulture ; circaetus gallicus : short - toed snake eagle ; circus cyaneus : northern harrier ; circus macrourus : pallid harrier ; circus pygargus : montagu ' s harrier ; circus aeruginosus : western marsh harrier ; accipiter nisus : eurasian sparrowhawk ; buteo buteo : common buzzard ; buteo rufinus : long - legged buzzard ; aquila clanga : great spotted eagle ; aquila nipalensis : steppe eagle ; aquila heliaca : eastern imperial eagle ; hieraaetus fasciatus : bonelli ' s eagle ; hieraaetus pennatus : booted eagle ; falco vespertinus : red - footed falcon ; falco eleonorae : eleonora ' s falcon ; falco columbarius : merlin ; falco subbuteo : eurasian hobby ; falco biarmicus : lanner falcon ; falco cherrug : saker falcon ; falco peregrinus : peregrine falcon .\nthe levant sparrow - hawk is sexually mature in its first year and will breed with traces of immature plumage still showing . the nests are built in belts of trees along river valleys , usually in broad - leaved trees , and fifteen to thirty feet from the ground . they are small loose structures of sticks about one foot across and a few inches deep , with the cup lined with green leaves . a new one is built each year . in may three to five eggs are laid at one - day intervals . they are pale bluish green , with small markings of grey and brown , and after incubation appear greyish white . the female incubates , beginning with the first egg . the period is probably between 30 and 35 days . the young hatch in early june , and leave the nest in august , after a fledging period of 40 - 45 days . whilst in the nest they are fed by both parents . they remain in the vicinity of the nest for a couple of weeks after fledging , and then migrate southwards . between two and five young per nest are successfully reared , the numbers fluctuating each season .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ncramp , s . and simmons , k . e . l . ( eds ) . 1977 - 1994 . handbook of the birds of europe , the middle east and africa . the birds of the western palearctic . oxford university press , oxford .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size may be moderately small to large , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe population is estimated to number in the tens of thousands . the european population is estimated at 3 , 500 - 6 , 900 pairs , which equates to 7 , 000 - 13 , 800 mature individuals ( birdlife international 2015 ) . europe forms approximately 75 - 94 % of the global range ( birdlife international 2004 ) , so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 7 , 400 - 18 , 400 mature individuals , although further validation of this estimate is needed . this is placed in the band 10 , 000 - 19 , 999 mature individuals . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats . in europe the population trend is unknown ( birdlife international 2015 ) .\nbehaviour the species is a migrant , likely wintering in sub - saharan africa ( del hoyo et al . 1994 , ferguson - lees and christie 2001 ) . birds leave their breeding grounds in september , returning in april and may . it is usually solitary , but may hunt in pairs , and travels in flocks on migration which become especially large at certain bottlenecks ( del hoyo et al . 1994 , snow and perrins 1998 ) . it is sometimes active at twilight , and frequently migrates at night using flapping flight ( del hoyo et al . 1994 , ferguson - lees and christie 2001 ) . habitat it inhabits woody plains , often near water , and usually ranges up to 1 , 000 m ( del hoyo et al . 1994 ) . diet lizards and large insects ( the latter especially in africa ) make up the majority of its diet ( del hoyo et al . 1994 ) . breeding site it nests in tree branches , preferring deciduous trees ( del hoyo et al . 1994 ) . management information deciduous forests in riparian zones appear to be the optimal habitat for this species ( del hoyo et al . 1994 ) .\nit is highly vulnerable to the impacts of potential wind energy development ( strix 2012 ) . this species is considered undesirable for falconry in georgia , and many are killed after being captured by falconers who are attempting to catch other , more desirable species ( orta and marks 2014 ) . following the chernobyl nuclear accident in 1986 , the proportion of juvenile birds migrating over eilat , israel decreased , leading researchers to suggest that radioactive contamination may have resulted in a decrease in reproductive success ( yosef and fornasari 2004 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nenvironment agency - abu dhabi is a principal sponsor of arkive . ead is working to protect and conserve the environment as well as promoting sustainable development in the emirate of abu dhabi .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\ndel hoyo , j . , elliott , a . and sargatal , j . ( 1994 ) handbook of the birds of the world . volume two : new world vultures to guineafowl . lynx edicions , barcelona .\npeterson , r . t . , mountfort , g . and hollom , p . a . d . ( 2001 ) a field guide to the birds of britain and europe . houghton mifflin harcourt , boston .\nhellyer , p . and aspinall , s . ( 2005 ) the emirates : a natural history . trident press limited , united arab emirates .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is featured in jewels of the uae , which showcases biodiversity found in the united arab emirates in association with the environment agency \u2013 abu dhabi .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\ncombined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size may be moderately small to large , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : accipiter brevipes . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nthis species and a . badius form a clade ( see a . badius ) . formerly considered conspecific with a . badius , but the two breed sympatrically in armenia # r # r ; an apparent hybrid between the two species recorded in s israel # r . monotypic .\nse europe , e ukraine and sw russia e to w kazakhstan ; more locally in turkey , caucasus , iraq and iran . thought to winter mainly in e sahel zone of sub - saharan africa .\n30\u201337 cm ; male 140\u2013275 g , female 183\u2013290 g ; wingspan 64\u201374 cm . adult male dull blue - grey above , breast and belly pale , lightly barred pinkish or . . .\ntypical vocalization a series of shrill\nkeeveek\nor\nkewick\nphrases .\nwooded plains ( particularly in river basins ) , foothills and mountain slopes . prefers to nest in . . .\nlizards and large insects such as grasshoppers , locusts , beetles , cicadas , dragonflies ; also variety of small birds , including sparrows , . . .\nlays in may or early jun . nest a smallish platform of sticks ( 30 cm wide , 15 cm deep ) lined with twigs and sometimes leaves , built in tree . . .\nhighly migratory , forming large groups at bottlenecks . most birds leave breeding areas in sept and . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . cites ii . size and trend of populations insufficiently known owing in part to identification difficulties and species ' secretive . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe winter quarters are in the eastern part of the sahel , maybe also in more western parts of the sahel [ mebs & schmidt 2010 ] . more research is needed here .\nreturns to the european breeding grounds mostly during the 2nd half of april [ mebs & schmidt 2010 ] .\nnests are built in a tree , normally at heights of 6 - 12m [ grin 2010 ] . clutch size is between 3 and 5 eggs with 4 being the most common number of eggs . the eggs are incubated for 29 - 30 days , mostly by the female and the young leave the nest after 29 - 31 days [ mebs & schmidt 2006 ] .\nas with other raptors , the young are fed by the parents after fledging for a while , often at their nest .\n[ birdlife 2004 ] estimated the european populations to be between 3 , 200 and 7 , 700 pairs . the largest populations are found in russia ( 1 , 500 - 3 , 000 ) and greece ( 1 , 000 - 2 , 000 ) . in romania there are 60 - 90 pairs , in bulgaria 50 - 90 . turkey has 600 - 900 pairs .\nthe breeding population may be much higher because during migration much more birds were counted in israel . during autumn migration in 1994 , 60 , 390 ! birds were counted in the northern valley [ mebs & schmidt 2006 ] .\nit is supposed that the population on the balkan has declined considerably . similar trends have been observed along the wolga river . in south - western russia , among other factors , an increase in\nnot much is known about the threats about this secretive raptor . habitat destruction and human persecution along the migration route and in the wintering areas are a known threat [ mebs & schmidt 2006 ] .\nmore research is needed to learn more about the population size in europe , it ' s population ecology and threats in the breeding areas as well as during migration and in the wintering quarters .\n[ mebs & schmidt 2006 ] mebs , theodor & schmidt , daniel ( 2006 ) . die greifv\u00f6gel europas , nordafrikas und vorderasiens . kosmos verlag .\nforsman , dick ( 1999 ) . the raptors of europe and the middle east a handbook of field identification . poyser\nmebs , theodor & schmidt , daniel ( 2006 ) . die greifv\u00f6gel europas , nordafrikas und vorderasiens . kosmos verlag .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 298 , 580 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nit occurs in lowland forests near wetlands , nesting in tall trees . it feeds on unretrieved quarry , small mammals , waterbirds , frogs and snakes , hunting over swamps , wet meadows and , in estonia , over extensively managed agricultural land . breeds in deciduous woodland especially in hilly areas . occurs more widely on passage when flocks may be seen overhead .\naccipiter brevipes is a patchily distributed summer visitor to south - eastern europe , which constitutes > 75 % of its global breeding range . its european breeding population is small ( as few as 3 , 200 pairs ) , but was stable between 1970 - 1990 . although the species remained stable or increased across the vast majority of its european range during 1990 - 2000 , there were declines in the sizeable population in russia , and the species underwent a moderate decline ( > 10 % ) overall . 3 600 - 5 800 breeding pairs in europe . most common in greece 1000 - 1200 , the ukraine 1000 and russia 1500 - 3000 . smaller populations exist in other south - eastern european countries . turkish population 10 - 500 . this bird inhabits south - eastern europe , from the balkan peninsula to the ural mountains . outside europe it is breeding as far east as western kazakhstan and iran . in the european union its distribution is limited to greece , where its population is estimated at 1000 - 1200 breeding pairs , its total european population being around 12000 pairs ( ebcc atlas of european breeding birds ) . being totally migratory , this species is wintering in north - eastern africa , but its exact wintering quarters are not well known .\nthe eu breeding population is estimated to be not over 1 , 000 pairs . the agricultural and recreational development of river valleys affects the species ' nesting and hunting habitats . this important , especially in view of the species ' small population and its rather particular habitats requirements . sharp declines in lizard populations , caused for example , by extremely low winter or spring temperatures , may also disminish the number of breeding pairs . this species has a large range , with an estimated global extent of occurrence of 10 , 000 , 000 km2 . it has a large global population estimated to be 10 , 000 - 100 , 000 individuals ( ferguson - lees et al . 2001 ) . global population trends have not been quantified , but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the iucn red list ( i . e . , declining more than 30 % in ten years or three generations ) . for these reasons , the species is evaluated as least concern . [ conservation status from urltoken ]\nmigratory . most birds leave areas in sept and return in apr or early may ; believed to winter in sub - saharan africa , but winter quarters on africa not well known . migrants concentrate around bosporus , e black sea and especially israel , where there are peaks during very short periods in second half of apr and of sept , and large groups can form ; crossing point between asia and africa probably at gulf of suez . some nocturnal migration recorded , with birds using flapping flight .\navibirds , almere , netherlands 2001 - 2012 - your source to the birds of europe . contact ? mail us : info { @ } avibirds . com\nplease help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . unsourced material may be challenged and removed .\nthe adult female is slate - grey above with darkish wingtips . she is barred reddish brown below , and may show a dark throat line . the juvenile is dark brown above and has dark - streaked underparts . it shows a dark throat line . the flight of this hawk is a characteristic flap \u2013 flap \u2013 glide .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nunep / cms secretariat in abu dhabi , united nations environment programme , c / o environment agency - abu dhabi p . o . box 45553 abu dhabi united arab emirates\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\ndistribution : afrotropical / palearctic . southeastern europe , southwestern ukraine and southern russia east to western kazakhstan ; locally in turkey , caucasia , and iran ; winters in the sahel zone of sub - saharan africa , although the specific areas are largely unknown . more . . . .\ntaxonomy : forms a superspecies with a . badius and a . butleri . formerly considered to be a race of a . badius .\nfood and feeding behavior : adults eat small birds and mammals , and young are fed insects and small reptiles ( dal 1954 ) . on the wintering range , this species preys upon birds , lizards , large insects , and mammals , which are taken in flight or from a perch ( borrow and demey 2001 ) . adept at capturing large , vigilant lizards ( e . g . , lacerta viridis ) ( baumgart 2006 ) . more . . . .\nbreeding : the stick nest is placed in a tree , usually at heights of 6 - 12 m ( adamian and klem 1999 ) . nests have been found in apricot trees in armenia ( leister and sosnin 19442 , dal 1949 ) , in russian olives in kazakhstan , and in elms in turkmenistan ( adamian and klem op cit . ) . more . . . .\nconservation : categorized globally as a species of\nleast concern\nby birdlife international . more . . . .\npopulation estimates : the european population was estimated at 4 , 100 to 4 , 900 breeding pairs by birdlife international / european bird census council ( 2000 ) and later at 3 , 200 to 7 , 700 breeding pairs ( birdlife international ( 2004 ) . more . . . .\nimportant references : birdlife international / european bird census council . 2000 . european bird populations : estimates and trends . birdlife conservation series no . 10 . birdlife international , cambridge , uk . brown , l . h . , e . k . urban , and k . newman . 1982 . the birds of africa . vol . 1 . academic press , london . ferguson - lees , j . , and d . a . christie .\nj . sargatal ( eds ) . handbook of birds of the world . vol . 2 . new world\nthis is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .\nhorse , ( equus caballus ) , a hoofed , herbivorous mammal of the family equidae . it comprises a single species , \u2026\ndog , ( canis lupus familiaris ) , domestic mammal of the family canidae ( order carnivora ) . it is a subspecies\u2026\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nit hunts small birds , insects and lizards in woodland , relying on surprise as it flies from a perch to catch its prey unaware .\nthe adult female is slate - grey above with darkish wingtips . she is barred reddish brown below , and may show a dark throat line .\nthe juvenile is dark brown above and has dark - streaked underparts it shows a dark throat line .\nthe flight of this hawk is a characteristic\nflap \u2013 flap \u2013 glide\n.\ncopyright : wikipedia . this article is licensed under the gnu free documentation license . it uses material from urltoken . . . additional information and photos added by avianweb .\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nthe eu breeding population is estimated to be not over 1 , 000 pairs . the agricultural and recreational development of river valleys affects the species ' nesting and hunting habitats . this important , especially in view of the species ' small population and its rather particular habitats requirements . sharp declines in lizard populations , caused for example , by extremely low winter or spring temperatures , may also disminish the number of breeding pairs ."]}
{"id": 856, "summary": [{"text": "the yellow-throated vireo ( vireo flavifrons ) is a small american songbird .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "\" vireo \" is a latin word referring to a green migratory bird , perhaps the female golden oriole , possibly the european greenfinch .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the specific flavifrons is from the latin words flavus , \" yellow \" , and frons , \" forehead \" .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "adults are mainly olive on the head and upperparts with a yellow throat and white belly ; they have dark eyes with yellow \" spectacles \" .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the tail and wings are dark with white wing bars .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they have thick blue-grey legs and a stout bill .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "their breeding habitat is open deciduous woods in southern canada and the eastern united states .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "these birds migrate to the deep southern united states , mexico , and central america .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they are very rare vagrants to western europe ; there is a september 1990 record from kenidjack valley in cornwall , great britain , and september 1998 record from heligoland , a small german archipelago in the german bight .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they forage for insects high in trees .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they also eat berries , especially before migration and in winter when they are occasionally seen feeding on gumbo-limbo ( bursera simaruba ) fruit .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they make a thick cup nest attached to a fork in a tree branch . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "yellow - throated vireo", "paragraphs": ["yellow - throated vireo recorded at sandy creek park jasper county tx . 1000 hz high pass filter applied and volume normalized\nin eastern north america , the yellow - throated vireo breeds in edge habitats of both bottomland and upland deciduous and mixed deciduous - coniferous forests . these habitats include forest edges of streams , rivers , swamps , treefall gaps , and roads , and woodland habitats of parks and towns . the yellow - throated vireo is widely sympatric with the far more common red - eyed vireo ( vireo olivaceus ) , which tends to breed in less fragmented forest interior habitat .\nrodewald , paul g . and ross d . james . 2011 . yellow - throated vireo ( vireo flavifrons ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .\nwhile the yellow - throated vireo is associated with forest edge habitat , it actually requires large blocks of forest to breed successfully . numbers decrease sharply in forests smaller than 250 acres ( 100 hectares ) in the northeastern united states .\ngenerally uncommon on its wintering grounds in central and south america and the caribbean , the yellow - throated vireo usually occurs singly within mixed - species foraging flocks in tropical forests , from dry forest to lowland rain forest , and up to 1 , 800 meters in montane forest .\na bird of open deciduous forests and edges , the yellow - throated vireo is one of the most colorful member of its family . not only does this bird have a bright yellow throat , it looks as if it\u2019s wearing bright yellow spectacles . this small heavyset songbird slowly hops through the canopy picking insects off branches and twigs . males sing a burry\nthree eight ,\non repeat throughout the day . females join the males with a harsh scolding chatter during aggressive encounters .\nin many north american songbirds , only females incubate and brood , but not vireos . male yellow - throated vireos also incubate eggs and brood young , taking turns with the female throughout the day .\nthe bright yellow spectacles , throat , and breast of this vireo are distinctive . its wings are dark gray , with 2 bold , white wing bars . the crown and back are olive , rather bright , contrasting with a gray rump . immature plumage is similar to that of the adult but paler yellow , sometimes with a slightly buffy throat .\nin leafy eastern forests , especially among the tall oaks , the slow , husky phrases of the yellow - throated vireo can be heard in spring and summer . more colorful than most vireos , it is not any easier to see , usually remaining out of sight in the foliage . however , the male sings throughout the breeding season , as late as august and september .\nperhaps because the yellow - throated vireo is generally uncommon throughout its breeding range and is primarily a subcanopy nester , it remains an under - studied north american breeder . although its singing , breeding , and foraging behavior have received some study , little is known of its population biology , winter ecology , and sensitivity to land - use practices on both temperate breeding grounds and tropical wintering grounds .\nthis is a large , colorful vireo and a strong , though slow - paced , singer . it moves sluggishly , which combined with its camouflaged coloration , can make it difficult to locate high in the leaves of the tall shade trees it favors . the yellow - throated often cocks its head as it surveys its surroundings or methodically searches for insects . monotypic . length 5 . 5\n.\nthis is the most colorful of the vireos . the yellow - throated is a migratory bird of open deciduous forests that requires large tracts of forest to breed successfully . it has disappeared from some parts of its former breeding range due to forest fragmentation . audio by mike nelson , xc100599 . accessible at urltoken\nunlike other vireos , but compare with pine warbler , with which it is confused , particularly in winter . pine warbler has a greenish yellow rump , streaked sides , thinner bill , and less complete and distinct spectacles . vocalizations of the 2 are different\u2014pine warblers often give a high , thin note when moving between branches . the yellow - breasted chat , a particularly bulky warbler with a bill more suited to a vireo , has white spectacles and lacks wing bars .\nyellow - throated vireos are common and their populations have increased 62 % between 1970 and 2014 , according to partners in flight . the estimated global breeding population is 4 . 4 million . the species rates a 9 out of 20 on the continental concern score , which means it is not on the partners in flight watch list and is a species of low conservation concern . in the early twentieth century yellow - throated vireos seemingly disappeared from towns and suburbs in the northeastern united states , which some believe was due to the spraying of insecticides to control dutch elm disease . since then , populations have increased possibly due to regrowth of woodlands that were previously logged .\nyellow - throated vireos primarily eat insects and spiders such as butterflies , moths , stinkbugs , scale insects , leafhoppers , beetles , flies , and bees . they also eat fruits and seeds on occasion . they forage in the middle and upper levels in the forest , slowly hopping between branches and picking insects from bare branches and foliage .\nyellow - throated vireos slowly hop between branches , often focusing on the interior parts of the canopy with sturdy , bare branches . they tend to forage for insects more often on bare branches than other vireos and forage in a less frenzied manner . males arrive on the breeding grounds a few days before females and start setting up their territory . they put a bit of nesting material in a few spots throughout the territory that could make good nest sites . when the females arrive , they sing and act as if they are building a nest from these spots . males display for females ; swaying side to side while singing and fluffing up their feathers . once paired , males stick close to their female until she begins laying . as soon as the chicks leave the nest , the pair separates . they generally don ' t interact with other yellow - throated vireos after nesting , but they sometimes forage with warblers , chickadees , and titmice during migration . individuals also occasionally join mixed - species foraging flocks on the wintering grounds .\nyellow - throated vireos breed in deciduous or mixed - deciduous forests , tending to avoid stands of pure coniferous trees . within deciduous forests they often occur near edges or in forest gaps . despite this association , they only seem to breed in regions with extensive forest cover and are less abundant in forests less than 250 acres . during migration they occur in woodlands , edges , and shrubby areas along barrier beaches . on the wintering grounds they use dry tropical forest , coffee plantations , pine - oak forest , thorn scrub , and rainforest up to 6 , 000 feet elevation .\ncall : includes a rapid series of harsh cheh notes , similar to those of the \u201csolitary\u201d vireo complex . song : slow repetition of de - a - ree , three - eight ; burry , low - pitched 2 - or 3 - note phrases separated by long pauses : it often gives a whisper song , which is more warbled and less burry .\ndeciduous woodlands , shade trees . breeds in tall trees in open deciduous woods . prefers trees such as oaks and maples along streams , lakes , and roadsides . also will summer in tall trees or orchards in towns . avoids areas with dense undergrowth . generally absent in mixed or coniferous forest , where it is probably replaced by the solitary vireo . winters in tropical lowlands and foothills , in habitats ranging from rain forest to dry scrub .\non the breeding grounds , listen for what may sound like the more ubiquitous red - eyed vireo , but with a burrier song and look up into the canopy . instead of focusing on the leaves in the canopy as you might for warblers , look for a chunky bird hanging out near the inner part of the tree among the bare branches . they aren ' t as frenetic like warblers ; they tend to take long pauses before chasing after another meal and often sing while stationary giving you ample time to see them .\nfairly common . breeding : deciduous and mixed deciduous - coniferous habitats . migration : long - distance , trans - gulf migrant . early spring migrant , with arrivals in southern states mid\u2013late march , mid april farther north , early may in great lakes . fall migrations august\u2013september ( migrants noted as early as late july ) . latest records are mid - october in northern and middle latitudes , early november in south . winter : tropical lowlands of central america , bahamas , and caribbean to northern south america . more scarce in united states than the numerous reports would suggest . most reports are misidentified pine warblers or yellow - breasted chats . rare in southernmost florida , casual in southern california , southern texas . vagrant : very rare in the west , more in spring than fall .\nwe use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites . close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings .\nthis article has been cited by the following publications . this list is generated based on data provided by crossref .\nhowe , henry f . 2016 . making dispersal syndromes and networks useful in tropical conservation and restoration . global ecology and conservation , vol . 6 , issue . , p . 152 .\nmyczko , \u0142ukasz rosin , zuzanna m . sk\u00f3rka , piotr wylega\u0142a , przemys\u0142aw tobolka , marcin fliszkiewicz , monika mizera , tadeusz and tryjanowski , piotr 2013 . effects of management intensity and orchard features on bird communities in winter . ecological research , vol . 28 , issue . 3 , p . 503 .\nleyequi\u00e9n , eur\u00eddice de boer , w . f . and toledo , v\u00edctor m . 2010 . bird community composition in a shaded coffee agro - ecological matrix in puebla , mexico : the effects of landscape heterogeneity at multiple spatial scales . biotropica , vol . 42 , issue . 2 , p . 236 .\nhern\u00e1ndez , \u00e1ngel 2009 . summer - autumn feeding ecology of pied flycatchers ficedula hypolueca and spotted flycatchers muscicapa striata : the importance of frugivory in a stopover area in north - west iberia . bird conservation international , vol . 19 , issue . 03 , p . 224 .\nusgs patuxent wildlife research center , national museum of natural history , p . o . box 37012 washington , dc 20013 - 7012 , usa . e - mail : fosterm @ urltoken\nmigration routes used by nearctic migrant birds can cover great distances ; they also differ among species , within species , and between years and seasons . as a result , migration routes for an entire migratory avifauna can encompass broad geographic areas , making it impossible to protect continuous stretches of habitat sufficient to connect the wintering and breeding grounds for most species . consequently , ways to enhance habitats converted for human use ( i . e . for pasture , crop cultivation , human settlement ) as stopover sites for migrants are especially important . shelterbelts around pastures and fields , if planted with species targeted to support migrant ( and resident ) bird species that naturally occupy mature forest habitats and that are at least partially frugivorous , could be a powerful enhancement tool for such species , if the birds will enter the converted areas to feed . i tested this approach for nearctic migrant birds during the spring migration through an area in chiapas , mexico . mature forest tree species whose fruits are eaten by birds were surveyed . based on life form , crop size and fruit characteristics , i selected three tree species for study :\n( moraceae ) . i compared the use of fruits of these species by migrants and residents in forest with their use of the fruits of isolated individuals of the same species in pasture and cropland . all three plant species were useful for enhancing converted habitats for forest - occupying spring migrants , although species differed in the degree to which they entered disturbed areas to feed on the fruits . these tree species could probably enhance habitats for migrants at sites throughout the natural geographic ranges of the plants ; in other geographic areas for other target bird groups , other tree species might be more appropriate .\nto send this article to your kindle , first ensure no - reply @ urltoken is added to your approved personal document e - mail list under your personal document settings on the manage your content and devices page of your amazon account . then enter the \u2018name\u2019 part of your kindle email address below . find out more about sending to your kindle . find out more about sending to your kindle .\nnote you can select to send to either the @ urltoken or @ urltoken variations . \u2018 @ urltoken \u2019 emails are free but can only be sent to your device when it is connected to wi - fi . \u2018 @ urltoken \u2019 emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi - fi , but note that service fees apply .\nby using this service , you agree that you will only keep articles for personal use , and will not openly distribute them via dropbox , google drive or other file sharing services . please confirm that you accept the terms of use .\nto send this article to your dropbox account , please select one or more formats and confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies . if this is the first time you use this feature , you will be asked to authorise cambridge core to connect with your < service > account . find out more about sending content to dropbox .\nto send this article to your google drive account , please select one or more formats and confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies . if this is the first time you use this feature , you will be asked to authorise cambridge core to connect with your < service > account . find out more about sending content to google drive .\nemail your librarian or administrator to recommend adding this journal to your organisation ' s collection .\nfull text views reflects the number of pdf downloads , pdfs sent to google drive , dropbox and kindle and html full text views .\n* views captured on cambridge core between september 2016 - 9th july 2018 . this data will be updated every 24 hours .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\nwelcome to oed online . if you or your library subscribes , dive straight in to the riches of the english language . if not , click on the images below to learn more about the oed , see what ' s new , or take a look at aspects of english , our language feature section .\nthis year sees the 90th anniversary of the publication of the completed first edition of the oxford english dictionary . find out more about our birthday celebrations >\nwhich english words are used where you are ? help us add more regional words to the dictionary . submit your word >\nwhat ' s new : more than 900 new words , senses , and subentries have been added to the oxford english dictionary in our latest update , including binge - watch , impostor syndrome , and silent generation . find out more >\nnew article : coinciding with the 90th anniversary of the publication of the house at pooh corner , several words from winnie - the - pooh have been added to the oed in this update . read more >\nonline access to the full oed , and now incorporating the historical thesaurus of the oed .\nany of various plants having pale flowers with dark centres , esp . t . . .\nbefore finding a mate , males search for a spot to build a nest . they place a few pieces of material in several potential spots . when the female arrives she chooses where to put the nest , either selecting one of the male ' s locations or a new one . the nest is typically in the canopy of a tree near the forest ' s edge 20 to 50 feet above the ground .\nmales start building the nest , handing more and more duties over to the female after day 1 . the nest is a cup suspended from a fork of small branches in a tree . it is made of bark strips , dry grasses , rootlets , long pine needles , leaves , or hair , held together with insect silk and spiderweb .\nlutmerding , j . a . and a . s . love ( 2016 ) . longevity records of north american birds . version 2016 . 1 . patuxent wildlife research center , bird banding laboratory , laurel , md , usa .\npieplow , n . ( 2017 ) . peterson field guide to bird sounds of eastern north america . houghton mifflin harcourt publishing company , ny , usa .\nsauer , j . r . , d . k . niven , j . e . hines , d . j . ziolkowski , jr . , k . l . pardieck , j . e . fallon , and w . a . link ( 2017 ) . the north american breeding bird survey , results and analysis 1966\u20132015 . version 2 . 07 . 2017 . usgs patuxent wildlife research center , laurel , md , usa .\nsibley , d . a . ( 2014 ) . the sibley guide to birds , second edition . alfred a . knopf , new york , usa .\nover the last century , apparently has declined in the northeast , increased in parts of the upper midwest . overall numbers probably stable at present .\nforages by searching for insects rather methodically along the twigs and in foliage high in trees . in winter , defends feeding territory and will drive away others of its own kind , but will associate with mixed foraging flocks of other birds .\n4 , sometimes 3 - 5 . pinkish or creamy white with heavy spots of brown or lavender near large end . incubation is by both parents , 14 - 15 days . frequently parasitized by cowbirds . young : both parents feed nestlings . young leave the nest 14 - 15 days after hatching . the parents divide the fledglings , each adult caring for part of the brood .\nboth parents feed nestlings . young leave the nest 14 - 15 days after hatching . the parents divide the fledglings , each adult caring for part of the brood .\nmostly insects , some berries . feeds mainly on insects . in summer , over one - third of diet may be caterpillars , moths , and butterflies ; also eats true bugs , scale insects , aphids , leafhoppers , beetles , sawflies , tree crickets , dragonflies , cicadas , and others . will also eat various berries , especially in fall .\nmale defends nesting territory by singing incessantly . in courtship , male leads female to potential nest sites . nest : placed in tree ( usually deciduous ) , generally 20 - 40 ' above the ground but can be 3 - 60 ' up . both sexes help build open thick - walled cup nest , supported by the rim woven onto a horizontal forked twig . nest made of weeds , shreds of bark , grass , leaves , and plant fibers . outside of nest bound with spiderwebs and camouflaged with lichens and mosses ; lined with fine grass and pine needles .\nmigrates mostly at night . a rather early spring migrant in the south , often appearing in late march .\nsimilar to song of red - eyed and solitary vireos , but lower in pitch and with a husky or burry quality to the phrases .\naudio \u00a9 lang elliott , bob mcguire , kevin colver , martyn stewart and others .\nin the broadest and most detailed study of its kind , audubon scientists have used hundreds of thousands of citizen - science observations and sophisticated climate models to predict how birds in the u . s . and canada will react to climate change .\nthe darker the color , the more favorable the climate conditions are for survival . the outlined areas represent approximate current range for each season .\neach map is a visual guide to where a particular bird species may find the climate conditions it needs to survive in the future . we call this the bird\u2019s \u201cclimatic range . \u201d\nthe darker the shaded area , the more likely it is the bird species will find suitable climate conditions to survive there .\nthe outline of the approximate current range for each season remains fixed in each frame , allowing you to compare how the range will expand , contract , or shift in the future .\nthe first frame of the animation shows where the bird can find a suitable climate today ( based on data from 2000 ) . the next three frames predict where this bird\u2019s suitable climate may shift in the future\u2014one frame each for 2020 , 2050 , and 2080 .\nyou can play or pause the animation with the orange button in the lower left , or select an individual frame to study by clicking on its year .\nthe darker the color , the more favorable the climate conditions are for survival . the outlined areas represent approximate current range for each season . more on reading these maps .\ntell congress to oppose a harmful rider that threatens sage - grouse and other wildlife .\ntell congress and the department of the interior to uphold the country ' s most important bird protection law .\nbna account authors : rodewald , paul g . , and ross d . james\nduring the early decades of the twentieth century , this species seemed to have disappeared from towns , suburban areas , and cities in the northeastern united states , including new york and boston . most ornithologists believed that these declines resulted from the heavy spraying of insecticides on shade trees to control dutch elm disease . although the species has disappeared more recently as a breeding species from several smaller forest reserves in the eastern united states , data from the breeding bird survey show a significant rangewide population increase of 1 . 1 % per year from 1966 to 1994 . this increase may be due , in part , to the maturation of woodlands in some areas of the eastern united states and canada .\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nno modification . bird singing from oak tree in camp ground about 40 feet up .\nequipment : olympus ws - 822 digital recorder with audio - technica atr 6550 shotgun .\nrecorded via iphone 7 and amplified on garageband . clear day , no wind , warm ( mid - 70s to low 80s ) . individual heard ( but not scene ) possibly in upper stories of tree near small creek .\nsame recording session as xc372010 . natural song and a couple calls ( middle of cut ) while close - range bird ( ~ 4m ) works the branches of woodland trees adjacent to wolf creek .\nthe softer\nchimp\ncalls heard throughout ( e . g . , 0 : 20 and 1 : 53 ) are given by this individual .\nrecorded in low vegetation adjacent to a bog at a range of about 5 meters .\nequipment : sony pcm - m10 recorder and a sennheiser mke - 400 microphone . modifications to the file : cropped .\nnatural sound . the bird was in the new leaves in the canopy of a red oak ~ 30m away on the north edge of the grounds around the house .\n29 - acre estate centrally located in oxford , ms consisting of antebellum home surrounded by lawns and adjacent forest . privet hedges and small thickets divide the grounds into distinct lawn units . bordered on all sides by mature oak - hickory forest . forest edge consists of oak spp , hickory spp , red cedar , mulberry , with understory along the edge dominated by privet ( ligustrum sp . ) . grounds around the house include isolated trees and manicured hedges . a path from the end of the parking area leads northward ~ 1 km through the forest to the northern edge of the property abutting the university of mississippi campus\nedited in adobe audition . butterworth high - pass filter , order 3 , cutoff frequency 100 hz\nfostex fr - 2 digital recorder with sennheiser microphone and telinga pro 22\nparabolic reflector .\ntwo individuals present , only one is singing while foraging . habitat : mature broadleaf forest .\nresponse to playback of xc100597 , really close in the understory and lower boughs of the tree .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\n10 hrs best nightingale song - black screen # soothing bird singing for sleep , study , meditation .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\naerc tac . 2003 . aerc tac checklist of bird taxa occurring in western palearctic region , 15th draft . available at : urltoken _ the _ wp15 . xls # .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nantigua and barbuda ; bahamas ; barbados ; belize ; canada ; cayman islands ; colombia ; costa rica ; cuba ; cura\u00e7ao ; dominica ; el salvador ; guadeloupe ; guatemala ; honduras ; martinique ; mexico ; montserrat ; nicaragua ; panama ; puerto rico ; saint kitts and nevis ; saint lucia ; saint vincent and the grenadines ; trinidad and tobago ; turks and caicos islands ; united states ; venezuela , bolivarian republic of ; virgin islands , u . s .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > ."]}
{"id": 858, "summary": [{"text": "the golden cave catfish ( clarias cavernicola ) is a critically endangered species of airbreathing catfish .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "this cavefish is only known to live in the aigamas cave , otjozondjupa region , namibia .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "they lack pigmentation and are up to 16.1 cm ( 6.3 inches ) in standard length .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "they have very small eyes that are covered with skin , and are probably effectively blind .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they feed on detritus and invertebrates that fall into the lake in which they live .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the population is estimated at 200 \u2013 400 individuals .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "little is known about its reproduction , and attempts to breed it in captivity have failed .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the population is threatened by chance events and water extraction from the cave lake , which has resulted in a drop of the water level .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is the only known cavefish in mainland southern africa . ", "topic": 27}], "title": "clarias cavernicola", "paragraphs": ["the following term was not found in nucleotide : clarias cavernicola [ orgn ] .\nfroese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2011 ) .\nclarias cavernicola\nin fishbase . december 2011 version .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - cave catfish ( clarias cavernicola )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - cave catfish ( clarias cavernicola )\ntitle =\narkive species - cave catfish ( clarias cavernicola )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nskelton ( 1996 ) . clarias cavernicola . 2006 . iucn red list of threatened species . iucn 2006 . urltoken . retrieved on 11 may 2006 . listed as critically endangered ( cr b1 + 2c , e v2 . 3 )\nbruton , m . n . ( 1995 ) .\nthreatened fishes of the world : clarias cavernicola trewavas , 1936 ( clariidae )\n. environmental biology of fishes 43 ( 2 ) : 162\u2013162 . doi : 10 . 1007 / bf00002486 .\nthe cave catfish ( clarias cavernicola ) is a freshwater , cave - dwelling fish ( 2 ) . this unusual fish lacks pigment and appears a pinkish white colour ( 3 ) . it has an extended eel - like body , with long dorsal and anal fins ( 4 ) . the head has a rectangular shape and the rounded snout ( 2 ) carries four pairs of thread - like barbels ( 5 ) . on the upper surface of the head the eyes are either entirely absent or extremely small and covered with skin ( 2 ) . the latin species name , cavernicola , means ' cave dwelling ' .\nclarias : from the greek chlaros , meaning lively ; in reference to the ability of the fish to live for long periods out of water . caverna , cave in latin and colere , to dwell , in latin .\nteugels , g . g . , 1986 . a systematic revision of the african species of the genus clarias ( pisces ; clariidae ) . ann . mus . r . afr . centr . , sci . zool . , 247 : 199 p . ( ref . 248 )\ntrewavas [ e . ] 1936 : 70 , pl . 2 ( figs . 7 - 9 ) [ novitates zoologicae . a journal of zoology in connection with the tring museum v . 40 . eleonora trajano , maria elina bichuette , b . g . kapoor , biology of subterranean fishes , science publishers ( 2010 ) . guy g . teugels , a systematic revision of the african species of the genus clarias ( pisces ; claridae )\nthe cave catfish is a freshwater , cave - dwelling fish ( 2 ) . this unusual fish lacks pigment and appears a pinkish white colour ( 5 ) . it has an extended eel - like body , with long dorsal and anal fins ( 3 ) . the head has a rectangular shape and the rounded snout ( 2 ) carries four pairs of thread - like barbels ( 4 ) . on the upper surface of the head the eyes are either entirely absent or extremely small and covered with skin ( 2 ) . the latin species name , cavernicola , means ' cave dwelling ' .\nclarias species are characterized by having an elongated body ; a soft rayed dorsal fin extending to , or nearly to , the caudal fin base ; a soft rayed anal fin extending from just behind the anus to the caudal fin base ; pectoral fins each with a serrated anterior bony spine ; head depressed , covered largely by firmly sutured , surface sculptured bony plates forming a protective helmet ; four pairs of flagellate barbels ( nasals , maxillaries , inner and outer mandibulars ) ; air breathing organs derived from the 2nd and 4th epibranchials within a superbranchial chamber . in common with most cave - dwelling animals , this species is devoid of pigment , in life the skin color is creamish flushed with pink or orange . the eyes vary from weakly developed to non - existant .\nafrica : known only from the type locality , aigumas cave , north otavi , namibia . major threat is depletion of ground water ( ref . 7248 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 16 . 1 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 7248 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 71 - 76 ; anal soft rays : 66 - 61 . devoid of pigment . eyes extremely small ; covered with skin ; dorsally located . head rectangular in dorsal outline ; snout broadly rounded . frontal fontanelle long and narrow ; occipital fontanelle long and oval - shaped . supraorbital and ` dermosphenotic ' bones fused . premaxillary tooth plate rather broad . gill rakers long , slender and distantly set . suprabranchial organ greatly reduced . openings of the secondary sensory canals regularly arranged along flanks .\nlacks pigment . lives in caves ( ref . 248 ) and is adapted to life underground ( ref . 78218 ) ; over shelves in open , clear water . feeds on bat droppings , animal carcasses and terrestrial insects that fall into the lake ( ref . 7248 ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00813 ( 0 . 00358 - 0 . 01848 ) , b = 2 . 99 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 17 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this genus - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 8 \u00b10 . 26 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( assuming tm = 1 ; fec = 50 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 17 of 100 ) .\nthis cave - dwelling fish feeds opportunistically on particles that fall into the lake , from bat droppings to animal carcasses and insects ( 2 ) . due to the lack of light in the cave where it lives , the cave catfish is sightless , detecting prey by means of taste buds and other senses on the barbels ( 4 ) . there is currently no data available on its breeding habits ( 3 ) .\nthe cave catfish is found only in the aigamas cave in namibia ( 2 ) .\nthe cave catfish inhabits open , clear water over rocky shelves ( 6 ) .\nthe cave catfish is classified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthe cave catfish is found only within a single cave in namibia and is therefore at inherent risk of extinction due to any chance event . the main threat to the species comes from the depletion of ground water within the cave , and the exploitation of aquifer water may pose the most serious threat in the long - term ( 3 ) .\nthe protection of the aigamas cave is vital in the conservation of this species , and the present owner is sympathetic to the sensitivity of the cave , only allowing access or collection of the cave catfish with a nature conservation permit ( 3 ) . twenty captive specimens were held in the national zoological gardens ' aquarium in pretoria for several years ( 3 ) , but no longer persist ( 7 ) . there is also a move to provide legislative protection for this rare and unique fish ( 3 ) .\nauthenticated ( 6 / 9 / 02 ) by professor paul skelton . managing director , south african institute of aquatic biodiversity ( saiab ) urltoken\nanal fin in fish , an unpaired fin on the under surface of a fish , behind the anus . barbels fleshy projections near the mouth of some fish . dorsal fin in fish , the unpaired fin found on the back of the body .\npaxton , j . r . and eschmeyer , w . n . ( 1994 ) encylopedia of fishes . unsw press , sydney .\nskelton , p . h . ( 1987 ) south african red data book - fishes . south african national scientific programmes report , 137 : 33 - 35 .\nsands , d . ( 1985 ) catfishes of the world , volume 5 : bagridae and others . dee bee books , preston .\nskelton , p . h . ( 2001 ) a complete guide to the freshwater fishes of southern africa . revised edition . struik publishers , cape town .\nunderwater video services po box 282 constantia cape town 7848 south africa tel : + 27 21 794 3595 fax : + 27 21 794 5449 charles @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ncritically endangered b1ab ( iii ) + 2ab ( iii ) ver 3 . 1\nsnoeks , j . ( freshwater fish red list authority ) & darwall , w . ( freshwater biodiversity assessment unit )\njustification : occurs in a single location ( aigamas cave , namibia ) . there is a threat to the cave ' s water source and thus to the species environment from ground water extraction . the potential threat of illegal collectors for the aquarium trade also exists . given that the area of the lake is 18 m x 2 . 5 m and that the water level has been steadily dropping due to water extraction the species qualifies as critically endangered under criterion b due to restricted range , single location and ongoing decline in the extent of available habitat .\nknown only from the type locality : aigamas cave , otavi , namibia . the pool is 18 m by 2 . 5 m in area , and 30 to 52 m deep ( proudlove 2006 ) .\nsubterranean waters of the aigamas cave system . rocky substrates . water temperature is around 25\u00b0c and the species appears to live over shelves of shallow water up to 15 m in depth ( proudlove 2006 ) .\ndepletion of ground water ; the cave lake has been used as a water supply in an otherwise very dry area ( proudlove 2006 ) . pumping of water has reduced the depth of the lake from 70 m to 50 m since 1921 ( skelton 1990 , bruton 1995 ) . potentially exploitation from aquarists .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthis cave - dwelling fish feeds opportunistically on particles that fall into the lake , from bat droppings to animal carcasses and insects ( 2 ) . due to the lack of light in the cave where it lives , this species is sightless , detecting prey by means of taste buds and other senses on the barbels ( 3 ) . there is currently no data available on its breeding habits ( 5 ) .\nlacks pigment . lives in caves ( ref . 248 ) and is adapted to life underground ( ref . 78218 ) ; over shelves in open , clear water . feeds on bat droppings , animal carcasses and terrestrial insects that fall into the lake ( ref . 7248 ) .\nafrica : known only from the type locality , aigumas cave , north otavi , namibia . major threat is depletion of ground water ( ref . 7248 ) .\n16 . 1 cm sl ( male / unsexed ; ( ref . 7248 ) )\ndevoid of pigment . eyes extremely small ; covered with skin ; dorsally located . head rectangular in dorsal outline ; snout broadly rounded . frontal fontanelle long and narrow ; occipital fontanelle long and oval - shaped . supraorbital and ` dermosphenotic ' bones fused . premaxillary tooth plate rather broad . gill rakers long , slender and distantly set . suprabranchial organ greatly reduced . openings of the secondary sensory canals regularly arranged along flanks .\nsubterranean waters of the aigamas cave system . rocky substrates . water temperature is around 25c and the species appears to live over shelves of shallow water up to 15 m in depth ( proudlove 2006 ) .\ndescribed from caves in south - west africa . feeds on insects and worms ( ref . 248 ) .\noccurs in a single location ( aigamas cave , namibia ) . there is a threat to the cave ' s water source and thus to the species environment from ground water extraction . the potential threat of illegal collectors for the aquarium trade also exists . given that the area of the lake is 18 m x 2 . 5 m and that the water level has been steadily dropping due to water extraction the species qualifies as critically endangered under criterion b due to restricted range , single location and ongoing decline in the extent of available habitat .\nclassified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list 2007 ( 1 ) .\nthe cave catfish is found only within a single cave in namibia and is therefore at inherent risk of extinction due to any chance event . the main threat to the species comes from the depletion of ground water within the cave , and the exploitation of aquifer water may pose the most serious threat in the long - term ( 5 ) .\nthe protection of the aigamas cave is vital in the conservation of this species , and the present owner is sympathetic to the sensitivity of the cave , only allowing access or collection of the cave catfish with a nature conservation permit ( 5 ) . twenty captive specimens were held in the national zoological gardens ' aquarium in pretoria for several years ( 5 ) , but no longer persist ( 7 ) . there is also a move to provide legislative protection for this rare and unique fish ( 5 ) .\nthey appear similar to white eels , up to a length of 16 . 1 cm ( 6 . 3 inches )\n. they have very small eyes , and are probably effectively blind . they feed on detritus that falls into the lake in which they live . the population is estimated at 150\nindividuals . little is known about its reproduction , and attempts to breed it in captivity have failed . the population is threatened by chance events and aquifer depletion that threatens to drain the lake .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nunderground lake at aigamas cave , north of otavi , about 19\u00b025 ' s , 17\u00b018 ' e , namibia , southwestern africa .\n161mm or 6 . 3\nsl . find near , nearer or same sized spp .\nthe genital papilla , which is to the right of the anus as you look at the fish with its head to the left , is elongated and pointed in males while it is round and relatively larger ( and larger than the anus ) in females . in ventral view especially , females are much broader in the body than males of equal age and rearing practices .\nafrica : namibia : inhabits the crystal clear waters of a subterranean small lake , lying at the bottom of the aigamas cave . there are reports of similar fishes from other caves within the same dolomitic limestone region .\nwild fish are coprophagous , eating bat guano ; they also eat coprophagous invertebrates and small shrimps . it is thought larger fish cannibalize smaller individuals which is not unusual in the cave environment .\nthis is a specialized species and the suggestions for the genus in general would be much too boisterous .\nget or print a qr code for this species profile , or try our beta label creator .\nhas this page been useful ? please donate to our monthly hosting costs and keep us free for everyone to enjoy ! explore our youtube channel , facebook page or follow us on twitter .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 urltoken , part of the aquatic republic network group of websites . all rights reserved . cite this website . by accessing this site you agree to our terms and conditions of use . our privacy policy .\naigamas cave ( namibia ) . they appear pinkish white in color because a lack of pigment and look generally like an eel ; they typically grow to about 16cm in length . most inidividual specimens show virtually no sign of eyes on the surface of their head , and others appear to have eyes , but they are greatly obscured by flesh . because this , this species is effectively blind . as far as their diet goes , they are bottom - feeders ; they consume only algea and micro - organisms .\nin may of 2015 , scientists found the golden cave catfish to essentially climb completely vertical walls in order to reach food .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nformat summary genbank genbank ( full ) fasta asn . 1 xml insdseq xml tinyseq xml feature table accession list gi list gff3"]}
{"id": 859, "summary": [{"text": "acleris lipsiana is a species of moth of the tortricidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in great britain , spain , france , belgium , the netherlands , germany , denmark , austria , switzerland , italy , the czech republic , slovakia , hungary , poland , greece , norway , sweden , finland , the baltic region and russia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it is also found in north america , where it has been recorded from alberta and washington .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of high moors and mountainous areas .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the wingspan is 17-24 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on wing from august to october and , after hibernation , to april .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on vaccinium myrtillus , vaccinium vitis-idaea , myrica gale , malus sylvestris , betula and pyrus species .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they feed from within spun shoots or leaves of their host plant .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "larvae can be found from june to july .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "pupation takes places at the feeding place or on the ground . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "acleris lipsiana", "paragraphs": ["[ acleris lipsiana , syn . : acalla eutaeniana , peronea costimaculana , p . griseana , tortrix sudoriana ]\nthis partial quote is from wikipedia and is used on bold systems :\nacleris lipsiana . . . . . . it is also found in north america , where it has been recorded from alberta and washington . . . . . . . the wingspan is 17 - 24 mm . adults are on wing from august to october and , after hibernation , to april . the larvae feed on vaccinium myrtillus , vaccinium vitis - idaea . . . . . .\ni have a large amount of vaccinium ovatum , a very similar plant to vaccinium myrtillus , in my yard .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\n. pupation takes places in the feeding place or on the ground . the adult hibernates .\nthe adults fly from late august till may . the moths occasionally come to light .\nbelgium , antwerpen , brecht , 15 april 2004 . ( photo \u00a9 gaston sallaets )\na local species in the british isles , occurring on high moors and mountains in the north of england and scotland .\nit is an autumn - flying species , generally on the wing between august and october , after which it will overwinter to appear again in the spring .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 06 - 15 14 : 01 : 38 page render time : 0 . 2270s total w / procache : 0 . 2755s\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nspecific epithet possibly from the latin name ( lipsia ) for leipzig ( city in saxony , germany ) .\nsystematisches verzeichni\u00df der schmetterlinge der wienergegend . michael denis & ignaz schifferm\u00fcller . 1775 . augustin bernardi , wien . pp . 323 .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nnotes : rare ( proposed as a future red data book species ) on moorland and mountains in parts of scotland and northern england . not recorded in hampshire or on the isle of wight to date . wingspan 17 - 24 mm . the common form of this species , f . sudoriana , which lacks the whitish yellow discocellular scale - tufts , closely resembles f . purpurana of a . rufana , but may be distinguished by the comparatively broader forewing and less prominent apex , and the more uniform pruinose coloration [ bradley ] . larva feeds on bog - myrtle , bilberry , bog bilberry and cowberry , living within a spun or rolled leaf .\nbl\u00e5 punkter visar fynd registrerade i artportalen och \u00f6vriga databaser anslutna till lifewatch . kan inneh\u00e5lla observationer som inte \u00e4r validerade . kartan uppdateras var fj\u00e4rde vecka .\ni det avancerade verktyget kan man s\u00f6ka ut och f\u00e5 fram artlistor , t ex arter i ett visst l\u00e4n , i en viss biotop , substrat , som p\u00e5verkas av en hotfaktor , eller som \u00e4r knutna till en sk v\u00e4rdart , t ex tr\u00e4det alm . dessa kan \u00e4ven kombineras .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , knutna till alm , \u00e4r beroende av d\u00f6d ved och som finns i kronobergs l\u00e4n .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , lever i sm\u00e5vatten och som p\u00e5verkas negativt av igenv\u00e4xning .\ndefaultl\u00e4get i verktyget \u00e4r arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade 2015 och dessa \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga s\u00f6kfaktorer . under fliken r\u00f6dlistekategori kan man dock v\u00e4lja att \u00e4ven inkludera arter som inte \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade . om man v\u00e4ljer att inkludera icke r\u00f6dlistade arter beh\u00f6ver man vara medveten om att samtliga arter inte \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga faktorer . nedan en sammanst\u00e4llning av vad som \u00e4r komplett .\ndenna funktion anv\u00e4nds n\u00e4r du vill skapa din egen lista av arter att hantera . du kan t . ex . navigera mellan arterna i listan genom att klicka p\u00e5 deras namn . du kan ocks\u00e5 v\u00e4lja att anv\u00e4nda knappen \u201dj\u00e4mf\u00f6r arter\u201d f\u00f6r att se bilder , kartor och k\u00e4nnetecken i en j\u00e4mf\u00f6relsevy .\ndu kan komponera ditt eget urval av arter genom att klicka dig fram via sl\u00e4kttr\u00e4det och d\u00e4r v\u00e4lja arter eller artgrupper till din lista . ett annat s\u00e4tt att g\u00f6ra ditt urval \u00e4r att anv\u00e4nda fliken \u201dfiltrera\u201d , d\u00e4r du kan s\u00f6ka p\u00e5 olika egenskaper . ovanf\u00f6r listan med s\u00f6kresultatet finns en knapp \u201dl\u00e4gg i mitt urval\u201d .\nthe mit license copyright ( c ) 2014 - 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2015 twitter , inc permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright ( c ) 2008 - 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2014 openlayers contributors . all rights reserved . redistribution and use in source and binary forms , with or without modification , are permitted provided that the following conditions are met : 1 . redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice , this list of conditions and the following disclaimer . 2 . redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice , this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and / or other materials provided with the distribution . this software is provided by openlayers contributors ` ` as is ' ' and any express or implied warranties , including , but not limited to , the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose are disclaimed . in no event shall copyright holder or contributors be liable for any direct , indirect , incidental , special , exemplary , or consequential damages ( including , but not limited to , procurement of substitute goods or services ; loss of use , data , or profits ; or business interruption ) however caused and on any theory of liability , whether in contract , strict liability , or tort ( including negligence or otherwise ) arising in any way out of the use of this software , even if advised of the possibility of such damage . the views and conclusions contained in the software and documentation are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as representing official policies , either expressed or implied , of openlayers contributors .\nselect your preferred way to display the comments and click ' save settings ' to activate your changes .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nenglish - 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{"id": 861, "summary": [{"text": "the puerto rican amazon ( amazona vittata ) , also known as the puerto rican parrot or iguaca , is the only extant bird endemic to the archipelago of puerto rico belonging to the neotropical genus amazona .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "measuring 28 \u2013 30 cm ( 11.0 \u2013 11.8 in ) , the bird is a predominantly green parrot with a red forehead and white rings around the eyes .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "two subspecies have been described , although there are doubts regarding the distinctiveness of the form gracilipes from culebra island , extinct since 1912 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "its closest relatives are believed to be the cuban amazon ( amazona leucocephala ) and the hispaniolan amazon ( amazona ventralis ) .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the puerto rican amazon reaches sexual maturity at between three and four years of age .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it reproduces once a year and is a cavity nester .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "once the female lays eggs she will remain in the nest and continuously incubate them until hatching .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the chicks are fed by both parents and will fledge 60 to 65 days after hatching .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "this parrot 's diet is varied and consists of flowers , fruits , leaves , bark and nectar obtained from the forest canopy .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the species is the only remaining native parrot in puerto rico and has been listed as critically endangered by the world conservation union since 1994 .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "once widespread and abundant , the population declined drastically in the 19th and early 20th centuries with the removal of most of its native habitat ; the species completely vanished from vieques and mona island , nearby to the main island of puerto rico .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "conservation efforts commenced in 1968 to save the bird from extinction .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "in 2012 , the total estimated population was 58 \u2013 80 individuals in the wild and over 300 individuals in captivity . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "puerto rican amazon", "paragraphs": ["puerto rican amazon social behavior also known as puerto rican parrot , red - fronted amazon . synonymspsittacus vittatus . spanishamazona de puerto ri\u2026 | pinteres\u2026\npuerto rican cookery and millions of other books are available for amazon kindle . learn more\nthe puerto rican parrot\u2019s common names are either the puerto rican parrot or the puerto rican amazon . both names are very commonly used . the genus and species is amazona vittata .\nhurricanes are a major threat to the puerto rican amazon and many other central american parrot species .\nsaving the critically endangered puerto rican amazon ( a . vittata ) through successful integration of . . .\npuerto rican parrot at the new puerto rican zoo juan a rivero exhibit in mayaguez . photograph by jose almodovar .\ndel hoyo , j . , a . elloit , j . sangatal . 1997 . puerto rican amazon . pp . 468 in\nif you ' re a seller , fulfillment by amazon can help you increase your sales . we invite you to learn more about fulfillment by amazon .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - puerto rican amazon ( amazona vittata )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - puerto rican amazon ( amazona vittata )\ntitle =\narkive species - puerto rican amazon ( amazona vittata )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nbrian published an article in wpt\u2019s psittascene describing his work on the puerto rican parrot .\n. the extant botanical collections and nomenclatural types of agustin stahl , puerto rican botanist .\nhealth and reproductive assessment of selected puerto rican parrots ( amazona vittata ) in captivity .\nbrian returns to puerto rico for a year of intensive data collection on pair behavior and nesting success in the puerto rican parrot .\nbrian ramos\u2019s grant to study the puerto rican parrot is renewed by the world parrot trust .\nbrian hosts a successful visit by tim and his co - advisor scott carleton to the puerto rican parrot conservation project in puerto rico .\nthis book provides a comprehensive analysis of the competing discourses on puerto rican identity on the island and within the us diaspora that have characterized puerto rico\u2019s historical and cultural discourses . it also underscores the transnational nature of puerto rican migration .\nallele frequencies ( f ) have been determined in the puerto rican population for all 332 loci .\nthis is my fact board about the puerto rican parrot for a 5th grade endangered species project .\nthe large home range and high mobility of puerto rican amazons likely make them an important seed disperser .\nthe puerto rican parrot , also known as the puerto rican amazon ( amazona vittata ) , is one of the rarest birds on earth . it is the only native parrot in puerto rico ( the only place where they live in the wild ) . according to the u . s . fish & wildlife service , only 34 - 40 remain in the wild and 143 are in captivity . below are interesting facts about the endangered puerto rican parrot .\n. wild relatives of guaran\u00e1 ( paullinia cupana ; sapindaceae ) show high diversity in western brazilian amazon .\nthe puerto rican parrot is a vertebrate . it lives in the southeast region , in puerto rico only . it is in the birds group . the scientific name for the puerto rican parrot is the amazona vittata . it is an endangered species and there are only about 24 - 26 free puerto rican parrots left in the wild . the description of the puerto rican parrot is its tail is short and squared - off . the color of the parrot is mostly green . more\nhealth and reproductive assessment of selected puerto rican parrots ( amazona vittata ) in captivity . - pubmed - ncbi\nfulfillment by amazon ( fba ) is a service we offer sellers that lets them store their products in amazon ' s fulfillment centers , and we directly pack , ship , and provide customer service for these products . something we hope you ' ll especially enjoy : fba items qualify for free shipping and amazon prime .\nrange : puerto rican parrot is endemic to puerto rico . this critically endangered species survives at mid - level in the wet forest of luquillo national forest reserve .\nthe puerto rican amazon is the only parrot native to a us territory ; it is also distinguished by quite possibly being the bird that helped lead columbus to land on his first voyage ( please see article below ) .\necological services in the caribbean , starts evaluation and selection process for a third site to release puerto rican parrots .\nif you visit the caribbean national forest while you are in puerto rico , you may be fortunate enough to see a puerto rican amazon parrot . this attractive bird is endemic to puerto rico , but it is also critically endangered . in 2006 the remaining wild population was estimated to have dropped to as few as forty - four birds .\n] . following this example , we will direct future work on the puerto rican population structure towards total genome arrays .\n\u2022conservation trust of puerto rico relationship to other classification schemes puerto rican dry forest boundaries were derived from the subtropical dry forest life zone of ewell and whitmore ( 1973 ) .\nlos bejucos de puerto rico , vol . 1 ( the vines of puerto rico , a field guide )\nthe puerto rican parrot is the only endemic or native parrot in puerto rico . one of the rarest birds in the world , this parrot and its habitat are strictly protected by federal and puerto rican laws as an endangered species . it is illegal to possess , buy or sell the parrot or any part of it ( including feathers , eggs and nests ) . the puerto rican parrot is a small amazon parrot , about 11 inches ( 29 cm ) in length and weighing about 10 ounces ( 270 g ) . more\npeople unaware of this species plight are sometimes confused by all the concern\u2026after all , parrots abound throughout puerto rico . however , these pet trade escapees are introduced species , which actually worsen the puerto rican amazon\u2019s plight by competing for food and nest sites , and , possibly , through hybridization .\namazona vittata the true puerto rican parrot is severely endangered and rarely , if ever seen . hispaniolan parrot is common in some areas of puerto rico . orange crowned parrot is also a somewhat common bird in puerto rico now . more\nsponsored products are advertisements for products sold by merchants on amazon . com . when you click on a sponsored product ad , you will be taken to an amazon detail page where you can learn more about the product and purchase it .\nwilson , k . , r . field , m . wilson . 1995 . successful nesting behavior of puerto rican parrots .\nthis interdisciplinary portrait of the development of the us puerto rican community illustrates how the historical and socioeconomic development of island puerto ricans intertwines with migration and the formation of a stateside diaspora . the book provides valuable statistical data on puerto ricans .\nauthenticated ( 21 / 06 / 2006 ) by dr . thomas white , wildlife biologist with the u . s . fish and wildlife service , and coordinator for the releases of captive - reared puerto rican parrots , puerto rican parrot recovery program . urltoken\nadmixture is of great relevance to apply pharmacogenetics and personalized medicine in the puerto rican population . as multigene models are developed to predict drug response , the range of possible allelic combinations in the puerto rican populations is certain to exceed that in populations without admixture .\nthe diet of the puerto rican parrot is sierra palm fruits , tabonoco fruit , other wild fruits , flowers and tender shoots .\nthe puerto rican parrot is classified as critically endangered ( cr ) , facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild .\npuerto rican parrot population used to be 1 , 000 , 000 and now there\u2019s only 47 remaining ! the puerto rican parrot is the only native parrot in puerto rico . it is one of the rarest birds in the world . this parrot and its habitat are strictly protected by federal and puerto rican laws because it is an endangered species . it is against the law to own , buy or sell the parrot or any part of it . more\npuerto rican amazons are very vocal and produce a wide variety of squawks . in flight they make a distinct bugling call . like many\nthe purpose of this study was to determine distribution frequencies of 332 snps from 196 cardiometabolic and neuroendocrine genes in the puerto rican population . another goal of this work was to apply these physiogenomic markers for inferring the puerto rican population structure , following a bayesian clustering algorithm .\ndiet : puerto rican parrot feeds mainly on seeds , leaves , flowers , fruits , bark and nectar found in the forest canopy .\nthe puerto rican parrot , began in the second half of the 20th century . according to iucn , as of 2002 , there were 21 threatened species in puerto rico : two mammals , eight breeding birds , eight reptiles , and three amphibians . contents - * 1 origin of puerto rican fauna * 2 mammals * 2 . more\nfernandez - mendez e ( 1970 ) historia cultural de puerto rico . san juan , puerto rico : ediciones el cem\u00ed .\nthe puerto rican amazon\u2019s decline is largely due to deforestation . it nests only in pre - existing holes in tall , mature trees . when these trees are cut , the parrots cannot nest , or they use sites that are vulnerable to predators , competitors and hurricanes .\nusing allelic dissimilarity and bayesian clustering analysis , the population structure of the puerto rican island - wide sample was found to be highly heterogeneous .\nif the recovery objective is met , puerto rican parrots will be down listed to threatened ( instead of endangered ) by the year 2020 .\npuerto rican parrots at breeding facility puerto rican parrots at el yunque breeding facility \u2013 photo : william humphrey black whiskered vireo black whiskered vireo ( makes a pretty bird call here at the raniforest inn ) the information and photographs on this web site come from puerto rico ' s birds in photographs ( paperback ) by mark w . oberle . more\namazon giveaway allows you to run promotional giveaways in order to create buzz , reward your audience , and attract new followers and customers .\n, as would be expected . it will be necessary to obtain a larger sample to encompass the amerindian component in the puerto rican population more distinctively . the sample size of 100 individuals falls within the same order of magnitude as multiple previously published admixture studies of the puerto rican population [\npuerto rico was formerly entirely forested and , historically , the puerto rican amazon was abundant in all forest types ( 2 ) , including scrub , moist montane and lowland forests , and mangroves ( 6 ) ( 7 ) . the species is now restricted to montane rainforest at elevations of 200 to 600 metres above sea level ( 7 ) .\nprotection / threats / status : puerto rican parrot is critically endangered , living in restricted range in puerto rico . this species suffered habitat loss with deforestation , human developments and trapping for illegal pet - trade .\nsalari k , choudhry s , tang h , et al . genetic admixture and asthma - related phenotypes in mexican american and puerto rican asthmatics .\nthe world\u2019s population of about 600 puerto rican amazons ( amazona vittata ) resides in the rio abajo state forest and the el yunque national forest .\nanother huge danger for the puerto rican parrot are hurricanes because they don\u2019t only wipe out the population but a strong hurricane can destroy their habitat .\npuerto rican parrots are one of about 34 species of amazon parrots found in the americas . amazona vittata are known for the bright red shock of feathers at their forehead , white rings around their eyes and the shimmering blue feathers under their wings , usually visible when they dart overhead .\nthe puerto rican amazon is covered with green feathers which have blue edges . the plumage on their foreheads is shaded bright red while their eyes look incredibly large due to distinctive white ovals which surround the actual eye . from the underside a bird watcher might note that the wings are bright blue and the tail is yellow - green . there is no difference in color between the sexes and the bird measures between 28 and 30 cm in length . thus the puerto rican amazon is smaller many other members of the amazona parrot species but this size is not at all uncommon .\na critique of the deficiencies of puerto rican migration studies published between the 1940s and 1960s by north american and other foreign scholars , and a class analysis of colonialism , the development of capitalism on the island , and the combination of factors that propelled puerto rican labor migration at different historical periods .\ndescription : puerto rican parrot is endemic to puerto rico . this species belongs to the genus \u201camazona\u201d which gathers small to medium - sized parrots coming from the new world , particularly south america , mexico and caribbean .\nthe puerto rican parrot is native to puerto rico and lives in the east and north - east of the island . the two forests that it is found mainly in are el yunque and rio abajo national forests .\nin addition to the introduced parrots mentioned earlier , the island\u2019s 3 large hawks pose a threat to the already depleted puerto rican amazon population . added to this is the species\u2019 need for an intact habitat that supports varied food sources\u2026it has been documented as feeding upon over 50 types of plants .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - red - spectacled amazon feathers\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - red - spectacled amazon feathers\ntitle =\narkive photo - red - spectacled amazon feathers\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nparrots , they can even learn to speak human words . puerto rican amazons perceive their environment through visual , tactile , auditory , and chemical stimuli .\nplease see my articles did parrots help columbus find america ? and the thick billed parrot for further information on puerto rican amazons and us native parrots .\nconservation efforts to help puerto rican amazons recover has helped researchers learn more about how ecosystem and animal behaviors work . resource managers in the lesser antilles have used successful techniques developed on the puerto rican amazons to help improve other local endangered parrot populations . these endangered parrots also attract avid birders to the area .\nmarch 16 marks a historic two - fer for the wright lab ! chris ' s paper on playbacks of duets and solos the yellow - naped amazon is accepted by animal cognition , and ted ' s paper on cryptic speciation in the mealy amazon is accepted pending minor revisions by conservation genetics .\nthis groundbreaking study remains the only comprehensive history of us puerto ricans that examines the factors that contributed to their migration and documents the neglected experiences of the pre\u2013world war ii puerto rican community in new york . special attention is given to numerous community organizations created by puerto ricans . first edition 1983 .\ngreat cookbook ! i ' m tired of eating the same puerto rican food over & over . there ' s plenty of new recipes in this book .\nlindsay , g . , w . arendt , j . kalina , g . pendleton . 1991 . home range and movement of juvenile puerto rican parrot .\nthe puerto rican parrot had to adapt when the humans started expanding into their habitat and started cutting down trees to build houses , boats , and developments .\nfree 5 - 8 business - day shipping within the u . s . when you order $ 25 of eligible items sold or fulfilled by amazon .\nmainland puerto ricans currently represent 1 . 2 % of the us population and 9 . 6 % of the hispanic population in the usa [ 101 ] . similar to others in latin america , the puerto rican population originated as a result of admixture between amerindians , whose ancestors had migrated from the amazon basin and arrived in puerto rico 2200 years before present , and spaniard and west - african individuals . the island of puerto rico thus is endowed with a distinctive population in terms of its gene flow . there are growing numbers of puerto ricans in the usa , as puerto rico has been a us territory or commonwealth since 1898 . admixture studies in puerto ricans , either in the island or the continental usa , have been scarce .\nin 1954 jose rodriguez vidal counted only 13 parrots in el yunque national park . that is when the scientists stepped in and started recovery programs to help save the puerto rican parrot . there are many challenges like hurricanes , predators and the monogamous behavior makes recovery difficult . the scientists are still working to learn about the puerto rican parrot to prevent their extinction and the last few years have been quite successful . looks like the puerto rican parrot might make it after all !\nit was thought that puerto rican amazons would destroy the corn industry in puerto rico . as a result of this fear , farmers killed hundred of birds . population numbers were later assessed to be too small to impact the industry .\nin 1492 in puerto rico , the puerto rican parrot\u2019s population thrived with approximately one million parrots . but after christopher columbus came to puerto rico in 1506 and the spaniards began to settle the island the parrot\u2019s habitat became destroyed . the spaniards started cutting down the palo colorado tree which was the nesting tree of the puerto rican parrot . this tree was a great material for building ships . as a result the population of the parrot was affected and started to drop .\npuerto rican parrot is a gregarious species , but during the breeding season , the nest - site id defended , mainly by loud calls , against invading pairs .\nuse of the puerto rican parrot captive recovery program and husbandry techniques as a model for management of birds in captivity based in the particular needs of this species .\nfrancez pac , ramos lpv , palha tjrf , santos seb . haplotype diversity of 17 y - str loci in an admixed population from the brazilian amazon .\ninstantly receive a \u00a310 urltoken gift card if you\u2019re approved for the amazon platinum mastercard with instant spend . representative 21 . 9 % apr ( variable ) .\njuvenile puerto rican amazons have an average home range of 22 + / - 12 ha . this increases to an average of 1243 ha after joining an adult flock .\npuerto rican parrots live in the forest and can mostly be found in the tree canopy . loss of habitat by deforestation is the main reason for them becoming endangered .\nribeiro - rodrigues em , palha tjbf , santos seb . allele frequencies data and statistic parameters for 13 str loci in a population of the brazilian amazon region .\nin this photo taken thursday june 23 , 2011 , a puerto rican parrot is pictured inside a fly cage at el yunque national forest protected habitat in luquillo , puerto rico . the parrots are one of about 34 amazon parrots ' species found in the americas . they are known for the bright red shock of feathers at their forehead , white rings around their eyes and the shimmering blue feathers under their wings . the puerto rican parrot has hovered at the edge of extinction for decades but is now making a bit of a comeback . ( ap photo / ricardo arduengo )\nthe puerto rican parrot ( amazona vittata ) had shared its habitat with the peaceful taino indians for centuries before the arrival of european settlers in the caribbean . status and trends upon arrival of the spanish in 1493 , the puerto rican parrot lived in all major habitats of puerto rico and the adjacent smaller islands of culebra , mona , vieques , and possibly the virgin islands ( snyder et al . 1987 ) . more\nthe puerto rican parrot is the only endemic parrot found within the united states and its territories and is one of the ten most endangered birds in the world . upon the arrival of columbus to puerto rico in 1493 , the puerto rican parrot numbered approximately a million birds . by the 1930\u2019s that number had reduced to approximately 2000 birds . by 1954 to an estimated 200 birds . by 1964 to 70 birds . more\nthe puerto rican parrot mostly flies but sometimes it walks . it is a fast moving animal and that is important for its survival because its predators are also fast moving .\nwith a total population numbering 295 birds , only 60 of which live in the wild , the puerto rican amazon ( amazona vittata ) holds the unenviable title of one of the world\u2019s 10 most endangered birds . a subspecies , a . v . gracilipes , once found on neighboring culebra , mona and vieques islands , is now extinct .\nthe first comprehensive collection of essays and interviews aimed at documenting the political and social activism of diverse puerto rican organizations since the 1960s , and their collective struggles for civil rights , community empowerment , and the liberation of puerto rico from us colonial rule .\ntwo wild populations have been established . that at rio abajo is comprised entirely of captive - bred birds , while the loquillo national forest ( el yunque ) in eastern puerto rico is home to both wild and released individuals . before releases were initiated , detailed studies of the hispaniolan parrot ( amazona ventralis ) were conducted in the dominican republic and used as a template for the puerto rican amazon\u2019s return to the wild .\nfrancez pac , ribeiro - rodrigues em , santos seb . allele frequencies and statistical data obtained from 48 aim indel loci in an admixed population from the brazilian amazon .\ngreat cookbook ! i ' m tired of eating the same puerto . . .\n. naturalization and invasion of alien plants in puerto rico and the virgin islands .\n. lista de especies de traqueofitos de punta guayan\u00e9s , yabucoa , puerto rico .\ni have used this book for almost 40 years and was so excited to be able to give one of the same to a friend who is eager to learn puerto rican cooking .\nflight : puerto rican parrot performs fast flight with rapid wing beats . it prefers to fly along valleys and ridges rather than over peaks . this species is usually noisy in flight .\nmajor studies on puerto rican migration , especially those written by north american scholars in the 1950s and 1960s , were focused on problem - oriented or blaming - the - victim cultural - deficit models commonly found in studies of poverty among us minorities . these studies tended to recycle some common stereotypes and misconceptions about the disadvantaged conditions of puerto rican migrants . the emergence of puerto rican studies as a field of academic inquiry in the late 1960s and 1970s fostered new historical and socioeconomic analyses of puerto rican migration and the formation of a us diaspora . it also generated a sustained critique of the shortcomings of previous scholarship and addressed the connections between us colonial domination in puerto rico and the structural and political factors that propelled island puerto ricans to migrate to the united states . new migration studies also began to document the history of puerto rican settlement and formation of stateside communities , and to draw attention to migrants\u2019 productive lives and contributions to us society . this new historiography about the diaspora includes several notable works . centro history task force 1979 and centro oral history task force 1998 introduce groundbreaking historical and socioeconomic frameworks for analyzing puerto rican labor migration . s\u00e1nchez korrol 1994 is the first study to offer a detailed account of the historical development of new york city\u2019s puerto rican community during the early decades of the 20th century . this particular book emphasizes the collective activism of pioneer migrants to create numerous cultural , social , and political community organizations that facilitated the process of adaptation and survival in us society . torres and vel\u00e1zquez 1998 , an edited volume on the puerto rican movement , includes a substantive number of examples that illustrate different forms of social and political engagement during the years of the civil rights movement . duany 2002 analyzes the contemporary transnational dynamics of a puerto rican nation moving between the island and the many us communities of settlement . the increasing demographic dispersion of puerto ricans to other geographic destinations besides new york city has compelled researchers to focus on the establishment and evolution of other communities . whalen and v\u00e1zquez - hern\u00e1ndez 2005 is an edited volume that emphasizes old and new patterns of puerto rican settlement at various geographic locations . lastly , few puerto rican migration studies provide a historical narrative that interweaves the history of puerto rico with the formation of its diaspora . duany 2002 , acosta - bel\u00e9n and santiago 2006 , and ayala and bernabe 2009 stand out in this regard .\nmorera b , barrantes r , marin - rojas r . gene admixture in the costa rican population .\npopulation of puerto rican parrot was once estimated at around a million individuals . as of 2008 there are around fifty left in the wild , and around 220 in breeding programmes run by the multi - agency puerto rican parrot recovery program ( which originally involved scientists and managers from the us fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) , the us forest service and the puerto rico department of natural and environmental resources , with added support provided by the world wildlife fund ) . more\nbonilla c , shriver md , parra ej , jones a , fernandez jr . ancestral proportions and their association with skin pigmentation and bone mineral density in puerto rican women from new york city .\nbehaviour : puerto rican parrot feeds mainly on seeds , fruits , leaves , flowers and bark of numerous plants\u2019 species such as trees , shrubs and vines . it usually avoids the small fruits .\noleksyk tk , guiblet w , pombert jf , valentin r , martinez - cruzado jc : genomic data of the puerto rican parrot ( amazona vittata ) from a locally funded project . gigascience .\nfrancez pac , rodrigues emr , fraz\u00e3o gf , borges ndr , santos seb . allelic frequencies and statistical data obtained from 12 codis str loci in an admixed population of the brazilian amazon .\nwhile the puerto rican parrot\u2019s life expectancy is from 20 to 25 years , the first parrot to be born in captivity in 1979 , pepo , is still alive and he is 33 years old .\noriginally throughout forests on puerto rico ranging from moist montane forest down to littoral . . .\nvery interesting use of a puerto rico asthma population for admixture mapping of potential disease loci .\n. the effects of hurricane hugo and posterior recuperation in toro negro forest , puerto rico .\nthis purchase was replacing my old one lost in relocating from nj to fl . i ' ve had a copy of puerto rican for over 30 years and love it to death . it ' s a great book for cooking puerto rican food . the recipes are easy to understand and follow , and the food always turns out great . i ' m so glad i was able to replace it !\nthe puerto rican sample was found to be broadly heterogeneous . we observed three main clusters in the population , which we hypothesize to reflect the historical admixture in the puerto rican population from amerindian , african and european ancestors . we present evidence for this interpretation by comparing allele frequencies for the three clusters with those for the same snps available from the international hapmap project for asian , african and european populations .\ncity council speaker melissa mark - viverito says the popular outrage that has sent longtime parade sponsors scurrying in horror is being \u201corchestrated\u201d by \u201can ultra right - wing\u201d element that favors puerto rican statehood over independence .\nthe puerto rican parrot ( amazona vittata ) has become an iconic and high - profile conservation species . the cornerstone of the recovery plan for this critically endangered species is an active captive breeding program , management of the wild population , and a long - term reintroduction program . in 2002 , 40 adult puerto rican parrots that had not produced viable offspring were selected for . . . [ show full abstract ]\nchristian , c . , t . lacher jr , m . zamore , t . potts , g . burnett . 1996 . parrot conservation in the lesser antilles with some comparison to the puerto rican efforts .\nlacy rc , flesness nr , seal us , ballou jd , foose tj , bruning d , dierenfeld e , kollias gv , snyder nfr , wildt d : puerto rican parrotamazona vittatapopulation viability analysis and recommendations .\nthe puerto rican parrot\u2019s behavior is mostly calm . they are always in groups because if there is any danger , they can protect and help each other . the puerto rican parrot is a monogamous species , which means that they chose their mate and stay with them for life . this makes it hard to recover the species from being endangered because it takes more time to reproduce . the connection between the two parrots is so strong that if the mate dies it can take up to ten years for the parrot to look for another mate . the puerto rican parrot lives in families of at least ten parrots but is also very territorial .\npuerto rico and formerly neighbouring islands of mona and culebra ; possibly vieques and st . thomas .\npopulation stratification of the puerto rico sample as represented by the structure version 2 . 2 triangle plot\nthe population of wild puerto rican parrots , among the most endangered birds in the world , has languished for decades , with several dozen remaining birds unable to break through the bottleneck that prevents their numbers . . .\nthe puerto rican parrot is herbivorous and it feeds on flowers , fruits , leaves , bark and nectar . they nest in vacant tree trunk cavities and show a preference for certain types of trees . they usually nest between seven and fifteen meters above the ground and the male will usually find the nesting site , though both the male and female will inspect it , clean it and settle in it . the puerto rican amazon mates for life and reproduces only once a year . the female lays only two to four eggs , which she incubates herself . the chicks are very dependent and remain with the parents for a year after hatching .\nadmixture in the population of the island of puerto rico is of general interest with regards to pharmacogenetics to develop comprehensive strategies for personalized healthcare in latin americans . this research was aimed at determining the frequencies of snps in key physiological , pharmacological and biochemical genes to infer population structure and ancestry in the puerto rican population .\nthe number one predator of the puerto rican parrot is the puerto rican red tail hawk . other enemies are the puerto rican boa constrictor , bats , snakes , honey bees , black rats , indian mongoose , the mosquito parasite and the pearly - eyed thrasher . the mosquito parasite eats them alive by releasing a substance almost like morphine and they will be feeding themselves from the flesh of the parrot without the parrot feeling it . the pearly - eyed thrasher is the most damaging because it goes down into the parrots nest and instead of eating one egg or one parrot like the others predators , it will eat all the eggs or all the chicks .\n) . puerto rican amazons usually search for food in pairs . they have also been known to feed on corn crops , a food source that only recently became available to them through agricultural changes in the past century .\nthe puerto rican parrot has gone through hard times and good times but the recovery programs have helped a lot with the population . there are many challenges to still come for the puerto rican parrot because their favorite nesting tree , the palo colorado is endangered itself . in addition hurricanes will continue to be a threat for the population . as scientists are learning more about the parrots\u2019 behavior and habitat they will be able to help them better in the future .\ngenome variation and ancestry in the puerto rican population were analyzed using 332 snps from 196 cardiometabolic and neuroendocrine genes . according to the results , a trichotomous structure with european , amerindian and west - african contributions can be ascertained ( see\nthe puerto rican parrot , amazona vittata , is the only native parrot species in puerto rico and , unfortunately , it is an endangered species . therefore , it is very important for the department of natural and environmental resources ( dner ) to preserve existing individuals and their habitat , as well as supervising recovery programs for the species . more\nribeiro dos santos akc , pereira jm , lobato mrf , carvalho bm , guerreiro jf , santos seb . dissimilarities in the process of formation of curia\u00fa , a semi - isolated afro - brazilian population of the amazon region .\nthe puerto rican amazon reaches sexual maturity between three and four years of age . it reproduces once a year and is a cavity nester . once the female lays eggs she will remain in the nest and continuously incubate them until hatching . the chicks are fed by both parents and will fledge 60 to 65 days after hatching . this parrot ' s diet is varied and consists of flowers , fruits , leaves , bark and nectar obtained from the forest canopy .\nthe numbers of this endangered parrot dropped to 13 ( in the wild ) a few years ago . find puerto rican parrot facts in this article , inclduing its life and what measures are being taken to prevent them from becoming extinct .\nthe puerto rican parrot is a one - foot long bird . it has an emerald green body , a red forehead , wide white eye rings , blue primary wing feathers , flesh colored bill and feet , and a pale beak .\nin my opinion it\u2019s the best puerto ricsn cook book . i mean , my mother had this book .\n( asclepiadaceae ) from puerto rico and a new name for a jamaican species of calyptranthes ( myrtaceae ) .\ncollar , n . , boesman , p . & sharpe , c . j . ( 2018 ) . puerto rican amazon ( amazona vittata ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nvallinoto imvc , vallinoto acr , valente cmd , guerreiro jf . allele frequency distributions of six hypervariable loci ( d1s80 , apob , d4s43 , vw1 , f13a and dys19 ) in two african - brazilian communities from the amazon region .\nhabitat : puerto rican parrot frequents wet forests from moist mountainous forests down to coastal scrub forests and mangroves . this species was formerly in most forested areas in mountains and lowlands . it is now confined between 200 and 600 metres of elevation .\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto puerto rican parrot utters distinctive \u201ckar\u2026kar\u201d while flying . each note is given on descending scale . it also gives loud squawks when taking off , and some chuckling notes . when perched , both mates perform duets .\n. stahl y la botanica en puerto rico . in : acevedo - rodriguez , pedro ( ed . ) ,\n. stahl and the botany of puerto rico . in : acevedo - rodriguez , pedro ( ed . ) ,\nagustin stahl ' s estudios para la flora de puerto rico , illustrated facsimile of the first edition . 3 volums\nwhere found : puerto rico and formerly neighbouring islands of mona and culebra ; possibly vieques and st . thomas .\nthe puerto rican parrot ( amazona vitatta ) is losing habitat to severe weather conditions . whether it is a matter of climate change is being debated . ecologists and activists are trying to determine the effect of climate change on bird species . in its report \u201cstate of the bird 2010 , \u201d the u . s . fish and wildlife service reported that climate change is adversely affecting the habitat of the only parrot species native to the united states , the puerto rican parrot ( amazona vitatta ) . more\nthe puerto rican amazon parrot ( amazona vittata ) is also sometimes called the iguaca \u2013 a name given to the bird by the ta\u00efno indians based on the sound that the parrots make . the puerto rican parrot is so critically endangered that it is listed as one of the ten most endangered bird species on the planet . despite the fact that efforts to save this species from extinction started in 1968 , it currently seems as though conservationists may be facing a loosing battle . therefore , if you are fortunate enough to see one during your travels , you can count yourself among the privileged few . while these birds were once abundant on both the mainland and the surrounding islands , they are now restricted mainly to the protected forests of the caribbean national forest .\npalha tjbf , ribeiro - rodrigues em , ribeiro - dos - santos a , guerreiro jf , moura lss , santos s . male ancestry structure and interethnic admixture in african - descent communities from the amazon as revealed by y - chromosome strs .\nthe puerto rican parrot is unique in that , since 2001 , all known nesting in the wild has occurred in standardized artificial cavities , which also provided us a unique opportunity to evaluate nest site selection without confounding effects of the actual nest cavity characteristics . more\nthe puerto rican parrot ( amazona vittata ) has become an iconic and high - profile conservation species . the cornerstone of the recovery plan for this critically endangered species is an active captive breeding program , management of the wild population , and a long - term reintroduction program . in 2002 , 40 adult puerto rican parrots that had not produced viable offspring were selected for reproductive assessment at 2 aviary populations in puerto rico ( iguaca and r\u00edo abajo ) , which are the only sources of parrots for release . the goal was to enhance reproductive potential and produce productive pairings in an attempt to augment the population growth and provide ample individuals for reintroduction . seven hispanolian amazon parrots ( amazona ventralis ) that were used as surrogate parents for the puerto rican parrots were also included in the study . this assessment included physical examination , endoscopic evaluation , hematologic and plasma biochemical profiles , viral screening , and hormonal assays . results of general physical examination and hematologic and plasma biochemical testing revealed overall good health and condition of this subset of the population of puerto rican parrots ; no major infectious diseases were found . endoscopic examination also revealed overall good health and condition , especially of females . the apparent low fertility of male birds warrants further investigation . the findings helped to define causes of reproductive failure in the selected pairs and individual birds . new pairings resulting from the assessment helped to augment reproduction of this critically endangered species .\nagustin stahl ' s estudios para la flora de puerto rico , illustrated facsimile of the first edition . 3 volums .\nn\u00fa\u00f1ez - garc\u00eda , f . and torres - b\u00e1ez , p . ( 2008 ) technical / agency draft recovery plan for the puerto rican parrot ( amazona vittata ) . u . s . fish and wildlife service , georgia , usa . available at : urltoken\nreproduction is difficult because the puerto rican parrot is monogamous , so when a male finds a female and she accept him ( or vice versa ) those first weeks are the most crucial for their reproduction . that\u2019s why it is so important not to bother them .\nin 1989 hurricane hugo struck destroying about 60 % of el yunque national forest . this devastated the puerto rican parrot population and only 24 birds survived . that\u2019s when the program got more aggressive by building aviaries , monitoring areas , and studying the parrots more closely .\na pair of puerto rican parrots at their nest on the island ' s luquillo national forest . fewer than 45 birds remain in the wild , making this one of the world ' s most endangered species . ( courtesy u . s . fish and wildlife service ) may 6 , 2008 - berkeley - the population of wild puerto rican parrots , among the most endangered birds in the world , has languished for decades , with several dozen remaining birds unable to break through the bottleneck that prevents their numbers from growing . more\nfor inference of the major ancestry contributions within the puerto rican population , a bayesian clustering algorithm was used . the analysis of the pg - array derived informative markers data with the structure version 2 . 2 software shows that the samples readily separate into three clusters . in\nthough the puerto rican amazon has several natural predators \u2013 none of these have been more detrimental to the longevity of the bird than man . loss of habitat and capture of live birds for pets have been among the leading causes for this bird\u2019s near extinction . while captive breeding efforts are paying off , the wild bird population is still perilously close to extinction . so the next time you see one of these inquisitive looking birds , spare a thought for all the hard work that is going into preserving them for future generations .\nformerly known as amazona vittata , the puerto rican parrot is sadly close to extinction . considered as a magnificent parrot that was once abundant throughout the south american country of puerto rico , this bird is now just a small , wild population that lives in the caribbean national forest rainforest . to ensure this parrot exists , a number of programs have been created providing needed research and intervention . more\nmaricao is puerto rico ' s top coffee growing region , with lush vegetation , spectacular birdlife . . . . read more\ntang h , choudhry s , mei r , et al . recent genetic selection in the ancestral admixture of puerto ricans .\nchoudhry s , burchard eg , borrell ln , et al . ancestry - environment interactions and asthma risk among puerto ricans .\na moderate correlation between skin color ( melanin index ) and ancestry has been reported using 36 aims in a puerto rican sample settled in new york city [ 46 ] . this relationship was explained as a result of population structure due to admixture stratification in the puerto rican sample . the individuals were of primarily european ancestry ( 53 . 3 \u00b1 2 . 8 % ) but also had relatively large proportions of west african ( 29 . 1 \u00b1 2 . 3 % ) and amerindian ( 17 . 6 \u00b1 2 . 4 % ) ancestry .\nthey thought the species is going to be extinct , so we need to keep in captivity a representation of what was a puerto rican parrot ,\nsaid velez , who has worked for the program for 21 years .\nbut the species really showed resilience .\nancestral contributions to the puerto rican population have been estimated by using polymorphic blood group and protein marker data , as 45 % european , 37 % west african , and 18 % amerindian [ 39 ] . notably , analysis of mitochondrial dna in puerto ricans living in the island revealed a higher amerindian contribution of nearly 53 % [ 38 ] . by contrast , both a set of 61 y chromosome snps ( y - snps ) and 11 core y - short tandem repeats ( strs ) pointed to a much larger european paternal contribution in puerto ricans [ 40 ] . despite regional variation , there have been reported low levels of hispanic y - str haplotype heterogeneity in previous surveys , although the higher frequency of african - derived y chromosomes in the east is consistent with a greater contribution of puerto rican and cuban hispanics to east coast us populations [ 41 \u2013 43 ] . the contributions of the three parental populations to contemporary puerto ricans have been ascertained using a set of 35 autosomal ancestry informative markers ( aims ) [ 44 ] . the analysis provided evidence of a puerto rican gene - pool having european , west african and amerindian origins , with larger european and west african components but an unquestionable amerindian contribution .\nlike most parrots , puerto rican amazons are diurnal . they are usually found foraging in the trees for most of the day . these birds fly in flocks , but are usually sedentary in their nest during the breeding season , using their green plumage to hide and be secretive .\nthe results from this study provide further evidence of the unique trihybrid model of genetic admixture in the puerto rican population . evidence for the trihybrid model was also obtained by comparing allele frequencies for the three clusters with those for the same snps in reference populations from the hapmap project .\nin the past , the prognosis would have been grim .\nthat probably would have been a dead bird ,\nsaid jafet velez , a biologist who manages the puerto rican parrot breeding center in the el yunque national forest , one of two such facilities on the island .\nestablishing additional populations in the wild is a pivotal recovery action outlined in the recovery plan for the puerto rican parrot . with a third wild population in puerto rico we will minimize the species\u2019 risk of extinction and foster its recovery because it is unlikely that catastrophic events ( e . g . , hurricanes ) , and other threats ( e . g . , predation ) , will affect equally all three locations .\nwith only 40 puerto rican parrots left in the wild , the species is pretty close to extinction . however , dr . jaime collazo , an associate professor of zoology at north carolina state university , refuses to let that happen . and , in a move aimed at improving the species more\nthe puerto rican amazon typically occurs in pairs , with nests made in natural tree cavities and used year after year ( 2 ) . the breeding season is from late february to july ( 7 ) and the clutch size ranges from two to four eggs , although many pairs fail to lay eggs in a season ( 2 ) . incubation is performed by the female only , and lasts for around 26 days ( 6 ) . young fledge at approximately nine weeks of age ( 6 ) ( 8 ) and reach sexual maturity after three to five years ( 8 ) .\nthe achievement of the assembled puerto rican parrot genome is an important milestone for unusual reasons . first , the genome project was funded by student organized art and fashion shows dedicated to the effort plus scores of small personal donations by puerto rican people who wanted to be part of it . that could only happen when the cost of reagents had dropped so precipitously that it can be afforded within a $ 10 , 000 usd budget . second , the analysis and annotation took place in a modest university setting where students of genome bioinformatics were trained to drive assemblers , to stitch together contigs and scaffolds , and to begin the genome annotation process . third , the puerto rican parrot is a harbinger for the many parrot genomes we shall be seeing in the near future : the opportunity to explore speciation and adaptive radiation among island species of these parrots is too tempting to pass up ( figure"]}
{"id": 868, "summary": [{"text": "platydemus manokwari , also known as the new guinea flatworm , is a large predatory land flatworm that has become an invasive species in many countries .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "native to new guinea , it was accidentally introduced to the soil of many countries .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it was also deliberately introduced into two pacific islands in an attempt to control an invasion of the giant east african snail .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it eats a variety of invertebrates including land snails , and has had a significant negative impact on the rare endemic land snail fauna of some pacific islands .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it has become established in a wide variety of habitats .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "it was recorded in 2014 from a hothouse in caen , france , its first finding in europe , and in 2015 from new caledonia , wallis and futuna islands , singapore , solomon islands , puerto rico ( first record in the caribbean ) , and florida , usa .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the researchers said that \" while most of the infected territories reported until now were islands , the newly reported presence of the species in mainland us in florida should be considered a potential major threat to the whole us and even the americas \" . ", "topic": 18}], "title": "platydemus manokwari as an invasive species", "paragraphs": ["100 of the world\u2019s worst invasive alien species . a selection from the global invasive species database .\n100 of the world\u2019s worst invasive alien species . a selection from the global invasive species database .\n100 of the world\u2019s worst invasive alien species . a selection from the global invasive species database .\nspecies which are introduced into a new ecosystem have the potential to become invasive . some of the qualities that define an invasive species are :\nrecommended citation : global invasive species database ( 2018 ) species profile : platydemus manokwari . downloaded from urltoken on 09 - 07 - 2018 .\njust as the environment can help push out an invasive species , so too can a well adapted native on rare occasions .\nplatydemus manokwari ( new guinea flatworm ) ; on an empty shell of the giant african snail , lissachatina fulica .\nmy ' the invasive land planarian platydemus manokwari . . . ' article was published 2 years ago today in @ thepeerj urltoken\nplatydemus manokwari ( new guinea flatworm ) ; translucent cocoon , with young about to hatch .\nrichardson dm ( 1998 ) forestry trees as invasive aliens . conserv biol 12 : 18\u201326\nthe global invasive species database is managed by the invasive species specialist group ( issg ) of the iucn species survival commission . it was developed as part of the global initiative on invasive species led by the global invasive species programme ( gisp ) and is supported through partnerships with the national biological information infrastructure , manaaki whenua - landcare research and the university of auckland . conditions of use .\nauckland : iucn / ssc invasive species specialist group ( issg ) ; 2000 .\nwhen both native and introduced species use the same resource , introduced species can competitively exclude native species . in hawaii , an introduced passerine bird ,\nsugiura s . seasonal fluctuation of invasive flatworm predation pressure on land snails : implications for the range expansion and impacts of invasive species .\neldredge , l . g . and smith , b . d . 1994 . introductions and transfers of the triclad flatworm platydemus manokwari . tentacle 4 : 8 . summary : details of spread of platydemus manokwari\nthe platydemus manokwari , commonly known as the flatworm , grows to about two inches long , and has a greenish backside with a light underbelly\u2014 an underbelly that contains a mouth right in the middle .\nin fact , there are even books devoted to taking advantage of the potential of using invasive species as a potential food source .\nfor full access to this pdf , sign in to an existing account , or purchase an annual subscription .\nsugiura s , tsuru t , yamaura y ( 2013 ) effects of an invasive alien tree on the diversity and temporal dynamics of an insect assemblage on an oceanic island . biol invasions 15 : 157\u2013169 . doi :\ninformations on platydemus manokwari has been recorded for the following locations . click on the name for additional informations .\nrt @ plathelminthe4 : my ' the invasive land planarian platydemus manokwari . . . ' article was published 2 years ago today in @ thepeerj https : / / t\u2026\nsugiura , s . & y . yamaura . 2009 . potential impacts of the invasive flatworm platydemus manokwari on arboreal snails , biol invasions 11 : 737 - 742 .\nfood habit of platydemus manokwari de beauchamp , 1962 ( tricladida : terricola : rhynchodemidae ) , known . . .\nthe international union for conservation of nature included the worm on its most recent list of the 100 worst invasive alien species . the usda classifies invasive species as plants , animals or pathogens that are non - native to an ecosystem ,\nwhose introduction causes or is likely to cause harm .\nthe occurrence of the invasive flatworm platydemus manokwari in the jardin des plantes , caen , in the department of basse - normandie ( normandy , france ) , is the first record of the species in europe .\nplatydemus manokwari has been recorded to feed mainly on land gastropod molluscs , and also on earthworms , insects and nemerteans .\nlemos vs , canello r , leal - zanchet am . carnivore mollusks as natural enemies of invasive land flatworms .\nsecretariat of nobanis 2012 . riskmapping for 100 nonnative species in europe . copenhagen : nobanis\u2014european network on invasive alien species . available at urltoken .\nchiba s ( 2010a ) invasive non - native species\u2019 provision of refugia for endangered native species . conserv biol 24 : 1141\u20131147 . doi :\ninvasive species might be bad for the environment , but many of them are good enough to eat .\n, as well as other plants , animals , fungi , and microbes of north america and the world .\nsugiura s ( 2009 ) seasonal fluctuation of invasive flatworm predation pressure on land snails : implications for the range expansion and impacts of invasive species . biol conserv 142 : 3013\u20133019\nin some cases , the best policy for dealing with invasive species is just to leave them alone , particularly if they occupy a crucial ecological niche that they or other invasive plants and animals forced another species to vacate .\nlowe s , browne m , boudjelas s , de poorter m ( 2000 ) 100 of the world ' s worst invasive alien species a selection from the global invasive species database . issg , ssc , iucn , auckland\nconvention on biological diversity what are invasive alien species ? 2009 . available at urltoken ( accessed 6 february 2014 )\n) . thus , resource competition with introduced plant species has negatively impacted native plant species .\nsugiura s ( 2009 ) seasonal fluctuation of invasive flatworm predation pressure on land snails : implications for the range expansion and impacts of invasive species . biol conserv 142 : 3013\u20133019 . doi :\nthe global invasive species database was developed and is managed by the invasive species specialist group ( issg ) of the species survival commission ( ssc ) of the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) . it was developed as part of the global initiative on invasive species led by the erstwhile global invasive species programme ( gisp ) in 2000 . the gisd over the past two years and has been redesigned with support from the abu dhabi environment agency , the italian ministry of environment and ispra - the institute for environmental protection and research , italy . terms and conditions of use\none common tactic for reducing populations of invasive species is simply to make their importing them from their native habitat illegal .\nthe worm ( platydemus manokwari ) is on the\n100 worst invasive alien species\nlist , and is now newly located in new caledonia , singapore , the solomon islands , puerto rico and florida , according to the study , which is published in peerj .\nplatydemus manokwari has been recorded from more than 15 different territories , in asia and oceania ; our record in france is the first for europe .\nde beauchamp , p . 1963 . platydemus manokwari in . sp . , planaire terrestre de la nouvelle - guin\ufffde hollandaise . bulletin de la soci\ufffdt\ufffd zoologique de france 87 ( 5 - 6 , december 1962 issue ) : 609 - 615 . summary : the original description of platydemus manokwari .\n) , an invasive alien species on the ogasawara islands . in : kawakami k , okochi i ( eds ) restoring the oceanic island ecosystem . springer , tokyo , pp 145\u2013152 . doi :\nplatydemus manokwari is able to prey on a variety of gastropod molluscs , on nemerteans , earthworms and woodlice , and on other species of land planarians . all reports of prey refer to adults .\nsugiura , s . 2009 . seasonal fluctuation of invasive flatworm predation pressure on land snails : implications for the range expansion and impacts of invasive species , biological conservation 142 : 3013 - 3019 .\ndepending upon the outcome of an environmental risk assessment and related investigations , threats from platydemus manokwari may need to be responded to in a similar manner to the invasive new zealand flatworm arthurdendyus triangulatus . this species is now subject to an eppo standard regarding import requirements ( eppo , 2000a ) and nursery inspection , exclusion and treatment ( eppo , 2000b ) for the flatworm ( murchie , 2010 ) . the problem with p . manokwari is that even though it is primarily an environmental threat , it does not \u201cindirectly affect plants through the effects on other organisms\u201d . consequently there is the possibility that responsibility for managing this invasive species may fall between the remits of agricultural and environmental regulatory bodies . this could delay effective management of p . manokwari .\np . manokwari is a large predatory flatworm , originally discovered in new guinea , which has been deliberately introduced into some pacific islands in an attempt to control an invasion of the giant east african s . . .\nuntil now , platydemus manokwari was confined to the indo - pacific region . the present record in france is a significant westerly extension of the occurrence of p . manokwari from the indo - pacific region to europe .\na worm called one of the world ' s\nworst\ninvasive species by conservationists has been found in the united states for the first time , an international team of researchers announced on tuesday .\nthe land planarian platydemus manokwari de beauchamp , 1963 or \u201cnew guinea flatworm\u201d is an invasive species , recorded in 15 countries in the world , and recently in france in a hothouse ( justine et al . , 2014 ) . platydemus manokwari is the only flatworm listed in the \u201c100 world\u2019s worst invasive alien species\u201d ( lowe et al . , 2000 ) ; it is a predator of land snails and is considered a danger to endemic snails wherever it has been introduced . its distribution records , reproduction , biology , prey lists , impacts , and possible control options were recently reviewed ( justine et al . , 2014 ) .\nwinsor l . the new guinea flatworm\u2014 platydemus manokwari : predator of land snails . 1999 . terrestrial flatworms infosheet no . 6 . james cook university .\np . manokwari feeds on live land snails of an endemic species of the ogasawara islands , japan ( mandarina aureola ) under laboratory conditions ( okochi et al . , 2004 ) . p . manokwari also feeds on live snails of the predatory species euglandina rosea as well as other snail and slug species ( ohbayashi et al . , 2005 ) . furthermore , p . manokwari feeds on dead earthworms , and thus can survive in areas where snails have been absent since their invasion ( ohbayashi et al . , 2005 ; sugiura et al . , 2006 ) . p . manokwari feeds on live flatworms of other species ( ohbayashi et al . , 2005 ) .\np . manokwari feeds on live land snails of an endemic species of the ogasawara islands , japan ( mandarina aureola ) under laboratory conditions ( okochi et al . , 2004 ) . p . manokwari also feeds on live snails of the predatory species euglandina rosea as well as other snail and slug species ( ohbayashi et al . , 2005 ) . furthermore , p . manokwari feeds on dead earthworms , and thus can survive in areas where snails have been absent since their invasion ( ohbayashi et al . , 2005 ; sugiura et al . , 2006 ) . p . manokwari feeds on live flatworms of other species ( ohbayashi et al . , 2005 ) .\nwith it . genetic testing reveals that there are two different geographic lineages but areas where the beetle is invasive , they have hybridized . the two lineages may be considered as two separate species .\nstate fish and wildlife departments monitor the potential introduction of invasive plants and animals from outside their jurisdictions . alligatorweed , for example , is an invasive aquatic plant that originated in south america and can not only endanger native species , but also put humans at risk by reducing water quality .\nthe serious negative environmental impacts of platydemus manokwari on the biodiversity of native land snails in the indo - pacific are well documented . the risks posed by the incursion of this species in france have not yet been assessed . the european union has recently proposed new legislation to prevent and manage the rapidly growing threat to biodiversity from invasive species ( european commission , 2013 ) . the proposal centres on a list of invasive alien species of concern for europe , which will be drawn up with the member states using risk assessments and scientific evidence . whether or not platydemus manokwari will be included on this list remains to be seen .\neldredge lg , smith bd , 1994 . introductions and transfers of the triclad flatworm platydemus manokwari . tentacle , 4 : 8 ( also reprinted as \u2018triclad flatworm tours the pacific\u2019 in alien , 2 : 11 , 1995 ) .\nkawakatsu , m . , m . nishino & a . ohtaka . 2007 . platydemus manokwari , used previously as a biological control agent abroad for the giant african snail , japanese journal of limnology 68 : 461 - 46 .\n) , other snail - eating flatworm species ( e . g . , unidentified species of the genus\ndisturbance by introduced species ( e . g . , disturbance of seabird colonies by goats ) is an important factor leading to the local extinction of native species ( chiba et al .\nprovide an overview of the spread of the flatworm to islands in the pacific .\nbad news : notorious invasive worm just found in u . s . - seeker\nour promise peerj promises to address all issues as quickly and professionally as possible . we thank you in advance for your patience and understanding .\njustine jl , winsor l , gey d , gros p , th\u00e9venot j , 2014 . the invasive new guinea flatworm platydemus manokwari in france , the first record for europe : time for action is now . peerj , 2 : e297 . urltoken\n) . for extinct and declining native species at local sites and / or islands , i considered studies that reported direct observations of feeding on native species by introduced species as evidence of predation and herbivory impacts . gut content analysis that documented feeding on native species by introduced species was also considered evidence of predation . native species that are in decline can share resources ( e . g . , foods ) with introduced species . i considered such resource sharing between native and introduced species a competition impact .\neasin ( european alien species information network ) terrestrial alien species in europe . 2014 . available at urltoken .\njessica th\u00e9venot analyzed the data , reviewed drafts of the paper , provided administrative contacts and information concerning regulation of invasive species , made maps .\ngurevitch j , padilla dk ( 2004 ) are invasive species a major cause of extinctions ? trends ecol evol 19 : 470\u2013474 . doi :\npredation of terrestrial flatworms by herpetofauna has also been investigated . the flatworm bipalium adventitium hyman , 1943 , invasive in north america , was offered by ducey et al . ( 1999 ) to six species of salamanders and two species of snakes ; none of the herpetofaunal species tested treated bipalium adventitium as a potential prey item .\n, an endemic land snail of the ogasawara islands . glob environ res 17 : 29\u201337\nwinsor l , 1999 . the new guinea flatworm - platydemus manokwari : predator of land snails . terrestrial flatworm infosheet no 6 . townsville , australia : james cook university .\nuh oh ! invasive asian carp shown to have reproduced in great lakes . . .\nthe distribution and food habit of the flatworm species platydemus manokwari which is known to be a predator of land snails , were examined on chichijima island of the ogasawara ( bonin ) islands , japan . p . manokwari was distributed over a wide area of the island . few live land snails were found in the area where p . manokwari was distributed . further , it was revealed that p . manokwari fed not . . . [ show full abstract ]\nwaterhouse & norris ( 1987 ) considered that p . manokwari appeared to be an opportunistic carnivore and generally unselective in the choice of prey . success of platydemus manokwari as a biological control agent for achatina fulica can be attributed to its polyphagy , resistance to starvation , ability to survive and reproduce on alternative prey and potential to reproduce rapidly in synchrony with prey populations ( winsor , johns & barker , 2004 ) .\ninvasive species specialist group ( issg ) a specialist group of the species survival commission ( ssc ) of the world conservation union ( iucn ) ; 2000 . 12pp first published as special lift - out in aliens 12 , december 2000 updated and reprinted version : november 2004 .\nit\u2019s very flat , it\u2019s two inches long and less than a quarter inch wide . it\u2019s black and olive in color with a stripe down its back ; it has an elongated head with big black eyes and mouth in the middle of its belly . it\u2019s name is platydemus manokwari and although on first glance it just seems a harmless ground - dwelling worm , in fact it can climb trees . which it does to eat snails , and eat them it does . the new guinea flatworm , as p . manokwari is commonly called , consumes snails with voracity and endangers endemic species . it is considered such a threatening invasive species that it holds the distinction of being the only land planarian ( flatworm ) to be included in \u201c100 worst invasive alien species\u201d list .\nwe recently identified non - indigenous terrestrial flatworms found in a hothouse in caen ( france ) as the new guinea flatworm platydemus manokwari de beauchamp , 1963 . the identity of these flatworms was subsequently confirmed by molecular analysis of coi sequences . platydemus manokwari is among the \u201c100 world\u2019s worst invader alien species\u201d ( lowe et al . , 2000 ) . in this paper , we present evidence for the identification of the species in france , the first record in europe , and provide a brief review of the records of the species in the world , lists of its known prey , and possible control options .\njust posted on eddmaps tools & training page is a pdf for\neddmaps : using the bugwood smartphone apps\n. this pdf provides an easy to use guide for collecting and reporting data on invasive species with the bugwood smartphone apps .\nthe status of invasive plants , vertebrates , arthropods , molluscs , and crustaceans , and options for a regional invasive species strategy for the south pacific are presented in this series of articles from the south pacific regional environment programme , 2000 .\n. . . the introduction of the snail - eating flatworm platydemus manokwari ( tricladida : rhynchodemidae ) has been considered a cause of the extinction of native land snails on several pacific islands . although p . manokwari is known to attack land snails on the ground , whether p . manokwari attacks snails on trees remains unclear . to clarify the effect of p . manokwari on arboreal snails , we examined survival . . .\nshimizu y ( 1988 ) vegetation of mt . kuwanoki in the bonin ( ogasawara ) islands with reference to the invasion of an introduced tree species (\nwinsor l , 1998 . the role of the atrial diverticulum in the copulatory apparatus of platydemus manokwari de beauchamp ( tricladida : terricola ) . hydrobiologia , 383 : 83 - 89 .\nzavaleta es , hobbs rj , mooney ha ( 2001 ) viewing invasive species removal in a whole - ecosystem context . trends ecol evol 16 : 454\u2013459\ni would suggest that anyone interested in invasive species should check out their local eppc , ipc , or equivalent organization to learn how they can participate .\nis a serious concern in the conservation of the land snails . accidental introductions as well as intentional ones should be actively prevented . artificial removal in japan of\nplatydemus manokwari occurs at pindaunde station , mt . wilhelm at 3625 m altitude ( de beauchamp , 1972 ; winsor , 1990 ) , where it was found under stones together with platydemus longibulbus ( de beauchamp , 1972 ) and platydemus pindaudei ( de beauchamp , 1972 ) , and at kainantu at 1558 m altitude in the eastern highlands of new guinea ( winsor , 1990 ) . the natural range of this upland species has yet to be determined .\nas yet there are no known specific biological control methods for platydemus manokwari . terrestrial flatworms are considered to be top - level predators in the soil ecosystem ( sluys , 1999 ) . although nothing appears to be known about natural enemies of platydemus manokwari , examples of predation on other species of land planarians by soil and associated fauna are known , mostly under laboratory conditions . they include an instance of predation of the neotropical species obama trigueira ( e . m . froehlich , 1955 ) by enterosyringia pseudorhynchodemus ( riester , 1938 ) ( froehlich , 1956 ) , and predation of five species of land planarians by p . manokwari ( ohbayashi et al . , 2005 ) . a chance field observation led to laboratory findings that arthurdendyus triangulatus was eaten by larvae and adults of species of a carabid and a staphylinid beetles ( gibson , cosens & buchanan , 1997 ) .\nbeauchamp p de , 1962 . platydemus manokwari n . sp . planaire terrestre de la nouvelle - guin\u00e9e hollandaise . bulletin de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 zoologique de france , 87 : 609 - 616 .\ninvasion of a site by platydemus manokwari may directly and indirectly impact on native and introduced arboreal , terrestrial soil and to a much lesser extent semi - aquatic slow - moving invertebrate fauna .\nis considered to have competitively excluded native trees . other introduced plants , such as\neuropean commission press release 09 / 09 / 2013 . environment : new eu action to protect biodiversity against problematic invasive species . 2013 . available at urltoken .\n) . each cocoon contained an average of 5 . 2 juveniles ( 3 to 9 ) (\n, on an oceanic island after feral goat extermination . weed res 50 : 472\u2013480 . doi :\nabe t , wada k , kato y , makino si , okochi i ( 2011b ) alien pollinator promotes invasive mutualism in an insular pollination system . biol invasions 13 : 957\u2013967 . doi :\nthe platydemus manokwari , also called the new guinea flatworm , poses a major threat to the planet ' s snail biodiversity , according to an article published in the scientific journal peerj .\nit is considered a danger to endemic snails wherever it has been introduced ,\nthe report states .\niwai n , sugiura s , chiba s . prey - tracking behavior in the invasive terrestrial planarian\nis it time to start thinking of recipes for new guinea flatworm ? ( see why here : cooking invasive species may be the new ethical food frontier . )\nin a series of trials by lemos , canello & leal - zanchet ( 2012 ) the native neotropical carnivorous mollusc rectartemon depressus ( heynemann , 1868 ) was found to successfully predate upon specimens of at least 10 species of geoplanid terrestrial flatworms as well as five undescribed species of geoplana , and also the introduced species bipalium kewense . whether other species of carnivorous molluscs successfully predate upon flatworms is not yet known . platydemus manokwari predates upon at least two species of carnivorous molluscs observed in the field ( ohbayashi et al . , 2005 ) : the rosy wolf snail euglandina rosea ( de f\u00e9russac , 1821 ) and gonaxis quadrilateralis ( preston , 1901 ) ; both these mollusc species were introduced in an attempt to control the giant african snail achatina fulica in the pacific region ( davis & butler , 1964 ; lydeard et al . , 2004 ) .\na study by princeton researchers in 2011 found that invasive ship rats brought to new zealand ' s north island when europeans first arrived devastated local populations of birds and bats . as pollinators , the native species were an important part of the ecosystem , but the ship rats have filled that role . as one of the researchers explained in a press release ,\nthe killer stepped in to do the job of its victim .\nbugwood ' s invasive species coordinator and eddmaps data coordinator were in chapel hill , nc for the joint southeast exotic pest plant council and north carolina invasive plant council meeting . it was held at the north carolina botanical garden and was attended by representatives of the southeastern u . s . from all fields concerned with invasive species : industry / commercial agents , university researchers and staff , state and federal agency employees , etc .\nanonymous . 2000 . flatworm ( platydemus manokwari ) in samoa . sapa newsletter april - june 2000 - issue 2 / 00 3 - 4 . summary : records presence in samoa . good illustration .\nplatydemus manokwari with white pharynx protruding from the underside , ingesting soft tissues of a specimen of the mediterranean snail . ( photo : pierre gros ) / cc by - nc - sa 4 . 0\nbut even getting to an airport could be risky , u . s . officials warned . the u . s . state department issued an alert sunday urging its citizens on the island to shelter in place and not to go to an airport unless travelers had confirmed their departing flight was taking off .\nrepresentative examples of top - down impacts by introduced species on native species in the ogasawara islands . a introduced green anole lizard , anolis carolinensis ; b introduced flatworm , platydemus manokwari ; c introduced goat , capra aegagrus ; d endemic butterfly , celastrina ogasawaraensis ; e endemic snail , boninosuccinea ogasawarae ; f endemic plant , lobelia boninensis\nhot water tolerance of p . manokwari has been reported , but sugiura ( 2008 ) reports that immersion in water at \u2265 43\u00b0c for 5 min ) kills p . manokwari .\n) . these impacts were not included in this survey . additionally , positive impacts of introduced species on native organisms and negative impacts of native species on introduced species were excluded from this study .\nextremes in the density of dorsal pigmentation may cause p . manokwari to be confused with platydemus bivittatus recorded from milne bay , new guinea , and platydemus quadristriatus from the tonga islands . specimens with heavily pigmented dorsal stripes , as may occur in old individuals , could approach the external appearance of p . bivittatus , but would lack the fine dark median pre - ocular stripe present in the latter species . also the distance between the mouth and gonopore in p . bivittatus is considerably less than in a similar sized specimen of p . manokwari . the two species can be readily distinguished on the basis of their internal anatomy . similarly , specimens of p . manokwari in which only the margins of the brown dorsal stripes are evident on a lighter ground colour ( as in a specimen from lockhart river , queensland , australia ) approach p . quadristriatus , although may be distinguished from this species by a pale dorsal median stripe present in p . manokwari .\nbarker , g . m . 2002 . molluscs as crop pests . cabi publishing .\naustralopacifica sp . , bipalium kewense , bipalium sp . , platydemus sp . 1 ; p . sp . 2\ncompiled by : dr . robert h . cowie , center for conservation research and training , university of hawaii & iucn / ssc invasive species specialist group ( issg )\nmolluscs are very uncommon in human - modified habitats in northern australia . the accidental spread of the species can readily occur . one such transfer of the species in australia is reported ; the flatworm harboured in the hollow tuber of a houseplant alocasia sent from cardwell , queensland , to weipa , cape york peninsula ( waterhouse and norris , 1987 ) . the invasiveness of the species in some pacific countries is probably further promoted by the deliberate introduction as a biocontrol agent by humans , and the ready availability of preferred prey , such as achatina and native mollusc species . the proximity of agricultural land to native forest in these areas may also facilitate the spread of the species . the occurrence of the species in native cloud forest at 675 metres altitude on pohnpei ( eldredge and smith , 1994 ) , and in forest at 365 metres altitude on anatahan island ( kawakatsu and ogren , 1994 ) , together with the arboreal habits and fecundity of p . manokwari are particular causes for concern . p . manokwari is included in the 100 worst invasive species in the global invasive species programme ( gisp ) database urltoken\nmolluscs are very uncommon in human - modified habitats in northern australia . the accidental spread of the species can readily occur . one such transfer of the species in australia is reported ; the flatworm harboured in the hollow tuber of a houseplant alocasia sent from cardwell , queensland , to weipa , cape york peninsula ( waterhouse and norris , 1987 ) . the invasiveness of the species in some pacific countries is probably further promoted by the deliberate introduction as a biocontrol agent by humans , and the ready availability of preferred prey , such as achatina and native mollusc species . the proximity of agricultural land to native forest in these areas may also facilitate the spread of the species . the occurrence of the species in native cloud forest at 675 metres altitude on pohnpei ( eldredge and smith , 1994 ) , and in forest at 365 metres altitude on anatahan island ( kawakatsu and ogren , 1994 ) , together with the arboreal habits and fecundity of p . manokwari are particular causes for concern . p . manokwari is included in the 100 worst invasive species in the global invasive species programme ( gisp ) database urltoken\nto celebrate , uab sustainability held an electric car show \u201cto help people see the different options that are out there if they wanted to purchase an electric vehicle , \u201d said julie price , uab sustainability manager .\nyamashita n , ishida a , kushima h , tanaka n ( 2000 ) acclimation to sudden increase in light favoring an invasive over native trees in subtropical islands , japan . oecologia 125 : 412\u2013419 . doi :\nthe garlic mustard , a noxious plant that spreads rapidly , is evolving a counter - resistance , setting off a kind of chemical warfare among the native and invasive species .\npredation by platydemus manokwari on acusta despecta sieboldiana and bradybaena similaris eggs did not occur during the experiment . some p . manokwari individuals were observed crawling on the eggs , but they did not seem to recognize them as food . however , once snails hatched , p . manokwari individuals of various sizes ( 5\u2013270 mg ) preyed on hatchlings of a . d . sieboldiana , although the smallest p . manokwari specimen ( 2 mg ) did not . predation behaviours were not observed , but one p . manokwari individual was found holding a cleared snail shell , covering it with its ventral body near the pharynx . platydemus manokwari should be able to move small snails to its pharynx using its muscular body ; thus , no \u2018gape limit\u2019 for predation on land snail hatchlings should exist . although insufficient number of b . similaris hatchlings prevented us from conducting predation experiments on hatchlings of this species , hatchlings of b . similaris were also predated right after hatching , indicating that our result should be robust for multiple species of snails .\nthe 2 - mg p . manokwari specimen did not feed on hatchlings of a . d . sieboldiana . this individual may have been too small to attack a snail by itself . as gregarious attacks by p . manokwari allow them to prey on larger land snails ( sugiura , 2010 ) , small p . manokwari individuals may only be able to feed on land snails when joining larger p . manokwari in attacking snails . kaneda et al . ( 1990 ) reported that the size of p . manokwari hatchlings ranged from 0 . 8 to 26 . 4 mg ( mean \u00b1 sd , 11 . 77 \u00b1 6 . 56 ) , and extremely small hatchlings usually died within a few days . in our experiment , the smallest p . manokwari individual that preyed on snail hatchlings was 5 mg , which suggests that almost all active p . manokwari , regardless of size , could prey on snails as small as 2 mm .\n. it is an effective predator that poses a serious threat to native snails . vulnerable native snails threatened by\nplatydemus manokwari has been used as a biological control agent for the giant african snail . alien soil animals can be unintentionally introduced by commercial trade among islands and continental landmasses ( sugiura 2008 ) . globalisation of commercial trade may have helped the transfer to non - invaded areas ( sugiura 2009 ) . movement of ornamental plants , potted plants , and other materials with soil can transfer p . manokwari to new areas ( sugiura 2009 ) . quarantine procedures for potted plants and other soil containing materials that can carry invasive flatworms are needed to protect against invasions in warming temperate areas ( sugiura 2008 , in sugiura 2009 ) . platydemus manokwari can readily be transported by soil on construction machines ( okochi et al . 2004 ) .\na university of georgia study conducted in 2012 found that some native clearweed plants in the peach state have evolved resistance to garlic mustard , an invasive plant first introduced 150 years ago to the united states from europe .\nplatydemus manokwari has a most unpleasant astringent taste ( l winsor , pers . obs . , 1994 ) , just as has been noted for other species ( dendy , 1891 ) . bellwood ( d bellwood , pers . comm . to lw , 1997 ) in his private urban garden , remarked that free - range domestic bantams that noticed p . manokwari on an upturned log pecked at , took the flatworms into their mouths , then immediately rejected them ; when at a much later time p . manokwari was subsequently noticed by the bantams they refused to peck at the flatworms . this is similar to behaviour of domestic fowls offered caenoplana spenceri ( dendy , 1891 ) . predation of flatworms by native species of birds has not been reported .\nfreed la , cann rl ( 2009 ) negative effects of an introduced bird species on growth and survival in a native bird community . curr biol 19 : 1736\u20131740 . doi :\nbowdich and other achatinidae as pests in tropical agriculture . in : barker gm , editor .\nfirst - person essays , features , interviews and q & as ; about life today .\ndid you know that there is an interactive database of invasive species eradications on islands ? the database of island invasive species eradications has compiled information worldwide for islands that have eradication programs for invasive species . you can click on any of the marked islands and a details box will popup and show what the target species are , what stage the program is in ( in progress , successful , or failed ) , and the last date of progress update . many of the islands off of the u . s . coast have eradicated ungulates ( sheep , goats , deer , etc . ) , rabbits , dogs , cats , and rodents . you can also search by a few different filters if you are interested in a certain species , place , or eradication status or method .\nan undesirable consequence of globalization , a relatively modern phenomenon , has been an increase in the number of biological invasions that challenge the conservation of biodiversity and natural resources ( secretariat of nobanis , 2012 ; simberloff , 2014 ) . invasive alien species ( ias ) have been defined as \u201cplants , animals , pathogens and other organisms that are non - native to an ecosystem , and which may cause economic or environmental harm or adversely affect human health . in particular , they impact adversely upon biodiversity , including decline or elimination of native species\u2013through competition , predation , or transmission of pathogens\u2013and the disruption of local ecosystems and ecosystem functions\u201d ( convention on biological diversity , 2009 ) .\na number of species of terrestrial flatworms will , when moisture conditions are right , seek prey above the ground . platydemus manokwari has been observed feeding on both juvenile and adult partulid snails at heights above one metre in trees , and in captivity the flatworm fed on specimens of partula sp . and pythia sp . ( eldredge & smith , 1995 ; hopper & smith , 1992 ) . experimentally , p . manokwari has been shown to track artificially created snail scent trails on the ground ( iwai , sugiura & chiba , 2010 ) , and up trees , supporting the hypothesis that the introduction of p . manokwari is an important cause in the rapid decline or extinction of native arboreal snails as well as ground - dwelling snails on pacific islands ( sugiura & yamaura , 2008 ) .\nsatoshi , c . 2003 . species diversity and conservation of mandarina , an endemic land snail of the ogasawara islands . summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 4 march 2006 ]\ntiger prawns in the gulf , asian carp in the great lakes and many other species have been put on the menu in their respective locales in an attempt to thin their numbers .\nin france , the current situation is that p . manokwari is confined to a single hothouse in the jardin des plantes in caen , but is not eradicated . eradication is still an issue of concern , because the species could be a major threat to various soil invertebrates , especially snails , including endemic species ( justine et al . , 2014 ) .\njones hd . the african and european land planarians faunas , with an identification guide for field workers in europe .\njones hd . the african and european land planarian faunas , with an identification guide for field workers in europe .\nthis invasive plant is swallowing the u . s . at the rate of 50 , 000 ba . . .\ncorlett rt ( 2010 ) invasive aliens on tropical east asian islands . biodivers conserv 19 : 411\u2013423 . doi :\nto find final - stage eggs , p . manokwari might have to cross over an egg by chance , because no trail would exist for the flatworm to follow . platydemus manokwari and land snails are often found beneath stones or logs , sharing microhabitats that are close to each other ( winsor et al . , 2004 ) , and encounters between p . manokwari and land snail eggs should occur frequently . as eggs cannot escape , predation by p . manokwari on final - stage eggs should have a strong influence on snail mortality rates . moreover , invasive flatworms have been found in many pacific islands , where minute genera , whose shells are less than 10 mm , constitute 60 % of the snail fauna ( vagvolgyi , 1976 ) . for effective conservation of land snails , we need to recognize that flatworms can act as significant predators on them , including small - bodied snails and hatchlings , leaving only early - stage eggs free from predation .\nmean survival rates of eggs ( a , experiment 1 ) and hatchlings ( b , experiment 3 ) of acusta despecta sieboldiana under predation by platydemus manokwari ( flatworm ) and without predation ( control ) . five eggs or hatchlings were placed in a container with one individual p . manokwari on day 0 . bars indicate se .\nmany diurnal insect populations have been declining as a result of predation by introduced lizards ( fig .\nin this study , i investigated intratrophic and intertrophic interactions by introduced species that have had significant negative impacts on native species in the ogasawara islands . many native species have been negatively impacted by introduced predators and herbivores ( table\npennsylvania is enlisting the help of the public to fight the spread of aquatic invasive species . two signs they are posting to help increase public awareness of the problems caused by aquatic invasives .\nkaneda m , kitagawa k , ichinohe f , 1990 . laboratory rearing method and biology of platydemus manokwari de beauchamp ( tricladida : terricola : rhynchodemidae ) . applied entomology and zoology , 25 ( 4 ) : 524 - 528 .\nkaneda m , kitagawa k , nagai h , ichinohe f , 1992 . the effects of temperature and prey species on the development and fecundity of platydemus manokwari de beauchamp ( tricladida : terricola : rhynchodemidae ) . research bulletin of the plant protection service , japan , no . 28 : 7 - 11 .\np . manokwari invasion can affect human health , because p . manokwari is a paratenic host of the nematode angiostrongylus cantonensis which causes \u2018angiostrongyliasis\u2019 ( asato et al . , 2004 ) . fresh vegetables contaminated with infected p . manokwari can be a source of human infection ( asato et al . , 2004 ) .\nterrestrial flatworms ( land planarians ; terricola ) are predators of various soil invertebrates , such as earthworms , land snails , slugs , and arthropods ( ogren 1995 , winsor et al . 2004 , in sugiura 2009 ) . it was revealed that in the chichijima island , japan , p . manokwari fed not only on live land snails including predatory species , but also on other food resources such as live flatworms or a land nemertean species and the carcasses of slugs and earthworms ( ohbayashi et al . 2005 ) . while p . manokwari feeds on slow - moving soil animals such as earthworms , it prefers live snails over other organisms ( sugiura 2010 ) .\njustine j - l , winsor l , gey d , gros p , th\u00e9venot j . the invasive new guinea flatworm\nnutrition terrestrial flatworms ( land planarians ; terricola ) are predators of various soil invertebrates , such as earthworms , land snails , slugs , and arthropods ( ogren 1995 , winsor et al . 2004 , in sugiura 2009 ) . it was revealed that in the chichijima island , japan , p . manokwari fed not only on live land snails including predatory species , but also on other food resources such as live flatworms or a land nemertean species and the carcasses of slugs and earthworms ( ohbayashi et al . 2005 ) . while p . manokwari feeds on slow - moving soil animals such as earthworms , it prefers live snails over other organisms ( sugiura 2010 ) .\nohbayashi t , okochi i , sato h , ono t , 2005 . food habit of platydemus manokwari de beauchamp , 1962 ( tricladida : terricola : rhynchodemidae ) , known as a predatory flatworm of land snails in the ogasawara ( bonin ) islands , japan . applied entomology and zoology , 40 ( 4 ) : 609 - 614 .\np . manokwari , described by beauchamp in 1962 , was first found at the dutch new guinea agricultural research station in the coastal town manokwari , northwestern irian jaya , indonesia . it is the\nrhynchodemid turbellarian\nconsidered to be responsible for the disappearance of the giant african snail in some parts of manokwari ( schreurs , 1963 ; mead , 1979 ) . the species platydemus joliveti , collected in 1969 from pindaude station on mt wilhelm , new guinea , was considered to be a neo - adult p . manokwari by winsor ( 1990 ) . flatworm specimen numbers 2078 and 2080 identified as\nmicroplaninae sp .\nfrom anatahan island , northern mariana islands ( kawakatsu and ogren , 1994 ) , are also considered to be p . manokwari ( l winsor , james cook university , townsville , australia , personal communication , 2004 ) .\n, from a specimen collected in brest ( france ) and kept in the mnhn collection as mnhn jl95 , was used as outgroup for the nj tree . for several specimens only \u201cshort\u201d sequences were obtained (\nplatydemus manokwari ( new guinea flatworm ) ; ( a ) dorsolateral aspect showing typical pattern of markings ; ( b ) anterior end showing eyes ; ( c ) ventrolateral aspect showing typical pattern of markings . ( drawings not to scale . )\nkaneda , m . , kitagawa , k . , ichinohe , f . 1990 . laboratory rearing method and biology of platydemus manokwari de beauchamp ( tricladida : terricola : rhynchodemidae ) , applied entomology and zoology 25 ( 4 ) : abstract .\nas humans have spread across the islands of the world we have taken with us , either purposefully or inadvertently , a remarkable array of plant and animal species ( see box 11 . 2 ) . these anthropogenic introductions are variously called exotic , alien or non - native species . some species persist simply as domesticated ( animal ) or cultivated ( plant ) species , while others become naturalized , i . e . they form self - sustaining populations within modified habitats ( henderson et al . 2006 ) . of these , some become feral or invasive , expanding into intact or semi - intact habitats . of this subset , a few species cause serious ecological impacts . these species are termed ecosystem transformers ( henderson et al . 2006 ) . based on a review of numerous case studies , williamson ( 1996 ) has suggested that only about 10 % of introduced species become established , with in turn about 10 % of these species achieving pest status .\n) . additionally , intense herbivory by introduced mammals such as goats has caused the extinction of or decline in native plant species on islands ( e . g . , campbell and donlan\nthree of the chargers are in the hourly section , and six are in an area used for long - term parking .\nthe introduction of the snail - eating flatworm platydemus manokwari ( tricladida : rhynchodemidae ) has been considered a cause of the extinction of native land snails on several pacific islands . although p . manokwari is known to attack land snails on the ground , whether p . manokwari attacks snails on trees remains unclear . to clarify the effect of p . manokwari on arboreal snails , we examined survival rates of land snails experimentally placed on tree trunks ( 0 . 5\u20132 . 0 m above the ground ) in a forest on chichijima , ogasawara ( bonin ) islands , in the northwestern pacific ocean . the survival of snails experimentally placed on tree trunks with artificially created snail scent trails rapidly decreased for 7 days , and the mortality was caused by p . manokwari predation . however , snails placed on tree trunks without snail scent trails were not attacked by p . manokwari . therefore , p . manokwari climbed tree trunks , likely tracking the snail scent . we found that over 40 % of the snails placed on tree trunks with snail scent trails were eaten by p . manokwari within 7 days . this experiment supports the hypothesis that p . manokwari predation is an important cause of the rapid decline or extinction of native arboreal snails on pacific islands .\nsome species of terrestrial planarians ( flatworms ) are among the predators of land snails , but their predatory impacts have not been sufficiently studied . flatworms are known to follow snail trails to find prey and enter shells to consume snails ; however , eggs ( which do not have trails to follow ) and snails whose shells are too small for flatworms to enter may not be eaten . to determine whether an invasive flatworm , platydemus manokwari , preys on snail eggs or small land snails , we conducted a laboratory experiment in which we fed five eggs or five hatchlings ( 2 mm in diameter ) of a common land snail species found in japan to p . manokwari individuals of various sizes . egg predation did not occur within 10 days , but hatchling predation commenced on the first night ; only 9 % of the hatchlings remained on day 10 . platydemus manokwari did not recognize early - stage eggs as food , but started preying on eggs just before they hatched . flatworms can therefore be a significant predator on land snails , preying on even tiny land snails , leaving only early - stage eggs free from predation .\nuntil now , platydemus manokwari was confined to the indo - pacific region within the bounds of the ogasawara islands , japan in the north ; near mackay in queensland , australia to the south ; french polynesia to the east ; with the most westerly extent of the flatworm in the maldives . the caen record of this species is a significant westerly extension of the occurrence of p . manokwari from the indo - pacific region to europe .\n) , but generally are not collected from soil or litter using dry extraction methods such as berlese - funnel extractors . extracting terricola from soil samples using wet extractors such as those of macfayden or kempson ( in\nhistoric biological invasions include the passive dispersal of terrestrial flatworms , also known as land planarians . the main driver for this was probably horticulturalists of the 19th century using the then recently invented wardian cases to safely transport back to the hothouses and gardens of europe rare plants , together with soil containing cryptic exotic animal species ( winsor , johns & barker , 2004 ) . as a consequence , over 30 species of land planarians have established themselves as non - indigenous species in various countries outside their native range ( winsor , johns & barker , 2004 ) .\nmuniappan r , duhamel g , santiago rm , acay dr , 1986 . giant african snail control in bugsuk island , philippines , by platydemus manokwari . . ol\u00e9agineux , 41 ( 4 ) : 183 - 188 ; [ 5 pl . ] .\nmuniappan , r , g . duhamel , r . m . santiago & d . r . acay . 1986 . giant african snail control in bugsuk island , philippines , by platydemus manokwari , oleagineux 41 ( 4 ) : 183 - 188 .\n) is an invasive species found primarily in the southwest u . s . , though it has been documented in several counties across the whole southeast . the biggest concern with buffelgrass is that it can transform a shrub and scrub habitat into a grassland , crowding out all the native vegetation , and can rapidly deplete the soil of nutrients . it is prized as a pasture grass in many areas due to the same reasons that make it a successful invasive ; rapid establishment , high yield , high nutrient load , and adaptability to many weather conditions and environments ."]}
{"id": 872, "summary": [{"text": "the volcano rabbit ( romerolagus diazi ) , also known as teporingo or zacatuche , is a small rabbit that resides in the mountains of mexico .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is the world 's second smallest rabbit , second only to the pygmy rabbit .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it has small rounded ears , short legs , and short , thick fur and weighs approximately 390 \u2013 600 g ( 0.86 \u2013 1.3 lb ) .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it has a life span of 7 to 9 years .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the volcano rabbit lives in groups of 2 to 5 animals in burrows ( underground nests ) and runways among grass tussocks .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the burrows can be as long as 5 m and as deep as 40 cm .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "there are usually 2 to 3 young per litter , born in the burrows .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "unlike many species of rabbits ( and similar to pikas ) , the volcano rabbit emits very high-pitched sounds instead of thumping its feet on the ground to warn other rabbits of danger .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is crepuscular and is highly active during twilight , dawn and all times in between .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "populations have been estimated to have approximately 150 \u2013 200 colonies with a total population of 1,200 individuals over their entire range . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "volcano rabbit", "paragraphs": ["in addition to the volcano rabbit of mexico , pygmy rabbits are the only north american rabbit that dig their own burrows .\nthe volcano rabbit is one of the smallest species of rabbit in the world and is believed to be one of the most primitive rabbit species in the world . the volcano rabbit\u2019s name is derived from its unique environment as they are only found around four prominent volcanoes in mexico , the volcano rabbit is not found anywhere else in the world .\nfine structure of the parotid gland in the pika and the volcano rabbit . - pubmed - ncbi\nthe volcano rabbit weighs 390 - 600 g ( 0 . 86 - 1 . 3 lb ) .\nthe endangered volcano rabbit is endemic to the mountainous areas lying directly to the south of mexico city .\nvolcano rabbits tend to be found in the dense pin forests and undergrowth that covers the volcano slopes and usually at around 3000 meters in elevation .\nmillburn , naomi .\nreasons why the volcano rabbit might be extinct\naccessed july 09 , 2018 . urltoken\n1987 . the volcano rabbit : a shrinking distribution and a threatened habitat . oryx 21 : 85 - 91 .\nthe tiny volcano rabbit , also known as the zacatuche or teporingo , is an endangered lagomorph native to mexico .\nunlawful hunting activities are also a prominent factor in the endangered population status of volcano rabbits . although strictly forbidden in mexico , volcano rabbit hunting still takes place within the species ' range . some parks are even specifically designated as protective sanctuaries for their volcano rabbit residents . the hunting is common both for sustenance and target purposes .\nmillburn , naomi .\nreasons why the volcano rabbit might be extinct .\nanimals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / reasons - volcano - rabbit - might - extinct - 4855 . html . accessed 09 july 2018 .\nmillburn , naomi . ( n . d . ) . reasons why the volcano rabbit might be extinct . animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / reasons - volcano - rabbit - might - extinct - 4855 . html\nvolcano rabbits breed throughout the year with a peak during the warm summer . after a\non el pelado volcano , m\u00e9xico . journal of mammalogy 75 : 743 - 749 .\nthe most serious threats to the volcano rabbit are habitat degradation and target shooting . hunters looking for game birds ( such as quail ) will use the rabbit for target practice . the people living in the mountains consider it vermin to be killed off . neither the hunters or the natives eat the volcano rabbit .\nsadly the volcano rabbit population is currently in decline mostly because of their habitat being so close to mexico city . due to being so close to humans the volcano rabbit\u2019s are losing their habitat to human expansion and are often hunted for food or even just target practice .\nbecause of the dense undergrowth on the volcanic slopes the volcano rabbit\u2019s can spend most of their time actually up on the surface although they will occasionally shelter in burrows that have been dug by other animals as the volcano rabbit\u2019s do not have the means to dig burrows .\nthe volcano rabbit occurs in the mexican pine - oak forests global 200 ecoregion . ( olson & dinerstein 1998 , olson & dinerstein 1999 )\nthe volcano rabbit is the second smallest of all rabbit and hares . it lives near the only four volcanoes in mexico , which are popocatepet , izacchihtal , el palado , and tlaloc .\nthe volcano rabbit lives in mexico . the rabbit has been pushed into areas on the slopes of the iztacc\u00edhuatl , pelado , popocatepetl , and tlaloc volcanoes . the volcano rabbit is generally found between elevations of 2800 m and 4250 m in pine forests with a dense undergrowth of bunch grass and rocky terrain called the transverse neovolcanic axis .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - volcano rabbit ( romerolagus diazi )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - volcano rabbit ( romerolagus diazi )\ntitle =\narkive species - volcano rabbit ( romerolagus diazi )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\noryx _ 2014 _ 148 _ hunter _ cresswell _ volcano _ rabbit _ final _ authors _ accepted _ version . pdf ( 724 . 1kb )\nupon first inspection the volcano rabbit may just look like any other type of rabbit with thick dark brown fur and a gray underside , however on closer inspection characteristics like small round ears , almost no tail and very short legs define this unique type of rabbit .\nhunter , m & cresswell , w 2015 , ' factors affecting the distribution and abundance of the endangered volcano rabbit romerolagus diazi on the iztaccihuatl volcano ' oryx , vol 49 , no . 2 , pp . 366 - 375 . doi : 10 . 1017 / s0030605313000525\nthe volcano rabbit is small with short , round ears and small legs . their fur is usually dark brown or black with grey underneath their stomach . they also have yellow on the back and sides of their body . they do not have a visible tail . an average volcano rabbit weighs at least a pound or less . it is approximately 9 - 12 inches in height and has one inch ears . volcano rabbit are herbivores , this includes grass and the bark of alder trees .\nalthough the volcano rabbits are not found outside of mexico there are a handful of isolated populations away from the slopes of the volcanoes but these are very few and far between . the four volcano slopes where these unique rabbits reside are the\nthe volcano rabbit ( romerolagus diazi ) , also known as teporingo or zacatuche , is a small rabbit that resides in the mountains of mexico . it is the world ' s second smallest rabbit , second only to the pygmy rabbit . it has small rounded ears , short legs , and short , thick fur and weighs approximately 390\u2013600 g ( 0 . 86\u20131 . 3 lb ) . it has a life span of 7 to 9 years . the volcano rabbit lives in groups of 2 to 5 animals in burrows ( underground nests ) and runways among grass tussocks .\none of the tiniest rabbits in the world , the furry volcano rabbit makes itself comfortable in the home of mexico . it is given the name\nvolcano rabbit\nfor a reason as it nestles on the slopes of volcanoes , but it doesn ' t stay put ! hopping to various different biomes including forests , it mainly resides in the tropical grassland biome where it has become endangered .\nthe volcano rabbit feeds on green leaves in zacaton grasses , the undeveloped leaves of spiny herbs and the bark of alder trees . during the rainy season , it will also eat oats and corn from crops .\nliving in family groups of up to five individuals the volcano rabbit\u2019s feed mostly on leaves , bark and herbs and are nocturnal which means most activities take place during the night . not much is known about the breeding cycle of the volcano rabbits but it is known that females generally give birth to a litter of 2 or 3 young after successful mating .\nthe volcano rabbit has traditionally been hunted for food and sport . although laws have been passed outlawing the hunting of the animals , they are seldom enforced . forest fires , the conversion of forest land into farmland , the overgrazing of cattle and sheep , and the cutting of trees for timber have all contributed to the destruction of volcano rabbit habitat . many of the forest fires result when farmers burn bunchgrass areas in hopes of promoting new growth for their livestock ( a process known as slash - and - burn agriculture ) . each of the remaining volcano rabbit populations lies within a 45 - minute drive of mexico city . now the world\u2019s largest city , it has a rapidly growing population of 20 , 000 , 000 people . as the city and rural settlements around it continue to expand , volcano rabbit habitat continues to decrease . as of 1998 , only 16 patches of suitable habitat exist . part of the volcano rabbit\u2019s present - day range lies within the izta - popo and zoquiapan national parks . however , habitat destruction continues even with these protected areas .\nthe volcano rabbit feeds on the green leaves of zacaton grasses , the young leaves of spiny herbs and the bark of alder trees . during the rainy season , it may also eat oats and corn from crops .\nvolcano rabbits feed on zacaton grasses , herbs and the bark of alder trees . during the rainy season they will also eat corn and oats .\nstudies conducted on the pelado volcano , one of the four core areas of zacatuche rabbit , indicated that densities estimated using line transects ranged from 0 . 11 to 1 . 20 rabbits / ha according to habitat characteristics (\nthe volcano rabbit , also known as the mexican pygmy rabbit , has short , thick dark brown hair . it is one of the few species of short - eared rabbits . its rounded ears measure just 1 . 6 inches ( 4 centimeters ) long . the animal also has short hind legs and feet and a very short tail . an average volcano rabbit has a head and body length of 10 . 5 to 13 inches ( 26 . 5 to 33 centimeters ) and weighs between 14 and 18 ounces ( 397 and 510 grams ) . active mainly during the day , the volcano rabbit feeds on the tender young leaves of zacaton or bunchgrass ( various wiry grass species that grow in low clumps in mexico and the southwestern united states ) . its main predators are long - tailed weasels , bobcats , and rattlesnakes . a volcano rabbit blending in with its surroundings . volcano rabbits construct elaborate burrows in deep sandy soil . entrances are hidden in the base of grass clumps . for temporary shelter during the day , the animals sometimes use abandoned pocket - gopher burrows or the hollows between rocks and boulders . scientists know little about the social structure of volcano rabbits . groups of two to seven animals have been observed in the wild . male and female volcano rabbits mate primarily between january and april . after a gestation ( pregnancy ) period of 38 to 40 days , a female gives birth to a litter of one to five infants .\n* * * the volcano rabbit is restricted to the volcanic slopes near mexico city , within a 45 minute drive of 17 million people . as a result it is subjected to the pressures of habitat degradation , tourism and hunting .\nthere are no established conversations for volcano rabbits . there are laws in mexico that make hunting them illegal , but enforcement of the law is difficult . some zoos in the americas have bred them in captive to help increase their population . organizations teach the public about volcano rabbits and how to help protect them .\nan initial robotic testing phase has nearly been completed on the piano del lago area of the volcano , a desolate stretch of terrain buffeted by strong winds .\n) found in central mexico ( durrell and mallinson 1970 ) . pygmy rabbit burrows\nthe volcano rabbit ( scientific name romerolagus diazi ) is more commonly called zacatuche or teporingo by the locals living in the mountainous regions of mexico where these tiny animals are found . easily identified by their minute appendages ( ears , legs , feet , tail ) and thick stubby fur , volcano rabbits are rather small mammals with , adult individuals weighing only 1 . 3 lbs , making them the second smallest rabbit in the world , following only the pygmy rabbit . these animals are equipped with two upper incisors designed specifically for gnawing , a body feature which sets them apart from rodents .\nunlike other rabbits , who warn others of danger by thumbing their feet , volcano rabbits emit very high - pitched sounds and whistles when they are aware of danger approaching .\nthe young volcano rabbits are born in an underground nest . they remain in the nest for 2 weeks and begin to eat solid food and move about after 3 weeks .\nvolcano rabbits ( romerolagus diazi ) are diminutive mammals that are native to mexico , where they have an extremely limited geographic scope . outside of mexico , they are not found anywhere else on earth . though volcano rabbits still exist and are not considered to be extinct , they are indeed an endangered species , with an array of different risk factors .\nlivestock grazing may be compatible with pygmy rabbit conservation efforts over the long - term .\npygmy rabbits are on average the smallest rabbit , with large individuals weighing about 1 pound .\nwhat really needs to be addressed though is the purposeful burning of the forests in which they live . humans shouldn\u2019t simply be allowed to burn forests down for the purpose of creating more pastures . this does not just hurt the volcano rabbit , but anything and everything that was living there .\nthe volcano rabbit is found only in central mexico on the slopes of four volcanoes : popocatepetl , iztaccihautl , el pelado , and tlaloc . the animal inhabits pine forests on those slopes at elevations between 9 , 000 and 14 , 000 feet ( 2 , 740 and 4 , 270 meters ) . these areas are often dry in the winter and rainy in the summer . biologists ( people who study living organisms ) are unsure of the total number of volcano rabbits currently in existence .\nit is ironic that rabbits are a symbol of fertility throughout the world . recent estimates suggest that 25 % of rabbit species worldwide are declining or endangered . examples of declining rabbit species include :\nnot all rabbit populations are under threat - - some threaten other species . read more here .\nvolcano rabbits are , as of the official 2008 iucn red list of threatened species determination , not yet extinct . however , the wee rabbits are considered to be\nendangered\nanimals , which indicates that , without intervention and management , extinction may be an imminent possibility for the future . as of the assessment , numbers for volcano rabbits were believed to be going up , rather than dropping .\nthe most serious threats to the volcano rabbit are habitat degradation and target shooting . a variety of factors appear to be responsible for the continued degradation of the rabbit ' s forest / zacaton habitat . these include forest fires , overgrazing by cattle and sheep , encroachment by development ( both from the expansion of mexico city as well as additional rural settlements near the rabbit ' s core habitat ) and agriculture , over - exploitation of timber and cutting of zacaton grasses for thatch and brush manufacture .\nissue 6 : we received a number of comments and questions concerning how we determined the historic range of the pygmy rabbit , what the abundance and status of various pygmy rabbit populations are , how abundance estimates are determined , and the causes behind the recent declines in the columbia basin pygmy rabbit .\nvolcano rabbits are the second smallest rabbit in the world , only the pygmy rabbit is smaller . they have a body length between 23 and 32 cms ( 9 - 12 . 5 inches ) , a tail length between 1 and 3 cms ( 0 . 4 - 1 . 2 inches ) and they weigh between 375 and 600 g ( 13 . 2 - 21 . 2 oz ) .\nthese robots are roaming mount etna on the island of sicily , italy . they pair are using the volcano as a testing ground for future missions to the lunar surface . ( antonio parrinello / reuters )\nthe volcano rabbit is endemic to mexico and is restricted to the central part of the mexican transverse neovolcanic belt ( tnb ) . populations are currently restricted to three patchily distributed areas on the slopes of just four volcanoes ( popocatepetl , iztaccihuatl , el pelado and tlaloc ) ( 1 ) ( 6 ) .\nas you could have probably have guessed judging by the lack of size and no adaptations to harm others , the volcano rabbit falls prey to vicious secondary consumers such as bobcats , coyotes , and long - tailed weasels . the only thing that this innocent rabbit harms is the vegetation as it consumes various grasses ( since it is a herbivore ) such as stipa ichu grass which is a type of zacaton grass .\nfa , j . e . and bell , d . j . ( 1990 ) the volcano rabbit romerolagus diazi . in : chapman , j . a . and flux , j . e . c . ( eds ) rabbits , hares and pikas : status survey and conservation action plan . iucn , gland , switzerland .\nthe volcano rabbit is generally found between 2800 and 4250 m ( 9200 - 13 , 900 ' ) in pine forests with a dense undergrowth of bunch grass (\nzacaton\n) and rocky substrates . it is also found in secondary alder forests with a heavy grass - shrub understory . most of the areas where the rabbit is found have winter drought and summer rains with a mean annual precipitation of about 1500 mm ( 60 in ) .\nother skills that i have gained as a result of doing this project are how to create a wikispace and use it . i learnt about both african and mexican tropical grassland animals and how they differ from each other . i also learnt how tricky it is to distinguish where exactly my volcano rabbit lives at it likes to live in various different habitats .\nunlike many species of rabbits ( and similar to pikas ) , the volcano rabbit utters very high - pitched sounds instead of thumping its feet on the ground to warn other rabbits of danger . it is nocturnal and is highly active during twilight , dawn and all times in between . as of 1969 , there were 1000 to 1200 in the wild .\n) . the top of the highest volcano the rabbit inhabits is 5452 m and the other volcano is 5222 m . climatically , it would therefore have some room to move upwards . however , according to the static vegetation cover map we used , suitable habitat does not currently reach to the very top , so any movement upslope , as predicted by our models , corresponds to a loss of range . although this may be an overly conservative assumption , vegetation may be constrained by other factors such as soil type and moisture availability , or shifts in suitable vegetation may simply lag behind climate change .\nthe unique life history and specialized habitat requirements of this species have made conserving and restoring this small rabbit especially challenging .\n) is a small rabbit that resides in the mountains of mexico . it is the world ' s second smallest rabbit , second only to the pygmy rabbit . it has small rounded ears , short legs , and short , thick fur and weighs approximately 390\u2013600 g ( 0 . 86 - 1 . 3 lb ) . it has a life span of approx . 7 to 9 years . the volcano rabbit lives in groups of 2 to 5 animals in burrows ( underground nests ) and runways among grass tussocks . the burrows an be as long as 5m ( 16 ' ) and as deep as 40 cm ( 1 . 3 ' ) . there are usually 2 to 3 young per litter , born in the borrows .\na robot wheels across a rocky , windswept landscape that looks like the surface of some distant planet from a science fiction film . but it is not in outer space , it ' s on the slopes of europe ' s most active volcano .\nthen there are rabbits that may be endangered , but have no recognized protection . one of these is a cottontail rabbit (\nhayward af ( 1966 ) an electron microscopic study of developing gall bladder epithelium in the rabbit . j anat 100 : 245\u2013259\nthe volcano rabbit romerolagus diazi is an endangered species endemic to mexico , with a range of < 400 km2 . we investigated threats from destruction , fragmentation and degradation of habitat , hunting , and cattle grazing intensity in relation to the distribution and abundance of the volcano rabbit on the iztaccihuatl volcano . faecal pellet counts were taken as a proxy for rabbit abundance in 1 , 718 random 0 . 2 m2 quadrats at 859 sampling points along 25 transects , covering an area of c . 100 km2 at altitudes of 3 , 400\u20134 , 000 m . presence of the species was significantly associated with absence of closed forest , absence of long grass types ( not bunchgrass ) , shallow inclines , absence of cattle grazing , lower altitude , low hunting pressure ( measured by proximity to ranger station ) , absence of bare ground and , contrary to previous findings , increased frequency of fire . the species was significantly more abundant in habitats with a greater percentage cover of zacaton ( bunchgrass ) and short grass types . it was significantly less abundant in areas with more hunting ( measured by proximity to ranger station ) and cattle grazing . key conservation priorities are therefore the protection of the subalpine zacaton bunchgrass - dominated habitat type , strict enforcement of hunting laws and the removal of livestock from relevant national park boundary areas . however , the results suggest that frequent fires have a significant positive effect on the occurrence of the volcano rabbit as a result of habitat improvement and this is often a consequence of anthropogenic management of land for cattle grazing .\nthe parotid glands of the pika and the volcano rabbit were examined by light and transmission electron microscopy . the acinar cells of the pika consisted of light cells containing basophilic granules of low density , while in the volcano rabbit the acinar cells consisted of light and dark cells containing acidophilic granules of moderate density . intercalated duct cells were composed of light cells containing a few granules of moderate density . these segments of the two animals were similar in morphology . the striated duct cells in both species were composed of light and dark cells . most of those in the pika contained a few moderately dense granules . in both animals , no myoepithelial cells were detected around the acini , intercalated ducts or striated ducts , while nerve terminals were observed among the adjacent acinar cells .\nvolcano rabbits can be found on the volcanic slopes in central mexico . they have a restricted range and they are usually found in pine forests at elevations between 2 , 800 and 4 , 250 m ( 9 , 186 - 13 , 944 ft ) .\nto remedy the situation , ruedas suggests that more attention needs to be paid to documenting the number of rabbit species in the world and performing long term studies on populations to determine whether or not certain rabbit populations are naturally low or truly in a decline .\nour response : we concur with these clarifications and continue to consider disease a significant potential threat to the columbia basin pygmy rabbit .\nrouco , c . , g . norbury , and d . ramsay . 2014 . kill rates by rabbit hunters before and 16 years after introduction of rabbit haemorrhagic disease in the southern south island , new zealand . wildlife research 41 : 136 - 140 .\nwe chose two lagomorph species with contrasting geographic patterns as study systems : the range - restricted r . diazi ( volcano rabbit ) and the locally abundant british metapopulation of the relatively widespread l . timidus ( european mountain hare ; see the electronic supplementary material for details ) . spatially explicit metapopulation models were developed for r . diazi and l . timidus separately , using a three - step process .\nmeanwhile , australians wrestle with an overabundance of rabbits . english landowners introduced the european rabbit to the continent in 1859 , seeking game animals for sport hunting . with no natural predators in their new homeland , european rabbit populations soon spiraled out of control in australia .\nthose with suitable habitat where rabbits were sighted and traces ( pellets ) were found . the results presented here clearly meet these criteria , therefore indicating that the cobioch must be also considered a core area of the zacatuche rabbit . added to that , our result regarding the estimated annual density also provides evidence that the cobioch is one of the most important habitats for zacatuche rabbit populations . density estimated is higher than the only previous report of 1 . 2 rabbits / ha for the area of the pelado volcano using a similar methodology (\nthe volcano rabbit is mostly nocturnal and crepuscular , although it can also be active by day , particularly when the sky is overcast . it lives in runways and burrows among grass tussocks . the burrows can be as long as 5 m ( 16 ' ) and as much as 40 cm ( 1 . 3 ' ) underground . the burrow entrance is concealed at the base of a grass tussock .\ntormey j mcd , diamond jm ( 1967 ) the ultrastructural route of fluid transport in rabbit gallbladder . j gen physiol 50 : 2031\u20132060\nsanchez - trocino , m . , g . d . mendoza , f . gual - sill , f . x . plata , j . a . martinez , h . lee , and m . m . crosby . 2013 . the effect of muhlenbergia macroura dietary level on intake , digestibility and weight changes in volcano rabbit ( romerolagus diazi ) . journal of applied animal research 41 : 234 - 239 .\nin addition , most remaining pygmy rabbit habitat\u2014throughout its range\u2014is currently grazed by livestock , which may reduce habitat quality for pygmy rabbits . in some areas , wildfires have destroyed remaining pockets of pygmy rabbit habitats . the temperature and frequency of these fires may increase by the invasion of the exotic annual grass , cheatgrass ; thus , it is more likely to destroy sagebrush stands . coyotes\u2014important rabbit predators\u2014have increased in number over the last few decades , presumably because of habitat changes . in addition , diseases like tularemia and sylvatic plague can decimate rabbit populations periodically .\ndue to the combined influence of the above threats , extirpation of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit from the wild may occur at any time ( wdfw 2001b ) . in addition , the risks to the captive portion of the population , and the potential for extinction of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit , remain high . we have carefully assessed the best scientific and commercial information available regarding the past , present , and potential future threats faced by the columbia basin pygmy rabbit . based on our evaluation of the five threat factors discussed above , we have determined that the columbia basin pygmy rabbit is in danger of extinction . as such , we are listing the columbia basin pygmy rabbit as endangered .\nin relatively large , well distributed pygmy rabbit populations , the above threats are not likely to represent a significant risk to their long - term security . however , due to the extremely small size and localized occurrence of both the wild and captive portions of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit\ncastellucci m , caggiati a ( 1980 ) surface aspects of the rabbit gallbladder mucosa and their functional implications . j submicrosc cytol 12 : 375\u2013390\nhoehn , m . , p . kerr , and t . strive . 2013 . in situ hybridisation assay for localisation of rabbit calicivirus australia - 1 ( rcv - a1 ) in european rabbit ( oryctolagus cuniculus ) tissues . journal of virological methods 188 : 148 - 152 .\nmutze , g . j . , r . g . sinclair , d . e . peacock , 2014 . is increased juvenile infection the key to recovery of wild rabbit populations from the impact of rabbit haemorrhagic disease ? european journal of wildlife research 60 : 489 - 499 .\nthese furry creatures , as their names convey , live amidst volcanoes , specifically those of the chichinautzin volcanic field roughly 200 miles away from mexico city . volcano rabbits usually weigh between 14 and 21 ounces and are usually 9 to 13 inches long . their thick , short coats are a blend of black , gray and deep brown . their tiny tails are practically impossible to make out . volcano rabbits tend to remain in social units of two to five individuals . they are mostly nocturnal and are especially busy in the times leading up to daybreak and immediately following nightfall .\nhunting of the volcano rabbit is now illegal under mexican law , but enforcement remains difficult . the species is found within two protected areas , izta - popo and zoquiapan national parks , but habitat destruction nevertheless continues to occur even within these areas ( 1 ) ( 6 ) . in 1990 , the world conservation union species survival commission ( iucn / ssc ) lagomorph specialist group created an action plan for this rabbit , focusing on the need to manage burning and overgrazing and to enforce laws prohibiting the capture , sale and hunting of the animal ( 6 ) . as a result , the population of volcano rabbits is higher now than a decade ago ( 7 ) . captive breeding colonies exist at los coyotes park and the chapultepec zoo in mexico city , but there are currently no plans to reintroduce captive - bred individuals into the wild ( 6 ) ( 7 ) .\nvolcano rabbits are endangered because their habitat get destroyed by fires and pollution . they are also hunted for food and practice by humans . they are preyed on by predators in the region , such as the komodo dragon . the volcanoes they live by are active , which contributes to thier endangerment .\nthe volcano rabbit plays an easy game of hide and seek as it has a distinct dark colour to its fur that allows it to blend in with volcanic soils . this structural adaptation proves to be very useful as it helps protect them from predators with its camouflage as well . these cute creatures are also considered to be the second smallest breed of rabbit in the whole world ! this comes to be a great advantage for them as this is another factor that helps them stay very well hidden from predators . while most rabbits stomp their feet to warn their fellow allies of danger , the volcano rabbits make high - pitched sounds and whistles instead , knowing that they can potentially be eaten at any moment . that would be an example of a behavioural adaptation as it finds tricky ways to out - smart the carnivores that wish to consume them . other important characteristics of this rabbit is that they have small and rounded ears , short legs , and a barely visible tail where as most rabbits have large ears with a matching fluffy tail .\nthe words endangered and rabbit don ' t come easily together in people ' s minds because they have such a reputation as being pests in people ' s minds ,\nsaid bell .\nin reality a number of rabbit species are endangered . it is important to recognize that .\nissue 13 : concern was expressed regarding our use and incorporation of information from other pygmy rabbit populations in the background biological discussions and other sections of the emergency and proposed listing rules . in addition , questions were raised regarding whether this information is appropriate or applicable to the columbia basin pygmy rabbit .\nan endangered columbia basin pygmy rabbit juvenile born at the captive breeding facility at washington state university , pullman , washington , usa . photo : tara davila\nthe columbia basin pygmy rabbit has been physically discrete from the remainder of the taxon for several millennia ( see distribution and status , above ) . in addition , there is current evidence that the columbia basin pygmy rabbit is genetically and ecologically discrete from the remainder of the taxon ( see significance , below ) . based on this information , we find that the columbia basin pygmy rabbit population segment is discrete from the remainder of the taxon pursuant to the act . physiological , behavioral , or morphological differences between the columbia basin pygmy rabbit and populations throughout the remainder of the species ' range are not known at this time .\nvolcano rabbits are primarily herbivores , meaning to say they feed mostly on plants , especially grasses , that abound within their natural habitats . examples of their grassy food sources are the leaves and twigs of such plants as eryngium rosei , muhlenbergia macroura , and stipa ichu . those kept in captivity are typically fed with corn , apples , and oats , while those found living in forests are able to survive on tree bark , herbs , and other greenery . volcano rabbits prefer to forage for food during dusk or dawn , although some individuals , especially those belonging to the same burrows , have been observed to be active during the daytime as well .\nour response : this final rule lists as endangered the pygmy rabbit in the columbia basin of central washington ( figure 2 ) . appropriate sites within this region that could potentially be used for reintroduction efforts will be identified as our recovery program is further developed . pygmy rabbit populations in other states throughout the species ' historic range are not included in this listing action , nor will any areas outside of the historic range of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit population be considered for any recovery actions .\n\u00bb hays , d . 2001 . 2001 addendum : washington state recovery plan for the pygmy rabbit . washington department of fish and wildlife olympia , washington . 24pp .\nissue 8 : the suggestion was made that the status of the pygmy rabbit as a monotypic genus could be a consideration regarding the potential significance of its discrete populations .\nissue 3 : we received a number of comments concerning critical habitat and how it relates to the emergency , proposed , and final rules for the columbia basin pygmy rabbit .\n( 3 ) washington state legislation ( hb 1309 ) provides measures with regard to conservation of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit . see summary of factors affecting the dps section .\nresults from recent genetic analyses indicate that the columbia basin pygmy rabbit is markedly different from other pygmy rabbit population segments ( wdfw 2001c ; k . warheit , pers . comm . 2001 , 2002 ) . these differences are consistent in both mitochondrial dna and nuclear dna indices , and between current ( washington versus idaho and montana ) and museum ( washington versus idaho , montana , oregon ) samples . the genetic results suggest that the columbia basin pygmy rabbit diverged ( i . e . , was genetically isolated ) from the remainder of the taxon at least 10 , 000 to 25 , 000 years bp , and possibly as long as 40 , 000 to 115 , 000 years bp ( wdfw 2001c ; k . warheit , pers . comm . 2001 , 2002 ) . the genetic differences that have so far been identified between the columbia basin pygmy rabbit and other pygmy rabbit populations are similar in nature to subspecific differences recognized in other mammal species . however , potential taxonomic reorganization of the pygmy rabbit species will require additional study ( wdfw 2001c ) .\nunfortunately , these vulnerable creatures fall victim to the symbiotic relationship known as parasitism . these small rabbits act as a host to many different endoparasites which include roundworms , whipworms , and flatworms . as if that wasn ' t enough , they also act as a host to numerous ectoparasites such as various species of fleas , ticks , and flies . although there are many examples to choose from , the main focus is going to be on the whipworm . this thin parasite has eggs that enter the volcano rabbit through the consumption of grains . there , they enter the small intestine and after awhile , the eggs will develop and grow into full whipworms which then make their way over to the large intestine where they start to cause harm . even though this parasite benefits , the volcano rabbit is harmed as the whipworm makes itself comfortable in the home of the large intestine and begins to bite the tissue of of the large intestine , sucking blood . this not only leads to blood loss from my animal , but can also cause infection in a messy case of diarrhea !\n\u00bb mcallister , k . r . 1995 . washington state recovery plan for the pygmy rabbit . wildlife management program , washington department of fish and wildlife , olympia , wa .\nissue 12 : concerns were expressed regarding the potential impacts to the columbia basin pygmy rabbit from various ongoing research and conservation activities , and our potential actions to address these concerns .\nissue 10 : we received a number of comments regarding the captive propagation program established by the wdfw and our potential management activities to address recovery of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit . these comments addressed a wide variety of issues and questions , including the health and breeding success of captive pygmy rabbits , impacts to pygmy rabbit populations associated with research or conservation efforts , other potential differences between the various pygmy rabbit populations ( e . g . , physiological , behavioral , morphological ) , the survival characteristics of captive bred versus wild individuals , habitat enhancement or restoration standards for mitigation efforts , federal recovery policy for down - listing or delisting the columbia basin pygmy rabbit , and reintroduction protocols and potential release sites for the recovery program .\nvolcano rabbits are mostly crepuscular ( 4 ) , although they can also be active by day , particularly when the sky is overcast ( 8 ) . the diet includes the tender green leaves of grasses , the young leaves of spiny herbs , the bark of alder trees and , during the rainy season , also the oats and corn from cultivated crops ( 4 ) .\nissue 5 : it was emphasized that a successful captive propagation program should be considered extremely important for the conservation and management of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit ' s unique genetic profile .\nkaye gi , wheeler ho , whitlock rt , lane n ( 1966b ) fluid transport in the rabbit gallbladder . a combined physiological and electron microscopic study . j cell biol 30 : 237\u2013268\nvolcanic rabbits are only found on the rainy mountainous areas of mexico . specifically , these are the wet inclines of tlaloc , popocatepetl , el pelado and iztaccihuatl , to where they are considered endemic . hunting and selling of these endangered mammals is prohibited , although the mexican government is facing substantial challenges in implementing these restrictions . large scale destruction of their natural habitats , such as by logging and burning of the forests to make way for agriculture , has greatly decreased the population of the volcano rabbits , although many conservation parks like the zoquipan national park have made significant progress in breeding their colonies . as of yet , no proposal has been set forth by the mexican government to introduce captive colonies of the volcano rabbit into the wild . their populations are affected by climate change as well , and they are classified as an\nendangered ' species by the international union for the conservation of nature ' s ( iucn ' s ) red list of threatened species .\nissue 7 : we received a large number of comments concerning our interpretation of the available information with regard to livestock grazing and the potential effects it has on the columbia basin pygmy rabbit . some comments suggested that we were overly critical concerning the negative effects of livestock grazing and did not adequately address its potential benefits to the columbia basin pygmy rabbit . in contrast , other comments suggested that we down - played the negative effects of livestock grazing and implied that regulatory restrictions should be placed on grazing activities in all areas currently or potentially used by the columbia basin pygmy rabbit .\nissue 14 : several commenters expressed concern regarding the area affected by the listing , and the potential extent of reintroduction efforts that may be undertaken to address recovery of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit .\nit is appropriate to propose a species for listing at the time when sufficient information is available . for the columbia basin pygmy rabbit , when we had sufficient information we took the appropriate action .\n( 1 ) the common raven is a significant potential predator of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit , and we also discuss wdfw ' s past and ongoing management efforts to address this threat factor .\nkaye gi , maenza rm , lane n ( 1966a ) cell replication in rabbit gallbladder . an autoradiographic study of epithelial and associated fibroblast renewal in vivo and in vitro . gastroenterology 51 : 670\u2013680\nalthough the volcano rabbit is a greatly adorable animal , humans have caused much destruction among their home , the topical grasslands . one major problem is loss of vegetation . as the population doesn ' t cease to increase , this causes for more of the precious grassland to be cleared for agriculture to feed this increasing population , which can cause soil erosion due to over - cultivation . as more people start to pile in around these grassland areas , they begin to raise more and more animals as well for more food for their stomachs , which can also cause soil erosion due to the excessive amount of animals over eating the vegetation . over population has lead people to use these grasslands for urban development and construct buildings and houses in replacement of the natural habitat that was once lively . did you know that about 16 percent of tropical grasslands have been converted for urban development and agriculture ? much of the land is cleared for crops which leads to a loss in habitat for not just the volcano rabbit , but for the other organisms living in this biome as well ! you will see that this affects my rabbit tremendously as the growth of mexico city threatens it to leave its habitat . the destruction of habitat plays a huge role in why my animal is endangered , but hunting also poses a threat as well ! people have actually been hunting down this furry creature for sport and for sale !\n) . based on this , the zacatuche rabbit is considered a habitat specialist . its habitat has been severely fragmented due to factors such as urbanization , agricultural conversion , illegal logging , and wildfires (\nas well as its annual density within the cobioch and its influence area . the outcomes are further discussed in the light of the relevance of this protected area for conservation of the endangered zacatuche rabbit .\na pygmy rabbit hops out of its artificial burrow during a pilot reintroduction experiment conducted by washington state university designed to develop methods suitable for restoring extirpated populations . photo : rodney sayler , washington state university\n\u00bb hays , d . , and k . warheit . 2004 . columbia basin pygmy rabbit captive breeding and genetic management plan . washington department of fish and wildlife . olympia , washington . 29pp .\nit is unlikely that any of the above activities alone has played a significant role in the long - term population decline and range reduction of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit . however , due to the current vulnerability of both the wild and captive portions of this population segment , any additional source of mortality may now play a significant role and could impair efforts to conserve the columbia basin pygmy rabbit .\n. within this , four core and 12 peripheral areas were recognized . this information was used to do the distributions maps for the zacatuche rabbit that are now available in the literature and on web pages (\nour response : the available information we have regarding the biology and ecology of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit , impacts to the populations , and mitigation efforts is referenced within the preamble to this final rule .\nplanillo , a . , and j . e . maio . 2013 . motorway verges : paradise for prey species ? a case study with the european rabbit . mammalian biology 78 : 187 - 192 .\nin washington , management efforts by a number of agencies have included acquiring and restoring potential habitat for the endangered columbia basin pygmy rabbit\u2014a slow and expensive task . because some pygmy rabbit habitat is contained within private lands , agencies have attempted to work with local ranchers and farmers to develop mutually beneficial resource management plans and safe harbor agreements . many private landowners are wary of having endangered species on their land and mistrust state and federal natural resource agencies , however , so this work has been sensitive and arduous . as a parallel course of action , and perhaps the last chance for saving the columbia basin pygmy rabbit 4 , washington department of fish and wildlife initiated a program in 2001 for captive breeding and restoration of pygmy rabbits , which is now a key component of the federal recovery plan for the columbia basin pygmy rabbit .\ngenetic indices indicate that the columbia basin pygmy rabbit had less genetic diversity historically than the remainder of the taxon . in addition , this population segment has undergone further loss of genetic diversity since roughly the mid - 1900s . severe loss of genetic diversity may make the columbia basin pygmy rabbit more susceptible to extinction due to inbreeding depression or , assuming inappropriate introduction of other pygmy rabbit genes , swamping of their unique genetic profile . reduced genetic diversity , and the relatively few family lineages remaining in the columbia basin pygmy rabbit population , may also complicate captive breeding strategies conducted to reestablish a minimum effective population size . ultimately , an appropriate effective population size will help ensure the maintenance and enhancement of the genetic heterogeneity that is still present within this population segment ( k . warheit , pers . comm . 2001 , 2002 ) .\nduring the fall of 2000 , the wdfw , in cooperation with the oregon zoo , initiated a study of husbandry techniques for pygmy rabbits ( wdfw 2001a ) . this study used five pygmy rabbits captured in idaho and was undertaken to improve the information base for proposed captive propagation and release efforts for the columbia basin pygmy rabbit . due to the continuing decline of pygmy rabbit subpopulations and active burrows in washington , the wdfw , in cooperation with wsu , expedited their captive propagation efforts for the columbia basin pygmy rabbit during the spring of 2001 ( wdfw 2001b ; d . hays , pers . comm . 2001 ) .\nresearch and management activities for the columbia basin pygmy rabbit will be regulated under the section 10 permitting process . the wdfw has closely coordinated its management activities to conserve the columbia basin pygmy rabbit with us . in addition , in cooperation with the wdfw , wsu , and the oregon zoo , we have developed a number of appropriate measures to avoid or reduce the risk of take of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit . these measures were made conditions of the december 18 , 2001 , recovery permit and its revisions that we issued for the captive propagation program and ongoing management activities at the sagebrush flat site ( see previous federal action , above ) . we will continue to work cooperatively with interested parties on activities conducted for scientific purposes or to enhance the propagation or survival of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit under section 10 of the act .\nour response : neither our emergency , proposed , nor this final rule designates critical habitat for the columbia basin pygmy rabbit . we find that designation of critical habitat for the columbia basin pygmy rabbit is not determinable at this time because information sufficient to perform the required analyses of the impacts of the designation is lacking ( see critical habitat , below ) . we will continue to protect the columbia basin pygmy rabbit and its habitat through section 7 consultations on federal actions that may affect this population segment , through the recovery process , through hcps under section 10 , and through enforcement of take prohibitions under section 9 of the act .\nwith regard to the past distribution and abundance of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit , we assume that this population was more broadly distributed and had a greater abundance of individuals within this region historically . this assumption is based on the available information addressing other pygmy rabbit populations , the population dynamics of other leporid species , and the general concepts and theory of minimum viable populations . given this available information , it is unlikely that the columbia basin pygmy rabbit would have persisted within this region for thousands of years with such a limited distribution and at such minimum abundance levels . nevertheless , the available information only indicates the occurrence of several small subpopulations in portions of five counties in central washington since the early 1900s . as such , the historic distribution and abundance of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit that we report in this final rule represent minimum estimates ."]}
{"id": 873, "summary": [{"text": "the chromodorididae , or chromodorids , are a taxonomic family of colorful , sea slugs ; dorid nudibranchs , marine gastropod mollusks in the superfamily doridoidea .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "\u201c chromodorid nudibranchs are among the most gorgeously colored of all animals . \u201d the over 360 described species are primarily found in tropical and subtropical waters , as members of coral reef communities , specifically associated with their sponge prey .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the chromodorids are the most speciose family of opisthobranchs .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they range in size from < 1 mm to over 30 cm , although most species are approximately 2 \u2013 3 cm in size .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "although , they have a worldwide distribution , most species are found in the indo-pacific region .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "a scientific paper published in 2007 , found the most widespread chromodorid genera , ( mexichromis , chromodoris , glossodoris and hypselodoris ) to be paraphyletic or polyphyletic .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the family cadlinidae bergh , 1891 has been considered a synonym of the chromodorididae . \"", "topic": 21}, {"text": "research by r.f. johnson in 2011 has shown that cadlina does not belong to the family chromodorididae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "she has therefore brought back the name cadlinidae from synonymy with chromodorididae .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "the chromodorid nudibranchs without cadlina are now monophyletic and turn out to be a possible sister to the family actinocyclidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "cadlina and aldisa are the only two genera currently classified in the cadlinidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "a comprehensive phylogeny of the chromodorid nudibranchs found every one of the 14 traditional chromodorid genera were either non-monophyletic , or rendered another genus paraphyletic .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "additionally , both the monotypic genera verconia and diversidoris are nested within clades .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the authors presented a new classification of the chromodorid nudibranchs , which used molecular data to untangle evolutionary relationships and at the same time retains a historical connection to traditional systematics by using generic names attached to type species as clade names .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "all chromodorid nudibranchs feed on sponges . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "chromodorididae", "paragraphs": ["kento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30a4\u30ed\u30a6\u30df\u30a6\u30b7\u79d1\nto\nchromodorididae\n.\n( opisthobranchia , chromodorididae ) . journal of molluscan studies 72 ( 2 ) : 214\u2013216 .\nbergh , 1898 ( doridoidea : chromodorididae ) . journal of natural history 35 : 1143\u20131171 .\nedmunds m ( 1981 ) opishtobranchiate mollusca from ghana : chromodorididae . zoological journal of the linnean society 71 : 175\u2013201 .\nbergh , 1875 ( nudibranchia : chromodorididae ) in light of phylogenetic analysis . journal of molluscan studies 65 : 33\u201345 .\nbergh , 1898 ( opisthobranchia : chromodorididae ) from patagonia , argentina . journal of molluscan studies 62 ( 3 ) : 265\u2013273 .\nortea ja ( 1988 ) molluscos opisthobranquios del archipelago de cabo verde : chromodorididae . publica\u00e7\u00f5es ocasionais da sociedade portuguesa de malacologia 11 : 1\u201316 .\nnew classification of the chromodorididae with synonyms . generic names and type species in bold and the most recent genus membership follows . listing order follows phylogeny .\ncolour group ( mollusca , nudibranchia , chromodorididae ) , with remarks on the genus brachychlanis ehrenberg , 1831 . journal of natural history 35 : 1371\u20131398 .\nstimpson , 1855 ( nudibranchia , chromodorididae ) with the description of a new species from the caribbean sea . journal of molluscan studies 72 : 189\u2013198 .\nturner lm , wilson ng ( 2008 ) polyphyly across oceans : a molecular phylogeny of the chromodorididae ( mollusca , nudibranchia ) . zoologica scripta 37 : 23\u201342 .\nrudman wb , berquist pr ( 2007 ) a review of feeding specificity in the sponge - feeding chromodorididae ( nudibranchia : mollusca ) . molluscan research 27 ( 2 ) : 60\u201388 .\n( nudibranchia : chromodorididae ) with a review of the monophyletic clade of indo - pacific species , including descriptions of twelve new species . zoological journal of the linnean society 125 : 1\u2013125 .\nrudman wb ( 1984 ) the chromodorididae ( opisthobranchia : mollusca ) of the indo - west pacific : a review of the genera . zoological journal of the linnean society 81 : 115\u2013273 .\nortea j , vald\u00e9s \u00e1 , garcia - gomez jc ( 1996 ) review of the atlantic species of the family chromodorididae ( mollusca : nudibanchia ) of the blue chromatic group . avicennia supplement .\na . \u2018phylogenetic scenario\u2019 for the chromodorid genera modified from [ 5 ] , [ 26 ] . b . morphological phylogeny of generic representatives for the chromodorididae [ 13 ] . c . combined 16s and coi phylogram of the chromodorididae from [ 27 ] . d . combined 16s and coi phylogram of the chromodorididae and cadlinidae from [ 28 ] . rudman ' s \u2018 chromodoris group\u2019 in red , \u2018 hypselodoris group\u2019 in blue , cadlinella in yellow , diversidoris ( not included in [ 5 ] , [ 13 ] , [ 26 ] ) , cadlina in grey and other dorids in black .\nrudman , w . b . ( 1984 ) the chromodorididae ( opisthobranchia : mollusca ) of the indo - west pacific : a review of the genera . zoological journal of the linnean society 81 : 115 - 273 .\nrudman , w . b . & bergquist , p . r . ( 2007 ) a review of feeding specificity in the sponge - feeding chromodorididae ( nudibranchia : mollusca ) . molluscan research , 27 ( 2 ) : 60 - 88\nrudman , w . b . ( 1986 ) the chromodorididae ( opisthobranchia : mollusca ) of the indo - west pacific : noumea purpurea and chromodoris decora colour groups . zoological journal of the linnean society 86 ( 4 ) : 309 - 353 .\nrudman , w . b . ( 1984 ) . the chromodorididae ( opisthobranchia : mollusca ) of the indo - west pacific : a review of the genera . zoological journal of the linnean society . 81 ( 2 ) : 115 - 273 . page ( s ) : 159 [ details ]\nrudman , w . b . ( 1986 ) . the chromodorididae ( ophistobranchia : mollusca ) of the indo - west pacific : noumea purpurea and chromodoris decora colour groups . zoological journal of the linnean society . 86 ( 4 ) : 309 - 353 . page ( s ) : 319 [ details ]\ngosliner , t . m . & johnson , r . f . ( 1999 ) phylogeny of hypselodoris ( nudibranchia : chromodorididae ) with a review of the monophyletic clade of indo - pacific species , including descriptions of twelve new species . zoological journal of the linnean society , 125 : 1 - 114 .\nthe goals of this contribution are : ( 1 ) generate a phylogeny that tests the species level relationships of the chromodorid nudibranchs and confirms the monophyly of the chromodorididae , ( 2 ) assess the phylogenetic validity of the chromodorid genera , and ( 3 ) propose a new classification for the chromodorid nudibranchs that reflects their relationships .\nthe family chromodorididae includes species that are often brightly colored and elaborately patterned , presumably advertising their distastefulness . most chromodorids store toxic chemicals from their sponge food in mantle glands , usually concentrated in a submarginal band on the notum , in order to repel predators . it is the largest indo - pacific nudibranch family , with more than 600 species , and it is well - represented in hawaii with about 43 species in 11 genera (\nthe enigmatic south australian species , chromodoris alternata and c . ambiguus are very different than other chromodorids . they are two of the five chromodorid species with a plesiomorphic serial reproductive system ( c . loringi , c . thompsoni , c . woddwardae ) [ 26 ] , [ 28 ] , [ 89 ] . all five of these species are found only in southeastern australia . these species were found to be more closely related to cadlina than chromodoris by wilson & lee [ 17 ] , but as part of the chromodorid grade in turner & wilson [ 27 ] . clearly further work on this group and its relationship to all cryptobranchs is needed . the addition of specimens of c . loringi , c . thompsoni and c . woodwardae [ 26 ] , [ 89 ] , [ 99 ] , the only other chromodorid species known to have a serial reproductive system may help solve this problem . these two species are always each other ' s closest relatives and are sister to the rest of the miamirainae in the all analyses . as suggested by dayrat & gosliner [ 60 ] they should be considered chromodorididae , because they are not included in a named clade . until the ambiguity of the relationship of these taxa to other chromodorids can be resolved , they should be considered chromodorididae alternata and chromodorididae ambiguous .\nthe two species of cadlinella included here , cadlinella ornatissima and cadlinellla subornatissima form a clade and are sister to the rest of the chromodorid species ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . these findings support previous results [ 27 ] , [ 28 ] and rudman ' s evolutionary scenario [ 5 ] , [ 26 ] . the widespread indo - pacific genus , cadlinella is an enigmatic taxon . it has at different times been considered it own separate family [ 64 ] , a part of the cadlininae [ 65 ] and a member of the chromodoridinae / chromodorididae [ 26 ] , [ 66 ] .\nour classification is based on our coi and 16s combined phylogeny with all specimens included ( figure s2a ) . the older name that describes this clade , ceratosomatidae gray 1857 [ 61 ] was declared nomen oblitum under art . 23 . 9 of the international code of zoological nomenclature [ 58 ] . even though it is older than the name in current usage , chromodorididae , it had not been used in over fifty years . in the phylogeny of the chromodorid nudibranchs , there are five basal clades : cadlinella , tyrinna , two clades made up of some species of noumea and verconia and one clade made up of some species of glossodoris . there is one , main , well - supported clade including species of ceratosoma , hypselodoris , and grade of clades . we will briefly introduce each clade and its member species in the context of a new classification for chromodorid nudibranchs ( figure 5 , s2a , s3 ) .\nbergh [ 90 ] was the first to suggest a separate taxonomic rank for the chromodorid nudibranchs . johnson [ 28 ] showed that the chromodorididae are only monophyletic if cadlina is removed from the family , as cadlina is more closely related to aldisa and other dorid nudibranchs . we expanded on these preliminary results and confirmed the monophyly of the chromodorids in analyses without cadlina and without including as many dorid species . gosliner and johnson [ 101 ] reviewed the genus hallaxa and presented a morphological phylogeny of hallaxa and actinocylcus . they hypothesized that the semi - serial reproductive system found in species of hallaxa and actinocyclus and all chromodorids is a synapomorphy that unites the two groups . the chromodorid nudibranchs are monophyletic in every analysis , as is their sister group relationship with actinocyclidae . these analyses confirm the hypothesis of gosliner & johnson [ 101 ] and the preliminary findings of johnson [ 28 ] and confirm the utility of this morphological synapomorphy .\nthis paper contains new feeding information on 108 species of the sponge - feeding chromodorid nudibranchs and re - evaluates published information for 63 species . the combined information for 137 species shows a clear pattern of food specificity , at both the species and genus levels . new feeding information on the related actinocyclidae is also presented . species of chromodoris and related genera prefer darwinellids ; hypselodoris and its relatives feed on dysideids , and glossodoris feed exclusively on thorectids . the ' basal ' genera , cadlina , cadlinella are less specialised but both they and species of the anatomically similar family actinocyclidae seem linked by their common choice of halisarca . exceptions to the pattern suggest the genus chromodoris is polyphyletic . the evolution of feeding in the chromodorididae is discussed , and the patterns of food specificity are shown to strongly support prevailing hypotheses on chromodorid evolution . recent taxonomic studies within the sponge orders dictyoceratida and dendroceratida have been essential to this study , enabling the re - identification of many of the food sponges , and the use of marker secondary metabolites in both the nudibranchs and their sponge prey .\nwe know from the discovery of polyphyletic and paraphyletic generic groupings in chromodoris , glossodoris , hypsleodoris , mexichromis and noumea [ 27 ] , [ 28 ] , that the current classification of the chromodorididae does not reflect the evolutionary history of the group . we cannot continue to use this current classification . we will use the resulting phylogenies to propose a new classification of the chromodorid nudibranchs . the proposed new classification is based on several fundamental tnets of phylogenetic classification . only clades are named , with two exceptions described below . each clade contains the type species of the name - bearing clade . exisiting , available names are utilized wherever possible to minimize the disruption to nomenclature , while simultaneously reflecting relationship . we will identify clades that include the type species of each chromodorid genus and delineate genera to minimize conflict with current classification and support recognition of interesting morphology . the translation of phylogenetic hypotheses into classifications is the best way to communicate results to a larger community , but even as the number of molecular phylogenies increases , the number of new classifications is decreasing [ 54 ] \u2013 [ 56 ] . the growing phylogeny / classification gap is troubling . phylogenies are hypotheses of relationship and communicating these new hypotheses is one of the main contributions systematics can make to the scientific community .\nthe resulting classification can be used to address questions of interest to a much broader community . a robust phylogeny and corresponding revised classification are necessary to conduct comparative studies in the chromodorididae . evolutionary studies of trophic specialization , color patterns and secondary metabolites , for example , will be much more robust by comparing monophyletic units that are clearly named within a new classification . we have pointed out and highlighted many areas of future research . as we detail above , there are many taxonomic , nomenclatural and species delineation problems that still require refinement within the chromodorid nudibranchs . these questions can best be answered with a detailed examination of morphology together with molecular data . the molecular data needs to be rooted in sound identifications and definitions that are always based on morphology . this phylogeny does not answer all of these issues but it will serve as a framework to more effectively tackle these questions . our classification will serve as a more refined basis for other evolutionary biologists , ecologists and natural products chemists . their results will be more informative in light of a classification based on evolutionary history rather than one based on untested hypotheses . phylogenetic systematics provides a rigorous and repeatable methodology that permits iterative approximations of relationship and our understanding of this diverse and biologically intriguing group of organisms is enhanced by these studies .\ntraditional taxonomy has obscured the patterns of diversification in the chromodorids . a new classification that properly reflects evolutionary history is required . in the new classification , we only keep existing names , for species not supported in clades if it is not disruptive to the new classification . we also hypothesize the predicted phylogenetic position of taxa that have not yet been included in the phylogenetic analysis . we used the nomenclatural standards set by the international code of zoological nomenclature [ 57 ] . names and dates for genera , families and subfamilies we taken from bouchet et al ' s review of gastropod nomenclature [ 58 ] . every name used is resurrected from synonymy and proposed because the type species of the genus is found in the clade . if more than one generic type species is found in the same clade , the older name has priority . in this way , the history of naming in the chromodorids will be maintained . if the gender of a species ' new genus changes in the new classification , the gender of the specific epithet will be changed . additionally , if the incorrect specific name gender has been used , the proper gender will be used in the new classification . the proposed phylogenetic naming code , the phylocode , recommends naming clades when type species are part of the clade to be named , as we have done here , but does not use or recognize ranks as we have by using generic , subfamily and family names for clades . in many cases there is no conflict between the phylocode and traditional nomenlclature [ 59 ] . the phylocode has not been formally adopted , so there is no official system for naming in accordance with that code . in order to maintain stability and to avoid creating names that may change with the addition of new information , we used a method advocated by dayrat & gosliner [ 60 ] . this method advocates using the most inclusive known clade name as the first part of a species binomial for species that cannot be named without creating a new name . we will use the family name chromodorididae as the name for species that would create instability if the bionomials were unchanged or if new names were given . in our proposed classification we will also include incerte sedis species in the chromodorididae . in clades that are poorly supported ( posterior probabilities below 0 . 85 ) , we have used a generic name for members of those groups with the generic name placed in quotation marks . we prefer this method as an interim solution as it does not leave these taxa in taxonomic limbo and retain the use of single names for polyphyletic groups .\nchromodorid nudibranchs ( 16 genera , 300 + species ) are beautiful , brightly colored sea slugs found primarily in tropical coral reef habitats and subtropical coastal waters . the chromodorids are the most speciose family of opisthobranchs and one of the most diverse heterobranch clades . chromodorids have the potential to be a model group with which to study diversification , color pattern evolution , are important source organisms in natural products chemistry and represent a stunning and widely compelling example of marine biodiversity . here , we present the most complete molecular phylogeny of the chromodorid nudibranchs to date , with a broad sample of 244 specimens ( 142 new ) , representing 157 ( 106 new ) chromodorid species , four actinocylcid species and four additional dorid species utilizing two mitochondrial markers ( 16s and coi ) . we confirmed the monophyly of the chromodorididae and its sister group relationship with the actinocyclidae . we were also able to , for the first time , test generic monophyly by including more than one member of all 14 of the non - monotypic chromodorid genera . every one of these 14 traditional chromodorid genera are either non - monophyletic , or render another genus paraphyletic . additionally , both the monotypic genera verconia and diversidoris are nested within clades . based on data shown here , there are three individual species and five clades limited to the eastern pacific and atlantic oceans ( or just one of these ocean regions ) , while the majority of chromodorid clades and species are strictly indo - pacific in distribution . we present a new classification of the chromodorid nudibranchs . we use molecular data to untangle evolutionary relationships and retain a historical connection to traditional systematics by using generic names attached to type species as clade names .\nwe directly sequenced 142 specimens representing 106 species . we combined these new data with all available sequences on genbank ( table s1 ) . specimens and data from johnson [ 28 ] , genbank accession numbers beginning with eu , are included with new data for figure 2 , but are not treated as new in the numbers of specimens sequenced for this study . in total , we analyzed data from 244 chromodorid specimens , four actinocyclid species and four additional dorid nudibranch species for a total of 165 species and 252 individual specimens . we used doris kerguelensis as the outgroup based on preliminary analyses [ 28 ] . the chromodorid species include at least one species from all of the genera currently classified in the family chromodorididae . the number of species included in this analysis compared to the number of described species per genus is as follows : ardeadoris ( 2 / 2 ) , cadlinella ( 2 / 3 ) , ceratosoma ( 9 / 13 , two undescribed ) , chromodoris ( 50 / 88 , two undescribed ) , digidentis ( 3 / 4 ) , diversidoris ( 1 / 1 ) , durvilledoris ( 3 / 4 ) , glossodoris ( 17 / 30 , two undescribed ) , hypselodoris ( 30 / 59 , two undescribed ) , mexichromis ( 7 / 12 ) , noumea ( 12 / 22 ) , pectenodoris ( 2 / 2 ) , risbecia ( 3 / 5 ) , thorunna ( 8 / 12 ) , tyrinna ( 2 / 2 ) and verconia ( 1 / 1 ) ( s1 ) . all sequences taken from genbank are listed with gb following the species name . we also included coi sequence from two specimens from the moorea biocode project in our analyses ( urltoken ) . we have examined all of the new specimens included here and they are deposited in natural history museums , as indicated by catalog numbers . we never combined sequences from different individuals into chimeras representing one species ; specimens included in these analyses are treated as individuals .\nthe majority of chromodorid nudibranchs are found in the indo - pacific , but there are three individual species and five clades of solely atlantic and / or eastern pacific species ( figure 4 ) . the sister group to the rest of the chromodorids , cadlinella is found only in the indo - pacific , while the sister to the chromodorididae , the actinocyclidae is found in most temperate and tropical waters . although there are other possibly scenarios , such as trans - pacific dispersal and migration around africa , the pattern uncovered here , strongly supports the simplest hypothesis that the chromodorids diversified rapidly from the tropical tethyan realm . this pattern has been found in other gastropod groups [ 104 ] \u2013 [ 108 ] ( figure 4 ) . the chromodorids were likely widely distributed and different lineages diversified in isolation following vicariant events . this scenario is further supported by the fact that goniobranchis is sister to \u2018 doriprismatica \u2019 and its closest realitves and that all the memebers of goniobranchus are indo - pacific . also in this scenario , the specimens identified as d . sedna from the atlantic and eastern pacific appear to be distinct species as indicated by coi pairwise distances of 11 . 7\u201311 . 0 % between eastern pacific and altantic specimens while the three eastern pacific specimens are 0\u20130 . 7 % different from each other . this scenario clearly supports vicariance between the indo - pacific and eastern pacific and atlantic preceding the vicariance between the eastern pacific and atlantic . in the main chromodorid grade of clades there are two individual species and three clades that are exclusively atlantic and / or eastern pacific . specimens identified as \u2018 doriprismatica\u2019 sedna found both in the eastern pacific and the western atlantic , are always sisters and are nested within a clade of exclusively indo - pacific species . this is most likely a radiation into the eastern pacific and atlantic from the indo - pacific . the remainder of the atlantic and eastern pacific species , not included in the miamirinae , are part of a polytomy including five clades , three containing only eastern pacific and atlantic species of \u2018felimida\u2019 and the indo - pacific ardeadoris and chromodoris clades . \u2018felimida\u2019 baumanni , found in the eastern pacific , is also part of this polytomy . the relationships in this grade need to be examined more closely with the addition of more specimens and more genes .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\ncitation : johnson rf , gosliner tm ( 2012 ) traditional taxonomic groupings mask evolutionary history : a molecular phylogeny and new classification of the chromodorid nudibranchs . plos one 7 ( 4 ) : e33479 . urltoken\neditor : jonathan h . badger , j . craig venter institute , united states of america\ncopyright : \u00a9 2012 johnson , gosliner . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nfunding : this work was supported by the california academy of sciences , the university of california santa cruz - department of ecology and evolutionary biology , the national science foundation deb 9978155 and deb 0329054 to tg , and an encyclopedia of life rubenstein fellowship to rj . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nnew collections ( from this contribution and [ 28 ] in blue . genbank specimens in red . size of circle represents number of specimens collected in each region . specimen details in supplementary table s1 ) .\nin this study and a companion study [ 28 ] , thanks to targeted collecting trips , dedicated collectors and dna extracted from museum collections , we were able to include specimens from throughout the indo - pacific ( ip ) , the eastern pacific ( ep ) and west atlantic ( wa ) ( figure 2 and table s1 ) . we use the term indo - pacific to define the biogeographic region including the tropical and subtropical regions of the indian ocean ( from the red sea to the east coast of south africa ) and both the western and central pacific , but not the tropical eastern pacific [ 40 ] . museum collections are an invaluable resource for biodiversity studies [ 41 ] . we have found existing natural history collections can reduce the need for additional collecting . our study , combined with data from [ 28 ] and genbank , is unique in its wide taxonomic and geographic sampling . because we have included both the type species of every genus and additional species of all 14 of the non - monotypic genera , we can test the monophyly every genus in the family ( table s1 ) .\nthe majority of the specimens used in this study are part of the california academy of sciences invertebrate zoology ( casiz ) collection . we had the permission of casiz to take tissue samples from specimens for dna analysis . as stated in the casiz collections policy : \u2018no specimens will be accessioned without adequate labeling , collection notes , field notes , or other locality information , nor without appropriate legal documentation ( collecting permits , export permits from country of origin , etc . ) when applicable . \u2019 we also included dna extracted for five specimens currently deposited in the museum national d ' histoire naturelle ( paris museum ) and the western australian museum . these tissues samples were collected during joint field trips under the agreement that the tissue could be sequenced at the california academy of sciences , while the specimens would remain at the respective museum . all other data used is from genbank or the moorea biocode database .\nmost of our samples were collected especially for molecular work and were preserved accordingly , either in 95 % etoh , sed buffer ( saturated nacl solution with edta and dmso ) or frozen . in addition to the specimens collected specifically for molecular study , we were also able to use museum material that was , either preserved in 70\u201375 % etoh or the original fixation method is unknown .\nwe initially used standard phenol - cholorform extractions [ 42 ] , [ 43 ] to extract genomic dna and also used the dneasy spin column extraction method ( qiagen ) to extract genomic dna from the majority of our samples . we used universal primers to amplify , using pcr , double - stranded products from both the cytochrome oxidase 1 ( coi ) and 16s mitochondrial genes . we targeted a 658 bp fragment of coi using folmer et al ' s [ 44 ] universal primers and for 16s sequences , we used palumbi ' s [ 45 ] 16sar and 16sbr primers . we carried out the polymerase chain reaction in 25 \u00b5l reactions with one \u00b5l of genomic dna template . we used the second ( 200 \u00b5l ) elution from my extractions in dneasy ae buffer as the dna template in most reactions . if the amplification was difficult we used one \u00b5l of the first elution . for the phenol - cloroform and chelex extractions , we used dilutions of 1\u223625 or 1\u223650 . no matter the extraction method used , we included 2 . 5 \u00b5l of 10\u00d7 pcr buffer , 0 . 5 \u00b5l dntps ( 10 mm stock ) , 0 . 25 \u00b5l of each primer ( 25 um stock ) , 0 . 75\u20130 . 85 \u00b5l mgcl ( 50 mm stock ) , 0 . 25 \u00b5l taq ( 5 units / \u00b5l ) - apex , biolase , usb hotstart - and 19 . 5 \u00b5l of ddh2o in each reaction tube . we ran all of the reactions on a biorad mycycler\u2122 thermocycler ( software version 1 . 065 , bio - rad laboratories ) . coi segments were amplified with the following parameters : an initial denaturation at 94\u00b0c for three minutes , then , 39 cycles of denaturation at 94\u00b0c for 30 seconds ; annealing at 46\u00b0c for 30 seconds ; extension at 72\u00b0c for 60 seconds , these cycles were followed by extension at 72\u00b0c for five minutes . partial 16s sequences were amplified with the following parameters : an initial denaturation at 94\u00b0c for three minutes , then 39 cycles of denaturation at 94\u00b0c for 30 seconds ; annealing at 50\u201352\u00b0c for 30 seconds ; extension at 72\u00b0c for 60 seconds , these cycles were followed by extension at 72\u00b0c for five minutes and 25\u00b0c for 60 seconds . we used electrophoresis to view pcr products on 0 . 8 % tbe or tae agarose gel stained with ethidium bromide . we cleaned successful pcr products with exosap - it ( usb scientific ) following each product ' s standard protocol .\nthe cleaned , pcr products were copied and labeled with fluorescently dye - terminators ( big dye 3 . 1 abi ) in 10 \u00b5l reactions . each reaction contained 0 . 5\u20132 \u00b5l of cleaned pcr product , 1 . 63 \u00b5l of 5\u00d7 reaction buffer , . 5 \u00b5l of primer ( 10 mm stock ) , 0 . 5 \u00b5l\u20130 . 75 \u00b5l of big dye and water to 10 \u00b5l . these reactions were run on a perkin elmer 9600 - geneamp pcr system or a biorad mycycler\u2122 thermocycler ( software version 1 . 065 , bio - rad laboratories ) . the resulting labeled , single stranded dna was precipitated by addition of 2 . 5 \u00b5l of edta and sequential washing and pelleting in ( centrifuge details ) with 100 % and then 70 % etoh . the pelleted dna was denautured for two minutes at 94\u00b0c in 13\u201315 \u00b5l of hidi formamide ( applied biosystems ) . the denatured , labeled dna fragments were sequenced in both directions on the abi 3100 and 3130 genetic analyzer in the center for comparative genomics ( formerly the osher laboratory for molecular systematics ) at the california academy of sciences .\nwe assembled , edited and removed primer strands from forward and reverse strands for each gene fragment sequenced using sequencher ( ver . 4 . 7 . genecodes corporation ) and genious 3 . 0 - 5 . 3 . 3 ( biomatters ) . we aligned the coi sequences by eye and translated the base pair data into amino acids to using macclade 4 . 08 [ 46 ] to confirm alignment accuracy . we aligned 16s sequences with muscle [ 47 ] . we then further optimized the alignments by eye using both macclade [ 46 ] and genious 3 . 0 - 5 . 3 . 3 ( biomatters ) .\nwe tested for saturation or multiple substitutions at the same site by plotting the absolute number of transitions and transversions at each codon position ( 1 st , 2 nd , 3 rd ) for coi and at each base pair for 16s against both uncorrected p distance and log det using paup [ 48 ] and excel ( plots not shown ) .\nsequence data for both genes was not obtained for every specimen we studied . we worked with two main data sets , because we wanted to test the effect of missing data on the resulting phylogeny : the two data sets were : 1 ) combined 16s and coi for specimens with sequence data for both genes , 2 ) all 16s and coi data for all specimens ( table s1 . ) both of these data sets were analyzed both including and excluding variable characters in the 16s alignment . for all of these analyses we used doris kerguelensis as the outgroup .\nwe determined the best - fit model of evolution for each codon position for coi ( 1 st , 2 nd 3 rd ) and the 16s fragment using the aic selection from mr . modeltest ver . 2 [ 49 ] for each dataset . we ran bayesian phylogenetic analyses using mr . bayes 3 . 1 . 2 [ 50 ] \u2013 [ 52 ] . we ran a monte carlo - metropolis simulation for 50 , 000 , 000 generations for each dataset , with trees sampled every 1000 generations . data was partitioned by gene and by codon position in all combined analyses . we ran one analysis of two runs of six chains for all data sets . all other settings remained in the default and all parameters were unlinked to allow each partition to vary independently ( mr . bayes 3 . 12 manual , urltoken ) all trees saved before convergence of the runs and stationarity of likelihood values were discarded . we determined convergence and stationarity by plotting tree number against likelihood scores for each run to find the point where the likelihood plot leveled off and began to fluctuate around a stable value using tracer 1 . 4 [ 53 ] ( plots not shown ) . in all cases , the conservative estimate of a burnin of 25 % of sampled trees was well into this plateau . the remaining 75000 trees ( 37500 from each run ) were used to construct majority rule consensus trees and calculate posterior probabilities . all clades and support values are shown in the resulting phylogenies . all posterior probabilities are mapped on all trees . as suggested by hulsenbeck [ 50 ] , clades with posterior probabilities of 0 . 95\u20131 . 00 will be considered to be very well - supported . clades with support values of 0 . 85\u20130 . 94 will be considered supported . all posterior probabilities lower than 0 . 85 are considered poorly supported and should be viewed with caution , but all posterior probabilities are mapped on all trees . although taxa may appear as sister species , we can only know true sister species relationships if we have complete taxon sampling for the family .\nthe sequenced coi fragment is 658 base pairs ( bp ) long . the edited 16s sequences are 531 bp long . the combined data sets with gaps introduced for alignment are 1189 base pairs long . all sequences are available from genbank coi ( jq727822\u2013jq727914 ) , 16s ( jq727689\u2013jq727821 ) and aligned data matrices are available upon request from the corresponding author . excluded variable 16s regions are identified as character sets in all nexus files . saturation was not found in the 16s fragment or the first or second positions of the coi fragment . there is slight saturation in the third position transitions in the coi data set ( not shown ) . the third positions were included in the bayesian analysis as the partitioning allows the parameters of this position to be estimated separately and the inclusion of the third positions did not change the resulting trees . the recommended model of evolution ( aic form mr . model test ) was used to set parameters in mr . bayes for each partition . the resulting best - fit model of evolution for each partition using the aic selection from mr . modeltest ver . 2 [ 78 ] were coi 1 st : gtr + g , coi 2nd : trn + i + g , coi 3 rd : gtr + i + g and 16s : gtr + i + g . these models correspond to the following settings in mr . bayes ; all partitions set to nst = 6 and rates = invgamma except for the coi second codon position partition which was set rates = gamma .\nthe figured trees are the resulting consensus phylograms from the bayesian analyses ( figures s1 , s2 ) . all posterior probabilities are shown above the branches on the bayesian phylograms . tree topology was not altered with the inclusion or exclusion or the 16s fragment ' s variable regions ( see figure s2 for comparison of trees with and without variable regions ) . the resulting phylogenetic hypotheses for each dataset are summarized below . we will discuss relationships in terms of posterior probabilities .\ncoi and 16s combined analysis : including only specimens with data for both genes ( figure s1 ) .\nthis data set included 164 individual chromodorids , representing 123 species , three species of actinocyclidae , four other dorids . the outgroup was doris kerguelensis . the data set included was 1189 bases long included gaps introduced to aid in alignment of variable regions . all bases are included . in the majority rule consensus phylogram resulting from the bayesian analysis , the chromodorids are monophyletic ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . they are sister ( pp = 0 . 98 ) to the monophyletic actinocyclids ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . cadlinella ornatissima is sister to the rest of the chromodorids ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . the monophyletic tyrinna ( pp = 1 . 00 ) is poorly supported as sister to the main clade of chromodorids ( pp = 0 . 82 ) . the main clade of all chromodorids , except cadlinella and tyrinna is supported ( pp = 0 . 85 ) . two clades of noumea ( both pp = 1 . 00 ) are part of a basal polytomy with the clade including the remaining chromodorid species ( pp = 0 . 89 ) . a well - supported clade ( pp = 1 . 00 ) containing some species of glossodoris is poorly supported at the base of the chromodorid grade . within this main clade of chromodorids , there is one very well supported clade , which includes all species of ceratosoma , durvilledoris , hypselodoris , mexichromis , pectenodoris , risbecia , thorunna and some digidentis ( pp = 1 . 00 ) diversidoris aurantionodulosa and noumea crocea are sister species ( pp = 1 . 00 ) and poorly supported ( pp = 0 . 78 ) as sister to a poorly supported clade ( pp = 0 . 66 ) that includes this well - supported clade and chromodoris alternata and chromodoris ambiguus ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . there is also a poorly supported clade ( or grade if the clade is collapsed ) of smaller clades made up of species of ardeadoris , chromodoris , diversidoris , glossodoris , noumea , verconia and one species of digidentis ( pp = 0 . 67 ) . of the other 12 non - monotypic traditional genera , seven ( ceratosoma , chromodoris , digidentis , glossodoris , hypselodoris , mexichromis , noumea ) are non - monophyletic and three ( durvilledoris , pectenodoris , risbecia ) are monophyletic but render another genus paraphyletic . both ardeadoris and thorunna are made paraphyletic by nested members of other genera ( noumea , glossodoris - within ardeadoris and digidentis - within thorunna ) . there are three species and five clades of eastern pacific and / or atlantic species .\nthis data set included 244 individual chromodorids , representing 157 species , four species of actinocyclidae , four other dorids . the outgroup was doris kerguelensis .\nthe complete data set included 1189 bases . the chromodorids are monophyletic ( pp = 0 . 94 ) . they are sister to the monophyletic actinocyclids ( pp = 0 . 98 ) . a clade including both species of cadlinella is sister to the rest of the chromodorids ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . the monophyletic tyrinna ( pp = 1 . 00 ) is poorly supported as sister to the main clade ( pp = 0 . 83 ) . there are two clades containing species of noumea and the one species of verconia ( pp = 1 . 00 and pp = 1 . 00 ) that form a polytomy with the clade of all of the remaining chromodorids ( pp = 0 . 85 ) . within the main clade of chromodorids , there is one very well supported clade , which includes all species of ceratosoma , durvilledoris , hypselodoris , mexichromis , pectenodoris , risbecia , thorunna and some digidentis ( pp = 1 . 00 ) and a grade of clades of species ardeadoris , chromodoris , diversidoris , glossodoris , noumea , verconia and one species of digidentis . of the other 12 non - monotypic traditional genera , seven ( ceratosoma , chromodoris , digidentis , glossodoris , hypselodoris , mexichromis , noumea ) are non - monophyletic and three ( durvilledoris , pectenodoris , risbecia ) are monophyletic but render another genus paraphyletic . both ardeadoris and thorunna are made paraphyletic by nested members of other genera ( noumea , glossodoris and digidentis ) ( figure 3 ) . more detailed results found within each clade will be discussed below . there are three individual species and five clades of eastern pacific or atlantic species ( figure 4 ) . the data set without variable regions included 1108 bases . there are only slight changes to the tree topology , including slight losses of support and changes to branching pattern in the species relationships within four clades containing species of noumea , glossodoris , chromodoris and thorunna . additionally , some clades are more well - supported in the phylogram without variable regions , most notably there is some support for the two noumea clades as sisters . all of these differences are mapped in mirrored trees ( figure s2 ) .\ntree is the same bayesian phylogram as figured in s3a . all specimens , both genes and all characters included .\ntree is the same bayesian phylogram as figured in s3a . all specimens , both genes and all characters included . blue = indo - pacific , red = atlantic and caribbean , gold = eastern pacific , green = sister group , black = outgroups . dark grey = solely eastern pacific and atlantic clades . light grey = primarily indo - pacific clades with eastern pacific members .\nof the 16 genera in the current chromodorid classficiation , only two , cadlinella and tyrinna , retain the same membership in our new classification . nine more generic names are retained ; ardeadoris , ceratosoma , chromodoris , diversidoris , glossodoris , hypselodoris , mexichromis , noumea and thorunna but their membership has changed . five names are synonymized with the names listed above : digidentis , durvilledoris , pectenodoris , risbecia and verconia . five older names : doriprismatica , felimare , felimida , goniobranchus and miamira , have been rescued from synonymy and are used to describe clades of species previously included in different genera . there are 17 generic names used in our new classification , each of which will be detailed below and in figure s3 . of these , 13 are very well supported with posterior probabilities \u22650 . 95 . mexichromis is supported with a posterior probability of 0 . 87 when variable positions are included and 0 . 95 when they are excluded . noumea consists of two separate clades ( both pp = 1 . 00 ) that are poorly supported as a combined clade in the analysis when variable positions are included ( pp = 0 . 61 ) . although , this support is not sufficient , all of the species in both of these clades are currently named noumea and will retain this name in order to maintain stability . doriprismatica is extremely poorly - supported pp = 0 . 64 with variable positions included and well - supported ( pp = 0 . 92 ) in the analysis with variable positions excluded ( figures s2 , s3 ) . we do not consider this level of support sufficient to definitively name this clade , but because continuing to use the current name , chromodoris , would add greater confusion ( as that name represents a different , well - supported monophyletic group ) we will premilinarily name these species \u2018 doriprismatica\u2019 . similarly , a group of species some of which are currently classified as chromodoris and some as glossodoris form a polytomy together with other well supported clades . as these species need a name , but lack appropriate support , they cannot be named definitively . we will preliminaryily name these species \u2018felimida\u2019 . naming these clades is much more stable than using names that now represent other well - defined and well supported clades . these names are hypotheses ; with more data the relationships of members of these clades will likely become better resolved . the completed classisifiction is listed in table s2 .\ncadlina burnayi ortea , 1988 [ 68 ] = t . nobilis [ 69 ]\nthe only two species of tyrinna : t . evelinae and t . nobilis are included here . tyrinna is always monophyletic ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . after the split from cadlinella , this clade is poorly - supported as the sister group to the main group of chromodorids ( pp = 0 . 83 ) . rudman [ 26 ] suggested that tyrinna , cadlinella and cadlina form a basal grade of primitive chromodorids . cadlina had been shown not to be a chromodorid [ 28 ] , but our results support rudman ' s suggestion that tyrinna and cadlinella are basal to the rest of the chromodorids . muniain et al [ 70 ] and schr\u00f6dl and millen [ 71 ] extensively reviewed the morphology of the two species in this clade .\nverconia verconis is well supported as part of a clade that includes n . haliclona , n . laboutei , n . romeri and n . simplex ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . noumea varians , n . purpurea and n . norba form a well - supported clade ( pp = 1 . 00 ) that is not part of a name bearing clade , but is one branch of the polytomy that includes the \u2018noumea sensu stricto\u2019 and the branch leading to the rest of the family ( pp = 0 . 88 ) . the monotypic genus verconia is nested within the noumea clade as suggested by rudman [ 75 ] and weakly supported as the sister species to another south australian species , n . haliclona , as found in the preliminary results shown by turner & wilson [ 27 ] .\ntype species : doris xantholeuca ehrenberg , 1831 [ 76 ] = g . pallida ( by subsequent designation )\nthe glossodoris clade ( pp = 1 . 00 ) includes species g . pallida and g . rufomargninata . in an important , but often overlooked detailed examination of the relationships of the species classified in the genus glossodoris , rudman identified five subgroups of this genus based on morphology [ 77 ] . the species in this glossodoris clade were considered by rudman [ 77 ] to be members of the \u2018 glossodoris pallida subgroup\u2019 . this clade also includes two species he did not include in any subgroup , g . cincta and g . hikuerenesis .\nlissodoris odhner , 1934 [ 80 ] . type species : l . mollis odhner , 1934 ( = c . aureomarginata cheeseman , 1881 [ 86 ] ( by monotypy )\nthis clade includes all of the indo - pacific species of chromodoris that are not part of the black - lined , planar egg mass clade ( pp = 1 . 00 ) , except chromodoris alternata and chromodoris ambiguus . this phylogeny is the first to find definitive support for a clade of chromodorids , first suggested by wilson [ 16 ] and turner and wilson [ 27 ] known to lay egg masses with extra - capsular yolk . when pease designated doris vibrata as the type species for the new genus goniobranchus , he should have changed the ending of vibrata to vibratus to reflect the masculine gender of the \u2013us ending . we have made that correction here and changed the gender of all of the species names that require changing ( names derived from adjectives ) in goniobranchus .\ncasella h . & a . adams , 1858 : 57 [ 84 ] . type species : c . gouldii h . & a . adams , 1858 [ 84 ] ( by monotypy )\nspecies included in the glossodoris atromarginata subgroup [ 77 ] are recovered in this clade , with the addition of g . sedna and digidentis kulonba ( pp = 0 . 95 ) .\nthis name will be used for all eastern pacific and atlantic species of chromodoris and glossodoris ( except glossodoris sedna ) . these species form a polytomy including glossodoris baumanni and three clades of atlantic and eastern pacific chromodorids .\nchromodoris clenchi , c . norrisi and c . sphoni ( pp = 1 . 00 )\nchromodoris krohni , c . luteorosea and c . purpurea ( pp = 0 . 78 )\nthese exclusively eastern pacific and atlantic clades do not form a monophyletic group , but we will provisionally name all of these species \u2018felimida\u2019 . this is the most conservative choice , the choice that requires the fewest name changes and is the least disruptive pending further information and broader taxon sampling .\nthe ardeadoris clade includes both species of ardeadoris : a . egretta and a . scottjohnsoni , five species of glossodoris ( g . averni , g . pullata , g . rubroannulata , g . tomsmithi and glossodoris undaurum ) and noumea angustolutea ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . . based on their analysis , turner and wilson [ 27 ] suggested that with more sampling it would be come clear if ardeadoris should be synonmized with glossodoris . by sampling more broadly within the family , we found the converse . four species of glossodoris and noumea angustolutea need to be included within ardeardoris because they are strongly supported as part of the clade including ardeadoris egretta and not the type species of glossodoris . three of the species , g . averni , g . undaurum and g . rubroannulata , found in this clade were part of rudman ' s glossodoris sedna subgroup [ 77 ]\nthis clade includes all of the black - lined species of chromodoris and chromodoris aspersa ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . this clade was identified by , both wilson & lee [ 17 ] and turner & wilson [ 27 ] , as the planar spawning or black - lined chromodoris clade . all of the members of this clade lay flat egg masses .\ntype species : diversidoris aurantionodulosa rudman , 1987 [ 89 ] ( by original designation ) .\nthe diversidoris includes , diversidoris aurantionodulosa , two yellow species of noumea , n . crocea and n . flava , and a new species from moorea , french polynesia - chromodoridae biocode 2937 ( pp = 0 . 95 ) .\nthe miamirinae clade includes all of the species currently classified as ceratosoma , durvilledoris , hypselodoris , mexichromis , pectenodoris , risbecia , thorunna and two species of digidentis ( pp = 1 . 00 )\nthis clade was first predicted by rudman [ 26 ] based on morphological similarities and then confirmed by rudman & berquist ' s [ 5 ] finding that all of the species in this clade feed exclusively on sponges of the family dysideaidae , although they assumed all of the genera to be monophyletic . miamirinae bergh 1891 is the oldest appropriate and available subfamily or family name for this clade . the remaining six genera ; miamira , ceratosoma , felimare , mexichromis , thorunna and hypselodoris make up the miamirinae .\nthe miamira clade includes the following species ( as currently classified ) ceratosoma alleni , ceratosoma magnificum , ceratosoma miamiranum , ceratosoma sinuatum . miamira is part of a grade with ceratosoma . the morphological phylogeny of species of ceratosoma and classified as miamira and orodoris , that was used as justification for their synonomy , predicted a sister group relationship between species of miamira and ceratosoma alleni [ 93 ] . our results confirm that c . alleni is more closely related to species of miamira , but do not find support for synonymy of miamira and ceratosoma . although , it is possible this relationship will be recovered with further sampling and by including molecular markers that will help resolve basal branches on the phylogeny .\nthe ceratosoma clade includes c . amoenum , c . gracillimum , c . ingozi , c . tenue , c . trilobatum and a new species . ( pp = 1 . 00 )"]}
{"id": 888, "summary": [{"text": "ardozyga nyctias is a species of moth in the family gelechiidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by edward meyrick in 1904 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in australia , where it has been recorded from southern queensland and new south wales .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 18 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are dark fuscous irrorated with ashy-grey and with a conspicuous pale ochreous basal dot in the middle .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the stigmata are moderate , dark fuscous , accompanied by some white scales , with the plical somewhat beyond the first discal .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there are some obscure grey-whitish dots along the posterior half of the costa and termen .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are fuscous , darker posteriorly .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on the young shoots of corymbia torelliana , living between leaves joined with silk . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "ardozyga nyctias", "paragraphs": ["protolechia nyctias meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 353 ; tl : brisbane , queensland\nliving between leaves joined with silk . it grew to a length of 1 cm .\nit produced a boring little dark brown moth , with a white spot near the centre of each forewing . the wingspan is about 2 cms .\n= protolechia ; sattler , 1973 , bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent . ) 28 ( 4 ) : 172 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee ]\nprotolechia aclera meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 348 ; tl : port lincoln , south australia\nprotolechia acroleuca meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 340 ; tl : bathurst , new south wales\nprotolechia actinota meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 352 ; tl : geraldton and perth , west australia\nprotolechia aeolopis meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 369 ; tl : glen innes ( 4500ft ) , new south wales\nprotolechia amblopis meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 368 ; tl : geraldton , west australia\namphiplaca ( meyrick , 1932 ) ( protolechia ) ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 11 ) : 352\nprotolechia annularia turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 143 ; tl : queensland , brisbane\nprotolechia anthracina meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 355 ; tl : sydney , new south wales\nprotolechia arenaria turner , 1933 ; trans . proc . r . soc . s . austr . 57 : 178 ; tl : queensland , national park ( 3000ft )\nprotolechia arganthes meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 377 ; tl : duaringa , queensland\nprotolechia argocentra meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 350 ; tl : albany , west australia\nprotolechia aspetodes meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 386 ; tl : gisborne , victoria\nprotolechia autopis meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 348 ; tl : perth , west australia\ngelechia aversella walker , 1864 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 29 : 649 ; tl : moreton bay\nprotolechia banausodes meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 384 ; tl : rosewood , queensland\nprotolechia bistrigata meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 427 ; tl : queensland , brisbane\nprotolechia caminopis meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 340 ; tl : bathurst , new south wales\ncatadamanta ( diakonoff , 1954 ) ( prodosiarcha ) ; verh . k . akad . wet . amst . ( 2 ) 50 ( 1 ) : 11\nprotolechia catarrhacta meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 366 ; tl : sydney , new south wales\nprotolechia celidophora turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 145 ; tl : n . queensland , cairns distr . ; eumundi , nr nambour\nprotolechia cephalota meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 373 ; tl : albany , west australia\nprotolechia chalazodes turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 140 ; tl : queensland , mt tambourine\nprotolechia chenias meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 359 ; tl : glen innes ( 4500ft ) , new south wales\nprotolechia chionoprora turner , 1927 ; pap . proc . r . soc . tasm . 1926 : 138\nprotolechia chiradia meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 380 ; tl : rosewood , queensland\nprotolechia cladara meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 346 ; tl : hobart , tasmania\nprotolechia compsochroa meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 370 ; tl : sydney , new south wales ; port lincoln , south australia\nprotolechia cosmotis meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 351 ; tl : perth , west australia\nprotolechia creperrima turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 137 ; tl : queensland , brisbane\nprotolechia crotalodes meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 385 ; tl : rosewood , queensland\nprotolechia crypsibatis meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 344 ; tl : mt kosciusco ( 4000ft ) , new south wales ; deloraine , tasmania ; mt lofty , south australia\nprotolechia crypsicneca turner , 1927 ; pap . proc . r . soc . tasm . 1926 : 138\nprotolechia cryptosperma meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 428 ; tl : victoria , birchip\ngelechia decaspila lower , 1899 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 24 ( 1 ) : 99 ; tl : stawell , victoria\ngelechia deltodes lower , 1896 ; trans . proc . r . soc . s . austr . 20 : 169 ; tl : gisborne , victoria\nprotolechia diplanetis meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 373 ; tl : blackheath ( 3500ft ) , new south wales\nbaryzancla dysclyta turner , 1933 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 58 : 81 ; tl : western australia , kalamunda , nr perth\neutorna dysphanes turner , 1947 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 72 ( 3 - 4 ) : 147 ; tl : queensland , bunya mts\nprotolechia diplonesa meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 344 ; tl : geraldton , west australia\nprotolechia elassopis turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 136 ; tl : queensland , caloundra\nprotolechia elpistis meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 349 ; tl : perth , west australia\nprotolechia emmeles turner , 1933 ; trans . proc . r . soc . s . austr . 57 : 178 ; tl : queensland , national park ( 3000ft )\nprotolechia enchotypa turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 138 ; tl : victoria , gisborne\nprotolechia englypta meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 357 ; tl : gisborne , victoria\ncleodora eumela lower , 1897 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 21 : 59 ; tl : stawell , victoria\nprotolechia euprepta turner , 1933 ; trans . proc . r . soc . s . austr . 57 : 177 ; tl : queensland , national park ( 3000ft )\nprotolechia euryarga turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 135 ; tl : queensland , brisbane\nprotolechia eustephana turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 146 ; tl : queensland , brisbane\nprotolechia exarista meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 339 ; tl : york , west australia\nprotolechia flexilis meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 345 ; tl : sydney , new south wales\nprotolechia frugalis meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 345 ; tl : sydney and blackheath ( 3500ft ) , new south wales ; perth , west australia\nprotolechia furcifera turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 139 ; tl : victoria , gisborne\nprodosiarcha glagera turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 129 ; tl : n . queensland , cairns\nprotolechia gorgonias meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 380 ; tl : rosewood , queensland\nprotolechia gypsocrana turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 143 ; tl : queensland , brisbane ; toowoomba ; stradbroke i .\nprotolechia hedana turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 145 ; tl : queensland , brisbane\nprotolechia hilara turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 135 ; tl : victoria , gisborne\nprotolechia hormodes meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 363 ; tl : sydney , new south wales\nprotolechia hylias meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 369 ; tl : mt kosciusko ( 5000ft ) , new south wales\nprotolechia hypocneca turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 137 ; tl : queensland , warwick\nprotolechia hypoleuca meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 351 ; tl : sydney , new south wales\nsemocharista idiospila meyrick , 1922 ; ark . zool . 14 ( 15 ) : 4 ; tl : nw . australia , kimberley district\nprotolechia invalida meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 346 ; tl : brisbane , queensland ; sydney , new south wales\nprotolechia involuta turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 142 ; tl : n . queensland , townsville\nprotolechia iochlaema [ = iochlaena ] meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 353 ; tl : perth , west australia\nbaryzancla ithygramma turner , 1933 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 58 : 81 ; tl : western australia , mt dale\nprotolechia liota meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 350 ; tl : albany , west australia\ngelechia lithina lower , 1899 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 24 ( 1 ) : 98 ; tl : broken hill , new south wales\nprotolechia loemias meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 383 ; tl : murrurundi , new south wales ; gisborne , victoria\nprodosiarcha loxodesma meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 330 ; tl : adelaide , south australia\nprotolechia mechanistis meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 360 ; tl : evandale and hobart , tasmania\nprotolechia megalommata meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 384 ; tl : rosewood , queensland\nprotolechia megalosticta turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 141 ; tl : new south wales , sydney\nprotolechia melicrata turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 137 ; tl : n . queensland , cairns ; lucinda point , nr ingham\nnew south wales , s . australia , victoria , tasmania . see [ maps ]\ngelechia mesochra lower , 1894 ; trans . proc . r . soc . s . aust . 18 : 107 ; tl : parkside , south australia\nprotolechia mesopsamma turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 144 ; tl : queensland , rosewood\nprotolechia microdora meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 346 ; tl : geraldton , west australia\nprotolechia molyntis meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 385 ; tl : gisborne , victoria ; mt lofty , south australia\nprotolechia nephelota meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 354 ; tl : mt kosciusko ( 3000ft ) , new south wales ; gisborne , victoria\nprotolechia neurosticha turner , 1933 ; trans . proc . r . soc . s . austr . 57 : 177 ; tl : queensland , brisbane\nprotolechia nothrodes meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 429 ; tl : queensland , brisbane\nprotolechia obscura turner , 1933 ; trans . proc . r . soc . s . austr . 57 : 177 ; tl : queensland , national park ( 2 - 2500ft )\nprotolechia ochrobathra turner , 1933 ; trans . proc . r . soc . s . austr . 57 : 177 ; tl : queensland , bunya mtns ( 3500ft )\nprotolechia odorifera meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 371 ; tl : sydney and shoalhaven , new south wales\ngelechia orthanotos lower , 1900 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 25 ( 1 ) : 50 ; tl : stawell , victoria\nprotolechia penthicodes meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 427 ; tl : queensland , brisbane\nprotolechia phasianis meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 382 ; tl : mt kosciusko ( 4700ft ) , new south wales ; melbourne and gisborne , victoria ; launceston , tasmania\nprotolechia plinthactis meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 363 ; tl : sydney , new south wales\nbrachyzancla poenicea turner , 1947 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 72 ( 3 - 4 ) : 154 ; tl : queensland , bunya\nprotolechia polioxysta turner , 1933 ; trans . proc . r . soc . s . austr . 57 : 177 ; tl : queensland , springbrook ( 3000ft ) , macpherson range\nprotolechia prisca meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 343 ; tl : sydney , west australia\nprotolechia proscripta meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 429 ; tl : queensland , brisbane\nprotolechia psephias meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 352 ; tl : geraldton , west australia\nprotolechia pyrrhica turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 141 ; tl : queensland , coolangatta\nprotolechia sarisias meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 356 ; tl : brisbane , queensland\nprotolechia sciodes meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 347 ; tl : geraldton , west australia\nprotolechia scytina meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 374 ; tl : bathurst , new south wales ; port lincoln , south australia\nprotolechia secta meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 428 ; tl : queensland , brisbane\nprotolechia semiographa turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 146 ; tl : queensland , mt tambourine\nprotolechia sisyraea meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 359 ; tl : gisborne , victoria\nprotolechia sporodeta turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 144 ; tl : queensland , killarney\nprotolechia tabulata meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 367 ; tl : sydney , new south wales ; port lincoln , south australia\nprotolechia taracta turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 143 ; tl : queensland , montville ( 1500ft ) , nr nambour ; mt tambourine ; toowoomba\nprotolechia telopis meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 338 ; tl : sydney , new south wales\nprotolechia temenitis meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 341 ; tl : rosewood , queensland\nprotolechia tetraploa meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 338 ; tl : melbourne , victoria\ngelechia thanatodes lower , 1893 ; trans . proc . r . soc . s . austr . 17 ( 1 ) : 170 ; tl : parkside\nprotolechia thyridota meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 355 ; tl : glen innes ( 4500ft ) , new south wales ; york , west australia\nprotolechia thyrsoptera meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 381 ; tl : rosewood , queensland\nprotolechia trachyphanes meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 343 ; tl : geraldton , west australia\nprotolechia trichalina meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 377 ; tl : geraldton and perth , west australia\nprotolechia trichosema meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 347 ; tl : albany , west australia\nprotolechia trichroma turner , 1933 ; trans . proc . r . soc . s . austr . 57 : 176 ; tl : queensland , national park ( 3000ft )\ngelechia tridecta lower , 1900 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 25 ( 1 ) : 48 ; tl : parkside , south australia\nprotolechia trochias meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 428 ; tl : queensland , cairns\nprotolechia tyroessa turner , 1933 ; trans . proc . r . soc . s . austr . 57 : 176 ; tl : ; queensland , national park ( 3500ft )\ngelechia vacatella walker , 1864 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 30 : 1026 ; tl : australia ?\nprotolechia voluta meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 341 ; tl : newcastel and sydney , new south wales\nprotolechia xanthocephala meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 376 ; tl : brisnabe , queensland ; sydney and blackheath ( 3500ft ) , new south wales\nprotolechia xestolitha meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 354 ; tl : sydney , new south wales\nprotolechia xuthias meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 361 ; tl : wirrabara , south australia\nbrachyzancla sporima turner , 1947 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 72 ( 3 - 4 ) : 154 ; tl : queensland , stanthorpe\nsangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nmicrolepidoptera of new guinea , results of the third archbold expedition ( american - netherlands indian expedition 1938 - 1939 ) . part iv\nresults of dr . e . mj\u00f6berg ' s swedish scientific expedition to australia 1910 - 1913 . microlepidoptera\nwalker , 1864 list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 27 : 1 - 286 ( 1863 ) , 28 : 287 - 562 ( 1863 ) , 29 : 563 - 835 ( 1864 ) , 30 : 837 - 1096 ( 1864 )\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nall data on natureshare is licensed under a creative commons attribution 2 . 5 australia license .\nfree : natureshare is , and will always be , a free and open service .\nwarranty : natureshare services and all software are provided on an\nas is\nbasis without warranties of any kind , either express or implied , including , without limitation , fitness for a particular purpose . your use of the services is at your sole risk . we do not guarantee the accuracy or timeliness of information available from the service .\nmoth survey undertaken over 8 hours , from 8 : 30 pm , at bega lalc turingal property .\npowered by naturemapr | atlas of life in the coastal wilderness operates under creative commons attribution 3 . 0 australia | privacy"]}
{"id": 895, "summary": [{"text": "the kerguelen tern ( sterna virgata ) is a tern of the southern hemisphere .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "this seabird mainly breeds colonially in the kerguelen islands , as its common name implies .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "however , smaller colonies are also found in the prince edward islands ( i.e. prince edward and marion ) and crozet islands .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the total number of individuals is from 3,500 \u2013 6,500 birds , although there is no recent data from the main colony at kerguelen .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "these birds do not inhabit kerguelen proper , instead nesting on islets free of feral cats .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "during bad weather , they are known to abandon their colonies .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "kerguelen terns are among the least-ranging of all typical terns .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "they generally do not reach far into the seas near their breeding grounds .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "these birds eat fish and marine invertebrates , especially those found in beds of the seaweed macrocystis spp .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they sometimes also hunt insects on land and catch fish from rivers on kerguelen .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "there are two subspecies : s. v. mercuri ( voisin , 1971 ) \u2013 crozet and prince edward islands s. v. virgata ( cabanis , 1875 ) \u2013 kerguelen island", "topic": 5}], "title": "kerguelen tern", "paragraphs": ["is sister to elegant tern , not sandwich tern of europe ( efe et al . 2009 , collinson et al 2017 ) ;\naspects of the breeding and feeding of kerguelen and antarctic terns at the kerguelen islands by p . m . sagar\nthe kerguelen tern is sedentary and remains all year round in vicinity of the breeding islands . the flight is fast and graceful .\ncalls and songs : sounds by xeno - canto the kerguelen tern utters high - pitched screams . while foraging , it produces churrs and squeaks .\nintroduction : the kerguelen tern occurs only on four islands in the indian ocean , and has very restricted range . this species is one of the rarest terns in the world . very similar to the antarctic tern ( s . vittata ) , which is present in the same range , the kerguelen tern has darker plumage and the species can be differentiated in the field by the greyish underwing ( white in s . vittata ) . the kerguelen tern defends aggressively it nest , including eggs and / or chicks , against larger seabirds and even humans .\ncabanis , 1875 \u2013 kerguelen is ( reported breeding on heard i erroneous ) .\nthe introduction of salmonid fish into rivers on kerguelen has provided a new source of food .\nkerguelen tern and antarctic tern are probably competing on their breeding islands , and coexistence of these closely related species has involved a parallel reduction of clutch size and the displacement of the laying period . competition for the limited food resources is reduced and allows both species to feed the chicks . ( weimerskirch & stahl \u2013 1988 )\nprotection / threats / status : the kerguelen tern has reduced range and small population . the main threat probably comes from hard weather conditions and strong winds that reduce the food sources and the breeding success . predation by skuas still occurs on the islands , but exotic predators have been eradicated from the islands , except a large population of feral cats on kerguelen . the global population is estimated at 3 , 500 / 6 , 500 individuals , equivalent to 2 , 300 / 4 , 300 mature individuals . this population appears to be stable . but currently , the kerguelen tern is classified as near threatened\nthe kerguelen tern is colonial nester and breeds two months before the antarctic tern . the colonies include up to 30 pairs , but some of them breed solitary . the nests are widely scattered , about 35 - 38 metres apart . the displays are similar to that of s . vittata , and include aerial displays and courtship feeding by male to female . they are generally monogamous .\nsubspecies and range : the kerguelen tern has two subspecies . s . v . mercuri occurs on prince edward and marion islands , and on crozet islands . this race has more restricted grey area on forehead in non - breeder birds , and some subtle differences on the bare parts . s . v . virgata ( described above ) is found on kerguelen islands .\nhabitat : the kerguelen tern is not exclusively marine , and also frequents inland freshwaters . it can be found near ponds , marshes and beaches of all islands . it breeds on flat ground with sparse vegetation on rocky or volcanic islands , on cliff tops , near rivers and sometimes close to beach . the non - breeding birds feed in the vicinity of the islands .\nthe kerguelen tern adult has smoky - grey upperparts , including the uppertail - coverts , whereas the rump is white . the tail is greyish with grey outer streamers . the underparts are smoky - grey too , but the undertail - coverts are mostly white . the underwing is grey with narrow , black trailing edge on the primaries . on the head , forehead , crown and nape are black . cheeks and moustachial area are white and contrast strongly with the black above , and the grey of chin and throat below . the bill is deep red . the eyes are dark brown . legs and webbed feet are bright orange ( crozet ) and dull red ( kerguelen ) .\ngochfeld , m . , burger , j . & garcia , e . f . j . ( 2018 ) . kerguelen tern ( sterna virgata ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\n31 cm . very dark , small tern . adult overall very dark grey with black cap and narrow white cheek stripe separating black cap from grey neck . non breeding adult has grizzled forehead and paler underparts . immature heavily barred buff on mantle and has all brown cap .\nbehaviour in the wild : the kerguelen tern feeds on both aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates , according to the season . at sea , it feeds on fish , crustaceans and molluscs caught by plunge - diving and contact - dipping . they forage in flocks of up to 20 birds on inshore waters or by walking on kelp . on land , it feeds on earthworms , insects and spiders found in the vegetation , taken both on the ground and in flight . flocks may contain up to 50 individuals . they can be aggressive towards each other while feeding , displacing another by flying towards it while churring .\n1988 , thibault and guyst 1993 ) . the south african population is listed in the regional red data book as critically endangered [ taylor and wanless 2015 ] , due to the apparent loss of the prince edward island population . there are no recent counts from the main breeding area on kerguelen ( v . bretagnolle\nthe non - breeding adult has dull reddish bill ( crozet ) or black ( kerguelen ) . the forehead becomes white by february while the bird is moulting during the incubation . the juvenile is finely vermiculated grey , brown and buff , with broad pale and dark bars . it is similar to the juvenile s . vittata .\n2009 ] and no breeding observed in 2011 [ taylor and wanless , 2015 ] ) , crozet islands ( french southern territories ) ( 150 - 200 pairs over 1980 - 1982 ) and kerguelen islands ( also french southern territories ) ( 1 , 000 - 2 , 000 pairs during 1982 - 1985 ) . the total population is estimated at 3 , 500 - 6 , 500 individuals ( jouventin\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\nfrom which it differs by being darker , smaller with shirt wings and tail and with much shorter , weaker and spikey shaped bill .\nanderson , o . , butchart , s . , moreno , r . , o ' brien , a . , shutes , s . , stattersfield , a . , taylor , j . , van der merwe , n .\nthis species is listed as near threatened owing to its small population . it is not thought to be undergoing a decline at present , but any indication of a decline would result in the species being reclassified as threatened .\n1999 ) and thus population trends are unknown , but it is assumed that the species is not undergoing any significant decline .\nthe total population has been estimated at 3 , 500 - 6 , 500 individuals , roughly equivalent to 2 , 300 - 4 , 300 mature individuals .\nthe population is suspected to be stable in the absence of any significant threats .\n. egg - laying commences in mid - october , and continues until january , with a peak in breeding from early november to mid - december . one or two eggs are laid . the incubation period is 24 days , followed by a fledging period of 31 - 39 days and then 20 days of dependence ( del hoyo\ninhabits predator - free islets around the main island and therefore predation is not considered a major threat ( t . micol\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nioc _ names _ file _ plus - 8 . 2g : 8 . 2\nand terns are embedded among the gulls in a monophyletic clade ; separation of the families rynchopidae and sternidae would render the gull family laridae paraphyletic relative to these other two groups ( baker et al . 2008 )\nred sea , indian ocean east through the pacific to hawaiian is . and easter i .\nclipperton i . ( off w mexico ) and cocos i . ( off w costa rica )\nmarcus ( japan ) and n marshall is . ( micronesia ) to nw hawaiian is .\nhenderson , easter , and sala y g\u00f3mez is . ( west of chile )\nmay be a basal noddy ( baker et al . 2007 , \u00f6deen et al . 2010 , cibois et al . 2016 ) ; so\nwhite noddy\nif confirmed ? see yeung et al . 2009 re taxonomy of pacific ocean subspecies\nseychelles and mascarene is . to the central pacific ( except ranges of next two ssp . )\neu , af : iberian pen . through the middle east to pakistan and india ; mauritania , senegal and gambia\nn and ne australia , new caledonia , loyalty is . ( sw pacific )\nred - billed gull originally split by schodde et al . 1983 , sibley & monroe 1990 , burger & gochfeld 1996 , and given et al . 2005 , but now lumped by h & m4 , hbw alive , gill et al . 2010 .\nby some ( h & m4 , hbw / bli ) based on pons et al . 2005 poorly resolved phylogeny\ngenetically distinct short - billed gull previously split from common / mew gull ( aou sibley 1996 , zink et al 1995 , olsen & larsson 2003 , bna ) . bna makes the point that zink\u2019s paper only looked at mtdna differences between\nis needed to round out the picture and because some have proposed ( e . g . s & m , 1990 ) that the species break might be between\n) has long been a controversial taxon . critical review favors treatment as subspecies of iceland gull\n( sangster et al . 2005 ) ; recognized by bou , but not by aou\nas ssp following collinson et al . 2008 , y\u00e9sou ( dutch birding 24 : 271 - 298 , 2002 )\n( sangster et al . 2005 , aou 2007 ) ; recognized by bou , aou . this species retains the english name yellow - legged gull of the former , unsplit species . .\nas subspecies following collinson , j . m . , parkin , d . t . , knox , a . g . , sangster , g . , and l . svensson . 2008 . species boundaries in the herring and lesser black - backed gull complex . british birds 101 ( 7 ) : 340 - 363 .\ne china to w , n and e australia , ryukyu and tuamotu is .\nw and n australia and new guinea through lord howe , norfolk and kermadec is and the s pacific to easter i .\nbonin is . ( japan ) to the hawaiian is . south to kiritimati ( line is . )\nsa : coastal peru and se brazil to tierra del fuego , falkland is .\nstewart , snares , auckland , bounty , antipodes , campbell and macquarie is .\n( aou 2000 , bou / sangster et al . , 2004 , chu et al . 2009 )\nfrans josef land ( russia ) to st . lawrence i . ( alaska )\nna , ma : channel is . ( california , usa ) and islands off w baja california ( mexico )\nscripps ' s murrelet is split from guadalupe [ xantus ' s ] murrelet ( sibley and monroe 1993 , nettleship 1996 , birt et al . 2012 , nacc 2011 - 14 - c )\nsandgrouse ( pterocliformes ) are sister to the malagasy mesites ( hackett et al . 2008 , jarvis et al . 2014 , prum et al . 2015 ) .\nsympatric with s . vittata , but different phenology and feeding niche . race mercuri separated principally on basis of more restricted grey area on forehead ( non - breeders ) and bare - part differences , but distinctions subtle ; species often treated as monotypic . two subspecies recognized .\n33 cm ; wingspan 71 cm . forehead to nape black ; upperparts , including uppertail - coverts , smoky grey , with contrasting white rump ; outer tail streamers grey , tail greyish ; . . .\ncalls include a harsh\nchittick\nand a long drawn out\nkeeeaaar\n.\nrocky , volcanic islands . breeds on sparsely vegetated flat ground , either cliff tops or river flats . . .\nfish , crustaceans , molluscs , earthworms , insects and spiders . diet changes seasonally from mainly crustaceans in sept , fish in nov , insects . . .\nvirtually unstudied . returns to colony in sept , and begins laying mid - oct , continuing until jan ; peak breeding early nov to mid - dec , 2 . . .\nnot globally threatened . currently considered near threatened , and previously , vulnerable . the global population has been estimated at 3 , 500\u20136 , 500 individuals . . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nsometimes treated as including one or more of the genera onychoprion , sternula , gelochelidon , hydroprogne , chlidonias and thalasseus .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : sterna virgata . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\ncurrent time at palmer station , antarctica : current temperature : cold . damn cold .\nall content is subject to copyright . contact us to advertise on this site . | privacy policy\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 296 , 135 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nreproduction of this species : the laying occurs between mid - october and january , with peak in early november to mid - december . the nest is placed on the ground , often on slopes above the beach or near the high tide line , occasionally well inland . it is a scrape made with stones and twigs , and lined with plant material such as moss and grass .\nthe female lays 1 - 2 eggs and both adults incubate during 24 days . the chicks are brooded for five days . then , they leave the nest but they hide in vegetation and rocks near the nest . they fledge 31 - 39 days after hatching , but they still depend on adults for food for about 3 weeks .\na complete guide to antarctic wildlife by hadoram shirihai and illustrated by brett jarrett - edited by guy m . kirwan - alul . a press oy , finland - isbn 9519894705\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nenglish - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers"]}
{"id": 897, "summary": [{"text": "ctenosaura bakeri , also known as the utila iguana , baker 's spinytail iguana , swamper or wishiwilly del suampo , is a critically endangered species of spinytail iguana endemic to the island of utila , one of the islas de la bah\u00eda off the coast of honduras .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the utila iguana is the only species of iguana and one of only two species of lizard to exclusively inhabit brackish mangrove swamps , forced there due to competition from larger species .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is the smallest of the three species of iguana found on utila , and unique among spiny-tailed iguanas as it is born a dark color as opposed to bright green or yellow .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is arboreal and primarily herbivorous , although it can be an opportunistic carnivore .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "males may grow up to 76 centimeters ( 30 in ) in length , while females are smaller , with a length of up to 56 centimeters ( 22 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "eggs are laid in sandy beaches and hatch about 60 \u2013 76 days later , with the hatchlings returning to live in the mangrove forests .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "brought to the brink of extinction by the 1990s due to hunting , it was brought back to international attention by german herpetologist dr. gunther k\u00f6hler and his book reptiles of central america .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "although several zoos and wildlife associations have instituted programs for the iguanas on utila , the species still finds itself threatened due to overhunting and may face more of a threat in the form of habitat loss .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "extreme conservation efforts are in place to try to prevent this species from going extinct . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "ctenosaura bakeri", "paragraphs": ["the spiny - tailed iguanas are composed of the following species : ctenosaura acanthura , ctenosaura alfredschmidti , ctenosaura bakeri , ctenosaura clarki , ctenosaura conspicuosa , defensor , ctenosaura flavidorsalis , ctenosaura hemilopha , ctenosaura macrolopha , ctenosaura melanosterna , ctenosaura nolascensis , ctenosaura oaxacana , ctenosaura oedirhina , ctenosaura palearis , ctenosaura pectinata , ctenosaura praeocularis , ctenosaura quinquecarinata , and ctenosaura similis .\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30d9\u30a4\u30ab\u30fc\u30c8\u30b2\u30aa\u30a4\u30b0\u30a2\u30ca\nto\nctenosaura bakeri stejneger 1901\n.\nk\u00f6hler , g . ( 1998 ) ctenosaura bakeri stejneger , 1901 . : sauria 20 suppl . : 417\u2013420\nreproductive and dispersal behaviour of the critically endangered utila spiny - tailed iguana ctenosaura bakeri on the island of utila , honduras .\nzoerner s , k\u00f6hler g ( 2004 ) ctenosaura bakeri . in : iucn 2006 . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species .\ngutsche , a . ( 2005 ) distribution and habitat utilization of ctenosaura bakeri on utila . : iguana 12 ( 3 ) : 142\u2013151\ngutsche , a . ( 2006 ) population structure and reproduction in ctenosaura bakeri on isla de utila . : iguana 13 ( 2 ) : 109\u2013115\ngutsche , a . ( 2005 ) ctenosaura bakeri ( utila spiny - tailed iguana ) . predation . : herpetological review 36 ( 3 ) : 317\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - utila spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura bakeri )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - utila spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura bakeri )\ntitle =\narkive species - utila spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura bakeri )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\ndirksen , l . & gutsche , a . ( 2006 ) beobachtungen zur saurophagie bei ctenosaura bakeri ( squamata : iguanidae ) . : elaphe 14 ( 3 ) : 51 - 52\nthis is a male san esteban island spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura conspicuosa ) .\nhallmen , m . & hallmen , s . ( 2011 ) notiz \u00fcber eine beobachtung zur saurophagie beim utila - schwarzleguan ctenosaura bakeri . : elaphe 19 ( 3 ) : 11 - 13\nmorphological and demographic analyses of the blackchested spiny - tailed iguana , ctenosaura melanoste . . .\ndiener , e . ( 2007 ) die erdspitznatter oxybelis aeneus und die lianennatter leptophis mexicanus als pr\u00e4datoren der schwarzleguane ctenosaura similis und c . bakeri . : elaphe 15 ( 3 ) : 59 - 62\ndirksen , l . ( 2004 ) beobachtung eines paarungsversuchs zwischen einem hybrid - m\u00e4nnchen ( ctenosaura bakeri x similis ) mit einem iguana iguana - weibchen . : iguana rundschreiben 17 ( 2 ) : 15 - 17\ngutsche , a . & streich , w . j . ( 2009 ) demography and endangerment of the utila island spiny - tailed iguana , ctenosaura bakeri . : journal of herpetology 43 ( 1 ) : 105\u2013113\nthe goal of the project is the long - term conservation of ctenosaura bakeri in its natural environment on utila . the primary activities of the project are to develop a broad education and information program for the local community , investigate the natural history and reproductive ecology of c . bakeri , establish and maintain a headstart program , and protect iguana habitat on utila .\ngutsche , alexander ; mutschmann , frank ; streich , wolf jurgen ; kampen , helge ( 2012 ) ectoparasites in the endangered utila spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura bakeri ) . : the herpetological journal 22 ( 3 ) : 157 - 161\nctenosaura bakeri and other ctenosaura populations are under threat from habitat destruction and the effects of overhunting . little is known of the basic biology of the species ( pasachnik et al . 2012 ) . many of the natural behaviours and reproductive habits for c . bakeri have not been documented . to date no studies have been carried out on female breeding migration routes , the natural sex ratio of hatchlings as well as wild hatchling success . this information is vital to understanding how the iguana uses the island .\nbailey jw ( 1928 ) a revision of the lizards of the genus ctenosaura . proc us nat mus 73 : 1\u201369\nnatural history of the black - chested spiny - tailed iguanas , ctenosaura melanosterna ( iguanidae ) , on c . . .\nthe utila spiny tailed \u201cswamper\u201d iguana ( ctenosaura bakeri ) lives in the mangrove forests on the honduran island of utila . the conservation work carried out at the utila iguana conservation project aims to ensure the survival of the endangered swamper iguana , which is endemic to utila .\nof the species depicted in our species chart , the yucatan spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura defensor ) comes in the smallest at roughly 10 inches whereas ctenosaura similis , commonly known as the black spiny - tailed iguana , can ascertain lengths of 5 feet .\ngutsche , a . & k\u00f6hler , g . ( 2004 ) a fertile hybrid between ctenosaura similis ( gray 1831 ) and c . bakeri stejneger 1901 ( squamata : iguanidae ) on isla de utila , honduras . : salamandra 40 ( 3 / 4 ) : 201 - 206\nsince 1994 , the frankfurt zoological society and the senckenberg nature research society have worked jointly to preserve the endangered lizard ctenosaura bakeri , the utila spiny - tailed iguana . several other organizations , e . g . honduran ngos , have pro . . . [ view charity profile ]\ndirksen , l . ; blome , t . ; p\u00e9rez , h . & k\u00f6hler , g . ( 2004 ) zur nachzucht des utila - schwarzleguans ( ctenosaura bakeri ) bei unterschiedlichen inkubationstemperaturen in der iguana research and breeding station im jahr 2004 . : iguana rundschreiben 17 ( 2 ) : 7 - 13\nthe island endemic ctenosaura bakeri was listed as critically endangered by the iucn redlist assessment in 2004 , 7 years after it was recognized as a distinct species . c . bakeri occupies a portion of utila , a small continental island located off the northern coast of honduras . habitat destruction and over - harvesting are among the top threats facing this species . in addition , morphological evidence of hybridization was recently documented , raising the concern that gene flow from the common and widely distributed c . similis could threaten the genetic distinctiveness of c . bakeri . we show that hybridization occurs only at low levels and is not a current threat to c . bakeri . all ctenosaurs captured for this study were identified to species level without difficulty ; none had intermediate or mosaic phenotypes . sequence analysis of mitochondrial and nuclear markers revealed only two individuals with introgressed genotypes . molecular analysis of the previously described hybrid showed it to be heterozygous for c . bakeri and c . similis alleles . hybridization between these two species is possible and occurs occasionally in the wild , and the rate of hybridization could increase if habitat destruction or changes in relative abundance increase the probability of interbreeding . however , the level of gene flow indicated by current data is too low to threaten c . bakeri with genetic swamping or deleterious fitness effects .\ngoals are to estimate the population size , collect biometric data and investigate the breeding behaviours of c . bakeri . the project also aims to educate local school children and increase awareness \u2026\n[ more ]\nthe \u00fatila spiny - tailed iguana is known only from the island of \u00fatila , bay islands , honduras . the extent of occurrence is 41 km 2 . however , suitable mangrove habitat available for ctenosaura bakeri estimated at less than 8 km 2 ( d . maryon , d . lee and e . higgins unpublished data 2017 ) . this iguana occurs from sea level up to 20 m asl .\nk\u00f6hler g , schroth w , streit b ( 2000 ) systematics of the ctenosaura group of lizards ( reptilia : sauris : iguanidae ) . amphib - reptil 21 : 177\u2013191 . doi :\n. . . fig . 20 . bah\u00eda , honduras ( pasachnik 2013 ; pasachnik et al . 2015 ) . comment : this species was considered part of ctenosaura bakeri ( meyer and wilson 1973 ; wilson and hahn 1973 ) , but was recognized as a separate species by de queiroz ( 1987b ) ; the two species appear to be sister taxa ( pasachnik et al . 2010 ) . . . .\nutila spiny - tailed iguanas , ctenosaura bakeri , are listed as critically endangered by the iucn redlist assessment and are listed under appendix ii of cites . this species occupies a portion of utila , a small continental island located off the northern coast of honduras , in the bay islands chain . habitat destruction and overharvesting for consumption and the pet trade are among the top threats . . . [ show full abstract ]\nonce considered one of the rarest iguanas in existence , the utila spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura bakeri ) is named after the single island it inhabits and the whorls of enlarged spiny scales that encircle the tail ( 2 ) . the colour of adult utila spiny - tailed iguanas varies from light grey to dark grey - brown , often with an attractive turquoise tinge ( 3 ) . all juveniles , however , are a uniform grey - brown ( 3 ) .\ngutsche , alexander ; frank k\u00f6hler ( 2008 ) phylogeography and hybridization in ctenosaura species ( sauria , iguanidae ) from caribbean honduras : insights from mitochondrial and nuclear dna . : zoosystematics and evolution 84 ( 2 ) : 245 - 253\nthe utila iguana ( ctenosaura bakeri ) is a large iguanid lizard that is restricted to the small caribbean island of utila ( islas de la bahia , honduras ) and threatened by extinction due to overhunting and loss of habitat . the\nresearch and conservation project utila iguana\nwas established in 1994 as a joint project by the frankfurt zoological society and the senckenberg nature research society . as originally planned , in 2008 , the responsibility and leadership of the project was transferred to the bay islands foundation .\nspiny - tail iguanas have become more popular over recent years and can be ordered online and purchased at reptile shows . some specialty reptile shops can aquire varying species upon request . occasionally the big box pet stores will carry a ctenosaura .\nctenosaura bakeri is a critically endangered iguana endemic to the island of utila . it is known to broadly occur throughout utila ( 41km\u00b2 extent of occurrence ) , however it likely occupies less than 25 % ( 10 km\u00b2 ) of the island as it is found only within certain habitat areas ( pasachnik et al . 2013 ) . the current population size is not known but estimated to be fewer than 5 , 000 individuals and is likely declining due to habitat loss and fragmentation , hunting of adults and eggs , invasive species , and predation ( pasachnik et al . 2013 ) . destruction of habitat is also linked with a reported declining body condition of iguanas in the population ( pasachnik et al . 2012 ) . ctenosaura bakeri is listed as critically endangered by the iucn since 2004 ; it is protected under honduran national law and , since 2010 , listed on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ( cites ) . hunting of the iguana has been banned since 1994 but is rarely enforced .\nthe least vulnerable reptilian species , by this measure , are norops tropidonotus , enulius flavitorques , imantodes cenchoa , and ninia sebae . they are 1 - 1 - 2 , 1 - 1 - 3 , or 1 - 3 - 2 species ( widespread geographically , occurring in six or eight forest formations , and semifossorial or terrestrial / arboreal , sometimes escaping human notice ) . the most vulnerable reptile is ctenosaura bakeri , 5 - 8 - 6 species ( known only from the vicinity of the type locality , in one forest formation , and used for its meat and eggs locally ) . the next most vulnerable is ctenosaura oedirhina , a 4 - 8 - 6 species ( a honduran endemic , occurring in one forest formation , and used for its meat and eggs locally ) .\nkelly paul is a hobbyist with a lifelong interest in reptiles . he has bred more than two dozen species , including six ctenosaura . he has been a guest speaker at several events , including the international herpetological symposium . email him at blueghostreptile @ urltoken .\nutila iguana ( ctenosaura bakeri ) is the only species of iguana and one of only two species of lizard to exclusively inhabit brackish mangrove swamps , due to competition from larger species . also commonly known as baker ' s spinytail iguana , swamper or wishiwilly del suampo , the species occurs to the island of utila , one of the islas de la bah\u00eda off the coast of honduras . the utila iguana is critically endagered . if you enjoy reading about weird and bizarre animals you may want to check my strange animals site and my youtube channel : urltoken urltoken\na prerequisite for breeding spiny - tailed iguanas , of course , is healthy animals . ctenosaura as young as 14 months have laid fertile eggs , but i wouldn\u2019t recommend breeding spiny - tailed iguanas that are that young . i recommend waiting until they are at least 2 years old .\nour mission is : to help the honduran community to conserve their unique natural resources so that they are protected for future generations to benefit . we will do this by : \u2022 protecting the country ' s endangered fauna and flora through conservation projects \u2022 delivering a dynamic environmental education program \u2022 developing sustainability based on scientific assessment . our general objectives is : \u2022 to contribute with the national efforts of honduras in order to achieve the human sustainable development . our main specific objectives are : \u2022 to support , guarantee and reinforce the continuity of the iguana research and breeding station . this project concentrates its efforts for the conservation of the endemic iguana of utila , ctenosaura bakeri . \u2022 cooperate with the local and national authorities in order to reinforce the conservation of flora and fauna that is endemic or is of special interest and the conservation of their natural habitats . \u2022 promote , develop and participate in formal and informal programs for environmental education . \u2022 encourage and support the scientific research with biological , ecological or social focus . \u2022 cooperate with governmental or private institutions in the management of protected terrestrial or marine areas . \u2022 enforce the respect of the honduran environmental laws and support the creation of new environmental laws . \u2022 promote and support the development of projects that improve the quality of life and living conditions of the community . date it was established : the irbs was born in 1997 with the main purpose of protecting and preserving the spiny tailed iguana of utila , ctenosaura bakeri , a species that is endemic to utila and is presently in danger of extinction due to illegal hunting and the uncontrolled development and destruction of the mangrove forest where they live . after a systematic process in the search of autonomy , since 2008 , the irbs became the main project of the bay islands foundation ( fib ) an ngo legally recognized by the honduran government as a non - profit conservation organization , that has neither political nor religious ties . our geographic area covers : utila , a 42 km\u00b2 island , located 30 km off the northern coast of honduras in the bay islands . the fib in the near future is intended to cover more geographic areas . target species : ctenosaura bakeri , which inhabit the mangrove swamps of utila island and is in the red list of the iucn .\nclutch size varies with species , size and age of the female . smaller ctenosaura and younger animals lay approximately four to 10 eggs . large , mature female mexican ( c . pectinata ) and black ( c . similis ) spiny - tailed iguanas may lay 40 to 55 eggs . the eggs of most species are about the size of bearded dragon eggs .\ncurrently , there is no species action or recovery plan in place for c . bakeri , though actions such as these were discussed at the iucn iguana specialist group meeting held on utila in 2009 . monitoring , and recovery and management plans require quantifiable ecological data . demographic data on this species have not been collected in several years ; thus an update is needed in addition to filling in the gaps of knowledge . this project will contribute to and inform these priority requirements for the species . specifically these data will provide a clearer understanding of how c . bakeri utilizes key and threatened habitats on the island , as well as how uncontrolled harvesting may be impacting the status and health of the iguanas , particularly females . this increased ecological understanding can help inform current outreach environmental awareness programs , consequently , the project will contribute directly to the survival of this critically endangered iguana and its habitats .\nspiny - tailed iguanas have been considered ill tempered , but this is not true for all ctenosaura , especially in regard to captive - born - and - bred animals that behave differently than their wild - caught counterparts . captive - born - and - bred mexican spiny - tails ( c . pectinata ) and baker\u2019s iguanas ( c . bakeri ) can make great pets with very little effort . the san esteban island spiny - tailed iguana ( c . conspicuosa ) , sonoran black iguana ( c . macrolopha ) and honduran black - chested iguana ( c . melanosterna ) can also tame down quite nicely with a little effort and patience . wild - caught guatemalan spiny - tailed ( c . palearis ) and club - tailed ( c . quinqucarinata ) iguanas can make great display animals , and with time they will often take food from your hand .\nabstract : ectoparasites of adult spiny - tailed iguanas ( ctenosaura bakeri ) from isla de utila , honduras , an endemic lizard listed as critically endangered under iucn criteria , were studied for the first time . three ectoparasitic species were identified : amblyomma dissimile , ornithodorus talaje , and hirstiella boneti ; the latter two are reported from honduras for the first time . of 125 iguanas examined , 60 % were infested : a . dissimile occurred on 2 . 4 % , o . talaje ( larvae only ) on 43 . 2 % and h . boneti on 40 % of individuals . preferred attachment sites of h . boneti were the ear openings ( 18 . 4 % ) and the limbs ( 16 % ) , while the nidicolous o . talaje larvae occurred only in the nostrils . male iguanas were significantly more often infested than females when considering all three parasites ( 77 . 2 % and 45 . 6 % , respectively ) , o . talaje ( 61 . 4 % and 28 % , respectively ) and h . boneti ( 56 . 1 % and 26 . 5 % , respectively ) ; infestation prevalence of both species increased significantly with body size in males . heavily infested animals or visual evidence for direct pathogenic effects in c . bakeri were not observed , suggesting that ectoparasites currently do not pose a serious risk to this endangered iguana .\nthere is a recorded sex ratio bias within the population , with one female to every 1 . 7 males , and female numbers are declining ( pasachnik et al . 2012 ) . this is thought to be due to illegal hunting pressure , with gravid females being specifically targeted for consumption ( pasachnik et al . 2012 , 2013 ) . while young iguanas and eggs are naturally predated on by , for example , eagles and snakes , feral dogs , cats and rats create additional predator pressures on the species ( pasachnik et al . 2013 ) . other potential threats include hybridization which has been found to occur between c . bakeri and its widespread congener , the common spiny - tailed iguana c . similis ( pasachnik et al . 2009 ) . while hybridization is not currently thought to be a major threat , increasing habitat degradation and loss will likely have an impact on the genetic health of the c . bakeri population as both species come into increased contact .\nwe examined aspects of natural history and ecology of the black - chested spiny - tailed iguana , ctenosaura melanosterna , on cayo cochino menor , honduras , over 6 years to provide baseline data to assist in management of this critically endangered species . size of territory is resource - dependent , and the species seems to prefer habitats with open canopy . mating occurred between march and june , with . . . [ show full abstract ]\nroat\u00e1n spiny - tailed iguanas , ctenosaura oedirhina , are assessed as endangered by the iucn red list of threatened species and listed in appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ( cites ) . occurring in less than 1 % of the available habitat on roat\u00e1n , due primarily to hunting pressure , this species faces severe fragmentation . herein we used . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe black - chested spiny - tailed iguana , ctenosaura melanosterna , is listed as endangered by the iucn redlist assessment and under appendix ii of cites . the species has two evolutionarily significant units ( esus ) , found in the valle de agu\u00e1n and the cayos cochinos archipelago , honduras . each esu has been shown to be genetically distinct and each is listed , for differing reasons , as critically . . . [ show full abstract ]\nspiny - tailed iguanas ( ctenosaura spp . ) are native to hot and dry areas of mexico and central america . they can make great pets or display animals . despite laws to protect them , most spiny - tailed iguana populations are declining in the wild due to hunting , loss of habitat and poaching for the pet trade . every effort should be made to purchase captive - born - and - bred animals because they generally are hardier and less skittish , and purchasing them helps take pressure off wild populations .\nthirty - five free - ranging healthy spiny - tailed iguanas ( 31 ctenosaura bakeri , 4 c . similis ) and 14 green iguanas ( iguana iguana rhinolopha ) were caught and held in captivity for 2 days . blood was collected from all animals and their sera were evaluated for antibody titres against reptilian reoviruses , reptilian paramyxoviruses , and avian paramyxovirus - 1 ( pmv - 1 ) . cloacal and pharyngeal swabs also were collected and examined for viral content by incubation on chicken embryo fibroblasts ( cef ) and terrapene heart cells ( th - 1 ) . no virus was isolated from the pharyngeal and cloacal swabs on cef and th - 1 . twenty - three ( 47 % ) of 49 sera samples tested positive for reptilian reoviruses by virus neutralization tests . twenty ( 41 % ) of 49 samples had antibodies against one reptilian pmv isolate by virus neutralization tests and 3 ( 9 % ) of 34 by hemagglutination inhibition tests . no antibodies were detected against the other pmv isolate of reptilian origin nor against avian pmv - 1 . this is the first description of serum antibodies against reptilian reoviruses and pmv in wild iguanas .\nto date no studies have been conducted to identify and quantify female migration routes between nesting and breeding sites , and how development of the island and associated habitat losses may impact these routes , and therefore the species . furthermore , nothing is known about home range , the hatchling success rates , natural sex ratio of hatchlings , and nest characteristics . population estimates of c . bakeri have varied significantly ( gutsche & streich , 2009 ; pasachnik et al . 2013 ) highlighting the need for more quantifiably robust work in this area . this information is integral to the effective and active conservation management and protection of the species .\nroatan spiny - tailed iguanas , ctenosaura oedirhina , are listed as endangered by the iucn redlist assessment and under appendix ii of convention on international trade of endangered species of wild fauna and flora ( cites ) . these iguanas occur primarily on roatan and barbaretta , off the caribbean coast of honduras . habitat destruction associated with development , small - scale agriculture , and exploitation for food and the pet trade are contributing to the decline of these iguanas . this species was described in 1987 ( de queiroz ) when it was split from the sister taxon c . bakeri , found on the island of utila , honduras . since its description little has been done to understand its biology or protect this narrow - range endemic . herein , i examined the morphology and body condition of this species across its range and report on its reproductive biology and diet . similar to many members of the iguaninae , males are larger on average and have relatively longer tails than females . likewise , reproductive and dietary data are consistent with those for closely related species . the body condition of both males and females was lower in more pristine study sites , indicating that supplemental feeding in developed areas may be having an effect . a female - biased sex ratio was found in sites protected by grassroots efforts , where the populations were large enough to be studied . conservation measures should focus on alleviating the threats of harvesting and habitat destruction through increased law enforcement , outreach , and education .\ni incubate all my ctenosaura eggs at 86 to 88 degrees fahrenheit with about 70 percent humidity . i have used perlite , vermiculite and sand as incubation mediums , though recommend vermiculite . mix it with enough water so that if you squeeze it with your hand as hard as you can , only a few drops of water will fall out . i live in phoenix , where it is hot and dry , and i check the moisture content of the incubation medium about every 15 days . if it is too dry the eggs will collapse , and if it\u2019s too wet mold and fungal growth will develop . following these guidelines , eggs should hatch after 65 to 80 days .\n. . . sexual size dimorphism of the head could be related to a social mating system ( vitt and cooper 1985 ; hews 1990 ) or sexual selection , for example , larger heads may have an advantage in male - male combat ( carothers 1984 ; gier 1997 ) . the frequency of broken tails observed in c . alfredschmidti was extremely high ( ~ 80 % ) , when compared to congenerics : < 50 % in c . oedirhina ( pasachnik 2013 ) and < 40 % in c . bakeri ( pasachnik et al . 2012b ) . in addition , there was no sex bias in tail breaks , as there was in cyclura cornuta , with 46 % and 27 % for males and females , respectively ( buitrago et al . 2010 ) . . . .\n. . . the divergence of hw as adults grow is expected because many male reptiles that exhibit male - male combat demonstrate larger head sizes than females ( alberts et al . 2002 ; gienger and beck 2007 ) . tail break frequencies for this arboreal species ( up to 7 . 3 % ) were lower than reported for terrestrial iguana species from other genera such as cyclura ( up to 64 . 5 % ; reviewed in hayes et al . 2012 ) and ctenosaura ( up to 51 . 9 % ; pasachnik et al . 2012 ; pasachnik 2013 ) and similar statistically between sexes in this study . the lower break be associated with reduced predation pressure on an arboreal insular iguana species or more resource allocation on the island ( ) . . . .\n. . . roat\u00e1n spiny - tailed iguanas , ctenosaura oedirhina ( de queiroz 1987 ) , exemplify a narrow - range insular endemic whose population may be suffering the effects of human - mediated fragmentation . these iguanas are endemic to roat\u00e1n , barbareta , and a few satellite cays located within the bay islands , honduras ( mccranie et al . 2005 ; pasachnik 2013 ) . this species has been recognized as the second most vulnerable reptile species in honduras ( wilson and mccranie 2003 ) , is endangered by the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ; ) , and listed in appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ( cites ; species in which trade must be controlled in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival ; pasachnik and ariano 2010 ) . . . .\nfeed adult spiny - tailed iguanas a wide range of food , such as mixed greens , shredded carrots , mulberry and hibiscus leaves , and edible wild plants such as purslane , clover , dandelions , greens and flowers . seasonal fruit and vegetables can also be offered ( mine love figs ) . i feed baby and juvenile spiny - tails the same as the adults , except i also give them some insects , particularly crickets about half the size of the young lizards\u2019 heads . i have also offered zoophobas , tomato hornworms and silk worms . i have never fed vertebrate prey such as mice to my ctenosaura , but know keepers who have with no harmful effect . calcium and vitamin supplements should be provided two to three times a week ( gravid females should receive supplemental calcium every day ) . dry commercial iguana diets are also available .\na great way to build trust and calm new ctenosaura is by hand - feeding them . once they are comfortable with your presence and are taking food from your fingers , you can begin to pick them up . when picking up a pet spiny - tailed iguana , it is best to approach slowly and place your hand palm side up in front of the lizard . try putting your other hand behind it and gently coax the spiny - tail onto your hand . never restrain your animal by the tail , as it can break off . every spiny - tailed iguana is different . some are so tame and inquisitive they seem to enjoy human interaction . others are a little flighty and require a bit more patience when interacting . any spiny - tailed iguana that does not like to be handled will still make a fine display animal .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ncritically endangered b1ab ( i , ii , iii , v ) ver 3 . 1\njustification : the \u00fatila spiny - tailed iguana is known only from the island of \u00fatila , honduras . total known extent of occurrence is 41 km 2 . the iguana and its eggs are harvested heavily and sold both locally and on the adjacent mainland . other primary threats to the population are habitat loss and fragmentation associated with development for tourism ; decreasing quality of habitat from introduced invasive vegetation and degradation of nesting habitat due to local and oceanic pollution . the population is currently thought to be declining due to the above threats .\nthe total population size is unknown but analyses are currently underway and it is likely to be less than 6 , 000 individuals ( d . maryon and d . lee unpublished data 2017 ) . although more rigorous data are needed , observations suggest the population has continually declined in association with increased habitat degradation and destruction over the last 15 years . the population has also been severely affected by harvesting for human consumption ( d . maryon pers . obs . 2017 ) . effects of this practice are exacerbated by hunters specifically targeting gravid females , and thus dramatically impacting annual reproduction rates . genetic variation in the population does not follow a specific geographic pattern indicating that this iguana appears to have been mating randomly across the island ( pasachnik et al . 2009 ) . however , with ever - increasing habitat loss , further fragmentation of local subpopulations appears imminent , and a reassessment is currently underway to establish whether these subpopulations are becoming genetically isolated .\nthe \u00fatila spiny - tailed iguana is found primarily in mangrove forests and vegetated sandy shores , though occasionally they can be found in disturbed areas such as coastal / beachfront developments and gardens . they are typically most active during the morning , when adults can be seen basking from 0\u201315 m above ground in black ( avicennia germinans ) , white ( laguncularia racemose ) , and red ( rhizophora mangle ) mangrove trees , as well as on the ground . individuals are commonly observed hiding in the hollows of black and white mangrove trees , which they use as retreats . juveniles occur in both small and large mangrove trees , on the mangrove forest floor , and within coastal beach vegetation shortly after hatching ( schulte and k\u00f6hler 2010 , d . maryon pers . obs . 2017 ) . this iguana makes special use of mangrove roots and lagoons by diving into them and swimming or submerging themselves to avoid predation ( d . maryon pers . obs . 2017 ) . the main breeding season occurs from january to late july and mating occurs on or near the ground in the mangrove forests . females then migrate from the mangroves to beachfronts to nest in a variety of areas , including those with full sun exposure , under piles of leaf litter and oceanic litter , beneath large beachfront trees , and within short shrub vegetation ( d . maryon pers . obs . 2017 ) . nesting takes place from february to august . females lay an average of 11 to 16 eggs in nests that can be up to a few metres long but not more than 60 cm deep ( gutsche 2006 , d . maryon pers . obs . 2017 ) . double - clutching has been observed in some individuals . the incubation period is approximately 85 days and hatching occurs from april through october . upon emerging , hatchlings seem to spend little time inhabiting coastal vegetation before dispersing into the mangrove forests , where they are active on the ground , volcanic coralline rocks , and on the branches of trees as they mature ( d . maryon pers . obs . 2017 ) .\niguanas and their eggs continue to be sought for human consumption year - round and are sold both locally and on the adjacent mainland . groups of hunters with dogs are reported in mangrove habitats between february and may ( d . maryon pers . obs . 2017 ) , coinciding with the presence of gravid females which are often selectively targeted . females containing eggs are cooked and eaten as a traditional cultural delicacy , especially throughout the easter period . from 2006 to 2011 , the sex ratio of iguanas became increasingly more male - biased , which may be indicative of increasing hunting pressure on adult females ( pasachnik et al . 2012 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nmale utila spiny - tailed iguanas are not only larger than females , but also have larger spines running down the back and a small fold of loose skin hanging below the throat ( the dewlap ) ( 3 ) .\nthe utila spiny - tailed iguana feeds on plant matter and small invertebrates that inhabit the mangroves . while mangrove habitat is perfect habitat for feeding and resting , it is not ideal for nesting , and so when the time comes , female utila spiny - tailed iguanas migrate to the island\u2019s beaches , where they lay their eggs in the sand ( 3 ) .\nthe utila spiny - tailed iguana is endemic to the island of utila in the bay islands , honduras . on this island , the utila spiny - tailed iguana occurs in just one small area of mangrove forest , covering only eight square kilometres ( 1 ) .\nthe utila spiny - tailed iguana inhabits mangroves and nests on the beaches of utila , where females select areas largely free of vegetation to nest ( 1 ) ( 3 ) . adults are often found in mangrove trees , while juveniles inhabit the mangrove forest floor and smaller mangrove trees and shrubs ( 1 ) .\nthe utila spiny - tailed iguana is classified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthe tiny distribution of the utila spiny - tailed iguana makes it incredibly vulnerable to any threats . currently , those threats come in the form of habitat degradation and hunting . as tourism on the island of utila increases , the mangrove forest habitat of the spiny - tailed iguana is being cleared for the construction of houses and marinas , and used as a garbage dump site ( 1 ) . beaches are also being affected , with some beaches being sold for the development of houses , hotels and road construction , and other beach areas becoming covered with introduced invasive plants , creating a habitat unsuitable for egg - laying ( 1 ) . in addition , despite being protected by honduran law , this rare reptile is still hunted locally for its meat ( 1 ) .\ntremendous conservation efforts have been initiated for the utila spiny - tailed iguana in an attempt to prevent its extinction . in 1994 , the frankfurt zoological society and the senckenberg nature research society together initiated work to preserve the utila spiny - tailed iguana . as well as conserving the iguana and its mangrove habitat , the project aimed to promote the sustainable development of the island and create environmental awareness among the local inhabitants ( 3 ) .\nin 1998 , the iguana station was constructed , providing a centre for environmental education efforts , ecological research and captive breeding ( 3 ) . pregnant females are brought to the iguana station to lay their eggs , which are then artificially incubated . incubation in this protected , controlled environment ensures the greatest possible number of eggs hatch . the young are raised in captivity for two years before being released back into the swamps ( 4 ) .\nthe captive breeding programme has been extended to other zoos around the world , for example , in 2007 , nine utila spiny - tailed iguanas hatched at zsl london zoo ( 5 ) . this helps ensure the long - term survival of the species , should something devastating occur in the wild . these incredible efforts need to continue if the future of this species is to be secured .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nendemic a species or taxonomic group that is only found in one particular country or geographic area . incubation incubation is the act of keeping eggs warm so that development is possible . invertebrates animals with no backbone .\nbartlett , r . d . and bartlett , p . ( 2003 ) iguanas : everything about selection , care , nutrition , diseases , breeding and behaviour . barron\u2019s educational series , new york , usa .\njulius kramer am anger 18 , petersaurach , 91580 germany julius @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nthe utila spiny - tailed iguana feeds on plant matter and small invertebrates that inhabit the mangroves ( 2 ) . while mangrove habitat is perfect habitat for feeding and resting , it is not ideal for nesting , and so when the time comes , female utila spiny - tailed iguanas migrate to the island ' s beaches , where they lay their eggs in the sand and leave them to be incubated by the sun ( 4 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\njimena castillo canales bay islands foundation bo . jerico , ctgo . jungle cafe utila bay islands n / a honduras tel : landline : 504 - 2425 - 3946 mob : mobile : 504 - 99 - 937836 fax : 504 - 2425 - 3946\nthe text and images for this case study are uploaded by the grant recipient to raise awareness of the conservation work being done . through its website the fund provides the platform , but is not responsible for text or image content of case studies .\n\u00a9 mohamed bin zayed species conservation fund 2013 , all rights reserved . website by intex digital\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nthe herpetological journal is the society ' s prestigious quarterly scientific journal . articles are listed in biological abstracts , current awareness in biological sciences , current contents , science citation index , and zoological record .\nthe latest 20 issues can be downloaded when logged in with a herpetological journal subscription membership .\nnote : as of january 2017 , all new editions of the hj are only available online via the bhs website . the bhs no longer has a commercial hosting agreement with ingenta - although editions prior to end 2016 remain accessible on ingenta . those editions are of course also accessible on the bhs website for subscribers with an active and valid membership . should you experience any difficulty accessing hj editions via the website or have any queries in this regard , please contact webmaster @ urltoken\nrt @ ausherpetology : trophic specialization drives morphological evolution in sea snakes , some convergent some not . @ aussocherp @ asihcopeia\u2026 about 2 days ago\n\u00a9 british herpetological society 2018 - registered charity no . 205666 wind powered website by aye - aye design .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\ncites is an international agreement between governments , aimed to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival .\na curated database of candidate human ageing - related genes and genes associated with longevity and / or ageing in model organisms .\na curated database of genes associated with dietary restriction in model organisms either from genetic manipulation experiments or gene expression profiling .\nprojects focused on gene expression profiling of ageing and of dietary manipulations of ageing , such as caloric restriction .\nsoftware for ageing research , including the ageing research computational tools ( arct ) perl toolkit .\na curated database of ageing and life history information in animals , including extensive longevity records .\nthe benchmark genome assembly and annotation of the long - lived , cancer - resistant naked mole - rat ( heterocephalus glaber ) .\na high - coverage genome of the bowhead whale ( balaena mysticetus ) , the longest - lived mammal .\nanalyses using the anage database to study the evolution of longevity and ageing in vertebrate lineages .\na portal of ageing changes covering different biological levels , integrating molecular , physiological and pathological age - related data .\nthe whosage database contains people and biotech companies that are contributing to increase our understanding of ageing and life - extension .\ncomments , suggestions , ideas , and bug reports are welcome . please contact us .\nmy interests focus on the conservation and management of threatened and endangered taxa and the ecosystems in which they exist . i have found that the most successful conservation programs are those that encompass a variety of different adaptive approaches , coupled with implementation from the community level . as such i create holistic programs that focus on ecology and molecular biology studies . the results of which then guide outreach and education initiatives and policy from grassroots to international levels . in order to achieve these goals flagships species , such as iguanas , have been incorporated .\ne rupp . one island , two rock iguanas : modeling potential habitats to inform conservation in hispaniola . journal of nature conservation .\n, ml miemiller , ar puente - rolonm lj revell . 2016 . ecological specialization and morphological diversification in greater antillean boas . evolution 70 : 1882 - 1895 .\nauliya , m et al . 2016 . trade in live reptiles and its impact on reptile diversity : the european pet market as a case study . biological conservation .\nr carreras de leon , ym leon . 2016 . protected only on paper ? three case studies from the dominican republic . caribbean naturalist .\n, cl stephen ( iguana taxonomy working group ) . 2016 . a checklist of the iguanas of the world ( iguanidae ; iguaninae ) . herpetological conservation and biology . pp . 4 - 46 .\n( eds . ) . 2016 . iguanas : biology , systematics , and conservation . herpetological conservation and biology 11 ( monograph 6 ) .\n) and its implications for conservation . herpetological conservation and biology . pp . 79 - 89 .\nkn hines , l pieper . 2016 . growth , coloration , and demography of an introduced population of the acklins iguana (\n) in the exuma islands , bahamas . herpetological conservation and biology . pp . 139 - 153 .\nle ruyle , ja frazier , s green . 2014 . natural history of the honduran spiny - tailed iguana ,\n, on cayos cochinos menor , honduras . southwestern naturalist 59 : 280 - 285 .\nin the valle de agu\u00e1n , honduras . herpetological conservation and biology 9 : 436 - 447 .\nb\u00f6hm , m , et al . 2013 . the conservation status of the world\u2019s reptiles . biological conservation 157 : 372 - 385 .\n, c montgomery , s hudman . 2012 . characterization of 22 polymorphic microsatellite loci for the black - chested spiny - tailed iguana (\nr carreras , vh reynoso , e rupp , ym leon , sj inchaustegui . 2012 . green iguanas ,\nin the dominican republic . reptiles and amphibians : conservation and natural history 19 : 132 - 134 .\nacross its range : implications for population level management . herpetogical biology and conservation 7 : 399 - 406 .\niguana taxonomic working group . lj buckley , k de querioz , re etheridge , bd hollingsworth , jb iverson ,\n, cl stephen . 2011 . iucn ssc iguana specialist group . iguanas of the world . version 2011 . 2 . iucn . isg . org .\n: implication for conservation and management . endangered species research 14 : 113 - 126 .\n) in monroe county , tennessee . journal of the tennessee academy of science 86 : 53 - 55 .\nclade . reptile and amphibian conservation and natural history . reptiles and amphibians : conservation and natural history 17 : 136 - 139 .\n, bm fitzpatrick , ac echternacht . 2010 . gene trees , species , and species trees in the\n, bm fitzpatrick , tj near , ac echternacht . 2009 . gene flow between an endangered endemic iguana , and its wide spread relative , on the island of utila , honduras : when is hybridization a threat ? conservation genetics 10 : 1247 - 1254 .\ng ruthig . 2004 . habitat versatility in three sympatric species of plethodontid salamanders . journal of herpetology 38 : 434 - 437 .\n, s rasalato , b thman , e seniloli , t tuamoto , t yanuya , p harlow . 2016 . captive breeding and re - introductions of the monuriki island creasted iguana in fiji . pp 76 - 81 .\n: soorae , ps ( ed . ) . global re - introduction perspectives : 2016 . case - studies from around the globe . gland , switzerland : iucn / ssc re - introduction specialist group and abu dhabi , uae : environment agency - abu dhabi . xiv + 276 pp .\nniemiller , ml , rg reynolds ( eds ) . 2012 . the amphibians of tennessee . university of tennessee press , knoxville , tn , usa . ( several species accounts )\n. 2014 . lost iguanas : trouble in paradise . reptile and amphibian conservation and natural history 21 : 1 - 8 .\n. 2011 iguana specialist group update , iguana conservation in the bay islands of honduras . species , magazine of the species survival commission 53 : 25 .\n, a reuter , p mosig , l ruyle , l fitzgerald . 2011 . survey of status , trade , and exploitation of central american iguanas . united states fish and wildlife services , washington , dc .\n. 2011 . the struggling wishwillies : the endemic iguanas make their stand on the bay islands . bay islands voice . april 2011 : 12 - 16 .\n. 2011 . on the iguana trail . reptiles australasia 1 : 21 - 23 .\n. 2010 - 2011 . wishwilly diaries . bay islands voice . monthly magazine column focusing on\n, k hines . 2009 . john iverson : researcher , teacher , friend . reptiles and amphibians : conservation and natural history 36 : 46 - 51 .\n. 2006 . ctenosaurs of honduras : notes from the field . iguana 13 : 265 - 271 .\n. 2006 . sandy echternacht : a lifetime of herpetology . iguana 13 : 138 - 144 .\n. 2002 . sun , students , and scratches : research on allen\u2019s cay iguanas . iguana times 9 : 12 - 17 ."]}
{"id": 898, "summary": [{"text": "haimbachia placidellus , the peppered haimbachia moth , is a moth in the crambidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by haimbach in 1907 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from new york and massachusetts to south carolina , west to tennessee .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 17-18 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are pale tan to whitish with dark speckling .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are pale yellowish with a darker terminal line .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing from may to july .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae probably feed on grasses . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "haimbachia placidellus", "paragraphs": ["haimbachia dyar , 1909 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 11 ( 1 ) : 28 ; ts : crambus placidellus haimbach\ncrambus placidellus haimbach , 1907 ; ent . news 18 ( 2 ) : 44 ; tl : wenonah , new jersey\nhaimbachia prestonella ; capps , 1965 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 117 ( 3520 ) : 634\nhaimbachia quiriguella ; capps , 1965 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 117 ( 3520 ) : 636\nhaimbachia maroniella ; capps , 1965 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 117 ( 3520 ) : 640\nhaimbachia quiriguella schaus , 1922 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 24 ( 6 ) : 137 ; tl : quirigua , guatemala\nhaimbachia dumptalis schaus , 1922 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 24 ( 6 ) : 137 ; tl : cayuga , guatemala\nhaimbachia prestonella schaus , 1922 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 24 ( 6 ) : 138 ; tl : venadio , sinaloa , mexico\nhaimbachia pallescens capps , 1965 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 117 ( 3520 ) : 637 ; tl : redington , arizona\nhaimbachia indistinctalis capps , 1965 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 117 ( 3520 ) : 638 ; tl : kerrville , texas\nhaimbachia floridalis capps , 1965 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 117 ( 3520 ) : 641 ; tl : everglades , florida\nhaimbachia gloriella schaus , 1922 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 24 ( 6 ) : 137 ; tl : venadio , sinoloa , mexico\nhaimbachia cochisensis capps , 1965 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 117 ( 3520 ) : 645 ; tl : douglas , arizona\nhaimbachia diminutalis capps , 1965 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 117 ( 3520 ) : 646 ; tl : brownswille , texas\ni know these aren ' t the best pictures , but i didn ' t know if this was a specimen i hadn ' t seen so i didn ' t take as many pictures . the lighting was also very in and out . i think this may be peppered haimbachia ( haimbachia placidella ) .\nhaimbachia maroniella dyar & heinrich , 1927 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 71 ( 2691 ) : 36 ; tl : french guiana\nhaimbachia albescens capps , 1965 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 117 ( 3520 ) : 642 ; tl : sioux city , iowa\nhaimbachia discalis dyar & heinrich , 1927 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 71 ( 2691 ) : 37 ; tl : jalapa , mexico\nhaimbachia discalis ; capps , 1965 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 117 ( 3520 ) : 640 ; [ nacl ] , # 5486\nhaimbachia arizonensis capps , 1965 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 117 ( 3520 ) : 635 ; tl : baboquivari mtns , pima co . , arizona\nhaimbachia dumptalis ; dyar & heinrich , 1927 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 71 ( 2691 ) : 36 ; capps , 1965 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 117 ( 3520 ) : 638\nhaimbachia gloriella ; dyar & heinrich , 1927 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 71 ( 2691 ) : 34 ; capps , 1965 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 117 ( 3520 ) : 643\nhaimbachia squamulella ; dyar & heinrich , 1927 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 71 ( 2691 ) : 35 ; capps , 1965 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 117 ( 3520 ) : 634 ; [ nacl ] , # 5482\nhaimbachia placidella ; dyar & heinrich , 1927 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 71 ( 2691 ) : 35 ; capps , 1965 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 117 ( 3520 ) : 644 ; [ nacl ] , # 5489\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\ngeneric epithet in honor of frank haimbach . he also had gypsonoma haimbachiana ( kearfott , 1907 ) and zelleria haimbachi busck , 1915 named for him and described several species himself , including pyrausta plagalis haimbach , 1908 , heliades huachucalis ( haimbach , 1915 ) , platynota wenzelana ( haimbach , 1915 ) .\nnew species of american lepidoptera . harrison . g . dyar . 1909 . proceedings of the entomological society of washington 11 ( 1 ) : 19 - 29 .\nselect your preferred way to display the comments and click ' save settings ' to activate your changes .\ncite : 1163775 - click here to go directly to the globiz website search . from\nwelcome page\n:\nglobiz is an online platform for specialists working on pyraloidea ( snout moths ) , one of the most species rich groups of lepidoptera ( butterflies and moths ) . information edited in globiz is freely provided at this website via the search options . the abbreviation globiz is based on the german title globales informationssystem z\u00fcnslerfalter , which could be translated as global information system on pyraloidea . the title goes back to the originally in germany initiated and funded project ( see acknowledgments ) .\nsammlung europ\u00e4ischer schmetterlinge , errichtet von jacob h\u00fcbner in augsburg ( 1793\u20131841 ) : updated plates legend .\nseachable database with information on the general classification and the diet and feeding behaviour of the orders of insects and arachnids found in canada\u2019s forest environments . cite : 1463600\nan invaluable site for synonyms , links to original descriptions , literature , and other information . covers the entire world , but tends to have more complete information for european and north american species . a great place to begin literature searches . cite : 1329955\nthe best online resource for moths of great britain and ireland . cite : 1329952\nincludes data formerly on the u . s . geological survey ( usgs ) / the northern prairie wildlife research center ( npwrc ) website . cite : 1178378\n[ cite : 1114858 important resource for rare lep . records . . .\nthe lepidopterists ' society season summary [ sometimes : lepsoc - ss ] is an annual compilation of lepidoptera records from canada , mexico , and the united states . each year our members submit information regarding range extensions , host plant associations , population dynamics , etc . automated in 1995 , the database contains all records since that time plus saturniidae and sphingidae records since 1971 .\n.\nflorida , texas , north carolina , new jersey , tennessee , na . georgia , district of columbia , . . . . see [ maps ]\nchilo squamulella zeller , 1881 ; horae soc . ent . ross . 16 : 158 ; tl : bosque co . , texas\nthis information is not automatically synchronized with globiz and can sometimes be lagging behind .\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nzeller , 1881 columbische , chiloniden , crambiden und phycitideen horae soc . ent . ross . 16 : 154 - 256\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more"]}
{"id": 908, "summary": [{"text": "pinicola is a genus of \" grosbeaks \" of the finch family , fringillidae , containing a single species , the pine grosbeak ( pinicola enucleator ) .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the genus name pinicola is from latin pinus , \" pine tree \" , and colere , \" to dwell \" .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the crimson-browed finch was formerly included in the genus but was moved to carpodacus with the rosefinches based on phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial and nuclear dna sequences .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the molecular genetic studies have shown that the most closely related species to the pine grosbeak are the bullfinches in the genus pyrrhula .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the original description of the genus name pinicola by the french ornithologist louis jean pierre vieillot is variously dated to 1805 , [ 1.12 . ] 1807 , or 1808 as the year of publication .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the original description was included in vieillot \u2019s ( 1807 \u2013 1809 ) histoire naturelle des oiseaux de l'am\u00e9rique septentrionale in tome 1 on page iv ( and on plate 1 figure 13 but without associated scientific name immediately on the plate for the illustrated bill ) .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "the two volumes of this very rare work were printed in 22 consecutive issues in the course of three years .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "according to peterson ( 2002 ) , 1808 might be the proper publication date of pinicola .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "pinicola vieillot , 1808 ( aves , fringillidae ) makes the name pinicola br\u00e9bisson , 1818 a junior homonym and therefore unavailable for a genus of xyelidae ( insecta , hymenoptera ) . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "pinicola", "paragraphs": ["fomitopsis pinicola f . effusa , fomitopsis pinicola f . paludosa , fomitopsis pinicola f . pinicola , fomitopsis pinicola f . resupinata\npinicola enucleator carlottae : islands and coasts from queen charlotte islands to vancouver i .\nthe above specimen data are provided by antweb . please see crematogaster pinicola for further details\nplease confirm that you want to save all your changes for ' fomitopsis pinicola ss1 v1 . 0 ' .\nplease confirm that you want to discard all your changes for ' fomitopsis pinicola ss1 v1 . 0 ' .\n3 . fomitopsis pinicola ( swartz : fr . ) karst . - krit . finl . basidsv . , p . 306 . 1889 . - boletus pinicola swartz , svenska vetensk . - akad . . . .\npinicola enucleator pacatus : siberia ( e of yenisey r . ) to altai mts . , mongolia and manchuria\npinicola enucleator alascensis : nw alaska to nw mackenzie and ne br . col . ; winters to nw us\npolyporus pinicola ( sw . ) fr . , systema mycologicum 1 : 372 ( 1821 ) [ mb # 449579 ]\n2 . fomes pinicola ( sw . ) fr . , summa vegetabilium scandinaviae 2 ( 1849 ) [ mb # 152299 ]\n1 . boletus pinicola sw . , kungl . svenska vetenskapsakad . handl . : 88 ( 1810 ) [ mb # 233249 ]\n4 . polyporus pinicola ( sw . ) fr . , systema mycologicum 1 : 372 ( 1821 ) [ mb # 449579 ]\n3 . placodes pinicola ( sw . ) pat . , les hym\u00e9nomyc\u00e8tes d ' europe : 139 ( 1887 ) [ mb # 472362 ]\nwe believe that ecological evidence clearly indicates that c . ashmeadi and c . pinicola are reproductively isolated , and thus c . pinicola is a good species , not merely a color variant . ( see the biology section below for more details regarding the ecological distinctiveness of this species ) .\n7 . ungulina pinicola ( sw . ) singer , beihefte zum botanischen centralblatt 46 ( 2 ) : 79 ( 1929 ) [ mb # 274535 ]\nfomitopsis pinicola ( sw . ) p . karst . , meddelanden af societas pro fauna et flora fennica 6 : 9 ( 1881 ) [ mb # 101927 ]\n2 . fomes pinicola ( swartz ex fr . ) cooke ( pl . iii & pl . viii , 23 ) key pattern : ( 12 ) 12181221 1 2\nplease note that this organism is for archival use only . please see the current fomitopsis pinicola fp - 58527 ss1 v3 . 0 site for the latest data and information .\n6 . trametes pinicola ( sw . ) p . karst . , bidrag till k\u00e4nnedom av finlands natur och folk 37 : 46 ( 1882 ) [ mb # 471927 ]\nwe expect that c . pinicola will be found to occur widely on the southern coastal plain where suitable habitats are found . material collected throughout florida shows a remarkable consistency in color , size range , and morphology . crematogaster pinicola is clearly less variable than its sister species , c . ashmeadi , which shows more obvious variation in size and color over its much wider geographic distribution .\n5 . pseudofomes pinicola ( sw . ) l\u00e1zaro ibiza , revta r . acad . cienc . exact . fis . nat . madr . : 584 ( 1916 ) [ mb # 471082 ]\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : pinicola enucleator . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\ndeyrup and cover ( 2007 ) - workers morphologically indistinguishable from those of crematogaster ashmeadi , except for a distinctive color difference in freshly collected material . in c . pinicola workers , the head , mesosoma , petiole , postpetiole , and appendages are ferrugineous red , and the gaster is black . in c . ashmeadi , mature specimens are always a uniform dark brown to black . a similar color distinction is seen in alate queens ; those of c . pinicola are notably bicolored , those of c . ashmeadi are uniformly brown or black . males of c . pinicola are generally somewhat lighter in color than those of c . ashmeadi , but are harder to distinguish reliably than the corresponding female castes . note : detailed morphometric studies might possibly reveal the existence of minute , but consistent morphological differences between the two species , but a detailed examination of all three castes in both species has not provided hints that such differences exist .\nt . pinicola is usually found in lightly wooded areas , mainly on young trees and tall open herbage in woodland clearings and rides . in essex it is often found in clearings several years after coppicing has taken place . adults of both sexes are found in early to mid - summer , occasionally into august .\ncrematogaster pinicola may be an important part of the diet of southeastern pine woodpeckers , especially the endangered red - cockaded woodpecker , whose diet was studied by hess and james ( 1998 ) . in the appalachicola national forest they found that c . pinicola comprised about 43 % of the woodpecker\u2019s arthropod diet , a degree of specialization on a single prey species that may be unique for insectivorous birds in the united states . many birds show ephemeral specialization on single species of insects that are at a high point in a population cycle , but the red - cockaded woodpecker can afford persistent specialization because ant colonies themselves are abundant , long - lived , and available at all seasons . this ant revises the moral of aesop\u2019s fable of the grasshopper and the ant : the improvident grasshopper may vanish in the winter , but the thrifty and industrious ant can be eaten all year long ! the original distribution of c . pinicola , like that of the red - cockaded woodpecker , was probably centered in the distribution of the longleaf pine ecosystem . this ecosystem , which once covered approximately 92 million acres , from the southeastern tip of virginia to eastern texas , has been almost completely destroyed ( 97 % of the old growth forest is gone ) , and much of what remains is highly fragmented and difficult to manage with fire ( frost 1993 ) . crematogaster pinicola may have undergone a major decline with the reduction of its habitat , but it is definitely not an endangered species . the gross inequalities imposed by size scale are all in favor of c . pinicola : while a single family group of the red - cockaded woodpecker requires about 40 hectares of foraging habitat ( hooper 1996 ) , a single hectare of large pines could support many colonies and thousands of individuals of c . pinicola . the red - cockaded woodpecker is not threatened by loss of its food supply , but by the lack of suitable nesting trees , and by its tendency to leave small , remnant patches of pine forest ( wilson 1992 ) .\nfomitopsis pinicola ( sw . ) p . karst is a brown rot basidiomycete species commonly collected on dead conifer trees or occasionally live trees in boreal forest of the northern hemisphere . the basidiocarps of the species are perennial and persist for many years producing a new layer of hymenophore every growing season . the role of fomitopsis pinicola in the conifer forests is very important as the species is one of the most prominent wood decayers in these ecosystems and thus play important role in the carbon cycle . the species is characterized by brown rot biochemistry where the cellulose and hemicellulose are utilized by the fungus leaving behind the lignin . this results in a brown appearance of the degraded wood tissue , which crumbles into cubical , fragile pieces . fomitopsis pinicola is placed in the clade of antrodia along with other species of the genus . antrodia clade is a major clade in the polyporales , which consists of brown rotters . postia placenta , which has been sequenced already by the joint genome institute , is also placed in the antrodia clade . the genome sequence of fomitopsis pinicola will increase our knowledge on the brown rot biochemistry for the genus and it will create new opportunities for comparative studies on the wood degradation biochemistry with other important brown rot species , that have been sequenced or they will be sequenced , such as postia placenta , gloeophyllum trabeum and serpula lacrymans .\nin the apalachicola national forest , mating flights of c . pinicola occur in june and july ( tschinkel 2002 ) . nest - founding queens regularly occur in abandoned beetle galleries in small dead branches on pine saplings ( hahn and tschinkel 1995 , baldacci and tschinkel 1999 ) . small trees , under 7 m tall , are preferred , and trees with more than two dead branches are also preferred ( baldacci and tschinkel , 1999 ) . such trees are far too small to support a mature colony of c . pinicola , which contains several tens of thousands of individuals ( tschinkel 2002 ) . workers from one colony are hostile to workers from other colonies ( tschinkel 2002 ) , and it is possible that it is safest course of action for founding queens is to found a colony in a tree that is yet unsuitable for large colonies . once established , these small founding colonies could then send scouts to find a large tree that is not already well defended by another colony . it appears that there is never more than one colony in a tree , and few colonies occupy more than one tree ( tschinkel 2002 ) . surveys , using baits and other methods , of trees in class sizes suitable for mature colonies revealed 55 to almost 90 % of the trees were occupied by c . pinicola ( tschinkel and hess 1999 , tschinkel 2002 ) . the higher percentage was obtained by more diverse and intensive survey techniques , and is probably the more accurate figure ( tschinkel 2002 ) . there are no co - dominant arboreal ants in these pine forests , although several other arboreal ant species may co - occur with c . pinicola ( tschinkel and hess 1999 ) .\nlife habit : lichenized thallus : crustose , areolate , without elongated lobes ; prothallus : absent surface : blue - gray , verruculose , sorediate soredia : fine , in delimited , laminal , cupuliform soralia cortex : cellular , 14 - 21 \u00b5m thick , granules absent ; medulla without granules apothecia : adnate or stipitate , 0 . 2 - 1 mm in diam . , lecanorine disc : brownish orange or orange , flat or slightly concave , epruinose margin : persistent , flush or slightly raised ; thalline margin present , concolorous with thallus ; proper margin not visible parathecium : elongate to oval cells ; exciple below hypothecium amorphous epihymenium : golden , k + red hymenium : hyaline , 60 - 75 \u00b5m tall paraphyses : 1 - 2 tip cells slightly swollen , with few branches ; subhymenium hyaline asci : cylindrical , 8 - spored ascospores : hyaline , 2 locules , ellipsoid , 11 - 14 ( - 15 . 5 ) x 5 . 5 - 7 \u00b5m , isthmus 2 - 4 \u00b5m , spore end wall thin pycnidia : present , totally immersed , ostiole black spot tests : apothecial margin k + violet , 10 % n + violet , cn + violet , c + violet ; thallus k + violet , 10 % n + violet , cn + violet unidentified anthraquinones and thalloidima green . substrate and ecology : on bark world distribution : north america sonoran distribution : arizona and baja california . notes : caloplaca pinicola has a dark gray thallus and apothecial margins and is very similar to c . cerina that has a continuous thallus while c . pinicola has a thicker areolate thallus sometimes with blue gray soredia and the spore isthmus is narrower . the soredia are variable and sometimes rare or absent . the prominent dark gray thalline margin of the apothecia of c . pinicola separates it from c . ahtii that also has blue gray soredia . caloplaca pinicola is probably more common but has not been separated from c . cerina .\nwhile broadly sympatric with c . ashmeadi across most of florida , c . pinicola is distinctively different in its ecology . it nests exclusively in pine trees , particularly slash pine ( pinus elliotii ) and longleaf pine ( p . palustris ) , which have relatively robust twigs . pines occupied by c . pinicola are usually open - grown ( i . e . , well - separated from other trees ) and surrounded by low brush or low perennial herbs and grasses . these pines may be in dry sandhill habitats or in wetter flatwoods habitats . both habitat types are maintained by frequent fires that retard the invasion of other woody plant species . in sharp contrast , c . ashmeadi shows much wider ecological tolerances in nest site selection , and in habitat preferences . c . ashmeadi nests in pines , in many hardwoods including oaks ( quercus spp . ) , hickories ( carya spp . ) , ash ( fraxinus caroliniana ) , red maple ( acer rubrum ) , shrubs such as winged sumac ( rhus copallina l . ) , vines such as greenbriar ( smilax spp . ) and grape ( vitis spp . ) and in the hollow stems of large herbs such as dog fennel ( eupatorium capillifolium ) . trees , shrubs , vines and herbs occupied by c . ashmeadi may be in open sites or under a dense canopy , and may be in dry or wet habitats . pines growing in mixed hardwood stands , surrounded by high brush , or thickly covered with vines , are much more likely to be occupied by c . ashmeadi than c . pinicola . our extensive collecting experience has shown that the two species show considerable segregation by habitat across much of florida , but that zones of overlap , where pines mix with hardwoods , occur as well . within these zones it is not uncommon to find c . pinicola in a large pine tree only a few meters from an oak inhabited by c . ashmeadi . what is especially noteworthy is that these forms maintain their integrity where they co - occur ; we have no found color intergrades in these overlap areas , and we have not found dark queens with bicolored workers or bicolored queens with dark workers . based on these observations , we conclude that the two forms are reproductively isolated and thus constitute separate , if closely related species .\nspecimens of c . ashmeadi , which appear blackish in the field , often appear brownish in collections , especially if the specimens have been stored for several years in alcohol prior to mounting . the gaster may fade somewhat less than the head and mesosoma , so specimens may appear obscurely bicolored . specimens of c . pinicola can fade from bright mahogany - red to a dull brown , converging in color with some specimens of c . ashmeadi . the authors cannot at present confidently identify all specimens in collections . associations with alates are sometimes useful , as queens seem to show less color change than workers as they age . we have not found differences in male genitalic structures , so males are no help in resolving this problem .\nwalter tschinkel and several associates have published detailed studies of the ecology of a pine - inhabiting crematogaster ( referred to as c . ashmeadi ) in the appalachicola national forest in northern florida . ( hahn and tschinkel , 1997 , hess and james , 1998 , baldacci and tschinkel , 1999 , tschinkel and hess , 1999 , and tschinkel ( 2002 ) . tschinkel ( pers . comm . ) says the ants were , \u201cwere red and black , and considering their rather particular life cycle and nesting habits , quite distinct from the all - black species on hardwoods . \u201d based on this comment , and our own collections on pines in the same area , we are confident that the ant studied by tschinkel is c . pinicola , not c . ashmeadi .\ncwr states that the the first livraison was published 1 dec . 1807 . ( richmond . 1899 . auk 16 ( 4 ) : 327 fn . 1 ) and this fact has been used as the basis for dating the genus group names pinicola , piranga , icteria to 1807 . this determination has most recently been employed by browning & monroe . 1991 . arch . nat . hist . 18 ( 3 ) : 395 - 396 , and browning & monroe is cited by many who employ the date of 1807 . of interest browning & monroe state that richmond used the journal typographique to determine this date , but my reading of richmond ' s paper does not lead to that same conclusion . richmond ' s statement occurs in a note discussing the general matter of antedated works , ( a practice common in french works of this period and very misleading ) .\nthis new species of crematogaster was first recognized as an undescribed species separate from crematogaster ashmeadi by william buren . after retiring , buren moved to florida , where he retained his interest in crematogaster . hand - labeled specimens in buren\u2019s collection show he believed that the common southeastern c . ashmeadi included a second , previously unrecognized species distinguished by its red and black coloration . his student james trager also knew of this species , as evidenced by specimens of crematogaster pinicola collected in 1981 at the archbold biological station and labeled by him \u201c crematogaster n . sp . \u201d buren probably would have described this species , but he became ill and died in 1983 . the same ant is also the \u201cundescribed species\u201d of crematogaster referred to by deyrup and trager ( 1986 ) . in his review of eastern crematogaster , johnson ( 1988 ) was the first to address the problem of separate color forms in c . ashmeadi in print , but he did not arrive at a definite conclusion concerning their biological basis . we believe the accumulated evidence supports the hypothesis that the red and black form of crematogaster ashmeadi is , in fact , a valid sibling species .\nin describing a species of ant that can be recognized visually only by its color we are aware that we a treading on the myrmecological equivalent of \u201cthin ice . \u201d early ant systematists were notorious for naming new taxa ( both specific and infraspecific ) based on minute ( and indeed , sometimes entirely imaginary ) differences in color , sculpture , or pilosity . creighton ( 1950 ) was withering in his criticism of these practices , and subsequent generations of ant taxonomists have been strongly conditioned to believe that color alone is unreliable as a separatory character on the species level . much cumulative experience with the genus crematogaster is an additional reason for caution . color variation is not uncommon in crematogaster species . for example , dark and bicolored variants have been observed in other crematogaster of the eastern united states , notably crematogaster laeviuscula ( as atkinsoni ) and crematogaster pilosa . in both species , northern specimens tend to be uniformly black or brown in color , while bicolored specimens are sometimes found in florida and elsewhere along the gulf coast . with precisely this in mind , johnson ( 1988 ) treated c . pinicola as a color variant form of c . ashmeadi .\nhandb . birdsaustr . handbook to the birds of australia gould , j . 1865 london 2 vols .\nhandb . birdse . china a handbook of the birds of eastern china ( chihli , shantung , kiangsu , anhwei , kiangsi , chekiang , fohkien and kwantung provinces ) author : la touche , john david digues de . title : a handbook of the birds of eastern china ( chihle , shantung , kiangsu , anhwei , kiangsi , chekiang , fohkien , and kwangtung provinces ) . / by j . d . d . la touche . . . publisher : london , taylor and francis , 1925 - 1934 . description : 2 v . illus . , plates , fold . maps . 24 cm . notes : issued in parts .\nhandb . birdsworld handbook of the birds of the world lynx editions , barcelona 1992 - 2013 v . 1 - 16 , special volume .\nhandb . gamebirds a hand - book to the game birds . ogilvie - grant , william robert 1895 , 1897 london 2 vols . 8vo .\nhandb . naturgesch . handbuch der naturgeschichte , & c . 2 abth . pp . viii , xxvi , xii , 858 ( 1836 ) 1837 8vo berlin\nhandb . naturgesch . vog . deutschl . handbuch der naturgeschichte aller vogel deutschlands . . . brehm , cl 1831 ilmenau pp . 1 , 1085 [ ? bock has xxiv + 1088 ]\nhandb . spec . orn . handbuch der speciellen ornithologie reichenbach , heinrich gottlieb ludwig 1851 - 54 dresden and leipzig portions published as : icon . syn . av . icones ad synopsin avium\nhandb . zool . handbuch der zoologie 2 abth . goldfuss , georg august 1820 nurnberg 8vo\nhand - bookgame - birds a hand - book to the game birds . ogilvie - grant , william robert [ 1863 - 1924 ] 1895 , 97 . london 8vo\nhand - listgen . spec . birds [ gray ] hand - list of genera and species of birds , distinguishing those contained in the british museum . gray , g . r . 1869 - 71 london 3 pt . 8vo\nhand - listgen . spec . birds [ sharpe ] a hand - list of the genera and species of birds . ( nomenclator avium fossilum tum viventium . ) sharpe , rb . 1899 - 1909 london 5 vol . 8vo\nhawaiianalmanacannual [\n1879\n] hawaiian almanac and annual for 1879 [ all about hawaii . the recognized book of authentic information on hawaii , combined with thrum ' s hawaiian annual and standard guide . 1st . ed 1875 . title varies : 1875 - 1924 , hawaiian almanac and annual ( on cover 1892 - 1924 : hawaiian annual ) . ] [ message from luella kurkjian luellak @ urltoken to storrs olson 97 . 05 . 30\npublication date for 1879 issue is 1878 . acutally , no publication date is included anywhere in this or previous issues . however , at the bottom fo p . 32 is the following :\nthe alamnac and annual is made up to november , to be issue in tome for the december mails . . .\n]\nhist . acad . r . sci . paris histoire de l ' academie royale des sciences , . . . avec les memoires de mathematique & de physique , pour la meme anne , tires des registres de cette academie . 1789 a paris , de l ' imprimerie royale . desfontaines ' memoires sur quelques nouvelles especes d ' oiseaux des cotes de barbarie\nhist . birdseur . a history of the birds of europe , not observed in the british isles . 2nd ed . bree , charles robert [ 1811 - 1886 ] 1875 - 1876 london 4to [ issued in monthly parts ( ? possibly only 1\nhist . brit . birds a history of british birds , with coloured illustrations of their eggs . seebohm , henry 1882 - 5 london 4 vols . 4to r . h . porter [ ? 1883 - 5 ] i 1883 ii 1884 iii 1885 iv 1885 ( plates ) [ imprint dates from yale orn . libr . copy 2003 . 11 . 07 ]\nhist . brit . birds [ macgillivray ] a history of british birds , indigenous and migratory : including their organization , habits , and relations . macgillivray , william [ 1796 - 1852 ] 1837 - 40 london 3 vols . 8vo .\nhist . brit . foss . mamm . birds a history of british fossil mammals , and birds . owen , richard 1846 london 23 cm pp . xlvi + 560 illust . woodcuts\nhist . ilescanariesorn . histoire naturelle des \u00eeles canaries . ornithologie canarienne . webb , philip barker & berthelot , sabin 1835 - 44 paris vol ii . by above authors and alfred moquin - tandon 3 vols and atlas 4to and folio\nthis work appears to be highly problematic both with regards attribution of authority and dates of publication . first i will discuss dates .\nzimmer writes ( p . 666 - 667 ) . the ornithological portion of webb and berhtelot ' s natural history ov the canary islands , published in the years 1835 - 50 ( vol . ii , zoology , 1835 - 44 ) . the present section [ app : referring to pp . 1 - 48 , pll . 1 - 4 ( col . ; by e . travi\u00e9s ) . ] appears to have been issued as a unit ( traces of original ? wrapper remain ) , forming a portion of pt . 2 of vol . ii , and probably dating 1841 . dresser ( a history of the birds of europe , 1871 - 82 , q . v . ) cites 1841 , as does koenig ( journal f\u00fcr ornithologie , july and oct . , 1890 , pp . 398 , 404 , and 483 ) ; a number of references are given in the work itself to publications dated 1840 . the paper describes 108 species of birds , 5 of which are new , and gives observations on habits based on the field notes of webb and berthelot , of moquin - tandon , and of all three authors , the last being indicated by the subtitle transcribed above .\nsherborn , in index animalium pp . 1410 , 2838 , 3090 , 3461 , 4079 , and 6476 lists a number of avian taxa , and dates them all as\n[ me judice 1841 ]\n- - which is certainly indicative of some uncertainty on his part .\nevidence from the richmond index , indicates that the situation may not be as simple as suggested by zimmer . a number of cards in the index indicate greater complexity and the certainty that the work was not\nissued as a unit\n:\npuffinus columbinus from p . 44 and plate 4 fig . 2 of the work notes : plate 4 ( livr . 31 ) july 1838 text , pp . 1 - 48 ( livr . 63 ) may 1842\nfringilla teydea from p . 20 and plate 1 ( livr . 4 ) of the work notes : livr . 1 - 9 reviewed in isis , 1837 and date given as 1835\nrichmond clearly worked quite hard on understanding this publication , as in his unpublished notes on dates of publication he has 16 cards dealing with the dating and structure of the publication . a few extracts are included here :\nthe prospectus was rec ' d by the paris academy by nov . 15 , 1835 , and it stated it was to be in 50 no ' s each containing some letterpress in quarto and 5 of 6 plates in folio . thus even in the prospectus there was an indication of separate format and thus possibly separate issue for the letterpress and plates .\nlivs . i - vii . paris . 1836\nwere reviewed in mag . zool . & bot . i 1837 p . 470 - 482 where it was stated it was to be completed in 50 livr . and two numbers are published monthly\n. additionally in that review it is stated no part of the letter - press [ of the zoology ] having yet appeared . richmond goes on to comment on that card so the text of the zoology must have started after livr . 7 . the only bird plate in the above livr . 1 - 7 is fringilla teydea .\nlivr . 1 - 7 text and livr . 1 - 6 atlas . were noted in the bull . sci . imp . acad . st . petersburg . for jan . 1837 .\n50 livraisons ( 3 - 4 signatures and 5 - 6 pll . ) were reviewed in isis 1839 p . 700 - 713 .\nlivr . 72 & 73 rec ' d by paris acad . by feb . 19 , 1844\nlivr . 74 rec ' d by paris acad . by may 6 , 1844\nfor my part , some confusion still remains , and zimmer ' s comment about references to works published in 1840 seems peculiar given the data and evidence that richmond sets out . it does appear that zimmer ' s impression that the\npresent section appears to have been issued as a unit\nis misleading regarding the historical production of this work . while it is speculation , it is possible that the copy zimmer dealt with was a subsequent re - issue of the work , in which case it might well have been issued as a unit and contained references to works from 1840 .\nno . ' s it must be noted , are not equivalent to livraisons in this instance .\nsome works are irregular in their attributions , sometimes employing\nwebb , berthelot & moquin - tandon\nwhile other times employing\nmoquin - tandon\nwithout bothering to explain what ( if any ) rationale or understanding they have of the matter . the explanation by zimmer ( v . s . ) certainly suggests to me that all three authors should be listed .\ni have never seen this work , and so do not know if there are indications within it that would affect the authorial attribution . it is quite clear that , as usual , richmond had the deepest , most critical and knowledgable understanding here of any of those addressing this matter . he always listed the three authors and i choose to follow his example .\nhist . islacuba [ sagra ] historia fisica , politica y natural de la isla de cuba , por d . ramon de la sagra . . . sagra , ramon de la [ 1801 - 71 ] paris 13 vols a . bertrand . [ also as histoire physique , politique et naturelle de ; ile de cuba . 1839 - 1856 sagra , ramon de le 13 vols . paris ]\nhist . n . am . birds [ baird , brewer , ridgway ] a history of north american birds . baird , sf , brewer , tm , and ridgway , r . 3 vol . 4to pp . xxviii , 596 , vi ; ( 4 ) , 590 , vi ; ( 4 ) , 560 , xxviii . 1874 boston little , brown and co .\nsee richmond cw . 1899\non the date of lac\u00e9p\u00e8de ' s \u0091tableaux . \u0092\nauk\n' the\ndidot\nedition , in 18mo , is said to consist of 76 volumes , dating from 1799 to 1806 ; the genera , mr . sherborn states , are to be credited to lac\u00e9p\u00e8de , and the species to daudin . '\nhist . nat . [ buffon ] ed . lacepede histoire naturelle par buffon dediee au citoyen lacepede [ by whom this edition was edited ] 1799 - 1809 76 tom . paris [ note : under ploceus [ loxia ] baglafecht , cwr notes :\nloxia baglafecht ( daudin ) buffon , histoire naturelle , vol . 14 , p . 245 , 1799 . ( listed in vol 14 , as\n20 . lebaglefecht . loxia baglefecht , tome vi , p . 191\n) . note : the description , habits , etc . , appear on pp . 191 - 192 in vol . 6 of the above edition . however , the scientific name appears in the _ index _ vol . 14 as quoted above .\n] [ peters lists this as\nquad .\nwhich would imply the\nquadrupedes\nwhich is 14 vol . it seems more likely that it is in\noiseaux\n, which is in 18 vols . but both daudin and lacepede did work in quad . and the volume includes a\ntableau des divisions . . . des mammiferes ( - oiseaux )\nwhich may be the\nindex\nthat the richmond cardex refers to . ] [ note : richmond cw . 1899 .\non the date of lac\u00e9d\u00e8de ' s ' tableaux '\n. auk\nshould be 1800 ? ( very confusing ) . ] [ note : see also cwr dop b297 . jpg also suggesting 1800 for livr . 14 ]\nhist . nat . cetacees histoire naturelle des c\u00e9tac\u00e9es , par le citoyen la cep\u00e9de . 1804 paris\nhist . nat . colibris , suppl . ois . - mouch . histoire naturelle des colibris , suivie d ' un supplement a l ' histoire naturelle des oiseaux - mouches . lesson , rp 1830 - 2 13 ( ? 14 ) pts . paris 8vo pp . 10 + 196\nhist . nat . madagascar . ois . histoire physique , naturelle et politique de madagascar milne - edwards a , and grandidier a 1875 - 1890 4to vol . xii to xv : tom . i pp . 779 ; tom . ii - iv 208 pls . zimmer discusses this complex work in detail ( pp . 264 - 265 ) . the text portion was issued in three parts : pp . 1 - 176 ; 1879 pp . 177 - 376 ; 1882 ( feb . or more probably later ) . pp . 377 - 779 ; 1885 [ dieter schierenberg cat . gives 1875 - 1885 and gives vols . 12 - 15 : histoire naturelle des oiseaux with text and 3 atlases . ]\nhist . nat . mamm . histoire naturelle des mammif\u00e8res , avec l ' indication de leurs moeurs , et de leurs rapports avec les arts , le commerce et l ' agriculture . gervais , paul 1854 - 55 paris 2 vols . illust .\nhist . nat . mamm . ois . [ lesson ] histoire naturelle generale et particuliere des mammiferes et des oiseaux decouverts depuis 1788 jusqu ' a nos jours . lesson , rp 1828 - 37 paris 8vo 10 tom . illust . col .\nhist . nat . mendoza [ status of journal uncertain . ? notas del museo / museo de historia natural de san rafael - mendoza ]\nhist . nat . ois . am . sept . histoire naturelle des oiseaux de l ' amerique septontrionale . . vieillot , ljp 1807 - 09 paris . 2 vols .\n[ much ( but apparently not quite enough ) work has been done to determine the dates of this work .\nrichmond published his findings on this in 1899 , however in a 1930 letter to witmer stone , richmond notes that upon reexamining the work to verify the generic names contained therein , he was\nshocked\nto find that there was a list of errata , covering up to p . 65 which was printed on the same\nleaf\nas the generic names . such an errata list could not have been published in 1807 ( taxa as early as from p . 42 are dated to 1808 ) . richmond indicates to stone that the dates for these three genera will need to be changed to 1808 .\nhist . nat . ois . [ lemaout ] histoire naturelle des oiseaux , suivant la classification de m . isisdore geoffroy - saint - hilaire , avec l ' indication de leurs moeurs , et de leurs raports avec les art , le commerce et l ' agriculture . le maout , jean emmanuel marie [ 1800 - 77 ] 1853 paris 2 p . l . , xivii , 425 , [ 3 ] p . front . illus 34 pl . l . curmer\nhist . nat . ois . [ loche ] title : histoire naturelle des oiseaux / par le commandant loche . main author : loche , victor , 1806 - 1863 added title page : histoire naturelle des oiseaux de l ' alg\u00e9rie added title page : oiseaux publisher info : paris : arthus bertrand , 1867 . physical descrip : 2 vols ( [ iii ] , 309 ; 444p , 13 leaves of plates ) ; 38 cm series : ( exploration scientifique de l ' alg\u00e9rie pendant les ann\u00e9es 1840 , 1841 , 1842 . sciences physiques . zoologie ; [ 4 ] ) bibliog . / index note : table m\u00e9thodique des mammif ` eres et des oiseaux , p . 412 - 444\nhist . nat . ois . - mouches [ mulsant & verreaux ] histoire naturelle des oiseaux - mouches , ou colibris constituant la famille des trochildes mulsant , etienne & verreaux , edouard 1873 ? - 78 4 vol . 4to lyon . issued as 16 livraisons 1 - 4 1873 - 4 5 - 8 1875 - 6 9 - 12 1876 - 7 13 - 16 1877 - 8 supplement 1879\nhist . nat . ois . parad . histoire naturelle des oiseaux de paradis et des epimaques ; & c . lesson , r . p . 1834 - 35 paris p . 1 - 34 synopsis pp . 1 - 248\nprob . 16 pts . 1 - 4 ( pp . 1 - 64 ) 1834 ; 5 - 7 ( pp . 65 - 112 ) 1835\nhist . nat . pig . gallin . histoire naturelle generale des pigeons et des gallinaces . accompagne de planches anatomiques . temminck , cj [ 1770 - 1858 ] 1813 - 15 amsterdam 3 vol . 8vo\nhist . nat . tangaras histoire naturelle des tangaras , des manakins et des todiers . . . desmarest , anselme - ga\u00ebtan 1805 - ( 1807 ) folio paris . zimmer ( p . 167 ) notes that sherborn ( index animalium sect . 2 pt i p . xlliii , 1922 ) cites livrs . 1 - 4 1805 livrs . 5 - 10 1806 livrs . 11 - 12 1807\nhist . nat . trochil . histoire naturelle des trochilidae ( synopsis et catalogue ) simon , eugene louis 1921 paris 4to pp . 6 + 416\nhoch . nordl . deutsch - ost - afrika die mittleren hochla : nder des no : rdlichen deutsch - ost - afrika . wissenschaftliche ergebnisse der irangi - expedition 1896 - 1897 nebst kurzer reisebeschreibung . im auftrage der irnagi - gesellschaft herasusgegaben von dem fu : her der expedition . . . . werther , c . waldemar [ 1867 - ? ? ] 1898 berlin h . paetel . 493 , [ 4 ] p . 126 il . 7 pl . 2 maps in pocket .\nhornero el hornero revista de la sociedad ornitologica del plata para el estudio y protecci\u00f3n de las aves de la argentina y paises vecinos v . 1 - 1917 / 19 - buenos aires , asociacion ornitologica del plata . notes : vols . 1 - 9 issued by the association under its earlier name , sociedad ornitologica del plata .\nhummingbird the humming bird . a monthly scientific , artistic and industrial review . adolphe boucard ed . 1891 - 5 london vol . ii . no . 1 jan . , 1892 vol . ii . no . 2 - 12 feb - dec . , 1892 ( no . ' s monthly ) vol . iii . no . 1 mar . , 1893 vol . iii . no . 2 jun . , 1893 vol . iii . no . 3 sep . , 1893 vol . iii . no . 4 dec . , 1893 vol . iv . no . 1 mar . , 1894 vol . iv . no . 2 jun . , 1894 vol . iv . no . 3 sep . , 1894 vol . iv . no . 4 dec . , 1894 vol . v . no . 1 mar . , 1895 vol . v . no . 2 jun . , 1895 vol . v . no . 3 sep . , 1895 vol . v . no . 4 dec . , 1895 [ finis ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nioc _ names _ file _ plus - 8 . 2g : 8 . 2\nprzevalski ' s finch , previously called pink - tailed rosefinch , is a relict member of an ancient separate lineage that is as old as , or older than other families of finches ; it belongs in its own monotypic family urocynchramidae , with a name change ( groth 2000 , p\u00e4ckert et al . 2016 )\nclassification of fringillidae revised for v3 . 3 ; see especially zuccon et al . 2012\neurope ( except british isles , sardinia ) to c asia , w , n turkey , c and e caucasus and nw iran .\nsplit gran canaria blue finch from [ tenerife ] blue chaffinch ( sangster et al . 2015 )\n( zuccon et al . 2012 , cf kirwan & gregory 2005 , bli , hbw )\n( tietze et al . 2013 , cf rasmussen & anderton 2005 , ioc 3 . 5 ) . restore english name to great rosefinch\nhas priority for species name . change english name to pink - rumped rosefinch ( hbw , clements , h & m 3 )\n( wu et al . 2011 , tietze et al . 2013 ; cf collar 2004 )\nhawaiian honeycreepers resequenced following pratt 2005 , lerner et al . 2011 ; see also nacc 2015 . needs review of oversplit genera .\nisland populations of the akepa are recognized as separate species ( nacc 2015 - b - 4c ) ; add island name ( hawaii ) to akepa .\nbased on lerner et al . ( 2011 ) phylogeny ; see also pratt 2005 .\n, is preoccupied by a subspecies of greater akialoa . that conflict no longer exists with placement of kauai amakihi in\n( arnaiz - villena et al . 1999 , nguembock et al . 2009 , zuccon et al . 2012 )\n( tschusi , 1901 ) as a synonym . permanently invalid . dickinson & christidis , 2014 .\n( arnaiz - villena et al . 1999 , nguembock et al . 2009 , zuccon et al . 2012 , nacc )\nrecognized by bou ( ottvall et al . 2002 , marthinsen et al . 2008 )\npending future analyses ( knox 2001 , ottvall et al . 2002 , marthinsen et al . 2008 , mason & taylor 2015 , bou , h & m4 , nacc 2017 - b - 7 )\nse siberia , ne china , korea , sakhalin and kuril is . and japan\n( weir and schluter 2004 , smith et al . 2005 ; nacc 2017 - c - 5 )\npreliminary genetics suggest that megaplaga and leucoptera are sisters and that bifasciata should be split to avoid paraphyly ( parchman et al . 2007 ) . see also elmberg 1993 re song differences\ntaczanowski , 1879 as a synonym . permanently invalid . dickinson & christidis , 2014 .\n( zuccon et al . 2012 , also arnaiz - villena et al . 1999 , nguembock et al . 2009 , ryan et al . 2004 )\nsa : n colombia to trinidad and the guianas , south to n argentina , se brazil , e paraguay .\nfrom thraupidae to a new monotypic family rhodinocichlidae , which follows calcariidae ( barker et al . 2013 , 2015 ; nacc 2017 - b - 6 ) . eng [ 8 . 1 ] = lower case ' tanager '\ndawn songs from a bird in conifer grove just off roadside . same individual and session as xc369902 . more significant handling noise and ' contamination ' from nearby american robin .\nnatural vocalizations from two begging fledglings . adult a few feet away foraging . recording not modified .\ncalls from a female bird that was part of a mixed flock responding to whistled imitation of a pygmy - owl . habitat was somewhat open spruce - fir forest .\nnatural vocalizations ; calls from a small group ( two males and three females ) perched low in an alder tree in a large willow - alder carr near some sitka spruce . two call types in this cut , contact calls and alarm calls .\none adult male calling from the top of a balsam fir higher up in the valley . the bird is flying away at the end of the recording and some wing flapping can be heard .\nnatural vocalization ; very quiet calls from a large flock of birds high in a conifer tree .\nsiskin - like call , often heard when i flocks . garden feeder box sounds .\na yellow juvenile / female - coloured specimen , probably a young male . noisy river and tree - cutting .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nnash , t . h . , ryan , b . d . , gries , c . , bungartz , f . , ( eds . ) 2007 . lichen flora of the greater sonoran desert region . vol 3 .\na pine dwelling specialist that found and maintain their colonies in pine trees in the sw united states .\nthe following information is derived from barry bolton ' s new general catalogue , a catalogue of the world ' s ants .\ndeyrup & cover , 2007 : 101 , figs . 1 - 3 ( w . q . m . ) u . s . a .\nunless otherwise noted the text for the remainder of this section is reported from the publication that includes the original description .\nmeasurements ( mm ) ( holotype in parenthesis ) : total length : 2 . 31 - 3 . 64 ( 3 . 22 ) ; head width at eyes : 0 . 67 - 0 . 90 ( 0 . 87 ) ; length of antennal scape : 0 . 44 - 0 . 60 ( 0 . 60 ) ; distance from mesothoracic spiracle to propodeal spiracle : 0 . 23 - 0 . 33 ( 0 . 31 ) ; distance from lower edge of propodeal spiracle to tip of propodeal spine : 0 . 12 - 0 . 17 ( 0 . 16 ) . head : in frontal view , posterior half smooth , shining , covered with sparse appressed silvery hairs separated at their bases by a distance slightly shorter than length of a hair ; orientation of hairs convergent toward lower midline of frons ; frons with a series of erect hairs in a line just mesad of imaginary vertical lines extending up from frontal carinae , 4 hairs on right side , 3 on left ( in holotype ) ; fine striae covering malar area , extending up about 1 / 3 of way along eye on inner side . antennal scape with appressed hairs only . mandible with 4 teeth . mesosoma : pronotum with one standing curved humeral hair on each side ; pronotum and mesonotum with sparse appressed silvery hairs , with bases separated by more than half length of a hair and less than twice length of a hair ; pronotum and mesonotum shining , with very faint shagreening ; mesopleuron finely , evenly reticulate up to level of mesothoracic spiracle ; metapleuron with longitudinal carinae covering its upper 3 / 4 , fine reticulations between more widely spaced carinae ; propodeal spine in lateral view wedge - shaped , sharply pointed , with a fine dorsal carina ; dorsal areas of propodeum with sparse , appressed silvery hairs divergent from the midline ; all legs with sparse , appressed , silvery hairs . gaster : first tergite sparsely covered with longitudinally oriented , appressed , silvery hairs whose bases are slightly closer together than the length of a hair ; submarginal bands of similar , but longer hairs on tergites 1 - 3 ; a sparse submarginal band of erect hairs on tergites and sternites 1 - 4 . color : body and appendages except for gaster ferruginous ; gaster black .\nfrom nest of holotype . measurements ( mm ) : total length : 7 . 48 - 7 . 90 ; head width at eyes : 1 . 44 - 1 . 54 ; length of mesosoma ( lateral view ) : 2 . 20 - 2 . 45 ; length of forewing : 6 . 46 - 6 . 84 . head , legs , body reddish brown , except mesonotum , scutellum blackish brown , gaster black ; wings hyaline , major veins pale testaceous . mandible with 5 teeth , mandibular striae with sparse , coarse punctures ; median ocellus separated from lateral ocelli by about 1 . 8 times diameter of lateral ocellus ; anterior half of dorsum of head finely striate , including clypeus , except for lower median area of frons ; posterior half of dorsum of head shining , finely punctate , with appressed hairs . mesonotum strongly shining , no reticulate areas ; fine striations on lateral margins of mesonotum and posterior quarter of mesopleuron ; metapleuron coarsely but evenly striate , propodeum coarsely , unevenly striate ; gaster shining , first gastral tergite with appressed hairs slightly longer than distance between their bases , and a few scattered , suberect longer hairs .\nfrom nest of holotype . measurements ( mm ) : total length : 3 . 02 - 3 . 24 ; head width at eyes : 0 . 62 - 0 . 66 ; length of mesosoma ( lateral view ) : 1 . 06 - 1 . 30 ; length of forewing : 2 . 87 - 3 . 13 . head and body blackish brown ; femora medium brown , lighter than head and body ; tibiae , tarsi , mandibles testaceous ; wings hyaline with no infuscation , heavier veins pale testaceous . mandible with 3 subequal teeth ; median ocellus separated from lateral ocelli by twice diameter of lateral ocellus ; head with sparse sub - appressed hairs , those on occipital area procumbent , about as long as distance between their bases ; hairs on frons convergent toward midline ; frons with a few conspicuous large punctures on each side ; malar space weakly striate ; area between eye and antennal sockets not striate ; antennal scape shorter than last antennal segment . mesosoma shining , without reticulate areas , smooth except for weak , fine striations on lateral areas of mesonotum and posterior fourth of mesopleuron , metapleuron more coarsely striate ; mesonotum with sparse , short hairs embedded in elongate punctures , usually farther apart than length of a hair ; wing venation as in figure 2 ; gaster smooth , shining , first gastral tergite with short , appressed , embedded hairs .\nusa : florida : highlands county , archbold biological station , 24 - vi - 1996 , m . deyrup . florida scrub habitat . nest in 6 cm diameter branch of pinus elliottii in firelane . the entire type series is from a single colony . holotype and 37 paratypes deposited in the museum of comparative zoology , harvard university , cambridge , massachusetts . deposition of additional paratypes : 24 workers , 2 alate queens , 2 males : natural history museum of los angeles county , los angeles , california ; 17 workers , 2 alate queens , 1 male : florida state collection of arthropods , gainesville ; 17 workers , 2 alate queens , 1 male : national museum of natural history , smithsonian institution , washington , d . c . ; 14 workers , 1 alate queen , 1 male : the natural history museum , london ; 12 workers : collection of william mackay , el paso , tex . ; remaining type material : archbold biological station , lake placid , florida .\ndeyrup , m . and s . p . cover . 2007 . a new species of crematogaster from the pinelands of the southeastern united states . pages 100 - 112 . in snelling , r . r . , fisher , b . l . and ward , p . s . ( eds ) . advances in ant systematics : homage to e . o . wilson \u2013 50 years of contributions . memoirs of the american entomological institute 80 : 690 pp .\nmorgan , c . e . , mackay , w . p . 2017 . the north american acrobat ants of the hyperdiverse genus crematogaster ( hymneoptera : formicidae ) . lambert academic publishing ( pdf version , 532 pp . )\nthis page was last modified on 1 august 2017 , at 20 : 45 .\nmycocosm portal version : 8 . 15 . 56 content : cf1f948 clustering : b94afba synteny : * no synteny * urltoken release date : 26 - jun - 2018 13 : 23 : 33 . 510 pst current date : 09 - jul - 2018 13 : 57 : 25 . 193 pdt\nkarsten , p . a . 1881 . symbolae ad mycologiam fennicam . viii . meddelanden af societas pro fauna et flora fennica . 6 : 7 - 13\n1 . antrodia serpens var . tuber p . karst . , bidrag till k\u00e4nnedom av finlands natur och folk 48 : 324 ( 1889 ) [ mb # 468174 ]\n2 . boletus fulvus schaeff . , fungorum qui in bavaria et palatinatu circa ratisbonam nascuntur icones 4 : 89 , t . 262 ( 1774 ) [ mb # 140761 ]\n3 . boletus marginatus pers . , neues magazin f\u00fcr die botanik 1 : 108 ( 1794 ) [ mb # 140237 ]\n4 . boletus semiovatus schaeff . , fungorum qui in bavaria et palatinatu circa ratisbonam nascuntur icones 4 : 92 , t . 270 ( 1774 ) [ mb # 227302 ]\n5 . favolus pinihalepensis pat . , catalogue raisonn\u00e9 des plantes cellulaires de la tunisie ( 7 ) : 49 ( 1897 ) [ mb # 469171 ]\n7 . fomes pini - halepensis pat . , catalogue raisonn\u00e9 des plantes cellulaires de la tunisie ( 7 ) : 49 ( 1897 ) [ mb # 228127 ]\n9 . fomes thomsoni ( berk . ) sacc . ( 1888 ) [ mb # 263252 ]\n10 . friesia rubra l\u00e1zaro ibiza , revta r . acad . cienc . exact . fis . nat . madr . : 590 ( 1916 ) [ mb # 184216 ]\n13 . polyporus helveolus rostk . , deutschlands flora , abt . iii . die pilze deutschlands 4 - 16 : 73 , t . 35 ( 1837 ) [ mb # 151890 ]\n14 . polyporus marginatus fr . , epicrisis systematis mycologici : 468 ( 1838 ) [ mb # 472695 ]\n15 . polyporus ponderosus h . schrenk , bull . u . s . dep . agric . , bur . plant ind . : 30 ( 1903 ) [ mb # 470895 ]\n16 . polyporus thomsonii berk . , hooker ' s journal of botany and kew garden miscellany 6 : 142 ( 1854 ) [ mb # 472875 ]\nfor practical reasons we have decided not to translate all pages in several languages anymore because it was too heavy to maintain but some of the labels of the basic and advanced query pages are still available . click on the language titles to launch them . chinese version\ndr . wei li 1 , dr . run zhang 1 and dr . miaomiao zhou 2 1 the institute of microbiology , chinese academy of sciences ( imcas ) , beijing , china the institute of microbiology , chinese academy of sciences ( imcas ) , beijing , china 2 cbs - knaw fungal biodiversity center , utrecht , the netherlands\nir . bernard jabas 1 and dr . vincent robert 2 1 bioaware , hannut , belgium 2 cbs - knaw fungal biodiversity center , utrecht , the netherlands\ndr . lily eurwilaichitr and dr . supawadee ingsriswang bioresources technology unit , national center for genetic engineering and biotechnology ( biotec ) , pathum thani , thailand\n\u00a9 copyright 2016 international mycological association ( ima ) . website built using biolomics software .\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nbritish ornithologists ' union checklist ( 7th edition , incl . jan 2009 suppl . ) :\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 291 , 942 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nwhether you ' re a student , an educator , or a lifelong learner , urltoken can put you on the path to systematic vocabulary improvement .\ndon ' t have an account yet ? sign up . it ' s free and takes five seconds .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nlogged - on ? click on dot to query records . please note our terms of use . double - click on map to go to region\nmany old records are doubtful because of confusion with t . extensa . the species appears to be mainly southern and is widespread in southern england . it is widespread in north - western and central europe .\noriginal author of profile : p . r . harvey , based on species account in merrett ( 1990 ) .\ntext based on harvey , p . r . , nellist , d . r . & telfer , m . g . ( eds ) 2002 . provisional atlas of british spiders ( arachnida , araneae ) , volumes 1 & 2 . huntingdon : biological records centre .\ncombined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern ."]}
{"id": 910, "summary": [{"text": "the black baza ( aviceda leuphotes ) is a small sized bird of prey found in the forests of the eastern himalayas , china and southeast asia .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "many populations are migratory .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the races in the indian region are migratory , wintering in the south of the peninsula and sri lanka .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the black bazas have short , stout legs and feet with strong talons .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "a prominent crest is a feature of the bazas .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they are found in dense forest often in small groups .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "they are also known to spend a lot of time perching on bare branches of tall trees rising above the forest canopy . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "black baza", "paragraphs": ["other names : black - crested baza , indian black - crested baza , lizard - hawk .\nwake up and first thing i look forward to is my morning cup of wanderoo by black baza coffee company .\nthe company currently promotes coffee under three names \u2013 the black baza roast , aspire to otter and luna roast .\nthe black baza are partially migratory . some flocks have been observed to move to thailand , malaysia and indonesia for wintering .\nyou\u2019re viewing a free company profile from the pitchbook platform . to explore black baza coffee\u2019s full profile , request a free trial .\nrecommended citation : global raptor information network . 2018 . species account : black baza aviceda leuphotes . downloaded from urltoken on 9 jul . 2018\napart from selling through prominent retail stores , black baza coffee company does a lot of cup - tasting , coffee tasting events as well .\nshe calls herself an accidental entrepreneur . meet arshiya urveeja bose , an environmental conservationist by training and proprietor of black baza coffee company by chance .\ndescription : the black baza is a small raptor , often seen in groups of several birds perched on branches in the same tree in the forest .\nthe black baza species has an extremely large range and are considered least vulnerable . the loss of forest cover may make the survival of these birds vulnerable .\nit\u2019s the reason why black baza founder arshiya bose\u2019s focus is on conservation of forests , wildlife and water , and on how growers deal with climate change .\nthe baza is a small bird of prey found in the forests of south and south east asia . bazas are most commonly seen in dense forests perched high in the tree canopy . sightings of black bazas in coffee farms would thereby indicate the farms are forest - like and that indeed is the brand black baza coffee\u2019s dream .\nthe black baza occupies deciduous woodlands , both within the forest interior and scrub country . they are also seen near human habitations , hunting near clearings and farmed acreage .\ndescription : a winter visitor to singapore ( september to april ) , the black baza is a small eagle that comes across as slightly comical due to its crest plumes that wiggle about as it moves its head . with mostly black upperparts and some white patches on its back and wings , the black baza also has a very distinctive underside , with a triangular white patch on its breast fringed with black and leads down to white legs with chestnut brown stripes running across \u2013 resembling some sort of vest . in flight , this pattern on its underparts makes the black baza quite an unmistakeable bird as well although its small size does tend to lead to most people dismissing it as a crow .\nflight : the black baza soars high in the air during the migrations . but usually , it flies low with deep wing - beats interspersed with short glides on almost flat wings .\nthe black baza ( aviceda leuphotes ) is a medium - sized bird of prey of the family accipitridae , and found in much of the forested regions of southern and southeastern asia .\nprotection / threats / status : the black baza is generally scarce to uncommon , but its unobtrusive habits make it very difficult to see . however , this raptor can be seen in good numbers during the migrations . the species is threatened by habitat loss due to the deforestation throughout most of its range . the black baza is currently evaluated as least concern by birdlife international .\ndiet : the black baza feeds primarily on large insects such as grasshoppers , beetles , mantids and moths . it also catches lizards and tree frogs , and occasionally small mammals , bats and birds .\n) belongs to the family accipitridae . the black baza species is distributed in central china , india , bhutan , myanmar , malaysia , thailand , indonesia , sri lanka and andaman islands of india .\nthe black baza is a medium - sized and handsome bird of prey found in the forests of south and southeast asia . it is rare and local in much of its range in the indian subcontinent .\nupon returning to the forest rest house at kolsa , i consulted a few forest officials and naturalists and they confirmed that it was a black baza and it was possibly the first record of the species from western maharashtra .\non the underparts , the throat is black . we can see a conspicuous white breast band bordered below by narrow black stripe and variable chestnut band . the belly is more or less rufous barred buff . vent , undertail - coverts and thighs are black . on the underwing , the coverts are black . the primary flight feathers are greyish , whereas secondaries and tertials are darker grey . undertail feathers are greyish .\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nthe superb black - and - orange flycatcher , which occurs only in southern india , by simon colenutt .\nthe head is black with conspicuous long , black crest on the hind crown . the hooked bill is blackish with dark blue - grey cere . we can see two typical \u201cteeth\u201d on both edges of the upper mandible , one on each side . the eyes are reddish - brown . legs and feet are dull greyish - black .\nadult male has black head , neck and upperparts . some variable chestnut markings are visible on lower back , scapulars and greater wing - coverts . the secondary flight feathers show chestnut and white patches . the tail is black .\ntholpetty ws black - footed langur . also a chance of chevrotain , rusty - spotted cat and indian porcupine .\nthe black baza feed on large insects , frogs , small reptiles and small birds . they have been observed to eat ripe fruits of oil palm . the call is a\nchu - weep\nand they also sound a soft squeal .\ngood for the forest it comes from , good for the people who grow it . good for the trees we help conserve and the wildlife that it supports . and just as good to drink . these are the cornerstones of black baza coffee co .\nmales are black in color above , with some chestnut showing on the lower back , scapulars , and greater wing coverts . a black crest on the head is prominently displayed . the underside of the bird is black from the neck to upper chest , broken by a large patch of white . the lower chest to the belly is also white , with chestnut - colored horizontal bars ; between the belly and tail the area of the legs is black in color . in flight the underside of the wings bear light - grey primaries , dark - grey secondaries and tertials , and black coverts .\nbehaviour : the black baza feeds primarily on large insects such as grasshoppers . it also catches lizards and tree frogs , and occasionally small mammals , bats and birds . it hunts from concealed perch , but also in open . it may briefly hover in front of the vegetation to snatch preys from foliage . it performs short flights through the canopy , from perch to perch , and through insect swarms or passerine communal roosts . the black baza hunts sometimes in small flocks and it is more active at dusk .\nthe black baza feeds on small reptiles and insects , and usually from a still - hunting position on a perch within the forest or at the forest edge on a clearing . bats , birds , and small mammals also form an occasional part of the diet .\nootacamund , nilgiri hills black - and - orange and nilgiri flycatchers , indian and nilgiri blue robins , black - chinned laughingthrush , indian scimitar babbler and nilgiri langur . also a chance of painted bush quail , nilgiri wood pigeon and forest wagtail .\nthe iucn ( international union for conservation of nature ) has categorized and evaluated these baza birds and has listed them as of\nleast concern\n.\nthe black baza is a small bird , measuring 30 to 35 cm in length and weighing 170 to 220 grams . the wingspan is 65 to 80 cm . its head is pigeon - like and has a long crest , often held erect . these baza species has short , stout legs and feet with strong talons . the male has white scapulars and secondary coverts and on the secondaries . the female has several chestnut bands on the underside .\nthese baza species inhabit deciduous or evergreen tropical forests . they are often seen perched on the top branches of the tall trees rising above the forest canopy .\nonly those range states and territories listed below , and shown in black on this map , are included within the scope of this mou .\nthe black baza has a wingspan is about 3 feet , with an overall body length of 16 to 18 inches . like other members of the genus aviceda , it bears two distinctive tooth - like notches near the edge of the bill . legs are short and stout , and bear powerful talons .\nsighting of montagu\u2019s harrier from ponmudi , white rumped shama from bonacaud , booted eagle from arippa , black baza from the kottur forests , lesser sand plover from the veli beach , amur falcon from punchakkary , and asian openbill from the aruvikkara wetlands were significant as these are not so common in these areas .\nblue tokai identifies the estates from which it sources the coffee on its packaging , for transparency . seven beans brings together indian growers with italian roasters . black baza\u2019s ambition is to improve biodiversity , while estate craft is a single - estate coffee . vero sources the beans and makes capsules in - house .\nthe black baza is a small bird of prey found in the forests of south and southeast asia . bazas are most commonly seen in dense forests perched high in the tree canopy . sightings of bazas in coffee farms would indicate our farms are forest - like . . . and that ' s the dream !\ncoffee production in india has a very unique history but is becoming increasingly unsustainable in terms of its impact on the environment . \u201cour enterprise aims to incentivise sustainable farming through the company . black baza is the only social entrepreneurship project on coffee in india and perhaps one of the few such projects globally as well ! \u201d\nthese baza species in north india breed in april . both the pair take part in nest building , incubation , brooding and feeding . the nest is firm platform on tall trees .\nsome of these new companies , many retailing online , include the indian bean , flying squirrel , seven beans , the coffee company , black baza and estate craft . some existing sellers have expanded in scope , like halli berri , kerala\u2019s riverine and goa\u2019s sussegado . some others , like vero , sell espresso capsules with machines and caf\u00e9 rio also does instant coffee .\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto the black baza is vocal in flight and when perched . it utters soft , quavering , plaintive or whistling notes , usually one , two or three . it also gives shrill mewing , something similar to gull\u2019s calls , and a weak scream \u201cchu - weep\u201d or \u201ck - leeep\u201d . harsh squawks are also given when in groups .\nthe backwaters waterbirds including cinnamon and yellow bitterns , bronze - winged and pheasant - tailed jacanas , and stork - billed kingfisher . also a chance of black - capped kingfisher .\npampadum shola np , near munnar nilgiri wood pigeon , kerala laughingthrush and black - and - orange flycatcher , as well as stripe - necked mongoose . also an outside chance of nilgiri marten .\nfor her , coffee has become the means to look at conservation from a social as well as environmental perspective . the work she does is interesting \u2013 she has currently engaged with four coffee estate owners in the district of kodagu and signed \u2018conditional conservation agreements\u2019 with them . the conditions she lays down are fairly simple \u2013 follow environment - friendly best practices and black baza would market your coffee in the commercial market .\nthe black baza occurs in open deciduous or evergreen tropical forest , often around clearings and near streams or rivers . this species can be seen from sea - level up to 1500 metres of elevation . this species breeds between 100 and 1200 metres . they spend the night at communal roost outside the breeding season , and at this period , they often frequent orchards and gardens near villages and they hunt over the ricefields .\nthe juvenile resembles adults but its plumage is duller and it has white streaks on the black throat , and brown streaks on the white breast band . the crest is slightly shorter than in adults .\nhabitat : the black baza occurs in open deciduous or evergreen tropical forest , often around clearings and near streams or rivers . this species can be seen from sea - level up to 1500 metres of elevation . this species breeds between 100 and 1200 metres . they spend the night at communal roost outside the breeding season , and at this period , they often frequent orchards and gardens near villages and they hunt over the ricefields .\nclark , w . s . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . black baza ( aviceda leuphotes ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\n28\u201335 cm ; 168\u2013224 g ; wingspan 64\u201380 cm . small , chunky black kite with long crest ( often held erect , except in flight ) on pigeon - like head ; in flight , . . .\nthattekad ( salim ali ) bs grey slender loris , indian chevrotain , southern flying lizard , malabar gliding frog , red spurfowl , malabar trogon , asian fairy bluebird and white - bellied blue flycatcher . also a chance of indian giant flying squirrel , travancore flying squirrel , black baza , slaty - legged crake , sri lanka bay owl , sri lanka frogmouth , jerdon ' s nightjar , chestnut - headed bee - eater , heart - spotted woodpecker and indian pitta .\nrange : the black baza occurs in s and se asia . most of the populations are migratory . the race \u201c syama \u201d from ne india and e nepal to s china , winters southwards through indochina and malay peninsula to sumatra . the race \u201c leuphotes \u201d occurs in sw india , s burma and w thailand , and breeds in several parts of indochina . the race \u201c andamanica \u201d occurs in s andaman islands . the northernmost populations move southwards through the malay peninsula to winter in sumatra .\nperiyar np nilgiri langur , oriental darter , black baza , malabar trogon , great and malabar grey hornbills , white - bellied treepie , asian fairy bluebird and indian scimitar babbler , as well as nilgiri langur . also a chance of heart - spotted woodpecker , indian pitta , orange - headed thrush , wynaad laughingthrush , forest wagtail , asian elephant , gaur , leopard and rusty - spotted cats , sloth bear , dhole , indian crested porcupine , and oriental small - clawed and smooth - coated otters .\nsouthern india endemics grey junglefowl , grey - fronted ( pompadour ) green pigeon , nilgiri wood pigeon , malabar parakeet , malabar grey hornbill , malabar ( crimson - fronted ) and white - cheeked barbets , white - bellied treepie , malabar ( large ) woodshrike , malabar lark , white - spotted ( white - throated ) fantail , indian ( chestnut - bellied ) nuthatch , flame - throated ( black - crested ) and grey - headed bulbuls , black - and - orange and nilgiri flycatchers , white - bellied blue flycatcher , nilgiri blue and white - bellied blue robins ( both formerly white - bellied shortwing ) , malabar whistling thrush , black - chinned ( nilgiri ) and grey - breasted ( kerala ) laughingthrushes , ( indian ) rufous babbler , malabar white - headed ( chestnut - tailed ) starling , nilgiri ( plain ) flowerpecker , crimson - backed sunbird , nilgiri pipit and rufous - bellied ( black - throated ) munia . also a chance of broad - tailed grassbird and wynaad laughingthrush .\nthe black baza is a small and distinctively coloured raptor . when perched , the upright crest and contrasting patterns make it difficult to misidentify . the male has white scapulars , secondary coverts and on the secondaries . the female has white only on the scapulars and more chestnut bands on the underside unlike the few bands in the male . in flight it is crow like and is often seen in small groups or flocks during migration . during migration , they are gregarious at their roost . they are somewhat crepuscular and more active at dusk and in overcast weather\nthe black baza is a small and distinctively colored raptor . when perched , the upright crest and contrasting patterns make it difficult to misidentify . the male has white scapulars ( shoulder feathers ) , secondary coverts and on the secondaries ( shorter , upper\narm\nfeathers ) . the female has white only on the scapulars ( shoulder feathers ) and more chestnut bands on the underside unlike the few bands in the male . in flight it is crow like and is often seen in small groups or flocks during migration . during migration , they are gregarious at their roost .\nimportant references : carey , g . j . , m . l . chmabers , d . a . diskin , p . r . kennerley , p . j . leader , m . r . leven , r . w . lewthwaite , d . s . melville , m . turnbull , and l . young . 2001 . the avifauna of hong kong . hong kong bird watching society , hong kong . clark , w . s . 1994 . black baza . p . 108 in del hoyo , j . , a . elliott , and j . sargatal ( eds . ) , handbook of birds of the world . vol . 2 . new world vultures to guineafowl . lynx edicions , barcelona , spain . ferguson - lees , j . , and d . a . christie .\neravikulam np ( rajamalai - closed during breeding season , jan - feb ) and chinnar ws , munnar , cardamom hills black - and - orange and nilgiri flycatchers , white - bellied blue robin , asian fairy bluebird , grey - breasted laughingthrush and nilgiri pipit , as well as nilgiri langur . also a chance of nilgiri wood pigeon , lion - tailed macaque ( eravikulam ) , nilgiri tahr ( eravikulam ) , gaur ( chinnar ) , grizzled giant squirrel ( chinnar ) , and an outside chance of painted bush quail and broad - tailed grassbird , as well as nigiri marten .\nspecies shared only with sri lanka painted francolin , crested ( changeable ) hawk eagle , blue - faced malkoha , sri lanka frogmouth , jerdon\u2019s nightjar , indian swiftlet , malabar trogon , malabar pied hornbill , crimson - fronted barbet , orange ( scarlet ) minivet , jerdon\u2019s ( rufous - winged ) bush lark , hill ( pacific ) swallow , square - tailed black , white - browed and yellow - browed bulbuls , indian blackbird , indian ( white - browed ) scimitar babbler , dark - fronted and yellow - billed babblers , lesser hill myna , jerdon\u2019s ( blue - winged ) leafbird and long - billed ( loten\u2019s ) sunbird .\nthe key papers for the booted eagles ( aquilinae ) are bunce et al . ( 2005 ) , helbig et al . ( 2005 ) , lerner and mindell ( 2005 ) , haring et al . ( 2007b ) , and lerner et al . ( 2017 ) . the spizaetus hawk - eagles belong in two different clades within aquilinae . thus spizaetus is divided into nisaetus and spizaetus . the black - and - chestnut eagle ( oroaetus ) must be merged into the remaining spizaetus . the rufous - bellied hawk - eagle ( lophotriorchis ) is separated from hieraaetus . while the spotted eagles are separated from aquila as clanga . hieraaetus loses a couple of species to aquila , which also gains cassin ' s hawk - eagle from spizaetus .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe female is similar to the male but she lacks the white patches on secondaries .\nwe can find three subspecies , a . l . leuphotes , a . l . syama and a . l . andamanica . the race \u201c syama \u201d has longer primaries and blacker barring on the underparts . the race \u201c andamanica \u201d has only two bars on the upper belly , and differs by unbarred flanks .\nthis raptor is often seen in pairs or in family groups , but this gregarious species occurs also in small groups of 4 - 5 birds perched in the same tree . during winter , they sleep at communal night - time roosts in groups of up 20 - 25 birds .\nreproduction : the breeding season varies according to the range , but usually occurs between february and june . both sexes build a small compact nest with twigs and thin sticks in a large tree in the forest , between 20 and 30 metres above the ground and often near water . the shallow cup is lined with soft materials such as grass , plant fibres and green leaves . the female lays 2 - 3 eggs and the incubation is shared by both parents . the chicks are fed with insects .\nfinds of race : lesser sand plover , common sand piper and montagu\u2019s harrier are among the species sighted at the bird race in the city .\nas many as 157 species of birds were spotted from seven locations in and around the capital during the 8th kerala bird race held on sunday .\nvarious threats , especially habitat degradation , to bird population were noticed during the dawn - to - dusk event , said a . k . sivakumar , wwf - india senior education officer and coordinator of the race .\nakkulam lake , once a haven for waterbirds , is now more like a sewage drain with large - scale reclamation , invasive species , and all kinds of pollutants .\nthe sighting of birds such as the indian peafowl in the arippa forests and asian openbill at aruvikkara is clear indicators of the increasing temperature profile .\nthe museum and zoo premises still remain a healthy habitat for birds . as many as 42 species of birds with an active heronry of endangered oriental darters were spotted here .\nthe kottur forests , part of the neyyar wildlife sanctuary , and the kallar - ponmudi forests also have a very good bird population , the numbers crossing 75 . the sighting of mammals such as nilgiri marten , barking deer and malabar giant squirrel came as a bonus to the teams .\nas many as 78 birdwatchers participated in the annual race held in connection with the birthday of salim ali .\nthe event was organised jointly by the yuhina eco media and wwf - india with the support of hsbc .\nadditional principal chief conservator of forests , biodiversity cell of forests & wildlife department , o . p . kaler , who was the chief guest , asked the participants to submit their findings and recommendations for further action and to document the sightings for scientific planning of conservation initiatives . renjan mathew varghese , state director of wwf - india , spoke .\nfollow - up activities such as sunday bird walk once in a month , annual asian waterfowl census and birdwatching camps are in the pipeline .\ntojo mathew was leaving the uae for good to join his wife in delhi .\nour purpose is to enable coffee producers to enjoy secure and stable livelihoods and strengthen coffee farming practices that conserve biodiversity . we invite coffee drinkers to participate in the process .\nour partner farms grow coffee under the shade of forest trees . farms keep at least 60 % tree canopy cover and a minimum of 100 trees and 20 species of indigenous trees per acre .\nwe restore farms by planting rare and endemic forest trees that provide critical habitat for a wide variety of wildlife .\nsustainable and secure livelihoods for coffee growers and workers is a critical part of our programme . we ensure this through stable prices , financial inclusion and long - term guaranteed contracts .\nmost of our packaging ( except 100g sizes ) is fully biodegradable . the outer bag is made from sugarcane waste . the inner bag is a biodegradable plastic that disintegrates between 6 - 24 months in landfill conditions .\nall partner farms commit to growing coffee that is free of chemical pesticides . an overwhelming majority ( 97 . 5 % ) also restrict the use of any chemical fertiliser .\neach cup of coffee can be traced back to the farm \u2013 or , at the least , cluster of farms \u2013 from which the beans were harvested .\nwe enable producers to establish and run farmer institutions for collective marketing . these institutions are also responsible for building people\u2019s capacity for quality production .\nour commitment to sustainable coffee means that we have to meticulously monitor the impact of our involvement . livelihood - related changes are monitored through questionnaire surveys and focus group discussions . biodiversity - related changes are monitored through measuring diversity of trees , birds , insects , mammals , soil and water . we have a long way to go but here ' s a start . . .\nour community is 160 members strong . we work with numerous smallholder producer organisations to resolve various challenges that undermine livelihoods security , financial inclusion and weaken producer autonomy in coffee markets .\nthe interaction between spotted hyenas and humans is 500 years old . the presence of moon moths is three times that . any impact we have to make cannot be measured in years or even decades . a thousand years seems like just enough time . ours is a thousand - year brew .\nour limited run monthly editions . one podu . one harvest . one time .\nthe microlot coffees celebrate the uniqueness in heterogeneity . smallholder producers harvest tiny volumes and these beans find themselves in our limited edition coffees .\ncoffee grounds is a collection of stories about people , place and ecology in coffee landscapes .\nform wolfei , based on single specimen , doubtfully distinct from nominate . validity of forms syama and andamanica also questioned # r ; further study needed . birds from myanmar and thailand ( sometimes awarded separate race , burmana ) may belong to race syama , as opposed to rather similar nominate leuphotes . in view of doubts over validity of races , species sometimes treated as monotypic # r . four subspecies provisionally recognized .\nopen deciduous or evergreen tropical forest , including second growth and bamboo - dominated areas , . . .\nmainly large insects ( and their larvae ) , especially grasshoppers ( also beetles , mantids and moths ) , but also lizards and tree - frogs ; . . .\nconsidered probably resident , or only partially migratory , in sw india , on andaman is , and from . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . cites ii . generally uncommon , but probably passes undetected due to unobtrusive habits , and may be commoner than thought ; e . g . . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nstill on the fence about which coffee suits you the best ? give one of our all coffee packs a go . . . the entire gamut of our beans , blends and roasts . . . in six , completely biodegradable packages in one neat box .\nmers directly received rs 6758 . 4 from the sale of coffee to me and so much more . more strength to bbcc : )\namazing coffee ! thanks for bringing the taste from south to my home . . .\nbangalore municipal elections - 44 % voter turnout . disappointing . luckily some things never fail ! order your solid roast at team @ urltoken # probat\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size may be moderately small to large , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population is estimated to number > c . 10 , 000 individuals ( ferguson - lees et al . 2001 ) , while the population in china has been estimated at c . 100 - 10 , 000 breeding pairs and c . 50 - 1 , 000 individuals on migration ( brazil 2009 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be in decline owing to ongoing habitat destruction ( ferguson - lees and christie 2001 ) .\nwidespread forest loss across its range poses the most significant threat ( clark and kirwan 1994 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nis distributed in north india , bhutan , southeast china , myanmar , laos and thailand . these subspecies winter in thailand , malaysia and indonesia . the subspecies\nis distributed in south india , sri lanka , myanmar and thailand . the subspecies\ntiger reserves are not just about spotting and photographing tigers , but also a standing testimony to the preservation of larger landscapes and the biodiversity they support . as the saying goes , the jungle is full of surprises and animals or birds can make their appearance when you least expect them . such was one of our early morning drives on 9th april , 2015 in the kolsa range of tadoba andhari tiger reserve . we were driving through dense bamboo at shivanzari when i suddenly noticed a bird that looked very different . it was definitely a lifer for me and i was able to quickly make a few images of the raptor with my 500mm lens .\npraveen siddannavar bangalore - based praveen is an engineer by profession and an award - winning natural history photographer by choice .\nci is a non - profit , non - commercial portal that aims to facilitate wildlife and nature conservation by providing reliable information and the tools needed to campaign effectively . we define conservation as knowledge - driven actions that lead to the effective management and recovery of wildlife . that means giving priority to meeting the ecological needs of wildlife populations in decline , and to the recovery and expansion of their habitats . read more\nci is a non - profit , non - commercial portal that aims to facilitate wildlife and nature conservation by providing reliable information and the tools needed to campaign effectively . we define conservation as knowledge - driven actions that lead to the effective management and recovery of wildlife . that means giving priority to meeting the ecological needs of wildlife populations in decline , and to the recovery and expansion of their habitats . read more \u00bb\nthe species is found throughout much of southern and southeastern asia , from the indian subcontinent to the larger islands of indonesia , and northwards to southern china .\nthe species breeds from february to june ; what little observation was done indicates the birds choose nesting sites high in the tree canopy in dense forests and often near rivers , laying two to three eggs .\nthis page was last modified on 24 june 2016 , at 18 : 36 .\nthey feed mainly on insects by making aerial sallies . they have been noted to join mixed - species foraging flocks . it has also been known to feed on the fruits of the oil palm . they are somewhat crepuscular in habit . the call is a\nchu - weep\nsomewhat similar to the call of the large cuckoo - shrike .\nlike others in the genus aviceda they have two tooth like indentations on the edge of the upper bill .\nthe bird was first described based on a specimen from pondicherry under the name of falco leuphotes . several geographic races have been described including wolfei which is based on a single specimen from sichuan and may belong to the nominate subspecies . the named forms include the following but have been questioned and further study has been called for :\nthis species is found in southeast asia and parts of south asia . they are migratory in parts of their range . migratory birds may be seen in large numbers at some locations such as chumphon in thailand where they account for nearly 40 % of the raptors on passage . in some parts of hong kong , they have established themselves in recent times changing from summer visitors to residents in small numbers .\nin india the species is regularly reported in winter from the western ghats ( breeding records have been questioned ) , eastern ghats ( mainly on spring passage ) and known to breed in northeastern india and burma . winter records of the species include stray occurrences in or near metropolitan areas such as the guindy national park in chennai , near trivandrum and bangalore . more recent studies have suggested that the species may be a regular winter visitor in the eastern part of peninsular india , and not just a passage migrant .\nthe birds in northeastern india begin to breed in april . both sexes take part in nest building , incubation , brooding and feeding . the eggs take about 26\u201327 days to hatch . insects are the predominant food of the chicks .\ncopyright : wikipedia . this article is licensed under the gnu free documentation license . it uses material from urltoken . . . additional information and photos added by avianweb .\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\noperator of a coffee company that conserves forests , wildlife and water by selling coffee . the company connects coffee drinkers to coffee growers and also empowers coffee growers to cultivate coffee under the shade of indigenous trees , without chemical pesticides and alongside wildlife endemic .\n\u00a9 2018 pitchbook data . all rights reserved . pitchbook is a financial technology company that provides data on the capital markets .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\nthey feed mainly on insects by making aerial sallies . they may also pick insects off a leaf , the insects always seized with their feet . they have been observed to attempt capturing small birds such as wagtails by making dashes into flocks . they have been noted to join mixed - species foraging flocks . it has also been known to feed on the fruits of the oil palm . they are somewhat crepuscular in habit .\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size may be moderately small to large , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe breeding season varies according to the range , but usually occurs between february and june . both sexes build a small compact nest with twigs and thin sticks in a large tree in the forest , between 20 and 30 metres above the ground and often near water . the shallow cup is lined with soft materials such as grass , plant fibres and green leaves . all were composed almost entirely of lagerstroemia reginae sticks , with a few sal sticks . both sexes participated in nest - building , incubation , brooding and feeding the chicks . the female lays 2 - 3 eggs and the incubation is shared by both parents . the chicks are fed with insects . the incubation period at two nests was 26 - 27 days . at 21 days old the chicks were frequently seen preening , hopping to nearby branches and flapping their wings .\nmigrants from north parts of range move south through malay peninsula in nov - dec to winter in sumatra , returning in feb - mar . a few migrants recorded in southeast india and sri lanka .\nrange : oriental region : widespread in south asia . the race ? syama ? from ne india and e nepal to s china , winters southwards through indochina and malay peninsula to sumatra . the race ? leuphotes ? occurs in sw india , s burma and w thailand , and breeds in several parts of indochina . the race ? andamanica ? occurs in s andaman islands . the northernmost populations move southwards through the malay peninsula to winter in sumatra .\navibirds , almere , netherlands 2001 - 2012 - your source to the birds of europe . contact ? mail us : info { @ } avibirds . com\npay on delivery ( pod ) includes cash on delivery ( cod ) as well as debit card / credit card / net banking payments at your doorstep .\nthis shopping feature will continue to load items . in order to navigate out of this carousel please use your heading shortcut key to navigate to the next or previous heading .\nwhile we work to ensure that product information is correct , on occasion manufacturers may alter their ingredient lists . actual product packaging and materials may contain more and / or different information than that shown on our web site . we recommend that you do not solely rely on the information presented and that you always read labels , warnings , and directions before using or consuming a product . for additional information about a product , please contact the manufacturer .\njan ' 17 the best indian coffee i have had byfar . . . may ' 17 after my second order , this time 1 / 2 kg coarse grind i have to revise the perfect part . the 250 gm coffee bag had a great ziplock and one way air channel . the 1 / 2 kg one has a faulty ziplock and no air channel . i had to pack my coffee in three different airtight places .\ni must have already gone through five kilos of this coffee . after experimenting with a wide range of brands and flavours settled on this for my morning espresso . mildly aromatic with a really intense flavour . high quality coffee at a very reasonable price .\nthe coffee has a nice smokey aroma to it . the coffee was fine grained , not very good for french press . but tastewise , it is very good . would purchase again .\nthe last time i ordered was smoke flavored and i was happy , basis which i re ordered but find same lacking of any standard . . , this time i give 1 basis inconsistency of quality\ngood quality at very reasonable price . delivered on time as promised . highly recommended .\nexcellent , excellent coffee . best indian coffee i ' ve bought so far , and will no longer be searching further . : )\ngreat coffee ! am hooked . . . and can ' t go back to any other coffee , especially considering the conservation value of this coffee .\ngreat teast at great price . its a strong coffee gives me an hour and half uninterrupted focus .\ntip : to have maximum effectiveness add very less water and make it . . .\nprime members enjoy unlimited free , fast delivery on eligible items , video streaming , ad - free music , exclusive access to deals & more .\nafter viewing product detail pages , look here to find an easy way to navigate back to pages you are interested in .\nwe ' ve detected that javascript is disabled in your browser . would you like to proceed to legacy twitter ?\nthe small villages that we passed by had such character ; i was tempted to pause and take pictures . elders huddled under a peepal tree , children rolled moped tyres along dusty streets . full story by\nriding through a forest was a sublime experience . we drifted , keeping the revs on the lower side , coaxing our engines to a hum . keeping a good distance between us made it even more personal . from ' new love , new territories ' by\nwobbling at a speed of 10 km / h , we had time to look around . my highlight : the plum - headed parakeet and the summer hues that these dry - deciduous forests put on display . excerpt from\nnew love , new territories\nby\nlater that evening , we headed to muthugadagaddepodu hamlet . we invited a few coffee farmers for a quick chat . the conversations revolved around their relationship with the local buyer and middleman .\nwe broke our journey for our customary otter - spotting from the bridge across the river kaveri . while we witnessed the creatures bob their heads up and down , a human was diving into the waters to retrieve coins flung by passers - by . full story at :\n, gives us a glimpse into india\u2019s chequered coffee - growing history , introduces her fledgling business and explains why biodiversity - friendly brews make for a better cuppa .\nwhat does it meant to stay relevant in today ' s world ? i asked karthik - over whatsapp mind you . \u2026\nbarley coffee , you said ? erm . very interesting experimenting sessions with snow leopard\u2026\nmany thanks to our fantastic venue partner @ gi _ bangalore and shoonya , our filmmakers , friends , our sponsors @ blackbazacoffee @ innersightblr our volunteers from asq , the audience , and everybody else who helped make this a fantastic festival .\nall the queerness + all the @ blackbazacoffee for three days , starting tomorrow . we ' ll be @ gi _ bangalore for @ bqff 2018 . come by ! say hi ! # bqff2018\nmicrolot alert ! for 1 month only . neralu noorembathu or ' the shade of 180 ' is available from our website :\n: bonded labour . as an estate owner told me ,\nit ' s about how you exploit . . . nicely .\nedition01 / episode03 , coffee grounds is now published ! . not - an - ape , and other notes from a\u2026\ntwitter may be over capacity or experiencing a momentary hiccup . try again or visit twitter status for more information .\nyou can add location information to your tweets , such as your city or precise location , from the web and via third - party applications . you always have the option to delete your tweet location history . learn more\nhere ' s the url for this tweet . copy it to easily share with friends .\nby embedding twitter content in your website or app , you are agreeing to the twitter developer agreement and developer policy .\nnot on twitter ? sign up , tune into the things you care about , and get updates as they happen .\nthis timeline is where you\u2019ll spend most of your time , getting instant updates about what matters to you .\nhover over the profile pic and click the following button to unfollow any account .\nwhen you see a tweet you love , tap the heart \u2014 it lets the person who wrote it know you shared the love .\nthe fastest way to share someone else\u2019s tweet with your followers is with a retweet . tap the icon to send it instantly .\nadd your thoughts about any tweet with a reply . find a topic you\u2019re passionate about , and jump right in .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\ntelluraves contains slightly more than 3 / 4 of all bird species . athough there ' s some residual uncertainty about the other main branches of passerea , the land bird clade telluraves is well - supported by jarvis et al . ( 2014 ) where it receives 100 % bootstrap support . further , hackett et al . ( 2008 ) and ericson et al . ( 2006a ) both found the hawks and american vultures to be closer to the picimorphae than to the falcons ( see also suh et al . , 2011 ; mccormack et al . , 2013 ; yuri et al . 2013 ) . other papers ( e . g . , morgan - richards et al . , 2008 ) are less supportive , putting all of them somewhere between the ardeae and the passerines . the order here follows jarvis et al .\nthe main division in telluraves is between the group containing the mousebirds , hawks , owl , and woodpeckers ( afroaves ) and the group containing the falcons , parrots , and passerines ( australaves ) ( ericson et al . , 2006a ; hackett et al . , 2008 ; ericson , 2012 ; jarvis et al . , 2014 ) . australaves is by far the larger group , containing about 64 % of all bird species . in contrast , afroaves only has about 11 & half ; % of the species . still , afroaves is much larger than any other high - level group than branches off sooner .\ni ' m not fond of the names afroaves and australaves , mainly because the names suggest some knowledge of their origin that we don ' t have . as you will note in some of comments in the next few pages , some of the groups where the crown group appears to originate in africa or australia today ( ericson , 2012 ) have fossil records that are quite different . the earliest fossils throughout the clade come from the northern hemisphere . more precisely , they come from eupore and north america , which were connected in paleocene and early eocene .\nin the tif list , afroaves is divided into four groups : coliiformes , accipitrimorphae , strigiformes , and picimorphae . there is some uncertainty about whether strigiformes are closer to accipitrimorphae or to picimorphae . suh ( 2016 ) and jarvis et al . ( 2014 ) prefer the latter , and that is followed here .\nthe coliiformes are a relict afrotropical group consisting of 6 species in 2 genera . it wasn ' t always so . there ' s a fairly extensive fossil record from europe and north america . primitive coliiformes ( sandcoleidae ) are known from the early eocence ( 48 - 56 mya ) . by the late eocene , only modern forms are known ( mayr , 2009 ) .\nthe phylogeny of cathartidae is based on johnson et al . ( 2016 ) ."]}
{"id": 911, "summary": [{"text": "the striped red mullet or surmullet ( mullus surmuletus ) is a species of goatfish found in the mediterranean sea , eastern north atlantic ocean , and the black sea .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "they can be found in water as shallow as 5 metres ( 16 ft ) or as deep as 409 metres ( 1,342 ft ) depending upon the portion of their range that they are in .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "this species can reach a length of 40 centimetres ( 16 in ) sl though most are only around 25 centimetres ( 9.8 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the greatest recorded weight for this species is 1 kilogram ( 2.2 lb ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "this is a commercially important species and is also sought after as a game fish .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "mullus barbatus and it are commonly called \" red mullets \" and often are not distinguished , though they can be told apart by the striped first dorsal fin of m. surmuletus .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "despite its english name , the striped red mullet , of the goatfish family mullidae , is only very distantly related to the grey mullet and other species called \" mullet \" , classified in a different family of the order perciformes . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "striped red mullet", "paragraphs": ["add the striped red mullet fillets and cook until the meat is white and flakes away , about 5 - 10 minutes .\nstriped red mullet : : triglia di scoglio is found in the mediterranean and black seas as well as the eastern north atlantic ocean . it has been considered a delicacy since antiquity , especially among the ancient romans . if you are not able to find striped red mullet in your local grocery store you can also substitute it with red snapper .\nwant to put together an easy , yet elegant looking meal for valentine\u2019s day ? try out this recipe for striped red mullet , a delicate white fish that is stewed with juicy red tomatoes , tangy capers and salty black olives ; it\u2019s an italian specialty .\nthere is no restriction on red mullet catch . they are a non - quota species but red mullet catches to cornwall are very small , at 20 - 50 tonnes per year , compared to total eu landings of 2000 tonnes . minimum landing size for red mullet in cornish waters is 15cm . there is no eu minimum landing size . red mullet netting is controlled by eu regulations which state that the catch must be 70 % of the target species ( red mullet ) . mesh size between 70 and 90mm is prohibited in cornish waters ( cornwall inshore fisheries and conservation authority , cifca ) . a red mullet netting code of practice has been developed to ensure that red mullet netting in cornish waters is carried out responsibly , and cifca report that the level of red mullet netting has decreased in recent years , and the majority of fishermen using red mullet nets are abiding by the code of practice ( cifca 2011 ) . cifca provide support for fishermen in terms of checking gear and providing advice on legislation and they feel that this sector of netting is currently being managed appropriately ( s . cadman pers com ) .\nwant to put together a easy yet fancy looking meal for valentine\u2019s day or any special occasion ? try out this recipe for striped red mullet , a delicate white fish that is stewed with juicy red tomatoes , tangy capers and salty black olives ; it\u2019s an italian specialty .\nred mullet make up a small , but high value part of the cornish fishing industry ' s landings . red mullet stocks are not well studied in our area however across the eu ices are concerned that they are being over fished and advised a reduction in catches of 20 % for the western area . the stocks are not protected by quotas but in cornwall are protected by a minimum landing size of 15cm . red mullet are caught using specialised red mullet nets in coastal waters and are also caught in cornish trawl fisheries .\nforster . r , and smith . s , 2001 selectivity of gill nets used in the cornish red mullet fishery , fisheries science partnership , cefas lowestoft\nred mullet are also caught in demersal trawls and beam trawls , often in deeper water in the western english channel during colder times of year . forster and smith , 2011 . french trawlers using small mesh size ( 70 - 90mm ) target red mullet in the winter months in the central pit of the western channel .\nred mullet are very delicate and must be put straight onto ice as their quality deteriorates quickly . for best freshness source direct from a fisherman or specialist fish seller .\nred and yellowish scales enticed me to try something new . the fish monger was all too kind to supply me with a typical italian recipe called \u201ctriglia alla livornese . \u201d triglia , as you can imagine , means striped red mullet ; \u201calla livornese\u201d , on the other hand , basically means livorno style . ( livorno is a port city on the ligurian sea . )\nboth species mullus surmuletus ( red mullet ) and mullus barbatus ( striped red mullet ) are distinctly crimson or even orange in color \u2013 but the barbatus boasts yellowish streaks along their sides and grow larger of the two . both are caught without much distinction between the two commercially . they are typically quite small , less than 10 - 14 inches in length , and weigh about a third to a half of a pound each . the smaller the fish , it is commonly believed , the better the flavor and texture .\nred mullet are caught in cornish waters by targeted red mullet nets . static nets set on the seabed with a mesh size of 65 - 70ml and a short soak time , set in summer months specifically to target red mullet which are a high value species . it is a highly skilled method of fishing and care must be taken not to accidentally catch unwanted fish as it is illegal to catch more than 30 % of non - target species and in our waters young pollack can be difficult to avoid . there are few other by catch issues or environmental issues with this fishery .\nred mullet stocks are not well studied in our waters but there is no local evidence to suggest that stocks are declining . red mullet are a warm water species that moves into our waters in the summer months . due to a lack of evidence and taking a precautionary approach ices advises that catches should decrease by 20 % in relation to the average catch of the last three years , corresponding to catches of no more than 2000 t in 2015 . cefas list red mullet as a species that is currently underutilized and having potential for increased fishing effort in its report ( catchpole 2011 ) identifying under - utilized species .\nred mullet is a regular summer visitor to south west coasts of the uk and is caught near to shore by netters . red mullet has a unique texture somewhere between white and oily fish . its high fat content adds a richness to it ' s flavour . it ' s liver is considered a delicacy . it has all the healthy eating attributes of white fish : high in protein and vitamin rich and also has the health benefits of being a source of omega - 3 fatty acids . red mullet are very delicate and must be put straight onto ice as their quality deteriorates quickly . for best freshness source direct from a fisherman or specialist fish seller .\nwhich may confound efforts to correctly identify this species in the north sea bottom trawl surveys . additional confusion may arise from the use of the same common name ,\nred mullet\n, for both species ( uiblein 2007 ) .\nred mullet are warm water fish that are related to the tropical goat fish . they feed on worms and crustaceans which they find by rooting around with a highly sensory pair of whisker like barbels , in muddy and sandy seabeds . red mullet mature at 2 years old and at a length of 16cm . maximum length is 45 cm . juveniles are found inshore and in estuaries whilst adults are found in deeper water . in the english channel they spawn between may and july . biological vulnerability score 39 / 100 cheung et al 2005 .\nwhile the fish monger scaled the striped red mullet , he quickly told me the ingredients for this beloved dish . unfortunately , he was extremely quick at his job and finished before i could ask him the quantities : : le dosi . seeing a long line behind me , i didn\u2019t want to bother him so the recipe you find below may not be true livorno style , but dare i say the presentation is more beautiful following my recipe while the taste is equally delicious .\nrouget are better known in many areas of the world as the red mullet ( or rouget de roche , salmonette ) . but according to various sources , rouget should not be considered mullets at all . the name \u201cmullet\u201d is usually reserved for the various species of striped , grey and silver mullets , which are typically larger , longer and more streamlined in their body shape . the rouget is similar in appearance to a perch ( and is categorized under the perciformes order ) but is easily distinguished by a small set of barbels under its chin , which are used to \u201cfrisk\u201d along the sea floor for food \u2013 an attribute that has also given it the name \u201cgoatfish\u201d for their \u201cbeardlike\u201d appearance .\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nrating 5 ( red ) is associated with fish to be avoided on the basis that all or most of the criteria for sustainablilty have not been met .\nhead is less steep . barbels longer than pectoral fin . body with longitudinal red and brown stripes . first dorsal fin with dark markings ( ref . 35388 ) .\nscientific synonyms and common names mullus surmuletus linnaeus , 1758 synonyms : mullus surmuletus linnaeus , 1758 , syst . nat . , ed . x : 300 ( ' habitat in m . mediterraneo et ad cornubiam ' ) . mullus barbatus surmuletus : day , 1880 1884 : 22 , pl . 8 ( fig . 2 ) lozano rey , 1952 : 245 & 249 . mullus sunnuletus : moreau , 1881 : 244 , fig . 107 fowler , 1936 : 871 , fig . 374 poll , 1947 , fig . 157 soljan , 1948 : 174 , fig . bougis , 1952 : 57 - 174 , fig . dieuzeide et al . , 1954 : 256 , fig . wheeler , 1969 : 344 , fig . , pl . 10 . common names : mulle [ no ] mulle [ da ] meerbarbe [ de ] red mullet [ en ] salmonete de roca [ es ] rouget de roche [ fr ] barbouni [ he ] triglia di scoglio [ it ] mulit happassim [ iw ] barabulja [ ru ] striped red mullet [ en ] rouget de roche [ fr ] salmonete de roca [ es ] mul [ ne ] zeebarbeel [ ne ] koning van de poon [ ne ]\n' red improver ' ratings are assigned to seafood sources which have been assessed and rated 5 ( red ) due to significant environmental concerns with one or more aspects of their management , capture or production , yet credible efforts to improve these issues have been agreed through a fisheries or aquaculture improvement project \u2013 a fip or an aip - and work is underway . such projects are normally publicly listed at www . fisheryprogress . org . mcs wants to encourage environmental improvements in fisheries and fish farms , and so does not recommend avoiding these sources , as we normally do for seafood rated 5 ( red rated ) .\nseabream are a group of compact , medium - sized fishes known as sparidae . their firm white meat is similar in taste and texture to bass and is ideal for grilling , steaming , baking and pan - frying whole . the black bream or porgy and the red or\ndistinctive rounded shells that are slightly heart shaped . it is a bivalve ( two identical shells ) belonging to the family cardidae meaning ' heart - shaped ' . they can jump by bending and straightening the foot - the end bit - which is often coloured red and called the ' red nose ' . choose cockles harvested by sustainable methods only such as licensed hand gathering . avoid eating them during breeding season from march to july . burry inlet cockles and cockles from the dee estuary are both msc certified and provide the most sustainable options in the uk .\nuse the good fish guide to find out which fish are the most sustainable ( green rated ) , and which are the least sustainable ( red rated ) . make the right choice and reduce your impact \u2013 every purchase matters ! find out more about our seafood work , including how we develop our seafood ratings , plus sustainable seafood recipes and more .\nmarine ; demersal ; oceanodromous ( ref . 51243 ) ; depth range 5 - 409 m ( ref . 56504 ) . subtropical ; 62\u00b0n - 14\u00b0n , 19\u00b0w - 42\u00b0e\neastern atlantic : western norway , english channel ( rare in north sea ) to dakar , senegal and the canary islands , including the mediterranean and the black sea .\nmaturity : l m 16 . 1 , range 15 - 26 cm max length : 40 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 3397 ) ; common length : 25 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 4845 ) ; max . published weight : 1 . 0 kg ( ref . 35388 ) ; max . reported age : 11 years ( ref . 92286 )\nadults occur on broken and rough grounds but also found over sand and soft bottoms at depths less than 100 m . depth range from 5 - 60 m ( ref . 07313 ) and from 305 - 409 m in the eastern ionian sea ( ref . 56504 ) . feed on benthic organisms such as shrimps and amphipods , polychaetes , mollusks , and benthic fishes . spawning occurs from may to july , eggs and larvae are pelagic ( ref . 4845 ) . marketed fresh and frozen for steaming , pan - frying , broiling and baking ( ref . 9988 ) .\nben - tuvia , a . , 1990 . mullidae . p . 827 - 829 . in j . c . quero , j . c . hureau , c . karrer , a . post and l . saldanha ( eds . ) check - list of the fishes of the eastern tropical atlantic ( clofeta ) . jnict , lisbon ; sei , paris ; and unesco , paris . vol . 2 . ( ref . 7313 )\n) : 7 - 16 . 1 , mean 10 . 2 ( based on 549 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5625 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00891 ( 0 . 00810 - 0 . 00980 ) , b = 3 . 11 ( 3 . 08 - 3 . 14 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 5 \u00b10 . 3 se ; based on diet studies .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( k = 0 . 1 - 0 . 7 ; tm = 2 ; tmax = 10 ) .\nprior r = 0 . 85 , 2 sd range = 0 . 46 - 1 . 58 , log ( r ) = - 0 . 16 , sd log ( r ) = 0 . 31 , based on : 2 m , 25 k , 9 tgen , 7 tmax , records\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 39 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nyou can play a key role in securing the future of our seas and marine wildlife by making more environmentally responsible choices when buying seafood .\nour seas face a wide range of threats . climate change , pollution , habitat and biodiversity loss are all impacting our seas ; plus 90 % of global fish stocks are either fully or over - exploited . all these factors combined mean that urgent action is needed to restore the health of our seas . fish farming ( aquaculture ) is rapidly expanding to meet increasing demand for seafood , but if this is done badly it can also damage the environment and exacerbate these other problems .\nabalone ( called ormer in france and elsewhere ) are molluscs , belonging to a group of animals known as gastropods ( the same group as whelks ) . abalone can be farmed on land in aquaculture systems that are enclosed , referred to as\nrecirculating systems\n, which means that all water and waste are contained . abalone graze on seaweeds . as there are no environmental interactions and no depletion of resources for food this makes abalone a really sustainable seafood choice . abalone can be farmed on land in aquaculture systems that are enclosed , referred to as\nrecirculating systems\n, which means that all water and waste are contained . abalone graze on seaweeds for food . as there are no environmental interactions and no depletion of resources for food this makes abalone a really sustainalbe seafood choice .\nas an oily fish , their strong flavour is used to add a kick to many dishes and sauces , including worcestershire sauce , and they are widely used in mediterranean cooking . anchovy fillets are generally packed in oil or salt and sold in jars\nor tins . often used as a topping for pizza , caesar salads or just on toast . also in paste or rolled and accompanied with other foods such as olives . anchovy can also be processed into fish meal . they are small green fish with a silver stripe that gives them a bluish hue . a relative of the herring , they are a short - lived , schooling fish feeding on small fry ( recently hatched fish ) and plankton at the bottom of the food - chain . the bay of biscay fishery is a sustainable choice . the cantabrian sea ( bay of biscay ) purse seine anchovy fishery is certified by the marine stewardship council ( msc ) as sustainable . anchovy are a species with a low vulnerability and high resilience and as such can sustain high levels of fishing pressure . however , recruitment of young fish to the stock is affected by environmental factors including climatic fluctuations . if recruitment is low and fishing pressure too high the stock becomes vulnerable to collapse . anchovy are also a species at or near the base of the food chain and the impact of their large - scale removal on the marine ecosystem is poorly understood .\nor tins . often used as a topping for pizza , caesar salads or just on toast . also in paste or rolled and accompanied with other foods such as olives . anchovy can also be processed into fish meal . they are small green fish with a silver stripe that gives them a bluish hue . a relative of the herring , they are a short - lived , schooling fish feeding on small fry ( recently hatched fish ) and plankton at the bottom of the food - chain . anchovy populations fluctuate largely because of environmental variability . it is important that their populations are maintained at an appropriate level because anchovy are a very important part of the food chain . their catches need to be appropriate to maintain an ecosystem balance . due to the last el nino , anchovy populations are low and therefore a suite of management measures have been implemented to ensure anchovy populations can rebuild . however , there needs to be more transparency in stock assessments and quotas need to be made more appropriate for predators of anchovy .\na member of the salmonidae family ( as are salmon and trout ) , arctic char ( or charr ) are both a freshwater and marine fish . they are native to the cold water of the arctic and sub - arctic , occupying coastal waters and lakes . it is also a\nnative species to scotland where is it found in deep , cold glacial lakes , as can be found in similar deep waters in the rest of the uk . it can reach sizes over 9kg but more typically are offered for sale at 1 - 2 kg . land based farmed arctic char is a good choice to make when looking for an oily fish . the use of land based production systems addresses many issues of environmental concern that can be associated with farmed fish production . artic charr has a lower requirement for fish in its diet compared to other salmonid species and in uk and icelandic production responsibly sourced feed is used .\nmethod of production \u2014 farmed production country \u2014 uk production method \u2014 land based flow through and recirculating systems .\nthe group of freshwater fish known as catfish are captured from the wild or farmed for food and displayed in public aquaria dependant on the species . this farmed species natural habitat is medium to large rivers in asian countries such as\nvietnam , where they can grow up to 44kg . there are omnivores , feeding on a diet of other fish , vegetable matter and crustacea . pangasius bocourti is one of the most important farmed species in vietnam . pangasius farmed to aquaculture stewardship council ( asc ) certified production standards is currently the best choice to make for this farmed species . the asc standard certification addresses a number of issues of environmental concern , the auditing of which requires farm inspections and standard enforcement . in general there are a number of issues of environmental concern associated with production , these include : habitat alteration ; nutrient and organic pollution ; escapes ; interactions with local wildlife and enforcement of regulations . pangasius is a an omnivore and as such is not heavily reliant on marine proteins and oils to form part of its diet , however the fish used to produce the feed is currently not certified as being responsibly managed or sustainable .\nseabass are thick - set fish with silvery - scales and a rapid swimming predator , prized by anglers and chefs alike . can be roasted , grilled , baked or barbecued , also be steamed or poached . good with rosemary , garlic or lemon .\ncan be roasted , grilled , baked or barbecued , also be steamed or poached . good with rosemary , garlic or lemon . seabass are thick - set fish with silvery - scales and a rapid swimming predator , prized by anglers and chefs alike .\nseabream are a group of compact , medium - sized fishes known as sparidae . their firm white meat is similar in taste and texture to bass and is ideal for grilling , steaming , baking and pan - frying whole . black bream or porgy are commonly found\nin northern european seas and are commercially fished . however the bulk of the seabream in the uk market comes from imports of mediterranean farmed gilthead bream . black bream is a pretty inexpensive fish to eat as it ' s not massively popular despite the fact it ' s delicious . its taste is distinctive and on the sweet side so best grilled or stuffed and baked whole ( after removing its scales ) . fascinating fact - black bream all mature as females at around 20cm ; but once they reach about 30cm they may change into males and all fish over 40cms are males ! they lay their eggs in nests which males excavate with their tails and guard against predators . black bream stocks currently appear to be in a healthy state , however there is a lack of stock assessment and appropriate management measures in force for the species . they are moderately vulnerable to fishing in terms of growth rate and fecundity and the species spawning behavioural traits make them especially vulnerable to bottom trawling . trawling for black bream can destroy both nests and eggs . black bream caught with rod and line or gillnet is a more sustainable option . cornwall , north western and sussex ifca districts , as well as north wales , have the best management for black bream and are currently the most sustainable areas to source from ( sussex has mesh regulations and closed areas for the spawning season and cornwall , sussex , north western and north wales prohibit landing of seabream below 23 cm ) . avoid eating immature black bream ( below 23 cm ) caught prior to and during their spawning season ( april and may in uk inshore waters ) , thus allowing them chance to spawn or reproduce .\nsold as whole steaks and fillets and is sometimes used as an alternative to turbot . it is similar to turbot but has slightly smaller flakes and a sweeter taste . brill belongs to a small family of left - eyed flatfish . it grows relatively\nfast and generally reaches a certain length faster ( at younger ages ) than flatfish , such as sole and plaice , in the same areas . fisheries for this species are poorly managed . due to lack of data there is no assessment of brill populations or stock . the state of the stock is unknown although abundance is estimated to be increasing . landings of brill derive mainly from the north sea where it is taken as bycatch , predominantly in beam trawl fisheries for plaice and sole . these fisheries are associated with substantial damage to seabed flora and fauna and high discarding of juvenile fish . avoid eating immature brill ( less than 30cm ) and during their breeding time in spring and summer .\nclams are versatile shellfish which you should only eat if they are from farmed sources ( e . g . manila or american hardshell clams ) or harvested from the wild ( e . g . carpet or razor clams ) using sustainable manual methods such as hand\ngathering . they can be eaten raw , boiled , baked or fried and are most popularly made into clam chowder - a brothy soup , containing potatoes and other vegetables , and often cream . clams , like many fish , were served in restaurants on fridays to provide an option for catholics who abstained from eating\nmeat ' on this day , as well as during important christian periods such as lent . all manila clams in the uk are progeny of broodstock imported from the west coast of usa . they are grown in trays on trestles in the sea before planting out in ground plots or seabed . only a small number of manila clams are farmed for the table in uk ( 5 tonnes , 2012 ) , the biggest production is seed for ongrowing . clams may be harvested by manual digging or raking , or by mechanical methods , e . g . suction or hydraulic dredge . manual harvesting methods cause less disturbance to sediment than mechanical methods . shellfish farming is a low - impact method of producing farmed seafood and high quality water standards are required for cultivation of shellfish for human consumption .\ngathering . avoid eating clams that have been harvested using illegal methods such as by electrical fishing . they can be eaten raw , boiled , baked or fried and are most popularly made into clam chowder - a brothy soup , containing potatoes and other vegetables , and often cream . clams , like many fish , were served in restaurants on fridays to provide an option for catholics who abstained from eating meat on this day , as well as during important christian periods such as lent . in scotland , razor clams are also known as spoots , a reference to the jets of water they produce when rapidly burrowing into sand when exposed at low tides . the marine conservation society fishery team is currently updating the consumer advice for this entry\nbest boiled then seasoned with malt vinegar and pepper , they are often pickled but also sold in a sealed packet to eat on the go . a traditional welsh breakfast is cockles fried with bacon and served with laver bread . cockles have\nmany of the fish listed are caught in different ways and from different areas of the sea . some species are caught in a variety of ways and this range shows that , within a species , some may be fished sustainably whilst others unsustainably .\nto find out the individual ratings for each fish click on the ratings button next to the image .\nfish to eat are rated 1 and 2 , fish to avoid are rated 5 . ratings 3 and 4 mean don\u2019t eat too often .\nfish that are being assessed are shown with a question mark icon and\nno rating\n.\nthis system has been developed by the marine conservation society to help consumers choose the most environmentally sustainable fish .\nseafood sources indicated as , ' to be assessed ' , are those that have not yet been assessed and assigned a rating or are undergoing a period of review . these include sources previously rated by mcs for which the rating has lapsed , due to changes in the market or mcs priorities and resources . given that these sources are not fully assessed , the profile should not be used to infer the current sustainability of the fishery or farmed species .\nrating 1 ( light green ) is associated with the most sustainably produced seafood .\nrating 3 ( yellow ) based on available information ; these species should probably not be considered sustainable at this time . areas requiring improvement in the current production may be significant . eat only occasionally and check urltoken for specific details .\nrating 4 ( orange ) should not be considered sustainable , and the fish is likely to have significant environmental issues associated with its production . while it may be from a deteriorating fishery , it may be one which has improved from a 5 rating , and positive steps are being taken . however , mcs would not usually recommend choosing this fish .\n' best choice ' fish are rated 1 and 2 , fish to avoid are rated 5 .\nthis system has been developed by the marine conservation society to help businesses and consumers choose the most environmentally sustainable fish .\n\u00a9 marine conservation society ( mcs ) 2017 . registered charity no : 1004005 ( england & wales ) ; sc037480 ( scotland ) . company limited by guarantee no : 2550966 . registered in england vat no : 489 1505 17 . registered office : overross house , ross park , ross - on - wye , hr9 7us .\n\u00a9 marine conservation society ( mcs ) 2017 . registered charity no : 1004005 ( england & wales ) ; sc037480 ( scotland ) . company limited by guarantee no : 2550966 . registered in england vat no : 489 1505 17 . registered office : overross house , ross park , ross - on - wye , hr9 7us . scottish office : suite 7 , cbc house , 24 canning street , edinburgh , eh3 8eg\nbeam trawls are nets with a steel beam that holds the net open . the belly of the net is made of chains and the upper surface of the net is mesh . beam trawlers pull two nets along the seabed simultaneously .\ngill nets are lightweight nets made of nylon ( monofilament ) fishing line that are anchored to the seabed and are used to catch fish by entangling the gills .\ndemersal trawls are large nets that are pulled through the water with the bottom edge of the net touching the seabed . at each edge the net is pulled open by metal \u2018trawl doors\u2019 . sometimes referred to as otter trawling .\ncornwall good seafood guide rates fish on sustainability using a scale of 1 to 5 .\n1 , 2 and 3 are recommended , fish to avoid are rated 5 .\nwe use the system devised by the marine conservation society ( mcs ) so our scores are comparable with the scores produced by mcs for the uk and fisheries from all around the world . for more information on scoring click here .\ndemersal trawling in inshore waters is carried out by licenced vessels operating under very strict criteria on vessel size and power and the majority of demersal trawlers in cornwall are using larger than mandatory mesh size over 100mm to reduce unwanted bycatch of juvenile fish .\nref - cheung , w . w . l . , t . j . pitcher and d . pauly , 2005 . a fuzzy logic expert system to estimate intrinsic extinction vulnerabilities of marine fishes to fishing . biol . conserv . 124 : 97 - 111\nthis simple dish is delicous and easy to prepair . and is best . . .\nnathan outlaw proves fish is more than a match for beef in a . . .\na delicious , creamy , spicy recipe to set off quality sustainable . . .\na great way to enjoy crab meat - brown crab claws are full of . . .\nthis is a simple but effective recipe to make the best of . . .\nthis is a lovely light lunch or starter using one of our . . .\ncornwall good seafood guide is underpinned by the marine conservation society ( mcs ) good fish guide . the first uk consumer guide to sustainable seafood . for more information visit urltoken\nif you would like to get in touch with us please feel free to contact us below or use our contact us page .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\ncarpenter , k . e . , smith - vaniz , w . f . , de bruyne , g . & de morais , l .\nmadeira and the canary islands , and is found in the entire mediterranean and in the black sea . it is found at depths ranging from zero to 300 m over sandy and muddy substrates . this species was considered a valuable bycatch species prior to the 1990s , after which it became a major target for small scale and semi - industrial fisheries . it is heavily exploited in the mediterranean and northeast atlantic . in the mediterranean sea there are few spawning stock biomass ( ssb ) estimates . available information from the balaeric islands shows reductions in ssb to a series low in 2009 . all additional examined stocks are considered overexploited , with recommendations to reduce fishing effort by 40 to 60 % , depending on the region . in the northeast atlantic the population of\nappears to be increasing due to warming temperatures . this increase in abundance has led to the development of fisheries which target this species . it\nis a relatively short lived species which is capable of rapid reproductive turnover . therefore , it is listed as least concern .\nis distributed from norway and the english channel to dakar , senegal , including madeira and the canary islands , and is found in the entire mediterranean and in the black sea . it is found at depths ranging from zero to 300 metres ( golani in press , vasil ' eva 2011 ) .\nalbania ; algeria ; belgium ; bulgaria ; cape verde ; croatia ; cyprus ; denmark ; egypt ; france ; gambia ; georgia ; germany ; gibraltar ; greece ; guernsey ; israel ; italy ; jersey ; lebanon ; libya ; malta ; mauritania ; monaco ; montenegro ; morocco ; netherlands ; norway ; portugal ( madeira ) ; romania ; russian federation ; senegal ; serbia ; slovenia ; spain ( canary is . ) ; syrian arab republic ; tunisia ; turkey ; ukraine ; united kingdom ; western sahara\nhave continuously increased from 1950 ( 1 , 000 tonnes ) to a peak in 2007 ( 18 , 331 tonnes ) , gradually decreasing to 14 , 096 tonnes in 2011 . the largest landings are reported from libyan arab jamahiriya and france .\nthe most recent review of scientific advice for 2014 of the scientific , technical and economic committee for fisheries ( stecf ) provides the following insight : in most regions for which information was available , spawning stock biomass ( ssb ) estimates are not available . the majority of stocks are considered overfished . in the balaeric islands this species is overfished . ssb has declined continuously since 2000 to the lowest value of the time series in 2009 and remaining low to 2011 . stocks in the liguirian and north tyrrhenian sea are also overfished , with juveniles representing the majority of the catch . this species is among the most valuable demersal resources off the coast of egypt , and is also overfished in this area . throughout the mediterranean basin recommendations are to reduce fishing mortality ( f ) by 40 to 60 % ( stecf 2013 ) .\ncatch per unit effort ( cpue ) has steadily decreased from 1968 to 2008 in the balearic islands , western mediterranean . landings and cpue remained relatively constant from the 1990s to 2008 ( quetglas\nare considered overfished , and in some cases over - exploited , in the following mediterranean sub - regions : gsa06 , gsa07 , gsa09 , gsa05 , gsa25 ( gfcm 2011 ) . although\n2002 ) . international bottom trawl survey ( itbs ) data show fluctuating trends from 1992 to 2012 .\nm . surmuletus , suggesting that there is need to improve onboard identification using keys and training of participating scientists . this species is thought to be an indicator of climate - related temperature increase in the northern atlantic . there are recent records from 50\u00b0n along the norwegian coast , recorded just south bergen , in hardanger fjord and off coastal islands in the area . in the eastern part of the north sea , some small - scale fisheries have been started due to the increased abundance . it is also found in the kattegat area . it is still rare further north . the same trends have been reported from scotland and the shetland islands . temperature increases in the 1930s resulted in similar range expansions ( uiblein 2007 ) .\nwas considered a valuable bycatch species prior to the 1990s , after which it became a major target for small scale and semi - industrial fisheries . it is heavily exploited in the mediterranean and northeast atlantic ( vogiatzi\nis caught primarily by trammel nets and by trawl ( golani in press ) .\nis a commercial species throughout its range . it is a major target for small scale and semi - industrial fisheries , and is heavily exploited in the mediterranean and northeast atlantic ( vogiatzi\n. 2013 ) . in the mediterranean , two of the three anaged stocks are considered to be over - exploited , and recommendations have been made to not increase fishing mortality , to reduce fishing mortality , and to reduce the percentage small individuals in the catch . in the mediterranean , catches mostly consist of animals less than 15 cm tl which have not yet completed their second year of life ( tserpes\nmediterranean fisheries are concentrated along coastal areas , where biodiversity is greatest . the majority ( 80 % ) of the mediterranean fleet is comprised of vessels < 12 m , and as such mediterranean fisheries can be thought of as small - scale artisanal fisheries . additionally , fisheries tend to be multi - species . as such it is difficult and expensive to obtain data for stock assessment purposes . there are several issues of concern which include the widespread targeting of small species or larger juvenile finfish prior to maturity , the observed reduction in the mean trophic level of mediterranean catches , and high discard rates ( 40 to 56 % of the catch taken in waters < 150 m ) and the reduction in mean abundance of piscivorous species ( vassilopoulou 2010 ) .\naccording to a 2013 synthesis of the status of mediterranean and black sea resources in european waters , while the state of knowledge on the mediterranean and black sea stocks is improving rapidly , between 94 % and 95 % of stocks analysed are overexploited . recent observed reductions in nominal fishing effort have not resulted in declines in fishing mortality . overall reductions between 45 % and 51 % are needed in order to reach maximum sustainable yields ( cardinale and osio 2013 ) .\ncoastal demersal resources are very sought after in all four of the northern cecaf zone countries ( mauritania , morocco , senegal and the gambia ) . many of the commercially important demersal resources of northwest africa are heavily exploited ( fao 2011 ) . they are exploited by both national artisanal fleets and foreign industrial fleets . demersal fisheries are typically multi - purpose , and many demersal fisheries resources are by - catch of more specialized fisheries , such as the cephalopod , hake or shrimp fisheries . high fishing pressure is exerted all on demersal fish species in this region\nmorocco : demersal resources are exploited by moroccan cephalopod freezer trawlers , coastal fishing vessels , coastal trawlers and longliners , artisanal boats , leased boats and russian vessels operating under the morocco - russia fishing agreement . demersal resources are explicitly targeted by longlines and some artisanal fishing boats , other vessels catch them as bycatch .\nmauritania : demersal resources are exploited by foreign and national trawlers targeting , hake , shrimp , pelagics and demersal fishes .\nsenegal : demersal resources are mainly targeted by artisanal boats ( fleet composed of ~ 12691 canoes ) using fishing lines , but also by national and foreign trawlers operating under fishing agreements .\nto deeper waters ( golani 1994 ) , but direct impacts have not been documented . in the eastern levant ,\nis caught in large numbers but due to its small size , is not commercially important ( golani in press ) .\nis a well - researched and managed species in the mediterranean . stock assessments are performed regularly by sub - region in the mediterranean basin . it is well researched in the northeast atlantic as well , although relative to the mediterranean it has received less research attention . it is found in marine protected areas throughout its range . there is a need for more research and monitoring of population trends in this species .\ncarpenter , k . e . , smith - vaniz , w . f . , de bruyne , g . & de morais , l . 2015 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nfewer fish are prized more in the mediterranean than the rouget , for it has a flavor that is so well complimented by the region\u2019s distinctive and aromatic ingredients . whether utilized in a bouillabaisse or baked or pan - fried and featured at the center of the dish , it is a highly coveted european delicacy ( dating back to demand by the romans ! ) and often hard to source in the u . s .\nthe delicate white flesh is low in fat and high in protein . the scales are relatively large and easily removed . a favorite in european cuisine , the livers of these fish are considered a delicacy \u2013 many french recipes call for the whole , ungutted fish to be grilled , or to saut\u00e9 the livers in butter and then stuff the fish with it before preparation . broiling , pan and deep frying are typical preparations ( not recommended served raw ) as well as escabeche . browne trading imports ours directly from portugal as catch allows \u2013 usually our fish our 150 - 250 grams each .\nbrowne trading company is the premier supplier of fresh fish , fine caviar , shellfish , and smoked seafood to both elite restaurants and home kitchens across the u . s .\nwhile doing a little research on the traditional recipe , it appears that this dish is mostly served with the whole fish ( instead of fillets ) , topped with green olives ( not black ) and covered with pur\u00e8ed tomatoes ( not whole ) . feel free to try out the more traditional method , although i usually prefer eating fillets of fish since it\u2019s much less work to eat and i liked the presentation : : presentazione with the tomato pieces as you can still see the fish underneath .\ncapers : : capperi are commonly used in mediterranean dishes as they are native to the area . in this recipe they add a nice tangy burst of flavor .\nwhen making seafood dishes , i like to use few ingredients : : ingredienti to keep it healthier and quicker to prepare . just like my italian b aked sardine and easy blood orange sole recipes , this dish was on the table in under 30 minutes .\nheat the olive oil in a pan over medium heat then add the onions and garlic . saut\u00e8 them until they\u2019ve softened and have turned slightly brown .\nadd the capers and black olives , reduce the heat to low and continue cooking for 5 minutes . serve warm .\nhi thomas ! it\u2019s nice to hear from another person who has the same love for simple cooking . the fish is plated on a vegetable called \u201cagretti\u201d . you can find the recipe searching by the name or following this link : urltoken\nthis website uses cookies to improve your experience . we ' ll assume you ' re ok with this , but you can opt - out if you wish . accept read more\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nenglish - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers\non broken and rough ground but also taken in fair quantities over sand and soft bottoms at depths less than 100 m . less\nbougis , p . 1952 . recherches biom\u00e9triques sur les rougets ( mullus barbatus , mullus surmuletus ) . archs zool . exp . gen . , 89 ( 2 ) : 57 - 174 , 55 fig .\nchaine , j . 1938a . recherches sur les otolithes des poissons . . . ( suite ) . act . soc . linn . bordeaux , suppl . 89 : pp . 1 - 361 , 5 pl .\nday , f . 1880 - 1884 . the fishes of great britain and ireland . london - edinburgh , 2 vol . , cxii + 336 pp . , 5 + 7 fig . , 92 pl . and 388 pp . , 87 pl . 1880 : 1 ( 1 ) : pp . 1 - 64 , pl . i - xxvii ; 1881 : 1 ( 2 ) ( 3 ) : pp . 65 - 240 , pl . xxviii - lxviii ; 1882 : 1 ( 4 ) : pp . 241 - 336 , pl . lxix - xcii ; 2 ( 5 ) : pp . 1 - 96 , pl . xciii - cxvi ; 1883 : 2 ( 6 ) : pp . 97 - 176 , pl . cxvii - cxxxii ; 2 ( 7 ) : pp . 177 - 272 , pl . cxxxiii - cxlviii ; 1884 : 2 ( 8 ) : pp . 273 - 368 , pl . cxlix - clxxix .\ndieuzeide , r . ; novella , m . ( collab . j . roland ) , 1953 - 1955 . catalogue des poissons des c\u00f4tes alg\u00e9riennes . bull . stn aquic . p\u00each . castiglione , i ( n . s . ) , ( 4 ) , 1952 [ 1953 ] : pp . 1 - 135 , 73 fig . n . num . ; ii ( n . s . ) , ( 5 ) , 1953 [ 1954 ] : pp . 1 - 258 , 135 fig . n . num . ; iii ( n . s . ) , ( 6 ) , 1954 [ 1955 ] : pp . 1 - 384 , 202 fig . n . num .\nfowler , h . w . 1936 . the marine fishes of west africa , based on the collection of the american museum congo expedition 1909 - 1915 . bull . am . mus . nat . hist . , 70 ( 1 ) , jan . 21 , 1936 : pp . vii + 1 - 606 , fig . 1 - 275 ; ( 2 ) , nov . 18 , 1936 : pp . 607 - 1493 , fig . 276 - 567 .\nkoken , e . 1884 . \u00fcber fisch - otolithen , insbesondere \u00fcber die jenigen der norddeutschen oligoc\u00e4n - ablagerungen . z . dt . geol ges . , 36 ( 3 ) : 500 - 565 , pl . ix - xii .\nlinnaeus , c . 1758 . systema naturae , ed . x , vol . 1 , 824 pp . nantes & pisces : pp . 230 - 338 . ( reprint , 1956 , london . )\nlozano y rey , l . 1952 . peces fisoclistos , subserie toracicos . mems r . acad . cienc . exact . fis . nat . madr . , ser . : cien . nat . , primate parte , 14 : pp . xv + 1 - 378 , fig . 1 - 20 , pl . i - xxx ; segunda parte , 14 : pp . 379 - 705 , fig . 21 - 31 , pl . xxi - li .\nmontalenti , g . 1937 . maenidae , mullidae , sciaenidae , cepolidae in uova , larve e stadi giovanili di teleostei . fauna flora golfo napoli , 38 : 383 - 412 , fig . 263 - 277 , pl . xxxi - xxxiii .\nmoreau , e . 1881 - 1891 . histoire naturelle des poissons de la france , paris , i , 1881 : pp . i - vii + 1 - 480 , fig . 1 - 82 ; ii , 1881 : pp . 1 - 572 , fig . 83 - 145 ; iii , 1881 : pp . 1 - 697 , fig . 146 - 220 ; suppl . , 1891 : pp . 1 - 144 , fig . 221 - 227 .\npoll , m . 1947 . poissons marins in faune de belgique . bruxelles , 452 pp . , 267 fig . , 2 pl . , 2 maps n . num . ( inset ) .\nsanz echeverria , j . 1926 . datos sobre el otolito , sagitta de los peces de espa\u00f1a . boln r . soc . esp . hist . nat . , 26 ( 1 ) : pp . 145 - 160 , 71 fig .\nsanz echeverria , j . 1936 . otolitos del genere mullus . boln r . soc . esp . hist . nat . , 36 : 345 - 361 , 2 fig . , 2 pl .\nsoljan , t . 1948 . fauna i flora jadrana . 1 . ribe inst . oceanogr . ribarst . jugoslavia . zagreb , hrvatske , 437 pp . , 1350 fig .\nwheeler , a . 1969 . the fishes of the british isles and north - west europe . macmillan , london , melbourne and toronto : pp . i - xvii + 1 - 163 , 5 + 177 fig . , 392 fig . ( princ . sp . ) , 92 n . num . fig . , 16 pl . , maps ."]}
{"id": 923, "summary": [{"text": "the crevalle jack , caranx hippos ( also known as the common jack , black-tailed trevally , couvalli jack , black cavalli , jack crevale and yellow cavalli ) is a common species of large marine fish classified within the jack family , carangidae .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the crevalle jack is distributed across the tropical and temperate waters of the atlantic ocean , ranging from nova scotia , canada to uruguay in the west atlantic and portugal to angola in the east atlantic , including the mediterranean sea .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it is distinguishable from similar species by its deep body , fin colouration and a host of more detailed anatomical features , including fin ray and lateral line scale counts .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is one of the largest fish in the genus caranx , growing to a maximum known length of 124 cm and a weight of 32 kg , although is rare at lengths greater than 60 cm .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the crevalle jack inhabits both inshore and offshore waters to depths of around 350 m , predominantly over reefs , bays , lagoons and occasionally estuaries .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "young fish dispersed north by currents in the eastern atlantic are known to migrate back to more tropical waters before the onset of winter ; however , if the fish fail to migrate , mass mortalities occur as the temperature falls below the species ' tolerance limits .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the crevalle jack is a powerful , predatory fish , with extensive studies showing the species consumes a variety of small fish , with invertebrates such as prawns , shrimps , crabs , molluscs and cephalopods also of minor importance .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "dietary shifts with both age , location and season have been demonstrated , which led some researchers to postulate the species is indiscriminant in its feeding habits .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the crevalle jack reaches maturity at 55 cm in males and 66 cm in females , with spawning taking place year round , although peaks in activity have been documented in several sites .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the larval and juvenile growth has been extensively studied , with the oldest known individual 17 years of age .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the crevalle jack is an important species to commercial fisheries throughout its range , with annual catches ranging between 1000 and 30 000 tonnes over its entire range .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is taken by a variety of netting methods , including purse nets , seines and gill nets , as well as hook-and-line methods .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the crevalle jack is also a revered gamefish , taken both by lures and bait .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the species is considered of good to poor quality table fare , and is sold fresh , frozen , or preserved , or as fishmeal or oil at market .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the crevalle jack is closely related to both the pacific crevalle jack and the longfin crevalle jack , the latter of which has been extensively confused with the true crevalle jack until recently . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "crevalle jack", "paragraphs": ["raw cubes of jack crevalle are ready to be marinated with a variety of ingredients for chef chris sherrill\u2019s jack crevalle prime rib with horseradish white bbq sauce .\nthe crevalle jack will often grunt or croak when it is caught by fishermen .\nthe crevalle jack has edible flesh , but is not considered very desirable for food .\nraw cubes of marinated jack crevalle are prepared for kabobs , skewered on rosemary sprigs .\nthis article is a species account for crevalle jack ( caranx hippos ) in florida .\naveraging 3 to 5 pounds in weight and 1 to 21\u20442 feet in length , the crevalle jack can regularly weigh as much as 10 pounds ; the paci\ufb01c crevalle jack is usually smaller . the all - tackle world record for the crevalle jack is a 58 - pound angolan \ufb01sh and for the paci\ufb01c crevalle jack is a 39 - pound costa rican \ufb01sh .\nreproductive behavior of the bigeye crevalle jack caranx sexfasciatus : . . . | download scientific diagram\nthe florida fishing record for the crevalle jack is 23 . 1 kg ( 51 lbs ) .\nknown as the horse - eye jack or horse - eye crevalle in reference to the large eyes of the species . other lesser used names include big - eye jack and false jack .\nwe cut the jack crevalle loins into 1 . 5 - inch - by - 1 . 5 inch cubes .\nthe crevalle jack is capable of producing croaking sounds by grinding its teeth together while releasing gas from its air bladder .\n, inhabits the pyloric junction or the entire length of the intestine . copepods are also common parasites to the crevalle jack including\nchef ' s corner : who says jack crevalle is inedible ? chef chris sherrill took a load of thought - inedible jack crevalle from the recent flora - bama fishing rodeo and whipped up some tasty kabobs . check out this story on urltoken urltoken\ncommon jack , crevally , toro , trevally , horse crevalle ; spanish : cavallo , chumbo , cocinero , jurel com\u00fan .\ntry this recipe for smoked jack crevalle on your next jack crevalle and let us know what you think . my fishing buddies tried this and could not believe it was jack crevalle . check out our amazon store here : urltoken become a patreon urltoken learn how to smoke small fish here : urltoken see us on facebook here : urltoken basic smoked fish recipe is here : urltoken\nthroughout its lifetime , the crevalle jack lives from the shoreline to open waters in the gulf of mexico - - moving in and out annually .\nchef chris sherrill took a load of thought - inedible jack crevalle from the recent flora - bama fishing rodeo and whipped up some tasty kabobs .\nthe horse - eye jack , caranx latus , is a gamefish and minor commercial fish in the family carangidae . it is also known as the big - eye jack , and is similar in appearance to the crevalle jack , although the head of the horse - eye jack is not as blunt . the horse - eye jack is known to feed on smaller fish and on many invertebrates , such as shrimp and crab .\npredators the crevalle jack is prey for many surface feeding carnivores , such as finfish including the striped marlin ( tetrapturus audax ) , and sea birds .\nthe crevalle jack , caranx hippos . illustration by diana rome peebles 1998 . courtesy of florida fish and wildlife conservation commission , division of marine fisheries .\n\u2026game fish , such as the crevalle jack ( c . hippos ) of warm atlantic waters and the yellow jack ( c . bartholomaei ) , which frequents warm atlantic waters and is noted for its golden - yellow sides and fins .\nto plate , stack the jack crevalle kabobs on your favorite platter or plate . drizzle your horseradish bbq sauce along the kabobs and leave dollops on the plate .\nhoff jg . 1971 . mass mortality of the crevalle jack , caranx hippos ( linnaeus ) on the atlantic coast of massachusetts . chesapeake science 12 : 49 .\nthe crevalle jack is a diurnal predator . adults prey upon on a variety of fish , shrimp and invertebrates . juveniles feed mainly on small fish and crustaceans .\nparasites parasites of the yellow jack include the copepods caligus chorinemi and caligus robustus .\nfood habits the crevalle jack is a diurnal predator . adults prey upon on a variety of fish , shrimp and invertebrates . juveniles feed mainly on small fish and crustaceans .\nshipp and i both identify jack crevalle as extremely bloody , due to their powerful swimming habits . but you know what else is deemed red and somewhat bloody ? beef !\nthe crevalle jack is a prey item for various surface - feeding carnivores , such as finfish ( i . e . striped marlin , tetrapturus audax ) and sea birds .\nthe adult horse - eye jack commonly swims with others in a school , either as one species or mixed with crevalle jack . sometimes it also swims as a pair with a member of a very different species , such as halichoeres radiatus , a type of wrasse .\nas noted , we treated the jack crevalle just like beef . the outcome ?\nabsolutely mind - numbing and incredible ,\naccording to gary finch of the famed gary finch outdoors .\nafter forssk\u00e5l\u2019s initial description and naming , the species was independently renamed three times as caranx lessonii , caranx ekala and carangus hippoides , all of which are now considered invalid junior synonyms . [ 6 ] the latter of these names once again highlighted the similarity with the crevalle jack , with the epithet hippoides essentially meaning \u2018like carangus hippos\u2019 , [ 7 ] which was the crevalle jack\u2019s latin name at that point in time . despite the resemblance with the crevalle jack , the two species have never been phylogenetically compared , either morphologically or genetically , to determine their relationship .\nsaloman ch , sp naughton . 1984 . food of crevalle jack ( caranx hippos ) from florida , louisiana , and texas . noaa technical memorandum nmfs - sefc - 134 . 34pp .\nthe crevalle jack is a relevantly unimportant commercial fish species . never the less , they are fished commercially throughout the year in southwest florida , and in the spring , fall , and summer in the gulf of mexico . crevalle jacks are an important sport fish , and are exploited throughout their range . they are the most common large jack caught off the west coast of florida .\nthis later revision in classification saw the species moved to the genus caranx , where it has remained . [ 4 ] even after its initial description , the giant trevally ( and the bigeye trevally ) were often confused with the atlantic crevalle jack , caranx hippos , due to their superficial similarity , which led to some authors claiming the crevalle jack had a circumtropical distribution . [ 5 ]\nwiggers r . 2005 . crevalle jack . in : comprehensive wildlife conservation strategy . south carolina department of natural resources , columbia , sc . available : urltoken . accessed : september , 2009 .\nthere is a prominent black spot on the gill cover and another at the base of each pectoral \ufb01n . the soft dorsal and anal \ufb01ns are almost identical in size . the two species are distinguished externally from each other only by the presence of a larger maximum number of scutes , up to 42 on the paci\ufb01c crevalle jack , as opposed to 26 to 35 on the crevalle jack .\nthe bluethroat pikeblenny is among the many prey items of the yellow jack . photo \u00a9 suzan meldonian\nthis work was done on a medium - sized ( about 20 pounds ) , extremely fresh jack .\ndentition the crevalle jack has three paired patches of small villiform teeth located dorsally . these teeth are larger than the premaxillary teeth . ventrally , the jack crevalle has a single pair of triangular patches of smaller teeth . these teeth , in combination with the air bladder , are responsible for the croaking noise it makes when it is caught . the fish rasp their upper and lower teeth together , this combined with air bladder resonance , are the factors contributing to the sound .\nthe closely related horse - eye jack ( caranx latus ) is frequently seen schooling over reefs . photo courtesy noaa\nalthough the crevalle jack is a relevantly unimportant commercial fish , it is fished commercially throughout the year in southwest florida , and in the spring , fall , and summer in the gulf of mexico . it is an important sport fish , and is exploited throughout its range . it is the most common large jack caught off the west coast of florida .\nfigure 7 . reproductive behavior of the bigeye crevalle jack caranx sexfasciatus : ( a ) pairs of jacks leaving a spawning aggregation , showing both normal and dark phase ; ( b ) a pair of c . sexfasciatus swimming prior to spawning .\nyep , i said it ; jack crevalle , deemed inedible by most locals . even the crabs in the crab traps turn their nose up at it . i ' ll admit , between a dare and pure curiosity , i had my doubts .\nin another mixing bowl , add the ranch dressing , worcestershire sauce , garlic , scallions , lemon juice , pepper , salt blend and rosemary , and mix together . add the jack crevalle cubes and let marinate for a minimum of one hour .\nadult horse - eye jack are typically dark blue to silvery - blue above , becoming silvery white to golden below .\nhorse - eye jack ( caranx latus ) other names : bigeye jack , ojo gordo range : all florida , especially south florida\u2013but more common in the bahamas and caribbean . habitat : more of an openwater species than the crevalle , it is found over the reefs and near the beaches ; also in channels and harbors . description : similar in body shape to the crevalle , but the head is not quite so blunt . the color is also different , being usually silvery on the sides and below ; dark gray or blackish above . the fins are blackish as opposed to the yellow tinge of the crevalle . hard scutes forward of tail . as the name indicates , the eyes are very large . size : commonly caught in similar sizes to the crevalle , but does not grow so large , topping out at 20 pounds or so . world and florida records 24 pounds , 8 ounces . food value : poor by most tastes , and has been implicated in ciguatera poisoning ( see introduction ) . game qualities : like the crevalle , a tough brawler . tackle and baits : see jack crevalle . fishing systems : casting ; drifting ; trolling .\nthe crevalle jack ' s range consists mainly of the coastal areas of the western atlantic ocean from novia scotia to uruguay . they also often are found throughout the gulf of mexico , especially along the coast of texas and the west coast of florida .\nover a hot grill , place your jack crevalle kabobs over hot and high heat to get the grill marks and char going . drizzle the kabobs with the butter as they sear . flames will likely occur and will char the the rosemary , but this adds a great flavor . we cooked the kabobs to medium . a little pink is perfect , as the jack can dry out .\nmy opinion ? it was very similar to ribeye , or even filet mignon \u2014 very flavorful , very meaty and quite wonderful . i will continue to pursue jack crevalle , and will make more efforts to cook this sustainable and available fish every chance i get .\nsimilar species : blue runner , c . crysos ( lack black spot at base of pectoral fins ) ; other jack species .\ncaranx itself is part of the larger jack and horse mackerel family carangidae , a group of percoid fishes in the order perciformes .\nalthough the crevalle jack is a relevantly unimportant commercial fish , it is fished commercially throughout the year in southwest florida , and in the spring , fall , and summer in the gulf of mexico . it is an important sport fish , and is exploited throughout its range .\nthis is the only jack with a black spot on pectoral fins and a scaleless chest with small patch of scales by pelvic fins .\njack crevalle is a beast when it comes to hook and line catch . in his\nguide to fishes of the gulf of mexico ,\ndr . bob shipp describes them best as\npacks of wolves foraging for bait fish , marauding menhaden and bringing stark fear to their prey .\ni saw several hundred pounds of jack crevalle hit the scales this weekend , and i was promised them all \u2014 i even had one angler pay me to take them ! so research and development was easy , finding a\nventuresome palate\noutside of mine proved to be the biggest challenge .\nthe horse - eye jack has a body form similar to other large jacks found throughout its range , with a moderately compressed elongate and deep body .\nmcbride rs , ka mckown . 2000 . consequences of dispersal of subtropically spawned crevalle jacks , caranx hippos , to temperate estuaries . fish bull 98 : 528 - 538 .\ncrevalle jack juveniles : a . 15 . 3 mm , b . 20 . 4 mm , c . 32 . 6 mm , d . 80 . 5 mm ( standard lengths ) . images courtesy berry ( 1959 ) in development of fishes of the mid - atlantic bight , u . s . fish and wildlife service\nthe crevalle jack has a body depth of about three times its fork length . it has large eyes . the chest is scaleless except for a small patch of scales in front of the pelvic fins . this patch is apparent by the time the fish reaches a fork length of 0 . 98 inches ( 2 . 5 cm ) . the crevalle jack is the only jack in the western atlantic ocean with this patch of scales . there is an oval black spot on the pectoral fins ; this appears at about 4 . 72 inches ( 12 . 0 cm ) . between the seventh and the eighth spines of the adult there is an overgrowth of skin . the two most distinguishable features of this fish are the patch of scales between the pelvic fins and the oval , black spot on the pectoral fins .\nthe spawning season of the crevalle jack is early march to early september . spawning occurs offshore in the southeastern atlantic coast and in the gulf stream , including any associated currents . the crevalle jack has been found to spawn in both tropical and subtropical environments . the eggs of the crevalle jack are between . 03 - . 04 inches ( 0 . 7 - 0 . 9 mm ) in diameter and the newly hatched larvae are between 0 . 06 - 0 . 07 inches ( 1 . 6 - 1 . 8 mm ) in length . the larva use estuaries as nurseries . in juveniles the small patch scales on the chest form at 0 . 98 inches ( 25 mm ) . the pigmentation of the first dorsal fin decreases above 1 . 2 inches ( 30 mm ) , pigment appears on the second dorsal fin at 1 . 2 inches ( 30 mm ) , and the pelvic fin is unpigmented above 0 . 8 inches ( 20 mm ) . the pectoral spot develops at about 4 . 7 inches ( 120 mm ) .\nin the western atlantic , crevalle jacks occur from nova scotia south throughout the northern gulf of mexico . in the eastern paci\ufb01c , they occur from san diego , california , to peru .\nthe maximum size of a crevalle jack is 39 . 8 inches ( 101 cm ) and 55 . 1 pounds ( 25 kg ) , however they are common to 23 . 6 inches ( 60 cm ) . after the juvenile reaches a size of 1 . 97 inches ( 5 . 0 cm ) , its growth rate increases . females are typically larger than males .\nspawning occurs offshore from march through september . young \ufb01sh occur in moderate to large fast - moving schools , and crevalle jacks occasionally school with horse - eye jacks , although larger \ufb01sh are often solitary .\nthe rodeo gave me a plethora of these fish species . while lionfish was the only invasive to hit the scales , many fish species that are underutilized got some great attention . gafftopsail catfish and stingray are my favorites . sheephead and puppydrum are beginning to gain exceptional reputation for table fare , but i think the most exciting moment for me was working with and making edible jack crevalle .\nthe crevalle jack is found in oceanic , estuarine or riverine environments . this is influenced by the life stage of the fish . they primarily are found along the continental shelf , but occur in waters as deep as 327 feet ( 100 m ) . fish found in these deep waters are usually larger individuals . larval and juvenile jack crevalles are found in upstream currents and are common in shallow brackish waters . adults , on the other hand , usually occupy upstream currents , reefs , offshore areas or shallow inshore areas . jack crevalles live in a variety of temperatures and salinities . adults usually inhabit areas with temperatures between 64 - 92 . 5\u00b0f ( 18 - 33 . 6\u00bac ) of water and larvae are found in areas with temperatures between 69 - 84 . 9\u00b0f ( 20 . 4 - 29 . 4\u00bac ) of water . crevalle jacks have been found in fresh water to salt water environments , depending on life stage . larvae have been collected in areas with salinities between 35 . 2 - 36 . 7 parts per thousand ( ppt ) . adults have been found in freshwater habitats as well as those with a salinity of 43 . 8 ppt . they are most commonly found at salinity above 30 ppt . the crevalle jack is a pelagic fish . both adults and juveniles are usually found in schools . however , larger individuals may be found swimming the waters alone .\n( linnaeus , 1766 ) ; carangidae family ; also called common jack , toro , cavally , cavalla , horse crevalle occurs in the western atlantic ocean from nova scotia , canada , to uruguay , including the gulf of mexico and occasionally in the west indies . in the eastern atlantic it is found from portugal to angola , including the western mediterranean . the crevalle jack is the common jack of in shore oceanic waters . the species apparently can tolerate a wide range of salinities and occurs around off shore reefs , in coastal waters , harbors and protected bays , over highly saline shallow flats , in brackish waters at river mouths , and has even been known to travel up coastal rivers . there is a rounded black spot at the lower base of the pectoral fin of the crevalle jack that is found in no other jacks in the area . there is also a distinct , vertically elongate black spot on the operculum . enlarged scales or scutes , numbering about 30 , extend in a line to the base of the tail fin . the similar horse - eye jack has no pectoral fin spot and 26 - 35 scutes . a voracious predator , it feeds primarily on smaller fishes , which it often chases onto beaches or against seawalls . in open water , jacks will herd bait fish into a tight mass , then rush in from all sides . the crevalle jack also feeds on shrimp and other invertebrates and on garbage dumped from boats . this superb light tackle species can be taken by spinning , fly fishing , trolling , or surfcasting . lures should be retrieved at a fast pace without pausing or stopping as jacks tend to lose interest in anything that doesn ' t act normally . most jacks are not highly valued as food , though they are edible . the small fish taste best ; larger specimens can be dark and tasteless . bleeding the fish may improve the taste . jacks are among the many species of tropical fishes , which have been implicated in ciguatera poisonings\n, black cavalla , blacktailed trevally , caballi , cabalo , common jack , couvalli jack , crevelle jack , green jack , horse crevalle , horse mackerel , horse - eye jack , kingfish , trevally , and yellow cavalli . other names are carngue cravalle ( french ) , jurel comun ( spanish ) , bolchoi caranske ( russian ) , caballa ( spanish ) , camard ( french ) , carango cavallo ( italian ) , carangue crevalle ( french ) , carangue macoque ( french ) , cavalla ( spanish ) , cavalli ( french ) , charo - largo ( portuguese ) , chumbo ( spanish ) , coa ( portuguese ) , cocinero ( spanish ) , corcovado ( creole ) , couvalli ( french ) , cowreh ( krio ) , crevalle toro ( french ) , crevalle ( french ) , enforcado ( creole ) , enxareu ( portuguese ) , enxareu - macoa ( portuguese ) , grande carangue ( french ) , hevospiikkimakrilli ( finnish ) , hiraaji ( japanese ) , jejerukan ( malay ) , jiguagua ( spanish ) , jurel ( spanish ) , jurel caballo ( spanish ) , jurel cola amarilla ( spanish ) , jurel comun ( spanish ) , kanxant ( palicur ) , karang ( french ) , karanks atlantycki ( polish ) , kawre kanki ( susu ) , kokalli ( greek ) , macoa ( portuguese ) , munaguroaji ( japanese ) , paeya ( galibi ) , peixe - prussiano ( portuguese ) , prussiano ( portuguese ) , saaka ( wolof ) , sargentillo ( spanish ) , taggmakrill ( swedish ) , toro ( spanish ) , trnobokar ( serbian ) , uma - aji ( japanese ) , xareu ( portuguese ) , xareu - cavalao ( portuguese ) , xareu - macoa ( portuguese ) , and xareu - olho - de - boi ( portuguese ) .\nsize , age , and growth the maximum size of a crevalle jack is 39 . 8 inches ( 101 cm ) and 55 . 1 pounds ( 25 kg ) , however they are common to 23 . 6 inches ( 60 cm ) . after the juvenile reaches a size of 1 . 97 inches ( 5 . 0 cm ) , its growth rate increases . females are typically larger than males .\npredators predators of the yellow jack include larger fishes , marine mammals , and birds including the brown noddy ( anous stolidus ) and sooty tern ( sterna fuscata ) which may feed on juveniles .\nthe yellow jack was originally described as caranx bartholomaei by the famous french taxonomist georges cuvier in 1833 . the holotype was collected from st . batholomew island in the west indies from which the species name is derived . this name was later changed to the currently valid carangoides bartholomaei cuvier 1833 . this species is in the family caragidae which includes jacks , pompanos , jack mackerels , and scads .\nbest angling for these strong fighters is from may to august with almost any bait or lure . once hooked , the common jack is tenacious with hard drives toward the bottom and frequent straightening of hooks .\ncrevalle jacks are pugnacious - looking fish which live up to those looks . a dark spot on the gill cover and steeply convex forehead separate this species from other jackfish . strong bony scutes on the tail are common to all jacks .\nsmith - vaniz wf , ke carpenter . 2007 . review of the crevalle jacks , caranx hippos complex ( teleostei : carangidae ) , with a description of a new species from west africa . fish bull 105 : 207 - 233 .\nberry fh . 1959 . young jack crevalles ( caranx species ) off the southeastern atlantic coast of the united states . u . s . fish wildl . serv fish . bull . 152 : 417 - 535 .\nfor protection in open water , vulnerable young crevalle jacks use a behavior called\npiloting\nin which they stay within inches of a larger fish . if no large fish are around , they will shadow buoys , boats , or swimmers .\nenglish language common names are yellow jack , coolihoo , crevalle , green jack , jackfish , and yellowjack . other common names include carangue gras ( french ) , carangue grasse ( french ) , carangue jaune ( french ) , bok ' abou ( papiamento ) , garajuba ( portuguese ) , xarelete - azul ( portuguese ) , xar\u00e9u ( portuguese ) , xerelete - amarelo ( portuguese ) , at\u00fan ( spanish ) , cibi amarillo ( spanish ) , coginoa ( spanish ) , cojinoa amarilla ( spanish ) , cojinoa tumana ( spanish ) , cojinua amarilla ( spanish ) , guaymen ( spanish ) , guaymen amarillo ( spanish ) , jurelete ( spanish ) , and veiyu ( wayuu ) .\ngame qualities : few fish can out - pull a crevalle of equal size . the fight is unspectacular but dogged , the usual pattern being a long first run . jacks use their flat sides to good advantage when waging a tug - o - war .\nwe removed the top loin of the jack . we removed the skin and every bit of bloodline . for those that don ' t know , the bloodline is a very dark area of most fish species , and is very strong .\nthe yellow jack has not been evaluated by the world conservation union ( iucn ) . the iucn is a global union of states , governmental agencies , and non - governmental organizations in a partnership that assesses the conservation status of species .\nfeeding habits determine many aspects of living organisms , where it lives , the time of day that it is active , energy flow , biomass consumed and intra - and interspecific interactions , it which provides information to make predictions about the effects of fisheries on predator - prey relationships . accurate predictions require a thorough understanding of predator diets and prey selection . in this study , specimens of the crevalle jack caranx caninus were obtained between october 2012 and october 2014 in the se gulf of california , mexico , in order to determine its feeding habits and prey selection . a total of 238 specimens were obtained , of which 94 ( 39 . 5 % ) had stomachs containing food and 144 ( 60 . 5 % ) had empty stomachs . a total of 10 prey items were identified , corresponding to seven families that included fishes , crustaceans and cephalopods . according to the index of relative importance ( iri ) the most important prey were anchoa spp . ( iri = 91 . 2 % ) , engraulis mordax ( iri = 1 . 8 % ) , and fish from the clupeidae family ( iri = 1 . 0 % ) . the crevalle jack\u2019s diet did not change with the season ( warm or cold ) . the crevalle jack was considered a tertiary predator ( trophic level = 4 . 3 ) that tends to feed on a reduced number of prey , characterizing it as a specialist and selective predator of engraulid fishes ( levin\u2019s index , bi = 0 . 08 ; e = 0 . 6 ) .\nschools of crevalle jacks have been observed to corner and / or corral smaller baitfish . once contained , the jacks will feed on the baitfish with great voraciousness . their surface feeding commotion may be seen from a great distance - often appearing as boiling or churning surface waters .\nyou are of course saying sure , the last thing the cat dragged in would have tasted good if it was gussied up like that . that jack sure did , even by vollen\u2019s standards , but that was not the half of the experiment .\nyellow jack ( caranx bartholomaei ) other names : bar jack , cibi amarillo range : common in southern florida , the bahamas and the caribbean . habitat : inshore flats and channels ; coral reefs . description : more streamlined in appearance than the crevalle , and more colorful . hard scutes forward of tail . color is bluish above , yellowish on sides . small yellow jacks have fins and tails of bright yellow , giving them the appearance of yellowtail snapper when seen from above the surface . size : averages 1 - 6 pounds ; not uncommon at 12 - 15 pounds ; grows to about 20 pounds . world record 19 pounds , 7 ounces . food value : excellent . red meat along the centerline is easily trimmed away , leaving white , flavorful fillets . game qualities : like other jacks , a rugged and persevering fighter . tackle and baits : spinning , baitcasting and light saltwater outfits , will give good sport . small live fish , particularly ballyhoo and pilchards are the best natural baits . biggest bar jack have been caught on topwater plugs over channels and shallow reefs , and on deep jigs in up to about 120 feet of water . on the flats , the bigger bar jack are moody but smaller ones eagerly hit live shrimp . bonefish jigs and other small lures . fishing systems : casting ; drifting ; still fishing ; trolling .\nconsidered a minor commercial species throughout its range , the yellow jack is taken by seines , trawls , and hook and line . recreational fishers also take this species with bait and lures while trolling without specifically targeting the yellow jack . the flesh is considered fair to good for human consumption and is marketed fresh and salted . however it is classified as a high risk species due to its implication in ciguatera poisoning in humans . in fact , it was the first species outside the indo - west pacific to be a confirmed ciguatera carrier .\nberry , f . h . 1959a . young jack crevalles ( caranx species ) off the southeastern atlantic coast of the united states . fishery bull . fish wildl . serv . u . s . , ( 152 ) : pp . 417 - 535 , 98 fig .\nbehavior : crevalle jacks are usually found in fast - moving schools , though adults may be solitary or move in pairs . they hunt in schools by cornering smaller fish at the surface or against a seawall . they can tolerate different levels of salt water . they create splashes that can be seen from great distances .\nso there you go\u2014saut\u00e9ed , chargrilled or fried crunchy , there doesn\u2019t seem to be a way to mess up a jack , save one . back in my brief tenure as a snook guide , i had a repeat customer who was a light - tackle bluefish fanatic from long island .\nsmith - vaniz , w . f . and k . e . carpenter , 2007 . review of the crevalle jacks , caranx hippos complex ( teleostei : carangidae ) , with a description of a new species from west africa . fish . bull . 105 ( 2 ) : 207 - 233 . ( ref . 58464 )\nthe yellow jack is found in the western atlantic ocean from massachusetts to bermuda and south through the gulf of mexico and the caribbean including the west indies and on to s\u00e3o paulo , brazil . in the eastern central atlantic , this species has been documented at st . paul ' s rocks .\nthe crevalle jack has a body depth of about three times its fork length . it has large eyes . the chest is scaleless except for a small patch of scales in front of the pelvic fins . this patch is apparent by the time the fish reaches a fork length of 0 . 98 inches ( 2 . 5 cm ) . the crevalle jack is the only jack in the western atlantic ocean with this patch of scales . there is an oval black spot on the pectoral fins ; this appears at about 4 . 72 inches ( 12 . 0 cm ) . between the seventh and the eighth spines of the adult there is an overgrowth of skin . the two most distinguishable features of this fish are the patch of scales between the pelvic fins and the oval , black spot on the pectoral fins . the crevalle jack is greenish - bluish or bluish - black above and silvery white to yellowish or golden below . this serves to blend in with the water from a predator searching from above , and to blend with the sunlight from a predator hunting from below . there is an oval , black spot on the pectoral fins . juveniles have 5 dark bars on their bodies . these black bars are present until the fish reaches a size of 6 . 46 inches ( 16 . 4 cm ) . there is an area of dark pigment above the peduncle that appears at 1 . 18 in . ( 3 . 0 cm ) and is very dark once the fish reaches a size greater that 3 . 94 inches ( 10 . 0 cm ) in length . the juvenile has pigment spots on the anal spines and membranes , which disappear by the time its size reaches 1 . 38 inches ( 3 . 5 cm ) . the pelvic fin remains unpigmented after 0 . 79 inches ( 20 mm ) and at about 1 . 18 inches ( 3 . 0 cm ) the pigment of the caudal fins develops . the coloration of the juvenile holds between 0 . 79 - 1 . 57 inches ( 2 . 0 - 4 . 0 cm ) and fades between 1 . 57 - 1 . 97 inches ( 4 . 0 - 5 . 0 cm ) .\nvoracious predators , they feed on shrimp , other invertebrates , and smaller \ufb01sh . crevalle jacks will often corner a school of bait\ufb01sh at the surface and feed in a commotion that can be seen for great distances , or they will chase their prey onto beaches and against seawalls . fish of both species often grunt or croak when they are caught .\nstart your favorite charcoal fire or gas grill . as the grill gets going , the preparation is easy : simply skewer the chunks of jack on the rosemary sticks . feel free to load them with onions or peppers for the full kabob experience , but for our preparation , we kept it all about the meat .\ncaranx ignobilis is most commonly referred to as the \u2018giant trevally\u2019 ( or \u2018giant kingfish\u2019 ) due to its large maximum size , with this often abbreviated to simply \u2018gt\u2019 by many anglers . [ 8 ] other names occasionally used include \u2018lowly trevally\u2019 , \u2018barrier trevally\u2019 , \u2018yellowfin jack\u2019 ( not to be confused with hemicaranx leucurus ) , forssk\u00e5l\u2019s indo - pacific jack fish and goyan fish . [ 4 ] in hawaii , the species is almost exclusively referred to as \u2018ulua\u2019 , often in conjunction with the prefixes \u2018black\u2019 , \u2018white\u2019 , or \u2018giant\u2019 . [ 9 ] due to its wide distribution there are many other names for the species in different languages also . [ 4 ]\nso , if you are inclined to ignore the following revelations and rely on the advice of others , do yourself the favor of clarifying one simple point . ask anyone who disparages the flavor of crevalle if they ever have eaten it . likely they are just passing on a rumor started by some fish lover long ago , so he could have all the jacks for himself .\nreproduction : crevalle jacks are known to spawn in both tropical and subtropical environments . females release eggs and males release sperm directly into the water . the sperm fertilizes any eggs it encounters ; this is known as broadcast spawning . fertilized eggs are planktonic , meaning that they float freely until hatching . young are often found in estuaries and move farther offshore to the open sea as they get older .\ncoloration the crevalle jack is greenish - bluish or bluish - black above and silvery white to yellowish or golden below . this serves to blend in with the water from a predator searching from above , and to blend with the sunlight from a predator hunting from below . there is an oval , black spot on the pectoral fins . juveniles have 5 dark bars on their bodies . these black bars are present until the fish reaches a size of 6 . 46 inches ( 16 . 4 cm ) . there is an area of dark pigment above the peduncle that appears at 1 . 18 in . ( 3 . 0 cm ) and is very dark once the fish reaches a size greater that 3 . 94 inches ( 10 . 0 cm ) in length .\nso it was that i showed up at vollen\u2019s back door with a half - dozen fillets of crevalle on ice . the sultry august day before , the 2 - to 3 - pound fish had been buzzing about in punta gorda isles canals . they were bled when caught , filleted and skinned within a couple of hours of being iced , but otherwise had not been given special treatment of any kind .\nblue runner ( caranx crysos ) other names : hardtail jack , runner , blue jack range : all florida , the bahamas and the caribbean . habitat : not choosy ; inshore to deep sea . description : similar in shape to the crevalle , but with a more gently rounded head . color ranges from steel blue to light green with white underparts . hard scutes forward of tail . size : schooling blue runners are about the same size , averaging under a pound and often under a half - pound . fish weighing 1 - 2 pounds aren ' t unusual , and individuals up to 4 pounds or so are sometimes taken offshore . world record 11 pounds , 2 ounces ; florida record 7 pounds . food value : pretty good , but seldom eaten . game qualities : blue runners fight so well for their size that guides often have trouble tearing their customers away , after stopping to catch some runners on spinning tackle for use as offshore bait . tackle and baits : light spinning and fly tackle with live shrimp , cut pieces of fish or small artificial jigs and flies . fishing systems : casting ; drifting ; still fishing ; trolling .\nrainbow runner ( elagatis bipinnulata ) other names : spanish jack , rainbow jack range : not a staple species off florida , but often encountered by offshore anglers of both coasts , particularly dolphin fishermen . more common in bahama waters , particularly around the cay sal bank ; also widespread through the caribbean . habitat : deep ocean waters . description : un - jack streamlined shape with slender , pointed head . no hard scutes forward of tail . brilliantly colored , with blue and yellow full - length stripes on a blue background . size : varies from a couple of pounds to 15 or 20 pounds , with individuals of roughly the same size forming large schools . world record 37 pounds , 9 ounces ; florida record 17 pounds . food value : excellent . game qualities : a spirited fighter on light tackle . makes faster runs than other jacks , and sometimes jumps , too . tackle and baits : spinning , baitcasting and light ocean rigs . small live fish and small rigged baits , such as ballyhoo and strips . difficult to take by casting , but can be coaxed . fishing systems : casting ; trolling .\nthere have been some reports of ciguatera poisoning associated with this jack . ciguatera poisoning occurs when humans eat a fish that has eaten a toxin that is produced by the dinoflagellate , gambierdiscus toxicus , and it is digested by the fish . this poisoning , although it is usually self - limiting , can affect humans in many ways . it has gastrointestinal , neurological , and cardiovascular symptoms .\nfor my test of crevalle i enlisted the help of fort myers chef vollen loucks . vollen loucks is not an army - trained 94 - b - 20 - type cook , as i was , but a guy whose pinot noir sauce could transform tongue of combat boot into haute cuisine . besides which , vollen will be the first to tell you he is not a real seafood lover , although that did not stop salmon from being his restaurant\u2019s biggest seller .\nmanter & prince ( 1953 ) described l . fijiensis from two specimens from \u201cyellow jack\u201d [ 15 ] ; the identification of the host fish is vague , as often with manter ' s work ( other cases : [ 46 ] , [ 47 ] ) , and almost useless ( many carangids are partly yellow ) . only one monogenean specimen , the holotype of l . fijiensis , is kept in the usnpc collections ( figure 1 ) .\ntheoutdoorlodge . com is happy to partner with the leading fishing forum online , bigfishtackle . com . to find out answers to all your\njack fishing\nquestions please drop by the fishing forums at urltoken ( http : / / www . urltoken / forum / ) . with over 100 , 000 members their fishing forum can answer just about any fishing question you may have . friendly , helpful and informative anglers really make you feel like part of their online fishing community !\nresiding on offshore reefs and in the sandy shallows of caribbean islands as well as in open waters over the continental shelf , this jack is rare observed in shallow waters near the american continent . it lives at depths ranging from 0 - 164 feet ( 0 - 50 m ) . juveniles of this species are often found nearshore in seagrass beds or associated with jellyfish or floating sargassum weed . typically it is a solitary species but may at times been seen in small groups .\nhabitat : the crevalle may show up at any time in virtually all florida waters , from the deep reefs to well up coastal rivers . usually runs in schools\u2014and the smaller the individual fish , the larger the school . the biggest jacks often cruise in pairs and are usually found in or near major inlets and around offshore wrecks and reefs of both coasts , but may come into deep bays and canals where they chase mullet and often herd the prey against seawalls . the palm beaches and key west are particularly well - known areas for trophy crevalles .\noh sure , you say , you\u2019ve long heard of eating amberjack . but we\u2019re not talking ajs , or any of their first cousins , or any fancy jacks like rainbow runners or bar or even yellow jacks . we\u2019re talking plain old everyday crevalle jacks , and we recommend you don\u2019t skip to the next story unless you already know how good jacks are to eat . after all , were a quarter - million bahamians wrong about conch fritters ? throughout the bahamas and the caribbean , jacks of all kinds are esteemed for their rich flavor and firm flesh .\nwith the crunchy jacks he provided two dressings\u2014a homemade r\u00e9moulade and a mango mayonnaise\u2014either of which was to die for if your arteries were not up to the task . fortunately , i was too stuffed to do more than taste the combinations , both of which were splendid , as by that time we expected . what was unexpected was how unbelievably good the remaining seven pieces of fried jack were after i doggy - bagged them and ate them cold , one by one , straight out of my refrigerator over the following two days .\nvarious fish specimens were identified ( from photographs ) by ronald fricke , jack randall , michel kulbicki , samuel igl\u00e9sias and bernard s\u00e9ret . eric bureau , student in training , collected some specimens . david gibson ( bmnh ) helped with linguistic discussions , and in the acquisition of rare literature and comments about species in worms . patricia pilitt ( usnpc ) provided photomicrographs of the holotype of l . fijiensis , and takashi iwaki ( mpm ) kindly took photographs of additional museum specimens . patricia pilitt ( usnpc ) and eileen harris ( bmnh ) are thanked for arranging specimen loans .\na large fish , the yellow jack grows to a maximum reported length of just under 40 inches ( 100 cm ) total length ( tl ) although this species typically reaches 20 inches ( 50 . 0 cm ) tl . the maximum reported weight is 14 . 0 kg . yellow jacks reach sexual maturity at 12 inches ( 30 cm ) in length for males and 13 inches ( 32 cm ) in length for females in the waters off cuba . in contrast , off the coast of jamaica , males reach sexual maturity at 9 inches ( 23 cm ) in length .\nthe next fillet was simply tossed on a 90 , 000 - b . t . u . grill that etched dark brown crisscrosses into each side , while leaving clear juice in the center . there was no stopping vollen and his sauces , one of which was pur\u00e9e of prickly pears he had plucked from a cactus patch outside his back door . the artfully drizzled sauce was as vibrant to taste as it was brilliant to behold , but it served as it should have\u2014a mere complement to the delicious flavor of the grilled jack , which we agreed was even better than that saut\u00e9ed .\nthe horse - eye jack is commonly found in the subtropical atlantic ocean from bermuda and the northern gulf of mexico and south to rio de janeiro . in the eastern atlantic , it is found from st . paul ' s rocks to ascension island and , rarely , the in the gulf of guinea . it is a pelagic fish . it can be found on reefs and offshore oil rigs . the juvenile can be found closer to shore along sandy and muddy bottoms . the species may venture into brackish waters and can live in river mouths , but it is typically found in saltwater up to 140 m in depth .\nour species is the first referred to lethacotyle with a precise host identification . we have examined a number of other carangids from several genera off new caledonia [ 47 ] , [ 49 ] \u2013 [ 53 ] and found l . vera n . sp . only on c . papuensis , suggesting that species of lethacotyle are specific to caranx species . it is likely that the \u201cyellow jack\u201d of manter & prince ( 1953 ) [ 15 ] and the carangid of ramalingam [ 17 ] , [ 18 ] , both identified with suboptimal precision , were species of caranx , but , as explained above , not necessarily conspecific .\nscientific synonyms and common names caranx hippos linnaeus , 1766 synonyms : scomber hippos linnaeus , 1766 , syst . nat . , ed . xii : 494 ( ' habitat in carolina ' ) . scomber carangus bloch , 1787 , naturg . ausl . fische , 7 : 69 , pl . 340 ( west indies ) . caranx erythrurus lacep\u00e8de , 1798 - 1803 , 1801 , hist . nat . poiss . , 3 : 58 & 68 ( ' caroline et tahiti ' ) . caranx carangus : cuvier , in cuv . val . , 1828 - 1849 , 1833 , 9 : 91 ( ' br\u00e9sil , cayenne , martinique , gor\u00e9e ' ) barnard , 1926 - 1927 , 1927 : 545 . caranx crysos ( nec mitchill ) : baird , 1855 : 336 gill , 1863 : 434 . carangus hippos : gill , 1863g : 433 . caranx caninus g\u00fcnther , 1869 , trans . zool . soc . lond . , 6 ( 7 ) : 432 . caranx hippos hippos : nichols , 1920b : 45 ( atlantic coast of united states ) . caranx hippos tropicus : nichols , 1920b : 45 ( brazil , congo ) . caranx hippos caninus : nichols , 1937a : 58 ( gulf of california , galapagos ) . caranx hippos : nichols , 1939 : 6 lozano rey , 1952 : 615 , fig . 27 tortonese , 1952b : 302 , fig . 11 - 13 poll , 1954 : 131 , fig . 37 , pl . 4 ( fig . 11 & 3 ) albuquerque , 1954 - 1956 : 673 tortonese , 1955a : 185 berry , 1959a : 503 , fig . 81 - 85 tortonese , 1961a : 357 bini , 1967 - 1972 , 1968 , 5 : 57 , col . fig . rodriguez , 1972 : passim . common names : alla [ es ] caballa [ es ] crevalle jack [ en ] grande carangue [ fr ] jurel commun [ es ] kingfish [ en ] yellow jack [ en ]\npilotfish ( naucrates ductor ) range : all florida , the bahamas and caribbean . habitat : offshore waters . name comes from accompanying sharks and other large animals seemingly as pilots . description : slender shape with tapering head . body marked by wide , dark bands . fins also banded . size : usually a foot or so ; grows to 2 feet . food value : good , if fish is large enough . game qualities : good on light tackle ; gives the fight of a typical small jack . tackle and baits : readily takes small jigs and streamer flies . only very light outfits provide much sport . fishing systems : offshore drifting .\nthe yellow jack has a moderately deep , compressed elongate body which is typical of the genus carangoides . the head is slightly curved from the snout to the nape ; the eyes have well - developed adipose eyelids . the upper jaw does not reach the anterior margin of the eye . the dorsal fin is divided into two parts with the first containing 7 spines and the second with 1 spine followed by 25 - 28 soft rays . the anal fin is similar to the second dorsal fin in that the lobes are slightly pronounced ; the pectoral fin is falcate and longer than the head . the caudal fin is forked and the caudal peduncle has bilateral paired keels present .\nseriola rivoliana is mostly pelagic and epibenthic in oceanic waters ; it is rarely found inshore . it feeds primarily on fishes . in the azores , this species feeds on fishes including chub mackerel scomber japonicus , blue jack mackerel , european pilchard sardina pilchardus , snipefish macroramphosus scolopax , and the bogue boops boops ( barreiros et al . 2003 ) . this species typically reaches a maximum size to 80 cm ( fl ) , it is common from about 55 cm ( fl ) ( smith - vaniz 2002 ) . there is an international game fish association ( igfa ) record of 119 cm ( tl ) from golfito , costa rica ( igfa 2013 ) . this species has been reported to form spawning aggregations in gladden spit , belize ( heyman 2001 ) .\nflorida pompano ( trachinotus carolinus ) other names : pompano , carolina pompano range : all florida coasts . habitat : florida anglers on both coasts catch most of their pompano from the surf , or from ocean piers ; however , many are caught outside the beaches and also from bays , mostly in or near channels that run through flats . description : silvery overall with yellow on underside . dorsal fin dark ; other fins yellow . head gently rounded . no scutes forward of tail . pompano are often confused with small permit of similar size , but permit usually show a black blotch under the pectoral fin , and their bodies are deeper . size : averages 1 pound ; fairly common at 2 pounds and can grow to 8 pounds . world and florida records 8 pounds , 1 ounce . food value : reputed to be the best . game qualities : tops . will outrace and outpull a jack crevalle of equivalent size . tackle and baits : if fishing the surf or piers , use the lightest surf spinning tackle that will get your bait where you want it . in other situations , spinning or light baitcasting tackle with 6 - 8 pound - test line gives maximum sport . by far the best natural bait is a live sand flea ( sand crab ) , but pompano also will bite live shrimp or fiddler crabs and with varying dependability dead sand fleas , dead shrimp , clams and cut squid . pompano are ready strikers of artificial jigs , the florida favorite being quarter - ounce or half - ounce models with short nylon skirts . fly fishermen catch pompano with bonefish - type flies that sink well those with epoxy heads or lead eyes . fishing systems : casting ; drifting ; still fishing ."]}
{"id": 930, "summary": [{"text": "taenia asiatica , commonly known as asian taenia or asian tapeworm , is a parasitic tapeworm of humans and pigs .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is one of the three species of taenia infecting humans and causes taeniasis .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "discovered only in 1980s from taiwan and other east asian countries as an unusual species , it is so notoriously similar to taenia saginata , the beef tapeworm , that it was for a time regarded as a slightly different strain .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "but anomaly arose as the tapeworm is not of cattle origin , but of pigs .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "morphological details also showed significant variations , such as presence of rostellar hooks , shorter body , and less number of body segments .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the scientific name designated was then asian t. saginata .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "but the taxonomic consensus turns out to be that it is a unique species .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it was in 1993 that two korean parasitologists , keeseon s. eom and han jong rim , provided the biological bases for classifying it into a separate species .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the use of mitochondrial genome sequence and molecular phylogeny in the late 2000s established the taxonomic status .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "t. asiatica causes intestinal taenisis in humans and cysticercosis in pigs .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "there is a suspicion that it may also cause cysticercosis in human .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "like other taenids , humans are the definitive hosts , but in contrast , pigs , wild boars , as well as cattle can serve as intermediate hosts .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "moreover , scid mice and mongolian gerbil can be experimentally infected .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "the life cycle is basically similar to those of other taenids .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "humans contract the infection by eating raw or undercooked meat \u2013 a practice common in east and southeast asia \u2013 which are contaminated with the infective larva called cysticercus .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "cysticercus develops into adult tapeworm in human intestine , from where it releases embryonated eggs along faeces into the external environment .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "pigs acquire the eggs from vegetation .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the eggs enter the digestive tract , which they penetrate to migrate to other body organs .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "unlike other taenia they preferentially settle in the liver , where they form cysticerci .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "asian taeniasis is documented in nine countries in asia , including taiwan , south korea , indonesia , the philippines , thailand , south-central china , vietnam , japan and nepal .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the rate of a prevalence is estimated to be up to 21 % and resulting in annual economic losses of about us$ 40,000,000 in these regions .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "praziquantel is the drug of choice for treating the infection .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "as the latest addition to human taeniasis , misidentified for over two centuries , still complete lack of systematic diagnosis , and no control programmes , it is regarded as the most neglected human taenid . ", "topic": 4}], "title": "taenia asiatica", "paragraphs": ["developmental stages of taenia spp . ( taenia solium , taenia saginata , taenia asiatica ) and associated diseases .\ngeographical origin of the 6 taenia saginata and 13 taenia asiatica samples analyzed a .\nthree tapeworm species cause taeniasis in humans , taenia solium , taenia saginata and taenia asiatica . only t . solium causes major health problems .\ntaeniasis is an intestinal infection caused by 3 species of tapeworm : taenia solium ( pork tapeworm ) , taenia saginata ( beef tapeworm ) and taenia asiatica .\ntaenia solium , taenia saginata , taenia asiatica , their hybrids and other helminthic infections occurring in a neglected tropical diseases ' highly endemic area in lao pdr .\nleo shapiro added text to\ngeneral ecology\non\ntaenia asiatica\n.\nleo shapiro added text to\nlife cycle\non\ntaenia asiatica\n.\nthe life cycle of taenia asiatica is complex . eggs or gravid . . .\nmorphological description of taenia saginata asiatica ( cyclophyllidea : taeniidae ) from man in asia .\nlights and shadows of the taenia asiatica life cycle and pathogenicity . - pubmed - ncbi\nno one has contributed data records for taenia asiatica yet . learn how to contribute .\nebscohost | 92947864 | lights and shadows of the taenia asiatica life cycle and pathogenicity .\ntaenia asiatica and taenia saginata : genetic divergence estimated from their mitochondrial genomes . jeon hk , et al . exp parasitol 2006 may\nmorphologic and genetic identification of taenia tapeworms in tanzania and dna genotyping of taenia solium .\n[ first discovery of taenia saginata asiatica infection in yunnan province ] . - pubmed - ncbi\ntaenia saginata asiatica : epidemiology , infection , immunological and molecular studies . - pubmed - ncbi\nthree species of the taenia genus are intestinal parasites of humans , taenia solium , taenia saginata and taenia asiatica . however , only two of them , t . solium and t . saginata , have been considered for centuries , t . asiatica remained undiscovered until recently . [ 1 ]\nthe cestode taenia asiatica ( asian tapeworm ) ( along with t . saginata [ beef . . .\n[ survey of the number of eggs in taenia asiatica gravid proglottids in dali prefecture of yunnan province ] .\nmorphological description of taenia saginata asiatica ( cyclophyllidea : taeniidae ) from man in asia . - pubmed - ncbi\ncomplete sequence of the mitochondrial genome of taenia saginata : comparison with t . solium and t . asiatica .\nleo shapiro set\nlife cycle of taenia spp .\nas an exemplar on\ntaenia saginata\n.\nthe cestodes taenia saginata ( beef tapeworm ) , t . solium ( pork tapeworm ) and t . asiatica ( asian tapeworm ) . taenia solium can also cause cysticercosis .\ntaenia is an important pathogenic tapeworm genus including some important parasites such as taenia solium , taenia saginata and taenia asiatica , etc . members of the genus are responsible for taeniasis and cysticercosis in humans and other livestocks . till now , more than 100 species were recorded . taenia is morphologically characterized by a ribbon - like body composed of a series of segments called proglottids ; hence the name taenia .\nmolecular analyses reveal two geographic and genetic lineages for tapeworms , taenia solium and taenia saginata , from ecuador using mitochondrial dna .\n[ survey of the number of eggs in taenia asiatica gravid proglottids in dali prefecture of yunnan province ] . - pubmed - ncbi\na taenia asiatica patient , mr . chen chin - fu , with 24 strobilae that were purged from him after using atabrine .\n10 . jeon hk , eom ks . taenia asiatica and taenia saginata : genetic divergence estimated from their mitochondrial genomes . exp parasitol 2006 ; 113 : 58 - 61 . pmid : 16546174 .\na volunteer , dr . chung wc , trying to infect himself with taenia asiatica by eating raw wild boar liver that contained cysticerci .\n13 . eom ks , rim hj . epidemiological understanding of taenia tapeworm infections with special reference to taenia asiatica in korea . korean j parasitol 2001 ; 39 : 267 - 283 . pmid : 11775327 .\n19 . eom ks , rim hj . epidemiological understanding of taenia tapeworm infections with special reference to taenia asiatica in korea . korean j parasitol 2001 ; 39 : 267 - 283 . pmid : 11775327 .\ncomplete sequence of the mitochondrial genome of taenia saginata : comparison with t . solium and t . asiatica . | ghl - scientific and technical literature\nsince the 1990s , various researchers have developed and applied molecular methods for distinguishing t . asiatica from other taenia spp . , and , subsequently , for studying the relationship of t . asiatica with other taenia spp . , in particular t . saginata , and for examining the genetic variability within t . asiatica . the availability of the complete mitochondrial genome of t . asiatica [ 27 ] , and the access to published sequences through genbank , has greatly contributed to the understanding of the genetic diversity of t . asiatica .\nspecies that can affect animals and humans include tapeworms in the taenia genus . different types of taenia are associated with different types of meat . taenia saginata is the beef tapeworm ; taenia solium is the pork tapeworm ; and taenia asiatica is the asian pork tapeworm . dipylidium caninum mainly infects dogs and cats , while echinocococcus granulosus , which infects people and livestock , is rare in the united states . taenia species are longer than dipylidium species ; they can grow up to 1 yard ( nearly a meter ) in length .\ntaenia saginata and t . solium are worldwide in distribution . taenia solium is more prevalent in poorer communities where humans live in close contact with pigs and eat undercooked pork . taenia asiatica is limited to asia and is seen mostly in the republic of korea , china , taiwan , indonesia , and thailand .\nnon - protease homologues in the t . asiatica and t . saginata genomes .\nnot only taenia solium and taenia saginata , but also taenia asiatica infects humans . the last species is not included in the evaluation of the specificity of the immunodiagnostic techniques for taeniasis / cysticercosis . there is currently no specific immunodiagnostic method for t . asiatica available . therefore , due to the fact that molecular techniques ( the only tool to distinguish the 3 taenia species ) are normally not employed in routine diagnostic methods , the 2 questions concerning t . asiatica ( its definite geographic distribution and its ability to cause human cysticercosis ) , remain open , turning t . asiatica into the most neglected agent of human taeniasis - cysticercosis .\nbefore exposing the lights and shadows of t . asiatica , it would be worthwhile to briefly summarize some historical and phylogenetic remarks on the three human taenia species .\ncomplete sequence and structure of the mitochondrial genome of the human tapeworm , taenia asiatica ( platyhelminthes ; cestoda ) . jeon hk , et al . parasitology 2005 jun\nhumans are definitive hosts of two well - known species of the taenia genus , taenia solium ( the pig tapeworm ) and taenia saginata ( the cattle tapeworm ) . in the 1990s , a third species , taenia asiatica , was discovered , sharing features with the other two since the adult morphology is similar to that of t . saginata , but its life cycle is like that of t . solium\u2026\ncoenurosis ( taenia multiceps , t . serialis , or t . brauni infection )\nharrison ljs , delgado j , parkhouse rme . differential diagnosis of taenia sagianta and\ntaeniasis in humans is a parasitic infection caused by the tapeworm species taenia saginata ( beef tapeworm ) , taenia solium ( pork tapeworm ) , and taenia asiatica ( asian tapeworm ) . humans can become infected with these tapeworms by eating raw or undercooked beef ( t . saginata ) or pork ( t . solium and t . asiatica ) . people with taeniasis typically have mild gastrointestinal symptoms or may be asymptomatic .\nthe number of eggs in different gravid proglottids of t . asiatica is evidently different .\nwith the advent of molecular techniques , it became clear that the asian taenia is genetically much more related to t . saginata than it is to t . solium [ 13 - 17 ] . this led the earlier protagonists to declare the asian taenia as a strain or subspecies of t . saginata , designated taenia saginata taiwanensis , or , in line with its geographical distribution , taenia saginata asiatica [ 18 ] .\n5 . eom ks , rim hj . morphologic descriptions of taenia asiatica sp . n . korean j parasitol 1993 ; 31 : 1 - 6 . pmid : 8512894 .\n18 . eom ks , rim hj . morphologic descriptions of taenia asiatica sp . n . korean j parasitol 1993 ; 31 : 1 - 6 . pmid : 8512894 .\nit was determined to examine whether rats injected with non - viable oncospheres of asian taenia or taenia saginata became resistant to challenge infection with eggs of taenia taeniaeformis , since ( a ) metacestodes of asian taenia and t . taeniaeformis develop in the liver of pigs and rats , respectively , and ( b ) asian taenia and t . saginata have human origins . rats injected intravenously or . . . [ show full abstract ]\neom ks , rim hj . epidemiological understanding of taenia tapeworm infections with special reference to\ntaenia infections . institute for international cooperation in animal biologics . 2005 ( . pdf )\nevidence on the epidemiology and genetic diversity of t . asiatica was obtained through a systematic search of national and international peer - reviewed literature . given the relatively limited number of papers on t . asiatica , a general search phrase was used consisting of the different synonyms of t . asiatica , i . e . , taenia saginata asiatica , asian taenia and taiwan taenia . manuscript titles were retrieved through searching pubmed , asia journals online ( asiajol ) , african journals online ( ajol ) , latin american journals online ( lamjol ) , who global health library , and indmed . the searches were performed on 20 september 2013 .\ngo enrichment analysis of heterozygous genes in the t . asiatica and t . saginata genomes .\ntaeniasis in humans is a parasitic infection caused by the tapeworm species taenia saginata ( beef tapeworm ) , taenia solium ( pork tapeworm ) , and taenia asiatica ( asian tapeworm ) . humans can become infected with these tapeworms by eating raw or undercooked beef ( t . saginata ) or pork ( t . solium and t . asiatica ) . people with taeniasis may not know they have a tapeworm infection because symptoms are usually mild or nonexistent .\nthe cestode taenia asiatica , also known as asian taenia or asian tapeworm , is a parasite of humans and pigs that is thought to be restricted to asia . humans contract infection by eating eating raw or undercooked meat and this causes intestinal taeniasis which is usually asymptomatic .\nin the early 1990s , a group of korean parasitologists , led by dr keeseon eom , performed various experimental infections using korean specimens of the asian taenia . their observation that the cysts of the asian taenia preferably develop in viscera of pigs , made them propose the name cysticercus viscerotropica [ 11 ] . in 1993 , they described the morphology of the asian taenia , and declared it as a new species , designated taenia asiatica [ 12 ] .\n2 . flisser a , craig ps , ito a . in palmer sr , soulsby l , torgerson pr , brown dwg eds , cysticercosis and taeniosis : taenia solium , taenia saginata and taenia asiatica . oxford textbook of zoonoses , biology , clinical practice and public health control . 2011 , oxford , uk . oxford university press . pp 627 - 644 .\ncomplexities in using sentinel pigs to study taenia solium transmission dynamics under field conditi . . .\nidentification of species and genetic variation in taenia isolates from human and swine of north india .\n30 . eom ks , jeon hk , rim hj . geographical distribution of taenia asiatica and related species . korean j parasitol 2009 ; 47 : s115 - s124 . pmid : 19885327 .\n29 . rim hj , joo kh , park hs . anthelmintic effect of albendazole against taenia saginata and taenia solium infections . j korean soc chemother 1989 ; 7 : 29 - 39 .\nt _ asiatica _ south _ korea _ v1 _ 0 _ 4 , gca _ 000951535 . 1\ncross - sections of taenia spp . stained with hematoxylin and eosin ( h & e ) .\ncross protection against taenia taeniaeformis in rats vaccinated with non - viable oncospheres of asia . . .\nof the 32 recognized species of taenia , only taenia solium and taenia saginata are medically important . however , recent epidemiologic studies in southeast asia have identified a third taenia species in humans , known as t asiatica . [ 1 , 2 ] cysticercosis is the development of extraintestinal encysted larval forms of t solium in various organs ( see cysticercosis ) . the cns is involved in 60 - 90 % of cases ; this condition is termed neurocysticercosis ( ncc ) . for more information , see neurocysticercosis .\n. . . human taeniasis is acquired by eating uncooked or poorly cooked pork or beef infected with the larval form of the human taeniid tapeworms , taenia solium , or taenia asiatica ( from pigs ) , or taenia saginata ( from bovids ) ( schantz et al . , 1993 ; fan and chung , 1998 ) . the adult tapeworms grow ( 2\u20138 m ) in the human small intestine , with spontaneous elimination of proglottids from the anus especially for t . saginata or t . asiatica carriers . . . .\nin the 1980s fan came up with the idea that the species found in several asian countries ( taiwan , korea , indonesia ) could be a new one . [ 16 ] this taenia was known as taiwan taenia or the asian taenia until , in 1993 , when eom and rim proposed to definitely consider it a new species , namely t . asiatica . [ 1 ] lately , and due to its molecular similarities to t . saginata , fan et al . proposed considering this asian taenia as a subspecies of t . saginata , i . e . , t . saginata asiatica , [ 17 ] leading to contrary opinions on its systematic status until t . asiatica was finally considered a valid species . [ 18 ]\nthe in - paralog pairs showing differential evolution rates in the t . asiatica and t . saginata genomes .\npotential nuclear molecular markers to differentiate t . saginata ( tsa ) and t . asiatica ( tas ) .\ntaenia saginata taeniasis produces only mild abdominal symptoms . the most striking feature consists of the passage ( active and passive ) of proglottids . occasionally , appendicitis or cholangitis can result from migrating proglottids . taenia solium taeniasis is less frequently symptomatic than taenia saginata taeniasis . the main symptom is often the passage ( passive ) of proglottids . the most important feature of taenia solium taeniasis is the risk of development of cysticercosis .\ntaenia infection has been recognized since biblical times . a detailed history on human taenia is described by grove , [ 5 ] cox , [ 6 ] or wadia and singh , [ 7 ] among others .\n20 . fan pc , chung wc , lin cy , wu cc . pig as a favorable animal for taenia saginata asiatica infection . kaohsiung j med sci 2006 ; 22 : 1 - 13 . pmid : 16570562 .\n20 . chung wc , lin cy , fan pc . ectopic locations of taenia saginata asiatica in the abdominal cavity of domestic pig and monkey . j parasitol 1996 ; 82 : 1032 - 1034 . pmid : 8973419 .\nfigure a : taenia saginata adult worm . the adult in this image is approximately 4 meters in length .\nwillms k . morphology and biochemistry of the pork tapeworm , taenia solium . curr top med chem . 2008\nepidemiology of taenia solium in nepal : is it influenced by the social characteristics of the popula . . .\nan adult taenia scolium , the pork tapeworm . humans become infected by ingesting raw or undercooked infected meat .\namong taeniid tapeworms infecting humans through pork or beef , taenia solium linnaeus 1758 and taenia saginata goeze 1782 have already been known . based on the morphologic characteristics of adult and metacestodes of asian taenia saginata , the third kind of human taeniid tapeworm known to distribute in asian countries , a new species name of taenia asiatica is proposed . in addition to the known biology in their intermediate hosts , t . asiatica was different morphologically from taenia saginata goeze 1782 in having the unarmed rostellum on the scolex of adult , the large number of ' uterine twigs ' and the existence of ' posterior protuberance ' . these structures in the gravid proglottids were used as taxonomic keys in taeniid tapeworms for the first time . t . asiatica metacestode ( cysticercus viscerotropica ) was different morphologically from t . saginata metacestode ( cysticercus bovis ) in having wartlike formations on the external surface of the bladder wall .\n9 . jeon hk , eom ks . complete sequence of the mitochondrial genome of taenia saginata : comparison with t . solium and t . asiatica . parasitol int 2007 ; 56 : 243 - 246 . pmid : 17499016 .\ntaenia asiatica is a recently described species known to cause intestinal teniasis in humans and cysticercosis in animals . this species has close morphological resemblance to taenia saginata and has a life cycle resembling taenia solium , hence has been posing diagnostic dilemma and had been the reason for its comparatively late discovery . recent diagnostic tools such as serological and molecular techniques have thrown light on its exact prevalence in the endemic countries . hence introduction of utilization of these techniques in addition to the routine morphological analysis would be helpful in diagnosis of t . asiatica infections and early implementation of preventive measures .\ntaenia asiatica is a recently described species known to cause intestinal teniasis in humans and cysticercosis in animals . this species has close morphological resemblance to taenia saginata and has a life cycle resembling taenia solium , hence has been posing diagnostic dilemma and had been the reason for its comparatively late discovery . recent diagnostic tools such as serological and molecular techniques have thrown light on its exact prevalence in the endemic countries . hence introduction of utilization of these techniques in addition to the routine morphological analysis would be helpful in diagnosis of t . asiatica infections and early implementation of preventive measures .\ngo enrichment analysis of the genes containing peak - 2 introns in the t . asiatica and t . saginata genomes .\nthe taeenid tapeworms known to cause zoonotic infections in humans are taenia solium , taenia saginata and taenia asiatica . the first two species are well known agents causing cysticercosis and intestinal taeniasis respectively . [ 1 ] t . asiatica was discovered when epidemiological inconsistency was observed between the species ratio of tapeworms and the eating habits of hosts in south korea . [ 2 ] t . asiatica has equivocal features of t . saginata but recent deoxyribonucleic acid ( dna ) studies , molecular and epidemiologic characteristics had made the taxonomic conversion of t . saginata subsp . asiatica to the current separate species t . asiatica . t . asiatica has been identified to parasitise human intestinal lumen in eight asian countries i . e . china , korea , indonesia , philippines , taiwan , thailand , vietnam and japan , with the prevalence being as high as 21 % causing significant economic burden . [ 3 ] this unique species exhibits a morphology resembling t . saginata and life cycle resembling t . solium infection , pigs being the main intermediate host . [ 4 ] although t . asiatica is well - known to cause intestinal teniasis , less is known about its role in causation of cysticercosis in humans .\nbowles j , mcmanus dp . genetic characterization of the asian taenia , a newly described taeniid cestode of humans .\n9 . huang sw . studies on taenia species prevalent among the aborigines in wulai district taiwan . part ii . on the species of taenia . bull inst zool ( acad sin ) 1967 ; 6 : 29 - 34 .\ntaenia genome project including the genome assembly and transcriptome analysis of several taenia species was first lanched in beijing institute of genomics , cas and lanzhou veterinary research institute , caas since 2010 . taenia have relative large and complex genome . this comprehensive website is designed to help the pathogen researchers for a better use of genome information and transcriptome comparison .\ntaenia asiatica differs from taenia saginata and t . solium in 4 aspects [ 2 ] ; 1 ) the scolex has 2 rows of rudimentary hooklets , which is considered as a wart - like formation . 2 ) the number of the lateral branches of the uterus is different and allows identifying if the proglottids belong to t . solium ( 7 - 11 branches ) , t . saginata ( 14 - 32 branches ) , or t . asiatica ( 12 - 26 branches ) . 3 ) t . asiatica cysticerci in pigs are not found in muscles , they can be recovered from the liver , omentum , serosa , and lung . 4 ) t . asiatica does not cause ncc in humans .\nhowever , this purely molecular view was soon contrasted to an epidemiological and public health perspective . galan - puchades and mas - coma opened the debate , and made the case for t . asiatica as a separate species [ 19 ] . the debate continued , with different phylogenetic studies considering the asian taenia either as t . saginata asiatica [ 20 , 21 ] or t . asiatica [ 22 - 27 ] , depending on the research group involved . the identification of t . saginata / t . asiatica hybrids in china and thailand [ 28 - 30 ] , may reopen this debate , as reproductive isolation has historically been an important criterion for considering t . asiatica and t . saginata as distinct biological entities [ 24 ] . although the current literature seems to favor t . asiatica at the species level , it is clear that the taxonomy of the asian taenia remains as complex and controversial as it was two decades ago [ 31 ] .\nt . asiatica is still present in taiwan today but in only some aborigines who live in the mountainous areas . however , the cases are getting rarer with the improvement of rural medical health services . taenia asiatica has always been there and has come a long way for its recognition . we just need to train our eyes to see in different dimension .\n4 . fan pc , lin cy , chen cc , chung wc . morphological description of taenia saginata asiatica ( cyclophyllidea : taeniidae ) from man in asia . j helminthol 1995 ; 69 : 299 - 303 . pmid : 8583124 .\n17 . fan pc , lin cy , chen cc , chung wc . morphological description of taenia saginata asiatica ( cyclophyllidea : taeniidae ) from man in asia . j helminthol 1995 ; 69 : 299 - 303 . pmid : 8583124 .\n1 . do humans act as intermediate hosts of t . asiatica as they do in the case of t . solium ?\nboth taenia and d . latum infections can be prevented by adequate cooking or freezing of beef , pork , or fish\nspecies of taenia were among the earliest recognized helminths in humans , with written records of their occurrence extending into antiquity .\nt . asiatica as a separate species was discovered relatively recently . it had been mistaken for taenia saginata goeze ( 1782 ) for more than 200 years and later was classified as subspecies of t . saginata . however , extensive epidemiological , molecular , comparative morphology and phylogenetic analyses have indicated the independent and specific status of t . asiatica ( eom & rim 1993 ) .\n11 . jeon hk , chai jy , kong y , waikagul j , insisienhmay b , rim hj , eom ks . differential diagnosis of taenia asiatica using multiplex pcr . exp parasitol 2009 ; 121 : 151 - 156 . pmid : 19017531 .\n23 . chang sl , ooi hk , nonaka n , kamiya m , oku y . development of taenia asiatica cysticerci to infective stage and adult stage in mongolian gerbils . j helminthol 2006 ; 80 : 219 - 223 . pmid : 16923263 .\nhence , in absence of a specific immunological test for t . asiatica , only the post - mortem molecular analysis of the extracted cysticerci can be used to assess the species causing pig cysticercosis . as a consequence , t . asiatica may be misdiagnosed as t . solium not only in humans but also in pigs . therefore , any pig cysticercosis around the world diagnosed only by immunological methods could be produced also by t . asiatica , so we propose that it should be named t . solium / asiatica cysticercosis .\nthe cestode taenia asiatica ( asian tapeworm ) ( along with t . saginata [ beef tapeworm ] and t . solium [ pork tapeworm ] ) causes intestinal taeniasis in infected humans . taenia asiatica is limited to asia and is seen mostly in the republic of korea , china , taiwan , indonesia , and thailand . genetic studies by eom et al . ( 2009 ) indicated that t . asiatica occurs in japan , the philippines , and vietnam as well ( t . saginata and t . solium have a worldwide distribution ) . ( centers for disease control parasites and health website ) genetically , t . asiatica is far more similar to t . saginata ( to which it is also morphologically very similar ) than it is to t . solium ( jeon et al . 2007 ; eom et al . 2009 ) . taenia asiatica shares its intermediate host association ( i . e . , pigs ) with t . solium , not with its closer relative t . saginata ( which use cattle as the intermediate host ) . thus , it appears that the divergence of t . asiatica and t . sagitata was associated with a host shift .\nthere are three species of taenids that use humans as definitive hosts : taenia solium , t . saginata , an t . asiatica . in addition , taenia solium can also use humans as intermediate hosts causing cysticercosis . this ability makes this parasite especially important . other species of taenids circulate in wild animals and infect humans only occasionally causing cysticercoses / coenuroses as well as taenoses .\nto investigate the aetiology , species and epidemiological factors of taenia infection in a pilot area of lanping county , yunnan province .\ngarcia hh et al . diagnosis , treatment and control of taenia solium cysticercosis . curr opin infect dis . 2003 oct .\ntaenia solium , t . saginata , and t . asiatica are 3 zoonotic tapeworms which induce human infections through pigs and cattle as intermediate hosts . among them , t . asiatica is the last known species found in asian countries where rural people eat undercooked visceral organs of pigs , i . e . , the liver , omentum , serosa , and lung [ 1 - 4 ] .\namong coproantigen - detection methods ( only genus specific ) , a coproantigen elisa for t . solium was tested with t . asiatica but did not cross - react [ 19 ] . therefore , this is the only 100 % specific immunological method currently available to identify t . solium carriers , but not t . asiatica carriers . even a positive result for t . solium in this elisa would not exclude t . asiatica since dual human infection with t . solium and t . asiatica has been reported in thailand [ 10 ] .\nlife cycles of the 3 human taenia tapeworms ( this figure has been modified from fig . 1 . 2 of flisser et al . , biology of taenia solium , t . saginata , and t . asiatica . in murrell kd ed , who / fao / oie guidelines for the surveillance , prevention , and control of taeniosis / cysticercosis . 2005 , pp 1 - 9 ) .\nohnishi k , sakamoto n , kobayashi k , iwabuchi s , nakamura - uchiyama f . therapeutic effect of praziquantel against taeniasis asiatica .\nt . asiatica is limited to asia and is seen mostly in the republic of korea , china , taiwan , indonesia and thailand .\n6 . zarlenga ds , george m . taenia crassiceps : cloning and mapping of mitochondrial dna and its application to the phenetic analysis of a new species of taenia from southeast asia . exp parasitol 1995 ; 81 : 604 - 607 . pmid : 8543003 .\ngarc\u00eda hh at al . taenia solium cysticercosis . lancet . 2003 aug 16 ; 362 ( 9383 ) : 547 - 56 .\nstudies on the diversification times of the different taenia species indicate that t . asiatica fully diverged from a common t . saginata / asiatica ancestor in the late pleistocene , ~ 40 , 000 years ago . this diversification might have co - occurred with the arrival of homo sapiens in asia , and the introduction of new wild boar populations and / or new breeding and husbandry practices in this region [ 63 , 95 ] . again , these results indicate a closer relatedness of t . asiatica with t . saginata than with t . solium .\n8 . jeon hk , lee kh , kim kh , hwang uw , eom ks . complete sequence and structure of mitochondrial genome of the human tapeworm , taenia asiatica ( platyhelminthes ; cestoda ) . parasitology 2005 ; 130 : 717 - 726 . pmid : 15977909 .\ngeographical information of taenia asiatica is reviewed together with that of t . solium and t . saginata . current distribution of t . asiatica was found to be mostly from asian countries : the republic of korea , china , taiwan , indonesia , and thailand . molecular genotypic techniques have found out more countries with t . asiatica from japan , the philippines , and vietnam . specimens used in this paper were collected from around the world and mostly during international collaboration projects of korean foundations for parasite control activities ( 1995 - 2009 ) in developing countries .\n31 . flisser a . in farthing mjg , keusch gt , walekin d eds , taenia solium , taenia saginata and hymenolepis nana . enteric infections . 2 : intestinal helminths . 1995 , london , uk . chapman and hall medical . pp 173 - 189 .\nfurther experimental studies on t . saginata - like tapeworms from south korea , indonesia , thailand , and the philippines showed similar results , leading the authors to rename their taiwan taenia into asian taenia , denoting its more diverse geographical distribution [ 7 - 10 ] .\nt . asiatica is generally neglected in the global elimination context of human taeniasis - cysticercosis . we assume that t . asiatica remains ignored mainly for 2 reasons ; first , its supposedly non - cosmopolitan character , being restricted to asian countries , and second , its close molecular similarities to t . saginata , suggesting that t . asiatica probably does not cause human cysticercosis since t . saginata eggs do not infect humans .\nfigure c : iodine - stained wet mount of a taenia sp . egg . image courtesy of the oregon state public health laboratory .\nfigure d : iodine - stained wet mount of a taenia sp . egg . image courtesy of the oregon state public health laboratory .\neom ks . what is asian taenia ? parasitol int . 2006 ; 55 suppl : s137 - 41 . epub 2006 jan 4 .\navila g et al . laboratory animal models for human taenia solium . parasitol int . 2006 ; 55 suppl : s99 - s103 .\ntaenia solium tapeworm infections can lead to cysticercosis , which is a disease that can cause seizures , so it is important seek treatment .\nonly 2 types of taeniases ( t . saginata and t . solium ) were recognized morphologically in korea up to 1992 until t . asiatica being newly described in 1993 as the third type . the prevalence of taeniasis in korea was considered to be caused only by infection with t . saginata or t . solium until eom and rim revised the identification of the korean taenia tapeworms to establish a new species , t . asiatica [ 1 ] . in order to understand distribution of human taenia tapeworms in korea , 68 taenia specimens were analyzed by morphology and nucleotide sequences of mitochondrial cox1 gene and its2 region . the distribution ratio of t . solium : t . asiatica : t . saginata was 3 : 51 : 14 ( or approximately 1 : 18 : 5 ) from 9 provinces in korea between 1935 and 2005 [ 37 ] .\nt . asiatica has been misdiagnosed as t . saginata for more than 200 years in asia [ 16 ] and the same might currently occur in the rest of the world , since the morphology of t . asiatica ' s gravid proglottids is practically indistinguishable from that of t . saginata .\nthe remainder of this systematic review will provide an update of our current understanding of the transmission , risk factors , geographical distribution and genetic diversity of t . asiatica . for a review on the history , taxonomy and morphology of t . asiatica , we refer to eom [ 32 ] .\ndue to ( i ) the alomst impossibility to distinguish the morphology of t . asiatica and t . saginata gravid proglottids , ( ii ) current immunodiagnostic techniques that can not identify t . asiatica ( adult / cysticerci ) carriers ( humans or pigs ) , and ( iii ) the fact that molecular techniques ( the only tool to distinguish the 3 taenia species ) are normally not employed in routine diagnostic methods , the 2 questions concerning t . asiatica ( its definite geographical distribution and its ability to cause human cysticercosis ) remain open , turning t . asiatica into the most neglected agent of human taeniasis - cysticercosis . these knowledge gaps should first be assessed before strategies of global taeniasis - cysticercosis elimination are implemented , since t . asiatica is not only a potential candidate to produce human cysticercosis but , as well , a modulating factor in the epidemiology of t . solium .\nwillingham al 3rd , engels d . control of taenia solium cysticercosis / taeniosis . adv parasitol . 2006 ; 61 : 509 - 66 .\nt . asiatica is a recently identified zoonotic human parasite causing intestinal taeniosis , which closely resembles t . saginata . although slight differences in morphology isslight differences in morphology are noted between the species , they cannot be used solely for the diagnosis and differentiation of species . hence , supplementation of serological and more promising molecular methods in addition to morphological study would help in differentiation of the species accurately . t . asiatica has been identified only from few regions of the world and introduction of diagnostic protocols in countries endemic to taenia can reveal the true prevalence of t . asiatica world - wide .\n19 . leon wu . taeniasis asiatica in the philippines . taeniasis / cysticercosis and echinococcosis international symposium and the 3rd congress of fap 2005 . 82 .\nleon wu . taeniasis asiatica in the philippines . taeniasis / cysticercosis and echinococcosis international symposium and the 3rd congress of fap 2005 ; p . 82 .\n( a ) homologous genes shared between t . asiatica and other tapeworms ( that is , t . saginata , t . solium , e . multicularis and h . microstoma ) . ( b ) gene block linkages between t . asiatica and t . saginata . the collinear gene blocks determined by mcscan between genome scaffolds ( > 1 mb ) represent 7 , 212 and 7 , 201 genes for t . asiatica and t . saginata , respectively .\nt . asiatica tapeworms range in size from 4 - 8 m , produce 700 proglottids / worm and may produce 80 , 000 eggs per proglottid .\njeon hk , chai jy , kong y , waikagul j , insisiengmay b , rim hj , eom ks : differential diagnosis of taenia asiatica using multiplex pcr . exp parasitol . 2009 , 121 : 151 - 156 . 10 . 1016 / j . exppara . 2008 . 10 . 014 .\n. . . human taeniasis results from intestinal infection with parasitic tapeworms of the genus taenia . the most common are taenia saginata and taenia solium , but another species , taenia saginata asiatica , has been relatively recently described ( fan , 1988 ; fan and chung , 1998 ; zarlenga , 1991 ) . whereas the first two species have a worldwide distribution , t . saginata asiatica has been reported primarily in taiwan , korea , thailand , indonesia , china , malaysia , and the philippines ( fan et al . , 1990 ; eom and rim , 1993 ; bowles and mcmanus , 1994 ; fan et al . , 1995 ; simanjuntak et al . , 1997 ; fan and chung , 1998 ; eom and rim , 2001 ; eom et al . , 2002 ) , with sporadic cases in other countries such as spain ( velez and camacho , 1997 ) . . . .\ntaenia asiatica has made a remarkable journey through the scientific literature of the past 50 years , starting with the paradoxical observation of high prevalences of t . saginata - like tapeworms in non - beef consuming populations , to the full description of its mitochondrial genome . experimental studies conducted in the 1980s and 1990s have made it clear that the life cycle of t . asiatica is comparable to that of t . saginata , except for pigs being the preferential intermediate host and liver the preferential location of the cysts . whether or not t . asiatica can cause human cysticercosis , as is the case for taenia solium , remains unclear . given the specific conditions needed to complete its life cycle , in particular the consumption of raw or poorly cooked pig liver , the transmission of t . asiatica shows an important ethno - geographical association . so far , t . asiatica has been identified in taiwan , south korea , indonesia , the philippines , thailand , south - central china , vietnam , japan and nepal . especially this last observation indicates that its distribution is not restricted to south - east - asia , as was thought so far . indeed , the molecular tools developed over the last 20 years have made it increasingly possible to differentiate t . asiatica from other taeniids . such tools also indicated that t . asiatica is related more closely to t . saginata than to t . solium , feeding the debate on its taxonomic status as a separate species versus a subspecies of t . saginata . furthermore , the genetic diversity within t . asiatica appears to be very minimal , indicating that this parasite may be on the verge of extinction . however , recent studies have identified potential hybrids between t . asiatica and t . saginata , reopening the debate on the genetic diversity of t . asiatica and its status as a separate species .\ntaenia asiatica has made a remarkable journey through the scientific literature of the past 50 years , starting with the paradoxical observation of high prevalences of t . saginata - like tapeworms in non - beef consuming populations , to the full description of its mitochondrial genome . experimental studies conducted in the 1980s and 1990s have made it clear that the life cycle of t . asiatica is comparable to that of t . saginata , except for pigs being the preferential intermediate host and liver the preferential location of the cysts . whether or not t . asiatica can cause human cysticercosis , as is the case for taenia solium , remains unclear . given the specific conditions needed to complete its life cycle , in particular the consumption of raw or poorly cooked pig liver , the transmission of t . asiatica shows an important ethno - geographical association . so far , t . asiatica has been identified in taiwan , south korea , indonesia , the philippines , thailand , south - central china , vietnam , japan and nepal . especially this last observation indicates that its distribution is not restricted to south - east - asia , as was thought so far . indeed , the molecular tools developed over the last 20 years have made it increasingly possible to differentiate t . asiatica from other taeniids . such tools also indicated that t . asiatica is related more closely to t . saginata than to t . solium , feeding the debate on its taxonomic status as a separate species versus a subspecies of t . saginata . furthermore , the genetic diversity within t . asiatica appears to be very minimal , indicating that this parasite may be on the verge of extinction . however , recent studies have identified potential hybrids between t . asiatica and t . saginata , reopening the debate on the genetic diversity of t . asiatica and its status as a separate species .\nan overview of the epidemiological , biological , and clinical studies of taenia and taeniasis in taiwan for the past century is presented . the phenomenal observations that led to the discovery of taenia asiatica as a new species , which differ from taenia solium and taenia saginata , are described . parasitological surveys of the aborigines in taiwan revealed a high prevalence of taeniasis , which might be due to the culture of eating raw liver of hunted wild boars . chemotherapeutic deworming trials involving many patients with taeniasis were discussed . praziquantel was found to be very effective , but sometimes complete worms could not be recovered from the feces after treatment , probably due to the dissolution of the proglottids . atabrine , despite some side effects , can still be used , in properly controlled dosages , as the drug of choice for human t . asiatica infection if we need to recover the expelled worms for morphological examinations . research results on the infection of t . asiatica eggs from taiwan aborigines in experimental animals were also noted . since the pig serve as the natural intermediate host of t . asiatica and the predilection site is the liver , a differential comparison of other parasitic pathogens that might cause apparently similar lesions is also presented .\nan overview of the epidemiological , biological , and clinical studies of taenia and taeniasis in taiwan for the past century is presented . the phenomenal observations that led to the discovery of taenia asiatica as a new species , which differ from taenia solium and taenia saginata , are described . parasitological surveys of the aborigines in taiwan revealed a high prevalence of taeniasis , which might be due to the culture of eating raw liver of hunted wild boars . chemotherapeutic deworming trials involving many patients with taeniasis were discussed . praziquantel was found to be very effective , but sometimes complete worms could not be recovered from the feces after treatment , probably due to the dissolution of the proglottids . atabrine , despite some side effects , can still be used , in properly controlled dosages , as the drug of choice for human t . asiatica infection if we need to recover the expelled worms for morphological examinations . research results on the infection of t . asiatica eggs from taiwan aborigines in experimental animals were also noted . since the pig serve as the natural intermediate host of t . asiatica and the predilection site is the liver , a differential comparison of other parasitic pathogens that might cause apparently similar lesions is also presented .\nfigure e : unstained taenia sp . egg , teased from a proglottid of an adult . four hooks can easily be seen in this image .\nhoberg ep . phylogeny of taenia : species definitions and origins of human parasites . parasitol int . 2006 ; 55 suppl : s23 - 30 .\nt . asiatica cysticerci show a clear liver tropism in pigs which indicates that t . asiatica may mainly cause hepatic cysticercosis in humans [ 27 ] . currently , there is no specific immunological method for t . asiatica cysticercosis , and , as already mentioned , t . asiatica cross - reacts even in the most specific serological test for t . solium cysticercosis . therefore , the application of serological approaches only can certainly not demonstrate whether t . asiatica is or is not involved in human cysticercosis cases . we have already suggested the use of liver ultrasonography to investigate the possible presence of cysticerci in patients harbouring t . saginata - like adults [ 28 ] . just as in pigs , only the molecular analysis of the extracted cysticerci could assess the species causing human cysticercosis .\nphylogenetic resolution for human taenia indicates independent origins for t . solium and t . asiatica + t . saginata . hence , although discovered only 20 years ago , it is estimated that the divergence of t . saginata and t . asiatica took place 0 . 78 - 1 . 71 mybp in africa or eurasia . [ 18 ] the biotic expansion from africa into eurasia may have resulted in isolation and later divergence of t . asiatica in asia . a total of eight extant boar species have been identified in south - east asia . this diversity of potential intermediate hosts in this area may have influenced the switch of intermediate host for t . asiatica from herbivore to swine . therefore , the association of t . asiatica with swine may have been established in asia following divergence of host populations that later expanded into europe , being consistent with a dominant distribution of this species in asian countries . [ 18 , 19 ]\n22 . chang sl , nonaka n , kamiya m , kanai y , ooi hk , chung wc , oku y . development of taenia saginata asiatica metacestodes in scid mice and its infectivity in human and alternative definitive hosts . parasitol res 2005 ; 96 : 95 - 101 . pmid : 15812671 .\ntaenia saginata , the beef tapeworm , and taenia solium , the pork tapeworm , are the most common tapeworms affecting humans . infection follows consumption of undercooked beef or pork containing cysts . t . saginata cysts may occur in other domestic bovines and a closely related asian species has been shown to infect pigs , ungulates and monkeys . t . solium cysts also occur in dogs and cats . a third species of human taenia , t . asiatica , which is also transmitted in pigs , has recently been described in asia where prevalence rates of up to 20 % have been documented among indonesian villagers .\nthe limited amount of genetic variation within t . asiatica has also been observed for other genes . indeed , sequence divergences of 0 . 1 to 2 . 1 % were found in t . asiatica hdp2 fragments [ 69 ] , while no divergence was found in the 18 kda gene sequence [ 91 ] .\nhuman taeniases had been not uncommon in the republic of korea ( = korea ) until the 1980s . the prevalence decreased and a national survey in 2004 revealed no taenia egg positive cases . however , a subsequent national survey in 2012 showed 0 . 04 % ( 10 cases ) prevalence of taenia spp . eggs suggesting its resurgence in korea . we recently encountered 4 cases of taenia saginata infection who had . . . [ show full abstract ]\nt . asiatica used to be called\ntaiwan taenia\n. two of our collection demonstrated this tapeworm also with analysis of cox1 sequencing ( table 1 ) [ 11 ] . taiwanese dr . p . c . fan made orchid island ( lanyu island ) very well known among cestodologists and parasitologists while he was pioneering the research works on taiwan taenia , as one of the endemic areas of the tapeworm as well as the mainland taiwan . this small island is a land of the yami tribe who moved from south - east asia via the philippines 2 hundred years ago . the natural intermediate host of t . asiatica was also confirmed in lanyu native pigs for the first time . yeh et al . [ 22 ] described that\nfood - borne parasitic zoonosis such as infections with angiostrongylus cantonensis , clonorchis sinensis , and t . saginata asiatica ( taenia asiatica ) are not rare , but the former is seasonal and the latter 2 are ethnically and geographically associated\n. t . saginata and t . solium are also prevalent in taiwan by consuming undercooked beef or pork .\nthe journey of taenia asiatica , as documented by scientific literature , started in taiwan in the late 1960s . several authors reported on the paradox of observing a high prevalence of taenia saginata - like tapeworms in the native aboriginal population living in mountainous areas of taiwan , while these populations restrained from beef consumption ( reviewed by [ 1 , 2 ] ) , and meat inspection for bovine cysticercosis had been negative for some time [ 3 ] . dr ping - chin fan , a taiwanese parasitologist , conducted various studies on this taiwan taenia in the late 1980s and early 1990s ( reviewed by [ 1 , 4 - 6 ] ) . through observational and experimental studies , he and his team observed the morphology and researched the epidemiology of the taiwan taenia , which diverged from that of t . saginata . this led fan to raise the possibility of the taiwan taenia being a new species [ 4 ] .\nunless multiplex pcr [ 20 ] or pcr - rflp [ 8 ] are used , any t . saginata - like gravid proglottids expelled by humans around the world could indeed be t . saginata or t . asiatica [ 10 ] , thus we propose that it should be named t . saginata / asiatica taeniasis .\nmayta h , talley a , gilman rh , jim\u00e9nez j , verastegui m , ruiz m , garcia hh , gonzalez ae : differentiating taenia solium and taenia saginata infections by simple hematoxylin - eosin staining and pcr - restriction enzyme analysis . j clin microbiol . 2000 , 38 : 133 - 137 .\nan adult taenia saginata , the beef tapeworm . the ruler at the bottom is about 11 . 5 centimeters ( 4 . 5 inches ) long .\nregarding taeniases in other asian countries , intestinal parasite control among primary school children have been performed in cambodia by korea association of health promotion and national center for parasitology , entomology , and malaria control since 2006 . taenia tapeworm eggs were collected from 21 taenia tapeworm carriers in koh kong inhabitants [ 23 ] . the taenia eggs were isolated from the stools and placed in dna sequencing and multiplex pcr for differentiated diagnosis . all of the 21 taenia specimens from koh kong in cambodia were identified as t . saginata ( n = 19 ) and t . solium ( n = 2 ) by cox1 sequencing and multiplex pcr ."]}
{"id": 944, "summary": [{"text": "the cuban crow ( corvus nasicus ) is one of four species of crow that occur on a few key islands in the caribbean .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is closely related to the white-necked crow ( c. leucognaphalis ) and jamaican crow ( c. jamaicensis ) , with which it shares similar features .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "the fourth caribbean crow , the palm crow ( c. palmarum ) , is a later arrival in evolutionary terms and shows characteristics more akin to north american species such as the fish crow ( c. ossifragus ) , which it is probably closely related to .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "a stocky , medium-sized ( 40 \u2013 42 centimetres or 16 \u2013 17 inches in length ) forest crow , this sociable bird can be found quite commonly over most of the large island of cuba and on the nearby isla de la juventud in woodland and areas that have been cleared for agriculture .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it is frequently found around farms and villages where it seems to have adapted quite well to living in relatively close contact with man .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the bill of this species is long and deep with a gentle curve towards the tip giving a large headed profile .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the nasal bristles sweep forward then upward and frequently reveal the nostrils which are hidden in almost all other members of the genus corvus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "there is a patch of dark grey bare skin behind the browinsh-red eye and at the base of the lower mandible .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the black plumage has a bluish-purple gloss in good light .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the bill , legs and feet are black .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "food consists of fruit and insects though it does appear to take human food readily and will scavenge for scraps where the opportunity arises .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "large noisy flocks can be seen feeding in trees and it will also readily feed on the ground especially where grain and other seeds have been spilt or left unprotected on the surface of a field .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the voice is quite remarkable and is rather un-crow like , with strange liquid bubbling notes and high ringing sounds produced in various combinations .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "it also produces a thin screeched \" aaaaauh \" that rises in inflection .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "the nest is built in tall trees , though little further information about breeding is recorded as yet . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "cuban crow", "paragraphs": ["cuban crow - corvus nasicus the cuban crow is found in cuba and the turks and caicos islands . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\nthe thumbnail photo of the crow links to a video clip of a cuban crow that objected to me being too close to the tree where he and his mate were nesting .\npalm crow - corvus palmarum the palm crow is found in cuba , the dominican republic , and haiti . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\nthe cuban crow is common on middle caicos and has become a kind of mascot for our trips there . beside the familiar crow call , they have a turkey - like gobble . we always feel we ' re being welcomed back to the island when we hear it .\nmost frequently located by its liquid bubbling and gurgling calls , which somewhat resemble a parrot\u2019s vocalizations , the cuban crow is present locally over much of the main island of cuba , as well as the isle of youth , and three islands in the southern bahamas . it is by the far more widespread and abundant of cuba\u2019s two corvids , although the two species are difficult to distinguish , except vocally , and frequently flock together in the few areas where the palm crow ( corvus palmarum ) also occurs . the cuban crow is a large , all - black crow with rather longer wings and deeper wingbeats than the palm crow , but other differences ( such as the relative length of the nasal bristles ) are much more difficult to appreciate . it inhabits semi - open and wooded areas , included agricultural regions , and feeds both on the ground and arboreally , on invertebrates and fruits . the cuban crow builds a rough stick nest , often in a palm tree , and usually high above the ground ; a typical clutch is 3\u20134 eggs , and the nesting season lasts from march to july at least .\ncuban vireo - vireo gundlachii the cuban vireo is only found in cuba . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\ncuban martin - progne cryptoleuca the cuban martin is only found in cuba . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\ncuban solitaire - myadestes elisabeth the cuban solitaire is only found in cuba . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\nthe heads of the cuban delegation do not expect him to return , reports say .\nsiverio was not in the cuban team list published by the us organisers on wednesday .\ncuban gnatcatcher - polioptila lembeyei the cuban gnatcatcher is only found in cuba . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\ncuban sparrow - torreornis inexpectata the cuban sparrow is found in three locations in cuba . source : birdlife international intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\ncuban pewee - contopus caribaeus the cuban pewee is found in the bahamas and cuba . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\ncuban sparrow - torreornis inexpectata the cuban sparrow is also know as the zapata sparrow . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\ncuban bullfinch - melopyrrha nigra the cuban bullfinch is found in the cayman islands and cuba . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\ncuban sparrow - torreornis inexpectata the cuban sparrow has short , round wings and is a weak flier . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nhe was contacted by a man from florida who recognised the design as being similar to cuban refugee boats .\ncuban grassquit - tiaris canorus the cuban grassquit is found in the bahamas , cuba , and the turks and caicos islands . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\n40\u201342 cm ; 330\u2013510 g . a moderate - sized crow with upturned nasal bristles that do not cover nostrils ; relatively long bill . plumage is deep black with slight blue - . . .\nguillen ' s poem refers to cuban independence hero jose marti , the inspirational figure in castro ' s own political life .\nfor cuban poet nicolas guillen , there was a direct link between two of the biggest figures in his nation ' s history .\nbut there have been further celebrations in the us city of miami where many anti - castro cuban exiles and their families have settled .\nmarzluff , j . ( 2018 ) . cuban crow ( corvus nasicus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nwhile the fate of those on board may never be known , the discovery has helped to bring the story of the cuban refugees to people thousands of miles away .\nfidel castro was a towering presence in cuba for more than 50 years . dr stephen wilkinson , editor of the international journal of cuban studies , assesses his legacy .\nthe 24 - year - old pitcher misael siverio is said to have disappeared from the hotel where the cuban national team had been staying in the us state of iowa .\ncuban authorities say the ladies in white are in the pay of the united states and form part of washington ' s\ndecades - old effort to undermine cuba ' s socialist revolution\n.\ncastro ' s revolution remains very much unfinished business . his long years in power perhaps stem in part from the fact that unlike many revolutions , the cuban one did not lead to a bloodbath .\nhe is sure the boat washed up in ireland is what is known as a cuban\nchug\n- named after the sound of the crude motors as they make the slow journey across the sea .\nthere are some two million people of cuban descent now living in the united states . how far cuba is a country that is therefore for the good of all cubans is very much a moot point .\nthis battle was part of a chain of events that led to talks between south africa , angola and cuba on the cuban withdrawal from angola , the independence of namibia and the dismantling of apartheid in south african .\nhe managed to remove direct us influence on cuban internal politics and inspired leaders such as bolivian president evo morales and the late hugo chavez in venezuela , who picked up the torch of opposing and resisting us hegemony in the region .\nthis scientific advance , generosity and solidarity with the poor and disadvantaged is attributed to castro ' s vision - sometimes to the annoyance of cuban citizens who can often be heard complaining that the help given abroad represents a spending on resources that could be better invested at home .\nthis compilation of images represents an archive of photos taken by cultural anthropologist , kamari maxine clarke as well as contributions of oyotunji practitioners from a range of archives taken over a forty year period . from the formation of the oyotunji orisa - voodoo movement to its contemporary manifestations , the imagery of the periods represented here ranges from 1960 - 1970 ; 1971 - 1980 ; 1981 - 1990 ; 1991 - 2000 ; to 2001 - 2008 . all of these periods represent the formation of its making , marking a period in which it emerged out of united states jim crow segregation , black power protests , civil rights possibilities , and various cultural heritage movements that resonate today with its transnational linkages with west african orisa practices , cuban and us santeria / lukumi , brazilian condomble , and the trinidadian orisha traditions . visit site . . .\nwithin two years of taking power , he declared the revolution to be marxist - leninist in nature and allied cuba firmly to the soviet union - a move that led to the missile crisis in 1962 , bringing the world to the brink of nuclear war before the soviet union abandoned its plan to put missiles on cuban soil .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : although this species may have a restricted range , it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthis species is resident on cuba and the isle of pines , and in the turks and caicos islands ( to uk ) on north caicos and grand caicos ( bond 1979 ) .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' fairly common ' ( stotz et al . 1996 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\nthe species inhabits forest and wooded areas , but appears to be remarkably tolerant of habitat degradation ( madge and burn 1993 ) , occurring frequently in semi - cleared forest and sparsely - wooded cultivation , as well as villages and settlements with numerous trees ( bond 1979 , madge and burn 1993 ) . birds tend to gather in flocks , separating into pairs in the breeding season ( raffaele et al . 1998 ) . it is omnivorous , eating a variety of fruits , seeds , crops , reptiles , frogs and other items ( raffaele et al . 1998 ) . the nest is built high among palm fronds , and breeding takes place primarily in april and may ( raffaele et al . 1998 ) .\n( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22706010a118781571 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\njosep del hoyo , greg baker , eduardo tejeda lima , adolfo arag\u00fc\u00e9s , pascal vagner , desmond allen .\npetemorris , ken havard , dubi shapiro , david lingard , yvonne stevens , dusan m . brinkhuizen , holger teichmann .\nforms a clade with c . jamaicensis and c . leucognaphalus # r . monotypic .\ncuba , i of pines , and turks and caicos is ( mainly providenciales , north caicos , middle caicos ) .\nforests and woodlands , including villages and towns with substantial tree cover . uses edges and . . .\nomnivorous . feeds in trees and on ground on invertebrates , fruits and berries . formal dietary studies lacking . often observed in small , . . .\nseason mar\u2013jul . nest a coarse stick platform lined with dry grasses , feathers and other soft materials , placed in palm , among tree . . .\nnot globally threatened . common to locally abundant . often persecuted by man , and may have been reduced in numbers as extensive forests have been cleared . use of partially . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nalthough this species may have a restricted range , it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : corvus nasicus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 292 , 590 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nhome | wild files | n . h . animals | animals a - z | watch online\nperching birds have three unwebbed toes in the front and one strong , flexible toe in the back called the hallux , that lets them perch on tree branches . most species of perching birds have 12 tail feathers . perching birds are found in all parts of the world and they come in a wide variety of colors , patterns , shapes , and sizes . most chicks in this order are completely featherless and helpless when they hatch and must be fed by their parents .\nthe passeri are the songbirds . they are different from other birds because of the complex set of four muscles in their voice box or syrinx . these muscles allow songbirds to make complex songs and calls . the birds in this suborder can also learn songs . they learn their songs by listening to other birds in their species . the tyranni suborder is made up of over 1 , 000 species of tropical birds . most are found in south america . the birds in this suborder also have songs , but they don ' t learn them . they are born knowing their songs .\nleast concern near threatened vulnerable endangered critically endangered extinct in the wild extinct status and range is taken from icun redlist . if no status is listed , there is not enough data to establish status .\ngreat crested flycatcher - myiarchus crinitus the great crested flycatcher is found in southern canada and the eastern half of the u . s . south to mexico , central america , the caribbean and northern south america . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ngreat crested flycatcher - myiarchus crinitus the great crested flycatcher is a neotropical migrant . it breeds in canada and the u . s . and winters in central america , south america , and the caribbean . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nla sagra ' s flycatcher - myiarchus sagrae la sagra ' s flycatcher is found in the bahamas , the cayman islands , cuba , and the turks and caicos islands . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\ngray kingbird - tyrannus dominicensis the gray kingbird breeds in southern alabama and mississippi , florida , the bahamas , cuba , and jamica and winters in northern south america . it lives year - round in parts of the caribbean and in central america . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\ngray kingbird - tyrannus dominicensis the gray kingbird perches in trees and snaps up flying insects . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\nloggerhead kingbird - tyrannus caudifasciatus the loggerhead kingbird is found in the bahamas , the cayman islands , cuba , the dominican republic , haiti , jamaica , puerto rico , and the turks and caicos islands . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\ngiant kingbird - tyrannus cubensis the giant kingbird is only found in cuba . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\nwhite - eyed vireo - vireo griseus the white - eyed vireo is found from nebraska east to massachusetts and south to central america and the caribbean . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nwhite - eyed vireo - vireo griseus the white - eyed vireo is usually found in brushy habitats near a water source . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nthick - billed vireo - vireo crassirostris the thick - billed vireo is found in the bahamas , the cayman islands , cuba , haiti , and the turks and caicos islands . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\nyellow - throated vireo - vireo flavifrons the yellow - throated vireo breeds in the eastern half of the u . s . and winters in mexico , central america , south america , and the caribbean . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nblack - whiskered vireo - vireo altiloquus the black - whiskered vireo breeds in the florida and the caribbean and winters in south america . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ntree swallow - tachycineta bicolor in north america , the tree swallow breeds from alaska east to newfoundland and south to california , colorado , nebraska , and maryland . it winters from southern california , the gulf coast , and the carolinas to central america and the caribbean . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ntree swallow - tachycineta bicolor in north america , the tree swallow breeds from alaska east to newfoundland and south to california , colorado , nebraska , and maryland . it winters from southern california , the gulf coast , and the carolinas to central america and the caribbean . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ncave swallow - petrochelidon fulva the cave swallow is found in texas , new mexico , florida , the caribbean , and mexico . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\nzapata wren - ferminia cerverai the zapata wren is only found in the zapata swamp in cuba . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nblue - gray gnatcatcher - polioptila caerulea the blue - gray gnatcatcher breeds across much of the u . s . with the exception of areas of the great plains , the rocky mountain region and the pacific northwest . it is a permanent resident in the southern part of its range , and it winters in mexico , central america , and the caribbean . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ngray - cheeked thrush - catharus minimus the gray - cheeked thrush breeds in the arctic tundra of canada , alaska , and russia . it winters in the caribbean and central and south america . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ngray - cheeked thrush - catharus minimus an omnivore , the gray - cheeked thrush eats mostly insects like beetles , weevils , ants , wasps and caterpillars . it may eat spiders , crayfish , sow bugs and earthworms . in addition , the gray - cheeked thrush eats grapes , wild cherries , blackberries , raspberries and other fruit . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nswainson ' s thrush - catharus ustulatus swainson ' s thrush breeds in canada and the northern u . s . it winters in mexico , central america , and south america . it winters in the caribbean and central and south america . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nswainson ' s thrush - catharus ustulatus swainson ' s thrush breeds in coniferous forests and winters in tropical forests . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\namerican robin - turdus migratorius the american robin is found in all of the united states and canada , except for hawaii and the northern most parts of alaska and canada . it is also found in parts of mexico and central america . the american robin is migratory and populations move south in the winter , although some populations stay in place . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\namerican robin - turdus migratorius the american robin lives in open woodlands , fields , gardens , and yards . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\namerican robin - turdus migratorius the male robin uses its voice to protect its territory and to attract a mate . it is often one of the first birds heard in the spring . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nred - legged thrush - turdus plumbeus the red - legged thrush is found in the caribbean . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\ngray catbird - dumetella carolinensis the gray catbird breeds across southern canada and most of the u . s . , except for parts of the west . it winters along the gulf coast , in florida , and in mexico , central america , northern south america , and the caribbean . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\ngray catbird - dumetella carolinensis the gray catbird can make more than 100 different types of sounds . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\nnorthern mockingbird - mimus polyglottos the northern mockingbird is found in most of the continental united states south to mexico . it is also found in the caribbean . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nnorthern mockingbird - mimus polyglottos the mockingbird was given its name because of its ability to mimic the calls of dozens of other bird species . in fact , the mockingbird ' s latin name , mimus polyglottos , means many - tongued mimic . the mockingbird has even been known to mimic the sounds of dogs and sirens . the mockingbird is especially vocal on moonlit spring nights . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nbahama mockingbird - mimus gundlachii the bahama mockingbird is found in the bahamas , the cayman islands , cuba , jamaica , and the turks and caicos islands . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\ncedar waxwing - bombycilla cedrorum the cedar waxwing ' s face has a narrow black mask outlined in white . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\ncedar waxwing - bombycilla cedrorum the cedar waxwing is only found in north america . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ncedar waxwing - bombycilla cedrorum cedar waxwings eat some insects , but are primarily fruit - eaters . source : seattle audubon intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\novenbird - seiurus aurocapilla the ovenbird breeds in canada and the eastern united states . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\novenbird - seiurus aurocapilla the ovenbird walks on the forest floor hunting insects , spiders , snails , and worms . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nworm - eating warbler - helmitheros vermivorus the worm - eating warbler breeds in the eastern united states and winters in the caribbean , mexico , and central america . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nprairie warbler - dendroica discolor the prairie warbler is found in the eastern united states . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nlouisiana waterthrush - seiurus motacilla the louisiana waterthrush breeds in the eastern united states and winters in mexico , the caribbean , and central and south america . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nlouisiana waterthrush - seiurus motacilla the louisiana waterthrush is found near forest streams . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nnorthern waterthrush - seiurus noveboracensis the northern waterthrush breeds in canada and the northern united states . it winters in southern florida , mexico , the caribbean , central america , and south america . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nblue - winged warbler - vermivora pinus the blue - winged warbler breeds in the eastern united states and winters in central america and the caribbean . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nblue - winged warbler - vermivora pinus the blue - winged warbler breeds at forest and field edges . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nblack - and - white warbler - mniotilta varia the black - and - white warbler breeds in canada and the eastern united states . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nswainson ' s warbler - limnothlypis swainsonii swainson ' s warbler breeds in the southeastern united states . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nred - legged honeycreeper - cyanerpes cyaneus the red - legged honeycreeper is found in mexico , central america , south america , and the caribbean . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\nyellow - faced grassquit - tiaris olivaceus the yellow - faced grassquit is found in mexico , central america , south america , and the caribbean . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\nwestern spindalis - spindalis zena\nthe western spindalis is found in southern florida and the caribbean . source : internet bird collection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\nchipping sparrow - spizella passerina the chipping sparrow is found in most of the united states , canada , and mexico . it is also found in the caribbean and central america . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nchipping sparrow - spizella passerina the chipping sparrow is found in a variety of habitats including open woodlands , marshes , deserts , fields , gardens , and farmland . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nsavannah sparrow - passerculus sandwichensis the savannah sparrow is found across much of canada , the u . s . , mexico and the caribbean . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ngrasshopper sparrow - ammodramus savannarum the grasshopper sparrow is found across most of the u . s . it is also found in southern canada , mexico , central america , and the caribbean . source : cornell lab of ornithology intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ngrasshopper sparrow - ammodramus savannarum the grasshopper sparrow gets its names from its buzzy grasshopper - like call . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nthe eastern meadowlark male can sing many versions of its song . in new york , a male was observed to sing over 100 different song patterns !\nthe eastern meadowlark inhabits wide open spaces like farm fields , grassland and wet fields .\nthe eastern meadowlark builds its nest on the ground and sings on perches such as treetops , fence posts , and power lines .\nthe red - shouldered blackbird was once thought to be a subspecies of the red - winged blackbird .\nthe red - shouldered blackbird is found in scattered locations in central and western cuba .\nis found in the bahamas , cuba , and the turks and caicos islands .\nour family ' s dream for the future has found a home : middle caicos in the turks and caicos islands . it ' s part ecotourism , part reality show adventure , and part time travel .\nwith an area of 48 square miles and a population of less than 300 , middle caicos is a place where we can create our own vacation world around us . we explore the beaches , cliffs , hills and caves . we swim the reefs with sharks , cudas , lobsters , and innumerable reef fish . we watch the birds and lizards . and we can come close to knowing every person on the island .\nour site was created to share some of what we find so enjoyable about middle caicos , to introduce you to our friends there , and to help future island visitors know what to expect . browse the menu at the left to read about our trips and see our photos .\nthis naturally landscaped scene is one of the well - kept secrets of middle caicos . i didn ' t find it until our sixth trip to the island . i ' m looking forward to finding new surprises on our next trip .\nyou ' ll find more photos like this throughout our website . click on the thumbnail photo to view a larger image . depending on the technological advances of my electronic toys , many of the photos also include the date and time or even the latitude and longitude of the photo ' s location . when the latitude and longitude are shown , click the link to see the location overlayed on a satellite photo of middle caicos .\nlooking for a brochure to share with your friends or family ? here are two that you can download and print .\nthis handy guide has a map on one side that identifies some of the major attractions on middle caicos . on the other side is brief island history , a directory of guides , merchants and other services and a greeting from the district commissioner . print the\ni created a one page flyer to introduce the caribbean tourism organization to middle caicos . when your friends ask where you ' re going , this might be the quickest way to share your excitement .\nno one website can show you everything there is to know about a place like middle caicos . so we founded the middle caicos webring to help you visit other sites dedicated to the island . you ' ll find many of the vacation villas , local guides and other informational sites on the ring . visit other middle caicos webring sites using the following links . [ previous | next ] [ skip previous | skip next ] [ random site | list sites ]\nwe belong to the turks and caicos national trust . you can join and help preserve treasures like middle caicos .\non a sandy beach on the west coast of ireland lies the remains of a strange looking boat .\nit is made from a metal frame partly covered in yellow tarpaulin , with expanded foam and water bottles used for buoyancy .\na closer inspection beneath the overturned hull , now covered in barnacles , reveals a car engine connected to a broken propeller .\nthe boat caught the interest of gordon fallis , who saw it as he was walking his dogs along the beach .\ni didn ' t really know what it was to be honest , so i took a few photographs of it and when i got home i posted it on a facebook page called lost at sea which tracks marine debris and cargo spills and things that get washed up on beaches ,\nhe said .\nhe advised me to have a look at the bottles again to see where they came from so i came back down and looked at the labels and indeed they were from cuba , exactly the same brand that he had predicted , so it seems that it is actually a boat that the refugees have used to try and get to america from cuba ,\nhe said .\nsince 1995 , under a policy known as\nwet foot , dry foot\n, if cubans are picked up at sea they are returned home or taken to a third country , but if they make it to american soil they get the opportunity to stay and become legal residents .\nbetween november 2015 and october 2016 the us coast guard apprehended 5 , 263 cubans at sea .\nit is thought that hundreds of thousands of cubans attempted the journey before the policy was ended last month just before president obama left office .\namerican photographer bill klipp has seen many similar boats that have been abandoned on small remote islands around the florida keys .\nthey ' re surely not moving very fast and i think it just comes from that notion that they ' re just barely making it , they ' re chugging as best as they can to get across the ocean ,\nhe said .\nkey west , where i live , is only 90 miles for havana so it ' s a relatively short distance to landfall although the florida straits can be a pretty treacherous body of water to cross .\nwhile it is possible that the occupants of this vessel were picked up at sea and the boat was left to drift , bill klipp believes it is more likely that the weather and ocean currents took it off course .\nthe uscg painted on this vessel in florida means the occupants were found by the us coastguard . the vessel in ireland was too badly damaged to tell if there was ever a similar marking\nif that boat could tell its story it would tell a story of real despair and desperation , that ' s for sure ,\nhe said .\nobviously the occupants didn ' t make it and that ' s kind of a sad story there but that ' s unfortunately a story that ' s happened too much over the last couple of decades .\nit is the first time such a vessel has been recorded being washed up in europe according to curtis ebbesmeyer , a retired oceanographer based in seattle who tracks ocean debris .\nhe said it could take months or years for it to make the journey of more than 4 , 000 miles across the atlantic .\nthe drift rate depends on how much the vessel is sticking out of the water and the rate could be a matter of six months or it could be a matter of years depending on whether the vessel drifted around some of the garbage patches in the atlantic or made a straight journey across ,\nhe said .\nmr ebbesmeyer said the vessels\nsymbolise what price people are willing to pay to gain their freedom in the united states\n.\ni would reflect on questions . did the people make it ? are they in the united states ? did they die ? did they perish a terrible death out in the middle of the atlantic ?\nthey ' re really worth moments of reflection as you walk by ,\nhe said .\nstanding on cliffoney beach as the waves of the north atlantic break beneath a grey sky , gordon fallis said he is glad he discovered more about the boat .\nit ' s just great to be able to contact people who are able to identify it for me otherwise i would have just walked on past it thinking\nthat ' s a strange boat on the beach\nand that would have been the last i would have heard of it ,\nhe said .\ntheresa may moves to shore up her position after a day of high profile resignations over her brexit strategy .\ncuba ' s most prominent dissident group has called off its traditional protest for the first time in 13 years following the death of the country ' s revolutionary leader fidel castro .\nthe group , founded by wives of jailed dissidents , has long defied a protest ban in cuba with a weekly march .\ncastro died on friday at the age of 90 . flags are flying at half mast as the country observes nine days of mourning .\nfrom monday , people will be able to pay their respects at memorials and rallies before castro ' s ashes are taken to santiago de cuba where he launched his bid for power .\nand a mass public ceremony is planned at havana ' s revolutionary square on tuesday .\nthe cause of death has not yet been revealed but castro had been in poor health since he nearly died of an intestinal illness in 2006 .\nthe mood in the capital remains subdued , the bbc ' s barbara plett - usher in havana says , with people still absorbing the news .\nsupporters say he returned cuba to the people , and praise him for some of his social programs , such as public health and education .\nbut critics call him a dictator , who led a government that did not tolerate opposition and dissent , accused of numerous alleged human rights abuses .\nthe regular sunday march of the ladies in white is a rare expression of dissent largely tolerated by the government .\nbut police have clamped down in recent months , our correspondent in havana adds .\nthe women march in silence through the streets of havana following mass at a roman catholic church , asking for the release of political prisoners and for human rights to be respected .\nwe ' re not going to march today [ sunday ] so that the government does not take it as a provocation and so that they can pay their tributes ,\nthe group ' s leader , berta soler , said .\nwe respect the mourning of others and will not celebrate the death of any human being .\nthroughout the cold war , fidel castro was a thorn in washington ' s side .\nan accomplished tactician on the battlefield , he and his small army of guerrillas overthrew the military leader fulgencio batista in 1959 to widespread popular support .\ndespite the constant threat of a us invasion as well as the long - standing economic embargo on the island , castro managed to maintain a communist revolution in a nation just 90 miles ( 145km ) off the coast of florida .\ndespised by his critics as much as he was revered by his followers , he maintained his rule through 10 us presidents and survived scores of attempts on his life by the cia .\nhe established a one - party state , with hundreds of supporters of the batista government executed . political opponents have been imprisoned , the independent media suppressed . thousands of cubans have fled into exile .\nmany world leaders have paid tribute to castro . russian president vladimir putin described him as a\nreliable and sincere friend\nof russia , while chinese president xi jinping said his people had\nlost a good and true comrade\n.\nthe soviet union ' s last leader , mikhail gorbachev , said :\nfidel stood up and strengthened his country during the harshest american blockade , when there was colossal pressure on him .\nhowever , us president - elect donald trump said castro had been a\nbrutal dictator\n.\ncanadian prime minister justin trudeau came under fire on social media and from political opponents for describing castro as a\nremarkable leader\n, who despite being a\ncontroversial figure\nmade significant improvements to the education and healthcare of cubans .\nun secretary general ban ki - moon acknowledged advances in education , literary and health under castro , but said he hoped cuba would\ncontinue to advance on a path of reform , greater prosperity and human rights\n.\npope francis , who met castro , an atheist , when he visited cuba in 2015 , called his death\nsad news\n.\nin venezuela , cuba ' s main regional ally , president nicolas maduro said\nrevolutionaries of the world must follow his legacy\n.\nthe foreign secretary quits , telling theresa may\nneedless self - doubt\nis leading to\nsemi - brexit\n.\nin a poem from 1977 , he wrote :\nlo que marti prometio , fidel lo cumplio\n(\nwhat marti promised , fidel delivered\n) .\nmarti promised a cuba free of us interference and , famously , a republic that would be as he put it :\nfor all cubans and the good of all cubans .\ncastro ' s legacy will be judged against how successful or not he was in fulfilling that dream .\nthat cuba , a nation of only 11 million today ( and fewer than six million when castro came to power ) should produce two of the most notable statesmen in latin american history is an extraordinary feat in itself .\nif his seizing of power in a popular revolution at the age of 33 was a startlingly precocious act , his maintenance of his position through five decades , 10 american presidencies ( and 638 assassination attempts ) is proof of his staying power and determination .\nbut like a small moon in the orbit of a much larger planet , the sheer force of economic and political gravity has prevented cuba from escaping the indirect influence of the us , especially the state of florida where castro ' s enemies hold sway .\nthere were political prisoners , with arbitrary detentions continuing to this day , but castro was able to export many of his opponents to the us where they built a weighty presence and an almost impenetrable bulwark against a change in washington ' s embargo .\nundoubtedly , life for most cubans on the island ( and that means the vast majority poor when castro came to power ) improved dramatically under his leadership .\ndespite what his enemies say , cuba under castro built one of the most impressive public health systems and achieved educational results that are the envy of the developing world .\nthe statistics prove that cuba , with a fraction of the per capita income , has infant mortality and longevity rates that rival those of western europe .\nthousands of medical practitioners graduate in cuba every year and cuba sends them to more than 60 countries across the globe to provide aid and assistance .\ncuba has a world class biotech industry that is saving millions of lives through dispensing vaccines and drugs to needy countries at a fraction of the cost that large multinationals would charge .\nfor some , castro is regarded as a failure because he was unable to develop cuba ' s economy to an extent commensurate with its expenditure on health and social welfare .\nthough fidel castro cannot be wholly to blame for the strains on cuba ' s economy , the structural and infrastructural deficiencies that his brother raul is now addressing were undoubtedly his responsibility .\npossibly , beside his fanatical supporters in cuba , fidel castro will be most fondly remembered in africa and latin america where his influence and example were for some inspirational .\nthis is particularly true in southern africa where cuba ' s intervention in angola in 1975 repelled a south african invasion and ensured that the mpla , rather than its rival unita , took control of the capital luanda .\nmore than a decade later , castro personally masterminded the strategy during the last major confrontation with the south african army at cuito cuanavale in 1988 .\nnelson mandela himself attributed his release from jail and the ultimate defeat of apartheid to the events at cuito cuanavale .\nas chilean poet pablo neruda commented , castro broke the mould of latin american politicians who promised much and delivered little .\nultimately , if castro failed to fulfil marti ' s promise completely it was not through want of trying .\nwhether one agrees or not with his politics , it has to be accepted that through all his long years in power , castro stayed true to his convictions to the end ."]}
{"id": 946, "summary": [{"text": "the whiskered auklet ( aethia pygmaea ) is a small seabird of the auk family .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it has a more restricted range than other members of its genus , aethia , living only around the aleutian islands and on some islands off siberia ( like commander islands ) , and breeding on these islands .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is one of the smallest alcids , only the closely related least auklet being smaller .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "its name is derived from the long white feathers on its face that are part of its breeding plumage .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the whiskered auklet is a poorly studied species and much research needs to be undertaken on the species .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it was originally described as two different species , from specimens collected at different ends of its range , however research has shown that it is a single species with clinal variation along its range .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is not thought to undertake migration , but instead attends its breeding islands year round .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "whiskered auklets lay a single egg in a rocky crevice , in loose colonies with other whiskered auklets and also other colonial seabirds .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "both parents take part in incubation and chick rearing .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the whiskers have been shown to help them sense their way to and out of their nests at night .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "whiskered auklets feed in the inshore zone , usually within 16 km of land , where tidal currents concentrate their prey into dense swarms .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they feed predominantly on copepods during the summer months , mostly on the species neocalanus plumchrus ; and switching to euphausiid krill in the fall and winter . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "whiskered auklet", "paragraphs": ["we had a whiskered auklet bounce into our boat and get stunned . that gave us a great opportunity to study it up close . little tanaga strait in the aleutian islands , alaska . 1 june 2016\npoorly known to most birders , the whiskered auklet is a small seabird confined to remote areas of the aleutian islands , alaska ( as well as the commander and kurile islands off eastern asia ) . relatively scarce and secretive , it is active around its nesting colonies mostly at night . unlike most auks , it seldom ventures more than a few miles away from shore . one odd distinction shared with its relative , crested auklet : the plumage has a noticeable odor like citrus .\nnettleship , d . n . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . whiskered auklet ( aethia pygmaea ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nwhiskered auklets flock together while feeding and both parents carry plankton back in their throat pouches to their young . nests are located in rocky crevices on ledges that are very difficult for predators such as gulls , falcons , foxes , and rats to reach .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population is estimated to number > c . 100 , 000 individuals ( del hoyo\n. 1996 ) , while the population in russia has been estimated at < c . 100 breeding pairs and < c . 50 individuals on migration ( brazil 2009 ) .\nthe population is suspected to be in decline owing to predation by invasive species and ongoing habitat destruction .\nthis species is found offshore and along sea coasts in summer and is mostly pelagic in winter . its diet includes a high variety of planktonic crustaceans , and infrequently small fish and squid . it forages mainly offshore in deep water , and sometimes in near - shore regions almost always in large flocks throughout the year . birds arrive at colonies from march to june depending on the site . it is highly monogamous with high site and mate fidelity throughout its breeding life . colonies can be as large as 100 , 000 pairs and form on remote islands and coasts in a variety of different rocky habitats . densities are determined largely by the availability of suitable rock crevices and cavities for nesting ( del hoyo et al . 1996 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ntotal population probably very low compared to most auks . attracted to lights at night , may be killed by crashing into lighted fishing boats . accidental introduction of rats to nesting islands may be biggest threat .\nocean , tide - rips , rocky coasts . usually at sea within a few miles of islands , in relatively shallow water . favors rough water where currents converge , or where tidal currents race across shallows or through narrow passes between islands . nests on islands among rocks or cliffs .\nforages while swimming underwater . depth of dives unknown , but usually feeds in fairly shallow water .\none . dull white . incubation is by both sexes , roughly 35 - 36 days . young : both parents feed young , visiting nests at night , bringing food back in throat pouch . age of young bird at departure from nest not well known , may be about 40 days . fledgling departs by flying away from nest site at night .\nboth parents feed young , visiting nests at night , bringing food back in throat pouch . age of young bird at departure from nest not well known , may be about 40 days . fledgling departs by flying away from nest site at night .\nsmall crustaceans . diet not well known , primarily small crustaceans including copepods , euphausiid shrimp , amphipods ; also marine worms , mollusks . may concentrate on copepods in summer , euphausiids in winter .\nbreeds in colonies , not as densely packed as in related small auks . active at colonies mostly at night , especially when not nesting in association with other species . courtship behavior not well known , includes pairs calling in duet . nest sites in small openings in talus slopes , boulder piles , or crevices in cliffs , sometimes in areas of soil mixed with rock . no nest built , egg laid on bare rock or soil .\naudio \u00a9 lang elliott , bob mcguire , kevin colver , martyn stewart and others .\ntell congress to oppose a harmful rider that threatens sage - grouse and other wildlife .\ntell congress and the department of the interior to uphold the country ' s most important bird protection law .\nif you find the information on birdweb useful , please consider supporting seattle audubon . donate\nthis is a large and highly varied group of birds that do not have many outward similarities . most are water birds that feed on invertebrates or small aquatic creatures . the order is well represented in washington , with seven families :\nalcids are diving seabirds of the northern hemisphere . most are more comfortable in and under the water than in the air . while some members of the family fly long distances in post - breeding dispersal or migration , others fly only with effort . underwater , they use their wings as flippers to swim after fish , krill , and other aquatic prey . the majority nest in colonies on islands , and many are active in these colonies only at night , spending the day foraging on open water far from their nesting sites . many nest in burrows , and most species lay only one egg each year , although some lay two . both sexes incubate and care for the young . most alcids are predominantly black - and - white , with different breeding and non - breeding plumages .\none record , from penn cove ( whidbey island , island county ) in may 1999 .\nanalysis of mtdna suggests that present species and a . cristatella form a clade , with a . psittacula a close relative of the two . birds from kuril is were separated as race camtschatica on basis of different body size , but recent studies confirm existence only of simple clinal variation , size increasing from e to w . monotypic .\nne sea of okhotsk ( penzhin gulf , yamskiye is , iony i ) and commander is s to at least c kuril is , and throughout aleutians e to four mountains is and krenitzen is . winters mostly near breeding locations , but s as far as japan , and casual in n bering sea ( e . g . st lawrence i ) .\n17\u201318 cm ; c . 116 g ( 99\u2013136 g ) ; wingspan c . 37 cm . unique head pattern , with long recurved crest on forehead drooping forward over small white - tipped scarlet bill . . .\noffshore and along sea coasts . breeds on bare to partially covered talus slopes and beach boulder . . .\ndiet throughout year marine zooplankton , with 42 different prey taxa identified during a breeding - season study at three islands in the . . .\nbreeding phenology poorly known . spring arrival apr to early may ; laying probably late may and early jun , sometimes advanced ; hatching and . . .\ndistribution and movements outside breeding season poorly known . returns to colonies apr to early . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . total population small , second - rarest alcid in alaska . numbers poorly known , but coarse estimates in 1990s indicated minimum of 100 , . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\na big group of birds calling while swimming at the sea and then flying .\nhal and kirsten snyder , jacob . wijpkema , christophe gouraud , r . d . wallace , niels poul dreyer , kirk zufelt , william price .\nthis species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : aethia pygmaea . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\ncincinnati zoo & botanical garden 3400 vine st . cincinnati , ohio 45220 ( 513 ) 281 - 4700"]}
{"id": 951, "summary": [{"text": "scydosella is a genus of beetles that consists of only one species scydosella musawasensis .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the species is regarded as the smallest free-living insect , as well as the smallest beetle .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they are among featherwing beetle , named because of their feather-like spiny wings .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it was first discovered in nicaragua , and described in 1999 by wesley eugene hall of the university of nebraska state museum .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the initial discovery consisted of very few specimens , and exact measurements were not conclusive .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "because of their tiny size , they were difficult to observe under microscope after preservation .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the generally accepted size was 0.300 mm in length .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "on 8 february 2015 , alexey polilov of the lomonosov moscow state university collected 85 specimens in chicaque national park , colombia .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "they were discovered on a layer of fungus on which they feed .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "from these specimens exact measurements could be made , and was found that the smallest individual is only 0.325 mm long .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the largest individual is 0.352 mm long , and the average length of all the specimens is 0.338 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the body is elongated and oval in shape , yellowish-brown in colour , and its antennae are split into 10 segments . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "scydosella", "paragraphs": ["this tiny insect , scientifically known as scydosella musawasensis , is the only species in the featherwing beetle genus scydosella .\naccording to a new study published online this week in the journal zookeys , the smallest examined representative of scydosella musawasensis has a length of 0 . 325 mm .\nhabitus and diagnostic characters of scydosella musawasensis , sem : a dorsal view b lateral view c ventral view d antenna c mouthparts f pygidial tooth g mesosternal process .\n\u201cthe record of scydosella musawasensis in colombia considerably broadens the known range of this genus and species , known previously only from one site in nicaragua , \u201d dr polilov wrote .\n\u201cthis record also broadens the known range of fungi colonized by scydosella musawasensis , which was known previously only from rigidoporus lineatus . i have collected it on steccherinum sp . \u201d\nthe smallest known beetle scydosella musawasensis hall is recorded for the second time . precise measurements of its body size are given , and it is shown that the smallest examined representative of this species has a length of 325 \u00b5m .\nthis trend towards fusion into fewer , separate parts affects many organ systems . microinsects like scydosella lack the crops and gizzards present in larger insects , and may also lose the muscles that typically line the esophagus and intestines . the circulatory system in microinsects is basically reduced to nothing more than a simple heart and a short aorta , with scydosella losing those organs entirely . those microinsects with wings suffer from weakly developed veins , which poses a huge problem for flight performance .\nthe world ' s smallest beetle and tiniest non - parasitoid insect , called scydosella musawasensis , is morphologically characterised by its elongated oval body , yellowish - brown colouration and antennae split into 10 segments . it is also the only representative of this featherwing beetle genus .\nthe record of scydosella musawasensis in colombia considerably broadens the known range of this genus and species , known previously only from one site in nicaragua ( hall 1999 ) , where the type series was collected : musawas , waspuc river , nicaragua , 14 october 1955 . this record also broadens the known range of fungi colonized by scydosella musawasensis , which was known previously only from rigidoporus lineatus ( meripilaceae , given as polyporus zonalis in the original description ) ( hall 1999 ) ; i have collected it on steccherinum sp . ( meruliaceae ) .\npolilov aa ( 2015 ) how small is the smallest ? new record and remeasuring of scydosella musawasensis hall , 1999 ( coleoptera , ptiliidae ) , the smallest known free - living insect . zookeys 526 : 61\u201364 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 526 . 6531\nmore information : alexey polilov . how small is the smallest ? new record and remeasuring of scydosella musawasensis hall , 1999 ( coleoptera , ptiliidae ) , the smallest known free - living insect , zookeys ( 2015 ) . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 526 . 6531\npolilov aa . 2015 . how small is the smallest ? new record and remeasuring of scydosella musawasensis hall , 1999 ( coleoptera , ptiliidae ) , the smallest known free - living insect . zookeys 526 : 61 - 64 ; doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 526 . 6531\n\u201cmeasuring of ten specimens of scydosella musawasensis has shown that the smallest of them has a length of 0 . 325 mm , the largest has a length of 0 . 352 mm , and the average length is 0 . 338 mm . the body width is 0 . 098 to 0 . 104 mm , \u201d dr polilov wrote in the zookeys paper .\nnow that we\u2019ve covered why insects have to be small , the next reasonable question is what keeps them from shrinking even smaller than scydosella ? the problem is that multicellular organisms must make a lot of sacrifices to fit all those structures and organs into such a tiny body . miniaturization in metazoans is actually polilov\u2019s main research interest , and he discussed the unique effects of shrinking on structure and physiology in a paper published earlier this year .\nentomologists have declared scydosella musawasensis to be the world\u2019s smallest free - living insect . s . musawasensis , a featherwing beetle , can be as small as 0 . 325 millimeters ( as tiny as certain unicellular organisms ) . alexey polilov of lomonosov moscow state university collected 85 of the beetles from colombia , and his measurements of the tiny specimens confirm their ranking as the world\u2019s tiniest free - living insects . in order to even measure such a tiny organism , polilov had to use a scanning electron microscope with specialized software .\nadults of scydosella musawasensis hall , 1999 were collected in chicaque national park , colombia , 10 km west of bogot\u00e1 , on 8 february 2015 ( coordinates 4 . 619 , - 74 . 312 ) , 2200 m above sea level , on the fungus steccherinum sp . ( meruliaceae ) , 85 specimens . the material was fixed in faa ( formaldehyde\u2014alcohol\u2014acetic acid ) and preserved in 70 % ethanol . it was subsequently examined under a jeol jsm - 6380 scanning electron microscope ( sem ) after drying of the specimens at the critical point ( hitachi hcp - 2 ) and sputter coating with gold ( giko jsm - 6380 ) . the measurements were made using the program meazure ( c thing software ) from digital micrographs obtained under sem .\nthe smallest known beetle \u2013 and the smallest non - parasitoid insect \u2013 has a body length of 0 . 325 mm , according to entomologist dr alexey polilov of lomonosov university .\nit\u2019s morphologically characterised by its elongated oval body , yellowish - brown coloration and antennae split into ten segments .\n\u201cnot able to precisely measure its size because of the preserved nicaraguan specimens being embedded in preparations for microscopy studies , i used new individuals , collected in chicaque national park , colombia in early 2015 , \u201d dr polilov explained .\nthe measurements were made using specialized software from digital micrographs obtained under a scanning electron microscope .\n\u201cthus , the smallest beetle and smallest known non - parasitoid insect has a body length of 0 . 325 mm . \u201d\nthe size of the smallest known parasitoid insect , male dicopomorpha echmepterygis ( a parasitic wasp in the family mymaridae ) , is 0 . 139 mm .\njuvenile australopithecus climbed trees , 3 . 32 - million - year - old foot fossil shows\n\u00a9 2011 - 2018 . sci - news . com . all rights reserved . | back to top\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe long - lasting search and debate around the size and identity of the world ' s smallest free - living insect seems to have now been ended with the precise measurement and second record of the featherwing beetle species .\ndescribed back in 1999 based on only several specimens found in nicaragua , as many as 85 individuals of the minute beetle species have recently been retrieved from colombia and thoroughly examined . the smallest of them measured the astounding 0 . 325 mm . the finding made by dr . alexey polilov , lomonosov moscow state university moscow , is available in the open access journal zookeys .\nnot able to precisely measure its size because of the preserved specimens being embedded in preparations for microscopy studies , dr . polilov used new individuals , collected in chicaque national park , colombia in early 2015 . to conclude the length of the smallest one as 325 \u00b5m ( 0 . 325 mm ) the scientist used a specialised software and digital micrographs .\n, which also proved that the range of its distribution is actually much wider . thereafter , so are the localities of the fungi that the insect feeds on .\na team of japanese scientists found and described a new species of scarab beetle from cambodia . the beetle was named termitotrox venus , after venus - the roman goddess of beauty and love . the study was published in the open - access . . .\nminuscule snails defy current knowledge and scientific terminology about terrestrial\nmicrosnails\n. while examining soil samples collected from the base of limestone rocks in guangxi province , southern china , scientists barna . . .\nrecent research from a team led by dr jonathan cox shows how certain beetles use their antennae to locate potential mates . this is the first time scientists have studied molecule capture by the antennae of beetles .\nin 1832 charles darwin disembarked from hms beagle in bahia blanca , argentina where he travelled by land to buenos aires . in bahia blanca , darwin collected several fossils of large mammals along with many other living organisms , . . .\na newly - discovered species of tree - killing bark beetle , dendroctonus mesoamericanus armend\u00e1riz - toledano and sullivan , has been described in a paper published online in the annals of the entomological society of america by . . .\ndr david livingstone ' s only known beetle specimens have been discovered at the museum - 150 years after he brought them back from africa .\nthe co - evolution of plant\u2014pathogen interactions has been revealed in unprecedented detail in a study of one of the world ' s deadliest crop killers . this is the rice blast pathogen , which destroys enough food to feed more . . .\nusing genome editing to inactivate a protein called pcsk9 effectively reduces cholesterol levels in rhesus macaques , a species of monkey , according to researchers from the perelman school of medicine at the university of . . .\nfish that ' farm ' their own patches of seaweed alter their ' cropping ' practices under high co2 conditions , researchers at the university of adelaide in australia have found .\nmucus is able to protect us from infection thanks to ancient genes that have been conserved throughout 350 million years of evolution\u2014dating back to our days as a jellyfish .\nby proving a theory that was first proposed almost 40 years ago , researchers have confirmed a new way that cells conserve energy .\nour bodies consist of many different kinds of cells , each with their own role . the japanese scientist shinya yamanaka had made earlier the discovery , earning the nobel prize in 2012 , that cells from adult skin can be converted . . .\nfairyfly wasps rank smaller than the featherwing beetle me thinks at 0 . 15 mm . check wikipedia entry for fairyfly .\nthe article specified\nfree living\n, so perhaps that is to rule out the parasitic fairyflies .\nyeh ewh that could bee . wonder what free - living means in this case . either way . . . . what a teeny tiny eentsy insect . . . . smaller than a paramecium ; holy cow .\nplease sign in to add a comment . registration is free , and takes less than a minute . read more\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license ( cc by 4 . 0 ) , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nhas shown that the smallest of them has a length of 325 \u00b5m , the largest has a length of 352 \u00b5m , and the average length is 338 \u00b5m ( fig .\n) . the body width ( maximum width of both elytra at rest ) is 98 to 104 \u00b5m ( \u043c = 99 \u00b5m , n = 10 ) . thus , the smallest beetle and the smallest known free - living insect has a body length of 325 \u00b5m .\n) , yellowish - brown , surface generally glabrous , punctation sparse . antennae 10 - segmented ( fig .\n) . pronotum widest at middle . procoxal pockets absent , prothoracic glands absent . mesosternal process evenly narrowing anteriad , with obtuse apex , not extending onto metasternum ( fig .\n) . mesosternal lines ending near process ; metasternal lines complete . elytral venter with stridulatory file . femoral line ending in 2 setae . pygidial tooth acute ( fig .\nthis study has been supported by the russian science foundation ( project no . 14 - 14 - 00208 ) .\ndybas hs . ( 1990 ) chapter 36 . insecta : coleopteraptiliidae in : dindal dl . ( ed . )\na new genus and species of fairyfly , tinkerbella nana ( hymenoptera , mymaridae ) , with comments on its sister genus kikiki , and discussion on small size limits in arthropods .\na new species of dicopomorpha ( hymenoptera : mymaridae ) with diminutive , apterous males .\nmorphological and taxonomical novelties in the world\u2019s smallest beetles , and the first old world records of nanosellini .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nwhy are insects in general so small ? evolution favors small insects for two reasons . the first is their unique respiratory systems ; insects use tubes called trachea that must extend throughout their bodies to deliver oxygen and remove carbon dioxide . the larger the insect , the more space these trachea have to take up to satisfy their increased oxygen demand .\nthe second constraint on giant insects comes from their chitinous exoskeletons . while this tough outer shell grants insects protection and structure , it also keeps them from growing too large . molting and growing an entirely new coat is an incredibly exhaustive process . as the insect grows larger , it also needs a thicker exoskeleton that would eventually become too heavy to support .\nthe principle of organs scaling down as the body shrinks is called \u201callometry . \u201d microinsects achieve their tiny size through allometry as well as simplifying or entirely eliminating structures . for example , their chitinous exoskeleton constrains their morphology at both ends of the size spectrum . in exchange for smaller size , microinsects give up the thicker protection enjoyed by larger insects . the exoskeleton also becomes less complex and articulate , and the fusion of elements and segments makes the insect less flexible than its larger relatives .\nperhaps the most dramatic consequences of miniaturization occur in the nervous system . when forced to fit into such a tiny volume , neurons are reduced in both size and number and must pack together more tightly . the result ? greater noise and interference with the transmission of signals between cells . this also creates an exceptionally dense demand for energy , while leaving less room in each nerve cell for mitochondria , the intracellular structures that provide that energy . microinsects try to get around these handicaps by expanding and contorting their nerves to fit every nook and cranny , but this comes at the expense of other organ systems .\nof course , the reproductive system gets top priority . while everything else dwindles , gonads must remain disproportionately large to maintain their function . in particular , females devote a significant portion of their body size to producing a large enough egg for viable offspring . some species of microinsects even produce sperm that are longer than the male\u2019s entire body .\nbased on these observations , the miniaturization of insects is likely limited by the space required for the most crucial structures in the nervous and reproductive systems . while smaller size certainly gives these insects great advantages in conserving energy and avoiding predators , it also comes with a host of complications . like many things in life , it looks like moderation is key .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !"]}
{"id": 954, "summary": [{"text": "argonauta argo , also known as the greater argonaut , is a species of pelagic octopus belonging to the genus argonauta .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the female of the species , like all argonauts , creates a paper-thin eggcase that coils around the octopus much like the way a nautilus lives in its shell , hence the name paper nautilus .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the chinese name for this species translates as \" white sea-horse 's nest \" .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "a. argo was the first argonaut species to be described and is consequently the type species of the genus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "a. argo is the largest species in the genus and also produces the largest eggcase .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "live animals have a characteristic blue sheen on the first arm pair and around the eyes .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the eggcase is characterised by two rows of small , sharp tubercles running along a narrow keel , smooth ribs across the walls of the shell , and a thickening along the shell aperture , which forms distinct protrusions or ' horns ' on either side .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "argonauta cygnus monterosato , 1889 was described based on a shell which lacked these protrusions , although it is now considered a junior synonym of a. argo .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the greatest recorded size of an a. argo eggcase is 300.0 mm .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "a. argo is cosmopolitan , occurring in tropical and subtropical waters worldwide .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "a dwarf form exists in the mediterranean sea , which was described as argonauta argo mediterranea monterosato , 1914 , although this taxon is now regarded as invalid .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "a. argo is thought to feed primarily on pelagic molluscs .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the species is preyed on by numerous predators .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it has been reported in the stomach contents of alepisaurus ferox from the south-western pacific .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "males of this species reach sexual maturity at a mantle length ( ml ) of 8 mm .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "females mature at about double the size of argonauta bottgeri and argonauta hians .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "they begin to secrete an eggcase at 6.5 \u2013 7 mm ml .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "eggs are usually laid when females reach 14 \u2013 15 mm ml , although the size at which this takes place differs across the animal 's range .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "a small a. argo residing in an 88 mm long eggcase was estimated to be carrying 48,800 embryos .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "females grow to 100 mm ml , while males do not exceed 20 mm ml .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "in the open ocean , a. argo has been observed attached to jellyfish .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "this behaviour has been known for a long time , although little was understood about the relationship prior to the work of heeger et al. in 1992 .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "in \" predation on jellyfish by the cephalopod argonauta argo \" , heeger et al. describe their observations of a female a. argo found atop a host jellyfish .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "the argonaut was seen holding on to the aboral ( exumbrellar ) surface of the jellyfish using its lateral and ventral arms .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the authors found that about half of the animal 's aboral surface was damaged and large pieces of mesoglea were missing , presumably removed by the argonaut .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "additionally , two holes , apparently bite marks , were found in the center of this area with channels leading from these holes into the gastral cavity of the jellyfish .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the argonaut presumably used these channels to suck food particles from the gastral cavity .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "heeger et al. suggested that \" the association provided shelter or camouflage for the argonaut \" .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "observations of captive a. argo females suggest that the expanded webs of the dorsal arms may aid the animal in feeding .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "mark norman mentions that \" when food was touched against the spread webs , an arm shot out of the shell in a sweeping action , grabbing the prey \" .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is speculated that argonauts do not actively hunt , but employ this method to catch animals that bump into them in the open ocean .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "a. argo is occasionally involved in mass strandings along the south african and southern australian coastlines .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the strandings are seasonal and generally occur between april and august , towards the end of the animals ' spawning season .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "a damaged beak of a female a. argo ( ml = 40.0 mm ; caught at 20 \u00b0 56 \u2032 n 175 \u00b0 33 \u2032 w ) , measuring 4.30 mm in hood length and 7.80 mm in crest length , is mentioned in a handbook for the identification of cephalopod beaks .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the type specimen of a. argo was collected in the mediterranean sea and is deposited at the linnean society of london . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "argonauta argo", "paragraphs": ["forma argonauta argo f . agglutinans martens , 1867 accepted as argonauta argo linnaeus , 1758\nforma argonauta argo f . aurita martens , 1867 accepted as argonauta argo linnaeus , 1758\nforma argonauta argo f . mediterranea monterosato , 1914 accepted as argonauta argo linnaeus , 1758\nforma argonauta argo f . obtusangula martens , 1867 accepted as argonauta argo linnaeus , 1758\nvariety argonauta argo var . americana dall , 1889 accepted as argonauta argo linnaeus , 1758\nfigure . two views of argonauta argo atop the jellyfish , phyllorhiza punctata . photographs copyright \u00a9 , thomas heeger , university of san carlos , philippines .\nfigure . hectocotylus of argonauta argo . top - oral view . middle - aboral view . bottom - side view . drawings from naef , 1921 - 3 .\nfigure . left - lateral view of an argonauta argo shell , hawaii . photograph by r . young ) . right - a collection of argonauta nodosa shells from a swarm that washed ashore , australia . photograph by mark norman .\nto cite this page : virden , t . 1999 .\nargonauta argo\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nheeger , t . , u . piatkowski and h . m\u00f6ller . 1992 . predation on jellyfish by the cephalopod argonauta argo . marine ecology progress series 88 : 293 - 296 .\nfigure . view of a portion of the radula of a . argo . drawing from naef ( 1921 - 1923 ) .\nokutani , t . and t . kawaguchi . 1983 . a mass occurrence of argonauta argo ( cephalopoda : octopoda ) along the coast of shimane prefecture , western japan sea . venus 41 : 281 - 290 .\nfigure . side - oblique views of an argonauta argo , photographed in a ship - board aquarium . left - arm i web expanded over shell . right - arm i web retracted . photographs by m . vecchione .\n( of argonauta argo f . obtusangula martens , 1867 ) finn j . k . ( 2013 ) taxonomy and biology of the argonauts ( cephalopoda : argonautidae ) with particular reference to australian material . molluscan research 33 ( 3 ) : 143 - 222 . [ details ]\n( of argonauta argo f . aurita martens , 1867 ) finn j . k . ( 2013 ) taxonomy and biology of the argonauts ( cephalopoda : argonautidae ) with particular reference to australian material . molluscan research 33 ( 3 ) : 143 - 222 . [ details ]\n( of argonauta argo f . agglutinans martens , 1867 ) finn j . k . ( 2013 ) taxonomy and biology of the argonauts ( cephalopoda : argonautidae ) with particular reference to australian material . molluscan research 33 ( 3 ) : 143 - 222 . [ details ]\n( of argonauta argo var . americana dall , 1889 ) finn j . k . ( 2013 ) taxonomy and biology of the argonauts ( cephalopoda : argonautidae ) with particular reference to australian material . molluscan research 33 ( 3 ) : 143 - 222 . [ details ]\n( of argonauta argo f . mediterranea monterosato , 1914 ) finn j . k . ( 2013 ) taxonomy and biology of the argonauts ( cephalopoda : argonautidae ) with particular reference to australian material . molluscan research 33 ( 3 ) : 143 - 222 . [ details ]\n( of argonauta ferussaci monterosato , 1914 ) monterosato t . a . ( di ) ( 1914 ( 30 giugno ) ) . sur les argonauta de la m\u00e9diterran\u00e9e . journal de conchyliologie 61 ( 4 ) : 385 - 390 , tabs . x - x3 [ details ]\n( of argonauta corrugata humphrey , 1797 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of argonauta haustrum wood , 1811 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of argonauta papyria conrad , 1854 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of argonauta monterosatoi coen , 1915 ) coen g . ( 1915 ) . delle forme adriatiche di argonauta ed in particolare dell ' a . monterosatoi n . sp . . annali del museo civico di storia naturale di genova ( 3 ) 6 ( 46 ) : 261 - 275 , pl . 5 [ details ]\nfigure . lateral view of a juvenile female ( 6 . 5 mm ml ) argonauta hians showing the web on arms i , equatorial south atlantic . drawing from chun , 1910 .\nfigure . side and ventral views of the funnel and mantle locking - apparatus of argonauta hians , juvenile male , 5 . 0 mm ml , equatorial south atlantic . drawing from chun , 1910 .\nfigures . lateral and oral views of male argonauts . left , center - a 5 mm ml , apparently immature , male argonauta hians from the equatorial south atlantic . drawings from chun , 1910 . in oral view the male looks like a 7 - arm octopus . right - a male argonauta nodosa , off australia , with the hectocotylus in a much larger sac is apparently mature . photograph by mandy reid ; provided by mark norman .\n( of argonauta minor risso , 1854 ) finn j . k . ( 2013 ) taxonomy and biology of the argonauts ( cephalopoda : argonautidae ) with particular reference to australian material . molluscan research 33 ( 3 ) : 143 - 222 . [ details ]\n( of argonauta ferussaci monterosato , 1914 ) finn j . k . ( 2013 ) taxonomy and biology of the argonauts ( cephalopoda : argonautidae ) with particular reference to australian material . molluscan research 33 ( 3 ) : 143 - 222 . [ details ]\n( of argonauta monterosatoi monterosato , 1914 ) finn j . k . ( 2013 ) taxonomy and biology of the argonauts ( cephalopoda : argonautidae ) with particular reference to australian material . molluscan research 33 ( 3 ) : 143 - 222 . [ details ]\n( of argonauta cygnus monterosato , 1889 ) finn j . k . ( 2013 ) taxonomy and biology of the argonauts ( cephalopoda : argonautidae ) with particular reference to australian material . molluscan research 33 ( 3 ) : 143 - 222 . [ details ]\n( of argonauta pacificus dall , 1871 ) finn j . k . ( 2013 ) taxonomy and biology of the argonauts ( cephalopoda : argonautidae ) with particular reference to australian material . molluscan research 33 ( 3 ) : 143 - 222 . [ details ]\n( of argonauta corrugatus humphrey , 1797 ) finn j . k . ( 2013 ) taxonomy and biology of the argonauts ( cephalopoda : argonautidae ) with particular reference to australian material . molluscan research 33 ( 3 ) : 143 - 222 . [ details ]\n( of argonauta papyraceus r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) finn j . k . ( 2013 ) taxonomy and biology of the argonauts ( cephalopoda : argonautidae ) with particular reference to australian material . molluscan research 33 ( 3 ) : 143 - 222 . [ details ]\n( of argonauta sulcatus lamarck , 1801 ) finn j . k . ( 2013 ) taxonomy and biology of the argonauts ( cephalopoda : argonautidae ) with particular reference to australian material . molluscan research 33 ( 3 ) : 143 - 222 . [ details ]\n( of argonauta grandiformis perry , 1811 ) finn j . k . ( 2013 ) taxonomy and biology of the argonauts ( cephalopoda : argonautidae ) with particular reference to australian material . molluscan research 33 ( 3 ) : 143 - 222 . [ details ]\n( of argonauta haustrum dillwyn , 1817 ) finn j . k . ( 2013 ) taxonomy and biology of the argonauts ( cephalopoda : argonautidae ) with particular reference to australian material . molluscan research 33 ( 3 ) : 143 - 222 . [ details ]\n( of argonauta monterosatoi coen , 1915 ) finn j . k . ( 2013 ) taxonomy and biology of the argonauts ( cephalopoda : argonautidae ) with particular reference to australian material . molluscan research 33 ( 3 ) : 143 - 222 . [ details ]\n( of argonauta dispar conrad , 1854 ) finn j . k . ( 2013 ) taxonomy and biology of the argonauts ( cephalopoda : argonautidae ) with particular reference to australian material . molluscan research 33 ( 3 ) : 143 - 222 . [ details ]\n( of argonauta compressus blainville , 1826 ) finn j . k . ( 2013 ) taxonomy and biology of the argonauts ( cephalopoda : argonautidae ) with particular reference to australian material . molluscan research 33 ( 3 ) : 143 - 222 . [ details ]\n( of argonauta papyrius conrad , 1854 ) finn j . k . ( 2013 ) taxonomy and biology of the argonauts ( cephalopoda : argonautidae ) with particular reference to australian material . molluscan research 33 ( 3 ) : 143 - 222 . [ details ]\n( of argonauta naviformis conrad , 1854 ) finn j . k . ( 2013 ) taxonomy and biology of the argonauts ( cephalopoda : argonautidae ) with particular reference to australian material . molluscan research 33 ( 3 ) : 143 - 222 . [ details ]\n( of argonauta bulleri kirk , 1886 ) finn j . k . ( 2013 ) taxonomy and biology of the argonauts ( cephalopoda : argonautidae ) with particular reference to australian material . molluscan research 33 ( 3 ) : 143 - 222 . [ details ]\n( of argonauta sebae monterosato , 1914 ) finn j . k . ( 2013 ) taxonomy and biology of the argonauts ( cephalopoda : argonautidae ) with particular reference to australian material . molluscan research 33 ( 3 ) : 143 - 222 . [ details ]\nbanas , p . t . , d . e . smith and d . c . biggs . 1982 . an association between a pelagic octopod , argonauta sp . linnaeus 1758 , and aggregate salps . fish . bull . u . s . 80 : 648 - 650 .\nembryonic development begins in the oviducts . older embryos are attached to the inner region of the shell where they are brooded . the elongate egg stalks ( extensions of the egg chorion ) are woven together and attached to the shell apex on its inner surface . a female a . argo with a shell length of 88 mm was estimated to be carrying 48 , 800 embryos ( okutani and kawaguchi , 1983 ) . the eggs are very small ( 0 . 6 - 1 . 0 mm ) . spawning is intermittent , and the brooding embryos can be seen to be in different stages of development .\nfigure . side view of argonauta sp . , showing the expansion of the web ( web presence indicated by their chromatophores ) of the first arm , past the horn of the shell and over most of the shell surface , gulf of aqaba , red sea . photograph of living argonaut by shai enbinder ; provided by nadav shashar .\n( of argonauta cygnus monterosato , 1889 ) monterosato t . a . ( di ) ( 1889 ( 1 gennaio ) ) . coquilles marines marocaines . journal de conchyliologie 37 ( 1 ) : 20 - 40 ; 37 ( 2 ) : 112 - 121 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 120 [ details ]\n( of argonauta cygnus monterosato , 1889 ) gofas , s . ; afonso , j . p . ; brand\u00e0o , m . ( ed . ) . ( s . a . ) . conchas e moluscos de angola = coquillages et mollusques d ' angola . [ shells and molluscs of angola ] . universidade agostinho / elf aquitaine angola : angola . 140 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of argonauta minor risso , 1854 ) adam , w . ( 1942 ) . notes sur les c\u00e9phalopodes : 21 . a propos d ' une publication peu connue de a . risso 1854 [ notes on the cephalopods : 21 . on a hardly known publication from a . risso 1854 ] . bull . mus . royal d ' hist . nat . belg . / med . kon . natuurhist . mus . belg . 18 ( 25 ) : 1 - 36 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nargonauts are pelagic in tropical and subtropical surface waters of all oceans and seas . sometimes they are found in large swarms , but only rarely are they encountered nearshore . in the open ocean they are commonly found attached to jellyfish ( david , 1965 ) . while this unusual association between argonauta spp . and jellyfish has long been known ( kramp , 1956 ; david , 1965 ) it was uninvestigated prior to the work of heeger et al . ( 1992 ) . the latter authors describe argonauta astride the aboral ( = exumbrellar ) surface of a swimming jellyfish that it held with its lateral and ventral arms . upon examination of the jellyfish they found about half of its aboral surface was damaged and large pieces of mesoglea were missing . two holes , apparently bite marks were found in the center of this area and channels led from these holes into the gastral cavity of the jellyfish . they presumed the octopod used these channels to suck particles ( food ) from the gastral cavity . they also suggest that the association provided shelter or camouflage for the argonaut .\nthe female lives in a thin , calcareous , laterally compressed shell secreted by its dorsal arms . the shell is paper - thin and the animal is commonly called the\npaper nautilus .\nthe latter part of the name comes from similarly - shaped shell of nautilus . the shell of the pearly nautilus , however , is the true cephalopod shell ( i . e . , the homologue of the molluscan shell ) and not a unique evolutionary innovation like the\nshell\nof argonauta ( naef , 1921 - 23 ) .\n( of argonauta cygnus monterosato , 1889 ) finn j . k . ( 2014 ) . family argonautidae . pp . 228 - 237 , in p . jereb , c . f . e . roper , m . d . norman & j . k . finn eds . cephalopods of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of cephalopod species known to date . volume 3 . octopods and vampire squids . fao species catalogue for fishery purposes [ rome , fao ] . 4 ( 3 ) : 353 pp . 11 pls . page ( s ) : 230 [ details ]\n( of argonauta pacificus dall , 1871 ) finn j . k . ( 2014 ) . family argonautidae . pp . 228 - 237 , in p . jereb , c . f . e . roper , m . d . norman & j . k . finn eds . cephalopods of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of cephalopod species known to date . volume 3 . octopods and vampire squids . fao species catalogue for fishery purposes [ rome , fao ] . 4 ( 3 ) : 353 pp . 11 pls . page ( s ) : 230 [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nhave been described . a full list is given by mangold , vecchione and young ( 2008 ) . taxonomic work on this genus is required , but\nis undoubtedly a good species and is the type species of the genus . we treat\nhas been assessed as least concern because , although little is known about this species , its wide distribution , oceanic lifestyle and low interest to fisheries suggest that it is not threatened .\nthis species is found in surface tropical and subtropical waters of the world ' s oceans . in the atlantic , it extends north to cape cod in the west and portugal in the east and south to brazil in the west and southern africa in the east . it also occurs in the mediterranean sea . in the pacific , its northern limits appear to be california in the east and southern hokkaido in the west . it extends southwards to subtropical waters around australia and new zealand . it is found throughout the indo - west pacific ( nesis 1987 , norman 2000 ) .\nalbania ; algeria ; american samoa ; angola ; anguilla ; antigua and barbuda ; aruba ; australia ; bahamas ; bangladesh ; barbados ; belize ; benin ; bermuda ; bonaire , sint eustatius and saba ; bosnia and herzegovina ; brazil ; british indian ocean territory ; brunei darussalam ; cambodia ; cameroon ; cape verde ; cayman islands ; china ; christmas island ; cocos ( keeling ) islands ; colombia ; comoros ; congo ; congo , the democratic republic of the ; cook islands ; costa rica ; c\u00f4te d ' ivoire ; croatia ; cuba ; cura\u00e7ao ; disputed territory ; djibouti ; dominica ; dominican republic ; ecuador ; egypt ; el salvador ; equatorial guinea ; eritrea ; fiji ; french guiana ; french polynesia ; gabon ; gambia ; ghana ; gibraltar ; greece ; grenada ; guadeloupe ; guam ; guatemala ; guinea ; guinea - bissau ; guyana ; haiti ; honduras ; hong kong ; india ; indonesia ; iran , islamic republic of ; iraq ; italy ; jamaica ; japan ; kenya ; kiribati ; korea , democratic people ' s republic of ; korea , republic of ; kuwait ; liberia ; libya ; macao ; madagascar ; malaysia ; maldives ; malta ; marshall islands ; martinique ; mauritius ; mayotte ; mexico ; micronesia , federated states of ; monaco ; montenegro ; montserrat ; morocco ; mozambique ; myanmar ; namibia ; nauru ; new caledonia ; new zealand ; nicaragua ; nigeria ; niue ; norfolk island ; northern mariana islands ; oman ; pakistan ; palau ; panama ; papua new guinea ; peru ; philippines ; pitcairn ; portugal ; puerto rico ; qatar ; r\u00e9union ; russian federation ; saint barth\u00e9lemy ; saint helena , ascension and tristan da cunha ; saint kitts and nevis ; saint lucia ; saint martin ( french part ) ; saint vincent and the grenadines ; samoa ; san marino ; sao tom\u00e9 and principe ; saudi arabia ; senegal ; seychelles ; sierra leone ; singapore ; sint maarten ( dutch part ) ; solomon islands ; somalia ; south africa ; spain ; sri lanka ; sudan ; suriname ; taiwan , province of china ; tanzania , united republic of ; thailand ; timor - leste ; togo ; tokelau ; tonga ; trinidad and tobago ; tunisia ; turks and caicos islands ; tuvalu ; united arab emirates ; united states ; united states minor outlying islands ; vanuatu ; venezuela , bolivarian republic of ; viet nam ; virgin islands , british ; virgin islands , u . s . ; wallis and futuna ; western sahara ; yemen\nfemale argonauts secrete a shell using glands on their dorsal arms into which they lay their eggs . they produce the shell early in life ( before maturation ) and use it as a home . males are dwarf and have been reported living within salps ( banas et al . 1982 ) . they have a modified third arm which detaches during mating and carries the spermatophores to the females . female argonauts are often found associated with jellyfish , which they use as a source of food and possibly as camouflage ( heeger et al . 1992 ) . eggs are small ( 50 , 000 ) and are brooded in the shell until they hatch ( laptikhovsky and salman 2003 ) . up to five developmental stages can be present in one shell , which is neutrally buoyant due to the female trapping air at the surface ( jereb et al . 2014 ) . the species is assumed to be semelparous and likely has a lifespan of around one year as is common for other cephalopod species . females probably spawn continuously releasing a batch of around 2 , 000 - 4 , 000 eggs per day over a period of a month or more ( laptikhovsky and salman 2003 ) .\nthe shells are of interest to the shell trade and the flesh is edible . this species is of limited interest to fisheries but is reported occasionally in indian , japanese and taiwanese ( jereb et al . 2014 ) markets , occasionally with landings of several hundred kilograms ( de bruin et al . 1995 ) . jereb et al . ( 2014 ) state that between the 17th of june and 3rd of july 1982 , around 6 , 300 females were caught in the sea of japan .\nthere is a potential threat from the shell trade , but mostly trade appears to be of shells that wash up on shores so this cannot be considered a current threat .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nyes , it ' s a cephalopod ! this squid and other cephalopods are featured in the cephalopod pages maintained at the national museum of natural history , department of invertebrate zoology ! see the following links for more information on cephalopods .\ncephalopods in action . this is a multimedia appendix to published papers , that features video clips of cephalopods filmed from submersibles . included are :\nthe list of species featured in the videos , arranged as a taxonomic list , only relevant taxa included .\nintroducing an interactive key to the families of the decapodiformes . try this , it ' s exciting !\nexpedition journals from the search for the giant squid off new zealand , 1999 .\nthis page was created by jim felley , mike vecchione , clyde roper , mike sweeney , and tyler christensen . if you have questions or comments , contact mike vecchione .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nkatharina m . mangold ( 1922 - 2003 ) , michael vecchione , and richard e . young\nthe family contains at least four species ( nesis , 1982 / 7 ) .\nargonauts are muscular , pelagic octopods . females secrete a thin calcareous\nshell\nin which they reside . shells may reach a length of 30 cm ( nesis , 1982 ) . the dorsal arms of females are modified with large , flag - like membranes that expand over the shell and are responsible for the secretion of the shell . eyes are very large and webs very small . the mantle - funnel locking apparatus consists of knob - like cartilages ( mantle ) and matching depressions ( funnel ) . males are dwarfs .\nfemales with distal flag - like expansion of the web of the dorsal arms that contain shell - secreting glands .\npresence of external\nshell\nin females secreted by the dorsal arms . the true molluscan shell ( i . e . , stylets in most incirrates ) is absent .\na list of all nominal genera and species in the argonautidae can be found here . the list includes the current status and type species of all genera , and the current status , type repository and type locality of all species and all pertinent references .\nan unusual feature of argonauts is the secreted shell that functions as a brood chamber . the\nshell\nis not homologous with the true molluscan shell as evidenced by its unique site of formation : the dorsal arms of the female rather than the internal shell sac as in other coleoids . naef ( 1921 / 3 ) noted the remarkable resemblance of the argonaut shell to the shells of some of the abundant cretaceous ammonoids and suggested that the argonaut shell evolved in the following way : ancestral argonauts occupied empty ammonoid shells during the late cretaceous . [ occupancy of molluscan shells by octopodids is common in the present day . ] the octopod evolved glandular structures on the arms to repair the shell of the ammonoids after the latter had become extinct at the end of the cretaceous . eventually , the ammonoid shell was completely replaced by a secreted structure whose shape had been evolutionarily molded by the ammonoid shell . however , as pointed out by young et al . ( 1998 ) , a gap of about 40 million years exists between extinction of ammonoids and the earliest fossil record of an argonaut , and they suggest that the mold for the shell was from some other type of mollusc and that the resemblance to ammonoids is coincidental . the origin of the argonaut shell is a challenging problem and has important implications for understanding the relationships amoung groups of the argonautoidea ( young , et al . , 1998 ) .\nthe male argonaut is a dwarf , about 10 % of the length of the female . the entire third right arm is hectocotylized and carried in a special sac . at mating , the hectocotylus , which carries one large spermatophore , breaks out of its sac and then from the male body . the free hectocotylus invades , or is deposited in , the female ' s mantle cavity , where it remains viable and active for some time . the hectocotylus was first described as a worm parasitic on the female ( delle chiaje , 1825 ) .\nthe argonaut paralarva has a distinctive appearance as seen in the photo . the arms are very short and equal in length and are surrounded in their proximal half by a membranous collar or cuff ( barely recognizable in the photograph ) formed by the interbrachial membrane . the latter feature is found also in tremoctopus hatchlings . the life - span is unknown .\n- ventrolateral view captured in a plankton tow , hawaii . photograph by r . young .\n- side view . drawing from naef ( 1921 - 230 . note the lock and pit of the funnel / mantle locking - apparatus at the bottom of the photograph and drawing .\nmales have been reported living within salps ( banas et al . , 1982 ) .\nchun , c . 1910 . die cephalopoden . oegopsida . wissenschaftliche ergebnisse der deutschen tiefsee expedition auf dem dampfer\nvaldivia\n1898 - 1899 , 18 ( 1 ) : 1 - 401 .\ndavid , p . m . 1965 . the surface fauna of the ocean . endeavour ( oxf . ) 24 : 95 - 100 ) .\ndelle chiaje , s . 1825 . memorie sulla storia e notomia degli animali . senza verlebre del regno di napoli . i .\nkramp , p . l . 1956 . pelagic fauna . p . 65 - 86 . in : ( a . bruun , sv . greve , h . mielche and r . sp\u00e4rck , eds . ) the galathea deep sea expedition 1950 - 1952 .\nnaef , a . 1921 / 23 . cephalopoda . fauna und flora des golfes von neapel . monograph , no . 35 .\nnesis , k . n . 1982 / 7 . abridged key to the cephalopod mollusks of the world ' s ocean . 385 , ii pp . light and food industry publishing house , moscow . ( in russian . ) . translated into english by b . s . levitov , ed . by l . a . burgess ( 1987 ) , cephalopods of the world . t . f . h . publications , neptune city , nj , 351pp .\nyoung , r . e . , m . vecchione and d . donovan . 1998 the evolution of coleoid cephalopods and their present biodiversity and ecology . south african jour . mar . sci . . , 20 : 393 - 420 .\npage copyright \u00a9 2016 katharina m . mangold ( 1922 - 2003 ) , , and\n. note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own license , and they may or may not be available for reuse . click on an image or a media link to access the media data window , which provides the relevant licensing information . for the general terms and conditions of tol material reuse and redistribution , please see the\nmangold ( 1922 - 2003 ) , katharina m . , michael vecchione , and richard e . young . 2016 . argonautidae\neach tol branch page provides a synopsis of the characteristics of a group of organisms representing a branch of the tree of life . the major distinction between a branch and a leaf of the tree of life is that each branch can be further subdivided into descendent branches , that is , subgroups representing distinct genetic lineages .\nfor a more detailed explanation of the different tol page types , have a look at the structure of the tree of life page .\ntree of life design and icons copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2004 tree of life project . all rights reserved .\nlinnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . laurentius salvius : holmiae . ii , 824 pp . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 708 [ details ]\ndescription mantle globular , as wide as long ; surface of mantle , head , arms , and web covered with conspicuous , closely - set , large , . . .\ndescription mantle globular , as wide as long ; surface of mantle , head , arms , and web covered with conspicuous , closely - set , large , stellate tubercles ; a narrow , tuberculate , fold of skin encircles the lateral surface of the mantle ; funnel organ , 4 separate longitudinal pads . [ details ]\n( of ocythoe antiquorum leach , 1817 ) leach w . e . ( 1817 ) . synopsis of the orders , families and genera of the class cephalopoda . the zoological miscellany ; being descriptions of new or interesting animals . 3 ( 30 ) : 137 - 141 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 139 [ details ]\nfinn j . k . ( 2013 ) taxonomy and biology of the argonauts ( cephalopoda : argonautidae ) with particular reference to australian material . molluscan research 33 ( 3 ) : 143 - 222 . [ details ]\nfinn j . k . ( 2014 ) . family argonautidae . pp . 228 - 237 , in p . jereb , c . f . e . roper , m . d . norman & j . k . finn eds . cephalopods of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of cephalopod species known to date . volume 3 . octopods and vampire squids . fao species catalogue for fishery purposes [ rome , fao ] . 4 ( 3 ) : 353 pp . 11 pls . page ( s ) : 230 [ details ]\nroper , c . f . e . , m . j . sweeney & c . e . nauen ( 1984 ) . fao species catalogue . vol 3 . cephalopods of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of species of interest to fisheries . fao fish . synop . ( 125 ) , vol 3 : 277 p . [ details ]\nbranch , g . m . et al . ( 2002 ) . two oceans . 5th impression . david philip , cate town & johannesburg . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\ngofas , s . ; afonso , j . p . ; brand\u00e0o , m . ( ed . ) . ( s . a . ) . conchas e moluscos de angola = coquillages et mollusques d ' angola . [ shells and molluscs of angola ] . universidade agostinho / elf aquitaine angola : angola . 140 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nspencer , h . g . , marshall , b . a . & willan , r . c . ( 2009 ) . checklist of new zealand living mollusca . pp 196 - 219 . in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) new zealand inventory of biodiversity . volume one . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . canterbury university press , christchurch . [ details ]\njudkins , h . l . , m . vecchione , and c . f . e . roper . 2009 . cephalopoda ( mollusca ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 701\u2013709 in felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . [ details ]\nrosenberg , g . 1992 . encyclopedia of seashells . dorset : new york . 224 pp . page ( s ) : 178 [ details ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nlu , c . c . & chung , w . s . ( 2017 ) . guide to the cephalopods of taiwan . national museum of natural science , taichung , taiwan , 560 pp . isbn 978 - 986 - 05 - 2569 - 4 . page ( s ) : 516 [ details ]\n( of ocythoe argonautae cuvier , 1829 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of ocythoe antiquorum leach , 1817 ) finn j . k . ( 2013 ) taxonomy and biology of the argonauts ( cephalopoda : argonautidae ) with particular reference to australian material . molluscan research 33 ( 3 ) : 143 - 222 . [ details ]\ngleadall , i . g . ( 1997 ) . hong kong cephalopada : a brief review of current knowledge and identification of specimens collected in 1995 . in : morton b , editor . proceedings of the eighth international marine biological workshop : the marine flora and fauna of hong kong and southern china . the marine flora and fauna of hong kong and southern china iv . hong kong university press , hong kong . 503 - 513 . [ details ]\nto museum of new ze . . . [ hosted externally ; from synonym ]\nlikes to be near the surface of the water . it is an epipelagic oceanic species .\nthe maximum length of shell is 30 cm in females , but only 1 . 5 - 2 cm in males . the shell is coiled and laterally compressed with a narrow keel and numerous sharp nodules . nodules toward the center of the coil are brown , but most of the shell is white .\nthe male uses a specialized arm called a ' hectocotylus ' to fertilize the eggs . the hectocotylus is inserted into the females pouch and breaks off during mating . the female forms a\nnacelle ,\na thin calcareous shell , with two of her legs ( the others are used for swimming ) . this structure holds the eggs throughout development .\nthe female is up to twenty times larger than the male . normally these animals are solitary .\ncan be found in fish markets in india and japan . the shell is praised by collectors because of its beauty , coloration , sculpture , and fragility .\nthis animal is very common but is rarely spotted by humans . every once and a while many of them may be washed up by a change in currents or chased into shallow waters by predators , allowing people to observe and catch them .\nthe body of water between africa , europe , the southern ocean ( above 60 degrees south latitude ) , and the western hemisphere . it is the second largest ocean in the world after the pacific ocean .\nbody of water between the southern ocean ( above 60 degrees south latitude ) , australia , asia , and the western hemisphere . this is the world ' s largest ocean , covering about 28 % of the world ' s surface .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nstructure produced by the calcium carbonate skeletons of coral polyps ( class anthozoa ) . coral reefs are found in warm , shallow oceans with low nutrient availability . they form the basis for rich communities of other invertebrates , plants , fish , and protists . the polyps live only on the reef surface . because they depend on symbiotic photosynthetic algae , zooxanthellae , they cannot live where light does not penetrate .\nlane , frank . 1960 . kingdom of the octopus . sheridan house , new york .\nroper , c . 1984 . cephalopods of the world . national museum , washington .\nabbot , r . t . 1954 . american seashells . d . van nostrand co . , inc .\ncousteau , jacques . 1973 . octopus and squid . doubleday and co . , new york .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nargonauts occur in all tropical and temperate waters of the world . the exact number of species is not known . four species are currently recognised . the species are mainly distinguished by shell shape .\nby well - developed connective apparatus conspicuous even in larvae . body firm , muscular ,\nlong , 1st much longer than others , 4th and 2nd shorter , 3rd are the shortest . fourth\n10 - 20 % longer than 2nd , 1 . 5 - 2 times the length of 3rd . in maturing and mature females\npresent , photophores absent . twenty eight lamellae per demibranch in females . female builds characteristic thin , fragile calcareous\napprox . 5 - 7 mm ; during subsequent life , beginning from approx . 8 mm ,\nlength . eggs very small ( 0 . 6 - 0 . 8 mm ) , laid and incubated in rear part of\nwall . newborn larvae liberated by female probably every night . female begins to reproduce shortly after building\nand continues to spawn eggs during entire life . males dwarfed , their 3rd left\neverts and becomes much longer than male itself , detaches during mating . part of the\nand remains there ; male dies after mating and is probably devoured by female . up to 3 hectocotyli may be found in one female . color of females purple - blue to wine - red from above , light from below ; extended 1st\nnot numerous ( < 35 ) , set far apart , nodules brown . fourth\nmuch shorter than 2nd - 3rd , length in large females approx . 60 % of 2nd . egg size 0 . 7 - 0 . 8 mm . 20 lamellae per demibranch . a third\nsystema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis .\nsweeney , m . j . and c . f . e . roper / n . a . voss , m . vecchione , r . b . toll and m . j . sweeney , eds .\nsystematics and biogeography of cephalopods . smithsonian contributions to zoology , 586 ( i - ii )\nturgeon , d . d . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , w . k . emerson , w . g . lyons , w . pratt , et al .\nturgeon , d . d . , j . f . quinn , jr . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , f . g . hochberg , w . g . lyons , et al .\ncommon and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks , 2nd ed .\ntaxon validity : [ fide robson ( 1932 : 181 ) ] . repository : ls syntypes . type locality :\npelago , m . indico , mediterrane\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nthis page was last edited on 16 may 2017 , at 00 : 41 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy ."]}
{"id": 960, "summary": [{"text": "a leafhopper is the common name for any species from the family cicadellidae .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "these minute insects , colloquially known as hoppers , are plant feeders that suck plant sap from grass , shrubs , or trees .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "their hind legs are modified for jumping , and are covered with hairs that facilitate the spreading of a secretion over their bodies that acts as a water repellent and carrier of pheromones .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they undergo a partial metamorphosis , and have various host associations , varying from very generalized to very specific .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "some species have a cosmopolitan distribution , or occur throughout the temperate and tropical regions .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "some are pests or vectors of plant viruses and phytoplasmas .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the family is distributed all over the world , and constitutes the second-largest hemipteran family , with at least 20,000 described species .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "they belong to a lineage traditionally treated as infraorder cicadomorpha in the suborder auchenorrhyncha , but as the latter taxon is probably not monophyletic , many modern authors prefer to abolish the auchenorrhyncha and elevate the cicadomorphs to a suborder clypeorrhyncha .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "members of the tribe proconiini of the subfamily cicadellinae are commonly known as sharpshooters . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "leafhopper", "paragraphs": ["the following leafhopper is a very common type of leafhopper known officially as graphocephala coccinea but common names include : \u201ccandy - striped\u201d leafhopper , \u201cred - banded\u201d leafhopper , \u201cscarlet and green\u201d leafhopper and \u201cred and blue\u201d leafhopper . this is a very common type of leafhopper in north and central america .\nadult female wasp , anagrus spp . , is a parasite of leafhopper eggs .\nrelationship of the white apple leafhopper typhlocyba pomaria mcatee and the rose leafhopper edwardsiana rosae ( l . ) , on apple in the hudson valley region of new york\n. general information on leafhopper biology with links to other sites containing more detailed information .\ncontrol of the potato leafhopper ( empoasca mali le b . ) and prevention of \u201chopperburn\u201d\nsystematics of the leafhopper genus draeculacephala ball ( homoptera : cicadellidae ) - bugguide . net\nchecklist of leafhopper species : 1758 - 1955 [ s . h . mckamey ] .\nearly - instar potato leafhopper with piercing - sucking mouthpart , or stylet ( st ) .\nwhen it comes to getting rid of them , it doesn\u2019t matter what type of leafhopper you have , because the remedies will work on all species . if you have leafhopper damage , it means you have some type of leafhopper and the remedies below will get rid of them !\nadult potato leafhopper ; note the six white spots located on top of the head behind the eyes .\nthe leafhopper vectors of phytopathogenic viruses ( homoptera : cicadellidae ) . taxonomy , biology , and virus transmission\nthis page contains general information on leafhopper biology with photos and links to keys and a list of specialists .\nthe white apple leafhopper attacks apple , cherry and prune but has also been found on peach and hawthorn . it does not usually damage pear , although the rose leafhopper has been noted in sizable numbers on this crop .\nnote : there are more leafhopper species worldwide than all species of birds , mammals , reptiles and amphibians combined .\nlate - instar potato leafhopper with wing pads ( wp ) and specialized legs ( sl ) used for jumping .\nthis web site provides general information on leafhopper classification , evolution , behavior , ecology , conservation , and pest status .\nleafhopper offers web based solutions for your business or organisation , including solar , web design and support and it training .\npotato leafhopper resistance in alfalfa : recent improvements , p . 101 . in proceedings , 36th north american alfalfa improvement conference\nleafhoppers are one of the most abundant groups of plant feeding insects in the world with leafhopper and planthopper species outnumbering that of all species of birds , mammals , reptiles , and amphibians combined ! many species are host specific with their names indicating their preferred host ; e . g . rose leafhopper , grape leafhopper , potato leafhopper , etc . leafhoppers are wedge shaped and vary in color depending on species . their name references leafhoppers ' affinity for hopping off of leaf surfaces when disturbed .\nglasshouse leafhopper is a small 3mm long , pale green sap - feeding insect which can jump of leaves and fly short distances .\nsafer\u00ae brand offers a variety of leafhopper control products to help control and eliminate this garden pest and revive your plants . please check out our leafhopper control products for more details about how they work and how , when , and where they should be applied .\nross , h . h . , and cooley , t . a . , 1969 , a new nearctic leafhopper of the genus\nglasshouse leafhopper can cause a pale mottling on the foliage on a wide range of glasshouse and garden plants , including tomato and fuchsia .\nross , h . h . , and hamilton , k . g . a . , 1970 , phylogeny and dispersal of the grassland leafhopper genus\nyoung , d . a . , jr . , and beirne , b . p . , 1958 , a taxonomic revision of the leafhopper genus\nraatikainen , m . , and vasarainen , a . , 1976 , composition , zonation and origin of the leafhopper fauna of oat fields in finland ,\nin kent leafhopper works closely with the kent and medway social enterprise network , kentcan , case kent and the kent equality cohesion council council and many others .\nafter several weeks or months of feeding and several moltings , they will develop into adults . the length of time for development depends upon the species of leafhopper .\nas with other cold - blooded organisms , potato leafhopper development is dependent on environmental temperatures . potato leafhopper development ceases when temperatures drop below a lower developmental threshold of 45\u00b0f ( 7 . 6\u00b0c ) , and the rate begins to decline when temperatures consistently exceed an upper developmental threshold of 86\u00b0f ( 30\u00b0c ; hogg 1985 ) .\ncalled f . whitcombi , the leafhopper was named after the author ' s\nextraordinary\nmentor , colleague and friend , dr . robert whitcomb .\namong many other accomplishments ,\nin the fields of microbiology and ornithology , mr . hicks points to whitcombs '\nmajor contributions\nto leafhopper taxonomy and ecology .\nparasitic wasps lay their eggs inside the leafhopper ' s body eventually killing the host insect . lure parasitic wasps to your garden by planting nectar or pollen producing plants .\nthis is a different type of leafhopper that attacks cannabis plants . although it looks very different , it acts exactly the same and makes the same type of damage .\nwhite apple leafhopper is native to north america and occurs throughout the fruit growing areas of the united states and canada , but its pest status varies from region to region .\nleafhopper directors have a wealth of knowledge and expertise with many years practical experience in setting up and running business and social economy organisations with links to national and regional organisations .\ndietrich , c . h . 1994 . systematics of the leafhopper genus draeculacephala ( homoptera : cicadellidae ) . transactions of the american entomological society 120 : 87 - 112 .\nblocker , h . d . , and reed , r . , 1976 , leafhopper populations of a tallgrass prairie ( homoptera : cicadellidae ) : collecting procedures and population estimates ,\ngenung , w . g . , and mead , f . w . , 1969 , leafhopper populations ( homoptera : cicadellidae ) on five pasture grasses in the florida everglades ,\nglandular - haired alfalfa varieties with > 50 % resistance offer a valuable trait to potato leafhopper ipm programs . it is important to note that although alfalfa varieties bred for resistance to the potato leafhopper no longer demonstrate visual hopperburn , this does not necessarily indicate that there is no yield or quality damage to the alfalfa ( kindler et al . 1973 , shockley et al . 2002 ) . under moderate to heavy potato leafhopper infestations , glandular - haired varieties still benefit from timely scouting and insecticide treatment when leafhopper populations have exceeded thresholds established for susceptible alfalfa varieties . the first crop of seeding - year stands of glandular - haired varieties should be treated for potato leafhopper using the same economic thresholds established for susceptible alfalfa ( lefko et al . 2000b ; tables 1 and 2 ) , although rice et al . ( 1999 ) recommend increased economic thresholds for resistant alfalfa stands in subsequent crops and years .\ninsecticidal soaps ( potassium salts of fatty acids ) penetrate the soft outer shell of the leafhopper , causing its cells to\nleak\nand resulting in the death of the insect .\nleafhoppers are one of the largest families of plant - feeding insects . there are more leafhopper species worldwide than all species of birds , mammals , reptiles , and amphibians combined . leafhoppers feed by sucking the sap of vascular plants , and are found almost anywhere such plants occur , from tropical rainforests , to arctic tundra . several leafhopper species are important agricultural pests .\nleafhopper can customise its support and solution to meet your enterprise ' s needs . whether you are an individual , a small business or a large enterprise we are here to help .\nthe current pest management strategy in alfalfa for the potato leafhopper is to monitor the pest throughout the season with a sweep net and treat with foliar insecticide when economic threshold populations are reached ( degooyer et al . 1998 , cullen et al . 2012 ) . a fully developed integrated pest management ( ipm ) program is composed of multiple strategies for a given pest or pest complex in a cropping system incorporating host plant resistance , biological , cultural , and physical controls when available and chemical control when necessary ( pedigo 1999 ) . several integrated management strategies have been developed for the potato leafhopper in alfalfa . for example , alfalfa cultivars bred for resistance to the potato leafhopper were first available to farmers in 1997 ( miller 1998 ) . despite advances in pest management for potato leafhopper in alfalfa , it continues to be considered the most important economic pest of alfalfa through much of its range . as the market value of alfalfa hay has nearly doubled over the past decade ( gould 2012 ) , the potential for economic loss from potato leafhopper has also increased . thus , a more thorough understanding of potato leafhopper biology and ipm is a timely subject . in this pest profile , we summarize knowledge of potato leafhopper life history , ecology , scouting procedures , and management options in alfalfa .\nnakamura , k . , ito , y . , miyashita , k . , and takai , a . , 1967 , the estimation of population density of the green rice leafhopper ,\nlacewings , lady beetles and parasitic wasps will appear shortly after the leafhoppers invade your garden . they can be purchased at any time during the growing season when a leafhopper infestation is present .\nparasitic wasps and predatory flies can help control leafhoppers . other predators include birds , lizards , spiders and lacewings . these insects are great partners to help control leafhopper infestations in your organic garden .\nmaramorosch , k . ; harris , k . f . ( eds . ) . 1979a . leafhopper vectors and plant disease agents . academic press , new york . xvi + 654 pp .\nyoung , d . a . , jr . 1957c . the leafhopper tribe alebrini ( homoptera : cicadellidae ) . proc . u . s . natl . mus . 107 : 127 277 .\nas well as early identification errors , the relationship between the potato leafhopper and crop damage was originally not well understood . although the effect of potato leafhopper on alfalfa was noted as early as 1907 , plant damage symptoms known as alfalfa \u201cyellows\u201d were initially attributed to abiotic factors such as weather and soil nutrient deficiency . greenhouse experiments at the university of wisconsin agricultural research station confirmed that alfalfa \u201cyellows\u201d was caused by the potato leafhopper ( granovsky 1928 ) . in potatoes , farmers and researchers originally believed that potato leafhoppers were the vector for a pathogen leading to the characteristic yellowing of leaves ( dudley 1920 ) . although closely related to some known insect vectors of phytoplasma infecting agriculturally important plants ( galetto et al . 2011 ) , there are no known records of disease transmission to plants by potato leafhopper .\nthroughout the summer , insect population growth and plant vigor are regulated by abiotic factors such as precipitation and temperature . on moisture - stressed alfalfa , development time of potato leafhopper eggs , nymphs , and adults slows , mortality increases , and fecundity decreases ( hoffman et al . 1990 , 1991 ) . however , hopperburn seems to appear more frequently during summer droughts ( hoffman et al . 1991 ) . this may be due to an additive effect of leafhopper feeding and drought stress on alfalfa ' s physiological response ( schroeder et al . 1988 ) . moreover , drought stress interspersed with bouts of rain throughout the summer may increase potato leafhopper performance , which has been proposed as a theory that could explain discrepancies in leafhopper population growth in field observations versus laboratory studies ( huberty and denno 2004 ) .\nthe potato leafhopper is a polyphagous insect herbivore that can achieve pest status in many agricultural crops throughout the united states . however , it is most frequently a pest of economic concern in alfalfa fields in the midwest and northeast united states . owing to the migratory nature of the potato leafhopper , intensity of infestation cannot be predicted from year to year throughout its geographic range . although models have been developed to aid in predicting development of migrant source populations from southern states ( taylor and shields 1995b ) , these have not been incorporated into management . this lack of incorporation is likely owing to the fact that timing of initial migrant arrivals is not a reliable predictor of infestation or damage severity ( maredia et al . 1998 ) . the most valuable management recommendation is to establish a regular scouting program for the potato leafhopper and to apply foliar insecticides if and when economic threshold populations are found . in addition , in geographic regions that experience economically damaging potato leafhopper populations more consistently , farmers should consider planting leafhopper - resistant alfalfa cultivars .\ngrass intercrop . lamp ( 1991 ) showed that alfalfa\u2013oat mixtures have fewer potato leafhopper adults , both per area as well as per alfalfa stem . several forage grass\u2013alfalfa mixtures have had similar effects on potato leafhopper density . alfalfa stands containing 9 % forage grass , either smooth bromegrass ( bromus inermis leyss ) or orchardgrass ( dactylis glomerata l . ) , had 4\u201337 % reduction in potato leafhopper densities compared with alfalfa monocultures ( roda et al . 1997 ) . degooyer et al . ( 1999 ) similarly observed significantly fewer leafhoppers in alfalfa stands intercropped with smooth bromegrass or orchardgrass compared with alfalfa monocultures . these patterns may be due to higher leafhopper emigration out of plots containing grass ( roda et al . 1997 ) , as well as inability of potato leafhoppers to reproduce on monocots such as grass ( lamp et al . 1994 ) .\nthe white apple leafhopper is the most common leafhopper found on apple in the pacific northwest . until it became a pest of significance in washington in the mid - 1970s , specific control measures were rarely needed . resistance to organophosphates is the most likely cause of increased populations . since about 2000 , it has again become an uncommon pest in most orchards , likely because of the shift away from pesticides toxic to its primary parasite .\ndietrich , c . h . 2004 . phylogeny of the leafhopper subfamily evacanthinae with a review of neotropical species and notes on related groups ( hemiptera : membracoidea : cicadellidae ) . systematic entomology 29 : 455 - 487 .\nif immediate control is necessary , use fast - acting insecticides like pyrethrins or azadirachtin to suppress leafhopper populations . insecticides can offer you immediate control and enough of a knockdown that beneficials may be introduced later for more lasting control .\nthe potato leafhopper is a tiny insect\u2014barely half the size of a grain of rice\u2014with a bright lime green color that helps it blend in against plant leaves . despite its unassuming appearance , this little pest causes big . . .\nheavy potato leafhopper infestations on soybean can lead to plant stunting , smaller seed size , and decreased yield ( yeargan et al . 1994 ) . these negative impacts are more severe on seedling soybeans , whereas larger plants can better tolerate potato leafhopper feeding ( hunt et al . 2000 ) . yield loss from potato leafhopper damage is more severe when the plant is under moisture stress ( yeargan et al . 1994 ) . however , heavy infestations are not common on soybeans ( ogunlana and pedigo 1974 ) , except when nearby alfalfa fields are harvested ( poston and pedigo 1975 ) . economic thresholds for soybeans vary by plant age : early vegetative stages can be treated when there are two leafhoppers per plant , flowering fields can be treated when there is one leafhopper per trifoliate leaf , and while pods are developing , fields should be treated when there are two leafhoppers per trifoliate leaf ( krupke et al . 2013 ) .\nhopperburn is the term used to describe symptoms associated with potato leafhopper feeding injury to host plants . hopperburn symptoms ( fig . 4 ) always include stunted plant growth . in addition , various leaf symptoms include tip - wilting and chlorosis in alfalfa , but leaf curling and marginal necrosis in other host plants , ultimately leading to premature leaf - drop ( backus et al . 2005 ) . theories regarding toxins in saliva have been proposed since the earliest years of potato leafhopper research . however , more recent research has shown that feeding injury is actually caused by varying plant responses to the complicated feeding behaviors of the potato leafhopper ( as well as its relatives in the e . fabae complex ) .\ndietrich , c . h . and d . a . dmitriev . 2007 . revision of the new world leafhopper genus neozygina dietrich & dmitriev ( hemiptera : cicadellidae : typhlocybinae : erythroneurini ) . zootaxa 1475 : 27 - 42 .\nzahniser , j . n . , and dietrich , c . h . 2008 . morphology - based phylogeny of the leafhopper subfamily deltocephalinae and related groups ( hemiptera : cicadellidae ) . systematics and biodiversity 6 : 1 - 24 .\njones , j . r . , and l . l . deitz . 2009a . phylogeny and systematics of the leafhopper subfamily ledrinae ( hemiptera : cicadellidae ) . zootaxa 2186 : [ 1 ] - 120 . [ available online ]\nfoliar insecticides registered for potato leafhopper control on alfalfa are effective against nymphs and adults . pyrethroids are the most commonly recommended and used insecticides for control of potato leafhopper . there are a limited number of insecticide active ingredients in the organophospate chemical class registered for potato leafhopper control in alfalfa . in addition , insecticide premix products are registered that combine two insecticide classes ( e . g . , organophosphate + pyrethroid ; chlorantraniliprole + pyrethroid ; neonicotinoid + pyrethroid ) . because potato leafhopper populations vary from year to year , and field to field , populations within a given year cannot be predicted , and fields must be monitored weekly to accurately determine damage potential before insecticides are applied . other pests and beneficial insects in the alfalfa field should also be considered before application of these broad - spectrum insecticides . for example , insecticides that control potato leafhopper at economic thresholds can also kill beneficial insects such as honey bees . to reduce hazards to honey bees in alfalfa , applicators can notify beekeepers before using insecticides , apply between 4 p . m . and nightfall , when bees are least likely to be foraging , and refrain from spraying alfalfa when in bloom ( cullen et al . 2012 ) .\nnault , l . r . , and bradfute , o . e . , 1979 , com stunt : involvement of a complex of leafhopper - borne pathogens , in : k . maramorosch and k . harris ( eds . ) ,\nobservations regarding alfalfa host plant resistance to potato leafhopper date back to 1928 , when granovsky ( 1928 ) noted that \u201chairier\u201d medicago spp . demonstrated greater tolerance to leafhoppers before exhibiting hopperburn . laboratory studies have shown greater potato leafhopper mortality and reduced reproduction on glandular - haired medicago spp . as well as leafhopper preference for smooth - stem alfalfa varieties in choice tests ( shade et al . 1979 , brewer et al . 1986 , ranger and hower 2002 ) . both physical and chemical traits associated with glandular - haired alfalfa have been reported as resistance mechanisms : entrapment of the first instars in trichome exudates ( ranger and hower 2001 ) and adult settling deterred by compounds in the exudate ( ranger et al . 2004 ) .\ndietrich , c . h . , and d . a . dmitriev . 2003 . reassessment of the leafhopper tribes koebeliini baker and grypotini haupt ( hemiptera : cicadellidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america 96 : 766 - 775 .\ndietrich , c . h . 2004a . phylogeny of the leafhopper subfamily evacanthinae with a review of neotropical species and notes on related groups ( hemiptera : membracoidea : cicadellidae ) . syst . entomol . 29 ( 4 ) : 455 - 487 .\noptimum timing for control of the first generation is when most of the overwintering eggs have hatched but before the majority of the nymphs are in the last two instars , when they are harder to kill . a somewhat arbitrary target timing for this point in the leafhopper ' s phenology is when about 10 % of the population is in the fourth and fifth instars , with 90 % still in the first , second , and third instars . this is usually at or slightly after petal fall . the first cover spray , applied at the standard codling moth timing , will also reduce leafhopper populations somewhat , as will carbaryl when used as a fruit thinning material . in general , however , first cover timing is too late for optimum leafhopper control .\nzahniser , j . n . & dietrich , c . h . ( 2010 ) phylogeny of the leafhopper subfamily deltocephalinae ( hemiptera : cicadellidae ) based on molecular and morphological data with a revised family - group classification . systematic entomology , 35 , 489\u2013511 .\nzahniser , j . n . and dietrich . c . h . 2010 . phylogeny of the leafhopper subfamily deltocephalinae ( hemiptera : cicadellidae ) based on molecular and morphological data with a revised family - group classification . systematic entomology 35 : 489 - 511 .\nviraktamath , c . a . 1998a . a revision of the leafhopper tribe paraboloponini ( hemiptera : cicadellidae : selenocephalinae ) in the indian subcontinent . bull . natur . hist . mus . , entomol . ser . 67 ( 2 ) : 153 - 207 .\nzahniser , j . n . ; dietrich , c . h . 2008a . phylogeny of the leafhopper subfamily deltocephalinae ( insecta : auchenorrhyncha : cicadellidae ) and related subfamilies based on morphology . syst . & biodiv . 6 ( 1 ) : 1 - 24 .\nthis article summarizes the knowledge to date on biology of the potato leafhopper , empoasca fabae ( harris ) , including its distribution , development , migration , agricultural host plants , and mechanics of injury to host plants . damage to alfalfa , potatoes , soybeans , and snap beans , and treatment guidelines , are summarized . particular attention is given to integrated pest management options in alfalfa , the host plant most frequently incurring economically damaging populations of potato leafhopper . alfalfa scouting and economic thresholds are discussed along with cultural controls and host plant resistance .\nalthough pinebarren smokegrass is still relatively well - distributed in the pine barrens , the pine barrens themselves have already been seen to suffer the effects of a warming climate . various human activities could also pose a further threat to the leafhopper ' s host and the its habitat .\ndietrich , c . h . , and d . a . dmitriev . 2006 . review of the new world genera of the leafhopper tribe erythroneurini ( hemiptera : cicadellidae : typhlocybinae ) . bulletin of the illinois natural history survey 37 ( 5 ) : 119 - 190 .\nbecause they drink the juices of fruits and vegetable plantings , they can cause a variety of symptoms and problems . leaves may appear yellowed and curled or have brown tips . using a product like safer\u00ae brand fruit and vegetable insect killer will help you keep your garden leafhopper free !\nthe best way to prevent a leafhopper infestation ( or any bug infestation really ) is to catch them as soon as possible . leafhoppers will suck sap moisture out of cannabis leaves most often when it\u2019s dry , because they get thirsty , so that\u2019s a good time to check .\nchen , f . y . & dai , w . ( 2015 ) bicoloratum dai and li , a new synonym of the leafhopper genus scaphoideus uhler ( hemiptera , cicadellidae , deltocephalinae ) , with description of two new species . zootaxa , 3985 ( 2 ) , 275\u2013283 .\ndietrich , c . h . , r . f . whitcomb , and w . c . black , iv . 1997 . phylogeny of the grassland leafhopper genus flexamia ( homoptera : cicadellidae ) based on mitochondrial dna sequences . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 8 : 139 - 149 .\nnielson , m . w . 1968b . the leafhopper vectors of phytopathogenic viruses ( homoptera : cicadellidae ) : taxonomy biology , and virus transmission . . u . s . dep . agric . tech . bull . 1382 : [ i - ii ] , 1 - 368 .\nnault , l . r . , madden , l . v . , styer , w . e . , triplehorn , b . w . , and heady , s . e . , 1984 , pathogenicity of com stunt spiroplasma and maize bushy stunt mycoplasma to its leafhopper vector ,\nelissa m . chasen , christopher dietrich , elaine a . backus , eileen m . cullen ; potato leafhopper ( hemiptera : cicadellidae ) ecology and integrated pest management focused on alfalfa , journal of integrated pest management , volume 5 , issue 1 , 1 march 2014 , pages a1\u2013a8 , urltoken\nthis key will enable any leafhopper found in australia and neighbouring regions to be identified to subfamily or tribe . checklists of species in each country are provided for each group and identification keys are provided to enable identification to genus for those groups that are sufficiently well known for this to be possible .\nthe wild glandular - haired medicago spp . were integrated into breeding programs that eventually led to the first line of commercially available alfalfa cultivars with host plant resistance in 1997 ( miller 1998 ) . however , in the field , glandular - haired alfalfa cultivars have had varying levels of success . lefko et al . ( 2000b ) found that established stands of resistant alfalfa could tolerate greater than twice the potato leafhopper pressure as established susceptible stands , but this was not the case for the first cutting of seeding - year stands . established resistant stands also had greater yield ( sulc et al . 2001 ) as well as higher forage quality over susceptible cultivars when leafhopper pressure was high ( sulc et al . 2004 ) . however , under low potato leafhopper pressure , resistant alfalfa stands have no yield benefit and sometimes express a yield drag ( hogg et al . 1998 , hansen et al . 2002 ) .\nleafhopper damage is characterized by light - colored speckling on plant leaves caused by the leafhoppers sucking sap and plant juices from within the plant tissue . left unchecked , this gradual feeding reduces the plant ' s vigor over time , browning the leaves . damage caused by leafhoppers is usually not severe enough to seriously harm mature plants ; however , young plants or new growth can be stunted and / or deformed by leafhopper feeding . transmission of disease is a concern with select species of leafhoppers and the honeydew produced by some can aid in the propagation of fungal diseases ; e . g . beet leafhoppers vector curly top virus .\nmckamey , s . h . 2000a [ not dated , with periodic revisions ] . checklist of leafhopper species 1758 - 1955 ( hemiptera : membracoidae : cicadellidae and myserslopiidae ) with synonymy and distribution [ catalogue of the homoptera , fascicle 6 , abridged ] . online : urltoken [ pdf version ] ; urltoken [ html version ] .\nthe potato leafhopper feeds by inserting its piercing - sucking mouth parts ( stylets ; fig . 5 ) into host plant tissues , rupturing and ingesting nutrients from all types of mesophyll , parenchyma , and phloem cells , depending on the host plant ( backus et al . 2005 ) . unlike other leafhoppers , potato leafhoppers do not produce a true salivary sheath that encases the stylets during feeding . instead , the naked stylets repeatedly probe plant tissues , mechanically lacerating cells and simultaneously injecting watery saliva into the tissues . the watery saliva is composed of digestive , hydrolyzing , and cell wall - degrading enzymes , and to date , has not been found to contain any nonenzymatic \u201ctoxin . \u201d instead , hopperburn is caused by a combination of mechanical and salivary mechanisms ( ecale and backus 1995a ) , so it is termed a \u201csaliva - enhanced wound response . \u201d unique to this species of leafhopper , the symptoms of feeding injury on different host plants are related to three different tactics of potato leafhopper stylet probing ( backus et al . 2005 ) .\na survey was conducted in the 2001 growing season to examine the leafhopper diversity and abundance among trees of 17 red maple ( acer rubrum ) clones . yellow sticky traps were used to qualify and quantify the number of aerial leafhoppers from 1 may 2001 until 4 september 2001 . a total of 45 species from eight different leafhopper subfamilies , for a total of 6055 individuals , were considered in this study . the mean number of leafhoppers collected , mean species richness , diversity and evenness were significantly lower on traps of trees for \u2018october glory\u2019 than for the other clones . yet , none of the leafhopper species dominated the weekly samples . species similarity among clones ranged from 56 to 90 % . no two clones had complete similarity . \u2018franksred\u2019 and trees of a controlled cross between \u2018october glory\u2019 \u00d7 \u2018autumn flame\u2019 shared the highest degree of species similarity , while clones from pa , usa and ri , usa were the least similar . the development of new clones did not create new pest problems , but suppressed populations of damaging pests , and maintained the diversity of low abundance species .\nwhitcomb r . f . , kramer j . , coan m . e . , hicks a . l . ( 1987 ) ecology and evolution of leafhopper\u2014grass host relationships in north american grasslands . in : harris k . f . ( eds ) current topics in vector research . current topics in vector research , vol 4 . springer , new york , ny\nactually , it is exactly the ecology factor that could make it or break it for the\ncharismatic\nnew leafhopper . not only is pinebarren smokegrass , which the insect inhabits , a threatened species , but it is known that the rest of the leafhoppers from the genus flexamia , with a few exceptions , are each dependent on a very specific plant .\nscouting for potato leafhoppers in alfalfa is standardized through the use of a 15 - inch - diameter sweep net . university extension recommendations are to monitor alfalfa fields weekly beginning mid - june or when potato leafhopper migrants have arrived in the area by taking five sets of 20 sweeps at various locations in a w - shaped pattern throughout the alfalfa field ( university of wisconsin - extension 2010 ) . adult potato leafhoppers may be found at the bottom of the sweep net , while nymphs can be found along the rim of the sweep net as well as throughout the net ( university of wisconsin - extension 2013 ) . insecticide recommendations are based on the average potato leafhopper number per sweep calculated from total samples taken across the field , including nymphs and adults ( cullen et al . 2012 ) . because taller alfalfa can tolerate more potato leafhopper feeding , established economic thresholds depend on the average height of the alfalfa stand . when scouting for potato leafhoppers , it is important to avoid taking sweep net samples at field edges , as potato leafhopper populations are typically higher along field margins and this is not representative of population density throughout the field ( emmen et al . 2004 ) . it is also important to avoid taking sweep samples while it is raining or when dew is present on the plants , and if possible , avoid sweeping when winds are > 10 miles per hour , as this reduces the sweep net sample efficiency ( cherry et al . 1977 ) .\nleafhopper adults ( 1 / 4 inch long ) are slender , wedge - shaped insects that fly or disperse rapidly when disturbed . depending on species they may be green , brown or yellow in color and often have colorful markings . nymphs do not have wings and are generally lighter in color than adults . both adults and nymphs run sideways and are good jumpers .\nleafhoppers are common and abundant insects worldwide . they are currently placed among two families : myerslopiidae , with only two genera , and the enormous family cicadellidae , which , with more than 22 , 000 described species and 2600 genera , ranks among the 10 largest insect families . phylogenetic analyses suggest that leafhoppers may have given rise to treehoppers , and it seems likely that additional families of leafhoppers will be recognized once the evolutionary relationships are better understood . indeed , a number of previously recognized leafhopper\nfamilies\n( including eurymelidae , hylicidae , ledridae , and ulopidae ) are currently placed within cicadellidae . as noted below , numerous leafhopper species are considered serious plant pests , and those that vector plant diseases inflict untold economic loses in agricultural crops .\nbecause leafhoppers are indirect pests , they should only be controlled when necessary . it is difficult to set treatment thresholds for white apple leafhopper since no fruit size , fruit quality , or return bloom reduction due to leafhopper damage has been observed . other factors must be taken into account when deciding whether control is needed . since the major form of biological control occurs during the egg stage , this mortality is already accounted for when nymphal populations are assessed . if the trees are very young , excessive damage to the relatively small leaf canopy could retard growth . in vigorous , mature trees with a high leaf - to - fruit ratio , moderate to heavy leafhopper damage will probably have little effect . similarly , if the crop is very light , more foliar damage can probably be tolerated than if the crop load is heavy . the potential for drought because of light soils , inadequate irrigation schedules , or extremely hot , dry weather could also serve as a reason to consider controlling leafhoppers or other indirect pests . if substantial foliar damage by mites or leafminers has already been incurred , further damage by leafhoppers should probably be avoided .\ncommon name glasshouse leafhopper scientific name hauptidia maroccana plants affected many glasshouse vegetables and ornamental plants including tomato , peppers , aubergine , cucumber , fuchsia , pelargonium and streptocarpus . outdoor plants , such as polyanthus , foxglove and nicotiana are also attacked main symptoms coarse pale spotting on upper leaf surface . leafhoppers may be seen on the underside of leaves most active april to september but all year round in glasshouses\nandrew hicks from the museum of natural history at the university of colorado and his team discovered a previously unknown leafhopper species in the new jersey pine barrens , located just east of the megalopolis that extends from new york city to washington , dc . this was the first time an insect has been reported from the state - listed threatened pinebarren smokegrass , muhlenbergia torreyana . the study can be found in the open - access journal zookeys .\ndr . jaco le roux hopes to establish the number and identity of the leafhopper species introduced to hawaii so he can assess the threat that it poses to our local flora and fauna . this research effort includes molecular systematics and phylogeography of invasive leafhoppers and those from putative source regions . these data could potentially also assist in identifying native range regions where productive biological control agents are likely to be found , should this prove a viable control option .\nlike other types of foliar damage , that caused by leafhoppers may reduce leaf photosynthesis , which in turn can affect the tree ' s ability to set , size or mature a crop of fruit . however , no effect on fruit size or fruit quality has been found under washington conditions , even when extremely high leafhopper populations were present . in addition , no reduction in return bloom or set was noted following a single season of heavy damage with a peak of 3 nymphs per leaf , although only one cultivar , oregon spur red delicious , has been studied . it is assumed that multiple seasons ' damage could eventually deplete the tree ' s reserves , making effects of feeding damage more apparent , but this has not been studied . as with other indirect pest damage , factors such as tree vigor , tree age , drought stress , and damage by multiple pests could exacerbate the effect of leafhopper damage .\nharvest timing . if economic thresholds are reached within 7 d of a planned harvest , early harvest is advised , rather than an insecticide spray ( undersander et al . 2004 ) . early harvest helps alfalfa stands to avoid further potato leafhopper feeding damage . in addition , potato leafhopper population dynamics can be influenced by harvest operations ( pienkowski and medler 1962 , simonet and pienkowski 1979 , cuperus et al . 1986 ) . cuperus et al . ( 1986 ) showed that greater populations of nymphs and adults were correlated with taller stubble or lodged growth left behind after harvest . cuttings at stubble height of 2\u20135 cm ( 1\u20132 inches ) with no remaining leaves or succulent stems can reduce populations up to 95 % in the next growth cycle ( simonet and pienkowski 1979 ) . these effects are due to high nymph and egg mortality from their lack of mobility and exposure to hot , drying conditions ( simonet and pienkowski 1979 ) and adult dispersal post harvest to neighboring fields ( poston and pedigo 1975 ) .\nthe potato leafhopper ' s diverse host plant list of more than 200 plant species includes alfalfa ( medicago sativa l . ) , soybean ( glycine max l . ) potato ( solanum tuberosum l . ) , and peanut ( arachis hypogaea l . ) , as well as roadside , weedy , and forest plants ( lamp et al . 1994 ) . as the key economic pest of alfalfa in the north central and northeast united states , yield losses have been documented up to $ 66 / ha ( $ 27 / acre ; lamp et al . 1991 ) .\na second parasitoid is a wasp in the family dryinidae ( probably aphelopus sp . ) , which is a parasitoid of both nymphs and adults . it develops internally in leafhopper nymphs , then appears on the adults as a pouch on the abdomen . this parasitoid has been collected from cherry and apple orchards in the mid - columbia area of oregon , although it may be much more widely distributed . while substantial rates of parasitism have been reported , the potential of this parasitoid species as a biological control agent is unknown . despite extensive examination of leafhoppers in washington , this parasitoid species has not been found .\nsnap beans ( phaseolus vulgaris l . ) are regularly infested by potato leafhoppers , and under intense feeding , this can result in complete leaf drop , whereas at moderate pressure , plant stunting and yield loss may occur ( gonzalez and wyman 1991 ) . duration and timing of infestation are important when making management decisions ; infestation on younger plants causes more significant yield loss than the equivalent pressure on older plants ( gonzalez and wyman 1991 ) . economic thresholds for green beans vary by plant age : for seedlings , the threshold is set at 0 . 5 potato leafhoppers per sweep , and for the third trifoliate to bud stage , the threshold is set at one per sweep . for dry beans , the thresholds are 0 . 5 potato leafhoppers per plant at the unifoliate stage and one potato leafhopper per trifoliate leaf once the plants have reached the trifoliate stage ( flood and wyman 2005 ) . neonicitinoid seed treatments are also commercially available and have been largely successful at controlling a suite of snap bean pests , including potato leafhoppers , especially for roughly the first 30 d of plant growth ( nault et al . 2004 ) . however , when potato leafhopper populations are exceptionally high , growers should still be mindful of scouting for economic threshold populations later in the summer .\ninterestingly , the three feeding tactics of e . fabae - complex species are mixed - and - matched on different host plants in relation to the degree of susceptibility or resistance of the plant . some genotypes of resistant snap bean cause less of the most - damaging tactics of feeding ( lacerate - and - flush and lacerate - and - flush ) to be performed , while more of the less - damaging tactic , lance - and - ingest ( serrano et al . 2000 , backus et al . 2005 ) . in addition to genetic mechanisms of resistance or susceptibility , drought or desiccation can enhance hopperburn symptoms because water and carbon transport are impaired after potato leafhopper feeding .\nthe results of studies performed by roda et al . ( 1997 ) and degooyer et al . ( 1999 ) show that potato leafhoppers are typically reduced in alfalfa\u2013grass stands but that is not the case for every harvest . moreover , even when the population is reduced , it is not always reduced below economic threshold , so it is still important to monitor the population and use other management strategies when necessary . there is a great deal of variability in the response of potato leafhopper to the presence of grass in alfalfa stands , in part owing to the relative proportion of grass to alfalfa as well as the spatial arrangement of the grass in the alfalfa stand ( roda et al . 1997 ) .\nmembers of the cicadellidae range in length from 2 to 32 mm and characteristically have four rows of enlarged , spine - like setae on the hind tibia . in this regard , they resemble treehoppers , which have up to three such rows of setae on the hind tibia , but most treehoppers have a posterior pronotal process that is absent in leafhoppers . among all insects , only cicadellids produce minute granules called brochosomes . these intricately shaped structures form in a specialized region of the malpighian tubules . the brochosomes are secreted and applied ( using the legs ) to the body as a hydrophobic coating . this curious anointing behavior is usually observed after each molt . members of the small leafhopper family myerslopiidae are peculiar flightless insects that have leathery forewings and vestigial ocelli .\nwhite apple leafhoppers have piercing - sucking mouthparts and cause damage to leaves by piercing mesophyll cells and removing their contents . the resulting damage appears as a white or yellowish - white stippling of the leaves . leafhopper damage may superficially resemble mite feeding , but the individual spots are usually larger and there is no bronzing . damage can be so extensive that injured leaves appear nearly white . spur leaves in particular can be heavily damaged . initially , feeding tends to be concentrated near the midrib , then eventually covers most of the interveinal spaces of the leaf blade . leafhoppers generally prefer more mature leaves and will not infest shoots tips until the leaves have hardened off . both nymphs and adults feed on leaves , but most damage is probably done by the nymphs .\nestablished economic thresholds are based on research done by cuperus et al . ( 1983 ) . they concluded that treatment was economic when 0 . 15 potato leafhoppers per sweep were present on 2 - inch alfalfa and when 0 . 42 potato leafhoppers per sweep were present on 7 - inch alfalfa . these conclusions have been adapted to current university recommendations of roughly one - tenth of a leafhopper per sweep per inch height of alfalfa growth ( table 1 ; fick et al . 2003 , townsend 2002 , university of wisconsin - extension 2013 ) . some university extension recommendations suggest a dynamic economic threshold based on varying costs of insecticide treatment ( rice et al . 1999 ; table 2 ) or fluctuating alfalfa hay market prices ( danielson and jarvi 2006 ) . under these threshold guidelines , as the treatment cost increases or the alfalfa hay market price decreases , a greater density of potato leafhoppers is required to cause economic yield loss equivalent to the treatment cost , and therefore the threshold is increased . hutchins and pedigo ( 1998 ) calculated economic injury levels for potato leafhopper on alfalfa , with an emphasis on management for nutritional value based on type of animal for which the feed is intended . incorporating variables of insect injury on forage quality characteristics ( hutchins and pedigo 1990 ) and different animal nutrition needs , they determined that the economic injury level is lowest for alfalfa hay intended for sheep or horses , medium for a beef or dairy cows , and highest for beef steer . however , economic thresholds were not calculated based on these economic injury levels , and thresholds based on livestock nutrient needs have not been adopted in practice .\nsecond generation white apple leafhopper populations can greatly exceed the first , often surprising producers and consultants by the size of a late season infestation . adults are quite mobile , and during the first generation flight they can move into and rapidly reinfest a block that was treated for first generation nymphs . if a clean orchard is surrounded by infested ones , then second generation nymphs should be sampled . because of a prolonged egg hatch in the second generation , multiple stages occur at any one time , making control of this generation less likely to be satisfactory than that of the first generation . however , if picker annoyance reduction is the primary concern , then it may be more appropriate to control this generation . insecticide applications should be made before adult populations begin to rise sharply , which usually occurs in mid - to late august .\neach year , the first potato leafhopper populations arriving in the north are largely female - biased ( medler and pienkowski 1966 ) and occur sometime in may ( maredia et al . 1998 ) . arriving females are typically mated ( medler and pienkowski 1966 ) and will oviposit for the duration of their lives ( delong 1938 , decker et al . 1971 ) . field studies indicate a female - biased sex ratio near 4 : 1 through most of the season , until it approaches 1 : 1 toward the end of the growing season ( medler and pienkowski 1966 , decker et al . 1971 , flinn et al . 1990 , emmen et al . 2004 ) . development from egg to adult can occur in as little as just over 2 wk or can take > 4 wk , depending on temperatures , which gives rise to three to five overlapping generations during summer months in the northern united states ( delong 1938 , hogg and hoffman 1989 ) .\nthe primary biological control agent of leafhoppers in the pacific northwest is an egg parasitoid , anagrus sp . ( probably a . epos ) , a mymarid wasp ( see section on anagrus ) . it attacks both overwintering and summer eggs of white apple leafhopper . in overwintering eggs , parasitism levels of up to 25 % have been found in the wenatchee area . the level of parasitism appears to be generally related to the intensity of pesticide use ( primarily that for codling moth ) the previous season , but no single application timing or material has been identified . research in michigan indicates that more than 90 % of the overwintering generation of eggs can be parasitized in unsprayed orchards so broad - spectrum pesticides undoubtedly suppress parasitoid populations . levels of parasitism found in conventionally managed orchards are generally too low to prevent substantial populations from developing . anagrus could potentially play a role in biological control of leafhoppers if broad - spectrum chemicals are reduced or removed from the spray program .\npotato leafhoppers have five nymphal instars ( fig . 1 ) . instars can be distinguished by color , size , and presence of external wing pads . the first instar is pale white with red eyes , and extremely small . subsequent instars gain more of the vibrant yellow - green color typical of adults . wing pads ( fig . 2 ) begin developing in the third instar . sizes of the instars range from 1 mm for first instars to 3 mm ( in length ) for fifth instars ( hutchins 1987 ) . developmental time is more rapid in warmer temperatures and ranges from 9 to 18 d to complete all five instars ( hogg 1985 ) . all nymphal stages resemble the adult body shape in that the head segment is wider than the abdomen , which gives the body a wedge - shaped appearance . potato leafhopper nymphal movement is distinct from adults in that nymphs scuttle sideways . however , both nymphs and adults are able to use specialized legs ( fig . 2 ) for jumping .\non alfalfa , adult potato leafhoppers use the lacerate - and - sip tactic , which is also thought to be the most injurious , mostly on stems and petioles . adults insert their stylets perpendicular to the stem and proceed to arc the stylets back and forth , essentially cutting multiple channels through the vascular bundle ( all types of phloem cells ) for 1\u20132 min before removing the stylets , taking a couple of steps forward and repeating the action . the wounded but still living vascular cells then undergo saliva - enhanced wound responses over the next several days that result in temporary blockage of nutrient movement up the phloem ( nielsen et al . 1990 ) that is ultimately healed , but permanent blockage of xylem cells ( ecale and backus 1995b ) . both types of blockage cause systemic decreases in photosynthesis and decreased transport of sugars to growing areas of the plant , leading to both leaf chlorosis and plant stunting in all host plants ( backus et al . 2005 ) . potato leafhopper nymphs on alfalfa feed on both stems and leaves ; on leaves , their feeding is similar to adult feeding on nonalfalfa host plants ( see later text ) ."]}
{"id": 961, "summary": [{"text": "cosmopterix lienigiella is a moth of the cosmopterigidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found from fennoscandia to spain , the alps and greece and from ireland to ukraine .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it is also present in eastern russia and japan .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it is the type species of the cosmopterix genus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the wingspan is 10 \u2013 13 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on wing from september to april .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on phragmites australis .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they mine the leaves of their host plant .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the mine starts as a gallery , but soon widens to a broad blotch , entirely or partly running upwards , in the end half as wide as the leaf .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "most frass is concentrated in the first section .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "pupation takes place in a cocoon in the top section of the mine . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "cosmopterix lienigiella", "paragraphs": ["cosmopterix lienigiella ( fen cosmet ) - norfolk micro moths - the micro moths of norfolk .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmost habitats where foodplant grows , preference for large reed beds in fresh and brackish water .\nrecorded in 15 ( 22 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1874 . last recorded in 2017 .\nunderlying maps using digital map data \u00a9 norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola\u2122 2018 . \u00a9 james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data \u00a9 nola\u2122 2018\nspecies , which all have variations of blackish , bright orange and silver metallic markings , this species is rather more reserved in coloration , whilst having similar patterning .\nit occurs in southern and south - east england , inhabiting reedbeds , and moths are on the wing between late may and october .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 07 - 05 02 : 44 : 39 page render time : 0 . 2045s total w / procache : 0 . 2525s\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nleaf - miner : makes an elongate mine with frass heaped at the start and then dispersed thoughout . it does not make a silken shelter and so may be seen in the mine ( british leafminers ) .\nat first a gallery , but soon widened to a broad blotch , entirely or partly running upwards , in the end half as wide as the leaf . the mine is widened without consideration for the length veins , making the mine less sharply delineated than in c . scribaiella . most frass in the first section , but higher up still some scattered frass visible . unlike c . scribaiella the larva does not spin a shelter for retreat in the mine ; this makes the larva easily visible in the unopened mine . cocoon in the top section of the mine . the pupa lies head - upwards , just below an opening that has been prepared as an exit for the later moth ( bladmineerders van europa ) .\nlarva : the larvae of moths have a head capsule and chewing mouthparts with opposable mandibles ( see video of a gracillarid larva feeding ) , six thoracic legs and abdominal legs ( see examples ) .\npupa : the pupae of moths have visible head appendages , wings and legs which lie in sheaths ( see examples ) .\nadult : the adult is illustrated in ukmoths by alan drewitt . the species is included in urltoken .\ndistribution in great britain and ireland : britain including cambridgeshire , dorset , east kent , east norfolk , east suffolk , huntingdonshire , isle of wight , north essex , north hampshire , north somerset , south devon , south essex , south hampshire and west norfolk ( nbn atlas ) .\nfound in large reed beds in fresh and brackish water . found in southern england and norfolk and suffolk ( british leafminers ) .\nalso recorded in the republic of ireland ( karsholt and van nieukerken in fauna europaea ) . see also ireland ' s nbdc interactive map .\ndistribution elsewhere : widespread in continental europe including austria , belarus , belgium , bulgaria , czech republic , danish mainland , estonia , finland , french mainland , germany , greek mainland , hungary , latvia , lithuania , norwegian mainland , poland , spanish mainland , sweden , switzerland and the netherlands ( karsholt and van nieukerken in fauna europaea ) .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .\nws : 10 - 13 ; may - oct ; common reed ( phragmites australis ) ; local in se . england from dorset to norfolk\n\u00a71 snettisham , norfolk ; 12 / 06 / 2014 ; male ; fw 6 . 1mm \u00a72 strumpshaw fen , norfolk ; 10 / 07 / 2015 ; male ; fw 6 . 1mm ; to light all images \u00a9 chris lewis\nbl\u00e5 punkter visar fynd registrerade i artportalen och \u00f6vriga databaser anslutna till lifewatch . kan inneh\u00e5lla observationer som inte \u00e4r validerade . kartan uppdateras var fj\u00e4rde vecka .\ni det avancerade verktyget kan man s\u00f6ka ut och f\u00e5 fram artlistor , t ex arter i ett visst l\u00e4n , i en viss biotop , substrat , som p\u00e5verkas av en hotfaktor , eller som \u00e4r knutna till en sk v\u00e4rdart , t ex tr\u00e4det alm . dessa kan \u00e4ven kombineras .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , knutna till alm , \u00e4r beroende av d\u00f6d ved och som finns i kronobergs l\u00e4n .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , lever i sm\u00e5vatten och som p\u00e5verkas negativt av igenv\u00e4xning .\ndefaultl\u00e4get i verktyget \u00e4r arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade 2015 och dessa \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga s\u00f6kfaktorer . under fliken r\u00f6dlistekategori kan man dock v\u00e4lja att \u00e4ven inkludera arter som inte \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade . om man v\u00e4ljer att inkludera icke r\u00f6dlistade arter beh\u00f6ver man vara medveten om att samtliga arter inte \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga faktorer . nedan en sammanst\u00e4llning av vad som \u00e4r komplett .\ndenna funktion anv\u00e4nds n\u00e4r du vill skapa din egen lista av arter att hantera . du kan t . ex . navigera mellan arterna i listan genom att klicka p\u00e5 deras namn . du kan ocks\u00e5 v\u00e4lja att anv\u00e4nda knappen \u201dj\u00e4mf\u00f6r arter\u201d f\u00f6r att se bilder , kartor och k\u00e4nnetecken i en j\u00e4mf\u00f6relsevy .\ndu kan komponera ditt eget urval av arter genom att klicka dig fram via sl\u00e4kttr\u00e4det och d\u00e4r v\u00e4lja arter eller artgrupper till din lista . ett annat s\u00e4tt att g\u00f6ra ditt urval \u00e4r att anv\u00e4nda fliken \u201dfiltrera\u201d , d\u00e4r du kan s\u00f6ka p\u00e5 olika egenskaper . ovanf\u00f6r listan med s\u00f6kresultatet finns en knapp \u201dl\u00e4gg i mitt urval\u201d .\nthe mit license copyright ( c ) 2014 - 2016 google , inc . urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\nthe mit license ( mit ) copyright ( c ) 2011 - 2015 twitter , inc permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright ( c ) 2008 - 2013 sprymedia limited urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright 2008 - 2015 martin wendt , urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright jquery foundation and other contributors , urltoken this software consists of voluntary contributions made by many individuals . for exact contribution history , see the revision history available at urltoken the following license applies to all parts of this software except as documented below : = = = = permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software . = = = = all files located in the node _ modules and external directories are externally maintained libraries used by this software which have their own licenses ; we recommend you read them , as their terms may differ from the terms above .\nthe mit license ( mit ) - urltoken copyright ( c ) steven sanderson , the knockout . js team , and other contributors urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright ( c ) 2009\u20132015 permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright 2005 - 2014 openlayers contributors . all rights reserved . redistribution and use in source and binary forms , with or without modification , are permitted provided that the following conditions are met : 1 . redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice , this list of conditions and the following disclaimer . 2 . redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice , this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and / or other materials provided with the distribution . this software is provided by openlayers contributors ` ` as is ' ' and any express or implied warranties , including , but not limited to , the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose are disclaimed . in no event shall copyright holder or contributors be liable for any direct , indirect , incidental , special , exemplary , or consequential damages ( including , but not limited to , procurement of substitute goods or services ; loss of use , data , or profits ; or business interruption ) however caused and on any theory of liability , whether in contract , strict liability , or tort ( including negligence or otherwise ) arising in any way out of the use of this software , even if advised of the possibility of such damage . the views and conclusions contained in the software and documentation are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as representing official policies , either expressed or implied , of openlayers contributors .\nnote - plants hyperlinked in red below take the visitor to the relevant plant page on\nplants for a future\nwebsite where further information like photos , physical characteristics , habitats , edible uses , medicinal uses , cultivation , propagation , range , height etc . are clearly listed . plant families - in bold red below takes the visitor to the relevant\nlepi - plants\npage where other butterflies & moths using the plants below are listed .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\na rare species in belgium , only known from the provinces of oost - vlaanderen and antwerpen .\nthe adults fly in june and july . they fly around the foodplant at dusk and later come to light .\nbelgium , antwerpen , viersel , 20 june 2005 . ( photo \u00a9 maarten jacobs )"]}
{"id": 968, "summary": [{"text": "poloma angulata is a moth in the eupterotidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by walker in 1855 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in south africa ( kwazulu-natal , western cape ) .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "adults are brown , reddish ferruginous beneath .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the wings have two zigzag slender middle brown bands , the outer one with a testaceous border on the outer side .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "these bands are more undulating on the underside .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the forewings are several shades of brown , with a slightly curved testaceous band at one-fourth of the length , and with a very large reddish ferruginous patch along the middle part of the costa .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "this patch is deeply notched on its hind side , and contains a brown dot and a zigzag brown streak .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the underside and hindwings are reddish ferruginous .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on olinia ventosa and canthium ventosum . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "poloma angulata", "paragraphs": ["poloma walker , 1855 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 4 : 858 ; ts : poloma angulata walker\npoloma angulata walker , 1855 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 4 : 858 ; tl : port natal , cape\npoloma ( eupteronini ) ; forbes , 1955 , tijdschr . ent . 98 : 130\ntype species : poloma angulata walker , 1855 . list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum . part iv . \u2013 lepidoptera heterocera : 858\u2013859 . by monotypy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnb : the taxon name search is for single names only . for example , to locate dysodia vitrina flammata warren , 1904 you should enter flammata only .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndistant w . l . 1903 . insecta transvaaliensia : a contribution to a knowledge of the entomology of south africa . order lepidoptera . suborder heterocera . - \u2014 : 49\u201396 , pls . iii\u2013viii .\nv\u00e1ri l . , kroon d . m . & kr\u00fcger m . 2002 . classification and checklist of the species of lepidoptera recorded in southern africa . - \u2014 : i\u2013xxi , 1\u2013385 .\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\n[ south africa , kwazulu - natal ] , port natal [ durban ] , leg . gueinzius ; cape [ cape province ] , leg . derg\u00e9 , zoolu country , leg . g . f . angas .\nwalker f . 1855b . list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum . part iv . \u2014 lepidoptera heterocera . - \u2014 4 : i\u2014iv , 777\u2014976 .\ntaylor j . s . 1949b . notes on lepidoptera in the eastern cape province ( part i ) . - journal of the entomological society of southern africa 12 : 78\u201495 , 2 pls . .\npinhey e . c . g . 1975 . moths of southern africa . descriptions and colour illustrations of 1183 species . - \u2014 : i\u2014iv , 1\u2014273 , pls . 1\u201463 .\nobservation - multimammate mouse - southern africa . description : only caught at night in both grasslands and thicket ( added as a separate record ) .\nonly caught at night in both grasslands and thicket ( added as a separate record ) .\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nwalker , 1855 list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 1 : 1 - 278 ( 1854 ) , 2 : 279 - 581 ( 1854 ) , 3 : 583 - 775 ( 1855 ) , 4 : 777 - 976 ( 1855 ) , 5 : 977 - 1258 ( 1855 ) , 6 : 1259 - 1508 ( 1855 ) , 7 : 1509 - 1808 ( 1856 )\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nwalker f . 1855b . list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum . part iv . \u2013 lepidoptera heterocera . - \u2014 4 : i\u2013iv , 777\u2013976 .\naurivillius c . 1901b . on the ethiopean genera of the family striphnopterygidae . - bihang till kongliga svenska vetenskaps akademiens handlingar 27 ( 7 ( suppl . ) ) : 1\u201333 , pls . 1\u20135 .\nwalker f . 1865b . list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum . part xxxii . \u2013 supplement part 2 . - \u2014 32 : i\u2013iv , 323\u2013706 .\nfelder c . , felder r . & rogenhofer a . f . 1865\u20131875 . reise der \u00f6sterreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859 unter den befehlen des commodore b . von w\u00fcllerstorf - urbair . zoologischer theil . zweiter band . abtheilung 2 , heft 4 , lepidoptera . atlas der heterocera . - \u2014 2 ( 4 ) : 1\u201320 , pls . 1\u2013140 .\ndruce h . 1896 . descriptions of some new species of heterocera from tropical africa . - annals and magazine of natural history ( 6 ) 17 ( 101 ) : 350\u2013356 .\naurivillius c . 1893 . diagnosen neuer lepidopteren aus afrika . - entomologisk tidskrift 14 ( 3 ) : 199\u2013214 .\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\nthis website has been revised , please click here for the new website pages ."]}
{"id": 977, "summary": [{"text": "noctueliopsis virula is a moth in the crambidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by barnes and mcdunnough in 1918 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from arizona , california and nevada .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is 5 \u2013 6 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are olivaceous brown with a slight ruddy tinge .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is a white shade at the base above the inner margin .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the lines are black .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are pure white with faint brown terminal dots in males .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings of the females have a brown terminal line .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing from march to april and in june . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "noctueliopsis virula", "paragraphs": ["the original description as noctuelia virula barnes & mcdunnough is available online in the print references below .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\npowell , j . a . & p . a . opler , moths of western north america , pl . 22 . 3m ; p . 171 . book review and ordering\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nbarnes & mcdunnough 1918 . contributions to the natural history of the lepidoptera of north america , 4 : 168 , pl . 23 , fig . 9 .\nmunroe , e . g . 1961 : synopsis of the north american odontiinae , with descriptions of new genera and species ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) . \u2013 memoirs of the entomological society of canada , ottawa 93 ( 24 ) : 49 .\npowell , j . a . , & p . a . opler 2009 . moths of western north america . p . 171 , pl . 22 . 3 .\nsynopsis of the north american odontiinae , with descriptions of new genera and species ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) eugene g . munroe . 1961 . memoirs of the entomological society of canada . 93 ( 24 ) : 1 - 93 .\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 20 october , 2011 - 11 : 38pm additional contributions by kyhl austin last updated 17 may , 2016 - 7 : 53pm\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nthe bookreader requires javascript to be enabled . please check that your browser supports javascript and that it is enabled in the browser settings . you can also try one of the other formats of the book .\nbesides being memorable , . com domains are unique : this is the one and only . com name of it ' s kind . other extensions usually just drive traffic to their . com counterparts . to learn more about premium . com domain valuations , watch the video below :\n73 % of all domains registered on the web are . coms . the reason is simple : . com is the where most of web traffic happens . owning a premium . com gives you great benefits including better seo , name recognition , and providing your site with a sense of authority .\nvery fast and eay service to understand . . . - ivan baca , 12 / 25 / 2017\nthe purchase of domain was easy and fast . - ivan gusinskiy , 12 / 25 / 2017\nselect your preferred way to display the comments and click ' save settings ' to activate your changes .\nmemoirs of the entomological society of canada . 93 ( 24 ) : 1 - 93 , 1961\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 22 april , 2013 - 12 : 29pm\nkearfott , w . d . 1909 . descriptions of new species of north american crambid moths . proceedings of the united states national museum 35 : 367 - 393 .\na generic revision of the aquatic moths of north america : ( lepidoptera : pyralidae , nymphulinae ) .\nsolis m . a . , 2009 . transfer of all western hemisphere cybalomiinae to other subfamilies ( crambidae pyraloidea : lepidoptera ) : elusia schaus , dichochroma forbes , schacontia dyar , cybalomia extorris warren , and c . lojanalis ( dognin ) . proceedings of the entomological society of washington . 111 : 493\u2013504 download at researchgate here\nstudies on the crambidae ( lepidoptera ) . part 41 . on some tropical crambidae with descriptions of new genera and species .\nnacoleia charesalis ( walker , 1859 ) ( pyraloidea : crambidae : spilomelinae ) is a medium - sized brown moth with a native range from the southeast asian tropics to northern australia . it was first detected in southern florida , usa , in 2012 and known to be spreading rapidly northward . it resembles some native north american pyraustine species . this paper summarizes its current distribution , diagnostic characters and known behavior . download pdf here\ndescription of last - instar larvae of 22 species of north american spilomelini ( lepidoptera : pyralidae : pyraustinae ) . . .\ndescription of last - instar larvae of 22 species of north american spilomelini ( lepidoptera : pyralidae : pyraustinae ) with a key to species . abstract and access\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 11 june , 2013 - 3 : 18pm\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\n80x5 - 240x3 - 240x4 - 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{"id": 987, "summary": [{"text": "a planarian is one of many flatworms of the turbellaria class .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "it is also the common name for a member of the genus planaria within the family planariidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "sometimes it also refers to the genus dugesia .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "planaria are common to many parts of the world , living in both saltwater and freshwater ponds and rivers .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "some species are terrestrial and are found under logs , in or on the soil , and on plants in humid areas .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "planaria exhibit an extraordinary ability to regenerate lost body parts .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "for example , a planarian split lengthwise or crosswise will regenerate into two separate individuals .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "some planarian species have two eye-spots ( also known as ocelli ) that can detect the intensity of light , while others have several eye-spots .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the eye-spots act as photoreceptors and are used to move away from light sources .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "planaria have three germ layers ( ectoderm , mesoderm , and endoderm ) , and are acoelomate ( they have a very solid body with no body cavity ) .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they have a single-opening digestive tract ; in tricladida planarians this consists of one anterior branch and two posterior branches .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "planarians move by beating cilia on the ventral dermis , allowing them to glide along on a film of mucus .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "some also may move by undulations of the whole body by the contractions of muscles built into the body membrane .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "triclads play an important role in watercourse ecosystems and are often very important as bio-indicators .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the most frequently used planarian in high school and first-year college laboratories is the brownish girardia tigrina .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "other common species used are the blackish planaria maculata and girardia dorotocephala .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "recently , however , the species schmidtea mediterranea has emerged as the species of choice for modern molecular biological and genomic research due to its diploid chromosomes and the existence of both asexual and sexual strains .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "recent genetic screens utilizing double-stranded rna technology have uncovered 240 genes that affect regeneration in s. mediterranea .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "many of these genes have orthologs in the human genome . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "planarian", "paragraphs": ["the maintenance and regeneration of the planarian excretory system are regulated by egfr signaling .\nstructure of the planarian central nervous system ( cns ) revealed by neuronal cell markers .\n[ regulation of asexual reproduction in the planarian dugesia tigrina ] . - pubmed - ncbi\nexistence of two sexual races in the planarian species switching between asexual and sexual reproduction .\nmead , r . and christman , j . , proportion regulation in the planarian ,\nthat ' s exactly what happened with earlier attempts to sequence the planarian and axolotl genomes .\nbelow are summarized the function and structure of the brain of a planarian , dugesia japonica .\nplanarian regeneration : achievements and future directions after 20 years of research . - pubmed - ncbi\nthe maintenance and regeneration of the planarian excretory system are regulated by egfr signaling . - pubmed - ncbi\nstructure of the planarian central nervous system ( cns ) revealed by neuronal cell markers . - pubmed - ncbi\nexistence of two sexual races in the planarian species switching between asexual and sexual reproduction . - pubmed - ncbi\n- positive neurons ( magenta ) in the planarian brain ( a , b ) . a is a horizontal view of planarian whole brain . b shows the dorsal region at high magnification . white arrowheads indicate the colocalization of\nhori , i . and kishida , y . , a fine structural study of regeneration after fission in the planarian\nhori , i . and kishida , y . , further observation on the early regeneration after fission in the planarian\nswitching from asexual to sexual reproduction in the planarian dugesia ryukyuensis : change of the fissiparous capacity along with the sexualizing process .\nthe planarian will swim in a shallow petri dish by undulating its body across the surface of the dish . most will stay close to the bottom or the edge of the dish . if given a choice , the planarian will actively seek an area of the dish that is dark or has some kind of cover . the eyespots can in fact , detect changes in light in the planarian ' s environment . if you shine a flashlight on the planarian , it will attempt to move out of the light .\nfor the planarian , the researchers were able to identify roughly 1 , 000 likely genes that are probably specific to these organisms .\nis the name of one genus , but the name planarian is used to designate any member of the family planariidae and related families .\nin the planarian ( an aquatic , ciliated flatworm ) , on the other hand , the kinetic response affects only the rate at which the planarian changes its direction . because planaria tend to stay in or return to darker areas , an increase in light intensity causes an increase in their turning\u2026\nwhat made you want to look up planarian ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\nnicolas c , abramson c , levin m . analysis of behavior in the planarian model in : raffa r , rawls s . , eds .\nexpression patterns of xenopus fgf receptor - like 1 / nou - darake in early xenopus development resemble those of planarian nou - darake and xenopus fgf8 .\n- positive region may work as a signal processing center of the brain . the domain structure of the planarian brain is summarized in fig . 2 .\ntazaki , a . , gaudieri , s . , ikeo , k . , gojobori , t . , watanabe , k . , agata k ( 1999 ) neural network in planarian revealed by an antibody against planarian synaptotagmin homologue : biochem . biophys . res . cmmun . , 260 , 426 - 432\ncebri\u00e0 f . ( 2008 ) organization of the nervous system in the model planarian schmidtea mediterranea : an immunocytochemical study : neurosci . res . , in press\nswitching from asexual to sexual reproduction in the planarian dugesia ryukyuensis : change of the fissiparous capacity along with the sexualizing p . . . - pubmed - ncbi\na mini - documentary discussing the remarkable regenerative capabilities of the planarian , and how hhmi researcher alejandro s\u00e1nchez alvarado uses them to study the biology of stem cells .\nsheiman , i . m . , kreshchenko , n . d . , sedel\u2019nikov , z . v . , and groznyi , a . v . , morphogenesis in planarian\nexpression patterns of xenopus fgf receptor - like 1 / nou - darake in early xenopus development resemble those of planarian nou - darake and xenopus fgf8 . \u2014 physiology , anatomy and genetics\nduring sexual reproduction , planarians mate with each other and then\u2014since planarians are hermaphrodites\u2014each planarian lays a cocoon , a small circular egg sac , tethered to a fixed surface in the environment .\nagata k . and umesono y . ( 2008 ) brain regeneration from pluripotent stem cells in planarian : phil . trans . r . soc . b . , 363 , 2071 - 2078\nplanarian regeneration was one of the first models in which the gradient concept was developed . morphological studies based on the analysis of the regeneration rates of planarian fragments from different body regions , the generation of heteromorphoses , and experiments of tissue transplantation led t . h . morgan ( 1901 ) and c . m child ( 1911 ) to postulate different kinds of gradients responsible for the regenerative process in these highly plastic animals . however , after a century of research , the role of morphogens in planarian regeneration has yet to be demonstrated . this may change soon , as the sequencing of the planarian genome and the possibility of performing gene functional analysis by rna interference ( rnai ) have led to the isolation of elements of the bone morphogenetic protein ( bmp ) , wnt , and fibroblast growth factor ( fgf ) pathways that control patterning and axial polarity during planarian regeneration and homeostasis . here , we discuss whether the actions of these molecules could be based on morphogenetic gradients .\nokamoto , k . , takeuchi , k . , agata , k . ( 2005 ) neural projections in planarian brain revealed by fluorescent dye tracing : zoolog . sci . , 22 , 535 - 546\nnewmark , p . a . , and a . s\u00e0nchez alvarado . 2002 . not your father ' s planarian : a classic model enters the era of functional genomics . nature reviews 3 : 210\u201319 .\nthompson received his degree and went to louisiana state university to work with rats , while mcconnell , upon his arrival at michigan , stuck with worms . he knew that by cutting a planarian across the middle into head and tail sections , each part would regenerate its missing half . but , he wondered , if you conditioned a planarian , which half of the bisected beast would retain the conditioned response ? working with two students in the newly formed planarian research group , mcconnell found , to his astonishment and delight , that the regenerated tails showed as much retention \u2014 and in some cases more \u2014 than the regenerated heads .\nthere is a large variety of freshwater planarian species . different species and even different strains within a species reproduce in different ways . some planarians reproduce sexually , others asexually , and some are capable of both .\nwe have established the first uk laboratory to utilize the planarian model system . the group remains , to our knowledge , the only group in the uk dedicated to exploiting planarians for biomedical and evolutionary studies . our research programme leverages the planarian model system to study basic questions in relation to regeneration and stem cell biology . furthermore , i believe we can use planarians to study the molecular mechanisms related to both aging and cancer\nin this primer article , we review the state - of - the - art of planarian research , focusing on stem cells , neural regeneration and reestablishment of polarity , and discuss how the knowledge gained from planarian research might be translated to higher organisms . we aim to bring the attention of the broader scientific community to these amazingly plastic animals as a promising model organism for the rapidly progressing fields of regenerative medicine and bioengineering .\nin his book , the first brain , dr . on\u00e9 r . pag\u00e1n , a neurobiology and pharmacology specialist from west chester university , discusses how the planarian has played a key role in biological , neuropharmacological , and zoological research ( and how it has made appearances in a few unexpected places in popular culture ) . ultimately , he shows us why the planarian truly is one of the most extraordinary and influential organisms in scientific research today .\nreader terri shofner then alerted us to ho ' s video of the odd - looking creature , which experts say is likely an unknown species of the genus bipalium , known by the common names hammerhead worm and broadhead planarian .\nkobayashi c . , saito y . , ogawa k . and agata k . ( 2007 ) wnt signaling is required for antero - posterior patterning of the planarian brain : dev . biol . , 306 , 714 - 724\nthey are also unique among invertebrates in that they display addiction - like behaviors to many drugs that are abused by humans . because of these distinct traits , the planarian is often used as an animal model in neurological research .\ncebri\u00e0 f . , guo t . , jopek j . and newmark p . a . ( 2007b ) regeneration and maintenance of the planarian midline is regulated by a slit orthologue dev . biol . , 307 , 394 - 406\nsarnat , h . b . , netsky , m . g . ( 1985 ) the brain of the planarian as the ancestor of the human brain : can . j . neurol . sci . , 12 , 196 - 302\na mini - documentary discussing the remarkable regenerative capabilities of the planarian , and how hhmi researcher alejandro s\u00e1nchez alvarado uses them to study the biology of stem cells . to download this film or to find related materials , go to urltoken\nthese example sentences are selected automatically from various online news sources to reflect current usage of the word ' planarian . ' views expressed in the examples do not represent the opinion of merriam - webster or its editors . send us feedback .\ncebri\u00e0 f . and newmark p . a . ( 2005 ) planarian homologs of netrin and netrin receptor are required for proper regeneration of the central nervous system and the maintenance of nervous system architecture : development , 132 , 3691 - 3703\nkoinuma , s . , umesono , y . , watanabe , k . , agata , k . ( 2003 ) the expression of planarian brain factor homologs , djfoxg and djfoxd : gene expr . patterns , 3 , 21 - 27\nclassical morphological studies revealed that planarian neurons more closely resemble the neurons of vertebrates than those of higher invertebrates ( sarnat and netsky , 1985 ) . planarian neurons have a large egg - shaped nucleus , scattered agglomerated chromatin and large nuclear bodies . synaptic vesicles are observed in the neuropile . the synaptic structure observed in the brain and peripheral ganglia is basically similar to the chemo - synapse of vertebrates . in both synaptic structures , thickened pre - and post - synaptic membranes and accumulation of clear vesicles in the pre - synaptic region are observed ( oosaki et al . , 1965 ) . extensive molecular studies showed that the planarian brain is composed of functionally diverse neurons which express homologs of specific genes seen in mammalian neurons .\numesono , y . , watanabe , k . , agata , k . ( 1999 ) distinct structural domains in the planarian brain defined by the expression of evolutionarily conserved homeobox genes : dev . genes . evol , 209 , 31 - 39\nthe functional conservation of signal transduction pathways \u2013 exemplified by the roles of wnt / \u03b2 - catenin and bmp pathways in axis polarity in both planarians and vertebrates \u2013 offers the opportunity to study mammalian development and disease using planarian regeneration as a model .\numesono , y . , watanabe , k . , agata , k . ( 1997 ) a planarian orthopedia homolog is specifically expressed in the branch region of both the mature and regenerating brain : dev . growth differ . , 39 , 723 - 727\nbefore arriving at a graduate program next fall , i will have the chance to continue research in planarian regeneration under the supervision of prof . robert major . specifically , i am investigating the interactions of the highly conserved wnt signaling pathway and a protein implicated in aging , sir2 , in order to explore the molecular interface between injury and a regenerative response . the planarian is an interesting organism in that developmental and regenerative processes largely overlap , and , to me , this perfectly mirrors and encapsulates my broader research interests .\n( dugesia japonica pro - hormone convertase 2 ) rna probe as a pan - neural marker . anterior is up and posterior is down . the white region in the center of the body is a pharynx . ( b ) a model of the planarian brain .\nwhen planarian flatworms are cut in half , each piece grows back the end that is missing . cells in essentially identical regions of the body where the cut was made form blastemas , which , in one case gives rise to a head and in the other becomes a\u2026\ncut a planarian in half and you get two planarians . these non - parasitic flatworms live in water or moist environments on land . there are thousands of species , ranging in size from less than a millimetre to the 60 - centimetre predatory flatworm bipalium kewense . planarians regenerate their tissues by cell proliferation and by remodelling existing tissues with undifferentiated stem cells called neoblasts that are distributed throughout the animal ' s body . pieces from almost any part of a planarian called stenostomum , for example , can develop into completely new worms . this makes them an excellent model organism to study regeneration in the lab . the freshwater planarian dugesia , pictured here , has been experimentally split with a scalpel from the head to the pharynx , resulting in a two - headed animal . ( image : tom adams / getty )\nhwang j . s . , kobayashi c . , agata k . , ikeo k . and gojobori t . ( 2004 ) detection of apoptosis during planarian regeneration by the expression of apoptosis - related genes and tunel assay : gene . , 333 , 15 - 25\nagata , k . , soejima , y . , kato k . , kobayashi c . , umesono y . , watanabe k ( 1998 ) structure of the planarian central nervous system ( cns ) revealed by neuronal cell markers : zoolog . sci . , 15 , 433 - 440\nnakazawa m . , cebri\u00e0 f . , mineta k . , ikeo k . , agata k . , gojobori t . ( 2003 ) search for the evolutionary origin of a brain : planarian brain characterized by microarray : mol . biol . evol . , 20 , 784 - 791\nplanarian adult stem cells ( pascs ) , historically referred to as neoblasts , are small ( 5\u201310 \u03bcm diameter ) undifferentiated cells that localize in the parenchyma , a loose tissue that lies beneath the muscle layers and surrounds the organs . although definitive proof of their pluripotency has not yet been provided , planarian neoblasts are regarded as adult pluripotent stem cells ( reviewed in shibata et al . , 2010 ) and are responsible for the remarkable regeneration ability shown by these animals ( sal\u00f3 and bagu\u00f1\u00e0 , 1984 ; rossi et al . , 2008 ) ( fig . 2a ) .\nneurons in the planarian brain more closely resemble those of vertebrates than those of advanced invertebrates , exhibiting typical vertebrate features of multipolar shape , dendritic spines with synaptic boutons , a single axon , expression of vertebrate - like neural proteins , and relatively slow spontaneously generated electrical activity . 74 therefore , the planarian is not only the first animal to possess a brain , but may be the ancestor of the vertebrate brain . 61 , 75 some of the most interesting and controversial data on the persistence of memories in regeneration thus came from studies of this model . 76 , 77\nthe ability of organisms to regenerate missing body parts is one of the great mysteries of biology . planarians are freshwater flatworms that have been a classic regeneration model for more than a century . the regenerative abilities of planarians astound : following decapitation , a new head can be regenerated in under a week , and an entire animal can be regenerated from a body fragment approximately 1 / 300th the size of the original animal . regeneration involves formation of a tissue outgrowth at wound sites ( a blastema ) . planarian regeneration requires a population of adult pluripotent stem cells , enabling in vivo study of how stem cells can be regulated to replace aged , damaged , and missing tissues . because greater than 50 percent of examined planarian genes have counterparts throughout the animal kingdom , including in humans , genetic study of planarian regeneration stands to broadly increase our understanding of stem cell and regenerative biology .\ninoue t . , kumamoto h . , okamoto k . , umesono y . , sakai m . , s\u00e1nchez a . a . and agata k . ( 2004 ) morphological and functional recovery of the planarian photosensing system during head regeneration : zoolog . sci . , 21 , 275 - 283\nplanarians are fascinating animals best known for their ability to regenerate from even very small pieces of their bodies . a common classroom lab involves cutting planarians into an anterior and a posterior half and watching them regenerate . what some people don ' t realize is that splitting in half\u2014voluntarily ! \u2014is also a planarian reproductive strategy . devising experiments to learn more about this reproductive strategy is a great hands - on inquiry opportunity for students . have students design and set up experiments to determine what conditions prompt planarians to reproduce in this manner . first have them do background research on planarian care and reproduction .\nnishimura k . , kitamura y . , umesono y . , takeuchi k . , takata k . , taniguchi t . , agata k . ( 2008 ) identification of glutamic acid decarboxylase gene and distribution of gabaergic nervous system in the planarian dugesia japonica : neuroscience , 153 , 1103 - 1114 .\nplanarians are free - living platyhelminthes that can regenerate any part of the body , including the central nervous system ( cns ) . in addition to dugesia japonica and girardia tigrina , schmidtea mediterranea is one of the most commonly used species in planarian research . this freshwater planarian is small in size ( 0 . 1\u20132 cm ) , has a diploid genome of about 800 mb distributed on four chromosomes , which accounts for about 30 , 000 predicted genes ( cantarel et al . , 2008 ) , and can reproduce sexually as well as asexually by fission . the regenerative abilities of planarians depend on a large population of somatic stem cells ( reviewed in handberg - thorsager et al . , 2008 ) . this feature , which , among bilaterians , is unique to planarian flatworms , means that planarians can serve as an in vivo petri dish for the study and manipulation of stem cells in their natural environment .\nmolecular analyses of the mechanisms by which neural networks may exchange information with surrounding tissues ( as would be required for the regenerating planarian brain to be imprinted with information by the remaining body fragment ) . such studies could test non - neural bioelectrical signaling 178 , 189 and cytoskeletal computation 190 , 191 ;\nsince different reproduction processes in plants , as described above , do not require passage through an embryonic step ( that defines which individual is the \u2018parent\u2019 and which is the \u2018child\u2019 ) , the relationship between the two resulting individuals is somewhat ambiguous , and bears many similarities to the relationship between two regenerated planarian fragments .\ncebri\u00e0 , f . , nakazawa , m . , mineta , k . , ikeo , k . , gojobori , t . , agata , k . ( 2002b ) dissecting planarian central nervous system regeneration by the expression of neural - specific genes : dev . growth differ . , 44 , 135 - 146\nnishimura k . , kitamura y . , inoue t . , umesono y . , yoshimoto k . , taniguchi t . , agata k . ( 2007b ) identification and distribution of tryptophan hydroxylase ( tph ) - positive neurons in the planarian dugesia japonica : neurosci . res . , 59 , 101 - 106\nthe maintenance of organs and their regeneration in case of injury are crucial to the survival of all animals . high rates of tissue turnover and nearly unlimited regenerative capabilities make planarian flatworms an ideal system with which to investigate these important processes , yet little is known about the cell biology and anatomy of their organs . here we focus on the planarian excretory system , which consists of internal protonephridial tubules . we find that these assemble into complex branching patterns with a stereotyped succession of cell types along their length . organ regeneration is likely to originate from a precursor structure arising in the blastema , which undergoes extensive branching morphogenesis . in an rnai screen of signaling molecules , we identified an egf receptor ( smed - egfr - 5 ) as a crucial regulator of branching morphogenesis and maintenance . overall , our characterization of the planarian protonephridial system establishes a new paradigm for regenerative organogenesis and provides a platform for exploring its functional and evolutionary homologies with vertebrate excretory systems .\nasami , m . , nakatsuka , t . , hayashi , t . , kou , k . , kagawa , h . , agata , k . ( 2002 ) cultivation and characterization of planarian neuronal cells isolated by fluorescence activated cell sorting ( facs ) : zoolog . sci . , 19 , 1257 - 1265\nthe source of new cells : adult pluripotent stem cells promote regeneration a cellular explanation for planarian regeneration has been sought since the late 1800s , when a population of proliferative cells ( neoblasts ) was identified . a key unanswered question has been whether planarian regeneration is explained by a cell type displaying pluripotency ( capacity to produce all cell types of the soma ) at the single - cell level or by the collective action of multiple dividing cell types that each has limited and different potential . to address this question , we developed single - cell assays and determined that certain individual cells from the neoblast population could divide to clonally generate many similar dividing cells and displayed broad differentiation potential . these cells could restore regenerative capacity to lethally irradiated hosts lacking all other cell division . we named such cells\nclonogenic neoblasts\n( cneoblasts ) . these experiments indicated that pluripotent stem cells persist in planarian adulthood , providing a cellular basis for the remarkable regenerative abilities of planarians .\nthe answer came in march 1960 when fellow worm runner jay boyd best wrote mcconnell about the cannibalistic tendencies of a particular planarian species . mcconnell and the prg ran pilot studies in april and obtained positive results . each of the next four replications \u2014 each run blind to guard against experimenter bias \u2014 also produced promising results .\nthe body size of planarians along the anterior - posterior axis ranges from 3 to 20 millimeters . the planarian cns is composed of a brain in the head region and a pair of ventral nerve cords ( vncs ) that extend the length of the body ( fig . 1a ) ( agata et al . , 1998 ; tazaki et al . , 1999 ) . the brain consists of two lobes , forming an inverted u - shaped structure , and nine branches on the outer side of each lobe that project to the surface of the head region , forming sensory organs ( fig . 1b ) ( okamoto et al . , 2005 ) . a pair of eyes is located on the dorsal side of the brain . the size and number of brain neurons vary depending on the size of the planarian\u2019s body . the minimum size of the brain ( in a planarian with body size about 0 . 7mm ) consists of about 8 , 000 neurons ( okamoto et al . , unpublished ) .\nogawa k . , ishihara s . , saito y . , mineta k . , nakazawa m . , ikeo k . , gojobori t . , watanabe k . and agata k ( 2002 ) induction of a noggin - like gene by ectopic dv interaction during planarian regeneration : dev . biol . , 250 , 59 - 70\nspecies capable of regenerating lost body parts occur throughout the animal kingdom , yet close relatives are often regeneration incompetent 1 , 2 . why in the face of \u2018survival of the fittest\u2019 some animals regenerate but others do not remains a fascinating question 3 . planarian flatworms are well known and studied for their ability to regenerate from minute tissue pieces , yet species with limited regeneration abilities have been described even amongst planarians 4 . here we report the characterization of the regeneration defect in the planarian dendrocoelum lacteum and its successful rescue . tissue fragments cut from the posterior half of the body of this species are unable to regenerate a head and ultimately die 5 . we find that this defect originates during the early stages of head specification , which require inhibition of canonical wnt signalling in other planarian species 6 , 7 , 8 . notably , rna interference ( rnai ) - mediated knockdown of dlac - \u03b2 - catenin - 1 , the wnt signal transducer , restored the regeneration of fully functional heads on tail pieces , rescuing d . lacteum \u2019s regeneration defect . our results demonstrate the utility of comparative studies towards the reactivation of regenerative abilities in regeneration - deficient animals . furthermore , the availability of d . lacteum as a regeneration - impaired planarian model species provides a first step towards elucidating the evolutionary mechanisms that ultimately determine why some animals regenerate and others do not .\nfreshwater planarians are an emerging model in which to study regeneration at the molecular level . these animals can regenerate a complete central nervous system ( cns ) in only a few days . in recent years , hundreds of genes expressed in the nervous system have been identified in two popular planarian species used by several laboratories : dugesia japonica and schmidtea mediterranea . functional analyses of some of those neural genes have allowed the process of cns regeneration to begin to be elucidated in those animals . however , additional work is required to characterize the different neuronal populations . thus , the identification or generation of antibodies that act as markers for specific neuronal cell types would be extremely useful not only in obtaining a more detailed characterization of the planarian nervous system but also for the analysis of phenotypes obtained by rna interference . here , i have used five different antibodies to describe different neuronal populations in the freshwater planarian s . mediterranea . this study represents a first step in characterizing the organization of the nervous system of this species at the cellular level .\ncebri\u00e0 , f . , kudome , t . , nakazawa , m . , mineta , k . , ikeo , k . , gojobori , t . , agata k . ( 2002a ) the expression of neural - specific genes reveals the structural and molecular complexity of the planarian central nervous system : mech . dev . , 116 , 199 - 204\nnishimura k . , kitamura y . , inoue t . , umesono y . , sano s . , yoshimoto k . , inden m . , takata k . , taniguchi t . , shimohama s . , agata k . ( 2007a ) reconstruction of dopaminergic neural network and locomotion function in planarian regenerates : dev neurobiol . , 67 , 1059 - 1078\nthe planarian brain contains gaba ( \u03b3 - aminobutyric acid ) synthetic neurons ( gabaergic neurons ) . gad ( glutatamic acid decarbocylase ) is the rate - limiting enzyme for gaba biosynthesis , and converts glutamic acid into gaba . recently , the planarian gad gene ( djgad ) was isolated ( nishimura et al . , 2008 ) , and it was found that in the head region , djgad - expressing cells are distributed in a dotted pattern in the brain . some of them are aligned in an inverted u - shape , while others are distributed in the medial part of the brain . the distribution pattern of djgad - immunopositive cells is very similar to that of djgad - mrna stained by in situ hybridization ( fig . 5b ) .\nmore than 100 years ago , early workers realized that planarians offer an excellent system for regeneration studies . another unique aspect of planarians is that they occupy an interesting phylogenetic position with respect to the nervous system in that they possess an evolutionarily primitive brain structure and can regenerate a functional brain from almost any tiny body fragment . recent molecular studies have revisited planarian regeneration and revealed key information about the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying brain regeneration in planarians . one of our great advances was identification of a gene , nou - darake , which directs the formation of a proper extrinsic environment for pluripotent stem cells to differentiate into brain cells in the planarian dugesia japonica . our recent findings have provided mechanistic insights into stem cell biology and also evolutionary biology .\nany of various small , chiefly freshwater flatworms of the class turbellaria , having soft , broad , ciliated bodies shaped like a leaf . planarians have a mouth on their lower side that is often closer to the tail than the head , and a three - branched digestive cavity . if a planarian is cut into several pieces , each piece can grow into a whole new organism .\nto investigate the complexity of neural cells in planarians , a new method was developed for gene profiling of single neurons obtained using cell sorting . in this method , brain neurons are collected as single cells using facs ( asami et al . , 2002 ) . after the collection of single neurons , rna is extracted , and cdna is synthesized and amplified by pcr . each cdna sample is then used as a template for semi - quantitative pcr analysis using specific primers . the results of such analyses were overlaid on a 3d planarian brain model and a 3d model based on the single - cell pcr database of the expression of about 1 , 000 genes in the planarian brain was created on a scale of about 1 to 10 and is available on the web ( urltoken ) .\nplanarian flatworms are an exception among bilaterians in that they possess a large pool of adult stem cells that enables them to promptly regenerate any part of their body , including the brain . although known for two centuries for their remarkable regenerative capabilities , planarians have only recently emerged as an attractive model for studying regeneration and stem cell biology . this revival is due in part to the availability of a sequenced genome and the development of new technologies , such as rna interference and next - generation sequencing , which facilitate studies of planarian regeneration at the molecular level . here , we highlight why planarians are an exciting tool in the study of regeneration and its underlying stem cell biology in vivo , and discuss the potential promises and current limitations of this model organism for stem cell research and regenerative medicine .\nplanarians are considered to be among the most primitive animals which developed the central nervous system ( cns ) . to understand the origin and evolution of the cns , we have isolated a neural marker gene from a planarian , dugesia japonica , and analyzed the structure of the planarian cns by in situ hybridization . the planarian cns is located on the ventral side of the body , and composed of a mass of cephalic ganglions in the head region and a pair of ventral nerve cords ( vnc ) . cephalic ganglions cluster independently from vnc , are more dorsal than vnc , and form an inverted u - shaped brain - like structure with nine branches on each outer side . two eyes are located on the dorsal side of the 3 ( rd ) branch and visual axons form optic chiasma on the dorsal - inside region of the inverted u - shaped brain . the 6 ( th ) - 9 ( th ) branches cluster more closely and form auricles on the surface which may function as the sensory organ of taste . we found that the gross structure of the planarian cns along the anterior - posterior ( a - p ) axis is strikingly similar to the distribution pattern of the\nprimary\nneurons of vertebrate embryos which differentiate at the neural plate stage to provide a fundamental nervous system , although the vertebrate cns is located on the dorsal side . these data suggest that the basic plan for the cns development along the a - p axis might have been acquired at an early stage of evolution before conversion of the location of the cns from the ventral to the dorsal side .\nafter nearly a year of mcconnell\u2019s wrangling with referees , the paper appeared in the journal of comparative and physiological psychology . in his next experiments , mcconnell and the prg showed that each regenerated part of trained worms cut in several pieces retained the initial training and , more important , a planarian that , after several regenerations , contained none of the structure of the originally trained animal also retained the memory .\nnext , they tried grinding up trained worms and injecting them into na\u00efve recipients , but that didn\u2019t work , either . the hypodermic needles were too big \u2014 getting one inside a flatworm was like trying to impale a prune with a javelin \u2014 and if , by chance , the needle was positioned well enough to inject the planarian - puree , it either oozed out or caused the worm to explode .\nuncovering the mechanisms that control size , growth , and division rates of systems reproducing through binary division means understanding basic principles of their life cycle . recent work has focused on how division rates are regulated in bacteria and yeast , but this question has not yet been addressed in more complex , multicellular organisms . we have acquired a unique large - scale data set on the growth and asexual reproduction of two freshwater planarian species , dugesia japonica and dugesia tigrina , which reproduce by transverse fission and succeeding regeneration of head and tail pieces into new planarians . we show that generation - dependent memory effects in planarian reproduction need to be taken into account to accurately capture the experimental data . to achieve this , we developed a new additive model that mixes multiple size control strategies based on planarian size , growth , and time between divisions . our model quantifies the proportions of each strategy in the mixed dynamics , revealing the ability of the two planarian species to utilize different strategies in a coordinated manner for size control . additionally , we found that head and tail offspring of both species employ different mechanisms to monitor and trigger their reproduction cycles . thus , we find a diversity of strategies not only between species but also between heads and tails within species . our additive model provides two advantages over existing 2d models that fit a multivariable splitting rate function to the data for size control : firstly , it can be fit to relatively small data sets and can thus be applied to systems where available data is limited . secondly , it enables new biological insights because it explicitly shows the contributions of different size control strategies for each offspring type .\nplanarian eyes are composed of two cell types : pigment cells and visual neurons ( photoreceptor cells ) . the pigment cells are arranged into a crescent - shaped eyecup , while the visual neurons are located outside of the eyecup . studies using a monoclonal antibody specific to planarian photoreceptors ( called vc - 1 ) showed that dendrites from the visual neurons are distributed inside of the pigment eyecup to form a rhabdomeric structure containing opsins , and that the axons of the visual neurons project to the medial region of the main lobes ( agata et al . , 1998 ; sakai et al . , 2000 ) . they form an optic chiasma in the dorso - medial region of the brain . each lateral branch neuron ( chemosensory neuron ) projects onto the lateral region of the brain ( inoue et al . , 2007 ) .\nwe recently tested the ability of gap junctional communication in somatic cell networks to implement somatic memory in planaria ( reviewed in durant et al . , 2016 ) by transiently reducing gap junctional connectivity among cells . this can be accomplished by rnai targeting 3 distinct innexin proteins ( oviedo et al . , 2010 ) , which resulted in a bipolar two - headed planarian ; posterior wounds of middle fragments grew heads instead of tails . the same result can be achieved by a transient ( 2 - day ) inhibition of gap junction communication using a blocker such as octanol ( nogi and levin , 2005 ) . the benefit of this approach is that unlike rnai , which persists in tissues for long periods of time , octanol leaves planarian tissues within 24 h ( as shown by hplc ) ( oviedo et al . , 2010 ) .\nall planarians used in the present study were dugesia japonica ichikawa & kawakatsu 1964 . after examining three planarian species : dugesia japonica , dugesia dorotocephala and schmidtea mediterranea , we found dugesia japonica to be the most suitable for this project . it has remarkable regenerating capabilities , high tolerance for training and dissection procedures , and is very active . before experiments , planarian colonies were stored in rectangular plastic containers , filled with poland springs natural spring water ( oviedo et al . , 2008a ) . dugesia japonica has a high tendency to undergo spontaneously fission . in order to prevent spontaneous fission and allow worms to reach a suitable size for the experiment ( 1\u20131 . 5 cm ) , containers were stored in an incubator at 10\u00b0c in continuous darkness ( morita and best , 1984 ) and fed once or twice a week with organic beef liver .\ntakano , t . , pulvers , j . n . , inoue , t . , tarui , h . , sakamoto , h . , agata , k . , umesono , y . ( 2007 ) regeneration - dependent conditional gene knockdown ( readyknock ) in planarian : demonstration of requirement for djsnap - 25 expression in the brain for negative phototactic behavior : dev . growth differ . , 49 , 383 - 394\nthe planarian does not have gills or lungs , it obtains its oxygen by simple diffusion over its flat body . the dugesia cannot survive outside of the water , so biologists studying it must make sure that the specimen has plenty of water that is aerated . the dugesia does have an excretory system to remove wastes . tiny cells , called flame cells , line the lateral edge of the organism and function to remove waste .\nplanarian brain regeneration . the cns of the planarian d . japonica , visualized by whole - mount in situ hybridization against a pan - neural marker ( a receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase ) ( cebri\u00e0 et al . , 2002c ) in intact ( a ) and regenerating ( b ) animals . planarians were decapitated ( dashed line in a ) and allowed to regenerate for the indicated time points ( as indicated in b ) . note that de novo brain regeneration is complete after less than 7 days . dashed line in b corresponds to the original amputation site marked in a . scale bar : 0 . 5 mm . panel a is adapted from mineta et al . ( mineta et al . , 2003 ) , \u00a92003 national academy of sciences , usa ; and panels b ( 1\u20133 days ) are adapted from cebri\u00e0 et al . ( cebri\u00e0 et al . , 2002c ) .\nstudents may find both sexual and asexual forms of reproduction intriguing ; however , studying the asexual form of reproduction is easier . the laying of egg sacs by planarians has been observed to typically , but not always , be a seasonal phenomenon that occurs during the spring . the relative unpredictability of the egg sac laying , and the fragility of the worms during this phase , make studies of planarian sexual reproduction difficult for students in a classroom setting .\nthe provocative idea , which demands additional study , that certain memories in planaria survive decapitation , presents a useful opportunity for debate . we present a few hypothetical scenarios , not mutually exclusive , that will allow us to ask whether upon fission a planarian that is derived from the head fragment can consider the regenerated fragment that arises from its cut - off tail fragment as \u2018my twin\u2019 , \u2018my sibling\u2019 , \u2018my child\u2019 or \u2018myself\u2019 ( fig . 1 ) .\nmolecular studies showed that the brain is composed of structurally distinct and functionally diverse domains , which have been defined by morphological observations using a variety of molecular markers . in the first study on the organization of the planarian brain , a homolog of the homeobox - containing gene orthopedia ( otp ) from planaria , djotp , was isolated . djotp is specifically expressed in the branch structures of the brain ( umesono et al . , 1997 ) . in a subsequent study , two otd / otx - related homeobox genes , djotxa and djotxb , were isolated from the planarian dugesia japonica . within the cns , expression of both these genes appear to be restricted to the brain . djotxa is expressed in the medial region of the brain and in visual cells . djotxb is expressed in the major region of the brain ( called the sponge region or main lobes ) just lateral to the djotxa - positive domain , but not in the more lateral branch structures , where djotp is expressed . these expression data for djotxa , djotxb and djotp suggest a molecular basis for subdivision of the mature planarian brain into at least four regions : a djotxa - positive region , a djotxb - positive region , a djotp - positive region ( branch regions ) , and a region lateral to the branches and negative for djotp ( fig . 2 ) ( umesono et al . , 1999 ) .\ntherefore , are all clones created equal , or could epigenetic information survive splitting ? the answer depends on the capacity of asymmetric fission to maintain long - term variability \u2013 the ability of each cloning product ( each \u2018individual\u2019 ) to hold memories acquired by their ancestral body ( or the relevant part thereof ) in its lifetime . a few different mechanisms , which are not mutually exclusive , and could operate in tandem , could in theory establish asymmetry following planarian fission .\nneurodegenerative and cardiovascular diseases , as well as stroke , infection and injury , require therapies that aim to replace lost , damaged or inoperative tissues . regenerative medicine is therefore a major focus of medical research . whereas regeneration in humans is limited , several vertebrates , such as salamanders and fish , can regenerate amputated body parts with high efficiency ( reviewed in stoick - cooper et al . , 2007 ) . the master of regeneration is , however , the planarian flatworm .\nfor many , these results were hard to swallow . that mcconnell first reported these results in the worm runners digest , a journal / magazine he edited that published a mixture of straight science and spoof , did not help his case . of more importance , the planarian work was not easily replicable . the beasts were difficult to train , and various experimenters \u2014 most notably a team working under the patronage of nobel laureate mac calvin at berkeley \u2014 reported their failure to do so .\none possible locus for the cellular basis of memory are the planarian neoblasts ( stem cells 114 ) , which could be modified through epigenetic changes induced by learning . 22 , 115 , 116 when the new brain develops , neoblasts could potentially imprint the cns through self - organization mechanisms . 117 - 119 a second possibility is that non - coding rnas implement inheritance . 99 , 100 regardless of the molecular mechanisms required for this process , a complete answer to this question will also require an understanding of the mapping of cognitive content to specific molecular states ( encoding and decoding of learned information within rna , protein , cell networks , or some other mechanism ) . it is clear that modern techniques and recent findings show great potential for the planarian as an animal model in learning and memory research . investigating this unique animal , which displays complex behavior and can regenerate its entire brain in only a few days , may provide answers to the enigma of acquisition , storage , and retrieval of memories .\nin certain planarian species that are able to switch between asexual and sexual reproduction , determining whether a sexual has the ability to switch to the asexual state is problematic , which renders the definition of sexuals controversial . we experimentally show the existence of two sexual races , acquired and innate , in the planarian dugesia ryukyuensis . acquired sexuals used in this study were experimentally switched from asexuals . inbreeding of acquired sexuals produced both innate sexuals and asexuals , but inbreeding of innate sexuals produced innate sexuals only and no asexuals . acquired sexuals , but not innate sexuals , were forced to become asexuals by ablation and regeneration ( asexual induction ) . this suggests that acquired sexuals somehow retain asexual potential , while innate sexuals do not . we also found that acquired sexuals have the potential to develop hyperplastic and supernumerary ovaries , while innate sexuals do not . in this regard , acquired sexuals were more prolific than innate sexuals . the differences between acquired and innate sexuals will provide a structure for examining the mechanism underlying asexual and sexual reproduction in planarians .\nop : many people are sadly unaware of the true extent of earth\u2019s biodiversity . one can spend a lifetime just learning about a certain type of organism , and even a lifetime is not enough . that\u2019s why education is essential , if only to make people aware of what is \u201cout there . \u201d i got into planarian research by an indirect route , namely by using them as animal models in pharmacology . as i learnt more about planarians , i became more interested in them in general ; the rest is history .\nplanaria are free - living flatworms that live in quiet ponds or bodies of water . in some areas you can even catch a few planarian by attaching a piece of liver to a fish hook and a sinker and dropping it into the water . wait a few minutes and pull the liver out and you may find tiny little black worms feasting on the meat . like all flatworms , planaria belong to the kingdom animalia , and the phylum platyhelminthes . this phylum also contains parasitic flatworms , like the tapeworm and the liver fluke .\nthe dugesia does have a simple nervous system that includes a ganglia located in its anterior region to serve as a brain . as such , the dugesia exhibits the trait of cephalization , where the majority of its sense organs are located in the anterior region . it has a triangular head with two prominent eyespots . upon closer inspection of the eyes , you can see that they have a curious cross - eyed expression to them . the presence of the two eyes and lateral horns on the head indicate that the planarian has bilateral symmetry .\ndisruption of the dorsoventral axis after bmp pathway silencing . ( a ) 21 - d - old regenerating head pieces after smed - smad1 rnai . white arrowheads mark the ectopic dorsoventral margin that delimits , which seems to be a second planarian differentiated on the dorsal side like a siamese twin . yellow arrows point to the original eyes . red arrows point to ectopic eyes . ( b ) 21 - d - old regenerating trunk piece after smed - bmp rnai . white arrowheads mark the duplicated body margin . bars , 0 . 5 mm .\nwe thank punita koustubhan for general laboratory assistance ; junji morokuma and wendy beane for advice and help with the planarian model system ; douglas blackiston and robert cook for many helpful discussions about behavioral paradigms ; durwood marshall , dany s . adams and laura vandenberg for assistance with statistics ; douglas blackiston , michael romero and philip starks for comments on early versions of the manuscript ; and ethan golden for fabrication of the rough - textured petri dishes . this work is dedicated to paul van oye and james v . mcconnell , two pioneers of learning and memory in planarians .\nthe flat - worm or planarian is a very simple invertebrate , nevertheless , in 1955 thompson and mcconnell showed that planaria could be classically conditioned to avoid light by pairing a light cs with an electric shock us . it becomes clear just how simple an animal a planarian is when you discover that if one is cut in half while alive the two halves regenerate into two complete flatworms - the tail - half grows a new head and the head - half a new tail ! mcconnell ' s initial discovery about memory in flatworms was that once a flatworm had been conditioned to avoid light if you cut it in half and allow the halves to regenerate both of the resulting worms show evidence of knowing the light - shock association . mcconnell interpreted this as evidence that memory in flatworms was not localised in the head but was , rather distributed throughout the animal . in 1962 mcconnell performed an experiment which appeared to be even more dramatic demonstration of this . after training some planaria he ground them up an fed them to other planaria . these animals were quicker at learning the light - shock association than controls who were fed ground - up untrained worms .\nother studies showed more complex subdivision structures in the main lobes ( cebri\u00e0 2002b ) , but these small subdomains are not well characterized . among these studies , the finding on the expression of one planarian brain factor homolog , djfoxd , should be mentioned ( koinuma et al . , 2003 ) . the expression of djfoxd is highly restricted to the mid - apex of the head , between the two lobes of the brain , where brain neurons are not present . the djfoxd - expression domain clearly separates the right and left lobes ( saito et al . , 2003 ) ."]}
{"id": 993, "summary": [{"text": "dichomeris cuspis is a moth in the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by park in 1994 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in south-eastern siberia , korea and china ( shaanxi ) .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is 7.2-7.7 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are uniform dark fuscous , shining blue leaden-metallic with a dash-shaped yellowish-white strigula at three-fourth on the anterior margin .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are dark grey .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on quercus acuteserrata . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "dichomeris cuspis", "paragraphs": ["dichomeris cuspis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris cuspis park , 1994 ; insecta koreana 11 : 19 ; tl : gangweon prov . , korea\ndichomeris acmodeta ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 12\ndichomeris agorastis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13\ndichomeris albula ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13\ndichomeris apicispina ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris apludella ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris bifurca ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 15\ndichomeris bomiensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris bucinaria ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris consertella ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris cuprea ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris diffurca ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris fareasta ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris fuscahopa ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris fuscanella ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris gansuensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris hodgesi ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris jiangxiensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris lativalvata ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris lespedezae ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris lutilinea ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris manticopodina ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris menglana ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris millotella viette , 1956 ; nat . malgache 8 ( 2 ) : 212\ndichomeris minutia ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris mitteri ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 27\ndichomeris molybdoterma meyrick , 1933 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 12 ) : 353\ndichomeris ningshanensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 27\ndichomeris nivalis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 27\ndichomeris paulianella viette , 1956 ; nat . malgache 8 ( 2 ) : 213\ndichomeris polygona ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29\ndichomeris polypunctata ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29\ndichomeris qingchengshanensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30\ndichomeris quadratipalpa ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30\ndichomeris quadrifurca ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30\ndichomeris sexafurca ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 31\ndichomeris shenae ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 31\ndichomeris spicans ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris spuracuminata ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris stasimopa meyrick , 1937 ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 3 ) : 94\ndichomeris strictella ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris synergastis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris tersa ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris varifurca ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 34\ndichomeris violacula ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 34\ndichomeris wuyiensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 34\ndichomeris yuebana ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 34\ndichomeris yunnanensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 35\ndichomeris zymotella viette , 1956 ; nat . malgache 8 ( 2 ) : 215\ndichomeris fuliginella ( costa , 1836 ) , described as rhinosia fuliginella from italy .\ndichomeris junisonensis matsumura , 1931 ; 6000 illust . insects japan . - empire : 1082\ndichomeris acritopa meyrick , 1935 ; mat . microlep . fauna chin . prov . : 72\ndichomeris dolichaula meyrick , 1931 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 2 - 4 ) : 67\ndichomeris loxonoma meyrick , 1937 ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 4 - 5 ) : 123\ndichomeris nyingchiensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 254\ndichomeris fuscahopa li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 242\ndichomeris fuscusitis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 243\ndichomeris gansuensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 247\ndichomeris hodgesi li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 232\ndichomeris jiangxiensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 244\ndichomeris junisonis [ sic ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris yunnanensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 254\ndichomeris derasella ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 19 ; [ fe ]\ndichomeris fareasta park , 1994 ; insecta koreana 11 : 15 ; tl : gangweon prov . , korea\ndichomeris lamprostoma ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23 ; [ fe ]\ndichomeris mitteri park , 1994 ; insecta koreana 11 : 17 ; tl : gangweon prov . , korea\ndichomeris praevacua ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 :\ndichomeris strictella park , 1994 ; insecta koreana 11 : 11 ; tl : gangweon prov . , korea\ndichomeris acritopa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 12\ndichomeris adelocentra ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13\ndichomeris albiscripta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13\ndichomeris allantopa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13\ndichomeris amphichlora ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13\ndichomeris ampliata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris anisospila ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris antiloxa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris antisticta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris asodes ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 15\ndichomeris barymochla ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 15\ndichomeris brachygrapha ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris brachyptila ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris caerulescens ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris cellaria ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris centracma ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris ceponoma ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris charonaea ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris chartaria ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris chinganella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris chlanidota ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris cinnabarina ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris citharista ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris clarescens ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris cocta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris contentella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris corniculata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris crepitatrix ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris deceptella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 19\ndichomeris deltoxyla ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 19\ndichomeris diacrita ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 19\ndichomeris dicausta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 19\ndichomeris doxarcha ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris eridantis ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris eucomopa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris excoriata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris ferrata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris ferruginosa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris frenigera ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris fungifera ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris geochrota ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris horoglypta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris ignorata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris illicita ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris illucescens ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris imbricata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris immerita ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris indiserta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris intensa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris isoclera ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris leptosaris ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris leucothicta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 24\ndichomeris levigata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 24\ndichomeris lissota ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 24\ndichomeris litoxyla ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 24\ndichomeris lupata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris macroxyla ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris malachias ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris malacodes ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris melanortha ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris melitura ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris mesoglena ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris metatoxa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris metuens ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris microdoxa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris microsphena meyrick , 1921 ; zool . meded . leyden 6 : 166 ; tl : java , buitenzorg\ndichomeris oceanis ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 27\ndichomeris olivescens ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 28\ndichomeris ostracodes ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 28\ndichomeris pelitis ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 28\ndichomeris petalodes ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 28\ndichomeris planata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29\ndichomeris polyaema ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29\ndichomeris praealbescens ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29\ndichomeris procrossa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29\ndichomeris pseudometra ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30\ndichomeris ptychosema ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30\ndichomeris sciodora ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 31\ndichomeris semnias ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 31\ndichomeris siranta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 31\ndichomeris summata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris synclepta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris tephroxesta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris testudinata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris tetraschema ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris thyrsicola ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris toxolyca ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris traumatias ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris uranopis ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris viridella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 34\ndichomeris indigna ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 54 ( note )\ndichomeris ceratomoxantha ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 63 ( note )\ndichomeris adelocentra meyrick , 1920 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 10 ) : 305 ; tl : java , butenzorg\ndichomeris albula park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 22 ; tl : taipei co . , taiwan\ndichomeris baccata meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 621 ; tl : brazil , teff\u00e9\n= dichomeris bisignella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris brachygrapha meyrick , 1920 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 10 ) : 305 ; tl : assam , khasis\ndichomeris bucinaria park , 1996 ; tinea 14 ( 4 ) : 230 ; tl : pintung co . , taiwan\ndichomeris chalcophaea meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 434 ; tl : queensland , brisbane\ndichomeris fida meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 620 ; tl : brazil , para\ndichomeris fusca park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 49 ; tl : taichung co . , taiwan\ndichomeris fuscalis park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 16 ; tl : taipei co . , taiwan\ndichomeris harmonias meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 16 ) : 504 ; tl : china , shanghai\ndichomeris horiodes meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 620 ; tl : brazil , parintins\ndichomeris horoglypta meyrick , 1932 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 7 ) : 202 ; tl : hasimoto , japan\ndichomeris ingloria meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 621 ; tl : peru , lima\ndichomeris leptosaris meyrick , 1932 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 7 ) : 202 ; tl : hokkaido , japan\ndichomeris leucothicta meyrick , 1919 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 8 ) : 235 ; tl : bombay , dharwar\ndichomeris lucrifuga meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 620 ; tl : brazil , para\ndichomeris lutivittata meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 434 ; tl : queensland , brisbane\ndichomeris mesoctenis meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 434 ; tl : queensland , brisbane\ndichomeris mesoglena meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 619 ; tl : coorg , pollibetta\ndichomeris metuens meyrick , 1932 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 7 ) : 201 ; tl : seneng , java\ndichomeris ochthophora meyrick , 1936 ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 2 ) : 46 ; tl : taihoku , formosa\ndichomeris orientis park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 36 ; tl : kaohsiung co . , taiwan\ndichomeris praevacua meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 16 ) : 504 ; tl : china , shanghai\ndichomeris quercicola meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 433 ; tl : punjab , kangra\ndichomeris saturata meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 621 ; tl : brazil , obidos\ndichomeris sciodora meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 16 ) : 504 ; tl : assam , khasis\ndichomeris symmetrica park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 20 ; tl : taitung co . , taiwan\ndichomeris syndias [ sic , recte syndyas ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris thermodryas meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 621 ; tl : peru , iquitos\ndichomeris trilobella park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 42 ; tl : pingtung co . , taiwan\ndichomeris anisospila meyrick , 1934 ; dt . ent . z . iris 48 : 34 ; tl : guangdong , china\ndichomeris argentaria meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 304 ; tl : barberton\ndichomeris cotifera meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 303 ; tl : barberton\ndichomeris cuprea li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 237 ; tl : shaanxi\ndichomeris exsecta meyrick , 1927 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 12 ) : 354 ; tl : rhodesia , mazoe\ndichomeris ignorata meyrick , 1921 ; zool . meded . leyden 6 : 165 ; tl : java , preangor , 5000ft\ndichomeris melanortha meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 16 ) : 510 ; tl : bombay , poona\ndichomeris monorbella viette , 1988 ; bull . soc . ent . fr . 93 ( 3 - 4 ) : 104\ndichomeris squalens meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 282 ; tl : british guiana\nresupina omelko , 1999 ; keys ins . russian far east 5 ( 2 ) : 107 ; ts : dichomeris okadai moriuti\ndichomeris tactica meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 5 ) : 152 ; tl : ecuador , huigra , 4500ft\ndichomeris acrolychna meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 112 ; tl : brazil , para\ndichomeris allantopa meyrick , 1934 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 16 - 17 ) : 512 ; tl : nilambur , madras\ndichomeris alogista meyrick , 1935 ; mat . microlep . fauna chin . prov . : 72 ; tl : hunan , china\ndichomeris brachymetra meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 620 ; tl : peru , chosica , 2800m\ndichomeris brachyptila meyrick , 1916 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 19 ) : 584 ; tl : upper burma , myitkyina\ndichomeris ceponoma meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 5 ) : 151 ; tl : coorg , dibidi , 3500ft\ndichomeris davisi park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 35 ; tl : taiwan , taipei co . , sirin\ndichomeris ellipsias meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 114 ; tl : peru , iquitos\ndichomeris lushanae park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 22 ; tl : taiwan , taipei co . , sozan\ndichomeris moriutii ; li , zhen , kendrick & sterling , 2010 , shilap revta lepid . 38 ( 149 ) : 73\ndichomeris physocoma meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 9 ) : 286 ; tl : sierra leone , mabang\ndichomeris procyphodes meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 115 ; tl : brazil , parintins\ndichomeris rhodophaea meyrick , 1920 ; in alluaud & jeannel , voyage afr . orientale , ins . l\u00e9p . 2 : 73\ndichomeris simaoensis ; li , zhen , kendrick & sterling , 2010 , shilap revta lepid . 38 ( 149 ) : 74\ndichomeris stratigera meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 111 ; tl : brazil , parintins\ndichomeris subdentata meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 113 ; tl : brazil , santarem\ndichomeris testudinata meyrick , , 1934 ; dt . ent . z . iris 48 : 34 ; tl : guangdong , china\ndichomeris thalamopa meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 112 ; tl : brail , t\u00e9ffe\ndichomeris xanthodeta meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 305 ; tl : three sisters\ndichomeris zonata ; li , zhen , kendrick & sterling , 2010 , shilap revta lepid . 38 ( 149 ) : 74\ndichomeris liui li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 234 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris qinlingensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 235 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris aequata meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 282 ; tl : british guiana , bartica\ndichomeris agathopa meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 85 ; tl : rhodesia , umtali\ndichomeris anisacuminata li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 231 ; tl : china , jiangxi\ndichomeris antizyga meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 303 ; tl : barberton , pretoria\ndichomeris aphanopa meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 83 ; tl : rhodesia , umtali\ndichomeris apicispina li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 241 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris asteropis meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 83 ; tl : rhodesia , umvuma\ndichomeris attenta meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 84 ; tl : rhodesia , umvuma\ndichomeris bifurca li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 251 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris bodenheimeri ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16 ; [ afromoths ]\ndichomeris bomiensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 238 ; tl : china , xizang\ndichomeris cachrydias meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 283 ; tl : british guiana , mallali\ndichomeris decusella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 19 ; [ afromoths ]\ndichomeris diffurca li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 253 ; tl : fujian , china\ndichomeris eustacta meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 84 ; tl : rhodesia , umtali\ndichomeris excepta meyrick , 1914 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 9 ) : 279 ; tl : nyassaland , mt . mlanje\ndichomeris hylurga meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 83 ; tl : rhodesia , salisbury\ndichomeris impigra meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 305 ; tl : barberton , haenertsburg\ndichomeris indiserta meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 9 ) : 285 ; tl : malay states , kuala lumpur\ndichomeris lativalvata li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 248 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris manticopodina li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 239 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris menglana li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 257 ; tl : yunnan , china\ndichomeris ningshanensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 245 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris nivalis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 249 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris opsonoma meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 281 ; tl : british guiana , bartica\ndichomeris pladarota meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 84 ; tl : rhodesia , umtali\ndichomeris polygona li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 243 ; tl : sichuan , china\ndichomeris qingchengshanensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 245 ; tl : sichuan , china\ndichomeris quadratipalpa li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 238 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris quadrifurca li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 252 ; tl : fujian , china\ndichomeris sexafurca li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 249 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris shenae li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 246 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris spicans li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 247 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris spuracuminata li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 230 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris stromatias meyrick , 1918 ; ann . transv . mus . 6 ( 2 ) : 23 ; tl : zululand , nkwaleni\ndichomeris tersa li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 241 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris varifurca li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 250 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris violacula li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 237 ; tl : gansu , china\ndichomeris wuyiensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 255 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris xestobyrsa meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 82 ; tl : rhodesia , salisbury\ndichomeris yuebana li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 236 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris obscura li & zheng , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 223 ; tl : fengxian , shaanxi , 1600m\ndichomeris angustiptera li & zheng , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 228 ; tl : fengxian , shaanxi , 1600m\ndichomeris acrogypsa turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 168 ; tl : queensland , rosewood\ndichomeris aculata ; ponomarenko & ueda , 2004 , trans . lepid . soc . japan 55 ( 3 ) : 147 ( note )\ndichomeris ampliata meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 175 ; tl : khasis\ndichomeris cirrhostola turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 169 ; tl : queensland , adavale\ndichomeris deltaspis ; ponomarenko & ueda , 2004 , trans . lepid . soc . japan 55 ( 3 ) : 155 ( note )\ndichomeris excoriata meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 174 ; tl : khasis\ndichomeris ferrata meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 174 ; tl : khasis\ndichomeris ferrogra li & wang , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 225 ; tl : mengla , yunnan , 630m\ndichomeris ferruginosa meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 173 ; tl : khasis\ndichomeris heteracma meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 622 ; tl : brazil , teff\u00e9 ; peru , iquitos\ndichomeris instans meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 619 ; tl : peru , iquitos ; brazil , teff\u00e9\ndichomeris lividula park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 57 ; tl : taiwan , hualien co . , pianau - col\ndichomeris oleata meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 305 ; tl : barberton , three sisters\ndichomeris ostracodes meyrick , 1916 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 19 ) : 583 ; tl : upper burma , lashio , 3000ft\ndichomeris petalodes meyrick , 1934 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 16 - 17 ) : 512 ; tl : nilambur , madras , india\ndichomeris pleuroleuca turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 169 ; tl : queensland , eidsvold\ndichomeris ptychosema meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 175 ; tl : khasis\ndichomeris rectifascia li & zheng , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 220 ; tl : kangxian , gansu , 800m\ndichomeris simaoensis li & wang , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 221 ; tl : simao , yunnan , 325m\ndichomeris summata meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 172 ; tl : khasis\ndichomeris varronia busck , 1913 ; ins . inscit . menstr . 1 ( 7 ) : 89 ; tl : kitty , british guiana\ndichomeris ventosa meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 304 ; tl : barberton , three sisters\ndichomeris zonata li & wang , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 222 ; tl : simao , yunnan , 325m\ndichomeris tostella ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 72 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ]\ndichomeris amphicoma meyrick , 1912 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1911 ( 4 ) : 695 ; tl : brazil , santos\ndichomeris antisticha meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 9 ) : 285 ; tl : costa rica , vulkan irazu , 4000ft\ndichomeris fluitans meyrick , 1920 ; ann . s . afr . mus . 17 ( 4 ) : 284 ; tl : natal , howick\ndichomeris litoxyla meyrick , 1937 ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 4 - 5 ) : 123 ; tl : yakovlevka , primorkii krai , russia\ndichomeris nessica walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 95 ; tl : panama , la chorrera\ndichomeris taiwana park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 48 ; tl : taiwan , nantou co . , sunmoon lake , 760m\ndichomeris zomias meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 283 ; tl : british guiana , bartica and mallali\ndichomeris hirculella busck , 1909 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 11 ( 2 ) : 89 ; tl : east river , connecticut\ndichomeris clarescens meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 174 ; tl : maskeliya , ceylon\ndichomeris dysorata turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 170 ; tl : new south wales , syndey\ndichomeris elegans park , 2001 ; insecta koreana 18 ( 4 ) : 308 ; tl : taiwan , pingtung co . , kenting park , 50m\ndichomeris jugata walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 97 ; tl : mexico , tabasco , teapa\ndichomeris mengdana li & zheng , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 227 ; tl : mengda , xunhua , qinghai , 2240m\ndichomeris miltophragma meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 115 ; tl : brazil , para , obidos , parintins\ndichomeris ptilocompa meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 113 ; tl : brazil , teff\u00e9 ; peru , jurimaguas\ndichomeris substratella walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 93 ; tl : mexico , tabasco , teapa\ndichomeris vadonella viette , 1955 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . 123 : 108 ; tl : ne . madagascar , maroantsetra , ambodivoangy\ndichomeris xerodes walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 100 ; tl : mexico , tabasco , teapa\n= dichomeris setosella ; sattler , 1973 , bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent . ) 28 ( 4 ) : 221\ndichomeris glenni clarke , 1947 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 49 ( 7 ) : 187 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris aomoriensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14 ; ponomarenko , 1998 , far east . ent . 67 : 12\ndichomeris ardesiella walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 96 ; tl : mexico , vera cruz , cordova\ndichomeris arotrosema walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 95 ; tl : mexico , vera cruz , atoyac\ndichomeris asodes meyrick , 1939 ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 89 ( 4 ) : 54 ; tl : telawa , java\ndichomeris erixantha ; meyrick , 1921 , ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 83 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ afromoths ]\ndichomeris eucomopa meyrick , 1939 ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 89 ( 4 ) : 54 ; tl : telawa , java\ndichomeris loxospila ; [ nhm card ] ; li , zhen , kendrick & sterling , 2010 , shilap revta lepid . 38 ( 149 ) : 77\ndichomeris lypetica walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 91 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft\ndichomeris crepitatrix meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 173 ; tl : n . coorg , 3500ft\ndichomeris dignella walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 91 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft\ndichomeris excavata busck , 1914 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 47 ( 2043 ) : 18 ; tl : porto bello , panama\ndichomeris hexasticta walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 94 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft\ndichomeris imbricata meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 175 ; tl : n . coorg , 3500ft\ndichomeris lutea park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 59 ; tl : taiwan , nantou co . , meifeng , 30km s tayuling , 2200m\ndichomeris lutilinea ponomarenko & park , 1996 ; korean j . appl . ent . 35 ( 2 ) : 118 ; tl : chuncheon , kangweon prov .\ndichomeris metrodes meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 172 ; tl : hambantota , ceylon ; bombay\ndichomeris olivescens meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 175 ; tl : kandy and maskeliya , ceylon\ndichomeris thalpodes meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 111 ; tl : brazil , para ; peru , r . napo\ndichomeris tristicta busck , 1914 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 47 ( 2043 ) : 17 ; tl : trinidad river , panama\ndichomeris melanophylla ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 114 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ]\ndichomeris angulata ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 14 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris bulawskii ponomarenko & park , 1996 ; korean j . appl . ent . 35 ( 2 ) : 114 ; tl : 27km sw slavjanka , primorskii krai\ndichomeris fusca ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 60 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 49\ndichomeris linealis ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 83 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 24\ndichomeris lividula ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 83 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 24\ndichomeris lushanae ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 86 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris lutea ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 86 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris ochreata ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 102 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 27\ndichomeris taiwana ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 135 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris trilobella ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 141 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris illusio hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 101 , pl . 2 , f . 38 ; tl : hastings , florida\ndichomeris imitata hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 104 , pl . 3 , f . 5 ; tl : devers , texas\ndichomeris angulata park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 43 ; tl : taiwan , nantou co . , leinhauchi forest station , 15km sw puli , 750m\ndichomeris aprica ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 15 ; li & sattler , 2012 , zootaxa 3373 : 57\ndichomeris enoptrias ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris hoplocrates ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris issikii ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris ochreata park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 32 ; tl : taiwan , nantou co . , mei - feng , 30km s tayuling , 2200m\ndichomeris pyrrhoschista ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30\ndichomeris sciritis ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 31 ; li & sattler , 2012 , zootaxa 3373 : 57\ndichomeris synergastis ponomarenko & park , 1996 ; korean j . appl . ent . 35 ( 2 ) : 116 ; tl : yong - in , kyunggi prov .\ndichomeris viridescens ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 34\ndichomeris offula hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 117 , pl . 3 , f . 21 ; tl : ithaca , new york\ndichomeris crepida hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 118 , pl . 3 , f . 22 ; tl : mcclellanville , south carolina\ndichomeris santarosensis hodges , 1985 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 87 ( 2 ) : 456 ; tl : santa rosa national park , guanacaste , costa rica\ndichomeris nenia hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 40 , pl . 4 , f . 2 ; tl : bandera co . , texas\ndichomeris hypochloa walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 102 , pl . 3 , f . 23 ; tl : mexico , sonora\ndichomeris caia hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 62 , pl . 4 , f . 7 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris laetitia hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 88 , pl . 2 , f . 22 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris aleatrix hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 91 , pl . 2 , f . 27 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris furia hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 93 , pl . 2 , f . 30 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris baxa hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 105 , pl . 3 , f . 10 ; tl : presidio of monterey , california\ndichomeris cinnamicostella ; walsingham , 1911 , biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 103 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris costalis busck , 1914 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 47 ( 2043 ) : 18 ; tl : tabogilla i . and porto bello , panama\ndichomeris habrochitona walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 102 , pl . 3 , f . 26 ; tl : panama , tabernilla\ndichomeris quercicola ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30 ; ponomarenko , 1998 , far east . ent . 67 : 13\ndichomeris carycina ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 43 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris caryophragma ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 43 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris diacnista ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 43 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris lypetica ; [ nhm card ] ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 54 ( note ) ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris tactica ; [ nhm card ] ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 60 ( note ) ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris latescens ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 63 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris siren hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 64 , pl . 4 , f . 9 ; tl : henson creek , oxon hill , maryland\ndichomeris vindex hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 83 , pl . 2 , f . 9 - 10 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris gleba hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 87 , pl . 2 , f . 18 - 20 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris legnotoa hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 101 , pl . 4 , f . 10 ; tl : largo , pinellas co . , florida\ndichomeris mimesis hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 101 , pl . 2 , f . 39 ; tl : salmon , anderson co . , texas\ndichomeris simulata hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 104 , pl . 3 , f . 4 ; tl : canadian , hemphill co . , texas\ndichomeris percnopolis walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 93 , pl . 3 , f . 11 ; tl : guatemala , zapote , 2000ft\ndichomeris renascens walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 96 , pl . 3 , f . 14 ; tl : mexico , tabasco , teapa\ndichomeris xuthostola walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 101 , pl . 3 , f . 18 ; tl : mexico , tabasco , teapa\ndichomeris sylphe hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 58 , pl . 1 , f . 22 ; tl : archbold biological staion , lake placid , florida\ndichomeris ardelia hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 62 , pl . 4 , f . 8 ; tl : archbold biological station , lake placid , florida\ndichomeris kimballi hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 71 , pl . 1 , f . 30 ; tl : archbold biological staion , lake placid , florida\ndichomeris aglaia hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 85 , pl . 2 , f . 15 ; tl : lake placid , florida , archbold biological station\ndichomeris anisacuminata ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14 ; li , zhen , kendrick & sterling , 2010 , shilap revta lepid . 38 ( 149 ) : 74\ndichomeris argigastra walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 99 , pl . 3 , f . 16 ; tl : mexico , vera cruz , atoyac\ndichomeris autometra ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 15 ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 )\ndichomeris crambaleas ; [ nhm card ] ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris melanota walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 94 , pl . 3 , f . 13 ; tl : mexico , vera cruz , cordova\ndichomeris okadai ; [ nhm card ] ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 28\ndichomeris prensans meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 111 ; tl : brazil , para , parintins , manaos ; peru , iquitos ; british guiana , bartica\ndichomeris sciastes walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 90 , pl . 3 , f . 10 ; tl : mexico , vera cruz , atoyac\ndichomeris gausapa hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : pl . 1 , f . 8 ; tl : madera canyon , 4880 ' , santa rita mts , arizona\n= dichomeris acuminata ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 34\ndichomeris solatrix hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 48 , pl . 1 , f . 15 ; tl : pe\u00f1a blanca canyon , santa cruz co . arizona\n= dichomeris punctidiscella ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 56 ; [ nhm card ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 36\ndichomeris copa hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 92 , pl . 2 , f . 28 ; tl : snyder heights 1100 ' , ithaca , new york\ndichomeris achne hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 87 , pl . 2 , f . 34 ; tl : parker is . , highlands co . , florida\ndichomeris euprepes hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 110 , pl . 4 , f . 11 ; tl : big black mnts , letcher co . , kentucky\ndichomeris carinella walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 99 , pl . 3 , f . 20 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft\ndichomeris fuscusitis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21 ; zhao , park , bae & li , 2017 , zootaxa 4273 ( 2 ) : ( 216 - 234 )\ndichomeris intensa meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 173 ; tl : maskeliya and puttalam , ceylon ; cuddapah , 4000ft , n . coorg\ndichomeris leucostena walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 94 , pl . 3 , f . 12 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft\ndichomeris blanchardorum hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 43 , pl . 1 , f . 10 - 11 ; tl : laguna atascosa , cameron co . , texas\ndichomeris gnoma hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 106 , pl . 3 , f . 11 ; tl : shingle creek road , keremeos , british columbia , canada\ndichomeris mercatrix hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 110 , pl . 3 , f . 15 ; tl : mclean bogs reserve , tompkins co . , new york\ndichomeris bulawskii ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16 ; ponomarenko & ueda , 2004 , trans . lepid . soc . japan 55 ( 3 ) : 151 ( note )\ndichomeris diva hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 57 , pl . 1 , f . 21 ; tl : 1 mi s patagonia , santa cruz co . , arizona\ndichomeris fistuca hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 68 , pl . 1 , f . 25 ; tl : wedge plantation , mccellanville , charleston co . , south carolina\ndichomeris atomogypsa ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 72 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 15\ndichomeris alphito hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 88 , pl . 2 , f . 21 ; tl : madera canyon , 4880 ' , santa rita mts , arizona\ndichomeris pelta hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 99 , pl . 2 , f . 36 ; tl : wedge plantation , mcclellanville , charleston co . , south carolina\ndichomeris acrochlora ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 112 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 12\ndichomeris sybilla hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 121 , pl . 3 , f . 24 ; tl : madera canyon , 4880 ' , santa rita mts , arizona\ndichomeris evitata walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 99 , pl . 3 , f . 15 ; tl : panama , volcan de chiriqui , 2000 - 3000ft\ndichomeris harmonias ; [ nhm card ] ; park , 1991 , ann . hist . - nat . mus . hung . 83 : 121 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris xanthoa hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 102 , pl . 3 , f . 2 ; tl : ft . niobrara national wildlife refuge , cherry co . , nebraska\ndichomeris bolize hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 100 , pl . 2 , f . 37 ; tl : hackberry lake , valentine national wildlife refuge , cherry co . , nebraska\ndichomeris isa hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 103 , pl . 3 , f . 3 ; tl : tenkiller lake , 3 mi w blackgum , sequoyah co . , oklahoma\ndichomeris badiolineariella ponomarenko & ueda , 2004 ; trans . lepid . soc . japan 55 ( 3 ) : 154 , f . 4 , 17 - 18 ; tl : thailand , loei , phu rua , ~ 800m\ndichomeris balioella ponomarenko & ueda , 2004 ; trans . lepid . soc . japan 55 ( 3 ) : 149 , f . 2 , 12 - 13 ; tl : thailand , loei , phu rua , ~ 800m\ndichomeris matsumurai ponomarenko & ueda , 2004 ; trans . lepid . soc . japan 55 ( 3 ) : 151 , f . 3 , 14 - 16 ; tl : thailand , loei , phu rua , ~ 800m"]}
{"id": 994, "summary": [{"text": "the eurasian eagle-owl ( bubo bubo ) is a species of eagle-owl that resides in much of eurasia .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "it is also called the european eagle-owl and in europe , where it is the only member of its genus besides the snowy owl ( b. scandiacus ) , it is occasionally abbreviated to just eagle-owl .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "it is one of the largest species of owl , and females can grow to a total length of 75 cm ( 30 in ) , with a wingspan of 188 cm ( 6 ft 2 in ) , males being slightly smaller .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "this bird has distinctive ear tufts , with upper parts that are mottled with darker blackish colouring and tawny .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the wings and tail are barred .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the underparts are a variably hued buff , streaked with darker colour .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the facial disc is poorly developed and the orange eyes are distinctive .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "besides being one of the largest living species of owl , it is also one of the most widely distributed .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the eurasian eagle-owl is found in many habitats but is mostly a bird of mountain regions , coniferous forests , steppes and other relatively remote places .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is a mostly nocturnal predator , hunting for a range of different prey species , predominantly small mammals but also birds of varying sizes , reptiles , amphibians , fish , large insects and other assorted invertebrates .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it typically breeds on cliff ledges , in gullies , among rocks or in other concealed locations .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the nest is a scrape in which averages of two eggs are laid at intervals .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "these hatch at different times .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the female incubates the eggs and broods the young , and the male provides food for her and when they hatch , for the nestlings as well .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "continuing parental care for the young is provided by both adults for about five months .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "there are at least a dozen subspecies of eurasian eagle-owl .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "with a total range in europe and asia of about 32 million square kilometres ( 12 million square miles ) and a total population estimated to be between 250 thousand and 2.5 million , the iucn lists the bird 's conservation status as being of \" least concern \" .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the vast majority of eagle-owls live in mainland europe , russia and central asia , and an estimated number of between 12 and 40 pairs are thought to reside in the united kingdom as of 2016 , a number which may be on the rise .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "tame eagle-owls have occasionally been used in pest control because of their size to deter large birds such as gulls from nesting . ", "topic": 12}], "title": "eurasian eagle - owl", "paragraphs": ["common eagle - owl , eurasian eagle owl , great eagle - owl , northern eagle - owl .\n(\nthe eurasian eagle owl\n, 2002 ; konig , et al . , 1999 ;\neurasian eagle owl\n, 2003 ; )\neurasian eagle owls have distinct individual vocalizations . every member of a eurasian eagle owl population can be reliably identified by voice alone .\neurasian eagle owl showing the location of the uropygial gland . photo \u00a9 ian berwick\n(\nthe eurasian eagle owl\n, 2002 ; konig , et al . , 1999 ; parry - jones , 1998 ;\neurasian eagle owl\n, 2003 )\nthe large eurasian eagle - owl can be found thriving across much of the old world .\nthe eurasian eagle owl is a very large , heavy owl with prominent ear - tufts , and powerful feathered talons .\neurasian eagle - owl ( bubo bubo ) is a species of bird in the strigidae family .\nthe eurasian eagle - owl is one of the largest owl species in the world , with a wingspan of nearly two metres .\nan eagle owl preys on small mammals and other owl species to feed its chick .\ndescription : eurasian eagle - owl is a large - sized owl , able to kill and carry preys of 200 to 2000 grams .\nbritain ' s hen harrier population is thought to be threatened by the presence of the eurasian eagle owl .\n(\nthe eurasian eagle owl\n, 2002 ; konig , et al . , 1999 ; parry - jones , 1998 ; penteriani , et al . , 2002 ;\neurasian eagle owl\n, 2003 ; )\nthe call of the eurasian eagle - owl is described as a deep , booming \u2018 ooo - hu \u2019 .\ncaptive eurasian eagle - owls have been known to live for up to 60 years .\nowl information . . . index of owl species . . . photos of various owl species for identification\nthe eurasian eagle - owl is found in europe , asia and even north africa ( links to corresponding continent pages ) .\nthe eurasian eagle - owl was successfully reintroduced in switzerland and germany in the 1980s and is now a fully protected species .\npredictive models of habitat preferences for the eurasian eagle owl bubo bubo : a multiscale approach . ecography 26 : 21 - 28\nthe eurasian eagle owl , or european eagle owl as it is more commonly known , is one of the largest of owl species . incorrectly , the eagle owl is frequently described as the largest of owls , however in terms of length , that particular honor belongs to the great grey and the blackiston ' s fish owl is arguably heavier .\nthe latest sighting details and map for eurasian eagle - owl are only available to our birdguides ultimate or our birdguides pro subscribers .\nthey are known by a variety of names , including common great owls , northern eagle owls , desert eagle owls , great eagle owls or northern eagle owls .\nour pair of eurasian eagles owls , x and dumbledore , have taken up residence in eagle hall .\neagle owls resemble the great horned owl , but are much larger in size .\nbayle , p . and prior , r . , prey species of eagle owl\nphotographig studies of some less familiar birds . lxxxiv . eagle owl . british birds\neagle owl in the aral - caspian region , kazakhstan . raptors conservation , 16\nhorned owls : with two tufts of feathers on its head , presumably used for communication , the eurasian eagle owl looks much like its north american relative , the great horned owl .\nas an apex predator , the eurasian eagle owl has no natural predators . even the golden eagle , with whom the eagle owl shares both range and food preferences , is seldom in direct conflict with the owls , thanks to the birds hunting at different times of day ( the golden eagle in daytime , the eagle owl at night ) . a lifespan of 20 years in the wild isn ' t uncommon for eurasian eagle owls ; birds in zoological care have been known to live as long as 60 years .\nthe nesting of the eurasian eagle - owl ( bubo bubo ) in a man - made building . slovak raptor journal , 4 : 103 - 104\nthe eurasian eagle - owl ( bubo bubo ) diet in the orava region ( n slovakia ) . slovak raptor journal , 4 : 83 - 98\nthe peregrine fund . 2003 .\neurasian eagle owl\n( on - line ) . the peregrine fund . accessed march 21 , 2003 at urltoken .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - eurasian eagle - owl ( bubo bubo )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - eurasian eagle - owl ( bubo bubo )\ntitle =\narkive species - eurasian eagle - owl ( bubo bubo )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nbrood - switching in eagle owl bubo bubo fledglings . ibis , 150 : 816 - 819\nthe eurasian eagle - owl preys on mammals up to the size of hares or young deer , and will also take large birds such as herons and buzzards .\neurasian eagle - owl ( bubo bubo ) nesting in a nest box on a very high voltage electricity pylon . slovak raptor journal , 4 : 99 - 101\neagle owls are considered to be the world ' s largest owl species ; they weigh about twice as much as the heaviest north american owl - the snowy owl , and weigh nine times as much as the common barn owl .\nthe eurasian eagle owl reaches sexual maturity at around one year , and can live up to 20 years in the wild , or up to 60 years in captivity .\nandreychev , a . v . , lapshin , a . s . , and kuznetsov , v . a . , the diet of the eurasian eagle - owl (\nindividual acoustic monitoring of the european eagle owl bubo bubo . ibis , 150 : 279 - 287\nthe eurasian eagle - owl is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) .\neurasian eagle owls are one of the biggest species of owl in the world . they are easily identified by their large stature , prominent ear tufts and bright orange eyes .\nthe following habitats are found across the eurasian eagle owl distribution range . find out more about these environments , what it takes to live there and what else inhabits them .\nshot eagle owl flying well again an owl which was shot with an air rifle in gloucestershire is said to be flying extremely well after being rescued .\nthree chicks , iranian eagle owl , bubo nikolskii , fluffy beige , looking in the same direction .\nvalkama , j . and saurola , p . , mortality factors and population trends of the eagle owl\nfirst record of cooperative nesting in the eagle owl bubo bubo . ardeola , 52 : 351 - 353\nthe decline of the interspecific agonistic displays in an adult female indian eagle owl bubo bengalens . . .\nthe turkmenian eagle owl is a sub species of the eurasian eagle owl . they are one of the largest species of owl in the world , and have a distinctive appearance with prominent \u2018ear tufts\u2019 on the tops of their heads which all members of the eagle owl family have . this sub species originated from turkmenistan , although they are now extinct in that range and are instead found throughout parts of russia , kazakhstan , and mongolia .\na : opinions differ on this question . general consensus points towards the eurasian eagle owl , which is the largest in weight and average length . some sources say it is the great grey owl , as some individuals can have quite a big overall length . it should be noted that much of the bulk of the great grey owl is due to its generous plumage . also worth a mention is the little known blakiston ' s fish owl which has unpublished average and maximum weights exceeding the eurasian eagle owl .\neurasian eagle owls are likely the largest species of owl in the world . great grey owls ( strix nebulosa ) are slightly longer in the body , and blakiston ' s fish owls ( bubo blakistoni ) weigh a little more , but only the eurasian eagle owl boasts a six - and - a - half - foot wingspan . its conspicuous ear tufts are reminiscent of north america ' s great horned owl ( bubo virginianus ) , but the eagle owl ' s orange eyes and great size make it distinctive .\nthere are no fewer than 13 subspecies of the eurasian , which is a member of the strigidae ( true owl ) family .\nthe turkmenian eagle owl is not a threatened species , but it is uncommon throughout its range , as is the eurasian eagle owl family as a whole . however this sub species originated in turkmenistan , where it is now locally extinct , instead thriving in other regions . numbers of eurasian eagle owls have declined over the 20 th century , and although more stable now , are not as high as they previously were .\nthe eurasian eagle owl ( bubo bubo ) is arguably the heaviest owl in the world ; followed by the equal - sized or slightly smaller blakiston ' s fish owl . the eagle owl is smaller than the golden eagle , but nearly twice the size of the snowy owl . its wingspan reaches up to 7 feet ( 2 . 1 meters ) . its weight can go up to 10 lbs ( 4 . 5 kg ) ; compared to the common barn owl , which weighs about 1 . 1 lbs ( 0 . 5 kg ) .\nthe eurasian hunts by stealth , precision and highly advanced senses , not speed .\nfeather of an african eagle owl magnified by 150 times under a scanning electron microscope . image \u00a9 paolo taranto\ndistribution and number of the eagle owl in the altai - sayan region , russia . raptors conservation , 10\npossible first record of multiple brooding of the eagle owl bubo bubo . ardeola , 50 : 77 - 79\nin a study on the indian eagle owl bubo bengalensis in southern india , three morphologically distin . . .\neurasian eagle owl ( bubo bubo ) colonizing lowland floodplain forest in south moravia ( czech republic ) and cases of its breeding in wooden nestboxes . slovak raptor journal , 5 : 127 - 129\nthe eurasian eagle owls may live up to 21 years or more in the wild . the longest reported age in captivity is 60 years .\nyear hatched : 2011 type of owl : turkmenian eagle owl other info : bailey is a very large owl , that sits on the glove brilliantly although size and weight mean adults only . can give handlers attitude in aviary\ncomparative food habits of the eagle owl bubo bubo and the great horned owl bubo virginianus in six paleartic and neartic biomes . ornis scandinavica , 20 : 298 - 306\ndiet of the eagle owl bubo bubo , in syria . zoology in the middle east 33 : 21 - 26\nthe time budget and behavioural traits of young and adult indian eagle owl bubo bengalensis ( franklin , . . .\na family of the indian eagle owl bubo bengalensis was monitored at their nest site at nanmangalam r . . .\ncongratulations on hotd ! this was an awesome article on the eurasian eagle owl . it was very insightful and interesting . loved the images . thank you for sharing . ( voted up ) - rose\nsex allocation from an owl perspective : clucth order could determine brood sex to reduce sibling aggression in the eagle owl bubo bubo . ornis fennica , 87 : 135 - 143\ndevelopment of chicks and predispersal behaviour of young in the eagle owl bubo bubo . ibis , 147 : 155 - 168\nuse of farm chicken carcasses by the eagle owl bubo bubo . ardeola , 47 ( 1 ) : 101 - 103\nregnell s 1957 : berguv [ eagle owl ] . sveriges natur 48 : 79 - 90 . [ in swedish ]\ngender determination of eurasian eagle - owls ( bubo bubo ) by morphology . j . raptor res . , 38 ( 4 ) : 375 - 377\nthe eagle owl family contains some of the largest owls in the world , the turkmenian eagle owl is one of the larger members of this family , with some weighing up to 4 . 2kg , and measuring up to 75cm in length .\nalthough the eurasian eagle - owl has now recovered to some extent and is not currently considered globally threatened , illegal persecution still occurs , and the population remains below its former levels ( 2 ) ( 5 ) ( 13 ) . the eurasian eagle - owl is thought to be highly sensitive to disturbance , particularly during incubation , which may cause adults to abandon eggs and even small young ( 2 ) ( 22 ) .\nthe eurasian eagle - owl belongs to the family strigidae and the genus bubo . this bird is among the largest species of owls in the world , and can measure 30 inches in length with an impressive wing span of over six feet . the eurasian eagle - owl usually weighs somewhere between two - and - a - half and ten pounds , with the males being slightly smaller in size and stature than their female counterparts . physical characteristics specific to this species of owl include tufted\nears\nof feathers , orange eyes , dense bodies , and black beaks , as well as barred wings and tails . the feathers of this species are largely brown , streaks with black plumage . the areas on the bird\u2019s underbelly are lighter in tone , while the eurasian eagle - owl ' s throat is white . the facial disc on the eurasian eagle - owl is grey in color and concave - shaped .\neurasian eagle - owl is resident in most parts of the range , but juveniles may disperse after the nesting period . some movements are recorded in winter , according to the food resources or in harsh weather conditions .\ncentre for the conservation of specialized species . 2002 .\nthe eurasian eagle owl\n( on - line ) . the centre for the conservation of specialized species . accessed 3 / 21 / 03 at urltoken .\nbrightness variability in the white badge of the eagle owl bubo bubo . journal of avian biology , 37 : 110 - 116\nperch height and the hunting success of the indian eagle owl bubo bengalensis ( franklin ) ( aves : strigi . . .\nsome observations on the spread - winged agonistic displays of the indian eagle owl < i > bubo bengalensis < . . .\nthe eurasian eagle - owl is quite variable in appearance across its range , with a number of subspecies recognised , which differ in size , colouration , and the strength of the dark markings ( 2 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) ( 10 ) ( 11 ) . the juvenile eurasian eagle - owl can be recognised by its rudimentary ear - tufts , narrowly barred underparts , and buffy down on the head ( 2 ) .\nnorthern hawk owl photos by jorgen bjerrin . . . a series of northern hawk owl photos taken in denmark by jorgen bjerring\nconsequences of eagle owl nest - site habitat preference for breeding performance and territory stability . ornis fennica , 84 : 78 - 90\na comparative study of the diet of the indian eagle owl bubo bengalensis ( franklin , 1831 ) from two dis . . .\nat the time of writing , the eurasian is being monitored and attempts will be made , over a period of time , to establish whether the regions wildlife has been adversely affected by the presence of the owl . the eurasian is safe , for now .\nreproduction : breeding season varies with the range . the nest of the eurasian eagle - owl is often on sheltered cliff ledge or in crevice , in cave , on the ground on steep slope or in abandoned nest in tree .\nthe eurasian eagle owl can be found in a number of locations including : africa , asia , china , europe , himalayas , mediterranean , russia , united kingdom . find out more about these places and what else lives there .\nin a classic british compromise the eagle owl officially remains an alien species but as a resident wild bird is protected from being killed .\ni was tracking a couple of mallrd with the parabol when the male eagle owl i had been waiting for began to call . .\n( eagle owl in russia , belarus , and ukraine ) , moscow : izd . mosk . gos . univ . , 1994 .\nmassive immigration balances high anthropogenic mortality in a stable eagle owl population : lesson for conservation . biological conservation , 143 : 1911 - 1918\nwhen these young eurasian eagle - owls reach 2 - 3 years of age , they will be able to find a mate , nest , and produce their own young .\nthose who are encouraged by the presence of the eurasian in the uk , argue that hen harriers and eagle owls coexist in parts of europe without threatening the others survival .\neurasian eagle owls typically breed from the end of february to the end of april . they are considered to be monogamous , but some cases of bigamy have been recorded .\nthe european eagle owl can be found across europe to russia and the pacific , through pakistan across to korea and china and across iran .\nspatial heterogeneity and structure of bird populations : a case example with the eagle owl . popul . ecol . , 46 : 185 - 192\nwhile matched in weight by snowy owls , in wingspan by verraux ' s eagle owls ( bubo lacteus ) & length by powerful owls ( ninox strenua ) , overall , the eurasian eagle owl is the world ' s largest owl . despite its size , they are generally a good - natured bird , preferring to shy away from contact with people , rather than chase them away .\neagle owls mostly eat rodents ( voles ) and lagomorphs ( rabbit and mountain hare , but will also take mustelids , foxes and occasionally fawns . in this country the eagle owl\u2019s main prey appears to be rabbits .\na : probably another school project question . you are best off starting in our owl physiology section . plenty of nice owl facts there .\na : because there is no such owl . the tawny frogmouth is a bird that is often confused with an owl . here is a link for more information about the so - called tawny frogmouth owl .\ni have lived by an eagle owl uk for 18months . a male ex captive . free for about 3 yrs we think in our area .\nstewart , j . r . the fossil and archaeological record of the eagle owl in britain . british birds 100 , 481\u2013486 ( 2007 ) .\ngeographic variation in clutch and brood size of the eagle owl bubo bubo in the western palearctic . journal of ornithology , 131 : 439 - 443\na preliminary report on the development of young indian eagle owl < i > bubo bengalensis < / i > ( franklin , 1 . . .\neurasian wild pig sus scrofa is a widely distributed terrestrial mammal . in india , wild pig occurs . . .\neurasian eagle owls are found throughout europe , scandinavia , russia , the middle east & asia , with some being found breeding as far south as the sahara in africa . currently , they are not found in the wild as far east as japan , or as far west as the british isles . some are found in the northern reaches of the indian subcontinent , & until recently , the indian eagle owl , living throughout the subcontinent , was considered to be a subspecies of the eurasian eagle owl ( bubo bubo bengalensis ) , but is now regarded as a separate species ( bubo bengalensis ) .\nobuch j & karaska d 2010 : the eurasian eagle - owl ( bubo bubo ) diet in the orava region ( n slovakia ) . slovak raptor journal 4 : 83 - 98 . doi : 10 . 2478 / v10262 - 012 - 0048 - 9 .\npattern of repeatability in the movement behaviour of a long - lived territorial species , the eagle owl . journal of zoology . print issn 0952 - 8369\ndiet and breeding success of eagle owl in southeastern spain : effect of rabbit haemorrhagic disease . j . raptor re . , 35 : 259 - 262\nfacts about turkmenian eagle owls the turkmenian eagle owl ( bubo bubo turcomanus ) is a large , member of the eurasian eagle owl species . with ear tuffs as usual but a paler cream and brown colour than the european eurasian ( see wally ) the turkmenian\u2019s range covers kazakhstan to west mongolia . in the wild they would populate rocky and mountainous regions as well as open forestry although occasionally found in semi desert regions . this species are large birds ranging from around 58cm to 72cm and weigh from 1 . 5kg up to 3 . 8kg approx . bailey we believe to be female due to the size and weight\nlittle detailed information is available on asian populations of this species ( 2 ) . conservation measures recommended for the eurasian eagle - owl include protecting its habitat from development and extensive logging , as well as action to prevent collisions with powerlines ( 19 ) ( 20 ) .\n( eagle owl in russia , belarus , and ukraine ) , moscow : izd . mosk . gos . univ . , 1994 , pp . 32\u201350 .\nthe diet of the desert eagle owl , bubo bubo ascalaphus , in the eastern desert of jordan . journal of arid environments , 44 : 369 - 372\nthe eurasian eagle - owl is a highly skilled flier , and one that skims through the air using long , quick glides and shallow wing beats . these highly territorial birds are fearsome and highly effective hunters . as a so called \u201ctop predator\u201d , the eurasian eagle - owl faces few , if any , threats from other predatory animals , as it sits upon the upper tier of the food chain . these birds are mostly active at night , preferring to sleep during the daylight hours . eurasian eagle - owls are also for their ability to make an array of vocal sounds , which are used for communicating such information to others as territorial claims and searching for a mate . these birds are sometimes tamed by humans and trained to control pest infestations .\nduring the first half of the 1900s , eurasian eagle - owl populations declined drastically . humans hunted and poisoned them and , as you can imagine , they had a hard time surviving . happily , local governments have begun to increase their protection of these owls , and some reintroduction programs have taken place . thanks to these efforts , the eurasian eagle - owl is recovering in europe although their numbers still haven ' t returned to what they were before the mid - 1900s . electrocution and collisions with cars continue to be a problem for this extraordinary raptor .\nverreaux ' s eagle - owl , milky eagle owl , giant eagle owl ( bubo lacteus ) dutch name : verreaux - oehoe , melkoehoe of melkwitte ooruil german name : milchuhu , blassuhu body length : 66 - 75cm wingspan : 2 m weight : 1600 - 3115g ring size : 20mm breeding age : after 4 years breeding season : march - september eggs : 1 or 2 eggs incubation time : \u00b138 days area in the wild : africa , locally rare and threatened .\nthe quality of chicks and breeding output do not differ between first and replacement clutches in the eagle owl bubo bubo . ornis fennica , 88 : 217 - 225\nbreeders and non territorial individuals of a long - lived species , the eagle owl bubo bubo : differences in space use and movement patterns . phd thesis , 2012\neffects of landscape spatial structure and composition on the settlement of the eagle owl bubo bubo in a mediterranean habitat . ardea 89 ( 2 ) : 331 - 340\nwith wings that can span up to six feet , the eurasian eagle owl is one of the largest owls in the world . its powerful yet silent wings enable this night hunter to stealthily swoop down and scoop up prey . they can even catch other birds in mid - air .\neurasian eagle - owl is territorial , but the closest territories may partially overlap without any problem . often pairs remain together for life . when the breeding season starts , the male suggests some nesting places to the female , while scraping for shallow depression and uttering clucking and staccato sounds .\nin terms of its diet , the eurasian eagle - owl typically feeds on an array of small animals , including such creatures as rabbits , rodents , birds , insects , fish , amphibians , and reptiles . these ever watchful and powerful birds prefer to hunt during the dark , nighttime hours , and search out their prey while resting on perches or flying at a low altitude . the eurasian eagle - owl is gifted with both acute eyesight and excellent hearing abilities , which combine to enable the bird to effectively find and catch its prey . its innate and perceptive sense of sound is attuned to pick up on even the slightest sound . this natural trait inadvertently serves to aid the eurasian eagle - owl in its never ending hunt for food by serving to reveal the precise location of any animal the bird deems to be fitting for its next meal .\nthe eurasian eagle - owl underwent a significant decline in europe during the 20th century , due mainly to human persecution ( 2 ) ( 13 ) ( 16 ) . pesticide use and poisoning from mercury seed - dressings have also been a problem , as have collisions with vehicles , barbed wire ( 2 ) and powerlines ( 18 ) ( 19 ) ( 20 ) . in addition , diseases such as myxomatosis and rabbit haemorrhagic disease have decimated rabbit populations in some areas , with severe knock - on effects for the eurasian eagle - owl ( 2 ) ( 21 ) .\neurasian eagle - owls can be found throughout much of europe and asia , as well as some far northern parts of africa near the mediterranean coast . these birds make their homes in areas where food is most plentiful . they\u2019re suited to living in a wide variety of terrains , including forests , isolated farmlands , and landscapes featuring high cliffs upon which the birds can safely perch while hunting for the prey animals that wander on the grassy areas below . habitats for the eurasian eagle - owl can range from rocky mountainous areas to water - logged marshlands . eurasian eagle - owls can also be found in some of the world\u2019s most treacherous mountain ranges , including the asian himalayas , the alps of europe , and the tibetan plateau . the international union for the conservation of nature ' s most recent red list of threatened species , working in collaboration with birdlife international , classifies eurasian eagle - owls as a species of\nleast concern\n, considering their large populations and the massive geographical range of their diaspora . still , these birds face threats from human activities , such as hunting and accidents involving automobile traffic . many countries have implemented measures to protect and increase their respective eurasian eagle - owl populations .\na : go to our owl physiology page for a detailed classification of owls .\ncomb - like leading edge of barn owl flight feather . photo \u00a9 kay schultz\noccipital face of a ridgway ' s pygmy owl . photo \u00a9 alan van norman\nthe nests of eurasian eagle - owls are usually located on rocky ledges or in caves , as well as in cracks along mountainous cliffs . after the female lays her eggs , she spends the majority of her time incubating them , while her male partner is responsible for finding food . once they break free of their eggs , baby eurasian eagle - owls begin opening their eyes after a period of several days . they grow rapidly thereafter , and during that time it\u2019s important for both of parents to work hard to ensure that their young ones are sufficiently fed so that they can become healthy and strong . eurasian eagle - owls reach maturity at about two to three years of age . in the wild , eurasian eagle - owls can live for approximately 20 years , which becomes even longer when kept in captivity and looked after well .\nemmet re , mikkola h , mummery l & westerhof g 1972 : prey found in eagle owl\u2019s nest in central sweden . british birds 65 : 482 - 483 .\nin contrast , those who are concerned about the possible impacts of the eurasian on britain ' s wildlife , argue that there is no evidence that the eurasian is naturally occurring here , and the birds are thought to have been previously kept in captivity .\nthe eurasian eagle - owl has one of the largest ranges of any eagle - owl ( 6 ) , being found across much of europe , through the middle east , russia and asia , and as far east as china , korea and japan ( 2 ) ( 5 ) ( 11 ) ( 13 ) . although this species is generally absent from britain and ireland ( 11 ) , small numbers are now beginning to breed in britain ( 14 ) .\na giant gerbil doesn ' t stand much chance against turkmenistan ' s eagle owls .\nthe eurasian eagle - owl\u2019s \u2018facial disc\u2019 , the flat or concave arrangement of feathers on the face which is typical of owls , is greyish ( 2 ) ( 5 ) , and is less developed than in many other owl species ( 6 ) . the beak is black , and the legs and large , powerful toes are covered with buffy - white feathers ( 2 ) .\nin one particularly detailed study of eagle owl diet , partridges accounted for 8 . 4 % of items and pheasants for 2 % , with potential egg predators accounting for over 31 % of items . the most important egg predator , the hooded / carrion crow , features in eagle owl diets more than twice as often as in goshawk diets .\ngromov , i . m . and egorov , o . v . , information on the nutrition and economic significance of the eagle owl of eastern pamirs and kopet dag ,\nthe wings of an owl are finely serrated so that they can fly silently . this is to allow the owl to approach its prey silently without it hearing it first , and so that they owl itself can hear its prey over its own sounds .\na : the answers to these questions and more are in our owl physiology section .\ndistribution of leading - edge serrations on different wing feathers of all owl species investigated .\ncomb - like leading edge of great horned owl flight feather . photo \u00a9 kay schultz\nshepel\u2019 , a . i . , petrovskikh , a . i . , and fisher , s . v . , eagle owl in the kama region of perm oblast , in\nonly white - tailed eagles and golden eagles are known to kill eagle owls but badgers , pine martens and foxes might predate eagle owl nests . their populations may be limited by the availability of nest sites . there is some evidence from central europe to support this .\nthey were 50\u201360 days old [ 7 ] . also , a compilation of data on eagle\nferrer m ( 2001 ) the spanish imperial eagle . barcelona , spain : editorial lynx .\nthe distinctive call of the eurasian eagle - owl is a deep , booming \u2018 ooo - hu \u2019 ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) , while other vocalisations include a quiet , guttural chuckling , and a bark - like scream given by the female ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 12 ) .\neurasian eagle - owls combine fast and powerful flights with shallow wing beats and long , fast glides . they also soar on updrafts , displaying a type of flight similar to that of soaring hawks like the red - tailed hawk .\nthe eurasian eagle owls ( bubo bubo ) are horned owls found in much of europe and asia , where they occur in the mountains and forests with cliffs and rocky areas . they are usually most active at dawn and dusk .\nobuch j & rybin sn 1993 : food of the eagle owl ( bubo bubo zaissanensis chachlov ) in southern kirghizia ( osh district ) . folia zoologica 42 : 19 - 31 .\nin britain , the eurasian eagle - owl has commonly been kept in captivity , but escapes and releases have occurred ( 25 ) . although it is difficult to prove with certainty , wild individuals are thought to have come from released birds rather than ones that have reached the country naturally from mainland europe ( 26 ) . there are fears that if the population of eurasian eagle - owls in britain grows then some native birds , including vulnerable birds of prey , could be at risk of increased predation by this species ( 25 ) ( 26 ) .\nat our world center for birds of prey in boise , idaho , we have a eurasian eagle - owl named wally that helps educate visitors about his species and owls in general . he is a big star in our fall flight shows and is on display year - round in our visitor center . he loves visitors !\nthe trust ' s view is that no one complains about the little owl , which is an introduction to britain , while the return of the white tailed eagle and the red kite is celebrated .\nwe suggest that the opposition to the eagle owl is perhaps down to its size and expertise as a predator rather than being based on scientific fact or logic .\nin 2010 an eagle owl was caught on film predating a hen harrier . other species of conservation concern they are known to predate include pine martens , capercaillie , and various raptors and owls\nsome eagle owls may specialise in killing raptors ; one pair in norway was reported to have killed 13 raptors and owls in one nesting season . in germany , where the eagle owl has recolonised there is clear evidence of substantive adverse effects on the breeding success of goshawks and buzzards .\n. . . obuch ( 2014 ) reported multiple lizard species ( agamidae and lacertidae ) in eagle owl pellets from iran . our finding that hedgehogs constituted a significant part of the eagle owl diet is shared with most studies on this owl ' s diet , both within the middle east ( shehab 2004 ) and elsewhere ( marchesi et al . 2002 ; de cupere et al . 2009 ) . our data show increasing dependence on black rats in the diet . . . .\naround september to november the young owls will leave the nest . the lifespan of the eurasian eagle owl varies considerably depending upon whether it is kept in captivity , or in the wild . in it ' s natural habitat life expectancy is around 20 years , in stark contrast to captive owls who can live for up to sixty years .\nkaryakin , i . v . , kovalenko , a . v . , levin , a . s . , and pazhenkov , a . s . , eagle owl in the aral\u2013caspian region ,\nit has been recommended that the potential impact of this large owl on native british wildlife be assessed ( 14 ) and that its behaviour , diet and population should be monitored ( 26 ) . the eurasian eagle - owl is listed under schedule 9 to the wildlife and countryside act 1981 with respect to england and wales , making it an offence to release this species into the wild or to allow it to escape ( 25 ) .\nconsidered to be one of the largest owls in the world , the eurasian eagle - owl ( bubo bubo ) is an impressive and majestic bird , with distinctive , prominent ear - tufts , a barrel - shaped body , and vivid orange eyes . the eurasian eagle - owl\u2019s plumage is buffy - brown and heavily mottled and streaked with black , with paler underparts and fine barring on the belly and flanks . the wings and tail are marked with dark bars . the throat is white ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) and is used in intraspecific communication , as a visual signal associated with vocal displays ( 7 ) ( 8 ) ( 9 ) .\nthere are numerous points in this article which i think are very questionable . to take just one point the world owl trust are said to have put forward \u201creliable sightings ( and photographic evidence ) of eagle owls resting on north sea oil platforms\u201d . i am not aware of any such records , nor do the north sea bird club have any . there is a video on youtube which claims to show an eagle owl on a north sea oil platform but which actually shows a long - eared owl .\nmortality : eurasian eagle owls may live more than 60 years in captivity . in the wild , about 20 years may be the maximum . they have no real natural enemies ; electrocution , collision with traffic , and shooting are the main causes of death .\nyoda the european eagle owl has been issued with a library card \u2013 but it is unclear how the bird might pay for any fines incurred in the future . photograph : university of bath / press association\nuntil recently , it was believed that the eagle owl was all but absent from the uk , and had not occurred here naturally since the last ice age more than 10 , 000 years ago . that is , until the european eagle was discovered in the forest of bowland wells , lancashire , northern england .\nthe great black - headed gull is one of the species to which the agreement on the conservation of african - eurasian migratory waterbirds ( aewa ) applies .\nusually most active at dawn and dusk ( 2 ) ( 4 ) , the eurasian eagle - owl has a powerful , fast flight , which is somewhat reminiscent of that of a buzzard ( buteo buteo ) ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 16 ) . hunting occurs from an open perch or in flight , and the owl may also search rock crevices for roosting birds , take both adult and young birds from nests , or even plunge into water to capture fish ( 2 ) ( 16 ) . the diet of the eurasian eagle - owl mainly consists of mammals , up to the size of adult hares or even young deer , as well as birds up to the size of herons and buzzards , and occasionally amphibians , reptiles , fish and insects ( 2 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) ( 16 ) .\ndistinguishing nonhuman predation on birds : pattern of damage done by the white - tailed eagle haliaet . . .\ninvestigation into the predation of a pair of indian eagle owls on anurans disclosed the fact that . . .\n. . . rufinus ) , red kite ( milvus milvus ) , black kite ( m . migrans ) , eurasian eagle - owl ( bubo bubo ) , and tawny owls ( stix aluco ) are known to prey upon squirrels ( stroganova 1958 ; kolosov et al . 1965 ; heptner and sludskii 1992 ; de cupere et al . 2008 ) . . . .\neurasian eagle - owls are not picky eaters . they mainly eat small mammals such as voles , rats , and rabbits but also hunt woodpeckers , herons , and other birds , including other raptors . they also prey on amphibians , reptiles , fish , and insects .\nunlike other birds , owls ' eyes are set forward which greatly enhances depth perception , but doesn ' t allow the owl to rotate its eyes in order to change view . but just like other birds the eurasian needs a wide visual range in order to detect predators and prey . for this reason , owls including the eurasian have particularly flexible necks , which means they can literally rotate their heads 270 degrees either way .\nduring the last century the eurasian was very much in decline , due to human persecution , road traffic accidents , power lines , barbed wire , toxic mercury seed dressings and pesticide use . myxomatosis and rabbit haemorrhagic disease have significantly reduced rabbit populations in some regions , which has also had detrimental effects on the eurasian population .\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto eurasian eagle - owl utters deep and monotonous \u00ab oohu - oohu - oohu \u00bb repeated every 10 seconds as territorial call . the female\u2019s call is slightly higher - pitched and more raucous than male\u2019s . both mates perform duets during courtship displays . when alarmed and threatened , they may \u201cbark\u201d and grunt , and give harsh \u201cka ka kau\u201d .\nflight : during the breeding season , the eurasian eagle - owl rises into the sky at dusk and soars at good height . it has agile and silent flight in spite of its large size , comfortable on its large wings , with head and short tail well separated from the body . it often appears as a ghost while flying before the moon or in some light .\nalthough it possible for a trained eagle owl to kill a fox this would not be a normal prey . in the wild a less risky catch and more attractive and tasty meal would be a rabbit or rat .\npenteriani , v . , m . gallardo , p . roche . 2002 . landscape structure and food supply affect eagle owl ( bubo bubo ) density and breeding performance : a case of intra - population heterogeneity .\nmartinez , j . a . , martinez , j . e . , perez , e . , zuberogoitta , i . , and izquierdo , a . , possible first record of multiple brooding of the eagle owl\nleast some of the eagle owls currently inhabiting britain could have occurred naturally . the world owl trust also highlight a wealth of data that appears to suggest wild eagle owls have existed ( and still exist ) in the uk . among this ; perhaps the most persuasive argument put forth is the presence of b . bubo in the fossil record \u2013 something which suggests that the eagle owl did indeed inhabit the uk before eventually succumbing to extinction . in a 2007 study published in british birds , john stewart concluded , following a review of the archaeological records , that \u201ceagle owls form a natural part of britain\u2019s fauna\u201d . this paper is freely available online .\n. . . this could explain why we found no inter - annual variations in eurasian eagle owl survival . the survival of eurasian eagle owls in alpine and northern latitudes has previously been estimated from the recovery of owls marked as nestlings ( olsson 1997 ) and using a bayesian - integrated population model com - bining different data sets ( schaub et al . 2010 ) . in contrast to our results ( models including age were not well sup - ported ) , these studies pointed to a variation in survival that depended on age - class , and similar results have been found in other long - lived species ( e . g . . . .\neurasian eagle - owls are mostly nocturnal , or active at night . they spend their days roosting , or resting , in a safe perch . if they spend too much time on the ground , even these top predators may fall prey to opportunistic ground predators like foxes .\neurasian eagle - owls seem to do well in most types of habitat if there are available nesting spots and adequate prey . these large , beautiful owls have even been documented living in city parks . one owl showed up at the helsinki olympic stadium in finland . this potential fan spent time hanging out on the goal post , causing the game to be postponed for several minutes !\ndiet : the eurasian eagle - owl feeds on all moving animals , from beetles to fawns . the most part of its diet includes mammals such as voles , rats , mice , foxes and hares , but also birds of all species , crows , waterfowls , seabirds , and even other raptors\u2019 species . it also may consume snakes , lizards , amphibians , fishes and crustaceans .\nmalovichko , l . v . , gavrilov , a . i . , and fedosov , v . n . , features of distribution , nesting , and nutrition of the eagle owl in the steppe stavropol region , in\nwillgohs jf 1974 : the eagle owl bubo bubo ( l . ) in norway . part i . food ecology . sterna , norsk ornithologisk forening og stavanger museum . stavanger 13 ( 3 ) : 129 - 177 .\nowls are an order of birds of prey with about 200 species [ 8 ] . owl species vary in size over a huge range . the smallest owl is the pygmy owl ( glaucidium passerinum , weight : 42 g , length : 150\u2013190 mm [ 9 ] ) . the largest owl is the eagle owl ( bubo bubo , weight : up to 4200 g , length : 580\u2013710 mm [ 9 ] ( see wing in fig 2 , see also s1 table ) ) . we reasoned that this range should be large enough to see an effect of size . thus , our first hypothesis was that the size of an owl species might have an influence on the morphology of the serrations . moreover , the different owl species occupy a huge variety of ecological niches , and may live in deserts , woods as well as in the tundra . some of the owl species are strictly nocturnal , like the boreal owl ( aegolius funereus ) , while other owl species are more diurnal , like the little owl ( athene noctua ) . the more diurnal owls do not have such highly developed adaptations to hunting by listening as the nocturnal owls do [ 10 \u2013 12 ] . since a silent flight plays a less important role during hunting in diurnal owls , we further hypothesized that the development of serrations may depend on the activity pattern of an owl species with nocturnal owls have more developed serrations than diurnal owls .\nsilent flight gives owls the ability to capture prey by stealth , and also allows the owl to use its hearing to locate potential prey . this adaptation is not present on some owl species that hunt in the daytime .\nduring sleep the tufts are lowered which alters the shape of the head , this assists the eurasian to take up the shape and contours of the bark on nearby trees .\nyoda the european eagle owl visits the campus with his handler twice a week to unsettle the gulls there . the seven - year - old is employed as an environmentally friendly method to control the population and limit any adverse effects .\nmart\u00ednez , j . a . and zuberogoitia , i . ( 2001 ) the response of the eagle owl ( bubo bubo ) to an outbreak of the rabbit haemorrhagic disease . journal of ornithology , 142 : 204 - 211 .\nwhilst the outline about these predators is basically correct they do predate heavily on other owls . this has been found to be the case in many studies . our native owl population is not in a strong position especially the barn owl . whilst there are few in number at the moment the eagle owl could become a problem if they find other owls hunting at night an easy target . tawny , little owl & barn owls could be in trouble . often problems caused by reintroduction of species that no longer are part of our ecology are only found out too late .\nshort book review & synopsis : ' the barn owl : guardian of the countryside ' by jeff r . martin\nwith the exception of the barn owl , molting of wing feathers is from the inside out . barn owl wing feathers are replaced from the middle of the wing out ( in both directions ) . tail feathers also drop out a few at a time , except in some smaller owl species , who loose all the tail feathers at once .\npenteriani , v . , and delgado , m . m . ( 2009 ) the dusk chorus from an owl perspective : eagle owls vocalize when their white throat badge contrasts most . plos one , 4 ( 4 ) : e4960 .\nbetween one and five eggs are laid , and are incubated by the female for 34 to 36 days , during which time the male brings food to the nest . the young eurasian eagle - owls first leave the nest at around five weeks old , but cannot fly until about seven weeks , and remain dependent on the adults for a further three to four months ( 2 ) ( 5 ) ( 16 ) , not generally starting to disperse until they are approximately 170 days old ( 17 ) the eurasian eagle - owl reaches sexually maturity at 1 year ( 15 ) , and may live up to 21 years or more in the wild , or to an impressive 60 years in captivity ( 2 ) .\na : the best way to encourage your owl to stick around is to build it a house ! we have an owl artificial nest resource page to help you with this . i don ' t recommend trying to feed them .\nthe evidence at present shows that the eagle owl is posing a minimal threat to the bird community in general . this includes our game bird population as described in your article . obviously this could change if the owl were to be present in greater numbers ( although this increase appears unlikely in the foreseeable future ) . i say give this magnificent owl the opportunity to co - exist with us at present it may help with the control of other far more damaging predators .\nthis owl usually inhabits natural rocky areas with cliffs and ravines , as well as quarries and buildings , patches of woodland or scattered trees . it also occurs in open forest , taiga , wooded steppe , semi - desert , and farmland with suitable rocky areas ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 11 ) . the eurasian eagle - owl and can be found at elevations of up to about 2 , 000 metres in europe and 4 , 500 metres in central asia and the himalayas ( 2 ) ( 11 ) ."]}
{"id": 998, "summary": [{"text": "ethmiopsis tegulifera is a moth in the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by meyrick in 1932 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in the russian far east ( ussuri ) , korea and japan .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 13-14.5 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are white , with scattered dark fuscous scales .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the posterior two-thirds of the costa is dark brown with a white stigma .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are grey .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on quercus mongolica and quercus serrata . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "ethmiopsis tegulifera", "paragraphs": ["ethmiopsis tegulifera ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 43\ndactylethra tegulifera meyrick , 1932 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 7 ) : 201 ; tl : s . ussuri\nethmiopsis aganactes ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 42\nethmiopsis catarina ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 42\nethmiopsis epichthonia ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 42\nethmiopsis heppneri ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 42\nethmiopsis prosectrix ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 42\nethmiopsis scriniata ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 43\nethmiopsis subtegulifera ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 43\nfigures 3 \u2212 5 . adult morphology of encolapta spp . 3 , adult of e . tegulifera , \u2640 ; 4 \u2212 5 , labial palpus : 4 , e . tegulifera , \u2642 ; 5 , e . epichthonia , \u2640 . ( scale bars 3 = 2 . 0 mm ; 4 , 5 = 1 . 0 mm ) .\nethmiopsis prosectrix meyrick , 1935 ; mat . microlep . fauna chin . prov . : 69 ; tl : tien - mu - shan\nfigures 18 \u2212 19 . genital structure of encolapta spp . 18 , male genitalia of e . tegulifera , slide no . ymq 15463 ; 18 a , eighth abdominal segment of male e . aciprojecta sp . nov . , arrow indicates eighth tergite , slide no . ymq 15479 ; 19 , female genitalia of e . tegulifera , slide no . ymq 15455 . ( scale bars 18 a = 0 . 2 mm ; 18 \u2212 19 = 0 . 5 mm ) .\n= ; [ sangmi lee ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 42\n= ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 42 ; [ sangmi lee ]\nchelophoba aganactes meyrick , 1935 ; mat . microlep . fauna chin . prov . : 72 ; tl : tien - mu - shan\ndactylethrella catarina ponomarenko , 1994 ; japan heteroc . j . 176 : 8 ; tl : rjasanovka , primorskii krai\nhomoshelas epichthonia meyrick , 1935 ; mat . microlep . fauna chin . prov . : 71 ; tl : lungtan\nhomochela heppneri park , 1995 ; tropical lepid . 6 ( 1 ) : 79 ; tl : pingtung co . , taiwan\nchelophoba melaina clarke , 1986 ; smithshon . contr . zool . 416 : 173 ; tl : marquesas archipelago , fatu hiva , omoa\nchelaria scriniata meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 163 ; tl : pundalalouya , ceylon\ndactylethrella subtegulifera ponomarenko , 1994 ; japan heteroc . j . 176 : 7 ; tl : gornotaezhnoe , primorskii krai\nlarva on quercus mongolica , quercus serrata ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 43\nsangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nsattler , 1973 a catalogue of the family - group and genus - group names of the gelechiidae , holcopogonidae , lecithoceridae and symmocidae ( lepidoptera ) bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent . ) 28 ( 4 ) : 153 - 282\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnb : the taxon name search is for single names only . for example , to locate dysodia vitrina flammata warren , 1904 you should enter flammata only .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\nyang , meiqing & li , houhun , 2016 , review of the genus encolapta meyrick , 1913 ( lepidoptera : gelechiidae : chelariini ) from china , with descriptions of six new species , zootaxa 4193 ( 2 ) , pp . 201 - 227 : 221 - 222\nmaterial examined . china : shanxi province : 1 \u018c , xiyaocun , ningwu county , 1475 m , 21 . vii . 2011 , leg . shulian hao and jiayu liu\n4 \u018c\u018c , 1 \u2640 , administration , luyashan nature reserves , ningwu county , 1450 m , 23\u221224 . vii . 2011 , leg . shulian hao and jiayu liu , genitalia slide nos . ymq15455 f\nymq 15456 m ; 1 \u018c , dahe forest , 1340 m , 13 . vii . 2012 , leg . qiang gao and na chen , genitalia slide no\nymq15457 ; 2 \u018c\u018c , dahe forest , yicheng , linfen , 1202 m , 23 , 25 . vii . 2013 , leg . shulian hao and mingjing li , genitalia slide no\nymq15458 ; 1 \u018c , manghe national nature reserves , yangcheng county , 594 m , 17 . vii . 2012 , leg . wei guan and xiuchun wang , genitalia slide no\nymq15459 ; 1 \u2640 , xixiakou , lishan nature reserves , qinshui , jincheng , 1515 m , 17 . viii . 2012 , leg . zhiwei zhang and shulian hao , genitalia slide no\nymq15460 ; 29 \u018c\u018c , 22 \u2640\u2640 , mt . mian , jiexiu , 1370 m , 14\u221222 . vii . 2014 , leg . tengteng liu , meiqing yang and sihan lu , genitalia slide nos\nymq 15466 m . liaoning province : 3 \u018c\u018c , mt . tiecha , benxi county , 28\u221229 . vi . 2010 , leg . jiayu liu and yanpeng cai\n3 \u018c\u018c , 1 \u2640 , mt . qian , anshan , 6\u22127 . vii . 2010 , leg . jiayu liu and yanpeng cai , genitalia slide nos . ymq15471 f\nymq 15472 m ; 7 \u018c\u018c , 2 \u2640\u2640 , mt . baiyun , haicheng , 11\u221214 . vii . 2010 , leg . jiayu liu and yanpeng cai , genitalia slide nos\nymq15474 f . zhejiang province : 2 \u018c\u018c , shunxiwu , qingliangfeng national nature reserves , 390 m , 19\u221220 . v . 2012 , leg . linlin yang and zhenguo zhang , genitalia slide no\nymq15477 ; 13 \u018c\u018c , mt . longtang , qingliangfeng national nature reserves , 500 m , 21\u221222 . v . 2012 , leg . linlin yang and zhenguo zhang\nhenan province : 7 \u018c\u018c , baotianman , neixiang , 1350 m , 13\u221215 . vii . 1998 , leg . houhun li\n7 \u018c\u018c , 3 \u2640\u2640 , huangshian , xixia , 890 m , 17\u221218 . vii . 1998 , leg\nhouhun li . guizhou province : 2 \u018c\u018c , shaluo , chishui , 390 m , 27\u221228 . v . 2000 , leg\nyanli du . shaanxi province : 1 \u018c , yangling , 450 m , 1 . vii . 1986 , leg . houhun li\n2 \u018c\u018c , xinjiashan , fengxian , 1600 m , 9 , 13 . vii . 1988 , leg\nhouhun li . gansu province : 1 \u018c , douba , kangxian , 1100 m , 8 . vi . 1995 , leg . aisihaer maimaiti\nin appearance , and the differences between them are stated under the latter species .\n) , and the lateral band joined at middle of anterior margin and the ostium bursae with lateral carinae in the female genitalia ( fig . 19\ndistribution . china ( gansu , guizhou , henan , liaoning , shaanxi , shanxi , zhejiang ) , japan , korea , russian far east .\nno known copyright restrictions apply . see agosti , d . , egloff , w . , 2009 . taxonomic information exchange and copyright : the plazi approach . bmc research notes 2009 , 2 : 53 for further explanation .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\nthe gelechiidae is similar to other gelechioid families in that its members have a scaled proboscis and strongly recurved labial palpus , but differs from other gelechioid families by having a combination of the following characters : 1 ) hindwing subrectangular to trapezoidal with sinuous or concave termen and prominent apex , 2 ) forewing lanceolate to elongate\u2013ovate with cup absent , 3 ) the retinaculum of the wing\u2013coupling mechanism on the radial vein of the female forewing , 4 ) labial palpus long , second segment often with ventral brush , third segment long , acute , rarely with short dorsal brush of rough scales , 5 ) male gnathos forming a pair of lateral , articulated , symmetrical sclerites with an articulated , mesial hook ( hodges , 1986 , 1999 ) ."]}
{"id": 999, "summary": [{"text": "the red-crowned ant tanager ( habia rubica ) is a medium-sized passerine bird from tropical america .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the genus habia was long placed with the tanagers ( thraupidae ) , but it is actually closer to the cardinals ( cardinalidae ) .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "consequently , it can be argued that referring to the members of this genus as ant-tanagers is misleading , but no other common name has gained usage .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "red-crowned ant tanagers are 18 cm ( 7.1 in ) long and weigh 34 g ( 1.2 oz ) ( male ) or 31 g ( 1.1 oz ) ( female ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "adult males are dull reddish brown with a brighter red throat and breast .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the black-bordered scarlet crown stripe is raised when the bird is excited .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the female is yellowish brown with a yellow throat and yellow-buff crown stripe .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the red-crowned ant tanager is a shy but noisy bird .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "its call is a rattle followed by a musical pee-pee-pee .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "this bird is a resident breeder from mexico south to paraguay and northern argentina , and on trinidad .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "common in its wide range , it is not considered threatened by the iucn .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it preferentially occurs in the middle stratum of the forest as well as undergrowth rich in ferns , shrubs and herbs .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "these birds are found in pairs or family groups .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they eat mainly arthropods , but berries are also taken .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "in central america and trinidad they frequently attend army ant columns , and in the lowland forests of southeastern brazil they may be a nuclear species of understory mixed-species feeding flocks \u2013 though further uphill , e.g. in the serra de paranapiacaba , they seem to join such flocks only rarely and prefer to follow the ants on their own .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "they also follow south american coatis ( nasua nasua ) on their feeding excursions , namely in the dry season .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in both cases , they are commensales , snatching invertebrate prey startled by the ants or coatis .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the shallow cup nest is usually built in a sapling or tree fern near a stream , and the normal clutch is two brown-blotched white eggs .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the female incubates the eggs for 13 days prior to hatching , with about ten days more before the chicks fledge . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "red - crowned ant tanager", "paragraphs": ["17\u201319 cm ; male 27\u00b77\u201342\u00b79 g , female 22\u00b75\u201337 g . mostly brownish - red ant - tanager with strong bill and no obvious crest . male nominate race is mainly dull brownish - red above , . . .\nel diamante , esquipulas - quepos . foraging with varios ant birds , woodcreepers and others .\nhilty , s . ( 2018 ) . red - crowned ant - tanager ( habia rubica ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\na recent phylogeographic analysis of the red - crowned ant - tanager ( habia rubica ) , based on mitochondrial and nuclear markers and also considering differences in song and plumage coloration , suggests that at least three different species should be considered : habia rubica in the atlantic forest area ( brazil , paraguay and argentina ) , rubra in the rest of south america and h . rubicoides in mexico and central america # r .\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : habia rubica . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\npartners in flight estimate the total population to number 5 , 000 , 000 - 50 , 000 , 000 individuals ( a . panjabi in litt . 2008 ) . trend justification : this species is suspected to lose 11 . 7 - 13 . 3 % of suitable habitat within its distribution over three generations ( 13 years ) based on a model of amazonian deforestation ( soares - filho et al . 2006 , bird et al . 2011 ) . it is therefore suspected to decline by < 25 % over three generations .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nin costa rica a couple was aided by another female in the rearing the chicks . the youth help their parents in the care of the chicks .\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\na rare vocalization of this species near a stream in the atlantic rainforest . because this voice this species is known as . . .\njuan sanabria , desmond allen , josep del hoyo , richard garrigues , manakincarmelo , dave jackson , peter nash , jacob . wijpkema .\nmanakincarmelo , manuel retana , andre zambolli , ileyne lopes , caduagne , pedro h ramos , josef widmer , juanjaimemg , paul van giersbergen , mauricio rueda , antonio silveira , lindolfo souto , samantha klein .\nnominate race and bahiae geographically isolated from ( and larger and darker than ) all other races , in se brazil , and thought in hbw possibly to represent a separate species , while a recent phylogeographic analysis based on mitochondrial and nuclear markers that also took into account differences in song and , to a lesser extent , in plumage coloration suggested that as many as three species might be involved , the rubra group over the rest of south america and rubicoides in middle america , as well as the nominate # r . however , differences between the racial groups are not always clear - cut or pronounced . several of the numerous races are weakly differentiated and seem barely worth recognizing . seventeen subspecies recognized .\n( nelson , 1898 ) \u2013 pacific slope of sw mexico from nayarit and jalisco s to guerrero .\n\u2013 s mexico ( from puebla , e oaxaca , tabasco and chiapas ) , guatemala and belize s to honduras , el salvador and nicaragua .\n( lawrence , 1867 ) \u2013 pacific slope of costa rica ( s from nicoya peninsula ) and panama ( e to dari\u00e9n ) .\nphelps , sr & phelps , jr , 1957 \u2013 sierra de perij\u00e1 region of venezuela\u2013colombia .\n( todd , 1919 ) \u2013 base of andes in w venezuela ( s from lara ) and adjacent nc colombia ( norte de santander , ne boyac\u00e1 , w casanare ) ; also recorded in nw colombia ( c\u00f3rdoba ) .\nparkes , 1969 \u2013 e venezuela ( r yuru\u00e1n region of e bol\u00edvar ) .\n( salvin & godman , 1883 ) \u2013 colombia e of andes ( from meta s to caquet\u00e1 ) , e ecuador , ne peru and nw brazil .\n( taczanowski , 1884 ) \u2013 e peru , w brazil and n bolivia ( s to santa cruz ) .\ngriscom & greenway , 1937 \u2013 c brazil s of r amazon ( e to r xingu , s to n mato grosso ) .\nhellmayr , 1936 \u2013 ne & ce brazil ( alagoas ; se bahia ) .\n\u2013 se brazil ( from s minas gerais and esp\u00edrito santo s to rio grande do sul ) , e paraguay and ne argentina ( misiones ) .\nhas diverse array of vocalizations , some harsh , some exceptionally melodic . in middle america three . . .\nbreeding reported may and jun ( less often as early as feb ) in mexico , apr\u2013jul in belize , mar in guatemala and feb\u2013jun in costa rica ; feb\u2013 . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . widespread , and uncommon to locally fairly common . occurs in a large number of parks and reserves throughout its large range , and its . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\npreviously included in a much broader emberizidae . limits and composition redrawn in recent years , based on extensive molecular work # r # r . as compared to hbw : granatellus is imported from parulidae , amaurospiza from passerellidae ( part of emberizidae in hbw ) , and habia ( now including chlorothraupis ) and piranga from thraupidae ; at the same time , saltator and parkerthraustes have been removed to thraupidae .\non basis of molecular evidence # r # r # r , may form a monophyletic group with piranga and chlorothraupis ; all three previously placed in thraupidae , but same studies show them to belong instead in present family . furthermore , chlorothraupis is merged into habia to resolve paraphyly , as h . rubica is closer to \u201c chlorothraupis \u201d than to h . fuscicauda and h . gutturalis # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\ntook a second before i knew what it was , slightly haunting . low - pass filtered at 400 hz .\nhumid forest . reference : jn2 . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhabia rubica holobrunnea : subtrop . e mexico ( s tamaulipas to veracruz and n oaxaca )\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 298 , 781 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy"]}
{"id": 1000, "summary": [{"text": "gnorimoschema bacchariselloides is a moth in the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by powell and povoln\u00fd in 2001 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from california , montana and alberta .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is 7-8.2 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are covered by a mixture of greyish and rust scales .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is a pale rust basal patch , defined outwardly by a whitish transverse band extending obliquely from the costa to the dorsal margin , extending outward in the dorsal area and curving upward as a crescentic streak .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there are two brownish stigmata indicated at about the middle and two-thirds and there are also some scales with blackish tips indicating submarginal spots in the apical area .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are grey .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults have been recorded on wing in september and october . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "gnorimoschema bacchariselloides", "paragraphs": ["species gnorimoschema bacchariselloides - gnorimoschema baccariselloides - hodges # 1971 . 4 - bugguide . net\ngnorimoschema bacchariselloides povoln\u00fd & powell , 2001 , n . sp . , corrects previous spelling of baccariselloides at mpg .\nhome \u00bb guide \u00bb arthropods ( arthropoda ) \u00bb hexapods ( hexapoda ) \u00bb insects ( insecta ) \u00bb butterflies and moths ( lepidoptera ) \u00bb twirler moths and kin ( gelechioidea ) \u00bb twirler moths ( gelechiidae ) \u00bb gelechiinae \u00bb gnorimoschemini \u00bb gnorimoschema \u00bb gnorimoschema baccariselloides - hodges # 1971 . 4 ( gnorimoschema bacchariselloides )\nthis looks like some of the images of 1971 . 4 gnorimoschema baccariselloides at bold and appears to be a much better specimen than one another submitted recently : bugguide found at uv light near santee lakes .\nmoved from gnorimoschema . note spelling . mpg omitted the\nh\nin bacchariselloides . i did confirm the original spelling . the error was repeated here at bugguide and at discoverlife as well as your personal website . i also checked bold and the original description by powell & povoln\u00fd ( 2001 ) p . 11 here . matches some landry bold images perfectly . the description is a little hard to follow but it seems ok . fyi - the link took a couple minutes to download but did eventually work .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\npowell , j . a . & d . povoln\u00fd , 2001 . gnorimoschemini moths of coastal dune and scrub habitats in california ( lepidoptera : gelechiidae ) . holarctic lepidoptera , 8 ( suppl . 1 ) : 1 - 53 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\npowell , j . a . & povoln\u00fd d . , 2001 . gnorimoschemine moths of coastal dune and scrub habitats in california ( lepidoptera : gelechiidae ) . holarctic lepidoptera , 8 , ( suppl . 1 ) : 11 .\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 2 october , 2013 - 3 : 37pm additional contributions by steve nanz last updated 21 november , 2016 - 11 : 36am\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nselect your preferred way to display the comments and click ' save settings ' to activate your changes ."]}
{"id": 1001, "summary": [{"text": "cryptarius is a genus of catfishes ( order siluriformes ) of the family ariidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it includes two species , c. daugeti and c. truncatus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "cryptarius species originate from brackish waters of south and southeast asia .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "c. daugeti originates from the mekong river basin and inhabits large rivers .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it is found in brackish and fresh waters of cambodia and vietnam .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "this species has a maximum length of 26 centimetres ( 10 in ) tl .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "c. truncatus originates from estuaries and lower courses of rivers from the chao phraya to sumatra and java , including the lower mekong .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it inhabits brackish waters of thailand , cambodia , indonesia , and malaysia .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this species has a maximum length of 42 cm ( 17 in ) in length .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "this fish species feeds on fishes and crustaceans .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "c. truncatus is marketed fresh . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "cryptarius", "paragraphs": ["froese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2008 ) .\ncryptarius daugeti\nin fishbase . jan 2008 version .\nfroese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2008 ) .\ncryptarius truncatus\nin fishbase . jan 2008 version .\nremarks . no specimen of c . daugueti ( chevey , 1932 ) could be obtained for examination and data from descriptions available in the literature do not contain reliable information as to inclusion of the species into any of the genera we recognize . thus , the inclusion of c . daugueti in cryptarius\nsix species from the ariidae family were also used in this study . the number of specimens per species for training and testing the model were 18 and 10 , respectively . the classification results obtained from this family are shown in table 4 . overall accuracy of the model in this family was \u223c93 % which is slightly less than the other two families . the lowest classification accuracy ( 80 % ) in this family was for the nemapteryx caelatus . two specimens of the nemapteryx caelatus species were predicted as the cryptarius truncatus . three species namely arius maculatus , hexanematichtys sagor and plicofollis argyropleuron had 100 % correct prediction results . the accuracy of the model for the cryptarius truncatus and osteogeneiosus militaris species was 90 % . both of these species had one specimen that was misclassified as nemapteryx caelatus .\nin each target species ( rows ) , numbers of specimens are indicated in the corresponding predicted species ( columns ) . species are dendrophysa russelli ( 1 ) , johnius belangerii ( 2 ) , johnius carouna ( 3 ) , otolithes ruber ( 4 ) , panna microdon ( 5 ) , nemapteryx caelatus ( 6 ) , arius maculatus ( 7 ) , cryptarius truncatus ( 8 ) , hexanematichtys sagor ( 9 ) , osteogeneiosus militaris ( 10 ) , plicofollis argyropleuron ( 11 ) , coilia dussumieri ( 12 ) , setipinna taty ( 13 ) , thryssa hamiltonii ( 14 ) .\nto test the model with more species , all three families were combined ( total number of 14 species ) and the results of the classification are demonstrated in table 5 . from each species , 18 and 10 specimens were used to train and test the model , respectively ( total numbers of 252 images for the training and 140 images for the testing ) . all 14 species were predicted by the proposed model with an overall accuracy of \u223e92 % . eight of these species , three from the sciaenidae , three from the ariidae , and two from the engraulidae family , were classified with the accuracy of 100 % . three species showed the identification accuracy of less than 90 % ( dendrophysa russelli : 80 % , nemapteryx caelatus : 70 % , and cryptarius truncatus : 70 % ) . nemapteryx caelatus and cryptarius truncates , both from the ariidae family , had the most numbers of misclassified specimens among the 14 species used in this study . the classification accuracy for otolithes ruber , osteogeneiosus militaris , and setipinna taty was 90 % . it is worth - noting that there was no cross - family misclassification for all six species that had at least one misclassified specimen ( all six species had specimens correctly classified in their families ) . as a result , developing a model that first identifies the family and then species cannot lead to an improvement in the overall accuracy of the system .\nfound in estuaries and lower courses of rivers from the chao phrya to sumatra and java , including the lower mekong . the species can be quite abundant at times . feeds on fishes and crustaceans . caught with trawls , seines , traps and hook - and - line . marketed fresh . the genus cryptarius can be distinguished by the following exclusive ( 1 to 5 ) characters : ( 1 ) vomer arrow shaped ; ( 2 ) epioccipital posterior process contacting median crest associated with neural spine of fourth vertebra ; ( 3 ) anterior part of interopercle very long and pointed ( fig . 43 ) ; ( 4 ) anterior part of metapterygoid contacting quadrate through an indented articulation , most of the remaining part of this bone simply contacting the quadrate . ( 5 ) posterior portion of second basibranchial very wide ( fig . 45 ) ; ( 6 ) mesethmoid moderately thick at median portion .\nwestern central pacific : estuaries and lower courses of rivers from the chao phraya to sumatra and java , including the lower mekong .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 42 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 12693 )\noccurs in estuaries , lower courses of rivers ( ref . 12693 ) . feeds on fishes and crustaceans . marketed fresh ( ref . 12693 ) .\nrainboth , w . j . , 1996 . fishes of the cambodian mekong . fao species identification field guide for fishery purposes . fao , rome , 265 p . ( ref . 12693 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 7500 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00525 ( 0 . 00324 - 0 . 00851 ) , b = 3 . 14 ( 2 . 99 - 3 . 29 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 0 \u00b10 . 67 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate to high vulnerability ( 51 of 100 ) .\n420mm or 16 . 5\nsl . find near , nearer or same sized spp .\nget or print a qr code for this species profile , or try our beta label creator .\nhas this page been useful ? please donate to our monthly hosting costs and keep us free for everyone to enjoy ! explore our youtube channel , facebook page or follow us on twitter .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 urltoken , part of the aquatic republic network group of websites . all rights reserved . cite this website . by accessing this site you agree to our terms and conditions of use . our privacy policy .\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of arius truncatus valenciennes , 1840 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of tachysurus truncatus ( valenciennes , 1840 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cephalocassis truncatus ( valenciennes , 1840 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of hemipimelodus cochlearis fowler , 1935 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nkailola , p . j . / carpenter , kent e . , and volker h . niem , eds .\nfao species identification guide for fishery purposes : the living marine resources of the western central pacific , vol . 3 : batoid fishes , chimaeras and bony fishes , part 1 ( elopidae to linophrynidae )\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nthis site makes extensive use of javascript . please enable javascript in your browser .\nvalenciennes in cuvier & valenciennes , 1840b : 64 . type locality : java , indonesia . holotype : mnhn b - 0590 .\nfowler , 1935 : 101 , fig . 25 . type locality : paknam , thailand . holotype : ansp 60767 . paratypes : ansp 60768 - 73 .\nmaterial examined : ansp 60768 ( 3 al , 166 - 190 mm tl ) ( 1 c & s ) , thailand , paknam , siam , at the mouth of the me nam chao phya , south of bangkok ; ummz 181176 ( 4 al , 227 - 290 mm tl ) ( 1 c & s ) , cambodia , battambang , tonle sap ( great lake ) nw basin , mekung dr ; usnm 103189 ( 2 al , 246 - 283 mm tl ) , thailand , menam chao phya , koh yyai , c . siam .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nsouth and southeast asia . : thailand , cambodia , indonesia and malaysia . type locality : java , indonesia\nrainboth , w . j . 1996 fishes of the cambodian mekong . fao species identification field guide for fishery purposes . fao , rome , 265 p . marceniuk , alexandre p . ; menezes , na\u00e9rcio a . ( 2007 ) .\nsystematics of the family ariidae ( ostariophysi , siluriformes ) , with a redefinition of the genera\nzootaxa 1416 : 1\u2013126 .\nyour current browser isn ' t compatible with soundcloud . please download one of our supported browsers . need help ?\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n, select family and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the family .\n, select country and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the country .\n, select ecosystem and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the ecosystem .\ncfm script by eagbayani , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by cmilitante , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by cmilitante , 14 / 03 / 2013\nsmallest 420mm , largest 420mm , average 420mm , most commonly 420mm . all sl .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\ncan be distinguished by the following exclusive ( 1 to 5 ) and shared ( 6 to 14 ) characters : ( 1 ) vomer arrow shaped ; ( 2 ) epioccipital posterior process contacting median crest associated with neural spine of fourth vertebra ; ( 3 ) anterior part of interopercle very long and pointed ( fig . 43 ) ; ( 4 ) anterior part of metapterygoid contacting quadrate through an indented articulation , most of the remaining part of this bone simply contacting the quadrate ( fig . 44 ) ; ( 5 ) posterior portion of second basibranchial very wide ( fig . 45 ) ; ( 6 ) mesethmoid moderately thick at median portion ( shared with amphiarius , arius caelatus\n, potamosilurus , sciades assimilis , s . bonillai , s . felis , s . platypogon , s . sagor and s . seemanni ) ; ( 7 ) anterior part of anterior cranial fontanel indistinct , not limited by a mesial expansion of orbitosphenoid ( shared with galeichthys\n, potamosilurus ( with exception of p . velutinus ) and sciades ] ; ( 9 ) posterior projection of epioccipital process contacting a small portion of the diagonal crest associated with neural spine of fourth vertebra ( shared with amphiarius , aspistor\n, potamosilurus and sciades ( with exception of s . platypogon ) ] ; ( 11 ) wing - like process of parasphenoid absent ( shared with batrachocephalus\nsupplementary morphological characters . cephalic shield granulated visible under the skin ; lateral ethmoid and frontal bones limiting a large fenestra clearly visible under the skin ; medial groove of neurocranium very distinct , limited by frontal bones and / or on supraoccipital ; posterior cranial fontanel moderately developed , long and narrow ; fenestra limited by supraoccipital , pterotic and sphenotic absent ; fossa limited by pterotic , supracleithrum and extrascapular very reduced ; epioccipital not invading dorsal portion of cephalic shield ; occipital process triangular , moderately long and wide , narrowing progressively toward its posterior end ; anterior and median nuchal plates fused and indistinct , forming a structure of semi - lunar aspect ; tooth plates associated with vomer absent ; accessory tooth plates small transversely elongated and oval shaped , bearing conical teeth ; maxillary barbels fleshy and cylindrical ; two pairs of mental barbels ; base of adipose fin very short , less than one - half the length of anal - fin base ; lateral line not bifurcated at caudal region , reaching base of caudal - fin upper lobe ; cleithrum narrow , with second dorsal process on its upper portion ; posterior cleithral process moderately long and distinct from second dorsal process of cleithrum .\nalexandre p . marceniuk , na\u00e9rcio a . menezes ( 2007 ) : systematics of the family ariidae ( ostariophysi , siluriformes ) , with a redefinition of the genera . zootaxa 1416 , 1 - 126 : 54 - 55 , urltoken\nthis species has a maximum length of 42 cm ( 17 in ) in length .\nmarceniuk , alexandre p . ; menezes , na\u00e9rcio a . ( 2007 ) .\nsystematics of the family ariidae ( ostariophysi , siluriformes ) , with a redefinition of the genera\n( pdf ) . zootaxa 1416 : 1\u2013126 .\nnote that a preprint of this article also exists , first published november 19 , 2015 .\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , reproduction and adaptation in any medium and for any purpose provided that it is properly attributed . for attribution , the original author ( s ) , title , publication source ( peerj ) and either doi or url of the article must be cited .\nbackground . fish species may be identified based on their unique otolith shape or contour . several pattern recognition methods have been proposed to classify fish species through morphological features of the otolith contours . however , there has been no fully - automated species identification model with the accuracy higher than 80 % . the purpose of the current study is to develop a fully - automated model , based on the otolith contours , to identify the fish species with the high classification accuracy .\nmethods . images of the right sagittal otoliths of 14 fish species from three families namely sciaenidae , ariidae , and engraulidae were used to develop the proposed identification model . short - time fourier transform ( stft ) was used , for the first time in the area of otolith shape analysis , to extract important features of the otolith contours . discriminant analysis ( da ) , as a classification technique , was used to train and test the model based on the extracted features .\nresults . performance of the model was demonstrated using species from three families separately , as well as all species combined . overall classification accuracy of the model was greater than 90 % for all cases . in addition , effects of stft variables on the performance of the identification model were explored in this study .\nconclusions . short - time fourier transform could determine important features of the otolith outlines . the fully - automated model proposed in this study ( stft - da ) could predict species of an unknown specimen with acceptable identification accuracy . the model codes can be accessed at urltoken and urltoken . the current model has flexibility to be used for more species and families in future studies .\nfourteen fish species from three different families namely engraulidae , sciaenidae , and ariidae were used in this study . short - time fourier transform ( stft ) is a conventional signal processing technique ( allen , 1997 ; oppenheim , schafer & buck , 1999 ; rabiner & schafer , 1978 ) which to our knowledge has not yet been employed in the area of otolith image processing . stft was applied in this study to extract morphological features of the otolith contours .\nimages of the right sagittal otoliths were captured using a stereomicroscope ( olympus dp25fw , 6 . 3x magnification ) attached with a digital camera . proximal view of the otolith , dorsal edge facing up and posterior end facing the positive direction , was used in this study . the proposed image identification system was implemented in matlab ( matlab \u00ae release 2013a , the mathworks , inc . , kuala lumpur , malaysia ) . figure 1 illustrates the schematic diagram of the fully - automated image recognition model represented in this study . different stages of this system are detailed as follows .\n( a ) shows different stages for training the model , and the testing part of the system is illustrated in the ( b ) .\ndiscrimination among different fish species was based on the 1d representation of the otolith outline . firstly , the external outline of the surface contours of the otolith had to be extracted and then , distances between the center of gravity and the contour points had to be calculated . for this purpose , the grayscale image of the otolith was converted to the binary image with the threshold value of 0 . 1 . choice of this threshold value ( 0 . 1 ) resulted in obtaining the binary images for the otoliths with a wide range of transparency . after clearing the borders and filling the holes , the small objects ( objects that had fewer than 50 , 000 pixels ) were removed from the binary images . then , coordinates of the boundary ( outline ) pixels as well as the center of gravity were calculated . by having these coordinates , characteristic 1d signals , which are the distances between the boundary pixels and center of gravity as a function of the corresponding angles , were determined . figure 2 shows an image of the otolith with its representative 1d signal .\nimage of an otolith ( a ) with its corresponding 1d signal ( b ) .\n1d signal was obtained by calculating the radius , distances between the boundary pixels ( red ) and the center of gravity ( blue ) , as a function of angle .\n1d spatial - domain signals obtained from the previous stage were down - sampled to 1 , 000 points ( samples ) by interpolation using fast fourier transform ( fft ) . in this study , short - time fourier transform ( stft ) was applied as a feature extraction method on the resampled signals . stft of the original ( 1d ) signals were determined by using gaussian window function . repeated trials of many combinations of two parameters , the number of points of the window function and the number of overlapped samples , were made to achieve the best classification result . the best match of 100 points of the window and 40 overlapped samples resulted in the division of each signal into 16 segments . the type of windowing function also affected the performance of the identification system . to explore this effect , results obtained using different windowing techniques were compared in the next section . figure 3 shows the spectrogram ( using stft with the sampling frequency ( f s ) of 2 \u03c0 ) obtained from the 1d spatial - domain signal illustrated in fig . 2 . the color bar in fig . 3 indicates the power spectral density ( psd ) estimate of each segment . each segment of the original signal consisted of 129 frequency components . absolute values and phase angles of the frequency components of each segment were determined and then standardized by calculating the corresponding z - scores ( z _ abss : z - scores of the absolute values and z _ angs : z - scores of the angles ) . in each segment of the signal , two important parameters were determined : maximum of the z _ abss ( max abs ) and maximum of z _ angs ( max ang ) . having 16 segments in each signal , 32 attributes ( 16 max abs + 16 max ang ) were extracted from each representative signal . in this way , each otolith image was converted to a 32 - element vector in which the first 16 elements were max abs values and the rest were the values of max ang . the contribution of each feature type ( absolute and angle ) to the performance of the model was also explored and the obtained results are demonstrated in the next section .\nthe original signal was resampled to 1 , 000 points before calculating the short - time fourier transform ( stft ) . the color bar indicates estimates of the power spectral density ( psd ) . stft of the spatial - domain signal was calculated with sampling frequency of 2 \u03c0 .\nthe characteristic vectors obtained from the previous stage were utilized as inputs to the discriminant analysis ( da ) classifier in order to train and test the identification system . fourteen species from three different families were used in this study ( table 1 ) . all otoliths were extracted from fish obtained from fish landing sites or the wet markets . no ethics clearance was required from the university of malaya\u2014institutional animal care and use committee ( um - iacuc ) .\nthree different fish families ( sciaenidae , ariidae , and engraulidae ) were used separately to train and test the model . in addition , the proposed image identification model was evaluated for all 14 species combined .\nthree species namely coilia dussumieri , setipinna taty and thryssa hamiltonii from the engraulidae family were used in this study . from each species , 20 specimens ( otolith images ) were used for training the model . then , the trained model was tested with 10 specimens per species ( total of 30 images for testing the model ) . table 2 demonstrates the confusion matrix obtained from the predicted species in this family .\nthe predicted species ( columns ) are compared with the species confirmed by an expert ( rows ) .\nall of the 10 specimens from the coilia dussumieri and setipinna taty species were classified correctly . for the thryssa hamiltonii species , one specimen was misclassified as the setipinna taty species . overall , 29 out of 30 specimens from the engraulidae family ( \u223c97 % ) were correctly predicted as the target species .\nfive species of the sciaenidae family were also used to evaluate performance of the identification system . in this family , 19 specimens per species ( total number of 95 specimens ) were used to train the system , and then the trained model was tested with 50 specimens ( 10 specimens per species ) . the predicted results of this family are presented in table 3 . among five species in this family , three species ( johnius belangerii , johnius carouna and panna microdon ) were identified with 100 % accuracy . two other species ( dendrophysa russelli and otolithes ruber ) had one misclassified specimen each . in this family , similar to the engraulidae family , there was no species with classification accuracy of less than 90 % . the proposed model identified five species of the sciaenidae family with an overall accuracy of 96 % .\nthe columns indicate the predicted species by the identification model , while rows indicate the target species .\noutputs of the identification model ( columns ) are compared with the target species ( rows ) .\nconfusion matrix for the identification results obtained from 14 species of three different families .\nto explore the contribution of max abs and max ang to the performance of the system , each feature type was separately used to train and test the model . table 6 shows the classification results obtained by using each feature type separately ( 16 - element vector ) and their combined features ( 32 - element vector ) . for all four data sets used in this study , the best identification result was achieved using the 32 - element vector . for the engraulidae , sciaenidae and the combined families , using only the max ang resulted in higher accuracy compared to using only the max abs . however , the performance of the model was better for the ariidae family by using the 16 - element vector obtained from the absolute features ( max abs ) . this result suggests that both phase and absolute features should be taken into account when the model is trained with different fish families .\nperformance of the model using absolute , phase angle , and combined features ( rows ) for all four data sets ( columns ) used in this study .\nusing each window function ( rows ) , the model performance was calculated for all four datasets ( columns ) .\nas mentioned in the previous section , the windowing function used to calculate stft of the representative signals could influence the performance of the model . to explore this effect , the identification system was trained and tested with several types of the window function . however , the number of points of window ( 100 ) and the number of overlapped points ( 40 ) were fixed for all types of window function tested . the overall accuracy obtained from three families , as well as the combined families , are compared and shown in table 7 .\nusing the gaussian window function led to the highest classification accuracy ( 97 % ) in the engraulidae family . in the sciaenidae family , the best result ( 96 % ) was achieved by using four functions namely gaussian , hamming , kaiser , and rectangular . the most accurate prediction ( 93 % ) in the ariidae family was obtained by using the gaussian function . in the combined families , using the rectangular function resulted in the highest overall accuracy ( 94 % ) . however , utilizing the rectangular windowing function led to relatively poor performance of the model in the engraulidae ( 87 % ) and ariidae ( 83 % ) families . taking into accounts all the results obtained using these 16 functions , the gaussian window function was selected in this study due to its good performance in all the four data sets .\nthe identification model proposed in this study could predict the species of an unknown specimen from the engraulidae , sciaenidae , and ariidae family with the overall accuracy of 97 % , 96 % , and 93 % , respectively . even after combining three families the accuracy of the model remained above 90 % ( \u223c92 % ) , which is noticeably higher than the results obtained by the identification model proposed in the most related study ( \u223c72 % ) ( parisi - baradad et al . , 2010 ) . it is noted that training datasets used in the present study were relatively small ( 19 , 20 , and 18 specimens per species for sciaenidae , engraulidae , and ariidae family , respectively ) . using more samples in the training sets could lead to increasing the accuracy of the model .\ntwo spectral analysis methods namely fourier transform ( ft ) and wavelet transform ( wt ) have been applied in the previous studies as the feature extractors ( castonguay , simard & gagnon , 1991 ; parisi - baradad et al . , 2005 ; parisi - baradad et al . , 2010 ) . short - time fourier transform ( stft ) has been utilized in the present study , for the first time in the area of otolith image recognition , to extract the spectral features of the 1d signal obtained from the fish otolith contour . by using the maximum ( standardized ) values of the absolutes and phase angles of the stft - transformed signal , a relatively low number of features ( 32 ) was extracted which is desired for the classification systems applying machine learning techniques . on the other hand , multiscale decomposition of the 1d signal using wavelet transform ( wt ) as proposed by parisi - baradad et al . ( 2005 ) and parisi - baradad et al . ( 2010 ) resulted in the extraction of a large number of attributes .\nas was demonstrated in the previous section ( table 7 ) , the choice of window function had a direct effect on the performance of the system . in addition to the type of windowing function , the number of points of the window function and the number of overlapped samples played important roles in the classification results . the proposed model was also tested with a variety of these two parameters ( not reported here ) , and the best match was selected ( i . e . , 100 window points and 40 overlapped samples ) . each 1d signal was broken into 16 segments by setting these two parameters to the optimized values . these two parameters were however optimized for the gaussian window only . the performance of other window types ( see table 7 ) may be increased by changing the values of these two parameters ( i . e . , changing the number of segments / spatial resolution ) .\nin this study , only proximal view of the otolith image was used to develop the identification model . however , adding other views ( e . g . , anterior , dorsal ) could lead to improving the performance of the model . adding other views would be more crucial when other families and species are added to the system . the same procedure , as used for the proximal view , can be applied on the other views of the otolith image . however , other types of the window function , probably with different spatial resolutions , could be more effective in analyzing the other views . in that case , a characteristic vector can be extracted from each view of the otolith . consequently , each specimen can be represented by a combination of up to six vectors ( depending on the number of views ) , rather than only one vector corresponding to the proximal view . by this way , more important morphological features could be extracted from the otolith contour .\ntwo classification techniques namely decision tree and discriminant analysis were tested in this study ( the results obtained by the decision tree are not shown here ) and the latter was selected due to more accurate results . however , there are other classification methods such as naive bayes , nearest neighbors , support vector machine , and neural network which may improve the performance of the model in future studies .\na fully - automated identification system ( stft - da ) has been proposed in this study to classify the fish species based on the morphological characteristics of the otolith outline contour . fourteen species from three families were used to develop and evaluate performance of the model . combining the short - time fourier transform ( stft ) , as the feature extractor , with the discriminant analysis ( da ) , as the classifier , led to improving the accuracy of the species classification in comparison with the existing automated model . the stft windowing as well as classification technique had significant effects on the performance of the model . future enhancements of the proposed model may be needed to include more species into the system .\nwe would like to thank cecilia chu and suellina binti sulaiman for capturing the otolith images . the university of malaya is acknowledged for providing research facilities .\nnima salimi conceived and designed the experiments , performed the experiments , analyzed the data , contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools , wrote the paper , prepared figures and / or tables .\nkar hoe loh performed the experiments , contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools , reviewed drafts of the paper .\nsarinder kaur dhillon and ving ching chong conceived and designed the experiments , reviewed drafts of the paper .\nthe following information was supplied relating to ethical approvals ( i . e . , approving body and any reference numbers ) :\n1 . university of malaya - institutional animal care and use committee ( um - iacuc ) .\n2 . no approval was required since project was based on dead fish collected from fish landings .\ndata sets ( otolith images ) as well as matlab codes are available as supplemental information .\nthis work was supported by university of malaya research grants ( umrg ) , rp008 - 2012c and rp008 - 2012a . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nchanges in the ratio of the sulcus acusticus area to the sagitta area of pomatoschistus minutus and p . lozanoi ( pisces , gobiidae )\na web - based environment for shape analysis of fish otoliths . the aforo database\ncomparison of different otolith shape descriptors and morphometrics for the identification of closely related species of lutjanus spp . from the persian gulf\nour promise peerj promises to address all issues as quickly and professionally as possible . we thank you in advance for your patience and understanding .\nfollowing\nis like subscribing to any updates related to a publication . these updates will appear in your home dashboard each time you visit peerj .\nyou can also choose to receive updates via daily or weekly email digests . if you are following multiple publications then we will send you no more than one email per day or week based on your preferences .\nnote : you are now also subscribed to the subject areas of this publication and will receive updates in the daily or weekly email digests if turned on . you can add specific subject areas through your profile settings .\npeerj feeds - atom | rss 1 . 0 | rss 2 . 0 | json peerj computer science feeds - atom | rss 1 . 0 | rss 2 . 0 | json peerj preprint feeds - atom | rss 1 . 0 | rss 2 . 0 | json archives - peerj | peerj computer science | peerj preprints"]}
{"id": 1002, "summary": [{"text": "the ruby-topaz hummingbird ( chrysolampis mosquitus ) , commonly referred to simply as the ruby topaz , is a small bird that breeds in the lesser antilles and tropical northern south america from colombia , venezuela and the guyanas , south to central brazil and northern bolivia ; also from colombia into southern panama .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is the only member of the genus chrysolampis .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is a seasonal migrant , although its movements are not well understood .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "this hummingbird inhabits open country , gardens and cultivation .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is 8.1 cm long and weighs 3.5 g. compared to most other hummingbirds , the almost straight , black bill is relatively short .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the male has green-glossed dark brown upperparts .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the crown and nape are glossy red , and the throat and breast are brilliant golden-orange .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the rest of the underparts are brown , and the chestnut tail is tipped black .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the male often looks very dark , until he turns and the brilliant colours flash in the sunlight .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the female ruby-topaz hummingbird has bronze-green upperparts and pale grey underparts .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the tail is chestnut with a dark subterminal band and a white tip .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "females from trinidad typically have a greenish throat-streak ( it may appear dark ) , but this is not common elsewhere in its range .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "juvenile females are similar to adult females , but with a white-tipped dusky-brown tail .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "juvenile males resemble the juvenile female , but with a variable amount of iridescent orange to the throat .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the female ruby-topaz hummingbird lays two eggs in a tiny cup nest in the fork of a low branch .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "incubation takes 16 days , and fledging another 18 or 19 .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the food of this species is nectar , taken from a wide variety of flowers , and some small insects .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "ruby-topaz hummingbird males perch conspicuously and defend their territories aggressively .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the call of this species is a high-pitched tsip . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "ruby - topaz hummingbird", "paragraphs": ["the ruby - topaz hummingbird is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\ninformation on the ruby - topaz hummingbird ( chrysolampis mosquitus ) is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - ruby - topaz hummingbird ( chrysolampis mosquitus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - ruby - topaz hummingbird ( chrysolampis mosquitus )\ntitle =\narkive species - ruby - topaz hummingbird ( chrysolampis mosquitus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nflight : as all the hummingbirds , the ruby - topaz hovers forwards and backwards when feeding on nectar .\nthe beautiful ruby - topaz hummingbird can be heard in this recording from el triunfo , colombia . the buzzing and twittering sounds are similar to those of other hummingbird species . audio by paula caycedo - elkin tenorio , xc289455 . accessible at urltoken\nprotection / threats / status : the ruby - topaz hummingbird is common in lowlands and coastal regions . it accepts man - made habitats and frequents gardens and cultivated areas . after serious decline due to illegal bird trade in brazil in the 1970s , the species has now stable populations , and the ruby - topaz hummingbird is not threatened at this moment .\nthe male ruby topaz makes a series of aggressive and rapid chattering calls when another bird enters his feeding territory .\na relatively large hummingbird , bigger than the blue - tailed emerald , the other common hummingbird on bonaire . both male and female ruby - topaz hummingbirds have reddish , rounded tails unlike the blue , forked tail of the blue - tailed emerald . male ruby - topaz hummingbirds have a beautiful orange throat and reddish head , though in poor light it can look dark .\nruby - topaz hummingbird ( depicted above ) has a mostly bronze - green upper plumage and is pale grey below . she has a dark chin stripe . her tail is chestnut - colored with white tips .\ndiet : the ruby - topaz hummingbird feeds on nectar from flowers of trees , shrubs , cacti and cultivated plant species . it also catches insects by hawking in the air , and forages in foliage for arthropods .\nthe male ruby topaz performs a courtship display to attract females . he quickly circles the female , flashing his bright colors by fanning widely the chestnut tail and raising the ruby - red crown feathers .\nthe feeding territories including flowering trees , shrubs or cacti , are defended by the male which gives series of aggressive and rapid chattering . the ruby - topaz hummingbird is often seen alone at the feeding sources , and at variable heights .\nrange : the ruby - topaz hummingbird breeds in tropical northern south america , from s panama , colombia , venezuela and the guyanas , southwards to c brazil and n bolivia . it also occurs on islands , in the lesser antilles , trinidad and tobago .\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto the ruby - topaz hummingbird utters high - pitched chirps and whistles . the calls are very short and given from an exposed perch as advertising sounds \u201ctliii , tliii , tliii\u2026\u201d aggressive calls are series of rapid chattering , uttered by both sexes .\nhabitat : the ruby - topaz hummingbird can be found in clearings , open country , cultivated areas and gardens where it forages from low down to treetops . it is usually seen from sea - level to shrubby arid hillsides , up to 1700 metres of elevation , but often below 500 metres .\nthe ruby - topaz hummingbird is migratory . it performs n - s migrations within brazil . it travels along the coastal regions of the guyanas , venezuela and colombia , probably doing an e - w migration , and moves southwards to colombia where it arrives in may , and leaves in september . some migratory movements are suspected on trinidad and tobago .\nbehaviour : the ruby - topaz hummingbird feeds on nectar from flowers of several plant species . it forages by hovering in front of the flower , and reaches the nectar with the bill , and mainly the tongue . it also catches insects by hawking while feeding on nectar or in the air . it may sometimes forage among the foliage , searching for arthropods .\nthe breeding season of the ruby topaz hummingbirds differs according to the range they are found in . on the islands of trinidad and tobago it starts in december and goes on until june . in brazil , they breed from september through january .\ndescription : as numerous hummingbirds , the ruby - topaz shows various appearances and colours according to the lighting . when perched in shade , this bird appears dull blackish - brown , but when the sun touches lightly its feathers , it becomes a jewel !\nthe ruby topaz hummingbirds measure between 3 . 1 - 3 . 5 inches ( ~ 8 - 9 cm ) in length ( including the tail ) and weigh between 0 . 1 - 0 . 2 oz ( 3 . 5 - 5 g ) .\nschuchmann , k . l . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . ruby - topaz hummingbird ( chrysolampis mosquitus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe ruby topazes call is described as very short , high - pitched tsii tsii tsii . they also utter chirps and whistles , and a series of rapid chattering .\nthis hummingbird shows great variances as far as the color of plumage is concerned . in poor light conditions , the plumage appears dull blackish - brown . in the right light conditions , the brilliant iridescence of its plumage can be seen .\n8\u20139\u00b75 cm ; 2\u00b75\u20135 g . male has short straight black bill ; crown and nape shining ruby red ( occasionally orange ) , back dark brown glossed dull olive ; . . .\nduring the breeding season , the male performs some displays . it revolves quickly around the female and displays its rich colours by fanning widely the chestnut tail and raising the ruby - red crown feathers .\nthe ruby - topaz hummingbirds primarily feed on nectar taken from a variety of brightly colored , scented small flowers of trees , shrubs , epiphytes and cacti . they favor flowers with the highest sugar content ( often red - colored and tubular - shaped ) and seek out , and aggressively protect , those areas containing flowers with high energy nectar . they are particularly fond of the flowers of the samaan tree and the ixora plant .\nthey may also visit local hummingbird feeders for some sugar water , or drink out of bird baths or water fountains where they will either hover and sip water as it runs over the edge ; or they will perch on the edge and drink - like all the other birds ; however , they only remain still for a short moment .\nhas an iridescent green dark / brown upper plumage with a brilliant ruby red to orangey crown ( top of the head ) and nape ( back of the neck ) and a shiny golden to emerald - green throat and chest ( depending on light conditions ) . in poor light conditions , the male often looks dark . his under plumage is brown . his chestnut - colored tail is tipped black . the wings are dark grey .\nthe adult male has dark brown body with dull olive gloss . the wings are dark grey . the tail is bright chestnut with black tip . on the underparts , throat and breast are iridescent golden , or occasionally emerald - green . the head shows shiny ruby - red forehead , crown and nape , sometimes more orange . the black bill is short and straight . the eyes are dark brown . legs and feet are blackish .\nthe average clutch consists of 1 to 3 white eggs , which she incubates alone for about 15 - 16 days , while the male defends his territory and the flowers he feeds on . the black chicks are born blind , covered in sparse brownish down on the back . the female alone protects and feeds the chicks with regurgitated food ( mostly insects since nectar is an insufficient source of protein for the growing chicks ) . as is the case with other hummingbird species , the chicks are brooded only the first week or two , and left alone even on cooler nights after about 12 days - probably due to the small nest size . the chicks leave the nest when they are about 19 - 22 days old . she usually raises on brood in a season . the young are ready to breed in their second year .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend is not known , but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' uncommon ' ( stotz et al . 1996 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthe taxon \u201c c . chlorolaema \u201d , based on a specimen supposedly from bahia ( e brazil ) , is generally considered to represent a hybrid between present species and anthracothorax nigricollis # r . monotypic .\ne panama and w , n & c colombia e through venezuela to the guianas , then s through ne & c brazil ( par\u00e1 to pernambuco and s to mato grosso ) to e bolivia ; also islands off n venezuela coast from aruba , cura\u00e7ao and bonaire e to trinidad and tobago .\nsong ( given from high perch ) is reportedly a high - pitched , doubled \u201ctliii . . . tliii . . . tliii . . .\nseason dec\u2013jun on trinidad and tobago , venezuela , guianas ; sept\u2013mar in brazil . tiny cup - shaped nest of fine plant fibre and . . .\nmigratory . arrives in s cauca valley , colombia , in may and disappears in sept ; absent or rare in . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . cites ii . common resident in the lowlands and coastal ranges , with densities of at least 6\u20138 pairs / km\u00b2 in shrub - like . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\ngenus previously thought to be very closely related to , or even congeneric with , orthorhyncus , but recent molecular analysis indicates that the two are genetically well separated # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nnatural visions 6 vicarage hill farnham surrey gu9 8hj united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 1252 716 700 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 1252 727 464 info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken /\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend is not known , but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : chrysolampis mosquitus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nid certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 176 side a track 30 seq . a )\na cluster of hummingbirds around a purple - flowering bignoniaceae - type tree ( 6 - 10m tall ) . the three rich ' tew ' notes are of this species . a subadult male .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nchrysolampis mosquitus : trop . e panama to colombia , venezuela , e bolivia and brazil\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 296 , 137 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\n- - occur naturally from southern panama ( the southernmost country of central america ) south through the south american countries of colombia , venezuela and the guyanas to north - eastern and central brazil and northern bolivia .\nthey are also found on the lesser antilles island group and south on the islands of trinidad and tobago in the caribbean sea .\nthey occur from sea - level to shrubby arid hillsides , up to an altitude of ~ 5 , 600 ft ( 1700 m ) , but are most common below 1 , 600 feet ( 500 m ) .\nthese aggressive birds are commonly seen in gardens , cultivated areas , open country and along the forest edge , where they forage from low down to treetops .\nthey appear to be sedentary within parts of their range and seasonally migratory in others .\nin brazil , they perform north - south migrations ; travelling along the coastal regions of the guyanas , venezuela and colombia , where they are likely doing an east - west migration , moving southwards to colombia where they arrive in may and leave again in september .\nsome migratory movements are also suspected to occur on the islands of trinidad and tobago . however , their movements are still poorly understood .\nthe black bill is short and straight ; the eyes are dark brown , and the legs and feet are blackish .\nwhile perched , the males often spread their tail and ruffle their crown feathers in a display .\nlook like the adult females . immature males have a white spot behind the eye and the outer tail feathers are violet with white tips .\n: specimen from trinidad and tobago occasionally have a greenish - orangey stripe from the chin , down to the chest .\nhummingbirds in general are solitary and neither live nor migrate in flocks ; and there is no pair bond for this species - the male ' s only involvement in the reproductive process is the actual mating with the female .\nhe will separate from the female immediately after copulation . one male may mate with several females . in all likelihood , the female will also mate with several males . the males do not participate in choosing the nest location , building the nest or raising the chicks .\nthe female is responsible for building the cup - shaped nest out of plant fibers woven together and green moss on the outside for camouflage in a protected location in a shrub , bush or tree - usually in the fork of a small branch about 3 - 13 feet ( 1 - 4 m ) above the ground .\nshe lines the nest with soft plant fibers , animal hair and feather down , and strengthens the structure with spider webbing and other sticky material , giving it an elastic quality to allow it to stretch to double its size as the chicks grow and need more room . the outside is decorated with lichens and pieces of bark , which present a perfect camouflage for the nest .\nthey use their long , extendible , straw - like tongues to retrieve the nectar while hovering with their tails cocked upward as they are licking at the nectar up to 13 times per second . sometimes they may be seen hanging on the flower while feeding .\nmany native and cultivated plants on whose flowers these birds feed heavily rely on them for pollination . the mostly tubular - shaped flowers actually exclude most bees and butterflies from feeding on them and , subsequently , from pollinating the plants .\nthey also take some small spiders and insects - important sources of protein particularly needed during the breeding season to ensure the proper development of their young . insects are often caught in flight ( hawking ) ; snatched off leaves or branches , or are taken from spider webs . a nesting female can capture up to 2 , 000 insects a day .\nmales establish feeding territories , where they aggressively chase away other males as well as large insects - such as bumblebees and hawk moths - that want to feed in their territory . they use aerial flights and intimidating displays to defend their territories .\nfor updates please follow beautyofbirds on google + ( google . com / + avianweb )\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\na guide to the birds of colombia by steven l . hilty and william l . brown - princeton university press \u2013 isbn 069108372x\nthe female has copper - green upperparts . the tail shows olive - green central rectrices whereas the others are bright chestnut . we can see a dark purple subterminal band and white tips . the underparts are pale grey . the birds from trinidad and tobago have sometimes a greenish - golden stripe from the chin , down to the breast .\nthe immature resembles adult female . it has a white spot behind the eye . on the tail , the outer rectrices are dark violet with white tips .\nreproduction : the breeding season varies according to the range , from december - june on trinidad and tobago , venezuela and guyanas , to september - january in brazil .\nthe tiny nest is saddled in fork of small branch , at about one to four metres above the ground . the cup - shaped nest is made with fine materials such as plant fibres and spider webs . the outside is decorated with lichens and pieces of bark .\nthe female lays two eggs , and incubates during 15 - 16 days . at hatching , the black chicks are covered in sparse brownish down on the back . they fledge about three weeks after hatching . they can breed in the second year .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken"]}
{"id": 1014, "summary": [{"text": "anacampsis primigenia is a moth of the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by meyrick in 1918 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in ecuador , colombia and on the galapagos islands .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 14-16 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are grey , sometimes finely sprinkled whitish , with scattered black specks and with a small black spot on the base of the costa , as well as a cloudy blackish dot or oblique mark above or crossing the fold at one-fourth .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is a cloudy dark dot on the dorsum at one-fifth .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the stigmata are cloudy and blackish or dark grey , the plical rather obliquely before the first discal .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is an indistinct pale or whitish obtusely angulated shade from three-fourths of the costa to the dorsum before the tornus , preceded on the costa by some dark suffusion .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there are also marginal blackish dots or marks around the posterior part of the costa and termen .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are rather dark grey , lighter in the disc anteriorly .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on croton scouleri and exedeconus miersii . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "anacampsis primigenia", "paragraphs": ["have a fact about anacampsis primigenia ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for anacampsis primigenia ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nanacampsis primigenia meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 5 ) : 141 ; tl : colombia , cali , 500ft ; ecuador , huigra , 4500ft\nanacampsis primigenia ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; landry & roque - albelo , 2010 , revue suisse zool . 117 ( 4 ) : 735 , 699 ( list )\nanacampsis malella amsel , 1959 ; bull . soc . ent . egypt . 43 : 65\nanacampsis sacramenta keifer , 1933 ; calif . dept . agric . , mon . bull . 22 : 362\ngelechia ( anacampsis ) tristrigella walsingham , 1882 ; trans . amer . ent . soc . 10 : 181\nanacampsis languens meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 5 ) : 142 ; tl : ecuador , duran\nanacampsis aedificata meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 16 ) : 507 ; tl : brazil , para\nanacampsis diplodelta meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 76 ; tl : brazil , parintins\nanacampsis embrocha meyrick , 1914 ; ann . transv . mus . 4 ( 4 ) : 192 ; tl : new hanover\nanacampsis flexiloqua meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 80 ; tl : peru , iquitos\nanacampsis idiocentra meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 80 ; tl : brazil , santarem\nanacampsis nonstrigella busck , 1906 ; can . ent . 38 ( 4 ) : 121 ; tl : oak station , pennsylvania\nanacampsis parviocellatella bruand , 1850 ; m\u00e9m . soc . doubs 3 ( 3 , livr . 5 - 6 ) : 40\nanacampsis petrographa meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 79 ; tl : brazil , obidos\nanacampsis poliombra meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 77 ; tl : brazil , parintins\nanacampsis cosmia meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 77 ; tl : natal , durban\nanacampsis lapidella walsingham , 1897 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1897 : 81 ; tl : west indies , grenada\nanacampsis quinquepunctella walsingham , 1897 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1897 : 80 ; tl : west indies , grenada\nanacampsis conistica walsingham , 1910 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 35 ; tl : mexico , sonora\nanacampsis lithodelta meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 77 ; tl : peru , jurimaguas , iquitos\nanacampsis lupinella busck , 1901 ; can . ent . 33 ( 1 ) : 14 ; tl : high park , toronto , canada\nanacampsis perquisita meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 78 ; tl : brazil , para , teff\u00e9\nanacampsis insularis walsingham , 1897 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1897 : 81 ; tl : west indies , st . thomas\nanacampsis solemnella ; park , 1991 , ann . hist . - nat . mus . hung . 83 : 121 ; [ nhm card ]\nanacampsis capyrodes meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 80 ; tl : brazil , obidos , parintins , teff\u00e9\nanacampsis rivalis meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 5 ) : 141 ; tl : s . india , shevaroys ; ceylon , kandy\nanacampsis ursula walsingham , 1910 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 35 ; tl : mexico , morelos , cuernavaca\nanacampsis fragariella busck , 1904 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 27 ( 1375 ) : 760 ; tl : pullman , washington\nanacampsis argyrothamniella busck , 1900 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 23 ( 1208 ) : 231 ; tl : palm beach , florida\nanacampsis cornifer walsingham , 1897 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1897 : 79 ; tl : west indies , st . croix ; st . thomas\nanacampsis paltodoriella busck , 1903 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 25 ( 1304 ) : 848 ; tl : mesilla park , new mexico\nanacampsis triangularis braun , 1923 ; proc . calif . acad . sci . ( 4 ) 12 ( 10 ) : 118 ; tl : angeles bay , lower california\nanacampsis considerata meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 78 ; tl : brazil , parintins , manaos , teff\u00e9 ; peru , jurimaguas , iquitos\nanacampsis phytomiella busck , 1914 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 47 ( 2043 ) : 8 ; tl : alhajuela , cabima and porto bello , panama\nanacampsis coverdalella kearfott , 1903 ; j . n . y . ent . soc . 11 : 162 , pl . 9 , f . 13 ; tl : natchitoches parish , louisiana\nanacampsis rhabdodes walsingham , 1910 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 36 , pl . 1 , f . 30 ; tl : mexico , tabasco , teapa\nanacampsis lagunculariella busck , 1900 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 23 ( 1208 ) : 230 , pl . 1 , f . 6 ; tl : palm beach , florida\nanacampsis psoraliella barnes & busck , 1920 ; contr . nat . hist . lepid . n . am . 4 ( 3 ) : 226 , pl . 28 , f . 10 ; tl : iowa , sioux city\nanacampsis meibomiella forbes , 1931 ; j . agric . porto rico 15 ( 4 ) : 376 , pl . 42 , f . 16 ; tl : puerto rico ,\ne . e . a . de cuba\nanacampsis populella ; [ nacl ] , # 2246 ; [ nhm card ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 31 ; sumpich & skyva , 2012 , nota lepid . 35 ( 2 ) : 173 ; [ fe ]\nanacampsis niveopulvella ; busck , 1904 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 27 ( 1375 ) : 761 ; [ nacl ] , # 2243 ; [ nhm card ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 31\nanacampsis ( anacampsini ) ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 30 ; [ sangmi lee ] ; landry & roque - albelo , 2010 , revue suisse zool . 117 ( 4 ) : 735 , 699 ( list ) ; [ fe ]\nanacampsis quinquepunctella ; walsingham , 1910 , biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 35 , pl . 1 , f . 35 ; meyrick , 1929 , exot . microlep . 3 ( 16 ) : 507 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nanacampsis lagunculariella ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 78 ; busck , 1914 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 47 ( 2043 ) : 7 ; [ nacl ] , # 2240 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 31\n820x623 ( ~ 87kb ) russia , moscow area , 14 . 8 . 2008 , photo \u00a9 d . smirnov\nthe exact identification of this species is still unknown , but tentatively assumed to belong into this group .\ncompsolechia anisogramma meyrick , 1927 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 12 ) : 353 ; tl : china , shanghai\nlarva on argyrothamnia blodgettii busck , 1900 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 23 ( 1208 ) : 231\nuntomia cenelpis walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 77 , pl . 2 , f . 34 ; tl : mexico , tabasco , teapa\nchlorodecta ( meyrick , 1932 ) ( compsolechia ) ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 7 ) : 197\ncompsolechia comparanda meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 16 ) : 506 ; tl : arizona , palmerlee ; texas , alpine\ncrypticopa ( meyrick , 1931 ) ( gelechia ) ; an . mus . nac . hist . nat . buenos aires 36 : 384\nlarva on fragaria busck , 1904 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 27 ( 1375 ) : 761\n= ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 14 ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 30\nlita fuscella eversmann , 1844 ; fauna lep . volgo - uralensis . . . : 581\ntachyptilia hirsutella constant , 1885 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . ( 6 ) 4 : 256 , pl . 10 , f . 17 ; tl : alpes - maritimes\nhomoplasta ( meyrick , 1932 ) ( compsolechia ) ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 7 ) : 197\ngelechia ( tachyptilia ) innocuella zeller , 1873 ; verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 23 ( abh . ) : 249 ; tl : texas\nagriastis inquieta meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 253 ; tl : british guiana , bartica\naproaerema kearfottella busck , 1903 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 25 ( 1304 ) : 842 ; tl : new jersey\ncompsolechia lacteochrella [ = lacteusochrella ] meyrick , 1925 ; in wytsman , genera insectorum 184 : 123 ( emend . )\nlarva on laguncularia racemosa busck , 1900 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 23 ( 1208 ) : 231\nstrobisia levipedella clemens , 1863 ; proc . ent . soc . philad . 2 : 4\ncompsolechia lignaria meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 10 ) : 292 ; tl : e . siberia , khaborowsk\nlarva on lupinus perennis busck , 1901 , can . ent . 33 ( 1 ) : 15\nmaculatella ( lucas , 1956 ) ( tachyptilia ) ; bull . soc . sci . nat . maroc 35 : 256\ngelechia multinotata meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 5 ) : 134 ; tl : british guiana , bartica , mallali\ngelechia niveopulvella chambers , 1875 ; can . ent . 7 ( 11 ) : 210 ; tl : canada\nagriastis nocturna meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 252 ; tl : british guiana , mallali\ntachyptilia panormitella caradja , 1920 ; dt . ent . z . iris 34 ( 1 / 2 ) : 106\nagriastis peloptila meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 251 ; tl : british guiana , mallali\ngelechia pomaceella walker , 1864 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 29 : 620 ; tl : ega\n= ; park , 2001 , insecta koreana . 18 ( 1 ) : ( 87 - 90 )\nlarva on populus tremula , salix caprea , s . alba , s . spp .\nagriastis prasina meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 251 ; tl : british guiana , mallali\nlarva on croton scouleri , exedeconus miersii landry & roque - albelo , 2010 , revue suisse zool . 117 ( 4 ) : 737\nlarva on prunus salicina park , 1991 , ann . hist . - nat . mus . hung . 83 : 121\ngelechia subactella walker , 1864 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 30 : 1026 ; tl : australia ?\nlarva on salix phylicifolia , s . caprea , s . lapponum , s . repens\ngelechia tephriasella chambers , 1872 ; can . ent . 4 ( 4 ) : 68 ; tl : kentucky\ncathegesis tridentella walsingham , 1910 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 28 , pl . 1 , f . 24 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft\ntachyptila trifoliella constant , 1890 ; bull . soc . ent . fr . 1889 : cxxv\ngelechia ( teleia ) viretella zeller , 1877 ; horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 340 , pl . 4 , f . 110\n[ afromoths ] de prins , j . & de prins , w . , 2013\nsangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;\n[ \u00b2 ] this may require parentheses or not . i don ' t have the necessary information for this taxon .\nexpedition of the california academy of sciences to the gulf of california in 1921 . the tineid moths\nicones insectorum rariorum cum nominibus eorum trivialibus , locisque e c . linnaei . . . systema naturae allegatis . holmiae\nlepidoptera britannica , sistens digestimen novam lepidopterorum quae in magna britannica reperiunter . . . adjunguntur dissertationes variae ad historiam naturalam spectantes\ndie schmetterlinge deutschlands und der schweiz . 2 . abteilung , kleinschmetterlinge . 2 . die motten und federmotten\nsystematische bearbeitung der schmetterlinge von europa , zugleich als text , revision und supplement zu j . h\u00fcbner ' s sammlung europ\u00e4ischer schmetterlinge , die schaben und federmotten , ( 1847 - ) 1853 - 1855 )\nthe moths of america north of mexico including greenland . fascicle 7 . 1 . gelechioidea , gelechiidae ( part ) , dichomeridinae\nzeller , 1877 exotische microlepidopteren horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 3 - 493 , pl . 1 - 6\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nthe checklists are descriptive documents of the species that are part of a concrete taxonomic group or a group of species that are part of an specific analysis .\nthese documents have a structure that includes a list of the authors , a description of the taxonomic group or subject , and a list of the species that are part of the list .\nthe checklists aren ' t updated regularly , since they require revisions from groups of authors before their publication .\na complete set of a checklist include a pdf document and a table in csv format .\ngustavo jim\u00e9nez - uzc\u00e1tegui , david a . wiedenfeld , f . hern\u00e1n vargas , howard l . snell .\nnathalia tirado - sanchez , john mccosker , diego ruiz , angel chiriboga , stuart banks .\nyves finet , nathalia tirado - sanchez , angel chiriboga , diego ruiz , stuart banks .\nfrank bungartz , frauke ziemmeck , alba y\u00e1nez ayabaca , fredy nugra , andr\u00e9 aptroot .\nanne gu\u00e9zou , susana chamorro , paola pozo , ana mireya guerrero , rachel atkinson , chris buddenhagen , patricia jaramillo d\u00edaz , mark gardener .\ngustavo jim\u00e9nez - uzc\u00e1tegui , javier zabala , brian milstead , howard l . snell .\nto get up - to - date information about our work , please subscribe to our e - newsletter or follow us on our social media platforms .\nevery single donation we receive , no matter how small , counts as we are completely dependent on the generosity of others to carry out our scientific projects . we need your passion , loyalty and continual support .\nthe \u201ccharles darwin foundation for the galapagos islands\u201d , in french \u201cfondation charles darwin pour les \u00eeles galapagos\u201d , association international sans but lucratif ( \u201caisbl\u201d ) , has its registered office located at dr\u00e8ve du pieur\u00e9 19 , 1160 brussels , and is registered under the trade registry of brussels under the number 0409 . 359 . 103 .\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .\nbiokids is sponsored in part by the interagency education research initiative . it is a partnership of the university of michigan school of education , university of michigan museum of zoology , and the detroit public schools . this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation under grant drl - 0628151 . copyright \u00a9 2002 - 2018 , the regents of the university of michigan . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\nthere are no photos of this species on the website yet . you can offer your photo by logging into your account\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy ."]}
{"id": 1024, "summary": [{"text": "ogdoconta cinereola , the common pinkband moth , is a moth in the noctuidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in eastern , central , and south-western north america .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it occurs from southern ontario and quebec south to southern florida .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "at the western edge of its distribution , it occurs from manitoba southward through the great plains of nebraska and iowa , south throughout most of texas , and westward through southern new mexico to south-eastern arizona ( santa cruz county ) .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the distribution extends south to the state of coahuila in northern mexico .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is 9.5 \u2013 14.5 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewing is light fuscous brown , and the subterminal region ( between the postmedial and subterminal lines ) is suffused with a pinkish tinge .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the medial and basal areas are minutely speckled with white .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the antemedial line is an obscure , scalloped white line .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the reniform and orbicular spots are obscure but often discernible by fine white outlines .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the claviform spot is absent .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the postmedial line is a white , almost straight , oblique line with a slight basally directed bend .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the subterminal line is marked primarily as a brown shade terminating the pink suffusion of the subterminal region .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are suffused with brown .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "males and females are similar in appearance , although the female hindwing usually is darker .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on wing from may to september in the northern part of the range and from april to october in texas and florida .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on amaranthaceae , asteraceae ( especially ambrosia species ) , fabaceae , labiatae and poaceae species . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "ogdoconta cinereola", "paragraphs": ["howell curtis marked\nogdoconta cinereola larva\nas trusted on the\nogdoconta cinereola\npage .\nhowell curtis set\nimage of ogdoconta cinereola\nas an exemplar on\nogdoconta cinereola guen\u00e9e 1852\n.\nsuperficially , ogdoconta margareta and ogdoconta tacna are very similar and key out together in couplet 6 of the key to species in metzler et al . ( op cit . ) . the forewings of ogdoconta margareta have a violet tint whereas those of ogdoconta tacna are greenish . the hindwing of ogdoconta margareta is paler than that of ogdoconta tacna without significant dark suffusion at the anterior margin . ogdoconta margareta can be distinguished from all of the other ogdoconta species that are known to occur in arizona , ogdoconta cinereola ( guen\u00e9e ) , ogdoconta moreno barnes , and ogdoconta rufipenna metzler , knudson , & poole , by its uniform purplish brown forewing and pale whitish hindwing . the forewings of the other species are either dark red brown or have lighter areas on the distal wing , and their hindwings are darker . modifications to the ogdoconta key to species in metzler ( op cit . ) are given in the discussion , below .\nplacodes cinereola guen\u00e9e , 1852 , histoire naturelle des insectes . species general des l\u00e9pidopt\u00e9res , 6 : 316 , pl . 15 , fig . 1 .\n1 ogdoconta margareta , holotype male ( abdomen removed subsequently for dissection ) 2 ogdoconta margareta , male genitalia , valves and aedeagus 3 ogdoconta tacna , adult male , texas , usa ( cnc ) 4 ogdoconta tacna , male genitalia , valves and aedeagus ( source image same as in metzler et al . ( 2013 ) , used with permission ) .\ni am grateful to the following individuals for help with this project : jocelyn gill photographed the ogdoconta tacna adult and prepared the illustrations ; j . donald lafontaine suggested that this species might be distinct , submitted the ogdoconta margareta dna sample to bold , and shared ogdoconta co1 similarity trees ; eric metzler graciously allowed the use of the images of the ogdoconta tacna genitalia ; merrill peterson took the photographs of ogdoconta margareta ; and b . christian schmidt gave editorial advice and other assistance .\na new species of ogdoconta butler ( lepidoptera , noctuidae , condicinae , condicini ) is described from the patagonia mountains , santa cruz county , arizona , usa . ogdoconta margareta sp . n . , is related closely to ogdoconta tacna ( barnes ) from texas . modifications are proposed to a recently published key to the ogdoconta species north of mexico to allow identification of the new species .\nthe two known specimens were collected in early september . it is possible that ogdoconta margareta also flies during the spring because the closely related species ogdoconta tacna has two broods ( metzler et al . 2013 ) .\nthe key to the species of ogdoconta in north america north of mexico in metzler et al . ( op cit . ) can be modified to include ogdoconta margareta by substituting the following couplet 6 for the original and inserting the following couplet 8 after couplet 7 :\nogdoconta margareta is a rarely collected species that is known only from the type locality in southeastern arizona , usa and sonora , mexico .\na review of the genus ogdoconta butler ( lepidoptera , noctuidae , condicinae , condicini ) from north america north of mexico with descriptions of three new species .\na single specimen of a new ogdoconta species resembling ogdoconta tacna ( barnes ) , a species that is known only from texas in the united states , was collected in 2013 near harshaw in the patagonia mountains , santa cruz county , arizona . while the new species and ogdoconta tacna are very similar superficially , their male genitalia are distinct and their co1 barcode sequences differ by nearly 4 % . a second specimen of the new species from sonora , mexico , was identified by its co1 barcode and is included in the type series . this new species is described herein .\nthe north american noctuid moth genus ogdoconta butler was revised recently by metzler et al . ( 2013 ) . there are approximately 16 species in the genus , of which nine occur north of mexico . the most characteristic feature of the genus is a horizontal cleft in the valve of the male genitalia that divides it into dorsal and ventral components .\ncrabo lg ( 2015 ) a new species of ogdoconta butler ( lepidoptera , noctuidae , condicinae , condicini ) from southeastern arizona , usa . in : schmidt bc , lafontaine jd ( eds ) contributions to the systematics of new world macro - moths vi . zookeys 527 : 51\u201356 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 527 . 9771\nmetzler , e . h . , e . c . knudson , r . w . poole , j . d . lafontaine , m . g . pogue , 2013 . a review of the genus ogdoconta butler ( lepidoptera noctuidae , condicinae , condicini from north america north of mexico with description of three new species . . zookeys , 264 : 165\u2013191 .\ndiagnosis : ogdoconta cinereola is the only north american species of the genus found outside of the southwestern u . s . - mexico region . it occurs abundantly in the eastern half of the united states and southeastern canada . the species is easy to identify . the forewing is brown and the subterminal region between the postmedial and subterminal lines is suffused with pink . the median and basal areas are minutely speckled with white . the antemedial line is an obscure , scalloped white line . the reniform spot and orbicular spot are obscure but often discernable as fine white lines . the claviform spot is absent . the postmedial line is a white , almost straight , oblique line . the subterminal line is marked primarily as a brown shade terminating the pink suffusion of the subterminal region . the hindwing is suffused with brown . the male genitalia are not particularly remarkable , but this appears to be the only species in the genus with a clasper - like structure near the junction or the saccular and cucullar regions of the valve . the vesica has a complete coil in it , although this feature is shared with other species . likewise there is a complete coil in the appendix bursae of the female genitalia .\nthe 658 base pair dna \u201cbarcode\u201d region of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 ( co1 ) was used to assess molecular variation in the genus odgoconta . a leg of the arizona specimen was submitted to the barcodes of life campaign ( bold ) at the university of guelph ( ontario , canada ) where it was analyzed by standard dna extraction , amplification , and sequencing protocols as described by hebert et al . ( 2003 ) . the barcode sequence was compared to pre - existing ogdoconta material at bold using the kimura - 2 - parameter distance model as implemented on the barcode of life data systems website ( urltoken ) .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\npowell , j . a . & p . a . opler , moths of western north america , pl . 52 . 50f ; p . 293 . book review and ordering\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\ncaterpillar foods : ragweed , beans , sunflowers , hedge nettle ( stachys spp . ) ( bugguide )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nmiana atomaria walker , 1865 , list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum , 32 : 675 .\ndistribution : this species has a wide distribution in the eastern half of north america . it occurs from southern ontario and quebec in the north to southern florida in the south . the species stretches northward into the great plains as far north as nebraksa and iowa . it has not yet been collected in the dakotas or manitoba . the species occurs throughout most of texas except for the western counties and stretches as far south as the state of coahuila in northern mexico . there is little or no individual or geographical variation in this species .\nthe adult is generally common . adults have been collected throughout the summer months from may to september in the north to as early as april and as late as october in texas and florida .\nthe larval material in the usnm is now too faded to give a good description of the markings and coloration of the larvae , so i am repeating crumb ' s original description .\nbody green flecked with white , dorsum usually suffused with white . strong , sharply defined white lines middorsally and ventral of ii . spiracles white , included in the subventral white stripe which may be margined dorsally by a purplish red line . setigerous tubercles small to moderately large , but not conspicuous , slightly elevated , white . head greenish with white lateral lines margining the front and faint traces of darker submedian arcs and lateral lines , labrum white .\nfoodplants : crumb ( 1956 ) records the larva from ambrosia artemisiifolia ( ragweed ) and a . trifida ( giant ragweed ) , in the asteraceae . there are also adults in the usnm reared from helianthus annuus l . ( sunflower ) and\nartichoke\n. it is not clear from the labels whether the latter record is the true artichoke or the jerusalem artichoke .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license ( cc by 4 . 0 ) , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nthe male genitalia were prepared using standard methods ( hardwick 1950 , lafontaine 2004 ) . the detached abdomen was boiled in 10 % koh for 40 minutes . dissection was performed initially in water followed by hardening with isopropyl alcohol . the male vesica was everted and inflated . the preparation was stained with orcein and was mounted in euparal on a glass slide .\nharshaw , 2 . 9\u20135 km sw , santa cruz county , arizona , usa .\nholotype : male : usa : az : santa cruz co . , harshaw , 2 . 9\u20135 km sw , 31 . 42\u2013 [ 31 ] . 45\u00b0 - 110 . 72\u2013 [ 110 ] . 74\u00b0 , 1490\u20131765 m , 1 ix 2013 , l crabo leg . / crabo [ genitalia ] slide 681 / bold cnclep 00113651 . cnc . paratype : one male : mexico , sonora / bold cnclep 83594 . lgc .\ni take pleasure in naming this species after my mother , margareta crabo of cave creek , arizona . the holotype was collected three days prior to her 80 th birthday . the name is a noun in apposition .\nthe valves of both species are unique in the genus in having a broadly triangular cucullus with an irregular outer margin with a series of small knobs . the most prominent structural differences between these species are in the aedeagus , vesica , and sacculus of the valve . in the genitalia of\n) the aedeagus has a proximal bend and the proximal and distal portions of the vesica are coiled . the dorsal sacculus of\nis rounded with greatest width at the mid - point . the saccular extension of\n: antenna filiform with sparse ventral cilia , dorsum with alternating off - white and gray scales ; scape , head , and labial palpus covered with gray , off - white - tipped gray , and sparse off - white scales ; frons smooth , unmodified ; labial palpus with third segment one - third the length of the second segment ; eye smooth , normal sized .\n: entire thorax , including prothoracic collar and patagium , covered with off - white - tipped gray and gray scales , appearing uniform purplish brown similar to the forewings ; legs with off - white and gray scales , prothoracic leg palest , tarsal segments gray with distal off - white bands . forewing : length 13 mm excluding fringe ; covered with brown - gray , off - white , and fawn scales , appearing hoary purplish brown , slightly darker gray medial to the subterminal line and terminal area and slightly paler near the postmedial line ; basal and antemedial lines nearly obsolete , evident as a few pale scales on the costa and in the fold ; medial shade dark gray , faint and diffuse ; postmedial line brown gray , double with filling of the adjacent ground color , outer portion weakly dentate with dark and pale scales on the veins lateral to the line , oriented parallel to outer margin , nearly straight ; subterminal line a hoary sinuous row of pale scales ; terminal line dark brown bordered mesially by an incomplete line of pale scales ; fringe gray brown with hoary pale tips ; orbicular and reniform spots hoary , filled with the adjacent ground color , orbicular spot irregularly ovate , lateral portion touching posterior reniform spot ; reniform spot asymmetrically figure - eight shaped with posterior margin extended toward base and touching orbicular spot ; claviform spot absent ; hindwing slightly brownish off white with slight dusting of pale gray scales near anterior margin and darker gray veins ; terminal line dark brown ; hindwing fringe pale tan with scattered gray scales and paler outer margin .\n( removed for dissection after photography ) : covered with fuscous scales , slightly darker weak dorsal tufts on the first two segments .\n) : uncus cylindrical , 6\u00d7 as long as thick , apex pointed bluntly ; juxta 1 . 25\u00d7 as tall as wide with arrowhead - shaped caudal portion ; valve bifid with larger dorsal portion bearing triangular cucullus and small ventral portion comprised of saccular extension ; sacculus 0 . 5\u00d7 as long as valve , dorsal margin bluntly triangular and extending to near dorsal valve margin distal to mid - point of sacculus near mid - valve , blade - like saccular extensions 0 . 4\u00d7 as long as sacculus , extending to near ventral cucullus margin , asymmetrical , slightly shorter and more robust on the right than the left ; dorsal margin of mid - valve slightly convex , cucullus large , triangular , 0 . 5\u00d7 as wide as valve length , with finely crenulate lateral margin and rounded dorsal and truncate ventral margins , mesial surface covered with fine hairs ; aedeagus cylindrical , straight , 10\u00d7 as long as wide , without ornamentation ; vesica 1\u00d7 as long as aedeagus with slight expansion at subbasal bend but otherwise similar in width to aedeagus , straight beyond 135\u00b0 subbasal bend toward left , subapex with two short fields of innumerable short cornuti .\nthe holotype was collected in one of a series of black light traps placed mostly in a forest of oak and pine , with a few traps in the ecotone between forest and shrub desert . the habitat of this species in mexico is unknown .\nhebert pdn , cywindka a , ball sl , dewaard jr . ( 2003 )\nthe moths of north america including greenland , fascicle 27 . 1 , noctuoideanoctuidae ( part ) noctuinae ( part\u2014agrotini ) . the wedge entomological research foundation .\nmetzler eh , knudson ec , poole rw , lafontaine jd , pogue mg . ( 2013 )"]}
{"id": 1036, "summary": [{"text": "diastictis fracturalis , the fractured western snout moth , is a moth in the crambidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by zeller in 1872 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from california to south dakota , colorado and louisiana .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it is also found in mexico ( sonora , guerrero , jalisco ) .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is 9.5-14.5 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the wings are pale tan to dark brown with highly variable silvery markings , ranging from small , isolated spots to elongated , connected spots .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing from february to october . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "diastictis fracturalis", "paragraphs": ["species diastictis fracturalis - fractured western snout moth - hodges # 5256 - bugguide . net\ncrambid snout mouth diastictis fracturalis beautiful moth found in taylorsville , utah . \u00a9 carol davis , 9 - 1 - 07 home - utah moths\nrestriction and revision of the genus diastictis h\u00fcbner ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) . eugene munroe . 1956 . the canadian entomologist 88 : 208 - 228 .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\npowell , j . a . & p . a . opler , moths of western north america , pl . 23 . 44f , 23 . 45f ; p . 180 . book review and ordering\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\npowell & opler ( 2009 ) described as pale tan to dark brown with highly variable silvery markings , from small , isolated spots to elongated , connected ones .\nmoth photographers group and bug guide shows california to south dakota , colorado and louisiana .\nalso found in mexico , northern sonora ( morrison ) , amula in guerrero 6000 feet { h . h . smith ) , jalisco ( schumann ) .\npowell & opler ( 2009 ) reported adults fly february through november in coastal california .\nthis is the most variable species of the genus , and , although there seem to be geographical differences in norms , the whole gamut of variation is represented in most parts of the range . there is a high proportion of specimens with small spots in texas , and of pale specimens in arizona , but there is nothing approaching a degree of differentiation that would justify the separation of subspecies . i can see no clear seasonal separation between pale and dark individuals\n( munroe , 1956 )\ncheck list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . hodges , et al . ( editors ) . 1983 . e . w . classey , london . 284 pp .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\n80x5 - 240x3 - 240x4 - 320x1 - 320x2 - 320x3 - 640x1 - 640x2 set display option above . click on images to enlarge .\na variety of organizations and individuals have contributed photographs to calphotos . please follow the usage guidelines provided with each image . use and copyright information , as well as other details about the photo such as the date and the location , are available by clicking on the\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\n= bocchoris ; hampson , 1898 , proc . zool . soc . lond . 1898 : 649\nthis information is not automatically synchronized with globiz and can sometimes be lagging behind .\na revision of the moths of the subfamily pyraustinae and family pyralidae . part 1\nwarren , 1892 descriptions of new genera and species of pyralidae contained in the british - museum collection ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 6 ) 9 ( 50 ) : 172 - 179 , ( 52 ) : 294 - 302 , ( 53 ) : 389 - 397 , ( 54 ) : 429 - 442\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome ."]}
{"id": 1038, "summary": [{"text": "the black slug ( also known as black arion , european black slug , or large black slug ) arion ater l. is a large terrestrial gastropod mollusk in the family arionidae \u2014 the round back slugs .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "land slugs lack shells like other terrestrial mollusks ( such as snails ) .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "without such shells , slugs produce unappetizing mucus \u2014 that may also contain toxins \u2014 to deter predators .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "additionally , terrestrial slugs produce two other forms of mucus that facilitate locomotion and prevent death from drying .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "such mollusks are hermaphroditic preferring to find mates .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "slugs most often function as decomposers but are also often omnivores .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "arion ater is one such slug , decomposing organic matter , preying on other organisms , and consuming vegetative matter \u2014 including agricultural crops .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "native to europe , the black slug is an invasive species in australia , canada ( british columbia , newfoundland , quebec ) , and the united states \u2014 pacific northwest . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "black slug", "paragraphs": ["the african black slug is a slimy , black mollusk about an inch long with a distinctive white mark on its back , unlike several harmless species of black slugs native to the lower rio grande valley that are solid black .\nthe black velvet leatherleaf slug doesn ' t closely resemble any native terrestrial slugs .\nthe large black slug archived march 3 , 2016 , at the wayback machine .\none tweeted : \u201cwatching jeremy kyle - what the hell is a black slug . \u201d\ndescription : true to its name , the giant black slug usually is jet black . other than in the red slug , the foot seam is also black . especially conspicuous are the juveniles - those are ivory coloured with a black head ( see also : black arion juvenile on urltoken ) . but they become grey quite fast with advancing age , adolescent slugs quite often are already black . in contrary , the young of lusitanian slugs are quite characteristically banded .\nthree types of banana slugs include the california banana slug , the pacific banana slug and the slender banana slug .\nthere is much debate concerning black slug effect upon plant species diversity . slug impacts change over successional stages , and alaska conservationists observed the black slug\u2019s impact on species diversity depends upon community composition . [ 16 ] if a system is composed of sensitive species , the black slug will likely have a negative impact by pressuring said species . if a system presents more evenness with less sensitive species , the black slug may promote species diversity and encourage healthy succession rates . [ 16 ]\nvinegar is a good ingredient for slug sprays , and for removing slug slime .\nwalls jg . 2009 . just a plain black slug : belocaulus angustipes . american conchologist 37 : 28 - 29 .\ngarry oak ecosystem recovery team . \u201cblack slug . \u201d urltoken archived march 21 , 2014 , at the wayback machine . .\nworld\u2019s longest list of slug remedies loads of helpful tips for dealing with the slug menace .\nused black slugs to smear on the frying pan when they made pancakes . butter\ngiant red slug or chocolate slug ( arion rufus ) from belgium . picture : hans hillewaert .\nbut lucy didn ' t believe her and called serena a \u201cblack slug\u201d twice on monday\u2019s episode , much to the amusement of viewers .\nonly seen from the outside , the giant red slug , the giant black slug and the lusitanian slug are only very hard to tell apart . all three species have red , black ( with the exception of the lusitanian slug ) and brown specimens . the red slug and the black slugs can even be white . without an anatomical examination at the cost of the slug ' s life , the species cannot usually be determined with certainty . the best way usually is to have a look at the juveniles , which are quite conspicuous in all three species .\nblack slug latin name : arion rufus native region : europe introduced region : southern bc reason for introduction : unknown threats : destruction of plant - life , displacement of native slug species many cachers have probably stepped on a black slug at some point on the local trails . they ' re also the bane of gardeners . is\na third joked : \u201cblack slug ? are they worse than the orange ones ? all slugs are equal . # endmolluscracism # jeremykyle . \u201d\neruopean black slug , photo by hugh griffith [ editor ' s note : a . k . a . chocolate arion , arion rufus ]\na large roundback slug varying in colour through browns to black , with a similarly coloured , dull foot fringe and exhibiting a strong rocking response when stimulated . ubiquitous up to moderate altitudes . a jet black form occurs on peatlands .\nlucy has been with kyle for six months but thinks serena is after him , prompting her to tell jeremy : \u201cshe\u2019s a black slug . \u201d\nthe unusual insult returned later on when serena joined lucy on stage - and lucy even treated the audience to an impression of a black slug .\n\u201ci walk all pretty , you walk like a black slug ! \u201d said lucy , shimmying across the stage as jezza looked on utterly baffled .\nincredibly , the slimy black slug peterson pulled from the water was on the small side for its species , weighing a comparatively paltry 10 pounds .\na black specimen of the giant red slug from hesse in germany . well visible : the red foot seam in both specimens . [ rn ]\ngiant black slug ( arion ater ) from the island of bornholm ( denmark ) . picture : francisco welter - schultes ( animal base ) .\nmost conspicuous on wet days , the black slug is an important , but often overlooked , part of the woodland floor fauna in the caledonian forest .\ndue to its huge size the black slug often accepts the blame for most garden carnage , but actually its three smaller cousins wreak the most havoc .\noutrageous sights are normal on itv\u2019s the jeremy kyle show , but one guest\u2019s impression of a \u2018black slug\u2019 may have emerged victorious in the hilarious stakes .\nwhen picked up or touched , the black slug will contract into a hemispherical shape and begin to rock from side to side . this behaviour confuses predators .\nresearching the black slug has provided human and ecological value . for example , a 1996 study investigated the bioaccumulation of mercury in black slugs and determined these slugs could be used to monitor levels of heavy metals in terrestrial systems\u2014similar to how ecologists use aquatic mollusks . [ 25 ] and a 2014 study researched the black slug gut\u2019s microbiology in hopes of catalyzing other studies of cellulolytic activity that could improve biofuel technology . [ 17 ]\nthe slimy insult wasn\u2019t a one - time slip however , later in the show lucy proceeded to demonstrate how a \u2018black slug\u2019 would walk in its natural surroundings .\nto us , slug mucous is horrible , but to the slug , this valuable substance is their arms and legs .\nlike other members of the family arionidae , the black slug has a pneumostome ( breathing hole ) on the right side of its mantle through which it breathes . this mantle is the part in snails that secretes a shell , but in the black slug , the mantle contains a resilient protective structure of calcareous granules . [ 1 ]\nanother said : \u201c ' i walk all pretty , you walk like a black slug ' couldn ' t make this s * * t up ! # jeremykyle . \u201d\nthe black slug is generally deep black , with some adults being brown or even white . generally , pigmentation darkens directly with increasing latitude . young specimens tend to be brown or ivory whitish , turning to grey before becoming characteristically black at maturity . [ 1 ] rust - brown individuals are arguably classified as a separate species arion rufus ( red slug ) . [ 5 ] the two can only be distinguished by dissecting the reproductive anatomy . [ 6 ]\nlarge red slug and black slug ( arion ater ) this is widespread and common throughout the uk in most terrestrial habitats . it can reach up to 12cm in length . body is uniform in colour but can be either orange - red or black . when alarmed it contracts into a spherical shape and may rock from side to side . mucus is colourless . this slug is rarely a problem in arable crops .\nin contrary to the giant red slug , the black slug is distributed more to the north of europe : its distribution area covers north and northwest europe , in scandinavia beyond the 61st degree of latitude , it remain confined to the coast .\nthe canola variety , thunder , was sown on the 14 th may into burnt wheat stubble . sowing rate of 3 . 5 / ha broadcast and prickle chained . the slug species identified in this trial were the grey field slug ( deroceras reticulatum ) and the black keeled slug ( milax gagates ) .\nslug bait should be applied at a rate to provide sufficient bait points per m 2 relative to slug populations in the paddock .\ninternal : gray - black with two darker stripes on each side , and black mantle ( kerney & cameron 1979 ) ; orange - red forms sometimes occur ( wiktor 1996 ) ; no spots on mantle ( wiktor 1983 ) ; keel pale , reaches 2 / 3 length between tail tip and mantle ; coarse tubercles ; black spots on tentacles ; white sole with longitudinal side sections of gray to black ; clear mucus ( kerney & cameron 1979 ) .\nthe uk\u2019s largest slug , ash - black slugs can grow to 25cm long ! they have a keel down their back , and a white stripe down the middle of their foot .\ncaught in a fiery rant with serena , she said : \u2018how do you walk ? i walk all pretty , you walk like a black slug , \u2019 with accompanying hilarious impression .\ncoyote peterson , who hosts the discovery network ' s youtube series brave wilderness , had a camera rolling when he encountered the world ' s largest slug - the black sea hare .\nthe african black slug is endemic to asia and the caribbean . it was recently found in harligen and is considered an invasive species . credit : agrilife extension photo by rod santa ana\nhabitat and distribution : the black slug prefers humid habitats , mostly closer in more rugged landscapes than arion rufus , and it mainly occurs in forests . in spain the black slug also lives as a commensal species and may become a garden pest in some places . black slugs live on green and decaying plant matter , so their diet is similar to that of the red slug . black slugs lay about 150 eggs per batch , which they place under moss , only rarely also in the earth . later in the year , the egg count may decline to about 20 eggs per batch . after almost a month , the juveniles hatch , and like in the red slug , it is them who hibernate , while the adults die .\nso remember the old saying : if it\u2019s black , put it back . if it\u2019s grey , keep it at bay .\nelsewhere in its range in britain , the black slug is considered to be a pest , especially by gardeners , but in the caledonian forest it is a vital but often overlooked part of the ecosystem .\neuropean great grey slug , photo by hugh griffith [ editor ' s note : a . k . a . giant garden slug , limax maximus ]\ni analyze slugs collected from several regions in sweden to investigate genetic diversity and activity of different genes . i would also like to know if there is hybridization with our native black slug ( arion ater ) .\narita , l . h . 1990 . control of the black slug , veronicella leydigi ( simroth ) and the veronicellid slug , veronicella cubensis ( pfeiffer ) on chrysanthemums . horticulture digest , no 92 . university of hawaii college of tropical agriculture and human resources , department of horticulture : honolulu .\nafrican black slugs feed on plants at night to avoid the heat of the sun , which can quickly dry them out , villanueva said .\nveronicellid slugs are tropical ( deisler & stange , 1984 ) . the black slug was described from queensland , australia , and was introduced into honolulu in the early 1900\u0151s ( hawaii dept . of agriculture , unpublished ) .\nin the past , slugs were sometimes used as a cure for warts . an artifact in the pitt rivers museum in oxford consists of a glass jar containing a slug impaled on a thorn , the label on the jar gives the following instructions : charm for warts , oxfordshire . go out alone & find a large black slug . secretly rub the underside on the warts and impale the slug on the thorn . as the slug dies the warts will go .\nof all the common garden slugs , the field slug probably causes most damage .\none individual field slug has the potential to produce about 90 , 000 grandchildren .\nslug was found in henry cowell redwood state park after a day of rain .\nif you go down to the woods tonight you might come face to face with one of the world\u2019s largest land slugs ! most ash - black slugs ( limax cinereoniger ) are between 10 and 20cm long , but larger ones have been recorded . this nocturnal slug is only found in ancient woodlands . on damp nights the slugs emerge to feed on fungi , lichens and algae and can be found on the woodland floor , on stumps or up trees . during the day they hide under large pieces of dead wood . adult ash - black slugs can be found all year round . ash - black slugs are one of the keeled slugs \u2013 they have a ridge or keel running along their back . the keel is pale in comparison to the dark grey body colour . some ash - black slugs have thick black and grey stripes along their bodies . if you turn an adult ash - black slug over you will see that the underside of the foot is dark grey with a white stripe down the middle .\nslug slime comes in two varieties : a thin slippery mucous used to lubricate the slug as it moves , and a thicker type used for a variety of purposes .\nthe black slug is omnivorous , and its diet includes fungi , carrion , earthworms , leaves , stems , dead plant material and dung . the food is shredded into tiny pieces by the radula and is then digested by enzymes .\nthese slugs might endanger sensitive ecosystems , especially as an invasive species , and it is yet unclear how drastically these slugs might alter plant community compositions . the black slug is a voracious seedling predator . terrestrial slugs are considered to be especially dangerous because they alter plant species abundance , adult plant fecundity , and the production of plant defensive compounds . black slugs are of special concern in fragmented ecosystems and areas with high shrub and tree cover . in alaska , the black slug threatens seedling populations of lilies and orchids after already having diminished sensitive populations of deltoid balsamroot and yellow montane violet in bc canada . [ 6 ]\nthe black slug has a soft , unsegmented body . the back is covered by a tough , leathery mantle skin with a yellow line down the middle . the head has 2 pair of tentacles . the upper pair have eyes and can be pulled back toward the head , while the shorter pair below have organs of smell ( williams , 1931 ) . like all of its slug relatives , the black slug is a hermaphrodite , having both male and female reproductive parts in the same animal ( crowell et al . , 1986 ; yates , 1988 ) . fertilization , however , is always by another slug ( yates , 1988 ) .\nwhen disturbed , the black slug contracts itself into a slimy hemispherical hump , making itself difficult to be pecked up by a hungry bird . it sometimes rocks from side to side ; thought to be an attempt to confuse its predator .\n, the keelback slugs . this is the largest land slug species in the world .\nthis slug is native to europe . it is recorded in most of europe , including\nwith a maximum length exceeding 20 centimeters , this species is the largest land slug .\na slug has approximately 27 , 000 teeth \u2013 that\u2019s more teeth than a shark .\nlike other terrestrial slugs , the black slug is a hermaphrodite , preferring to find a mate\u2014often several\u2014but can self - fertilize . after mating , the black slug seeks a dark , moist environment such as beneath mosses\u2014occasionally within topsoil\u2014to lay its eggs about 5mm ( 0 . 2 in ) in diameter . between august and october , an individual slug lays up to 150 eggs every one to three weeks\u2014clutches diminishing to 20 eggs late in the season . juveniles hatch after at least twenty - seven days , hatching later under cold temperatures . [ 7 ] maturation takes up to nine months , enabling mating in early summer . black slugs die shortly after laying its last clutch , rarely surviving into a second year . [ 7 ]\nthe black slug is native to western and central europe , from scandinavia to spain and from ireland to austria and the czech republic . it has been introduced to southeastern australia and to some part of north america ( newfoundland , alaska ) .\nmay into burnt barley stubble . sowing rate of 4 . 2kg / ha on a 300mm row spacing . the slug species identified in this trial were the grey field slug (\nthe black slug prefers a diet of rotting vegetation , fungi , manure , and even the odd decomposing dead animal . only during springtime when these aren\u2019t so abundant , and tender young seedlings are , does it cause most damage in the garden .\nthe black slug is omnivorous , and its diet includes fungi , carrion , earthworms , leaves , stems , dead plant material and dung . the food is shredded into tiny pieces by the radula and is then digested by enzymes . reference : urltoken\nprotective position of the giant red slug ( arion rufus ) . picture : martina eleveld .\na slug is basically a muscular foot , and the name \u2018gastropod\u2019 literally means stomach foot .\nlore , they were used in certain plays accompanied with a rhyme to the slug . this\ninvasive species , which in many cases have been introduced by man , are an increasing threat to today\u2019s ecosystems . the iberian slug arion vulgaris ( previously regarded as a . lusitanics ) is an invasive species dispersing through large parts of europe and causing considerable damage to gardens , horticulture and agriculture . it is possible that this slug displaces or hybridizes with native species such as the black slug , arion ater . the invasive nature of this slug species calls for research into its taxonomy and biology as well as its natural enemies .\nthis terrestrial slug is from the family veronicellidae ( leatherleaf slugs ) andcan grow up to 3 . 5 inches in length . as the common name suggest , this slug is typically jet black with an inconspicuous tan stripe down the underside . they have two ocular tentacles that are also black . the velvety / wrinkled mantle covers the entire length of the body . both the breathing pore ( pneumostome ) and anus are located posteriorly . young slugs are not as dark , and their underside is much lighter .\nthe black slug is the \u2018grand - daddy\u2019 of garden slugs , reaching lengths of 20cm ( 8\u201d ) , although up to 13cm ( 5\u201d ) is more typical . the skin is coarse and granular and the sole is pale , often fringed with orange .\nthis is only the second find ever of the african black slug in the u . s . , villanueva said . the first find , also in the lower rio grande valley , occurred in the 1980s , but was eradicated with chemical pesticide baits called molluscicides .\nis a terrestrial slug , common in england and the pacific northwest . ( bbc 2000 ) .\nslug eggs can lay dormant in the soil for years and then hatch when conditions are right .\nmanaging slug populations is unlikely to be successful unless both cultural and chemical control strategies are used .\nmay into burnt wheat stubble which was grazed . sowing rate of 4 . 0kg / ha on a 220mm row spacing . the slug species identified in this trial was the grey field slug (\nthe field slug is another small slug , growing up to 4cm ( 1\u00bd\u201d ) in length . it\u2019s lighter coloured than the garden slug , usually grey or fawn with dark speckles . it has a whitish sole and a short \u2018keel\u2019 , or ridge , on the back of the tail end .\nbefore heading out to the field i had to find the best sampling technique to study european black slugs in eshamy bay . i reviewed a vast amount of literature on various study methods and invasive slug removal . i learned that there are several ways invasive species are managed :\nleopard slug ( limax maximus ) this is a large slug - up to 16cm in length - which has distinctive black leopard like marking on its upper body . its underside is white . it has a pronounced keel along the rear of its body . mucus is sticky and colourless . widespread and common in the uk favouring woodland and gardens . low risk to agricultural crops .\nthe role of parasites and predators in regulating iberian slug populations - the hypothesis that slug - parasitic nematodes reduce or regulate a . vulgaris populations in a chosen area will be tested . we will test the hypothesis that naturally occurring predatory beetles and snails are significant predators of the iberian slug . we will also test if measures to increase predator and parasite abundance leads to reduced populations of the iberian slug .\nespecially in the northern parts of europe , the black slug sometimes maintains its juvenile pale colour even in the adult stage . so adult specimens might be encountered with cream or ivory coloured bodies and foot seams . the appearance of such a slug with a pale body and a dark head allows the assumption ( ! ) that here the juvenile colour might have been kept in adulthood .\nthe keel slug , as its name suggests , has a keel , with a yellow or orange stripe along the ridge . this is a larger slug , up to 6cm ( 2\u00bd\u201d ) long and dark grey or olive in colour . when contracted , the keel slug often curls into a \u2018sickle\u2019 shape .\ntwo juveniles of the lusitanian slug ( arion vulgaris ) feeding on a smaller conspecific . [ rn ]\na slug\u2019s slime absorbs water , which is why it\u2019s nearly impossible to wash it off your hands .\nwhen a slug loses one of its sensory tentacles it grows another , usually within a few months .\nidentify slug species present in a paddock for the most effective control . different species demonstrate different behaviours .\nfigure 2 . effect of each treatment on the plants displaying any slug damage ( inverleigh trial ) .\nfigure 3 . effect of each treatment on the plants displaying any slug damage ( skipton trial ) .\nfigure 4 . effect of each treatment on the plants displaying any slug damage ( hamilton trial ) .\nslug and snail control . natural , organic ways to deter and kill snails and slugs in the garden\ndo whole seedlings disappear in a night ? read on for expert slug and snail control . . .\nslug sex , which can take several hours , is as fascinating and spectacular as it is repellent .\nthe only solution to the problem is a technique called apophallation - the chewing off of the other slug ' s penis using the same razor - sharp teeth with which the slug can decimate your cabbages .\nhaving lost its penis , the castrated slug is then only able to copulate using its female organs .\nnickel , june 1998 . the slimy , yet special slug . natural history , 107 : 18 .\nthe banana slug\u2019s mating behavior , and its slime , have evolved over millions of years . after all this time , the banana slug is very well adapted to the redwood forest environment , scientists say .\niron phosphate : also known as ferric phosphate , this popular and effective slug and snail bait is sold as organic under names such as garden safe slug & snail bait , and sluggo and other commercial names .\nslugs are easy to identify , but not always easy to find . they are basically snails without their protective shells . depending on the species , slugs range in size from less than an inch to 10 inches long , such as the banana slug , native to the west coast . one of the most common slug species found in iowa gardens is the gray garden slug . they are typically less than an inch long and their plump , slimy bodies range in color from light gray to brownish black .\nsimilar species the only large keeled slug with which it might be confused is the common tiger slug or great grey slug limax maximus . in limax maximus the keel is usually shorter and similar in shade to the ground colour of the slug rather than being conspicuously paler . tiger slugs often have a series of broad dark lateral bands along the back rather than being uniformly dark and juveniles are very similar , not undergoing the obvious colour change seen in limax cinereoniger as it matures . the tiger slug always has a uniformly pale sole .\nchris hemsworth kicks off filming for the star - studded men in black spin - off as he cuts a sharp figure in london . . . 21 years after the first film hit screens\nmost animals prefer not to prey upon the black slugs because of the taste of its mucus and because this mucus can make them slippery and consequently difficult to capture ; however , this slug does have some natural predators , including the hedgehog , badger , shrew , mole , mouse , frog , toad , snake , carnivorous beetle , and some birds . [ 19 ] when picked up or touched , the black slug will contract to a hemispherical shape and begin to rock from side to side . this defensive behavior confuses predators , and is unique in the family arionidae . [ 20 ]\nthe black slug plays an important role in a natural ecosystem such as the caledonian forest . by processing decaying plant and fecal material , it helps to recycle the organic matter and nutrients back into a form that can be used by other organisms . this also aids in the maintenance of soil fertility .\naustralia [ invasive ] : the museum victoria reports the black slug to have been first documented in australia in 2001 with multiple reports of these slugs in cultivated gardens and farms since , but as of 2009 , the species was still not considered to be an established species in australia . [ 14 ]\nthis slug is common and widespread throughout scotland and the rest of the uk . it occurs in most terrestrial habitats , including grasslands , hedgerows and woodlands . two closely - related species are arion rufus and arion lusitanicus , and they can only be told apart from the black slug by dissection . however those other species are restricted to the south of the uk , so arion ater is easy to identify in scotland .\nfacilitating a study on european black slugs\u2019 presence or absence in eshamy bay , in west prince william sound ( a newly reported area where slugs were observed in 2012 ) with alaska geographic\u2019s youth group .\nblack slug is often a host of small mites . mites eat mucus of slugs . there are predators which eat it . for example the urchin , the badger , the fox and various birds . seeds and spores are dispersed by slugs , as they get caught in the mucus or slime as a slug moves and are transported for varying distances before being deposited in new sites when the accumulated debris falls off the animal .\nthe moth genus monema is represented by medium - sized yellowish species . the genus belongs to the limacodidae family also known as the slug moths due to the distinct resemblance of their caterpillars to some slug species . . . .\nwinter mortality - we will investigate the hypothesis that the iberian slug experiences high mortality when overwintering in agricultural fields .\ngulp . just look at how ridiculous this thing looks . it\u2019s a giant black sea slug known as a sea hare and it\u2019s freaking monstrous . you don\u2019t really hold it in your hand as much as the sea hare , which can grow up to over 3 feet long and weigh over 30 pounds , just swallows your entire arm . brave wilderness found the black sea hare in the tide pools off the coast of the pacific ocean in san pedro , ca and described holding it as super slimy and unbelievably slippery .\nthe european black slug is native to western and central europe , from scandinavia to spain and from ireland to austria and the czech republic . it has been introduced to southeastern australia and to north america , where it occurs in newfoundland , southern british columbia , the pacific northwest of the usa and some parts of alaska .\nthe black slug is omnivorous , and its diet includes fungi , carrion , earthworms , leaves , stems , dead plant material and dung . recent research has also shown that it eats seedlings of scots pine ( pinus sylvestris ) . the food is shredded into tiny pieces by the radula and is then digested by enzymes .\nthe grey field slug or reticulated slug ( deroceras reticulatum ) is mainly surface active and can have up to three generations a year . it will generally breed in autumn and spring however , if conditions are favourable this species will breed any time , and therefore , a pair can produce up to 1000 eggs a year . the second species identified at these two sites was the black keeled slug ( milax gagates ) . this species can burrow up to 20 centimetres underground to escape the heat . a breeding pair can lay up to 200 eggs a year .\nthe orange and red forms have been considered a separate species \u2013 the red slug \u2013 but this classification is debatable .\na slug\u2019s slime enables it to glide without difficulty over glass shards , or even the edge of a razor blade .\na slug can stretch out to 20 times its normal length , enabling it to squeeze through the smallest of openings .\nuse of molluscicides \u2013 we will test the impact of iron phosphate baited molluscides on slug pest populations in agricultural fields .\nmost molluscs have shells , like snails . a slug ' s shell is hidden inside itself and is very small .\nthe african black slug originated in africa and is now endemic to asia and several islands in the caribbean ,\nvillanueva said .\nhow it got here is anybody ' s guess . it could have come in on imported plants , turf , produce\u2014 who knows ? it hides very well among all those products .\nthe rich chestnut coloured slugs ( see picture below ) one finds in the garden or on the verges differ only very slightly from the large black and the two are regarded as varieties of the same species .\nblack slugs get puberty at the age of 1 year . it\u2019s a hermaphrodite , produces sperm and ovum as well , but for reproduction breeding is needed . slugs lay their eggs in nodes below the soil .\nwhilst arion ater is a very common slug , it belongs to a species complex that can only be 100 % differentiated by dissecting the genitalia so it is usual to record them as part of this aggregate group . there are three species in this complex ( arion ater group ) : arion ater , a . rufus and a . vulgaris . these slug species range from 75 - 180 mm in length at maturity . they may be dark brown , black , grey , orange or reddish in color . they are large and bulky with long , coarse tubercles on the side and back . the juveniles of these species have an even wider range of colors and can be distinguished from mature adults by the presence of lateral stripes . juveniles of the arion ater - complex may be confused with adults of other arion species . the contracted body is bell - shaped . the sole of the foot may be black or tripartite ( pale with a black vertical line down the center ) . the foot fringe may possess any of the following colors with vertical black bands : red , orange , yellow or grey . the mucus of this slug group is colourless , though very sticky , and they lack a keel .\nbesides the usefulness of the trace of mucus , it jeopardizes the animal as some predators follow the trace and eat up the slug ; however , subsistence of the genus is not endangered . it\u2019s not protected , rather proliferated and gnaw the parts of plants . due to its harmful behavior , black slugs are often killed by gardeners .\nif you ever wondered what a slug the size of a household pet would look like , today is your lucky day .\npaddocks with a previous history of slug damage are always a good place to start monitoring in a susceptible crop like canola .\nbelow the majestic trees and prehistoric ferns that grace california\u2019s redwood forests lives a weird and slimy creature : the banana slug .\nare orange when hatched , have a\nstraw\ncoloration until aproximately one inch in length , and eventually take on a black coloration . typical slugs are about six inches long at maturity . ( branley 1996 ) .\nslug locomotion is one of the triumphs of evolution . to see how it works , place a slug ( or a snail , the two groups use an identical technique ) on a sheet of glass and observe its muscular ' foot ' from underneath .\na dark red specimen of the giant red slug ( arion rufus ) from washington state , usa . picture : walter siegmund .\nbeing boneless , the slug ' s body is highly flexible and when fully extended it can be up to 20 cm . in length , although 10 - 15 cm . is more normal . as its common name suggests , it is usually black in colour , although considerable variation does exist , ranging from chestnut brown and orange to pale grey or cream . in general , slugs in northern england and scotland are jet black , while in the south of england the orange forms appear to be more common - the colour variation is thought to be due to differences in ambient temperatures .\nslime serves several other functions , including keeping the slug ' s skin moist , which is important in enabling it to breathe properly . it provides some protection from predators , as more slime is produced when the slug is threatened , and it has an unpleasant taste and texture . slime plays a role in mating , as the slug secretes a chemical in it which attracts potential mates that can follow the slime trail to meet the chemical ' s producer . a slug will also follow an old slime trail to find food .\nseveral specimens found in march in a new residential area of harlingen have since been identified as african black slugs , said dr . raul villanueva , an entomologist at the texas a & m ; agrilife research and extension center at weslaco .\nfortunately , we have never found the nematode that can be carried by the african black slug ,\nhe said .\nthese nematodes , or tiny worms , pose serious health risks to humans , including meningitis . but the nematode has never been detected here . nevertheless , it ' s a good idea to thoroughly wash fruits and vegetables before consuming them .\nlike most organisms , the black slug has its own suite of predators and parasites , so that it too forms food for other species within the ecosystem . predators which will eat it in the caledonian forest include the badger ( meles meles ) , fox ( vulpes vulpes ) , hedgehog ( erinaceus europaeus ) , slow worm ( anguis fragilis ) and various birds . a parasitic nematode , french heartworm ( angiostrongylus vasorum ) , which affects dogs , has been reported as naturally occurring in the black slug in france , while a parasitic mite ( riccardoella oudemansi ) also affects arion ater . another nematode ( phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita ) is also a parasite of slugs , including arion ater . it causes a swelling of the mantle , leading to the death of the infected slug within 21 days , and it has recently been marketed commercially as a biological control for slugs in the uk .\nbanana slug , photo by hugh griffith [ eidtor ' s note : a . k . a . pacific bananslug , ariolimax columbianus ]\nuse of barriers - we will test the hypothesis that barriers can be effective in stopping the iberian slug gaining access into agricultural fields .\nnot only do slugs clear an area of dead and dying matter , they also help spread seeds that are present in vegetation and dung . ( see references 2 ) not all slugs are voracious garden pests . for example , the banana slug is thought to favor mushrooms . it also eats lichen , algae , fungi and dead animals . on the other hand , the garden slug , arion hortensis ; the field slug , derocereas reticulatum ; and the keel slug , tandonia budapestensis , can wreak havoc in gardens . ( see resources 1 )\npredation in the field by carabid beetles is most significant in spring and seems to be density dependent without any clear preferences between slug species .\nthe size of the slug is from 10 to 15 cm . the colour variation is due to the differences in temperatures . usually black coloured but sometimes happed to be red , dark - brown , light - orange and even white . young specimens of black slug do have a brown colour , which is later lost . it has two sets of tentacles : the larger , upper tentacles are sensitive to light , but they cannot differentiate colours ; the smaller , lower tentacles are used for smell . both tentecles can be retracted when the slug is danger . the mouth is on the underside of the head , and it contains a toothed tongue ( radula ) , that has up to 27000 teeth on it . the radula is used to rasp food into the slug ' s mouth . behind the head , the smooth area is called the mantle , and it contains a breathing hole on the right hand side ( pneumostone ) . it protects the rest of the organs . its leg is muscular and covered by mucus . slugs do wavy movements for getting forward .\nlemon slug ( limax tenellus ) this is a small ( max 4cm ) , bright yellow slug which has dark tentacles . it is scarce and almost always found in woodland . it is a good indicator of ancient sites . feeds on fungi . very low risk to agricultural crops .\nthe distribution of the iberian slug in hordaland - the current distribution will be explored , as an example of anthropological spreading of an invasive species .\none reason humans do not much care for slugs is undoubtedly their sliminess . a large tiger slug can produce several teaspoonfuls of slime a day .\nwhen it senses danger the black slug retracts its tentacles and pulls its body back into a compact half - round shape . it also often sways from side to side , although the reason for that behaviour is not entirely clear . slugs possess the ability to re - grow a tentacle which has been lost , and for arion ater this process of regeneration takes 1 - 2 months to be completed .\njuveniles : pale and translucent at hatching , then becoming opaque brown and black , with the sides of the foot becoming pigmented last ( quick 1960 ) . resemble adult lehmannia , and can be distinguished by the absence of a caecum ( wiktor 1996 ) .\nthe european black slug is an invertebrate ( i . e . an animal without a backbone ) and is classified as a mollusc , the group of mainly marine organisms that includes whelks , mussels and squid . it is a gastropod , the class of molluscs that includes snails and slugs , and is defined by the presence of an unsegmented soft body , a large foot and a well - developed head .\nthe slug pictured above is the largest member of the round - backed type of slug . the round backed slugs have no keel , although they often bear numerous rows of elongated tubercles . the breathing pore is near the front of the right hand edge of the mantle ( see picture below ) .\nwhile creating this website i discovered many fascinating \u2013 and some truly bizarre \u2013 facts about the humble slug . it really is a remarkable little creature .\nthe humble slug has few friends , but as she / he is munching through your prized vegetables , these little creatures will not care one jot .\nthe black sea hare gets its deep , dark color from its diet of algae and seaweed and gets it name from the two tentacles sticking out of its head that look like rabbit ears . where it gets it comical size is probably some prehistoric alien energy source .\nbecause of its dependence on staying moist , the black slug is most active at night and on wet days , when numbers in the forest can be prolific . by contrast , none will be visible on a dry sunny day , when they will rest out of sight , to conserve moisture . similarly , they will stay deep in the soil on cold days , only becoming active when the temperature exceeds 5 degrees celsius .\nfor the past two weeks my role in the wildlife devision of the u . s . forest service changed temporarily from studying dusky canada geese to european black slugs . i spent several weeks learning all about the slugs , and wishing that more was known about the species .\ncommon keeled slug ( tandonia budapestensis ) this is the most common of the keeled slugs . it is relatively small reaching around 6cm at maturity . it is typically black or grey in colour with a yellow - orange ridge along its length . it remains mostly underground and will feed on newly drilled seeds which will have a serious effect on emergence . if populations are large it can lead to the need to re - seed .\ni know i\u2019ve already mentioned many of them throughout the pages of \u2018slug off\u2019 , but i\u2019m sure you\u2019ll love reading them all here together in one place .\nthe great grey slug of europe is a voracious garden pest , and the fastest of our slugs . it is able to crawl four times faster than the banana slug , perhaps 6 inches in a minute . not only will it devour many species of plant , this slug is also a predator who will stalk and eat other slugs . i have not witnessed this , but have seen footage of cheetahs chasing gazelles . it is probably similar , but much slower .\nwhen the weather turns hot and dry , a snail can retract into its protective shell to prevent desiccation , while a slug must retreat into the soil or under vegetation to prevent drying out . it is estimated that , during warm summer months , as much as 90 % of a garden\u2019s slug population lives underground .\nspecies description a very large , dark slug with tripartite sole - black or dark grey on either side and white down the middle . this slug is keeled along the back , the keel occupying two - thirds or more of the distance between the mantle and the tail . the keel is whitish to yellowish and contrasts with the dark body colour . juveniles have uniformly pale soles and are coloured a warm buff with double lateral bands . like other keeled slugs , the breathing pore is at rear of the mantle and the mantle has shallow concentric grooves like fingerprints centred on the middle of the back .\nof our three largest slugs , only the banana slug is native . it is the second largest species in the world and can grow to more than 20 cm . if there is a creature that truly symbolizes the great rainy northwest , i suggest it is the banana slug . it is a good slug , almost never found in gardens or crops . in natural habitats it acts as nature ' s garbage collector and recycler , consuming and further breaking down dead and decaying matter .\nu . s . habitat : since they are intolerant of low humidity the sup - tropical southeastern united state are very suitable . commonly found in st . augustine grass , they can also be found under rocks , boards , flower pots , greenhouses and even in the hearts of plants such as lettuce or cabbage . with the black leatherleaf slug having such a voracious and scavenging appetite , they could establish in urban , suburban and rural areas .\nso far , there have been only a few of these african black slugs found in one localized urban area of harlingen ,\nvillanueva said .\nothers have been found nearby , but they are very slow movers , so it ' s not likely they will spread .\nsanitation is vital to slug control . slugs escape hot , dry conditions by hiding between the soil surface and any material on the soil during the daytime . removing boards , pots , and debris from growing areas will reduce slug cover and breeding areas thinning dense foliage will allow sun to reach the soil ( yates , 1988 ) . weather affects slug populations . hot dry weather or excessive flooding reduce populations , while cool , damp weather boosts populations ( crowell et al . , 1986 ) .\nthe ash - black slug is a large keeled slug i . e . it has a sharp ridge or keel running along the middle of the back . in adult slugs the keel is whitish and contrasts with the generally dark ground colour . ash - black slugs can grow to 20 cm ( 8 in . ) and live in undisturbed mature broadleaf woods or , in the west , on open hillsides and marine cliffs feeding on lichens and algae on bare rocks . this species is widespread but very local in n . ireland . there is no evidence at present of a decrease and it has been encountered more frequently in some localities than formerly . this in sharp contrast to experience in southern ireland where it is declining sharply . irish forestry policy is almost certainly implicated , particularly the clear felling of old broadleaf woodland and replacement with conifers and the practice of under - planting with conifers in established broadleaf woods .\nthe field slug only feeds on the surface but will virulently munch its way through most vegetation , and is often found nestling among the leaves of lettuces and cabbages .\ndescription : like its name states , the giant red slug usually is red . there are also brown and black specimens , but those have a red foot seam ( f in the picture above ) . the foot sole , in contrary is light grey , cream coloured or reddish . the tentacles are blackish brown and can be palely striped . the juveniles , contrary to the adults , are of a pale yellowish colour or light orange with a dark head .\nthe foot - fringe is black , the tubercles are large and elongate , and the sole is blackish grey . the atrium and vagina ( genitalia ) are considerably narrower than is the spermatheca ( organ for storing sperm ) . the oviduct is narrow while the spermatheca is spherical . [ 7 ]\nslugs eat dead organic matter as well as living vegetation . various species will feed on rotting plants , leaves , dead animals and even animal droppings . for example , the european black slug , arion ater , eats dung and also lays its eggs in it . after hatching , the larvae live in the dung for three to four weeks . as decomposers , the slugs break down organic matter , thereby releasing nutrients which enrich the soil . ( see references 1 )"]}
{"id": 1041, "summary": [{"text": "the rufous-tailed jacamar ( galbula ruficauda ) is a near-passerine bird which breeds in the tropical new world in southern mexico , central america and south america as far south as southern brazil and ecuador .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the jacamars are elegant brightly coloured birds with long bills and tails .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the rufous-tailed jacamar is typically 25 centimetres ( 10 in ) long with a 5 centimetres ( 2 in ) long black bill .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the subspecies g. r. brevirostris has , as its name implies , a shorter bill .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "this bird is metallic green above , and the underparts are mainly orange , including the undertail , but there is a green breast band .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "sexes differ in that the male has a white throat , and the female a buff throat ; she also tends to have paler underparts .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the race g. r. pallens has a copper-coloured back in both sexes .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this species is a resident breeder in a range of dry or moist woodlands and scrub .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the two to four rufous-spotted white eggs are laid in a burrow in a bank or termite mound .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "this insectivore hunts from a perch , sitting with its bill tilted up , then flying out to catch flying insects .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "one commonly preyed upon insect is the social wasp agelaia vicina .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "further , the bird distinguishes between edible and unpalatable butterflies mainly according to body shape .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the rufous-tailed jacamar 's call is a sharp pee-op , and the song a high thin peeo-pee-peeo-pee-pe-pe , ending in a trill . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "rufous - tailed jacamar", "paragraphs": ["protection / threats / status : rufous - tailed jacamar is common and widespread in its range . the major threats for this species are deforestation and habitat loss . rufous - tailed jacamar populations are not threatened at this moment .\na lateral view of a perched male ' rufous - and - green jacamar ' .\nthe commonest species is the rufous - tailed jacamar ( galbula ruficauda ) , 25 cm ( 10 inches ) long , found from southern mexico to argentina .\nthe rufous - tailed jacamar inhabits a range from central america to south america as far as brazil and northern argentina . the beauty of its shimmering green upperparts and rufous underparts cannot be overlooked . while the male\u2019s throat is white , the female\u2019s is rufous .\nrange : rufous - tailed jacamar is widespread on a large range , from southern mexico to northern argentina , including mexico , costa rica , ecuador , colombia , brazil , argentina , and trinidad and tobago .\nbehaviour : rufous - tailed jacamar feeds mainly on insects caught on the wing , by flycatching , aerial sallies or pursuit in the air . when the prey is caught , the bird beats it against a branch or other hard surface , in order to kill it , and to remove the more resistant parts of the body and the wings . then , the prey is swallowed whole . this behaviour is observed only for relatively large preys . rufous - tailed jacamar hunts from an exposed perch .\nhabitat : rufous - tailed jacamar frequents several kinds of habitats , such as shrubby forest edges , gallery forests , second - growth thickets , streams and rivers\u2019 banks , marshes and savannahs with scattered trees . it may be seen from lowlands up to 900 metres of elevation , rarely up to 1300 metres .\nflight : rufous - tailed jacamar has swift flight , fairly brief when pursuing preys . if the bird needs to fly long distances , for escaping a danger or between two feeding areas , it flies with bursts of rapid wing beats and glides . at this moment , the flight seems to be undulating .\nsome might say that the rufous - tailed jacamar ( galbula ruficacauda ) is reminiscent of a green - and - rufous kingfisher for its similar color patterns and heavy bill whereas others might see this bird and think of it as an oversized hummingbird . whatever side you fall on it\u2019s a species that you can\u2019t seem to get enough of and is hard to turn away from for its brilliant colors and sassy attitude .\ndescription : rufous - tailed jacamar is a brightly coloured bird . adult male has shining metallic coppery - green plumage on upperparts . on the wings , the primaries are blackish . the long , graduated tail shows two longer rectrices . the other tail feathers are cinnamon . on the underparts , chin and throat are white . breast shows a broad metallic coppery - green band . belly , vent and undertail are rufous - chestnut . underwing coverts are cinnamon and flight feathers are dark grey .\ndiet : rufous - tailed jacamar feeds mainly on insects caught by flycatching and sallies . the diet includes a wide variety of insects , even wasps . the bird perches 1 to 3 metres above the ground on relatively exposed perch . when the prey is caught , it beats it several times against the branch , in order to kill it and to remove the indigestible parts before swallowing .\nearlier this month at springhill , a high - pitched call of pee - pee - pee alerted us to the presence of a rufous - tailed jacamar nearby . turning out to be just in front of springhill\u2019s main house , employees and guests alike were delighted to spot trinidad and tobago\u2019s only representative of the galbulidae ( jacamar ) family . jacamars are neotropical birds which are similar to old world bee - eaters . they look like oversized hummingbirds and share a few characteristics with \u2018hummers\u2019 . they have iridescent feathers , long , thin bills and a fullness of energy .\nthere are 15 species of jacamar in tropical america which belong in their own family galbulidae situated between the puffbirds and toucans . all belong to the order piciformes along with woodpeckers and honeyguides . there are two species found here in costa rica , the great jacamar ( jacamerops aurea ) found on the caribbean slope and the rufous - tailed jacamar found at low elevations on both caribbean and pacific slopes . they are fairly common here on the osa peninsula mainly found along forest edges , streams and the open understory of tall second growth forests . it is also known to frequent cocoa plantations . we recently saw one perched along a road near one of our avian monitoring points on friends of the osa property in an area that we know as arbolito . it is not as abundant as some species and so it is a special moment to come across one .\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto rufous - tailed jacamar\u2019s call is a sharp , thin \u201cpeeup\u201d repeated 3 to 10 times by both sexes . it also utters a rapid trill . song is a rapid phrase of several notes ending in trill \u201cpeeo - peeo - peea - pee - pee - pe - pe - pe - pe - pe - illllll\u201d . this prolonged song uttered by the male may vary , including melodious or buzzy parts , twittering , ascending trills and low \u201cpee - pee - pee\u201d .\nrufous - tailed jacamars breed , in trinidad , from february to june and in tobago , from february to august , where i might add , they are quite common . both sexes share nesting duties and interestingly , during courtship males remove the insects\u2019 wings to feed them to females . clutches of two to four white eggs with cinnamon spots , are laid .\nrufous - tailed jacamar nests in burrows excavated by both sexes . it is situated in sandy banks or termitary , and even in higher roots of fallen trees , from the ground up to three metres high . the burrow is usually straight , and the nest - chamber is sometimes partially visible . if there is any obstruction such as roots , the angle may deviate as sideway or downwards . the entrance is usually rectangular with vertical sides . the burrow is about 20 to 50 cm deep , with terminal cavity for the nest - chamber which is unlined .\nlocally called the \u2018king hummingbird\u2019 , the rufous - tailed jacamar is common in humid lowlands \u2013 on forest edges , in clearings and in secondary forest . it often perches a few metres above ground alongside a road , narrow stream or other type of clearing . there , it waits for prey , mostly flying insects , for which it hawks then thrashes against a branch in order to de - wing . these lively birds are regularly seen dust bathing on gravel roads . they measure 26 cm in length and usually nest in short tunnels on earth banks or even in termite nests .\nrufous - tailed jacamars dig long burrows ( 11 - 20\u201d ) in a bank , the root mass of an upturned tree or a termitary in which to put their nest . parents feed their 2 \u2013 4 young during a 3 week nestling period by regurgitating insect parts . by the time the nestlings are ready to fledge the nest can look like a tomb of glittery insect wings and chitinous body parts .\nit is highly sedentary , only performing some short dispersal , but it does not migrate . rufous - tailed jacamar is very active , often seen in pairs in shrubs , hunting for insects . during breeding season , the male performs regular courtship - feeding . it catches insects for its mate , offered without wings or hard parts . both mates perch close to each other while the male bobs its head upwards , downwards and sideways , and swings the tail up and down . at this moment , the male utters low notes and female gives trills . at other moment , always perched side to side , both mates fan their tails and bow together .\nvary slightly in the amounts of black on the chin and in the number of green central rectrices , but in general males are an iridescent coppery / golden green above with a white throat and cinnamon - rufous underparts . females are a slightly duller green and have a cinnamon - buff throat .\nfeed almost exclusively on flying insects , especially dragonflies , butterflies and moths . these birds forage from a perch on an exposed branch 1 to 3 meters from the ground , and sally out to catch insects on the wing . after the jacamar has caught an insect it beats it several times against a branch to stun it and remove the insect ' s wings before it swallows .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\npartners in flight estimate the total population to number 500 , 000 - 4 , 999 , 999 individuals ( a . panjabi in litt . 2008 ) . trend justification : despite this species tolerance of degraded and man - made habitats declines have been reported in panama and costa rica owing to hunting pressure , human interference and habitat loss ( del hoyo et al . 2002 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ncuvier 1816 ) is a beautiful inhabitant of forest edges and clearings of central and south america . it occurs in several disjunct populations : from eastern mexico south to western panama ; from eastern panama south to western ecuador , colombia and venezuela ; in guyana ; and from bolivia east to eastern brazil . the six recognized subspecies of\n) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\njosep del hoyo , pieter de groot boersma , greg baker , carlos gussoni , david ascanio , lucas andrei campos - silva , keith blomerley , antonio silveira , max roth , alex garc\u00eda \u00b7 videoaves , thore noernberg , peter nash , keith and lynn youngs , jacob . wijpkema , cedric prys - roberts , pere sugranyes , richard garrigues , manakincarmelo , dani\u00eal jimenez , mauricio rueda , rigdon currie , yaiza arag\u00f3n , yo\u00ebl jimenez , eldert groenewoud , monicayhector , pedro h ramos , rodrigo y castro , sidnei sampaio , agustin carrasco .\nmargareta wieser , carlos gussoni , lars petersson , luis r figueroa , antonio silveira , lmarce , richardgreenhalgh031 , manakincarmelo , lsargentini , phillip edwards , steve garvie , sanjiv parasram , joe tobias , philgunson , stephen romany , josep del hoyo , kperezleon , jacqueserard , rolando chavez , lutz duerselen , ian barker , anselmo d affonseca , mikko pyh\u00e4l\u00e4 , miriam bauman , paul van giersbergen , r\u00f3ger rodr\u00edguez , netosevero , nimali digo and thilanka edirisinghe , delareina , hal and kirsten snyder , mauricio rueda , orlando jarqu\u00edn g . , nigel lallsingh , eduardo freitez gassan , gustavo a . rodr\u00edguez , marco valentini , markus lilje , digitalbcon , sirroyalty , hector ceballos - lascurain , jacob . wijpkema , jos\u00e9 frade , luca boscain , nelsonlage , sam shaw , anderson rosado gomez , horacio luna , carlos ruiz . - guerra , marianhw , juanjaimemg , marin\u00eas eiterer , aisse gaertner , stu elsom , dani\u00eal jimenez , dubi shapiro , pedro h ramos , fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric pelsy , zanon , michaelp , andre zambolli , juan carlos mar\u00edn , kevin b agar , bj\u00f8rn kjellemyr , roger ahlman , samantha klein , erkki lehtovirta , holger teichmann , luis eduardo urue\u00f1a , ken havard , mattias hofstede , dusan m . brinkhuizen , sebastian duque , sam , tomas grim , joselito nardy ribeiro , daniel avenda\u00f1o , tadeusz stawarczyk , lindolfo souto , greg baker , josef widmer .\njosep del hoyo , joe klaiber , peter boesman , no\u00e9 eiterer , antonio silveira , dusan m . brinkhuizen .\nmale heard of forest edge of tropical dry forest . recording distance was 15 meters .\none individual seen and heard on forest edge of secondary vegetation at understory near a pasture . it was catching insects at fly . recording distance was 6 meters .\nheard on forest interior at understory of lowland rain forest . recording distance was 10 meters or more .\nprobably a male at understory into forest interior of dry forest . different individual from xc382459 .\na single individual perched and flying for catching cicadas on forest edge of dry forest . recording distance was 8 meters .\nrecorded in the edge of vereda at if ' s school farm , in the company of ruan henrique silveira martins .\ngrabaci\u00f3n hecha en el marco del proyecto\nestudio t\u00e9cnico y participativo de la biodiversidad aviar del municipio de ibagu\u00e9 \u2013 tolima , como estrategia para la consolidaci\u00f3n del ecoturismo de aves , la conservaci\u00f3n de sus h\u00e1bitats y el desarrollo de procesos de educaci\u00f3n ambiental\nuniversidad de ibagu\u00e9 - rednatur - colciencias .\nsinging while perched about 12 m from me . this was more than 2 km from my other recording of this species in this area ( xc402069 ) , so it is a different bird .\na pair , singing together . these three recordings were taken from about 1 - 1 / 2 hours of following these birds and attempting to get good recordings ; wind , some children , a photographer , and chickens caused me to not include many others .\noriginal recording . habitat riparian strip of forest along arroyo de coloso at ecoparque ecoloso .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthese colours fit right in with christmastime , so we presume that the bird\u2019s unusual appearance at asa wright was a fitting start to the holiday season .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 290 , 257 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nthis is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .\nhorse , ( equus caballus ) , a hoofed , herbivorous mammal of the family equidae . it comprises a single species , \u2026\nanimal , ( kingdom animalia ) , any of a group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms ( i . e . , as distinct from\u2026\nfemale resembles male , but she has cinnamon - buff chin and throat . she is slightly paler and duller than male .\njuvenile has shorter bill and tail than adults . the upperparts are duller , and the breast band is less regular and broader than in adults .\nhead is metallic green . the long , sharp black bill is about 4 to 5 cm length . eyes are dark brown with bare greyish eye - rings and lores . legs and feet are yellowish - brown .\nwe find six subspecies : g . r . melanogenia ; g . r . pallens ; g . r . brevirostris ; g . r . ruficauda ; g . r . rufoviridis ; g . r . heterogyna . they differ in varying amount of colours in plumage and bill size .\nfemale lays 2 to 4 white eggs . incubation lasts about 19 to 23 days , shared by both parents , and female mainly at night . calls and displays occur at each change of incubating bird . at hatching , the chicks are covered with long whitish down . they are fed by both adults with insects caught around the nest - site , within 50 metres from the burrow . young fledge about 20 to 26 days after hatching . adults and youngs roost at night in the burrow after fledging , and during about 8 weeks . this species produces one brood per season , but probably two .\nthey measure in at about 9 inches ( 23 cm ) long and weight approximately 27 g . those long bills are used for capturing insects . they perch on horizontal branches swaying their bill back and forth in search of flying insects . they are known to capture bees and beetles as well as large brilliantly colored butterflies such as morpho and swallowtails . their long beak allows them to grab hold of butterfly bodies while keeping flapping wings as well as bee stings at bay ."]}
{"id": 1049, "summary": [{"text": "the scarlet finch ( carpodacus sipahi ) is a small passerine bird in the finch family fringillidae .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is found in the himalayas from central nepal eastwards to vietnam and is found spottily in the adjacent hills of northeast india and southeast asia as far south as thailand .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it is resident in the himalayas , but many birds winter to the immediate south .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "its natural habitat is temperate forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it was described by the british naturalist brian houghton hodgson in 1836 under the binomial name corythus sipahi .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the species name sipahi comes from the hindi word sip\u0101hi for a soldier .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the scarlet finch was formerly placed in the monotypic genus haematospiza but was moved to the rosefinch genus carpodacus based on the results of molecular phylogenetic studies . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "scarlet finch", "paragraphs": ["split gran canaria blue finch from [ tenerife ] blue chaffinch ( sangster et al . 2015 )\nclement , p . ( 2018 ) . scarlet finch ( carpodacus sipahi ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\n18\u201319 cm ; 38\u201342\u00b75 g . medium - sized to large , large - billed and thickset finch with short wings and tail . male has entire head , upperparts and underparts bright . . .\nprzevalski ' s finch , previously called pink - tailed rosefinch , is a relict member of an ancient separate lineage that is as old as , or older than other families of finches ; it belongs in its own monotypic family urocynchramidae , with a name change ( groth 2000 , p\u00e4ckert et al . 2016 )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nioc _ names _ file _ plus - 8 . 2g : 8 . 2\nclassification of fringillidae revised for v3 . 3 ; see especially zuccon et al . 2012\neurope ( except british isles , sardinia ) to c asia , w , n turkey , c and e caucasus and nw iran .\n( zuccon et al . 2012 , cf kirwan & gregory 2005 , bli , hbw )\n( tietze et al . 2013 , cf rasmussen & anderton 2005 , ioc 3 . 5 ) . restore english name to great rosefinch\nhas priority for species name . change english name to pink - rumped rosefinch ( hbw , clements , h & m 3 )\n( wu et al . 2011 , tietze et al . 2013 ; cf collar 2004 )\nhawaiian honeycreepers resequenced following pratt 2005 , lerner et al . 2011 ; see also nacc 2015 . needs review of oversplit genera .\nisland populations of the akepa are recognized as separate species ( nacc 2015 - b - 4c ) ; add island name ( hawaii ) to akepa .\nbased on lerner et al . ( 2011 ) phylogeny ; see also pratt 2005 .\n, is preoccupied by a subspecies of greater akialoa . that conflict no longer exists with placement of kauai amakihi in\n( arnaiz - villena et al . 1999 , nguembock et al . 2009 , zuccon et al . 2012 )\n( tschusi , 1901 ) as a synonym . permanently invalid . dickinson & christidis , 2014 .\n( arnaiz - villena et al . 1999 , nguembock et al . 2009 , zuccon et al . 2012 , nacc )\nrecognized by bou ( ottvall et al . 2002 , marthinsen et al . 2008 )\npending future analyses ( knox 2001 , ottvall et al . 2002 , marthinsen et al . 2008 , mason & taylor 2015 , bou , h & m4 , nacc 2017 - b - 7 )\nse siberia , ne china , korea , sakhalin and kuril is . and japan\n( weir and schluter 2004 , smith et al . 2005 ; nacc 2017 - c - 5 )\npreliminary genetics suggest that megaplaga and leucoptera are sisters and that bifasciata should be split to avoid paraphyly ( parchman et al . 2007 ) . see also elmberg 1993 re song differences\ntaczanowski , 1879 as a synonym . permanently invalid . dickinson & christidis , 2014 .\n( zuccon et al . 2012 , also arnaiz - villena et al . 1999 , nguembock et al . 2009 , ryan et al . 2004 )\nsa : n colombia to trinidad and the guianas , south to n argentina , se brazil , e paraguay .\nfrom thraupidae to a new monotypic family rhodinocichlidae , which follows calcariidae ( barker et al . 2013 , 2015 ; nacc 2017 - b - 6 ) . eng [ 8 . 1 ] = lower case ' tanager '\npreviously separated in monospecific haematospiza , but moved here based on genetic data # r . monotypic .\nuttarakhand , and c nepal e to bhutan and ne india ( e arunachal pradesh , and assam s to meghalaya and lushai hills ) , s & se china ( se xizang and w & s yunnan ) and w & ne myanmar ; in winter also nw thailand , n laos and nw vietnam ( w tonkin ) .\nsong a clear and liquid , upslurred\npar - ree - reeeeeee\n. call a loud\ntoo - eee\n,\npleeau\nor\nkwee - i - . . .\nvariety of seeds , buds , berries , and occasionally small insects . plants exploited include raspberry (\nseason may\u2013jul . nest a large or bulky cup of twigs , plant fibres , roots and grasses , placed 7\u201312 m above ground in fork of tree . . .\nnot well known . partial or altitudinal migrant . moves between nov and mid - may to lower levels in . . .\nnot globally threatened . generally uncommon to scarce ; fairly common in w & c parts of range . precise extent of breeding range in himalayas poorly known ; may reach w in . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nforms three well - defined subfamilies # r , including euphoniinae , previously placed in thraupidae . also includes drepanidini , sometimes treated as a separate family ( as in hbw ) , but here considered merely a tribe of carduelinae . extensive phylogenetic data available , and comparatively few species remain wholly unscreened ; nonetheless , study of internal relationships has been confounded by recurring plumage patterns and use of similar feeding niches by taxa that prove to be far from closely related .\npreviously considered to include species now in agraphospiza , procarduelis and haemorhous ( see all three , below ) ; now in different tribes . as traditionally constituted , was extensively polyphyletic , and in response now restricted to old world species . in order to resolve paraphyly , present genus expanded to incorporate : two monospecific genera considered basal within this lineage , chaunoproctus ( \u2020 carpodacus ferreorostris ) and haematospiza # r ; three other monospecific genera , kozlowia , uragus and pyrrhospiza # r # r ; one species from leucosticte # r ; and one hitherto placed in pinicola or propyrrhula ( as in hbw ) # r # r . some authors have isolated c . erythrinus in erythrina # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\njosep del hoyo , christian boix hinzen , pieter de groot boersma , sonam dorji .\njosep del hoyo , nimali digo and thilanka edirisinghe , tanakorn , markus lilje , morten venas , regis nossent , yu ching tam , paul van giersbergen , lei zhu , urltoken , arthur grosset .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 292 , 790 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is described as scarce or uncommon ( clement 1999 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en"]}
{"id": 1054, "summary": [{"text": "arends 's golden mole ( carpitalpa arendsi ) is a species of mammal in the family chrysochloridae .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is found in mozambique and zimbabwe .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitats are temperate forests , subtropical or tropical dry forests , subtropical or tropical moist montane forests , temperate grassland , subtropical or tropical dry lowland grassland , arable land , pastureland , plantations , rural gardens , urban areas , and introduced vegetation .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is the only species in the genus carpitalpa .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it was elevated from the genus chlorotalpa .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it was first described by lundholm , who named it for nicolas arends , taxidermist at the kaffrarian museum ( now the amathole museum , in king william 's town , south africa ) who captured the specimen . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "arends ' s golden mole", "paragraphs": ["juliana\u2019s golden mole ( neamblysomus julianae ) is a golden mole endemic to south africa . it is listed as an endangered species due to habitat loss and a restricted range . golden moles are an ancient group of mammals that live mostly below ground .\nthe species occurs in the inyanga highlands of eastern zimbabwe between latitudes 18\u00b0 s and 20\u00b0 s , and altitudes of 850\u20132 , 000 m , with a marginal intrusion into the vila perey district of western mozambique .\nthey have shiny coats of dense fur and a streamlined , formless appearance . they have no visible eyes or ears ; in fact , they are blind - the small eyes are covered with hairy skin . the ears are small and are hidden in the animal ' s fur . juliana ' s golden mole weighs 21\u201375 g ( 0 . 75\u20132 . 7\nvan zyl ' s golden mole ( cryptochloris zyli ) is a golden mole endemic to the western cape province , south africa . it is listed as an endangered species due to habitat loss . golden moles are an ancient group of mammals who live mostly below ground . they have shiny coats of dense fur and a streamlined , formless appearance . they have no visible eyes or ears ; in fact , they are blind \u2013 the small eyes are covered with hairy skin . the ears are small and are hidden in the animal ' s fur . [ 2 ]\nvan zyl ' s golden mole was initially known only from compagnies drift , 16 km ( 9 . 9 mi ) inland from lambert ' s bay , northwestern cape province , south africa . another specimen was collected at groenriviermond , approximately 150 km ( 93 mi ) farther north along the namaqualand coast , in 2003 . van zyl ' s golden mole is threatened by continued loss of habitat . for example , mining of coastal dunes for alluvial diamonds could lead to habitat degradation . habitat alteration associated with tourism developments along the west coast could also pose a problem for this species . the international union for conservation of nature now rates this species as\nendangered\n. [ 1 ]\nchrysochloris asiatica cape golden mole adult , showing the digging claw , absence of external eye and a hint of the iridescence of the fur . the rhinarium is not obvious in this photograph\nit lives in the coastal dune belt and adjacent sandy areas . usually two young are born , sometimes one . van zyl ' s golden mole eats various invertebrates , as well as legless lizards , which grow to a length of about 20 cm ( 8\n) . the young of golden moles are born in a grass - lined cavity in the ground . they usually dig their tunnels just below the ground . [ 2 ]\nof the 21 species of golden mole , no fewer than 11 are threatened with extinction . the primary causes are sand mining , poor agricultural practices , increasing urbanisation , and predation by domestic cats and dogs .\n. where it occurs , juliana\u2019s golden mole can be locally common . however , its occurrence is extremely patchy within its limited geographic range . there are no data on population size . the population on bronberg ridge , pretoria east , is severely affected by ongoing intensive urbanization and a mining operation , and it is considered to be critically endangered . the nylsvley population in limpopo occurs in farmlands ( adjoining the nylsvley nature reserve ) that are subject to habitat alteration and potential degradation . another threat is habitat fragmentation which causes obstruction to animal movement ; this results in in - breeding which increases the possible risk of extinction . the\nvan zyl ' s golden mole is about 80\u201390 mm ( 3\u20133 . 5\n) long and weighs about 20\u201330 g ( 0 . 71\u20131 . 06 oz ) . the face has white markings . the dorsal fur is short and dense and is a dark lead - grey colour , the under - layer of fur being pale grey . the underparts are a uniform drab colour . the claw on the third digit on the forefoot is about 10 mm ( 0 . 4 in ) long and 4 mm ( 0 . 2 in ) wide at the base . claw one and two are slightly shorter making a pointed digging tool . [ 2 ]\ngolden moles are small , insectivorous burrowing mammals endemic to southern africa , where their afrikaans names are gouemolle or kruipmolle ( singular gouemol or kruipmol ) . they comprise the family chrysochloridae and as such they are taxonomically distinct from the true moles , family talpidae , and other mole - like families , all of which , to various degrees , they resemble as a result of evolutionary convergence .\nit is confined to sandy soils , often pockets along weathered rocky ridges of quartzite or granite . it is also common in well - irrigated gardens . usually two young are born , sometimes one . golden moles eat\nmost other species construct both foraging superficial burrows and deeper permanent burrows for residence . residential burrows are relatively complex in form , and may penetrate as far as a metre below ground and include deep chambers for use as bolt - holes , and other chambers as latrines . they push excavated soil up to the surface as mole - hills , or compact it into the tunnel walls . they feed on small insects and earthworms or small vertebrates such as lizards or burrowing snakes . they depend on their sense of hearing to locate much of their prey , and the cochleas of a number of golden mole species have been found to be long and highly coiled , which may indicate a greater ecological dependence on low frequency auditory cues than we see in talpid moles . [ 5 ]\nsuch as insects , earthworms and snails . their young are born in a grass - lined cavity in the ground . golden moles usually dig their tunnels just below the surface of the ground . the main feeding activity is in the late afternoon and at night . they exhibit\nmost species of chrysochloridae live almost exclusively underground in their respectively preferred environments , beneath either grassveld , forest , swamps , deserts , or mountainous terrain . however , chrysospalax species tend to forage above ground in leaf litter in forests or in meadows . eremitalpa species such as grant ' s golden mole live in the sandy namib desert , where they cannot form tunnels because the sand collapses . instead during the day , when they must seek shelter , they literally swim through the loose sand , using their broad claws to paddle , and dive down some 50 cm to where it is bearably cool . there they enter a state of torpor , thus conserving energy . [ 4 ] at night they emerge to forage on the surface rather than wasting energy shifting sand . their main prey are termites that live under isolated grass clumps , and they might travel for 6 kilometres a night in search of food . they seek promising clumps by listening for wind - rustled grass - root stresses and termites ' head - banging alarm signals , neither of which can be heard easily above ground , so they stop periodically and dip their heads under the sand to listen . [ 4 ]\nlike most burrowing mammals with similar habits , the chrysochloridae have short legs with powerful digging claws , very dense fur that repels dirt and moisture , and toughened skin , particularly on the head . their eyes are non - functional and covered with furred skin . the external ears are just tiny openings . in particular , golden moles bear a remarkable resemblance to the marsupial moles of australia , family notoryctidae , which they resemble so suggestively that at one time , the marsupial / placental divide not withstanding , some workers argued that they were related . considerations that influenced the debate might have included the view that the chrysochloridae are very primitive placentals and the fact that they have many mole - like specializations similar to specializations in marsupial moles . the rhinarium is a greatly enlarged , dry leathery pad that protects their nostrils while the animal digs . in this respect too , they resemble the marsupial moles . some authors claim that their primary sense is that of touch , and they are particularly sensitive to vibrations that may indicate approaching danger . [ 3 ] note below however , the observations on the malleus in the middle ear .\nthe taxonomy of the chrysochloridae is undergoing a review in the light of new genetic information . they have traditionally been listed with the shrews , hedgehogs and a grab - bag of small , difficult - to - place creatures as part of the order insectivora . some authorities retain this classification , at least for the time being . others group the golden moles with the tenrecs in a new order , which is sometimes known as tenrecomorpha , while others call it afrosoricida and reserve tenrecomorpha for the family tenrecidae .\nat one time the chrysochloridae were regarded as primitive . supporting arguments included : that they were thought to have originated in gondwana , that they had a low resting metabolic rate , and that they could switch off thermoregulation when inactive . furthermore , like the tenrecs , they possess a cloaca , and males lack a scrotum . however , such points are no longer regarded as strongly suggestive that golden moles are undeveloped\nreptilian mammals\n; some are seen rather as adaptations to regional climatic conditions . going into a torpor when resting or during cold weather , enables them to conserve energy and reduce urgent requirements for food . similarly , they have developed particularly efficient kidneys and most species do not need to drink water at all ; in fact they tend to drown easily if they fall into water .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nmonotypic . lundholm ( 1955 ) described this taxon as a subgenus of chlorotalpa , as well as the subgenus kilimatalpa for c . stuhlmanni from east africa . simonetta ( 1968 ) elevated carpitalpa to generic rank to include kilimatalpa . meester ( 1974 ) instead assigned c . arendsi to chlorotalpa and c . stuhlmanni to chrysochloris , commenting that differences between the chlorotalpa species did not warrant subgeneric separation . phylogenetic analyses of morphometric data ( bronner 1995 ) , and recent phylogenetic analyses based on both morphological and genetic data ( asher et al . 2010 ) confirm that c . arendsi has diverged considerably from the chlorotalpa species and chrysochloris ( kilimatalpa ) stuhlmanni , necessitating its allocation to a distinct genus ,\n. habitat alteration / degradation as a result of political instability and poorly - managed land transformation initiatives in eastern zimbabwe , together with limited policing and management of conservation areas ( particularly nyanga national park , which includes much of this species range ) , have resulted in rapid and extensive environmental damage from annual wildfires that destroy its preferred forest habitats and local biodiversity ; uncontrolled timber harvesting ; overgrazing by cattle and poaching . habitat modifications are thus inferred to be major potential threats to the survival of this species , given its restricted range , and are reasons to confirm its vulnerable status .\nfavours loamy soils in montane grasslands and the fringes of rainforests , but is dependent on areas with less cover ( lundholm 1955 ) , and does not penetrate deep into forests ( smithers and lobao - tello 1976 , smithers and wilson 1979 ) . also common in cultivated lands and gardens .\nhabitat modifications associated with political instability and poorly - managed land transformation initiatives in zimbabwe , together with limited conservation management in protected areas , an increase in the frequency and intensity of wildfires , uncontrolled timber harvesting and overgrazing by livestock are likely to be major threats . the extent and intensity thereof , and impacts on this species , are not well documented . predation by domestic cats and dogs probably represents a more localized threat .\noccurs in the following conservation areas : nyanga national park ; mtarazi falls national park ; chimanimani national park ; vumba botanical reserve ; and bunga forest reserve . however , recent reports suggest that baseline management and policing of these conservation areas has collapsed owing to political and economic instability , leading to habitat alteration associated with uncontrolled wildfires , overgrazing by cattle and poaching , so the extent of protection these areas afford is uncertain .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\njonathan kingdon ; david happold ; thomas butynski ; michael hoffmann ; meredith happold ; jan kalina ( 2013 ) .\n. in wilson , d . e . ; reeder , d . m .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 11 / 7 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe source code for the wiki 2 extension is being checked by specialists of the mozilla foundation , google , and apple . you could also do it yourself at any point in time .\nwould you like wikipedia to always look as professional and up - to - date ? we have created a browser extension .\nit will enhance any encyclopedic page you visit with the magic of the wiki 2 technology .\ni use wiki 2 every day and almost forgot how the original wikipedia looks like .\nof perfecting techniques ; in live mode . quite the same wikipedia . just better .\n( 3rd ed . ) . johns hopkins university press . p . 79 .\nthis page was last edited on 22 march 2018 , at 10 : 01 .\nbasis of this page is in wikipedia . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 unported license . non - text media are available under their specified licenses . wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation , inc . wiki 2 is an independent company and has no affiliation with wikimedia foundation .\nthe species range in size from about 8 to about 20 cm . they have muscular shoulders and the forelimbs are radically adapted for digging ; all the toes on the forefeet have been reduced , except for a large , pick - like third claw on the third toe . the fifth digit is absent and the first and fourth digits are vestigial . the adaptations of the hind feet are less dramatic , they retain all five toes and are webbed as an adaptation to efficient backward shovelling of soil loosened by the front claws .\nsome species also have hypertrophied middle ear ossicles , in particular the malleus , which apparently is adapted towards the detection of seismic vibrations . [ 6 ] [ 7 ] in this respect there is some apparent convergent evolution to burrowing reptiles in the family amphisbaenidae .\nfemales give birth to one to three hairless young in a grass - lined nest within the burrow system . breeding occurs throughout the year . the adults are solitary , and their burrowing territory may be aggressively defended from intruders , especially where resources are relatively scarce . [ 3 ]\n( 3rd ed . ) . johns hopkins university press . pp . 77\u201381 .\ncrumpton , nick ; kardjilov , nikolay ; asher , robert j . ( 2015 - 08 - 01 ) .\nmason , matthew j . ; narins , peter m . ( 2001 - 01 - 01 ) .\nseismic signal use by fossorial mammals\n."]}
{"id": 1060, "summary": [{"text": "tirumala hamata , the blue tiger , dark blue tiger or blue wanderer , is a butterfly of the nymphalidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in south-east asia and australia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "in australia , the butterflies perform mass migrations to the south in some years .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 70 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults have black wings with blue spots .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they are grey with black bands between segments and orange lateral lines and a black head with white markings .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "adults have been observed scratching the leaves of heliotropium amplexicaule and parsonia straminea , possibly to suck out moisture .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on a wide range of plants including parsonsia ( including parsonsia straminea and parsonsia velutina ) , heterostemma papuana , heterostemma acuminatum , hoya australis , leichardtia , marsdenia ( including marsdenia velutina ) , secanome carnosum , secamone elliptica , tylophora , cryptostegia grandiflora , cynanchum carnosum and cynanchum leptolepis . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "tirumala hamata", "paragraphs": ["tirumala hamata arikata ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 219\ntirumala hamata goana ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 219\ntirumala hamata talautensis ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 219\nblue tiger , dark blue tiger or blue wanderer ( tirumala hamata ) 18 . 12 . 2014 kenmore , queensland , australia\ntirumala hamata ( w . s . macleay , 1826 ) blue tiger ( one synonym : danais australis blanchard , 1853 ) danainae , nymphalidae , papilionoidea\ndanais ( tirumala ) hamata goana martin , 1910 ; dt . ent . z . iris 24 ( 2 ) : 23 ; tl : goa ; bangala\ntirumala hamata septentrionis ab . seminocturnalis murayama , 1961 ; ty\u00f4 to ga 11 ( 4 ) : 56 , f . 2 ; tl : poli ? , formosa\nhamata neptunia f . protoneptunia ( poulton , 1924 ) ( danaida ) ; trans . ent . soc . 1923 : ?\ntirumala hamata ( macleay , [ 1826 ] ) = euploea hamata macleay , [ 1826 ] = danais australis blanchard , 1853 = papilio melissa stoll , [ 1781 ] = danais moderata butler , [ 1876 ] = tirumala angustata moore , 1883 = nephthys ( fruhstorfer , 1911 ) = pelagia ( fruhstorfer , 1911 ) = sassina ( fruhstorfer , 1911 ) = tibula ( fruhstorfer , 1911 ) = tutuilae ( hopkins , 1927 ) = neomelissa bryk , 1937 = mendica ( talbot , 1943 ) = danaus melissa = danaus hamata .\nhamata arikata ( fruhstorfer , 1910 ) ( danaida ) ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 203 ; tl : sula is .\ntirumala hamata ; [ bor ] , 206 ; [ mwb ] : 200 , pl . 14 , f . 86 , pl . 15 , f . 87 , pl . ix , f . 85 , pl . x , f . 123\nhamata pallidula ( talbot , 1943 ) ( danaus ) ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 93 ( 1 ) : 136 ; tl : new guinea\nhamata subnubila ( talbot , 1943 ) ( danaus ) ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 93 ( 1 ) : 136 ; tl : new guinea\nhamata talautensis ( talbot , 1943 ) ( danaus ) ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 93 ( 1 ) : 135 ; tl : talaut i .\nhamata insignis ( talbot , 1943 ) ( danaus ) ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 93 ( 1 ) : 136 ; tl : maleita i .\ntirumala hamata ( blue tiger ) is a rare find in new zealand . only a few have been found in n . z . and it probably arrived from australia where it is a relatively common species . they are native to australia , malaysia , south and southeast asia , with varying subspecies .\ntirumala limniace ino ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 219\ntirumala tumanana semper , 1886 ; reisen philipp . ( 1 ) : 15 , pl . 3 , f . 1\ntirumala limniace ssp . ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 219\ntirumala septentrionis septentrionis ; [ bor ] , 205 ; [ bmp ] : 105 , pl . 11 , f . 8\ntirumala melissa dravidarum fruhstorfer , 1899 ; berl . ent . zs . 44 ( 1 / 2 ) : 113 , 119\ntirumala tumanana ; hashimoto , schroeder , treadaway & vane - wright , 2012 , j . res . lepid . 45 : 40\n? tirumala limniace ab . donia fruhstorfer , 1897 ; berl . ent . zs . 42 ( 1 / 2 ) : 120\ntirumala euploeomorpha ; [ mwb ] : 197 , pl . 14 , f . 81 - 82 , pl . vii , f . 60\ntirumala choaspes choaspes ; [ bor ] , 206 ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 218\ntirumala choaspes kroeseni ; [ bor ] , 206 ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 219\ntirumala choaspes oxynthas ; [ bor ] , 206 ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 219\ntirumala choaspes kalawara ; [ bor ] , 206 ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 218\ntirumala limniace conjuncta ; [ bor ] , 205 ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 219\ntirumala limniace bentenga ; [ bor ] , 205 ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 219\ntirumala limniace makassara ; [ bor ] , 205 ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 219\ndanais ( tirumala ) melissa nigra martin , 1910 ; dt . ent . z . iris 24 ( 2 ) : 24 ; tl : ceram\ntirumala ishmoides ishmoides ; [ bor ] , 206 ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 220\ndanais ( tirumala ) gautamoides doherty , 1886 ; j . asiat . soc . bengal 55 pt . ii ( 3 ) : 257 ; tl : nicobars\ndanais ( tirumala ) choaspes kroeseni martin , 1910 ; dt . ent . z . iris 24 ( 2 ) : 20 ; tl : buton i .\ndanais ( tirumala ) limniace bentenga martin , 1910 ; dt . ent . z . iris 24 ( 2 ) : 22 ; tl : benteng i .\ndanais ( tirumala ) limniace makassara martin , 1910 ; dt . ent . z . iris 24 ( 2 ) : 21 ; tl : s . celebes\ntirumala alba chou & gu , 1994 ; in chou , monographia rhopalocerum sinensium 1 - 2 : 755 , 275 ; tl : mt . diaoluoshan ( 700m )\ndanaida ( tirumala ) melissa coarctata joicey & talbot , 1922 ; bull . hill mus . 1 ( 2 ) : 350 ; tl : biak , schouten is .\ndanais ( tirumala ) choaspes kalawara martin , 1913 ; dt . ent . z . iris 27 ( 2 ) : 109 , ( 3 ) : 123 ; tl : celebes\ntirumala petiverana ; [ mwb ] : 196 , pl . 13 , f . 79 ; [ bk ] : 257 , pl . 27 , f . 386 ; [ afrl ]\n769x514 ( ~ 119kb ) underside thailand , krabi 24 . 12 . 2003 - 7 . 1 . 2004 , photo \u00a9 olli vesikko tirumala septentrionis septentrionis det . dick vane - wright\ntirumala formosa ; [ mwb ] : 196 , pl . 13 , f . 77 - 78 ; [ bk ] : 258 , f . 27 , f . 387 ; [ afrl ]\ndanaus ( tirumala ) euploeomorpha howarth , kawazoe & sibatani , 1976 ; ty\u00f4 to ga 27 ( 4 ) : 131 ; tl : solomon islands , santa ana is . , eastern distr .\ntirumala gautama ; moore , [ 1890 ] , lepidoptera indica 1 : 33 , pl . 7 , f . 1 , 1a ; [ bor ] , 206 ; [ mwb ] : 197 , pl . 13 , f . 80 ; [ mrs ] , 273\ntirumala ( danaina ) ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 218 ; [ wahlberg ] ; [ afrl ] ; brower , wahlberg , ogawa , boppre & vane - wright , 2010 , syst . biodiv . 8 ( 1 ) : 84\ntirumala choaspes ; [ bor ] , 206 ; [ mwb ] : 198 , pl . 14 , f . 83 , pl . vii , f . 55 , pl . x , f . 126 ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 218\ntirumala ishmoides ; [ bor ] , 206 ; [ mwb ] : 200 , pl . 15 , f . 88 , pl . 60 , f . 318a , pl . ix , f . 86 ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 219\ntirumala septentrionis ; moore , [ 1880 ] , lepid . ceylon 1 ( 1 ) : 5 , pl . 1 , f . 2 ; moore , [ 1890 ] , lepidoptera indica 1 : 34 , pl . 7 , f . 2 , 2a ; [ bor ] , 205 ; [ mwb ] : 199 , pl . 14 , f . 85 ; [ mrs ] , 273\ntirumala limniace ; moore , [ 1880 ] , lepid . ceylon 1 ( 1 ) : 4 , pl . 1 , f . 3 ; moore , [ 1890 ] , lepidoptera indica 1 : 39 , pl . 6 , f . 1 , 1a - b ; [ bor ] , 204 ; [ mwb ] : 198 , pl . 14 , f . 84 , pl . ix , f . 88 , pl . x , f . 124 ; [ mrs ] , 272 ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 219\nthe caterpillars are grey , with black bands between segments , and orange lateral lines . the head is black with white markings . the caterpillars have a pair long filaments on both the thorax and the last abdominal segment . the caterpillars feed on various jungle vines from the family\nthe wings of the adult butterflies are black with blue spots . they have a wingspan of about 7 cms . the butterflies may sometimes be seen scratching the leaves of special plants , including :\nthey appear to suck chemicals from the plants , even wetting dead leaves and then sucking up the moisture .\nthe eggs are bullet shaped and pale yellow . they are laid singly on young shoots of a foodplant .\nthe adult butterflies have been observed to live longer than five months . in australia , the butterflies perform mass migrations to the south in some years , making a delightful spectacle .\n, csiro publishing , melbourne 2000 , vol . 2 , pp . 591 - 592 .\nin s . b . malcolm and m . p . zalucki ( eds ) ,\nnatural history museum of los angeles county , los angeles 1993 , pp . 345 - 354 .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nedwards , e . d . 1996 ,\nnymphalidae\n, ed . nielsen , e . s . , edwards , e . d . & rangsi , t . v . ( eds ) , checklist of the lepidoptera of australia . monographs on australian lepidoptera , vol . 4 , pp . 243 - 248 , 359 - 360 , csiro publishing , collingwood\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 0b9a25f8 - 0ed1 - 472f - ae68 - 703434698214\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 1d1ca169 - 70d7 - 48e1 - 8c1a - 552a4f5569f1\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 907ceb29 - 1c5a - 4417 - bc07 - 0dbd59af9fc5\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : c7cba982 - 5863 - 44c5 - 9397 - 3f773ff8905a\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : ad62449c - 18bc - 421e - af70 - 3c188505fb50\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 657529\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nelsa honrath , 1892 ; berl . ent . z . 36 ( 2 ) : 436 ; ts : elsa morgeni honrath\nyala ( stoneham , 1958 ) ( danaus ) ; bull . stoneham mus . ( 71 ) : 2 ; tl : kenya\nlarva on secamone micrandra , s . platystigma , s . punctulosa , s . zambesiaca , cryptolepis sp . , periploca linearifolia [ mwb ]\nw . kenya ( w of rift valley ) , uganda , rwanda , burundi , nw . tanzania\nmelinda mercedonia karsch , 1894 ; ent . nachr . 20 ( 14 / 15 ) : 225\nelsa morgeni honrath , 1892 ; berl . ent . z . 36 ( 2 ) : 436 , pl . 15 , f . 5 ; tl : kamerun\ndanaus formosa neumanni rothschild , 1902 ; novit . zool . 9 : 596 ; tl : kaffa\nseptentrionides ( stoneham , 1958 ) ( danaus ) ; bull . stoneham mus . ( 71 ) : 1 ; tl : kenya\nlarva on pergularia extensa [ pbsa ] , daemia sp . , hoya sp . , marsdenia rubicunda , p . daemia [ mwb ]\nburma , thailand , laos , s . vietnam , hainan . see [ maps ]\ndanais gautama moore , 1877 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 4 ) 20 ( 115 ) : 43 ; tl : henzada , rangoon , burma\nchoaspina ( fruhstorfer , 1911 ) ( danaida ) ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 274 ; tl : sula is .\nchoaspes oxynthas ( fruhstorfer , 1911 ) ( danaida ) ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 274 ; tl : sula is .\nafghanistan - india , ceylon , kashmir - china , burma , hong kong . see [ maps ]\ndisjuncta ( dufrane , 1948 ) ( danaus ) ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 17 ( 10 ) : 192 ; tl : tonkin\n600x400 ( ~ 48kb ) upperside india : pune , 2 . 11 . 2008 \u00a9 kedar tokekar\n600x400 ( ~ 60kb ) underside india : pune , 2 . 11 . 2008 \u00a9 kedar tokekar\nlarva on asclepias , calotropis , hoya , heterostemma , marsdenia [ bhr ] , dregea volubilis , heterostemma cuspidatum , hoya viridiflora , marsdenia tenacissima , crotalaria sp . ? , epibaterium sp . [ mwb ]\nlarva on dregea formosana , heterostemma brownii , asclepias spp . , calotropis spp . , dregea volubilis , heerostemma cuspidatum , hoya spp . , hoya viridiflora , marsdenia tenacissima , crotalaria retusa [ mrs ]\ndanais leopardus butler , 1866 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1866 ( 1 ) : 52 ; tl : n . india\ndanais ino butler , 1871 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1871 : 79 ; tl : sula\nlimniace orestilla ( fruhstorfer , 1910 ) ( danaida ) ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 205\nlimniace vaneeckeni bryk , 1937 \u00b2 ; in strand , lep . cat . 28 ( 78 ) : 113\npapilio exoticus gmelin , [ 1790 ] ; in linnaeus , syst . nat . ( edn 13 ) 1 ( 5 ) : 2289 , no . 886 ; tl : ceylon\nnocturalis murayama , 1958 ; new ent . 7 ( 1 ) : 27 ; tl : formosa\ndanaus melissa ; forbes , 1939 , ent . am . ( n . s . ) 19 : 129 ( in part )\nlarva on asclepiadaceae [ eob ] , vallaris dichotoma , parsonsia spp . , dregea volubilis , heterostemma brownii , cocculus spp . , tylophora spp . [ mrs ]\nn . india - peninsular malaya , langkawi , singapore , thailand , indo - china , s . china , taiwan\n1078x914 ( ~ 133kb ) upperside male thailand , chon buri province , pattaya , a small wood at a grassy swamp at the jomtien beach , between b . o . guesthouse and jomtien metro condotel , 2nd january , 2006 , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\nseptentrionis musikanos ( fruhstorfer , 1910 ) ( danaida ) ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 202 ; tl : ceylon\nseptentrionis myrsilos ( fruhstorfer , 1910 ) ( danaida ) ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 202 ; tl : java\ndanais microsticta butler , 1874 ; ent . mon . mag . 11 : 163 ; tl : borneo\nseptentrionis valentia ( fruhstorfer , 1911 ) ( danaida ) ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 274 ; tl : mindanao\nmendica ( talbot , 1943 ) ( danaus ) ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 93 ( 1 ) : 137 ; tl : fiji\nlarva on parsonsia , p . straminea , p . velutina , heterostemma papuana , hoya australis , leichardtia , marsdenia sp . , secanome carnosum , s . elliptica , tylophora sp . , cryptostegia grandiflora [ mwb ]\nlarva on cynanchum carnosum , c . leptolepis , heterostemma acuminatum , h . papuana , hoya australis , marsdenia velutina , secamone elliptica k . l . & l . e . dunn , 1991 , review austr . butts . ( 1 - 4 ) : ( 120 - 140 )\nsingaria ( fruhstorfer , 1910 ) ( danaida ) ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 203 ; tl : dammer i .\ndanais leucoptera butler , 1874 ; ent . mon . mag . 11 : 163 ; tl : dorey\ngariata ( fruhstorfer , 1910 ) ( danaida ) ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 203\n? danais melittula herrich - sch\u00e4ffer , 1869 ; stettin ent . ztg 30 ( 1 - 3 ) : 70 ; tl : upolu , samoa\n? danaus melittula ; [ bow ] : pl . 153 , f . 16 ( text only )\nishmoides vetus ( talbot , 1943 ) ( danaus ) ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 93 ( 1 ) : 137 ; tl : jolo i .\nishmoides strymon ( fruhstorfer , 1911 ) ( danaida ) ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 274 ; tl : mindanao\nishmoides trasinanus ( fruhstorfer , 1911 ) ( danaida ) ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 276 ; tl : cebu\nishmoides sontinus ( fruhstorfer , 1911 ) ( danaida ) ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 274 ; tl : mindoro\nchecklist of afrotropical papilionoidea and hesperoidea ; compiled by mark c . williams , 7th ed . ( 2008 ) ( april 2007 ) ;\n[ \u00b2 ] this may require parentheses or not . i don ' t have the necessary information for this taxon .\nvoyage au pole sud et dans l ' oc\u00e9anie sur les corvettes l ' astrolabe et la zel\u00e9e execut\u00e9 . . . . . . pendant . . . . . . 1837 - 40 sous le commandement de m . j . dumont d ' urville etc . zool . , insectes . vol . 4\nthe butterflies of the malay peninsula . fourth edition revised by j . n . eliot with plates by bernard d ' abrera\nthe genera of diurnal lepidoptera , comprising their generic characters , a notice of their habitats and transformations , and a catalogue of the species of each genus ; illustrated with 86 plates by w . c . hewitson\nreview of australian butterflies : distribution , life history and taxonomy . pushlished by authors , melbourne\nreise der \u00f6sterreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859 unter den behilfen des commodore b . von w\u00fcllerstorf - urbair . zoologischer theil . band 2 . abtheilung 2 . lepidoptera . rhopalocera\n- 120 , ( inhalts - verz . ) 1 - 9 ( pl . 1 - 74 ) , ( felder & rogenhofer , 1874 ) , ( 5 ) : pl .\nin king , narrative of a survey of the intertropical and western coasts of australia . 2 vols . in king ,\na list of the lepidopterous insects collected by mr . ossian limborg in upper tenasserim , with descriptions of new species\na monograph of limnaina and euploeina , two groups of diurnal lepidoptera belonging to the subfamily euploeinae ; with descriptions of new genera and species . part i & ii\non the lepidoptera in the tring museum sent by mr . a . s . meek from the admiralty islands , dampier and vulcan islands\nvane - wright & de jong , 2003 the butterflies of sulawesi : annotated checklist for a critical island faunda zool . verh . leiden 343 : 3 - 268 , pl . 1 - 16\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nthis common townsville butterfly feeds on vines in the asclepiadaceae ( apocynaceae s . lat . ) . mature larvae greenish - blue to white with a broad orange band plus some black bands enclosing white bands ; head black with two curved bands . adults black with numerous hyaline blue streaks and elongated spots ; lower surface similar to upper but paler .\nwe acknowledge australian aboriginal people and torres strait islander people as the first inhabitants of the nation , and acknowledge traditional owners of the lands where our staff and students live , learn and work .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nflies , caddisflies , craneflies , damselflies dragonflies , gnats , mayflies . midges , mosquitoes\ninsects ( ants , beetles , bugs , cicadas , cockroaches , centipedes , crickets , grasshoppers , lacewings , ladybirds , mantis , millipedes , scale , shield bugs , stick insects , wetas , weevils , etc . ) .\nreptiles ( frogs , geckos , skinks , snakes , lizards , turtles ) .\ntrees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names a to f with photo .\ntrees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names g to l with photo .\ntrees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names m to q with photo .\ntrees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names r to z with photo .\ntrees ( new zealand ) hebes and their hybrids & cultivars ( photos ) .\nweeds & escapee plants : a to f ( common names with photo ) .\nweeds & escapee plants : g to l ( common names with photo ) .\nweeds & escapee plants : m to q ( common names and photo ) .\nweeds & escapee plants : r to z ( common names with photo ) .\nthe blue tiger butterfly has a wingspan of about 70 mm . adults have black wings with blue spots . the larvae which are grey with black bands between segments and orange lateral lines and a black head with white markings feed on a wide range of plants . thanks to wikipedia for text and information urltoken\n\u00a9 copyright 2008 - 2018 - t . e . r : r . a . i . n . all rights reserved . last update : 05 - feb - 18 . site designed & hosted by smokeylemon .\nthis page contains information and pictures about blue tiger butterflies in the brisbane area , queensland , australia .\nblue tiger butterflies have pale blue patterns on black background on their wings . we took the above picture in macgregor park bush in mid - summer .\nthe blue tiger caterpillar body is banded with black , greenish - yellow and white rings , have two pairs of filaments .\ntheir food plants are vines secamone elliptica and ischnostemma carnosum . the caterpillar usually found feeding underside of the leaf . their pupa is fresh green and shiny with some golden spots .\nblue tiger butterflies migrate to brisbane from north queensland . we sometimes see one of them flying slowly among plants in our backyard and near by bushland . their flight is fluttering with gliding in between . but they know where to go , much like this review of garcinia knows where to go buy a quality cambogia supplement .\nusually we can tell the age of a butterfly by its wing edges and colour . for the blue tigers in the above pictures . their wings colour faded and the edges were broken in different degree , we can tell the butterfly was in their middle and old ages . although the butterfly ' s wing edges were broken quite badly , theirs flying skill seems not affected .\nblue tiger butterflies are not always seen in brisbane . from the reference books , they migrate to brisbane from north queensland .\nhowever , we received email from georg horrolt - buddina , he advised that : blue tigers seem to migrate north every end of march and april , clouds of them fly right along the coastline from caloundra to noosa . i have observed this for approximate 6 years now . why do you say they migrate south to brisbane ?\nin brisbane 2004 summer , the number of blue tiger is exceptionally high . from mid summer to late summer we can see plenty of them in the bush , flying along the highway and across our backyard . they were flying from west to the east .\nthe movement of the blue tigers are a bit confusing and need more observations .\nwe had the records breaking hot summer in 2004 queensland . this could be related to the high number of blue tigers found in brisbane .\nwe received email from david james - corindi beach : on 21 - 2 - 2004 , thousands of blue tiger butterflies visited my garden in coffs harbour . they were back again the next day but not as thick , and although a few were there about for 4 or 5 days . their numbers dropped rapidly . incidentally the temperature here on 21st was 44 degrees .\n- by frank jordan and helen schwencke , earthling enterprises , 2005 , p6 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nsubspecies ideopsis vitrea chloris ( c . felder & r . felder , 1860 )\nnote : wildlife statistics are based on information that has been submitted to the des wildnet database and converted to a 10km\u00b2 grid . the grid information has been intersected with the mapping polygons to determine the species lists . click here to view the species grid metadata .\ndisclaimer : while every care is taken to ensure the accuracy of this product , the queensland government and australian government make no representations or warranties about its accuracy , reliability , completeness or suitability for any particular purpose and disclaim all responsibility and all liability ( including without limitation , liability in negligence ) for all expenses , losses , damages ( including indirect or consequential damage ) and costs which might be incurred as a consequence of reliance on the product , or as a result of the product being inaccurate or incomplete in any way and for any reason ."]}
{"id": 1065, "summary": [{"text": "lecithocera dubitans is a moth in the lecithoceridae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by meyrick in 1926 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in india ( bombay ) .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 22 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are pale ochreous with some scattered fuscous specks , in females with some fuscous suffused irroration towards the costa posteriorly .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the discal stigmata are small and blackish , the second transversely double .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "in females , there is a suffused fuscous subtriangular spot on the dorsum towards the tornus touching the second discal .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are pale ochreous in males and pale grey in females , suffused ochreous-whitish towards the costa and posteriorly . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "lecithocera dubitans", "paragraphs": ["lecithocera dubitans meyrick , 1926 ; sarawak mus . j . 3 : 157 ; tl : mt . murud , 6300ft\nlecithocera \u00e4r ett sl\u00e4kte av fj\u00e4rilar . lecithocera ing\u00e5r i familjen lecithoceridae . lecithocera abrasa\nvad betyder lecithocera ? h\u00e4r finner du 2 definitioner av lecithocera . du kan \u00e4ven l\u00e4gga till betydelsen av lecithocera sj\u00e4lv\nlecithocera acolasta ; [ nhm , [ incorrect ref . on card ] card ]\nlecithocera barbata meyrick , 1933 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 12 ) : 356\nlecithocera eucharis meyrick , 1933 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 12 ) : 356\nlecithocera hildebrandtella viette , 1956 ; nat . malgache 8 ( 2 ) : 220\nlecithocera ideologica meyrick , 1937 ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 3 ) : 96\nlecithocera loxophthalma meyrick , 1934 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 15 ) : 453\nlecithocera ochrometra meyrick , 1933 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 12 ) : 356\nlecithocera randimella viette , 1956 ; nat . malgache 8 ( 2 ) : 219\nlecithocera semnodora meyrick , 1933 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 12 ) : 357\nlecithocera chloroscia meyrick , 1938 ; inst . parcs nat . congo belge 14 : 14\nlecithocera dicentropa meyrick , 1938 ; inst . parcs nat . congo belge 14 : 14\nlecithocera lecithocerella viette , 1956 ; boll . lab . zool . portici 33 : 470\nlecithocera trifera meyrick , 1938 ; inst . parcs nat . congo belge 14 : 14\nlecithocera tenella ; park , 2012 , entom . science 15 ( 1 ) : 72\nlecithocera aenicta janse , 1954 ; moths s . afr . 5 ( 4 ) : 337\nlecithocera aspergata gozm\u00e1ny , 1973 ; ergeb . forsch . nepal 4 ( 3 ) : 425\nlecithocera cataenepha gozm\u00e1ny , 1973 ; ergeb . forsch . nepal 4 ( 3 ) : 426\nlecithocera corythaeola meyrick , 1931 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 2 - 4 ) : 80\nlecithocera dierli gozm\u00e1ny , 1973 ; ergeb . forsch . nepal 4 ( 3 ) : 419\nlecithocera fascinatrix meyrick , 1935 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 18 - 19 ) : 563\nlecithocera flavicosta gozm\u00e1ny , 1973 ; ergeb . forsch . nepal 4 ( 3 ) : 424\nlecithocera flavofusa gozm\u00e1ny , 1973 ; ergeb . forsch . nepal 4 ( 3 ) : 420\nlecithocera ianthodes meyrick , 1931 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 2 - 4 ) : 80\nlecithocera monobyrsa meyrick , 1931 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 2 - 4 ) : 80\nlecithocera nepalica gozm\u00e1ny , 1973 ; ergeb . forsch . nepal 4 ( 3 ) : 421\nlecithocera parenthesis gozm\u00e1ny , 1973 ; ergeb . forsch . nepal 4 ( 3 ) : 422\nlecithocera ranavaloella viette , 1967 ; bull . soc . ent . fr . 72 : 296\nlecithocera bariella viette , 1958 ; rev . franc . ent . 25 ( 2 ) : 114\nlecithocera cameronella viette , 1956 ; nat . malgache 8 ( 2 ) : 222 [ ? ]\nlecithocera chlorogastra meyrick , 1922 ; zool . meded . leiden 7 : 84 ; tl : java , rembang\nlecithocera iodocarpha gozm\u00e1ny , 1978 ; microlepid . palaearctica 5 : 114 , pl . 6 , f . 58\nlecithocera ladrone gozm\u00e1ny , 2002 ; shilap revta lepid . 30 ( 117 ) : ( 33 - 38 )\nlecithocera lamprodesma meyrick , 1922 ; zool . meded . leiden 7 : 85 ; tl : celebes , makassar\nlecithocera paraulias gozm\u00e1ny , 1978 ; microlepid . palaearctica 5 : 114 , pl . 6 , f . 59\nlecithocera pauperella rebel , 1917 ; denkschr . akad . wiss . wien 93 : 443 ; tl : kadugli\nlecithocera peracantha gozm\u00e1ny , 1978 ; microlepid . palaearctica 5 : 116 , pl . 6 , f . 61\nlecithocera perigypsa meyrick , 1922 ; zool . meded . leiden 7 : 85 ; tl : celebes , lokka\nlecithocera rotundata gozm\u00e1ny , 1978 ; microlepid . palaearctica 5 : 116 , pl . 6 , f . 62\nlecithocera tricholoba gozm\u00e1ny , 1978 ; microlepid . palaearctica 5 : 117 , pl . 6 , f . 63\nlecithocera acolasta meyrick , 1919 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 8 ) : 236 ; tl : bombay , dharwar\nlecithocera acrosphales meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 4 ) : 108 ; tl : madagascar , antananarivo\nlecithocera amphigrapta meyrick , 1926 ; sarawak mus . j . 3 : 159 ; tl : mt murud , 6500ft\nlecithocera antiphractis meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 435 ; tl : assam , shillong\nlecithocera autodyas meyrick , 1925 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 17 ) : 525 ; tl : new ireland\nlecithocera caecilia meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 4 ) : 110 ; tl : ceylon , pundaloya\nlecithocera castanoma ; park & wu , 2010 , trop . lepid . res . 20 ( 2 ) : 64\nlecithocera caustospila meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 4 ) : 109 ; tl : assam , khasis\nlecithocera combusta meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 4 ) : 110 ; tl : ceylon , maskeliya\nlecithocera contracta meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 4 ) : 107 ; tl : kanara , dharwar\nlecithocera erecta meyrick , 1935 ; mat . microlep . fauna chin . prov . : 74 ; tl : tienmushan\nlecithocera integrata meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 4 ) : 107 ; tl : kanara , dharwar\nlecithocera jugalis meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 4 ) : 109 ; tl : kanara , dharwar\nlecithocera mylitacha ; park & wu , 2010 , trop . lepid . res . 20 ( 2 ) : 63\nlecithocera nepheloschema gozm\u00e1ny , 1973 ; ergeb . forsch . nepal 4 ( 3 ) : ( 413 - 444 )\nlecithocera pelomorpha meyrick , 1931 ; bull . acad . roum . 14 : 69 ; tl : kwanhsien , china\nlecithocera ptochas meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 4 ) : 104 ; tl : bengal , pusa\nlecithocera pyxinodes meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 4 ) : 109 ; tl : madagascar , antananarivo\nlecithocera responsa meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 4 ) : 108 ; tl : bombay , belgaum\nlecithocera squamifera meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 17 ) : 525 ; tl : new hanover\nlecithocera turcica gozm\u00e1ny & mey , 2005 ; ent . nachr . bericht . 49 : ( 127 - 128 )\nlecithocera alpestra ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 101 , f . 46\nlecithocera altusana park , 1999 ; zoological studies 38 ( 2 ) : 252 ; tl : minchr , taoyuan co .\nlecithocera barbifera meyrick , 1922 ; zool . meded . leiden 7 : 84 ; tl : java , preangor , 5000ft\nlecithocera biaroensis ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 101 , f . 50\nlecithocera brunneibella ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 101 , f . 52\nlecithocera calomerida ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 102 , f . 53\nlecithocera carcinopsis meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 17 ) : 522 ; tl : kanara , sirsi\nlecithocera caviella ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 102 , f . 54\nlecithocera ceratoides ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 102 , f . 55\nlecithocera chersitis meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 4 ) : 106 ; tl : korea , port lazaref\nlecithocera cornutima ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 102 , f . 56\nlecithocera crypsigenes meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 17 ) : 523 ; tl : ceylon , patipola\nlecithocera daebuensis ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 102 , f . 57\nlecithocera diligens meyrick , 1922 ; zool . meded . leiden 7 : 84 ; tl : java , preangor , 5000ft\nlecithocera diplosticta meyrick , 1922 ; zool . meded . leiden 7 : 84 ; tl : java , preangor , 5000ft\nlecithocera dondavisi ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 102 , f . 58\nlecithocera eremiodes ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 102 , f . 59\nlecithocera excaecata meyrick , 1922 ; zool . meded . leiden 7 : 86 ; tl : java , preangor , 5000ft\nlecithocera flavifusa meyrick , 1926 ; sarawak mus . j . 3 : 156 ; tl : mt . poi , 4350ft\nlecithocera fuscosa park , 1999 ; zoological studies 38 ( 2 ) : 250 ; tl : minchr , taoyuan co .\nlecithocera gilviana ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 103 , f . 62\nlecithocera grammophanes meyrick , 1926 ; sarawak mus . j . 3 : 158 ; tl : mt . poi , 4350ft\nlecithocera gyrosiella ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 103 , f . 64\nlecithocera hispidiella ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 103 , f . 65\nlecithocera inkyuleei ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 103 , f . 66\nlecithocera inepta meyrick , 1926 ; sarawak mus . j . 3 : 157 ; tl : mt . murud , 4500ft\nlecithocera laminospina ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 103 , f . 67\nlecithocera lasioides ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 103 , f . 68\nlecithocera lucernata meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 294 ; tl : pretoria\nlecithocera luticostella turati , 1926 ; atti soc . ital . sci . nat . 65 : 69 , f . 31\nlecithocera magna ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 104 , f . 70\nlecithocera montiatilis ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 104 , f . 74\nlecithocera myopa meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 294 ; tl : barberton\nlecithocera nefasta meyrick , 1916 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 18 ) : 575 ; tl : kanara , supa\nlecithocera officialis meyrick , 1911 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 1 ) : 67 ; tl : haenertsburg\nlecithocera orbiculata ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 104 , f . 76\nlecithocera pakiaensis ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 105 , f . 77\nlecithocera phratriastis meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 17 ) : 523 ; tl : ceylon , madulsima\nlecithocera poculata ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 105 , f . 81\nlecithocera porrectiella ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 105 , f . 83\nlecithocera rubigona ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 106 , f . 86\nlecithocera similis ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 106 , f . 88\nlecithocera spinulata ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 106 , f . 89\nlecithocera stichoides ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 106 , f . 90\nlecithocera yoshiyasui ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 106 , f . 94\nlecithocera fascicula park , 1999 ; zoological studies 38 ( 2 ) : 253 ; tl : lienhwachih 690m , nantou co .\nlecithocera frustrata meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 4 ) : 107 ; tl : french congo , fort crampel\nlecithocera glaphyritis meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 4 ) : 106 ; tl : ceylon , namunukuli , 6000ft\nlecithocera goniometra meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 17 ) : 522 ; tl : philippines , los ba\u00f1os\nlecithocera hemiacma meyrick , 1910 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1910 : 448 ; tl : borneo , kuching\nlecithocera immobilis meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 4 ) : 103 ; tl : s . india , coiimbatore\nlecithocera insidians meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 4 ) : 108 ; tl : coorg , dibidi , 3500ft\nlecithocera isomitra meyrick , 1914 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 9 ) : 277 ; tl : nyassaland , mt mlanje\nlecithocera neosticta meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 4 ) : 107 ; tl : coorg , dibidi , 3500ft\nlecithocera obsignata meyrick , 1914 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 9 ) : 277 ; tl : nyassaland , mt mlanje\nlecithocera octonias meyrick , 1910 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1910 : 447 ; tl : borneo , kuching\nlecithocera perpensa meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 5 ) : 153 ; tl : assam , shillong , 5000ft\nlecithocera protoma meyrick , 1914 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 7 ) : 198 ; tl : gold coast , aburi\nlecithocera pulchella park , 1999 ; zoological studies 38 ( 2 ) : 254 ; tl : upper paling , taoyuan co .\nlecithocera querula meyrick , 1910 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1910 : 449 ; tl : java , bandong\nlecithocera sceptrarcha meyrick , 1920 ; in alluaud & jeannel , voyage afr . orientale , ins . l\u00e9p . 2 : 77\nlecithocera schoutedeniella ghesqui\u00e8re , 1940 ; ann . mus . congo belge , zool ( 3 ) 2 ( 7 ) : 59\nlecithocera syntropha meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 4 ) : 109 ; tl : nw . india , quetta\nlecithocera tienchiensis park , 1999 ; zoological studies 38 ( 2 ) : 253 ; tl : tienchi 2260m , kaohsiung co .\nlecithocera xanthochalca meyrick , 1914 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 7 ) : 199 ; tl : nyassaland , mt mlanje\nlecithocera pseudolunata park , 2012 ; entom . science 15 ( 1 ) : 70 ; tl : morobe , papua new guinea\nlecithocera fascitiala park , 2012 ; entom . science 15 ( 1 ) : 71 ; tl : madang , papua new guinea\nlecithocera affusa meyrick , 1923 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 1 - 2 ) : 40 ; tl : assam , khasis\nlecithocera affusa ; pathania , rose , sood & katewa , 2007 , zoos ' print j . 22 ( 7 ) : 2746\nlecithocera anthologella wallengren , 1875 ; \u00f6fvers . vet . akad . f\u00f6rh . 32 ( 1 ) : 129 ; tl : tranvaal\nlecithocera atricastana park , 1999 ; zoological studies 38 ( 2 ) : 254 ; tl : taiwan , taichung co . , heiganzan\nlecithocera baeopis meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 17 ) : 523 ; tl : assam , shillong , 5000ft\nlecithocera bimaculata park , 1999 ; zoological studies 38 ( 2 ) : 244 ; tl : taiwan , taichung co . , hassenzan\nlecithocera binotata meyrick , 1918 ; ann . transv . mus . 6 ( 2 ) : 24 ; tl : natal , umkomaas\nlecithocera coleasta meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 4 ) : 103 ; tl : new guinea , sariba i .\nlecithocera gozmanyi ; pathania , rose , sood & katewa , 2007 , zoos ' print j . 22 ( 7 ) : 2746\nlecithocera hypsipola meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 10 ) : 290 ; tl : kumaon , muktesar , 7000ft\nlecithocera malacta meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 4 ) : 110 ; tl : comoro is . , grand comoro\nlecithocera montana park , 2005 ; j . asia - pacif . ent . 8 ( 3 ) : ( 233 - 237 )\nlecithocera nomaditis meyrick , 1916 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 19 ) : 594 ; tl : solomon is . , choiseul\nlecithocera pachyntis meyrick , 1894 ; trans . ent . soc . 1894 ( 1 ) : 17 ; tl : burma , koni\nlecithocera paralevirota park , 1999 ; zoological studies 38 ( 2 ) : 245 ; tl : taiwan , taichung co . , baibara\nlecithocera thaiheisana park , 1999 ; zoological studies 38 ( 2 ) : 246 ; tl : taiwan , ilan co . , taiheisan\nlecithocera theconoma meyrick , 1926 ; sarawak mus . j . 3 : 156 ; tl : mt murud , 4500ft , lio matu\nlecithocera angustiella park , 1999 ; zoological studies 38 ( 2 ) : 251 ; tl : upper paling , 2260m , taoyuan co .\nlecithocera anympha meyrick , 1916 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 19 ) : 593 ; tl : n . australia , port darwin\nlecithocera aulias meyrick , 1910 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 2 ) : 447 ; tl : khasis\nlecithocera desolata meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 4 ) : 105 ; tl : s . india , nilgiris , 6000ft\nlecithocera eludens meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 4 ) : 108 ; tl : s . india , nilgiris , 6000ft\nlecithocera eumenopis meyrick , 1914 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 7 ) : 199 ; tl : n . australia , port darwin\nlecithocera fausta meyrick , 1910 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1910 : 449 ; tl : philippines , luzon , 5000ft\nlecithocera improvisa diakonoff , [ 1968 ] ; bull . u . s . nat . mus . 257 : 146 ; tl : mindanao\nlecithocera linocoma meyrick , 1916 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 19 ) : 593 ; tl : n . australia , port darwin\nlecithocera mazina meyrick , 1910 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 2 ) : 445 ; tl : simla\nlecithocera megalopis meyrick , 1916 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 18 ) : 575 ; tl : philippines , mt apo , 6500\nlecithocera palingensis park , 1999 ; zoological studies 38 ( 2 ) : 252 ; tl : upper paling , 2260m , taoyuan co .\nlecithocera poliocoma meyrick , 1916 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 19 ) : 593 ; tl : n . australia , port darwin\nlecithocera semirupta meyrick , 1910 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 2 ) : 445 ; tl : khasis\nlecithocera niptanensis park , 2012 ; entom . science 15 ( 1 ) : 71 ; tl : wau , morobe , papua new guinea\nlecithocera brachyptila ; [ nhm card ] ; park , 2012 , j . asia - pacif . ent . 15 ( 2 ) : 314\nlecithocera megalosperma ; [ nhm card ] ; park , 2012 , j . asia - pacif . ent . 15 ( 2 ) : 314\nlecithocera praeses meyrick , 1919 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 8 ) : 236 ; tl : kumaon , bhim tal , 5000 - 6000ft\nlecithocera purpurea ; [ nhm card ] ; park , 2012 , j . asia - pacif . ent . 15 ( 2 ) : 314\nlecithocera squalida ; [ nhm card ] ; park & wu , 2010 , trop . lepid . res . 20 ( 2 ) : 67\nlecithocera autologa meyrick , 1910 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 2 ) : 446 ; tl : madulsima , ceylon\nlecithocera chamela turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 155 ; tl : queensland , mt . tambourine\nlecithocera cratophanes meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 17 ) : 522 ; tl : chochin - china , cape st . jacques\nlecithocera decaryella viette , 1955 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . 123 : 109 ; tl : madagascar , perinet , 700m , analamazoatra\nlecithocera epigompha meyrick , 1910 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 2 ) : 448 ; tl : maskeliya , ceylon\nlecithocera fausta ; diakonoff , [ 1968 ] , bull . u . s . nat . mus . 257 : 138 ; [ nhm card ]\nlecithocera goniometra ; diakonoff , [ 1968 ] , bull . u . s . nat . mus . 257 : 140 ; [ nhm card ]\nlecithocera homocentra meyrick , 1910 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 2 ) : 449 ; tl : maskeliya , ceylon\nlecithocera ichorodes meyrick , 1910 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 2 ) : 445 ; tl : nilgiris , 6000ft\nlecithocera macella meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 4 ) : 105 ; tl : s . india , nilgiris , maduvatam , 6000ft\nlecithocera masoalella viette , 1955 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . 123 : 110 ; tl : ne . madagascar , maroantsetra , ambodivoangy\nlecithocera mocquerysella viette , 1955 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . 123 : 112 ; tl : ne . madagascar , maroantsetra , ambodivoangy\nlecithocera omphacias meyrick , 1910 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 2 ) : 445 ; tl : madulsima , ceylon\nlecithocera paulianella viette , 1955 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . 123 : 113 ; tl : ne . madagascar , maroantsetra , ambodivoangy\nlecithocera perfida meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 4 ) : 105 ; tl : s . india , nilgiris , pykara , 7000ft\nlecithocera plicata wu & park , 1999 ; korean j . syst . zool . 15 : 5 ; tl : sri lanka , uggalkaltota , 350ft\nlecithocera proclivis meyrick , 1910 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 2 ) : 449 ; tl : nilgiris , 6000ft\nlecithocera stelophanes meyrick , 1938 ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 87 : 514 ; tl : mafulu , papua new guinea\nlecithocera latiola park , 1999 ; zoological studies 38 ( 2 ) : 247 ; tl : kuanyuan 2420m , mt . hohuan hotel , hualien co .\nlecithocera poculata park & wu , 2010 ; trop . lepid . res . 20 ( 2 ) : 68 ; tl : kanchanaburi , tam tarn lod\nlecithocera prudens meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 4 ) : 106 ; tl : new guinea , setekwa r . , 2000 - 3000ft\nlecithocera stomobapta meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 17 ) : 524 ; tl : coorg , dibidi , 3500ft ; bombay , dharwar\nlecithocera tumiodosa [ sic , recte tumidosa ] ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 106 , f . 93\nlecithocera xanthophaea meyrick , 1926 ; sarawak mus . j . 3 : 158 ; tl : mt poi , 4500 - 5300ft ; mt murud , 6500ft\nlecithocera acribostola diakonoff , [ 1968 ] ; bull . u . s . nat . mus . 257 : 139 ; tl : luzon , mt . makiling\nlecithocera calomerida park & wu , 2010 ; trop . lepid . res . 20 ( 2 ) : 65 ; tl : loei , phu rhu , 800m\nlecithocera choritis ; [ nhm card ] ; pathania , rose , sood & katewa , 2007 , zoos ' print j . 22 ( 7 ) : 2746\nlecithocera decorosa diakonoff , [ 1968 ] ; bull . u . s . nat . mus . 257 : 141 ; tl : luzon , mt . makiling\nlecithocera docilis diakonoff , [ 1968 ] ; bull . u . s . nat . mus . 257 : 144 ; tl : luzon , mt . makiling\nlecithocera gilviana park & wu , 2010 ; trop . lepid . res . 20 ( 2 ) : 63 ; tl : prachaup khiri khan , kui buri\nlecithocera ianthodes ; [ nhm card ] ; pathania , rose , sood & katewa , 2007 , zoos ' print j . 22 ( 7 ) : 2746\nlecithocera immobilis ; [ nhm card ] ; pathania , rose , sood & katewa , 2007 , zoos ' print j . 22 ( 7 ) : 2746\nlecithocera leucomastis diakonoff , [ 1968 ] ; bull . u . s . nat . mus . 257 : 145 ; tl : luzon , mt . apo\nlecithocera semirupta ; [ nhm card ] ; pathania , rose , sood & katewa , 2007 , zoos ' print j . 22 ( 7 ) : 2746\nlecithocera sinuosa meyrick , 1910 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 2 ) : 444 ; tl : maskeliya ; matale , ceylon\nlecithocera syntropha ; [ nhm card ] ; pathania , rose , sood & katewa , 2007 , zoos ' print j . 22 ( 7 ) : 2746\nlecithocera alcestis meyrick , 1923 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 1 - 2 ) : 40 ; tl : coorg , dibidi , 3500ft ; kanara , anshi\nlecithocera ? bipunctella snellen , 1903 ; tijdschr . ent . 46 : 36 , pl . 4 , f . 6 ; tl : w . java , preanger\nlecithocera deloma durrant , 1915 ; in rothschild & durrant , lep . b . o . u . exp . new guinea : 165 ; tl : mimika river\nlecithocera dirupta meyrick , 1923 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 1 - 2 ) : 39 ; tl : s . india , palnis , kodaikanal , 7000ft\nlecithocera eremiodes park & wu , 2010 ; trop . lepid . res . 20 ( 2 ) : 69 ; tl : kanchanaburi , mae la mun , 400m\nlecithocera luteola diakonoff , [ 1968 ] ; bull . u . s . nat . mus . 257 : 145 ; tl : luzon , agoo , la union\nlecithocera orbiculata park & wu , 2010 ; trop . lepid . res . 20 ( 2 ) : 65 ; tl : nakhon nayok , khao yai , 800m\nlecithocera strigosa durrant , 1915 ; in rothschild & durrant , lep . b . o . u . exp . new guinea : 165 ; tl : mimika river\nlecithocera telosperma diakonoff , [ 1968 ] ; bull . u . s . nat . mus . 257 : 143 ; tl : luzon , san miguel , tarlac\nlecithocera tumidosa park & wu , 2010 ; trop . lepid . res . 20 ( 2 ) : 65 ; tl : loei , mae la mun , 400m\nlecithocera autodyas ; [ nhm card ] ; park , 2012 , j . asia - pacif . ent . 15 ( 2 ) : 326 , 314 ( list )\nlecithocera coleasta ; [ nhm card ] ; park , 2012 , j . asia - pacif . ent . 15 ( 2 ) : 326 , 314 ( list )\nlecithocera deloma ; [ nhm card ] ; park , 2012 , j . asia - pacif . ent . 15 ( 2 ) : 326 , 314 ( list )\nlecithocera itrinea meyrick , 1910 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 2 ) : 444 ; tl : n . coorg , 3500ft ; ceylon\nlecithocera prudens ; [ nhm card ] ; park , 2012 , j . asia - pacif . ent . 15 ( 2 ) : 326 , 314 ( list )\nlecithocera shanpinensis park , 1999 ; zoological studies 38 ( 2 ) : 247 ; tl : shanpin for . stn . 750m , 10km se liukuei , kahsiung co .\nlecithocera sophronopa diakonoff , [ 1968 ] ; bull . u . s . nat . mus . 257 : 132 ; tl : luzon , benguet , klondyke , 800ft\nlecithocera squamifera ; [ nhm card ] ; park , 2012 , j . asia - pacif . ent . 15 ( 2 ) : 326 , 314 ( list )\nlecithocera staurophora ; [ nhm card ] ; park , 2012 , j . asia - pacif . ent . 15 ( 2 ) : 317 , 314 ( list )\nlecithocera stelophanes ; [ nhm card ] ; park , 2012 , j . asia - pacif . ent . 15 ( 2 ) : 319 , 314 ( list )\nlecithocera strigosa ; [ nhm card ] ; park , 2012 , j . asia - pacif . ent . 15 ( 2 ) : 326 , 314 ( list )\nlecithocera submersa ; [ nhm card ] ; park , 2012 , j . asia - pacif . ent . 15 ( 2 ) : 319 , 314 ( list )\nlecithocera brachyptila diakonoff , 1954 ; verh . k . akad . wet . amst . ( 2 ) 50 ( 1 ) : 50 ; tl : sigi camp , papua\nlecithocera caviella park , 2005 ; j . asia - pacif . ent . 8 ( 3 ) : 236 ; tl : chanthanaburi , khao soi dao , ca . 400m\nlecithocera choritis meyrick , 1910 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 2 ) : 448 ; tl : palni hils , 6000ft ; nilgiris , 6000ft\nlecithocera purpurea diakonoff , 1954 ; verh . k . akad . wet . amst . ( 2 ) 50 ( 1 ) : 50 ; tl : mist camp , papua\nlecithocera submersa diakonoff , 1954 ; verh . k . akad . wet . amst . ( 2 ) 50 ( 1 ) : 59 ; tl : mist camp , papua\nlecithocera sublunata diakonoff , 1954 ; verh . k . akad . wet . amst . ( 2 ) 50 ( 1 ) : 60 ; tl : araucaria camp , papua\nlecithocera alampes turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 156 ; tl : n . queensland , cairns ; new south wales , sydney\nlecithocera andrianella viette , 1968 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 37 ( 2 ) : 88 ; tl : madagascar , env perinet , analamazaotra forest , 910m\nlecithocera megalosperma diakonoff , 1954 ; verh . k . akad . wet . amst . ( 2 ) 50 ( 1 ) : 58 ; tl : moss forest camp , papua\nlecithocera oxycona meyrick , 1910 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 2 ) : 444 ; tl : n . coorg , 3500ft ; gooty ; konka\nlecithocera strenua diakonoff , [ 1968 ] ; bull . u . s . nat . mus . 257 : 134 ; tl : mindanao , mt . apo , baroring , 7000ft\nlecithocera flavipalpis walsingham , 1891 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1891 ( 1 ) : 105 , pl . 5 , f . 40 ; tl : estcourt ( natal )\nlecithocera gyrosiella park , 2012 ; j . asia - pacif . ent . 15 ( 2 ) : 323 , 314 ( list ) ; tl : morobe , wau , papua new guinea\nlecithocera lasioides park , 2012 ; j . asia - pacif . ent . 15 ( 2 ) : 325 , 314 ( list ) ; tl : morobe , wau , papua new guinea\nlecithocera marginata walsingham , 1891 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1891 ( 1 ) : 104 , pl . 5 , f . 39 ; tl : bathurst ( gambia )\nlecithocera radamella viette , 1968 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 37 ( 2 ) : 88 ; tl : n . madagascar , mont . ambre , roussettes , 1000m\nlecithocera stichoides park , 2012 ; j . asia - pacif . ent . 15 ( 2 ) : 324 , 314 ( list ) ; tl : wau , morobe , papua new guinea\nlecithocera adelella viette , 1955 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . 123 : 110 ( preocc . titana adelella walker , 1864 ) ; tl : ne . madagascar , maroantsetra , ambodivoangy\nlecithocera alpestra park , 2005 ; j . asia - pacif . ent . 8 ( 3 ) : 234 ; tl : loei , phu luang wildlife sanc . , 700 - 900m , thailand\nlecithocera hispidiella park , 2012 ; j . asia - pacif . ent . 15 ( 2 ) : 323 , 314 ( list ) ; tl : morobe , wau 1000m , papua new guinea\nlecithocera ankasokella viette , 1968 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 37 ( 2 ) : 89 ; tl : e . madagascar , route lakato , km 15 , ankasoka , 1100m\nlecithocera brunneibella park , 2012 ; j . asia - pacif . ent . 15 ( 2 ) : 322 , 314 ( list ) ; tl : madang , brahman mission 200m , papua new guinea\nlecithocera magna park , 2005 ; j . asia - pacif . ent . 8 ( 3 ) : 233 ; tl : chiang mai , doi inthanan nat . park , ca . 1600m , thailand\nlecithocera mesosura ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 91 ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 104 , f . 72\nlecithocera metopaena ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 91 ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 104 , f . 73\nlecithocera plicata ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 114 ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 105 , f . 80\nlecithocera pogonikuma ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 115 ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 105 , f . 82\nlecithocera altusana ; park , heppner & bae , 2013 , zookeys 263 : 49 ( list ) ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 101 , f . 47\nlecithocera angustiella ; park , heppner & bae , 2013 , zookeys 263 : 49 ( list ) ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 101 , f . 48\nlecithocera biaroensis park , 2012 ; j . asia - pacif . ent . 15 ( 2 ) : 321 , 314 ( list ) ; tl : morobe , mt . kaindi 2360m , papua new guinea\nlecithocera ceratoides park , 2012 ; j . asia - pacif . ent . 15 ( 2 ) : 325 , 314 ( list ) ; tl : morobe , biaro rd . 2000m , papua new guinea\nlecithocera fascicula ; park , heppner & bae , 2013 , zookeys 263 : 49 ( list ) ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 102 , f . 60\nlecithocera fuscosa ; park , heppner & bae , 2013 , zookeys 263 : 49 ( list ) ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 103 , f . 62\nlecithocera inkyuleei park , 2012 ; j . asia - pacif . ent . 15 ( 2 ) : 322 , 314 ( list ) ; tl : morobe , mt . kaindi 2350m , papua new guinea\nlecithocera latiola ; park , heppner & bae , 2013 , zookeys 263 : 49 ( list ) ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 104 , f . 69\nlecithocera palingensis ; park , heppner & bae , 2013 , zookeys 263 : 49 ( list ) ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 105 , f . 78\nlecithocera porrectiella park , 2012 ; j . asia - pacif . ent . 15 ( 2 ) : 325 , 314 ( list ) ; tl : morobe , biaro rd . 2000m , papua new guinea\nlecithocera pulchella ; park , heppner & bae , 2013 , zookeys 263 : 49 ( list ) ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 106 , f . 85\nlecithocera shanpinensis ; park , heppner & bae , 2013 , zookeys 263 : 49 ( list ) ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 106 , f . 87\nlecithocera spinulata park , 2012 ; j . asia - pacif . ent . 15 ( 2 ) : 324 , 314 ( list ) ; tl : wau , morobe , wau 1000m , papua new guinea\nlecithocera thaiheisana ; park , heppner & bae , 2013 , zookeys 263 : 49 ( list ) ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 106 . f . 91\nlecithocera tienchiensis ; park , heppner & bae , 2013 , zookeys 263 : 49 ( list ) ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 106 , f . 92\nlecithocera sublunata ; [ nhm card ] ; park , 2012 , j . asia - pacif . ent . 15 ( 2 ) : 315 , 314 ( list ) ; park , 2012 , entom . science 15 ( 1 ) : 69\nlecithocera pseudolunata ; park , 2012 , j . asia - pacif . ent . 15 ( 2 ) : 316 , 314 ( list ) ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 105 , f . 84\nlecithocera fascitiala ; park , 2012 , j . asia - pacif . ent . 15 ( 2 ) : 316 , 314 ( list ) ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 103 , f . 61\nlecithocera niptanensis ; park , 2012 , j . asia - pacif . ent . 15 ( 2 ) : 317 , 314 ( list ) ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 104 , f . 75\nlecithocera atricastana ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 19 ; park , heppner & bae , 2013 , zookeys 263 : 49 ( list ) ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 101 , f . 49\nlecithocera bimaculata ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 25 ; park , heppner & bae , 2013 , zookeys 263 : 49 ( list ) ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 101 , f . 51\nlecithocera paralevirota ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 106 ; park , heppner & bae , 2013 , zookeys 263 : 49 ( list ) ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 105 , f . 79\nlecithocera megalopis ; diakonoff , [ 1968 ] , bull . u . s . nat . mus . 257 : 138 ; [ nhm card ] ; park , 1999 , zoological studies 38 ( 2 ) : 248 ; park , heppner & bae , 2013 , zookeys 263 : 49 ( list )\nlecithocera aulias ; [ nhm card ] ; park , 1999 , zoological studies 38 ( 2 ) : 249 ; pathania , rose , sood & katewa , 2007 , zoos ' print j . 22 ( 7 ) : 2746 ; park , heppner & bae , 2013 , zookeys 263 : 49 ( list )\nlecithocera metacausta ; [ nhm card ] ; park , 1999 , zoological studies 38 ( 2 ) : 246 ; pathania , rose , sood & katewa , 2007 , zoos ' print j . 22 ( 7 ) : 2746 ; park , heppner & bae , 2013 , zookeys 263 : 49 ( list )\nlecithocera ( lecithocerinae ) ; park , 1999 , zoological studies 38 ( 2 ) : 242 ; park , 2000 , zoological studies 39 ( 4 ) : 361 ; [ richard brown ] ; [ fe ] ; heikkil\u00e4 , mutanen , kekkonen & kaila , 2013 , cladistics ( 2014 ) : 9 ; park , 2014 , j . asia - pacif . biodiv . 7 : 101\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nthe bookreader requires javascript to be enabled . please check that your browser supports javascript and that it is enabled in the browser settings . you can also try one of the other formats of the book .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nandusia alternella walker , 1866 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 35 : 1836 ; tl : java\ntorodora ancylota meyrick , 1894 ; trans . ent . soc . 1894 ( 1 ) : 17 ; tl : burma , fort stedman\n? depressaria absumptella walker , 1864 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 29 : 567 ; tl : sydney\nbrachmia capnaula meyrick , 1911 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 3 ) : 719 ; tl : patipola , newera eliya , maskeliya , haputale , ceylon\npsammoris carpaea meyrick , 1906 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 17 ( 1 ) : 149 ; tl : maskeliya , ceylon\ncaveiformis meyrick , 1931 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 2 - 4 ) : 82\ncholeroleuca meyrick , 1931 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 2 - 4 ) : 79\nbrachmia compsophila meyrick , 1911 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 3 ) : 709 ; tl : madulsima ; kurunegala ; diyatalawa , ceylon\nstyloceros concinna turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 157 ; tl : n . queensland , bellenden - ker\nbrachmia cordata meyrick , 1911 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 3 ) : 720 ; tl : palni hill\ncornutella ( walker , 1864 ) ( gelechia ) ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 29 : 632\ncrebrata meyrick , 1910 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 2 ) : 447\nmacrotona cyamitis meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 406 [ key ] , 407 ; tl : brisbane , queensland\nbrachmia deleastra meyrick , 1911 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 3 ) : 711 ; tl : kandy ; arawa , ceylon\ndisperma ( diakonoff , 1954 ) ( periphorectis ) ; verh . k . akad . wet . amst . ( 2 ) 50 ( 1 ) : 39\npatouissa dissonella walker , 1864 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 29 : 821 ; tl : sarawak , borneo\ngelechia ( ceratophora ? ) distigmatella zeller , 1877 ; horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 366 ; tl : new holland\nceletodes dracopis meyrick , 1921 ; zool . meded . leyden 6 : 166 ; tl : java , pekalongan\nbrachmia elephantopa meyrick , 1910 ; rec . ind . mus . 5 : 222 ; tl : bhogaon , purneah district , n . bengal ; konkan , bombay ; coorg , 3500ft ; nilgiris , 3500ft\ntorodora epomia meyrick , 1905 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 16 ( 4 ) : 599 ; tl : maskeliya , ceylon\nbrachmia exophthalma meyrick , 1911 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 3 ) : 720 ; tl : maskeliya , ceylon\nbrachmia fornacalis meyrick , 1911 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 3 ) : 719 ; tl : kandy , ceylon\nsnellenia fuscedinella snellen , 1901 ; tijdschr . ent . 44 : 88 , pl . 5 , f . 8 ; tl : java , buitenzorg\nbrachmia geraea meyrick , 1911 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 3 ) : 717 ; tl : madulsima , ceylon\nbrachmia haemylopis meyrick , 1911 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 3 ) : 716 ; tl : madulsima , ceylon\nbrachmia imprudens meyrick , 1914 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 7 ) : 201 ; tl : new south wales , ourimbah\nfrisilia indigens meyrick , 1914 ; suppl . ent . 3 : 50 ; tl : suisharyo\ntirallis ? innotatella walker , 1864 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 29 : 807 ; tl : sarawak , borneo\nbrachmia iresia meyrick , 1911 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 3 ) : 709 ; tl : madulsima ; trincomali ; puttalam , ceylon\nstyloceros isophanes turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 158 ; tl : n . queensland , kuranda , near cairns\ntiriza leucotella walker , 1864 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 29 : 791 ; tl : sarawak , borneo\nbrachmia lycopis meyrick , 1911 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 3 ) : 717 ; tl : maskeliya ; madulsima , ceylon\nmeyricki ( ghesqui\u00e8re , 1940 ) ( leucoptera ) ; ann . mus . congo belge , zool ( 3 ) 2 ( 7 ) : 81\ngelechia ( ? ) micromela lower , 1897 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 21 : 55 ; tl : gisborne , victoria\nstyloceros noseropa turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 158 ; tl : n . queensland , kuranda , near cairns\nbrachmia nubigena meyrick , 1911 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 3 ) : 720 ; tl : haputale , ceylon\nmacrotoma paroena meyrick , 1906 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 17 ( 1 ) : 148 ; tl : maskeliya ; maturatta , ceylon\nbrachmia paroristis meyrick , 1911 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 3 ) : 718 ; tl : madulsima , ceylon\npeloceros meyrick , 1938 ; dt . ent . z . iris 52 : 86\npepantica meyrick , 1934 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 2 - 4 ) : 36\nbrachmia percnobela meyrick , 1911 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 3 ) : 723 ; tl : nilgiris , 3500ft\nprotolyca meyrick , 1938 ; dt . ent . z . iris 52 : 5\nsiovata pulcherrimella walker , 1866 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 35 : 1838 ; tl : java\ntirasia punctigeneralis walker , 1864 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 29 : 818 ; tl : sarawak , borneo\nbrachmia puteolata meyrick , 1911 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 3 ) : 716 ; tl : cuddapah , 400ft\nsextacta diakonoff , 1954 ; verh . k . akad . wet . amst . ( 2 ) 50 ( 1 ) : 56\ngelechia signifera felder & rogenhofer , 1875 ; reise fregatte novara , bd 2 ( abth . 2 ) ( 5 ) : pl . 139 , f . 23 ; tl : ceylon\nmystax sikkimella caradja , 1920 ; dt . ent . z . iris 34 ( 1 / 2 ) : 139 ; tl : darjeeling [ ? ]\nmacrotona sobria meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 406 [ key ] , 407 ; tl : sydney ; blackheath , new south wales\nbrachmia storestis meyrick , 1911 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 3 ) : 711 ; tl : maskeliya , ceylon\nbrachmia strangalistis meyrick , 1911 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 3 ) : 722 ; tl : khasis\ngelechia subservitella walker , 1864 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 29 : 639 ; tl : sarawak , borneo\nsyntomica meyrick , 1931 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 2 - 4 ) : 79\nsarisophora terrena turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 153 ; tl : n . queensland , kuranda , near cairns\nmacrotona terrigena meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 406 ; tl : sydney , new south wales\nthioclora meyrick , 1931 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 2 - 4 ) : 49\ntimioceros meyrick , 1938 ; dt . ent . z . iris 52 : 86\ntiriza trigonopsis meyrick , 1907 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 17 ( 3 ) : 737 ; tl : simla\nindia ( bombay , poona , . . . ) . see [ maps ]\ngelechia umbripennis swinhoe , 1885 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1885 : 884 ; tl : bombay ; poona\nbrachmia xanthocosma meyrick , 1923 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 1 - 2 ) : 46 ; tl : uganda , kampala\nsublunata ; park , 2012 , entom . science 15 ( 1 ) : 69\nsarisophora tenella turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 153 ; tl : n . queensland , cairns\n[ afromoths ] de prins , j . & de prins , w . , 2013\nsangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nwissenschaftliche ergebnisse der zoologischen expedition des national - museums in prag nach der t\u00fcrkei . 13 . microlepidoptera\nmicrolepidoptera of new guinea , results of the third archbold expedition ( american - netherlands indian expedition 1938 - 1939 ) . part iv\nreise der \u00f6sterreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859 unter den behilfen des commodore b . von w\u00fcllerstorf - urbair . zoologischer theil . band 2 . abtheilung 2 . lepidoptera . rhopalocera\n- 120 , ( inhalts - verz . ) 1 - 9 ( pl . 1 - 74 ) , ( felder & rogenhofer , 1874 ) , ( 5 ) : pl .\ndie schmetterlinge deutschlands und der schweiz . 2 . abteilung , kleinschmetterlinge . 2 . die motten und federmotten\nsystematische bearbeitung der schmetterlinge von europa , zugleich als text , revision und supplement zu j . h\u00fcbner ' s sammlung europ\u00e4ischer schmetterlinge , die schaben und federmotten , ( 1847 - ) 1853 - 1855 )\nh . sauter ' s formosa ausbeute . pterophoridae , tortricidae , eucosmidae , gelechiadae , oecophoridae , cosmopterygidae , hypomeutidae , sesiadae , glyphipterygidae , plutellidae , teneidae , adelidae ( lep . )\nvoyage de ch . alluaud et r . jeannel en afrique orientale ( 1911 - 1812 ) . r\u00e9sultats scientifique . insectes l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res . 2 . microlepidoptera in alluaud & jeannel ,\nthree hundred and twenty newly described species of lecithoceridae ( lepidoptera , gelechioidea ) by k . t . park since 1998 , with a tentative catalogue and images of types\nwissenschaftliche ergebnisse der mit unterst\u00fctzung der kaiserlichen akademie der wissenschaften in wien aus der erbschaft treitl von f . werner unternommenen zoologischen expedition nach dem anglo - \u00e4gyptischen sudan ( kordofan ) 1914 . i . lepidoptera\na taxonomic review of the lecithoceridae ( lepidoptera ) in sri lanka iii . the subfamily lecithocerinae : genus\ntaxonomic review of the lecithoceridae ( lepidoptera ) in sri lanka iv . the subfamily lecithocerinae : genus\nzeller , 1877 exotische microlepidopteren horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 3 - 493 , pl . 1 - 6\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\ni / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncopyright \u00a9 new earth online . content from external sites are the property of their respective owners where stated .\nconservation status where available has been identified by the iucn red list of threatened species .\nhere you will find one or more explanations in english for the word dondavisi . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word dondavisi and , of course , dondavisi synonyms and on the right images related to the word dondavisi .\nthis is the place for dondavisi definition . you find here dondavisi meaning , synonyms of dondavisi and images for dondavisi copyright 2017 \u00a9 urltoken\nhere you will find one or more explanations in english for the word dracopis . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word dracopis and , of course , dracopis synonyms and on the right images related to the word dracopis .\nthis is the place for dracopis definition . you find here dracopis meaning , synonyms of dracopis and images for dracopis copyright 2017 \u00a9 urltoken"]}
{"id": 1067, "summary": [{"text": "agriphila attenuata is a moth in the crambidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by grote in 1880 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from coastal california , washington , wyoming , british columbia and alberta .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of grasslands .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the wingspan is 24 \u2013 26 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are pale cinereous with fuscous areas and a scattered dark scales .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are pale fuscous .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing from late august to early september .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae probably feed on grasses . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "agriphila attenuata", "paragraphs": ["for info and comparison photos please view the following links : agriphila attenuata at\nmpg\nand agriphila attenuata at\ne . h . strickland entomological museum\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\npowell , j . a . & p . a . opler , moths of western north america , pl . 24 . 7m ; p . 182 . book review and ordering\non apple osx , or right click on the text above to copy the link .\na larger crambid ( 24 - 26 mm wingspan ) with conspicuous , brushy , porrect labial palps and narrow forewings ( as the species name implies ) . the forewings are pale cinereous with fuscous areas and a scattering of dark scales . a poorly defined , whitish stripe extends from the base to the terminal line . it is crossed beyond the cell by an oblique dark line . the terminal space is narrow , light yellow - orange in color with seven dark dots . the space , subterminal and terminal lines parallel the termen except near the apex where they run obliquely into the costa . the fringes are whitish in color . the hindwings are pale fuscous , somewhat darker than the forewings . the genitalia have apparently not been illustrated . originally described as\na western north american species . described by grote ( 1880 ) from a specimen collected on vancouver island by henry edwards . in addition , fernald ( 1896 ) reported it from california and columbia ( sic ) . listed from many counties in the online california moth specimen database . clifford ferris ( pers . comm . ) has found it in albany co . , wyoming . a male genitalic preparation which ferris prepared matched that of alberta material . not reported for alberta by bowman ( 1951 ) and unknown in the province until now . in alberta , known mainly from areas along the battle , red deer , south saskatchewan and lost rivers . an interesting exception was a collection from a mixedwood area , 8 km nw of winfield .\ncomments are published according to our submission guidelines . the eh strickland entomological museum does not necessarily endorse the views expressed .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nselect your preferred way to display the comments and click ' save settings ' to activate your changes .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nusing this photo this photo and associated text may not be used except with express written permission from gary mcdonald . to obtain permission for personal , academic , commercial , or other uses , or to inquire about high resolution images , prints , fees , or licensing , or if you have other questions , contact gary mcdonald mcduck [ at ] ucsc . edu . ( replace the [ at ] with the @ symbol before sending an email . )\n0000 0000 0311 2325 copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 uc regents . all rights reserved .\nusing this photo this photo and associated text may not be used except with express written permission from kipling will . to obtain permission for personal , academic , commercial , or other uses , or to inquire about high resolution images , prints , fees , or licensing , or if you have other questions , contact kipling will kipwill @ urltoken .\n7777 7777 0410 0079 copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 uc regents . all rights reserved .\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\n80x5 - 240x3 - 240x4 - 320x1 - 320x2 - 320x3 - 640x1 - 640x2 set display option above . click on images to enlarge ."]}
{"id": 1072, "summary": [{"text": "tegeticula elatella is a moth of the prodoxidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in the united states in western texas , from the big bend region through southern new mexico to south-eastern arizona and the verde valley of central arizona .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of grassland and shrub desert .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the wingspan is 21 \u2013 28 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are white and the hindwings are white with an area of light to medium gray near the apex .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on yucca verdiensis .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they feed on developing seeds .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "pupation takes place in a cocoon in the soil . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "tegeticula elatella", "paragraphs": ["have a fact about tegeticula elatella ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for tegeticula elatella ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\ntegeticula elatella pellmyr , 1999 , n . sp . , systematic entomology , v . 24 , no . 3 , p . 243 - 271 .\ntegeticula elatella is a moth of the prodoxidae family . it is found in western texas , from the big bend region through southern new mexico to south - eastern arizona and the verde valley of central arizona . the habitat consists of grassland and shrub desert .\npellmyr , o . 1999 . systematic revision of the tegeticula yuccasella complex ( lepidoptera : prodoxidae ) north of mexico . systematic entomology 24 : 243 - 271 .\nholotype for tegeticula elatella pellmyr , 1999 catalog number : usnm collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of entomology sex / stage : male ; preparation : pinned collector ( s ) : o . pellmyr & e . augenstien year collected : 1995 locality : big bend national park , s persimmon gap nr nine pt . draw , brewster , texas , united states elevation ( m ) : 700 to 800\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwing expanse 21 - 28 mm . forewing white ; hindwing white with light to medium grey near apex , occasionally with rusty tinge . male genitalia with aedeagus 1 . 5 - 1 . 7 mm long , 0 . 08 - 0 . 10 mm in cross section ; female genitalia with posterior apophyses 4 . 4 - 5 . 1 mm long , large corpus bursae with signa 1 . 25 - 1 . 30 mm in diameter .\nsimilar especially to the allopatric sister species superficiella , but generally lighter and with broader wings . genitalia are highly characteristic for identification ; a diagnostic key is provided .\nthe species is known from the capsular - fruited yucca elata ( y . verdiensis ) . eggs are laid just below the ovary surface . the larva feeds on developing seeds . pupation occurs in a cocoon in the soil .\nwestern texas from the big bend region , extending across southern new mexico to southeastern arizona and the verde valley of central arizona .\ntypical habitat includes grassland and shrub desert . altitudinal range 700 - 1800 m .\nthis media file is licensed under the creative commons attribution - noncommercial license - version 3 . 0 .\n. note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own license , and they may or may not be available for reuse . click on an image or a media link to access the media data window , which provides the relevant licensing information . for the general terms and conditions of tol material reuse and redistribution , please see the\neach tol leaf page provides a synopsis of the characteristics of a group of organisms representing a leaf at the tip of the tree of life . the major distinction between a leaf and a branch of the tree of life is that a leaf cannot generally be further subdivided into subgroups representing distinct genetic lineages .\nfor a more detailed explanation of the different tol page types , have a look at the structure of the tree of life page .\ntree of life design and icons copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2004 tree of life project . all rights reserved .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\npowell , j . a . & p . a . opler , moths of western north america , pl . 1 . 36m ; p . 42 . book review and ordering\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nholotype : pellmyr , o . 1999 . systematic entomology . 24 ( 3 ) : 261 .\nis 21\u201328 mm . the forewings are white and the hindwings are white with an area of light to medium grey near the apex .\nthe larvae feed on yucca verdiensis . they feed on developing seeds . pupation takes place in a cocoon in the soil .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .\nenter your proceedings of the royal society of london b : biological sciences username .\nyou may be able to gain access using your login credentials for your institution . contact your library if you do not have a username and password .\npay per article - you may access this article or this issue ( from the computer you are currently using ) for 30 days .\nregain access - you can regain access to a recent pay per article or pay per issue purchase if your access period has not yet expired .\nthank you for your interest in spreading the word on proceedings of the royal society of london b : biological sciences .\nnote : we only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it , and that it is not junk mail . we do not capture any email address .\nmessage body ( your name ) thought you would like to see the proceedings of the royal society of london b : biological sciences web site ."]}
{"id": 1076, "summary": [{"text": "arunta perulata is a large cicada native to australia .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is also known as the white drummer cicada .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the name floury baker was previously applied to this species , but that name is now specific to aleeta curvicosta .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the white drummer was first described in 1831 by f\u00e9lix \u00e9douard gu\u00e9rin-m\u00e9neville as cicada perulata .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the average body length of the male white drummer is approximately 3.75 cm and the female approximately 3.72 cm .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the head is green with prominent dark red-brown markings and green midline along pronotum .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the eyes are a dark red-brown .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the thorax and abdomen are predominantly dark red-brown .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "depressions on the body are covered with yellow velvety fur .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the prominent sac-like tymbal covers are white .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the wings are clear with reddish brown and yellowish veins , and measure up to 4.97 cm long in males and 4.84 cm long in females .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the white drummer has yellow-green legs marked with dark brown and black .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the white drummer make a constant rattle-like call , which can carry over long distances , singing during the day and at dusk .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "it consists of a series of pulses emitted by the cicada at a rate of 65 per second , with each lasting 2.5-3.5 microseconds followed by an interval of 14 microseconds .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the frequency of the call is 5.5-6.5 khz with a weak harmonic at 12 khz .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "like the related double drummer ( thopha saccata ) , its sac-like tymbal covers amplify its call .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the white drummer is found along australia 's eastern coastline from cooktown in northern queensland to narooma in southern new south wales .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it has also been collected from far northern cape york .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the preferred habitat of the white drummer is swampy forest and mangroves , with the cicadas perching on trees such as sheoak ( casuarina equisetifolia ) , swamp oak ( c. glauca ) , coast banksia ( banksia integrifolia ) and coast wattle ( acacia sophorae ) .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "adults appear in december and january .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "female cicadas lay eggs exclusively on live branches . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "arunta perulata", "paragraphs": ["here is a white drummer cicada ( arunta perulata ) photo taken by david emery .\narunta perulata isolate 07 . au . ql . rsn . 01 elongation factor - 1 alpha gene , partial cds\narunta perulata isolate 09 . au . ql . ssn . 01 elongation factor - 1 alpha gene , partial cds\narunta perulata isolate 97 . au . ns . cwd . 74 elongation factor - 1 alpha gene , partial cds\narunta perulata isolate 08 . au . ql . alm . 01 elongation factor - 1 alpha gene , partial cds\narunta perulata isolate 97 . au . ns . cwd . 74 cytochrome oxidase subunit i ( coi ) gene , partial cds ; mitochondrial\narunta perulata isolate 08 . au . ql . alm . 01 cytochrome oxidase subunit i ( coi ) gene , partial cds ; mitochondrial\narunta perulata isolate 09 . au . ql . ssn . 01 cytochrome oxidase subunit i ( coi ) gene , partial cds ; mitochondrial\narunta perulata isolate 07 . au . ql . rsn . 01 cytochrome oxidase subunit i ( coi ) gene , partial cds ; mitochondrial\nto the ear it is almost identical to a . perulata ; however , the song has more components in the higher frequency range .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nnote : only lines in the current paragraph are shown . click on current line of text for options .\nparagraph operations are made directly in the full article text panel located to the left . paragraph operations include :\nzone operations are made directly in the full article text panel located to the left . zone operations include :\nabstract summer has come headlong upon us , and in the forehead of summer lives the cieada , whose song makes the warm dusk seem still warmer . a beautiful and interesting insect , this ,\nwed 29 nov 1905 - australian town and country journal ( sydney , nsw : 1870 - 1907 ) page 26 - the cicada .\n{ { cite news urltoken | title = the cicada . | newspaper = [ [ australian town and country journal ] ] | volume = lxxi , | issue = 1869 | location = new south wales , australia | date = 29 november 1905 | accessdate = 10 july 2018 | page = 26 | via = national library of australia } }\nthe national library of australia ' s copies direct service lets you purchase higher quality , larger sized photocopies or electronic copies of newspapers pages .\nclicking on the order now button below will open the ordering form in a new window which will allow you to enter the details of your request .\naustralian town and country journal ( sydney , nsw : 1870 - 1907 ) , wed 29 nov 1905 , page 26 - the cicada .\nto help safeguard the users of this service from spam , we require you to enter the characters you see in the following image .\nif you can ' t read the image , click here to listen to the same characters being read .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\ngu\u00e9rin - m\u00e9neville , f . e . 1831 ,\nzoologie atlas ; insects\n, ed . duperrey , l . i . ( ed . ) , voyage autour du monde , ex\u00e9cut\u00e9 par ordre du roi , sur la corvette de sa majest . , la coquille , pendant les ann\u00e9es 1822 , 1823 , 1824 et 1825 sous le minist\u00e8re de s . e . m . le marquis de clermont - tonnerre , et publi\u00e9 sous les auspices de son excellence m . le cte de chabrol , ministre de la marine et des colonies . histoire naturelle , zoologie , pp . pls 1 - 21 , a . bertrand , paris\nashton , j . l . 1921 ,\na revision of the australian cicadidae . part 1\n, proceedings of the royal society of victoria , ser . ns , vol . 33 , pp . 87 - 107\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 48d382f0 - 524a - 4af1 - 8f97 - 9cc13acf02e5\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 4fb455ba - 8665 - 4bd4 - b79f - c48f09e55f67\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : b216df91 - 4de6 - 450c - b21f - e89cfb8055b7\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : b2ac022c - b4d7 - 4a56 - aecd - 5538ae01a6db\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : c1d431ff - c172 - 4f44 - 9e9c - 4e5ef58fce90\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 297066\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nthis genus is closely related to thopha and contains two recognised species . both species are found in close proximity to the beaches of eastern australia . they are characterised by having large , pale timbal covers , which are covered by a white , dusty pubescence ( unless specimens are very worn ) .\ndistributed along the eastern coastal belt from the southern torres strait islands in queensland south to narooma in new south wales . the first adults emerge in november and may persist until april .\npopulations may be widespread in dune vegetation , such as she - oaks and banksias and in similar trees , as well as pandanus palms on headlands . in some areas , populations can inhabit mangroves , especially towards the western limit of intertidal marshes . on the islands of the capricorn group ( off the coast of rockhampton ) ,\nspp . and can be caught without too much difficulty with the aid of a net .\na strong , continuous , motor - like rattle , sung sporadically during the day and most prominently at dusk .\ncoastally south from cooktown in queensland to urunga in northern new south wales . adults appear in november and populations may persist until may .\ninhabits the mangroves growing closest to the beach . females oviposit ( lay eggs ) in the dune vegetation away from the mudflats . calling males tend to be scattered throughout patches of mangroves , especially the grey mangrove (\n) . this species is often difficult to capture without a long - handled net .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nformat summary genbank genbank ( full ) fasta asn . 1 xml insdseq xml tinyseq xml feature table accession list gi list gff3\nfinds sub - sequences or patterns in the sequence and highlights the matching regions . the tool works with standard single letter nucleotide or protein codes including ambiguities and can match prosite patterns in protein sequences . more . . .\nfinds sub - sequence or patterns in the sequence and highlights the matching region . the tool works with standard single letter nucleotide or protein codes including ambiguities and can match prosite patterns in protein sequences . more . . .\nuse on websites and for limited audiences in social media , apps , or live performances .\ncicada on tree - double drummer ( thopha saccata ) . the double drummer , is the largest australian species of cicada and reputedly the loudest insect in the world .\nspotted owlet ( athene brama ) in nature . it is a small owl which breeds in tropical asia from mainland india to southeast asia .\nsoccer ball in goal net with slowmotion . slowmotion football ball in the net .\nstage lights and different shapes art gallery . series 3 + version from 1 to 26 + orange - blue - purple and white color series\nover 10 , 966 , 411 royalty - free video clips with 81 , 058 new stock clips added weekly .\nover 10 , 965 , 896 royalty - free video clips with 80 , 528 new stock clips added weekly .\nover 10 , 961 , 690 royalty - free video clips with 76 , 299 new stock clips added weekly ."]}
{"id": 1090, "summary": [{"text": "the crab-eating raccoon ( procyon cancrivorus ) is a species of raccoon native to marshy and jungle areas of central and south america ( including trinidad and tobago ) .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is found from costa rica south through most areas of south america east of the andes down to northern argentina and uruguay .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "that it is called the crab-eating raccoon does not mean that only this species eats crabs , as the common raccoon also seeks and eats crabs where they are available .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the crab-eating raccoon eats crab , lobster , and other crustaceans , but is an omnivore and its diet also includes , for example , small amphibians , turtle eggs , and fruits .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it resembles its northern cousin , the common raccoon , in having a bushy ringed tail and \" bandit mask \" of fur around its eyes .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "unlike the common raccoon , the hair on the nape of the neck points towards the head , rather than backward .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the crab-eating raccoon also appears to be more adapted to an arboreal lifestyle than the common raccoon , with sharper , narrower claws .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "it also is better adapted for a diet of hard-shelled food , with most of the cheek teeth being larger than those of the common raccoon , with broader , rounded cusps .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "although the crab-eating raccoon can appear smaller and more streamlined than the common raccoon due to its much shorter fur and more gracile build , the crab-eating raccoon is of similar dimensions to the northern species .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "head and body length is 41 to 80 cm ( 16 to 31 in ) , tail length is 20 to 56 cm ( 8 to 22 in ) and height at the shoulder is about 23 cm ( 9 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "weights can range from 2 to 12 kg ( 4 to 26 lb ) , though are mostly between 5 and 7 kg ( 11 and 15 lb ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "males are usually larger than the females . ", "topic": 9}], "title": "crab - eating raccoon", "paragraphs": ["a little known species , the crab - eating raccoon is thought to be a solitary species .\nthe tail of the crab - eating raccoon makes up about 50 % of its total length .\nthere is not much known about the home range size of crab - eating raccoons .\nraccoon pictures tres marias raccoon crab - eating raccoon common raccoon more information : professional raccoon trap wildlife control pests and animals pest control the most recognized animal in north america , the raccoon gets it name from the indian word \u201carakum\u201d meaning \u201che scratches with his hands . \u201d there are three species of the raccoon : the tres marias , the crab - eating , and the common raccoon .\nspecies : procyon cancrivorous ( crab - eating raccoon ) , with four subspecies ; procyon lotor ( common raccoon ) , with 22 subspecies ; and procyon pygmaeus ( cozumel raccoon or pygmy raccoon ) .\nthe crab - eating raccoon is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthe crab - eating raccoon is solitary and nocturnal . it is almost always found near streams , lakes , and rivers .\nthe crab - eating raccoon is the 142nd species in my mammals of the world series . all media is educational fair use .\nthe neck fur of crab - eating raccoons slants forward towards the head . these animals appear thinner than\ncrab - eating raccoons are excellent climbers . crabs make up only a minor part of their diet .\ncrab - eating raccoon ( procyon cancrivorus ) . attempting to break into a tourist ' s haversac . manuel antonio np costa rica .\ncrab - eating raccoon ( procyon cancrivorus ) . attempting to scavenge food from a woman tourist ' s bag on a beach . costa rica .\ncrab - eating raccoon ( procyon cancrivorus ) . attempting to scavenge food from tourist ' s bag and clothing on a beach . costa rica .\nthe crab - eating raccoon is yellowish - red to brown to grayish - brown . it has paler undersides , a black mask , and tail rings .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - crab - eating raccoon ( procyon cancrivorus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - crab - eating raccoon ( procyon cancrivorus )\ntitle =\narkive species - crab - eating raccoon ( procyon cancrivorus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthis female crab - eating raccoon was on the beach in the manuel antonio national park digging for her lunch . her boyfriend joins her a little later on .\na mother raccoon with her 4 juveniles eating from a can of cat food in a residential backyard .\nnot much is known on the bmr of crab - eating raccoons . however , there is adequate information on the northern species ,\na raccoon caught scavenging from a dead raccoon during a cold winter in wisconsin .\nraccoon , ( procyon lotor ) , eating trash . elephant butte state park , new mexico , usa .\n, in having a bushy ringed tail and\nbandit mask\nof fur around its eyes . although the crab - eating raccoon can appear smaller and more streamlined than the common raccoon due to its much shorter fur and more\nthe crab eating raccoon is found in panama and southern costa rica to northern argentina . with a salt and pepper colored fur , this creature has a smaller body and slightly larger head .\nno official protection is given to crab - eating raccoon throughout most of its range ( de la rosa and nocke 2000 ) , however , its range does overlap with a number of protected areas .\nthe crab - eating raccoon ( p . cancrivorus ) inhabits south america as far south as northern argentina . it resembles the north american raccoon but has shorter , coarser fur . the other members of genus procyon are not well known . most are tropical and probably rare . they are the barbados raccoon\u2026\nare managed as a game species through both hunting and trapping . there is currently no management in central america for crab - eating raccoons . however , even though\nthe common raccoon is a small , nocturnal carnivore in the family procyonidae . this family has 2 subgenera , procyon and euprocyon . the common raccoon is in the subgenus , procyon , along with 7 other species of raccoon . there is only 1 species in euprocyon ( refer to the diagram below ) . the 6 species of raccoon in procyon are the : common raccoon ( p . lotor ) , barbados raccoon ( p . gloveralleni ) , guadeloupe raccoon ( p . minor ) , bahamas raccoon ( p . maynardi ) , tr\u00e9s mar\u00edas islands raccoon ( p . insularis ) and cozymel raccoon ( p . pygmaeus ) . the crab - eating raccoon ( euprocyon cancrivorus ) is the only living species in euprocyon .\nthis map shows both the native and introduced distribution of the common raccoon around the globe . areas in red are native to the raccoon while areas in blue represent the introduced distribution of the common raccoon .\noccupies areas around bodies of water , such as swamps , lakes , lagoons , and ocean beaches . where both species overlap , crab - eating raccoons mainly occupy lands surrounding inland rivers , whereas northern raccoons occupy swamps and beaches .\nmain characteristics crab - eating raccoons have a body length between 45 and 90 cms ( 18 - 35 inches ) , a tail length between 20 and 56 cms ( 8 - 22 inches ) and they weigh between 2 and 12 kgs ( 4 . 5 - 26 lbs ) . their fur is short and it is brownish / grey in colour . they have a bushy tail that has alternating pale and dark rings and they have short , rounded ears . their eyes are small and they have black eye patches which gives them the appearance of wearing a\nbandit ' s mask\n. habitat crab - eating raccoons can be found in the jungle and marshy areas of central and south america . they are solitary and are active at night . diet crab - eating raccoons feed on fish , shellfish , crabs and aquatic insects . breeding after a gestation period of 60 - 73 days , females give birth to 2 - 6 young in a leaf lined den . the youngsters are weaned by the time they are 4 months old and are independent at 8 months old . they reach sexual maturity at 1 year old . predators crab - eating raccoons are preyed upon by larger carnivores . subspecies subspecies of the crab - eating raccoon include : procyon cancrivorus aequatorialis procyon cancrivorus cancrivorus procyon cancrivorus panamensis procyon cancrivorus nigripes interesting facts crab - eating raccoons are also known as : mapache osito lavador procyon comes from the greek words meaning\nbefore the dog\n. similar animals ringtail red panda cacomistle common raccoon mountain coati white - nosed coati south american coati\nthe crab - eating raccoon is naturally rare in some areas of its range and it does not seem as adaptable to human activity as is the northern raccoon , although it is probably stable throughout south america where viable areas exist . in the paraguayan chaco , its density in secondary growth cattle land is estimated not to exceed 6 . 7 individuals / km\u00b2 ( glatston 1994 ) .\nthe forepaw of a raccoon is about 2 - 2 \u00bd inches long 6 . the hindpaw of a raccoon is about 3 - 3 \u00bd inches long 6 .\na virginia opossum feeding on a dead raccoon during winter in the north woods .\ncommon raccoon ( procyon lotor ) captive raccoons playing in water and fall colors .\nbaby raccoon ( procyon lotor ) looking out from tree den . captive animal .\na raccoon\u2019s sense of touch is arguably its most powerful sense . the raccoon has 5 unwebbed , digits with short , curved , non - retractable claws on each paw\n. thicker fur enables a raccoon to withstand the harsh winters associated with northern latitudes .\ncrab - eating raccoons are nocturnal , omnivorous / frugivorous animals . body weights range from 3 to 7 kg . body lengths are reported as being between 54 and 65 cm , with the tail comprising 25 to 38 cm of the total length . males tend to be larger than the females .\na species of raccoon procyon cancrivorus , found in the jungles of central and south america .\na raccoon walking away from scavenging on a ring - necked pheasant during winter in wisconsin .\nthere are 25 subspecies of the common raccoon , which are discernible by their geographical distribution , physical characteristics , behavior , and in some cases , genetics 1 . the subspecies of raccoon found throughout wyoming is the upper mississippi valley raccoon ( p . lotor - hirtus ) 1 .\nhere is the taxonomy of the raccoon , according to integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) .\na mother and baby raccoon feeding on a ring - necked pheasant during winter in the north woods .\nseasacape of titan triggerfish feeding on coral reef with raccoon butterflyfish fluttering above . red sea , egypt .\nthe raccoon ' s black mask enhances their night - vision which is critical for this nocturnal animal . notice the ear tags ? check out tracking raccoons to learn more about why this raccoon has an ear tag !\nraccoon dog / marderhund ( nyctereutes procyonoides ) , secretive behavior , hidden behind a tree , peeking carefully .\nraccoon dog / marderhund ( nyctereutes procyonoides ) , secretive behavior , hidden behind a tree , watching carefully .\n. it is not uncommon for a raccoon to wet its hands when presented with water . this behavior is thought to provide the raccoon with a heightened sense of touch because the padding on its forepaws become soft and pliable\naccording to the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) , the pygmy raccoon is critically endangered . the pygmy raccoon may have fewer than 250 mature individuals left in the wild , and the iucn estimates that the total population size , including juveniles , is only 323 to 955 . other raccoon populations are not currently endangered .\nsurprised looking wild common raccoon / waschbaer ( procyon lotor ) stands in front of some bushes in a backyard .\nbuild . however , the crab - eating raccoon is of similar dimensions to the northern species . head and body length is 41 to 80 cm ( 16 to 31 in ) , tail length is 20 to 56 cm ( 8 to 22 in ) and height at the shoulder is about 23 cm ( 9 in ) . weights can range from 2 to 12 kg ( 4 to 26 lb ) , though are mostly between 5 and 7 kg ( 11 and 15 lb ) .\nis omnivorous , but fruit has been observed to be the main part of its diet . crab - eating raccoons consume a variety of foods , including invertebrates , crustaceans , insects , nuts , vegetables , fish , frogs , and small turtles . olfaction , vision , and their sense of touch are used to identify and capture food . the diet may change with season and food availability .\ntoday the common raccoon is hunted for food and for sport . they have been known to carry the raccoon roundworm , which in transmitted to humans through ingestion and inhalation of eggs passed in their feces . they also can sometimes carry rabies . preyed upon by foxes , bobcats , coyotes and owls , the common raccoon is mainly killed by cars and disease .\nraccoon ( procyon lotor ) standing up investigating camera , portrait , stanley park , vancouver , british columbia , cananda , september .\none theory is that the black mask around a raccoon\u2019s eyes helps deflect glare and helps with night vision , according to pbs nature .\ncommon raccoon ( procyon lotor ) looks surprised , stands in front of some bushes , late in the night , wildlife , germany .\nas with all carnivores raccoons have carnassials which are a set of teeth designed for tearing apart flesh . although raccoons have them , they are poorly developed compared to other carnivores , including other procyonids like crab - eating raccoons and ringtails . raccoons have an omnivorous diet which is reflected in the shape of their rounded , cusped molars . like other omnivores , including bears and humans , raccoons have a bunodont molar dentition . another distinguishable skull feature of the raccoon is the shape of the auditory bullae . this bony structure is laterally compressed on the outside of the skull and inflated on the inner sides\nfor many nocturnal animals a strong sense of hearing is crucial . the raccoon\u2019s ability to hear faint sounds is useful for hunting and avoiding potential predators . compared to other procyonids , such as the coati and ringtail , the raccoon does not possess as strong of a sense of hearing\nthis species is nocturnal , active at ground level , and solitary . its diet consists of molluscs , fish , crabs , insects , and amphibians ( emmons and feer 1990 ) . very little is known about its ecology or behaviour , although limited information is available from captive studies ( eisenberg 1989 ) . it is often believed to be limited to coastline and riverbank habitats , but it has also been recorded in non - aquatic habitats at certain times of the year . it is a species rarely seen deep in the rain forest , but it is found in llanos and evergreen forest and in andean forests . in the zone of geographic overlap with the northern raccoon , the latter is found in mangrove swamps while the crab - eating raccoon is found along inland rivers ( emmons and feer 1990 ) .\nthe crab - eating raccoon is distributed from southern costa rica to northern argentina ( east border of the andes ) , on trinidad , and possibly on a number of other caribbean islands . within costa rica and immediately east of the border ( i . e . panama ) , it is sympatric with the northern raccoon p . lotor ( eisenberg and redford 1999 , de la rosa and nocke 2000 ) . reputed occurrence in northern colombia is not confirmed because it is easily confused with p . lotor ( gonz\u00e1lez - maya et al . 2011 ) but recent craniometric evidence suggest both species are present in the caribbean region ( mar\u00edn et al . 2012 ) ; neither external features nor recent records are provided . recent records have expanded altitudinal range up to 2 , 350 ( mar\u00edn et al . 2012 ) .\nthe physical characteristics of the raccoon varies by location . raccoons that live in densely forested habitats tend to have darker fur than raccoons in coastal and desert regions\nty - book ti - the distribution , size , and reproduction of the pedunculate barnacle , octolasmis m\u00fclleri ( coker , 1902 ) , on the blue crab , callinectes sapidus ( rathburn , 1896 ) / vl - n . s . no . 16 ( 1983 ) ur - urltoken pb - field museum of natural history , cy - chicago : py - 1983 n1 -\napril 28 , 1983 .\nau - jeffries , william b . au - voris , harold k . kw - barnacles kw - blue crab kw - octolasmis m\u00fclleri er -\ncrab - eating raccoons have good hearing capabilities , and are keen to strange noises . even though they are color blind , they have excellent nighttime vision . their tactile senses are what really set them apart from other carnivores . this tactile sense allows them to identify food items better than any other senses . there has been 13 different vocalizations recognized , 7 of which involved the mother and young . although not specifically reported for this species , it is likely that , as in other mammals , scent cues play some role in reproduction and identification of individuals .\nthe tres marias raccoon is found in the caribbean off the coast of mexico and is extremely rare and endangered . they are pale brown with a grey underbelly and a golden tail .\nas omnivores , raccoons eat vegetation and meat . the vegetation in their diet consists of cherries , apples , acorns , persimmons , berries , peaches , citrus fruits , plums , wild grapes , figs , watermelons , beech nuts , corn and walnuts . when it comes to meat , raccoons consume more invertebrates than vertebrates , according to the adw . some of the raccoon\u2019s favorite animal treats are frogs , fish , crayfish , insects , rodents and bird eggs . when food is scarce , raccoons aren\u2019t above scavenging human trash or eating roadkill .\n. the forepaws contain a high density of nerve endings that allows a raccoon to discern objects by touch alone . there are about 4 times as many nerve endings in the forepaws then there are in the hindpaws\n. the raccoon ' s dark mask is thought to be an evolutionary adaptation to its nocturnal lifestyle . the dark fur surrounding the eyes will absorb light from the night sky , which reduces glare while also enhancing night vision\na raccoon is often rabid , without showing any outward symptoms of the viral disease . with the public ' s fascination with this fascinating animal , rabies becomes even greater a threat than previously thought . not only can a raccoon carry ( and spread ) the rabies virus ; the female raccoon can actually pass the virus to her unborn kits through her uterus . most animals exhibit some sort of behavior that is out of the ordinary , making it easier to spot one that is rabid . although it often shows absolutely no sign of being sick , a rabid raccoon can still easily transmit rabies to others . they are cute , they are fascinating to watch . many people enjoy feeding them . all these things create a possible danger to humans in close proximity to the animals . our main line of defense against rabies is to have our pets vaccinated . the second line of defense is common sense .\nraccoons are considered one of the primary carriers of the rabies virus in the united states , though only one person has ever died from a raccoon to human transmission of the disease , according to the centers for disease control and prevention .\n@ book { bhl21080 , title = { the distribution , size , and reproduction of the pedunculate barnacle , octolasmis m\u00fclleri ( coker , 1902 ) , on the blue crab , callinectes sapidus ( rathburn , 1896 ) / } , volume = { n . s . no . 16 ( 1983 ) } , copyright = { in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder . } , url = urltoken note = urltoken - - -\napril 28 , 1983 .\n} , publisher = { chicago : field museum of natural history , } , author = { jeffries , william b . and voris , harold k . } , year = { 1983 } , pages = { 28 } , keywords = { barnacles | blue crab | octolasmis m\u00fclleri | } , }\nraccoons have darker colored fur on their dorsal region ( back ) and lighter colored fur on their ventral region ( stomach ) . many mammals have this dual coloration including some of the raccoon ' s closest relatives , like the ringtail and coati . the most notable characteristics of the raccoon are their dark mask and ringed tail . the tail usually has 5 - 7 bands , alternating in color from black to cream 1 . the mask and tail pattern for every raccoon is unique to only that individual . these subtle differences are thought to help raccoons identify one another 2 . when comparing the different sexes and age groups , there are no differences in fur coloration or thickness between females and males and adults and juveniles .\n. although its forepaws resemble long , thin fingers similar to a human\u2019s or ape ' s , the raccoon does not have opposable thumbs . the forepaws also contain a type of nerve ending that is different from human and primate nerve endings .\nmakes use of habitats ranging from the forest of ilanos , to the xeric chaco vegetation , and even the amazon rainforests . as long as there are water , food , and places to hide and den , this raccoon will adapt . however ,\nraccoons will typically live for 2 - 3 years in the wild . this is drastically less than raccoons living in captivity , which have been known to live up to 17 - 20 years 2 , 5 . raccoon population dynamics are broken down into 3 life stages : nestling , juvenile and adult . raccoons give birth to altricial young , meaning the young are completely dependent on the mother from birth to around 2 months of age , this is referred to as the nestling stage 2 . the juvenile stage begins when the raccoon is around 2 months old and can last up to 1 year 2 . during this time , a juvenile will socialize with its mothers and siblings and will start to travel outside of the den with its family 2 . the full extent of social learning that takes place between mothers and offspring is not fully understood at this time . this is a topic the university of wyoming raccoon project ( uwrp ) is interested in investigating . the adult stage starts at around 1 year of age or when a raccoon becomes sexually mature 2 . raccoons have many natural predators , including bobcats , pumas , coyotes , eagles , hawks , alligators , dogs and humans 2 , 5 . other factors that regulate raccoon populations include disease and parasites 2 .\n. living at a higher latitude requires a greater allocation of resources towards survival during the harsh winters , which is likely why the dispersal age is older for raccoons in these environments . the age of sexual maturity will also influence the dispersal age for a raccoon\n4 . prange , s . , gehrt , s . d . and wiggers , e . p . ( 2004 ) . influences of anthropogenic resources on raccoon ( procyon lotor ) movements and spatial distribution . journal of mammology . 85 , 483 - 490 .\nthe carnassials are comprised of the fourth premolar on the cranium ( p4 ) and the first molar on the mandible ( m1 ) . notice the characteristic bunodont dentition ( blue ) of omnivores . the auditory bullae ( yellow ) of the raccoon are highly inflated on the inner sides .\nthough raccoons are more than happy to make human areas their homes , they can be vicious when approached by humans . humans should be particuarlly cautious of approaching raccoons because they are common carriers of rabies , roundworms and leptospirosis , according to the human society . most experts do not recommend having a raccoon as a pet .\nraccoons are found in canada , most of the united states , mexico and central america . over the last few decades , the raccoon has expanded its distribution outside of its historical range . they are now found further west in the united states , specifically in the rocky mountain region . they have also expanded their home ranges further north , deeper into canadian territories\nthe strongest social bonds form between a mother and offspring and between siblings . although the raccoon was once thought to be a solitary mammal , recent research has shown that raccoons will form small groups in some habitats 1 , 2 , 4 , 5 . the density of raccoons in a habitat will largely influence the sociality of the individuals in a population . when resources are widely dispersed and clumped together , males will become territorial of their home range and defend it against intruders 2 . females will occupy areas where there are food resources and shelter , while males will move to areas that will give them access to females . in areas with clumped resources it is not uncommon to see groups of raccoons denning and feeding together 2 , 5 . in urban and suburban environments raccoon density is often higher . 5 the time of year also influences raccoon sociality . from the late spring into early fall , female raccoons become less social towards non - relatives . during the winter and into spring , raccoons will either den up with their siblings and mother or share communal dens with other raccoons 4 .\nthe raccoon ( procyon cancrivorus , f . cuvier , 1798 ) is the only procyonid that occurs in itapu\u00e3 state park . this conservation area has 5 , 566 . 5 ha and it is located in porto alegre metropolitan area . the purpose of this study was to do qualitative and quantitative analyses of the alimentary items consumed by the raccoons in the park , as well as investigate the seasonality influence upon the diet of these animals . every month in 2002 fecal samples on fixed transects were collected , adding up two hundred and three samples . forty - one alimentary items were found ( 53 % fruits and 47 % of animal origin items ) . the arecaceae botanic family was the most eaten food , denoting the syagrus romanzoffiana ( cham . ) glassman like the key resource of the raccoon diet , and the butia capitata ( mart . ) becc . like an important seasonal alimentary resource . other fruits like ficus sp . , vitex megapotamica ( spreng . ) mold . , psidium sp . , and eugenia uruguayensis cambess . were registered as additional items , sustaining the opportunist behavior of this species . orthoptera , blattaria , and coleoptera were the most eaten invertebrate animals in the four seasons . the high relative frequencies of birds , rodents , and other mammals on the raccoon\u2019s taxodiet during the winter and spring denote its needs for a more improved diet of proteins in this time , due probably to low temperatures and to the birth of the cubs . the difference in the diet composition was proved using the randomization test ( \u03b1 = 0 . 05 ) to all the seasons , except between the winter and the spring . this result indicates that the diet of procyon cancrivorus in pei reflects the seasonal changes .\nthe body size of the raccoon varies by location . raccoons living at northern latitudes have an average body weight anywhere from 20 - 30 lbs . and an average body length of 16 - 24 in . long 3 . the smallest raccoons live on the islands of the florida keys 3 . raccoons are sexually dimorphic in body size , specifically , females are smaller than males . fluctuations in body weight will occur from season to season . raccoons are highly active during the summer and fall when resources are the most abundant 4 . they typically reduce their travels during the winter and spring due to the harsh weather conditions and limited availability of resources , thus their overall caloric intake is reduced .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this species is listed as least concern because although naturally rare in some areas of its range and seemingly limited in its adaptability to human activity , it has a wide distribution range and it is probably stable throughout south america where viable areas exist .\nthreats to this species have included overhunting for pelts , use for target practice , the pet trade , and , in some areas , habitat destruction . coastal development projects and mangrove destruction contribute regionally to population declines .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nis found from costa rica through eastern and western paraguay , uruguay , and into northern argentina . its range overlaps with that of\nare very similar and closely related . both species can be found in a variety of habitats , including primary and secondary growth forest .\n( de fatima , et al . , 1999 ; de la rosa and nocke , 2000 ; eisenberg and redford , 1999 )\n, which helps to distinguish the two species . male northern raccoons weigh from 7 to 8 . 3 kg , with the females weighing from 5 . 1 to 7 . 1 kg .\ndue to the lack of underfur , an adaptation to the warmer climates it occupies . the black mask of\nfades behind the eyes , unlike the northern species , which has a mask that extends almost to the ears . pelage of\n( de fatima , et al . , 1999 ; de la rosa and nocke , 2000 ; eisenberg and redford , 1999 ; feldhamer , et al . , 2003 )\n. northern raccoons have a higher mass - specific brm than other procyonids , which explains why this species has a more widespread distribution . their metabolic rates do not vary seasonally . both males and females tend to lose or gain weight among seasons , gaining in the winter and losing in the summer .\nmales are polygynous , mating with several females in succession , but females reject other males once they are impregnated . both sexes are mature after a year . however , younger males usually do not breed because they can not compete with larger , older males .\nbreeds once per year between july and september . the estrous cycle has been estimated to last 80 to 140 days . the gestation period lasts approximately 60 to 73 days and can yield from 2 to 7 pups , although 3 or 4 pups per litter is more typical . females give birth to their young in dens located in rock crevices , hollow trees , or in the abandoned dens of other animals .\nyoung raccoons are born without teeth and with their eyes closed . after 3 weeks their eyes open and they begin to show the characteristic mask on their faces . the young are weaned anywhere between 7 weeks and 4 months , and are independent at about 8 months .\nundoubtedly falls within this range of variation . if a female loses a newborn litter , she may ovulate a second time during the season .\n( de la rosa and nocke , 2000 ; feldhamer , et al . , 2003 ; nowak , 1999 )\nfemales provide all the parental care for the young , and may exclude males from the immediate area while they have young . the mother reduces her activity and movements during the week of parturition and becomes intolerant of conspecifics . the young begin to forage with their mother before they are weaned . they are dependent upon the female for up to 8 months , but there is some variation . males are not actively involved in caring for the young .\nlive longer than 5 years in the wild , although some are estimated to survive for 13 to 16 years . in 1982 , a\nraccoons have well - developed senses and are very intelligent . they are nocturnal and color blind , but have excellent night vision . their tactile senses are what separate raccoons from other carnivores . they have a well - developed sense of touch , especially in the nose and forepaws ( hands ) , and they use their hands as tools . they use their hands to handle and manipulate food before placing it in their mouths . they are dexterous , and can manipulate small prey items . raccoons can be observed dipping their hands in the water and \u201cwashing\u201d their food before ingesting it . some intelligence studies have placed raccoons above cats but below primates in their ability to discriminate objects . it was also observed that raccoons can learn quickly and can retain knowledge for up to a year .\nmale raccoons are solitary , but will tolerate other males around a feeding area . during breeding season , young males usually disperse to other areas , whereas young females stay within their mother\u2019s home range . in general , raccoons are solitary , even where there are overlapping home ranges between the sexes . there is little interaction between individuals , but exceptions do occur during denning and at food aggregations .\nmale social behavior may be driven by the densities and spatial distribution of females . female distributions are limited by resources such as den sites , water , and food . however , little is known about variation in social structure among various species of raccoons . it is assumed that\n( de la rosa and nocke , 2000 ; feldhamer , et al . , 2003 )\ndetails on predation of these animals are lacking . however , it is likely that\nas predators , these raccoons have some impact on prey species . as prey , they may affect predator populations .\nis an important furbearer and game species . it generates revenue from the sale of fur .\n( de la rosa and nocke , 2000 ; feldhamer , et al . , 2003 ; de la rosa and nocke , 2000 ; feldhamer , et al . , 2003 )\nis a carrier of rabies , and can sometimes damage crops , but usually not to a serious extent .\nmany references generalize by just saying\nraccoons\n. by just saying\nraccoons\n, we assume that are including both\nnicole phillips ( author ) , university of alaska fairbanks , link e . olson ( editor , instructor ) , university of alaska fairbanks .\nliving in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .\nyoung are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nin mammals , a condition in which a fertilized egg reaches the uterus but delays its implantation in the uterine lining , sometimes for several months .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\nforest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nrainforests , both temperate and tropical , are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground . epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant . precipitation is typically not limiting , but may be somewhat seasonal .\nreferring to something living or located adjacent to a waterbody ( usually , but not always , a river or stream ) .\na wetland area that may be permanently or intermittently covered in water , often dominated by woody vegetation .\nthe region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .\nreproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .\nde fatima , m . , m . dos santos , s . hartz . 1999 . the food habits of\n( carnivora , procyonidae ) in the lami biological reserve , porto algre , southern brazil .\nto cite this page : phillips , n . 2005 .\nprocyon cancrivorus\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nflpa - images of nature pages green house wetheringsett stowmarket suffolk ip14 5qa united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 1728 861 113 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 1728 860 222 pictures @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nthis is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .\nanimal , ( kingdom animalia ) , any of a group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms ( i . e . , as distinct from\u2026\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nyou came across this error because the pageyou were trying to visit does not exist .\nwe ' ve recently redesigned the site so old links may not work . have a look at some of these changes .\nyou may want to update your bookmarks or try to find the updated information using the links below . if you are still unable to find the information you are looking for , please contact the webmaster using the information below .\nfaculties / academics - find links to all faculties , departments and other academic resources e . g . handbooks , prospectus\nmedia centre - find media relations information here eg . news releases , events and announcements information\nprogrammes - view the faculty booklets containing the programmes available at the st . augustine campus\nresearch & innovation - view the cutting - edge research being done at the st . augustine campus\ncopyright 2015 the university of the west indies st . augustine , trinidad and tobago\nour 7 faculties , professional schools offer more than 200 programs to some 15 , 000 graduate , undergraduate and continuing studies students .\nthe uwi , st . augustine ranks first in trinidad and tobago among accredited tertiary - level programmes .\nthis page was last edited on 26 december 2017 , at 19 : 06 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\nmateus pellanda , c\u00edntia maria castro almeida , maria de f\u00e1tima m . dos santos , sandra m . hartz\ns\u00e3o leopoldo , rs . av . unisinos , 950 . bairro cristo rei , cep : 93 . 022 - 000 . atendimento unisinos + 55 ( 51 ) 3591 1122\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\n. unlike many other animals , raccoons have adapted well to human infrastructure and tend to thrive in urban environments .\n. fur thickness is also dependent on the environment . populations that live at northern latitudes have thicker fur than those at southern latitudes\n. this animal has a generalist diet , meaning it consumes a wide range of food . they will eat plants , seeds , corn , rodents , fish , crayfish , berries , eggs , etc . they are also known for enjoying sugary foods like : apples , cherries , grapes , dates , melons and even marshmallows\n1 . zeveloff , s . i . ( 2002 ) . raccoons : a natural history . washington : smithsonian institution press .\n2 . macclintock , d . , & thomas , j . s . ( 1981 ) . a natural history of raccoons . new york : scribner .\n3 . reid , f . a . ( 2006 ) . a field guide to mammals of north america . boston : houghton mifflin company .\n5 . gehrt , s . d . , riley , s . p . d . , & cypher , b . l . ( 2010 ) . urban carnivores : ecology , conflict , and conservation . baltimore : the johns hopkins university press .\n6 . mcdougall , len . ( 1997 ) . the complete tracker : tracks , signs and habits of north american wildlife . 1st edition .\nraccoons are very adaptable , so they live in a wide range of climates and habitats .\nraccoons are round , fuzzy creatures with bushy tails and a black mask of fur that covers their eye area . these animals may look like cute , cuddly bandits , but they can be quite fearsome when approached .\nraccoons are about as big as small dogs . they grow to about 23 to 37 inches ( 60 to 95 centimeters ) and weigh 4 to 23 lbs . ( 1 . 8 to 10 . 4 kilograms ) , according to national geographic .\nraccoons are found in north and central america , europe and japan . they are very adaptable , so they live in a wide range of climates and habitats . they typically make homes , called dens , in trees or caves , though they will also make homes in barns , abandoned vehicles and other man - made locations , according to new hampshire public television .\nraccoons are not very social creatures . they are nocturnal and sleep during the day . during the winter , they tend to sleep more , but they do not hibernate in the traditional sense . they simply sleep while their bodies live off stored fat . they lose around 50 percent of their body weight during the winter , according to the university of michigan ' s animal diversity web ( adw ) .\nthough these animals look like the outlaws of the outdoors , raccoons are very clean creatures . they are known to wash their food in streams and even dig latrines in areas they frequent regularly .\nbaby raccoons are called kits or cubs and are usually born in the early summer . females have one to seven offspring after a gestation period of 60 to 73 days . as a group , a mother and her baby raccoons are called a nursery .\nfor the first two months of their lives , babies live in their den and are weened at 7 to 16 weeks . at 12 weeks , they will start to roam away from their mothers for whole nights at a time , according to the washington department of fish and wildlife . they become completely independent at 8 to 12 months of age . raccoons live around 2 to 3 years in the wild .\nraccoons can run up to 15 mph ( 24 km / h ) and can fall 35 to 40 feet ( 11 to 12 meters ) without injury , according to the adw .\nraccoons have five toes on their front paws that act much like human hands .\npoachers tried to kill rhinos in south african reserve . instead , a pride of lions killed them .\nalina bradford is a contributing writer for live science . over the past 16 years , alina has covered everything from ebola to androids while writing health , science and tech articles for major publications . she has multiple health , safety and lifesaving certifications from oklahoma state university . alina ' s goal in life is to try as many experiences as possible . to date , she has been a volunteer firefighter , a dispatcher , substitute teacher , artist , janitor , children ' s book author , pizza maker , event coordinator and much more .\nwe ' ve sent an email to please follow the instructions to reset your password .\nenter your log in email address and we ' ll send you a link to reset your password .\nif is associated with an alamy account you ' ll receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password .\nnorthern racoon , procyon lotor , looking through log , new brunswick , canada .\nlicense type : urltoken rights : urltoken copyright status : in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n( nutriment ; nourishment ; nutrition ; sustenance ; aliment ; alimentation ; victuals ; fare ; eats ; food ; solid food ) , ( tuck into ; dig in ; dive in ; tuck in ; fall to ; help o . s . )\nyoung are born in july and august and are born three to a litter .\nreid , f . & helgen , k . ( 2008 ) . procyon cancrivorus . in : iucn 2008 . iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 26 january 2009 .\nburnie d and wilson de ( eds . ) , animal : the definitive visual guide to the world ' s wildlife . dk adult ( 2005 ) , isbn 0789477645\nthis entry is from wikipedia , the leading user - contributed encyclopedia . it may not have been reviewed by professional editors ( see full disclaimer )\nune fen\u00eatre ( pop - into ) d ' information ( contenu principal de sensagent ) est invoqu\u00e9e un double - clic sur n ' importe quel mot de votre page web . la fen\u00eatre fournit des explications et des traductions contextuelles , c ' est - \u00e0 - dire sans obliger votre visiteur \u00e0 quitter votre page web !\nles jeux de lettre fran\u00e7ais sont : \u25cb anagrammes \u25cb jokers , mots - crois\u00e9s \u25cb lettris \u25cb boggle .\nlettris est un jeu de lettres gravitationnelles proche de tetris . chaque lettre qui appara\u00eet descend ; il faut placer les lettres de telle mani\u00e8re que des mots se forment ( gauche , droit , haut et bas ) et que de la place soit lib\u00e9r\u00e9e .\nil s ' agit en 3 minutes de trouver le plus grand nombre de mots possibles de trois lettres et plus dans une grille de 16 lettres . il est aussi possible de jouer avec la grille de 25 cases . les lettres doivent \u00eatre adjacentes et les mots les plus longs sont les meilleurs . participer au concours et enregistrer votre nom dans la liste de meilleurs joueurs ! jouer\nla plupart des d\u00e9finitions du fran\u00e7ais sont propos\u00e9es par sensegates et comportent un approfondissement avec littr\u00e9 et plusieurs auteurs techniques sp\u00e9cialis\u00e9s . le dictionnaire des synonymes est surtout d\u00e9riv\u00e9 du dictionnaire int\u00e9gral ( tid ) . l ' encyclop\u00e9die fran\u00e7aise b\u00e9n\u00e9ficie de la licence wikipedia ( gnu ) .\nles jeux de lettres anagramme , mot - crois\u00e9 , joker , lettris et boggle sont propos\u00e9s par memodata . le service web alexandria est motoris\u00e9 par memodata pour faciliter les recherches sur ebay .\nchanger la langue cible pour obtenir des traductions . astuce : parcourir les champs s\u00e9mantiques du dictionnaire analogique en plusieurs langues pour mieux apprendre avec sensagent .\ncopyright \u00a9 2000 - 2016 sensagent : encyclop\u00e9die en ligne , thesaurus , dictionnaire de d\u00e9finitions et plus . tous droits r\u00e9serv\u00e9s .\nles cookies nous aident \u00e0 fournir les services . en poursuivant votre navigation sur ce site , vous acceptez l ' utilisation de ces cookies . en savoir plus"]}
{"id": 1141, "summary": [{"text": "phyllonorycter cerasicolella is a moth of the gracillariidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is known from all of europe , except northern scandinavia .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the wingspan is 7 \u2013 8 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "there are two to three generations per year in western europe .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the larvae feed on prunus cerasifera , prunus mahaleb and sometimes prunus spinosa , as well as various cultivated prunus species .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "mines may also occur on malus species when grown in proximity of cultived prunus .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they mine the leaves of their host plant .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "they create a lower-surface tentiform mine , usually between two side veins , without clear folds . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "phyllonorycter cerasicolella", "paragraphs": ["phyllonorycter cerasicolella ( cherry midget ) - norfolk micro moths - the micro moths of norfolk .\nlithocolletis cerasicolella herrich - sch\u00e4ffer , 1855 . schmett . europ . 5 : 326 . figs 784 - 5 . phyllonorycter cerasicolella ( herrich - sch\u00e4ffer , 1855 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nrecorded in 19 ( 28 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1999 . last recorded in 2017 .\nunderlying maps using digital map data \u00a9 norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola\u2122 2018 . \u00a9 james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data \u00a9 nola\u2122 2018\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nleaf - miner : the mine is underside , between veins , often causing leaf to arch . several mines may be found in one leaf ( british leafminers ) .\nlower - surface tentiform mine , usually between two side veins , without clear folds ( bladmineerders van europa ) .\nlarva : the larvae of moths have a head capsule and chewing mouthparts with opposable mandibles ( see video of a gracillarid larva feeding ) , six thoracic legs and abdominal legs ( see examples ) .\npupa : the pupae of moths have visible head appendages , wings and legs which lie in sheaths ( see examples ) .\nmargins of frontal appendage straight . rear margin of cremaster straigt to convex ( triberti , 2007a ) ( bladmineerders van europa ) .\nadult : the adult is illustrated in ukmoths . the species is included in urltoken .\ncomments : treated as a junior synonym of p . spinicolella in fauna europaea . where malus species grow in proximity of cultived prunus , mines may occur also on apple ( tribert , 2007a ) . ( bladmineerders van europa ) .\ntime of year - larvae : july , september - april ( british leafminers ) .\ntime of year - adults : two generations , adults flying in may and again in august ( ukmoths ) .\ndistribution in great britain and ireland : mainly in the southern half on england ( ukmoths ) ; including bedfordshire , caernarvonshire , cambridgeshire , cheshire , denbighshire , east norfolk , east suffolk , glamorgan , herefordshire , hertfordshire , huntingdonshire , isle of wight , leicestershire , middlesex , north somerset , northamptonshire , shropshire , south - west yorkshire , stafford , surrey , west norfolk and west suffolk ( nbn atlas ) .\ndistribution elsewhere : widespread in continental europe including albania , austria , belarus , belgium , bulgaria , corsica , czech republic , danish mainland , estonia , finland , french mainland , germany , greek mainland , hungary , italian mainland , latvia , lithuania , luxembourg , republic of moldova , poland , portuguese mainland , romania , russia - central , east , northwest and south , sardinia , sicily , slovakia , slovenia , spanish mainland , sweden , switzerland , the netherlands , ukraine and yugoslavia . also recorded in near east ( karsholt and van nieukerken in fauna europaea ) .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .\nyour browser doesn ' t support javascript or you have disabled javascript . please enable javascript , then refresh this page . javascript is required on this site .\neuropean union funding : for a one - year period ( 2017 - 12 - 16 to 2018 - 12 - 15 ) , eppo has been awarded an eu grant for the further development of the eppo code system ( agreement nb : sante / 2017 / gs / eppo / s12 . 768842 ) . the eu commission is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information from this project subsequently included in the eppo global database .\nholbrook , ipswich and hasketon , bred in 1930 - 34 ( whit . ) .\nleaf - mine on cherry - brandon , suffolk ( 19 . x . 2002 ) \u00a9 a prichard\nleaf - mine on cherry - shrubland park , suffolk ( 3 . x . 2004 ) \u00a9 a prichard"]}
{"id": 1147, "summary": [{"text": "the caiques ( / ka\u026a\u02c8i\u02d0k / or / k\u0251\u02d0\u02c8i\u02d0k / ) are species of parrots in the genus pionites .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they are relatively small and stocky , with a short , square tail and very bright colors .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "their typical weight is 150 \u2013 170 grams .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "they can live up to 40 years .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "they are endemic in the amazon basin in south america , with the black-headed north of the amazon river , and the white-bellied south .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they are listed on appendix 2 of cites as a species of least concern .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "they generally prefer forested areas and subsist on fruit and seeds .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "caiques are generally canopy dwellers , spending most of their time in the tops of trees , foraging and playing .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "caique wing feathers produce a distinctive whirring sound in flight .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "they are highly vocal . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "caique", "paragraphs": ["\u2018typically , 12 to 20 rounds were needed to destroy a caique or schooner . \u2019\na caique is one of two species of small , brightly colored parrot of the genus pionites . the two species of caique are the white - bellied caique ( or white - bellied parrot ) and the black - headed caique ( or black - headed parrot ) . they originate from the area of the amazon rainforest of northern brazil and southern venezuela , and the guiana highlands .\ncaique .\nurltoken unabridged ( v 1 . 1 ) . random house , inc . 2008 .\n\u201cthe yellow - thighed caique is somewhat less common in u . s . aviculture than the black - headed caique due to the number of birds imported for breeding stock in the 1970s and 1980s , \u201d noted worth .\nas with most avian species , the personality traits of the caique differ with each individual bird . some exhibit the\nboth parrot species of caique have a variety of vocalizations that consist of screeches , shrieks and squawks . the black - headed caique\u2019s unique call is often described as a sort of \u201ctoot , \u201d which might be used to communicate with other caiques within the flock . talking isn\u2019t a caique\u2019s area of strength . their relatively quiet voices are often compared to conures and pionus parrots . they\u2019re more likely to mimic sounds than human speech . of course , it depends upon the individual caique\u2019s talent and the time each owner invests in training .\n\u2018we sent up our luggage and servants by a caique , a long , narrow , flat - bottomed boat , rowed by sculls . \u2019\nbecause of the caique\u2019s curious nature and tendency to play hard , a pet caique can might find itself in a dangerous situation . make sure your caique has plenty of bird - safe toys to play with and that you keep a close eye on your pet whenever it is out of the cage . caiques might be more susceptible to polyomavirus , which results in gastroenteritis and also affect the bird\u2019s heart , liver and kidney .\nthe caique is becoming ever more popular as a companion bird , but you may have to do your research to acquire one - most pet shops will not carry this species . you will more likely have to contact a breeder or find an all - bird shop to purchase your caique .\n\u201d helio gracie was so impressed with caique elias that he awarded him the tile of \u201cbest student\u201d at the original academia gracie in brazil . \u201d\naside from the caique\u2019s striking appearance , its personality is the primary reason for its rise in popularity . caique owners rave about this plucky , active , little comedian . most bird owners know that they will have to accept the good , the bad , and the \u201cugly\u201d part of bird ownership when they take on a feathered companion . the caique makes a wonderful pet , but it\u2019s not perfect . they can be stubborn and beaky , and very willful . but they are so cute , it\u2019s difficult to fault them . keep a very watchful eye on your caique if you have other birds in the house - they are known for bird - on - bird aggression , and care should be taken that the caique does not injure another pet bird .\ntwo species of caiques are commonly kept as pets : the black - headed caique ( pionites melanocephala ) and the white - bellied caique ( pionites leucogaster ) . the yellow - thighed caique , a subspecies of the white - bellied , is also kept as a pet , though it is less common in the pet trade . the black - headed and the white - bellied caique have a similar appearance , with a few obvious distinctions . they both are about 9 to 10 inches long , and their color composition is relatively simple , with \u201csections\u201d of the bird in green , orange , yellow , and white .\ncaiques are also occasionally known as the \u201cseven - color parrot\u201d because each caique\u2019s plumage includes black , green , yellow , orange , white and blue feathers .\n\u201d caique is one of the best jiu jitsu that we ever have formed in our family . if you are on the south bay la area this is the academy to go\u201d\nas with most parrots , males and females of either species of caique look exactly the same . the only ways to determine sex are surgical sexing and dna sexing . dna sexing is safer for the bird than surgical sexing . white - bellied caique white - bellied caiques are found south of the amazon from northern brazil to bolivia , peru , and ecuador .\ntoys are a staple of the caique\u2019s energy - diet . caiques are always \u201con the go\u201d and love to play with toys , especially toys that they can demolish . be sure to have a steady supply of new toys on hand to replace the old ones when they become ragged or are disassembled . you\u2019ll have to experiment with several types of toys to find your caique\u2019s favorites . fortunately , there are many types of toys on the market to choose from , but make sure that they are safe before you give them to your caique .\nblack headed caique the black - headed caique , pionites melanocephala , is also known as the black - capped parrot or pallid caique . it has a black crown , yellow to orange head , white belly , yellow leg feathers and underside of tail , green back and wings , bluish primaries , greyish bill , and black feet . it is found in northern south america north of the amazon in peru , colombia , venezuela , brazil , guyana , and possibly french guiana . there are two subspecies , with birds between them intermediate in color :\nmango and kiwi , the white - bellied caique parrot sisters , having some play time on the floor , wrestling on their backs , and having a fun time . . . so cute !\ncaiques reach maturity at two to three years of age , and can live past 20 years old if well cared for . although not for everyone , those with an endless amount of energy and willingness to provide constant fun for this on - the - go parrot , a caique might just be perfect . i can guarantee that you will never be bored with a caique in the house .\nthere are two parrot species of caique each with several subspecies . neither species can be sexed visually . the black - headed caique ( pionites melanocephala melanocephala ) originates in the guianas , brazil , columbia , venezuela , ecuador and peru . in the subspecies p . m . pallida , the throat , flanks and thighs are clear yellow and the band around the nape is pale orange - yellow .\nthe black - headed caique has , obviously , a black head and black beak , while the white - bellied has , you guessed it , a white belly ( so does the black - headed , incidentally ) , horn - colored beak , and a bright orange and yellow head . the caique is a stocky bird , surprisingly heavy for its size , as most new owners will point out .\n\u2018we enter a caique , where we take our seals in oriental fashion , and two rowers , dressed in grey - white , striped silk shirts and red fezzes , sped us up the bosporus . \u2019\ni know caique since we were teenagers . he always been one of the best students at my uncle helio gracie ' s academy . i have no doubt that you will be learning from one of the best !\nfor a truly mesmerizing experience get on board our traditional caique , exclusive for the distinguished guests of blue palace resort and spa . travel on the crystal clear waters around the mirabello gulf and unlock some of the most authentic surroundings .\nspend the evening sailing on the caique surrounded by the breathtaking natural beauty of the coast line of elounda and spinalonga island . set off from the hotel\u2019s own jetty with chilled champagne and the chef\u2019s treat of canap\u00e9s with local indigenous flavors for an intimate interlude .\ncarlos caique elias has been studying jiu jitsu with me and my family for many years . in brazil he became one of the best students we ever have . i fully recommend his school as one to learn the real , effective and traditional gracie jiu jitsu\nthough the caique is a medium - sized bid , it needs a large environment . this energetic bird will suffer greatly from being confined to a small cage . think about building a small aviary if you can , or at least provide your caique with the largest housing you can afford . make sure that the bar - spacing is appropriate for a bird of its size and that there\u2019s a grating on the bottom of the cage . this playful bird will discover the weaknesses in its cage in no time , so be sure that the cage is of quality construction , such as those made from stainless steel .\nwell known as the clown of companion birds , caiques are loved by bird fanciers for their outgoing nature and ability to make people laugh with their playful antics . the proper way to pronounce caique is \u201ckai - eke\u201d \u2014 don\u2019t ask for a \u201ccake\u201d at the bird shop , or they might point you to the nearest bakery !\nthe white - bellied caique , pionites leucogaster , has an orange - yellow head , a white belly , green wings and back , bluish primary feathers , a horn - colored beak , and pink or grey feet . there are several subtypes of the white - bellied caique , including the green thighed ( pionites leucogaster leucogaster ) , the yellow thighed ( p . l . xanthomeria ) , and the yellow tailed ( p . l . xanthrus ) . currently , the yellow thighed is the type most commonly kept as a pet in the united states . the green thighed is somewhat rare in captivity , and the yellow tailed has been documented in the wild but is very rare in captivity .\nout - of - the - cage time is very important for caiques , and they should have a playgym or cage playtop with lots of toys . most caiques appreciate stripping nontoxic branches with the leaves still attached , and they\u2019ll even bathe in these if the leaves are soaked . bathtime is a relished caique activity , and many prefer a leaf bath .\nif the african grey parrot is the intellectual of the bird community , and the macaw is the show - off , then the caique is the clown . caiques have been called clowns more often than barnum and bailey have had shows in three rings , and for good reason - the clown is a truly appropriate metaphor for this medium - sized mischief maker .\ncaiques can\u2019t compete in a noise contest with a cockatoo , but they are not quiet , by any means . their noise level is moderate , and will only bother your more \u201csensitive\u201d neighbors . they are not known for their talking ability , but can learn to whistle and cluck very well . a talented caique will talk , but its mimicking does not rival that of the better talking species .\nthe less common but increasingly available species is the white - bellied caique , whose habitat is south of the amazon , from northern brazil and spreading to parts of bolivia , ecuador and peru . the appearance of the white - bellied species is almost identical to the black - headed , with two striking exceptions : the beak of the white - bellied caique is horn colored , and the entire head is a bright yellow / orange , giving this species the appearance of wearing a hood . the abrupt color changes from one part of the body to another are so pronounced on both of these birds that they look as if they have been painted on ! the white - bellied species is slightly smaller in size measuring approximately eight inches in length , and again , this species is not sexually dimorphic .\nthe second parrot species , often called the white - bellied caique ( pionites leucogaster leucogaster ) , hails from brazil , bolivia , ecuador and peru . the name \u201cwhite - bellied\u201d might be a little misleading . \u201cas all caique species have white bellies , yellow - thighed is a bit more accurate common name , \u201d said breeder gail worth of aves international . the subspecies p . l . xanthurus possesses paler plumage with the thighs , sides of body and under tail - coverts as well as top and underside of the tail yellow . the lower back and upper tail - coverts are green interspersed with yellow . the thighs and sides of the subspecies p . l . xanthomeria are yellow . the topside of the tail is green , the underside blackish . the periophthalmic eye ring is gray and the beak horn - colored with a grayish base . the feet are dark gray .\nfor this reason , we highly recommend that you find an effective training program for your caique . whether he is new to your home or you\u2019ve had him for years , a training program will always come in handy . we personally recommend the bird tricks parrot training course by chet womach . you can see many of his videos for free to get an idea of how much he knows about birds and how he can help you train yours .\njuvenile white - bellied caique juvenile white bellies often have brownish or black feathers on the head and back of the neck , as well as yellow feathers on the white belly , as shown in the photo on the left . generally these off - colored feathers will be lost and replaced by orange or white feathers respectively . young birds will also have dark brown irises , which will change to a rust or orange color as the bird matures .\nwell - known behavior specialist sally blanchard shares her life and love with an adorable black - headed caique named spike . spike often accompanies sally to lectures , where she demonstrates his exuberance for this hopping activity by placing her hand on his back , grasping him around his middle and pretending to\nbounce\nhim up and down . much to the delight of spectators , spike will continue\nbouncing\nand bunny - hopping long after sally has released him !\na medium sized parrot from the amazon rainforest which comes in two species , white bellied and black headed . both look as if they are wearing outfits : yellow or orange pants , white shirt , green jacket and a orange or black hat . the caique is an attractive parrot who is surprisingly destructive for it\u2019s size and can be rather noisy . however they are extremely tame , highly social birds and can make excellent pets . they live for about 40 years .\nenjoy a delicious lunch , with a selection of homemade dishes , light snacks ; fresh bread and greek wine , all packed in a traditional picnic basket . you can choose to enjoy this picnic lunch on our traditional caique , sailing around the coastline of elounda and the island of spinalonga . this package includes two types of menu , customized to your needs . it is a great opportunity to enjoy an al fresco romantic meal for couples or the perfect opportunity for some family bonding !\nrarely do aviculturists find themselves in unanimous agreement . however , rarely have i met someone who didn\u2019t agree on the engaging and clownish personality of the caique parrot . these small ( 9 inches ) but sturdily - built south american parrots are highly desired pets due to their beautiful plumage and lively , inquisitive natures . caiques ( commonly pronounced \u201cky eek\u201d in the united states ) love to play and are often described as natural clowns with a sweet , somewhat mischievous nature . these high - energy parrots require an owner who appreciates and nurtures their unique personalities .\nnot only playful and energetic , caiques also excel intellectually . they enjoy exploring new objects , whether it is a new puzzle toy or surfing in a new acquaintance\u2019s hair . the best caique pets are well - socialized through frequent handling by many people . some caiques exhibit territorial behavior , especially around the cage . \u201ccaiques have an extra dose of self - confidence , but are intelligent enough to know when their bluff has been called , \u201d said nancy speed of mississippi pea patch aviaries . \u201cthey will gracefully worm their way out of any situation they cannot control . \u201d\nbecause of their acrobatic displays , caiques require extra large cages for their relatively small size . many breeders recommended a minimum cage size of 31\u20442 - feet high by 3 - feet deep by 4 - feet in length . choose one with safe bar spacing , no more than 3\u20444 or 7\u20448 an inch . lots of perches , wooden chew toys and a variety of frequently rotated toys will keep your caique satisfied and entertained . caiques seem to delight in the thrill of movement \u2013 hence the hopping and hanging from objects \u2013 so swings and other mobile toys , even the outstretched hand of a person , are favorites of these birds .\nmy pet bird review of kitty the caique parrot is finally here ! a video 3 years in the making and you guys have requested for it multiple times . i ' ll start by saying that choosing a pet bird is a daunting task because the choice you make is most likely going to be a life choice as most parrots will happily live past 25 and keep going . if you choose a caique , they have been known to live past 60 so there ' s a good chance your pet will outlive you by the time you get around to affording the purchase ( they are not cheap at all ) . caiques are playful little birds who don ' t know their own size , it ' s been a highly rewarding experience getting one : ) got questions for me about the bird ? join our facebook below ! facbook : urltoken flikr : urltoken sub to itsdankreviews : urltoken check out some of our other great videos below ! sony fe 35mm f2 . 8 za carl zeiss sonnar review : urltoken sony fe 55mm f1 . 8 za carl zeiss sonnar overview : urltoken sony a7 / a7r battery grip review vg - c1em : urltoken sony a7 / a7r review , alpha 7 : urltoken sony a7 / a7r metabones adapter review for canon and nikon to e - mount : urltoken\nset off from the hotel\u2019s own jetty aboard our quintessentially greek fishing boat and savor a selection of cretan wines and a platter of cheese locally sourced from dairy farms . the caique sails around the coast of elounda and around the isle of spinalonga , which sits right across from blue palace . spinalonga is a national heritage monument , non - inhabited islet , with a rich history that uniquely captures the history of crete itself . with impressive relics from the roman times , venetian occupation , ottoman turks and most recent history as a leper colony , spinalonga has been immortalized in the best - selling book of victoria hislop \u201cthe island\u201d . its view is truly breathtaking !\ncurrently the most commonly available species is the black - headed caique , originating north of the amazon and westward to parts of venezuela , ecuador and peru . these birds sport a deep , rich forest green color on their backs , wings and tail . the top and upper back of the head is a shiny jet black ; the nape and neck is a vivid yellow / orange , and the beak is black . there is a hint of dark green around the eyes , and the entire front of the belly and breast area is a soft cloudy white .\nsocks\nand the underside of the tail is burnt orange . this parrot measures approximately nine inches in length , and their sex is undeterminable by visualization .\npepper was a rescue bird , a black headed caique ( pionites melanocephalus ) who had a rough life before becoming part of our family about 8 years ago . he was stubborn , messy , loud\u2026 and i fell so in love with him . pepper bonded most closely with me , and for years i worked hard to train him and gain his trust . he also enjoyed my mother\u2019s company , respected but avoided my father , and constantly tried to attack my little brother . he tried to attack anyone who visited , even relatives who came over often ( like my grandparents ) . he was especially protective of me . anytime the front door opened , he had to march over to investigate . he often perched on the family room windowsill surveying the driveway , ready to warn us of any threat ( hawk , crow , airplane , etc ) .\nwe thank ana l . fonseca , marcelo amorim , marcelo fonseca , theo mota , luiza c . martins , lucas , eliane and caique for logistical support and help in the field work . we express our gratitude to the addiny family for kindly providing permission to do field work on its property , and also to j . p . lemos - filho and g . w . fernandes that gently loaned us equipments , s . dol\u00e9dec who gave statistical advice and f . de bello , b . h . p . rosado and f . f . carmo that provided insightful discussions . we are also thankful for the botanical specialists who gently helped with many identifications , especially n . f . o . mota and p . l . viana . finally , we thank the grants from the cnpq ( conselho nacional de desenvolvimento cient\u00edfico e tecnol\u00f3gico , 163020 / 2013 - 2 , 482720 / 2012 ) , capes ( coordena\u00e7\u00e3o de aperfei\u00e7oamento de pessoal de n\u00edvel superior ) and fapemig ( funda\u00e7\u00e3o de amparo \u00e0 pesquisa de minas gerais ) . this study was in partial fulfillment of the master requirements of l . f . a . de paula in plant biology , who received a scholarship from cnpq . f . a . o . silveira receives a research productivity fellowship from cnpq .\njojo and abu are blackheaded caiques . jojo is 3 . 5 years old & female , while abu is 5 months and male . they love to wrestle together , and as you see , abu just lays on his back waiting for jojo to pounce . in this video jojo is more aggressive and runs in for the attack .\nhitherto considered conspecific with p . xanthomerius and p . leucogaster , but separated as a species distinct from former by characters given under that species , and from latter by its yellow vs green tail ( 3 ) , yellow vs green lower flanks and thighs ( 3 ) , and unknown - width hybrid zone ( at least 1 ) . monotypic .\nbrazil s of amazon from r pur\u00fas and r juru\u00e1 to r madeira catchment in amazonas .\n, with which this species was formerly considered to be conspecific , a medium - sized , chunky , short - tailed parrot , with apricot - orange cap , . . .\nno information , though basic details are unlikely to differ significantly from p . leucogaster .\nno data , though basic details of breeding biology are unlikely to differ significantly from p . leucogaster .\nvulnerable . cites ii . no population estimate . suspected to lose 17\u00b78\u201322\u00b72 % of suitable habitat within its distribution over three generations ( 24 years ) from 2002 , based on a . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . yellow - tailed parrot ( pionites xanthurus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nrecent reappraisal of higher taxonomy of parrots # r proposed arrangement into three superfamilies , here treated as families ( strigopidae , cacatuidae , psittacidae ) ; same study split psittacidae , as here defined , into three families , with additional recognition of psittrichasidae ( psittrichas to coracopsis , below ) and psittaculidae ( psephotus to micropsitta , below ) ; in present work , separation of these families considered to require further study and perhaps additional support . in the past , present family was often split into two , with recognition of family loriidae ; at the other extreme , it was sometimes considered to include all psittaciformes .\nrecent molecular studies indicate that this genus and deroptyus are sister - taxa # r # r # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' fairly common ' ( stotz et al . ( 1996 ) . trend justification : this species is suspected to lose 10 . 7 - 13 . 6 % of suitable habitat within its distribution over three generations ( 24 years ) based on a model of amazonian deforestation ( soares - filho et al . 2006 , bird et al . 2011 ) . given the susceptibility of the species to hunting and / or trapping , it is therefore suspected to decline by < 25 % over three generations .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nlike most websites we use cookies . if you\u2019re happy with that , just carry on as normal ( close this bar ) - otherwise click here to find out more .\nfor a while , it looked like they might actually be in recovery . but this year\u2019s census of the american subspecies , the rufa red knot , found that numbers have plummeted to an all - time low . the likely cause ? food shortages in delaware bay , a crucial feeding stopover site on their migration .\nclimate change and invasive species don\u2019t just impact birds \u2013 the latest update to the iucn red list of threatened species shows that they are a growing threat to australia\u2019s unique reptiles . however , the update also revealed good news for four south american amphibians assumed to be extinct .\nwe present the highlights of the latest issue of bird conservation international , our quarterly peer - reviewed journal promoting worldwide research and action for the conservation of birds and their habitats .\nwe\u2019ve selected crafts from across the world that will delight children and benefit birds . from ten - minute fruit kebabs to a summer spent birdhouse building , we\u2019ve got projects for every age and timespan : all you need to do is pick your skill level .\nhelp us to protect america ' s migratory birds on their epic journey across continents .\naround one in five of all the world\u2019s bird species migrate . and while every migration is an epic and often perilous feat of endurance , here\u2019s a selection of species that we feel go the extra mile .\nulcinj salina is a traditional salt pan whose shallow waters feed and support more than 250 bird species . however , recent proposals to build a large - scale tourism resort threaten to obliterate it .\njane alexander is an acclaimed actress , author and an impassioned birder who is also a member of birdlife\u2019s global advisory group . here , she talks to us about how acting got her into birding , and how the new generation gives her hope .\na new mode of farming is taking off in south america . the pampas is one the world\u2019s most important grassland biomes : but intensive farming is wearing it down . now , a scheme for sustainable , bird - friendly meat is getting prestigious recognition .\none in eight bird species is in danger of extinction \u2013 but what are the main factors driving their decline ? they might not be what you think . read about the five biggest threats to bird biodiversity , and what\u2019s being done to combat them .\nover the last 40 years , europe\u2019s skylarks have suffered a 50 % decline due to the intensification of agriculture . in sweden , this figure jumps to a staggering 75 % .\nwe interview katharine lowrie : part of a record - breaking couple who sailed the atlantic to begin an ultra - marathon through south america , all to raise money and awareness for wildlife and wild places .\nit\u2019s a first for burkina faso . . . a love story between environmental organization naturama ( birdlife - burkina faso ) and the private cement factory cimburkina . their common aim is to strengthen nature conservation and improve community livelihoods at the cement plant ' s operating sites .\nfollowing a tireless campaign by birdlife australia , which gained support from around the world , the australian government has decided to reject an application for phosphate mining on christmas island , a crucial wildlife haven in the indian ocean .\nwhile armed conflict in colombia may be over , an influx of illegal miners and loggers means our newest partner\u2019s collaborative approach to conservation has never been more important .\nwe are a global partnership of independent organisations working together as one for nature and people . read more about birdlife .\nwe create action through insight . through our expertise on birds we act for nature and people . through sharing local challenges we find lasting global solutions . read more about our programmes .\nwhen you get involved with birdlife you are helping us to go beyond today to impact the future . read about how you can support us .\nfrom the amazon to the zambezi , from the tundra to the tierra del fuego the birdlife partnership is active in more than 120 countries worldwide . read more about our regional work .\nas with most parrots , caiques thrive on a pelleted - base diet that is supplemented with fresh fruit and vegetables . nutri - berries are an especially good food for caiques because they offer fun foraging and balanced nutrition .\nthey are not great for first - time bird owners , but they will always keep you entertained . they enjoy playing on their backs , hopping around the house , and just being comical . they are mischevious , stubborn , and need clear boundaries or they may become nippy .\nthey aren\u2019t good talkers , but they like to learn tricks and most will be friendly with everyone in the family . they can be noisy , so they are best kept in a house . because of their strong personalities , it\u2019s best to make sure you get a hand - fed and properly socialized baby .\nif you live in a house and are prepared to care for a medium parrot with a strong personality ( and put up with some bites here or there ) , then you just might be the right owner for one of these energetic bundles of fun .\nthere are two species of these birds and the most notable difference is that the top of the black - headed\u2019s head is black while the white - bellied\u2019s is yellow .\nneed a more experienced bird owner because they can become nippy if not taught correct boundaries .\nmoderate\u2013they can be noisy at times , so they are more suited living in a house .\nhigh energy , big appetite , vocal , love to chew , like to roll around with toys , tendency to skip and hop around , like to learn tricks , good at mimicking sounds , can be noisy , get into mischief , can become nippy , active , comical , playful , can be very stubborn , fearless , intelligent , most will be friendly with everyone in the family , some may become one - person birds , like to bathe .\ngood\u2013some can learn to talk a limited amount ( with small voices ! ) , but all are good at learning tricks .\nthey should be handled daily in order to keep them socialized and from becoming nippy .\nvideo by redmelde these birds love to play and roll around on their backs with toys . this video shows just how much fun they can be .\nvideo by sakura69abc they are also known to hop and skip around . this is a cute video of one hopping .\nthese birds , like most medium - sized parrots , can be very nippy . you definitely need to know how to train him if you want him to be hand tamed and enjoy spending time with you and your friends / family . however , if you don\u2019t know how to train one , you may have difficulty even getting your bird out of his cage .\nbelow is one of chet\u2019s videos that covers the first step to stopping your parrot\u2019s biting . this technique is perfect for caiques . this video is a great example of how effective the training courses can be and how they are filled with a wealth of useful information for any bird owner . this video is only the first step in getting your bird hand tamed . we highly recommend checking out chet\u2019s curriculum for taming your bird even further .\nfor more information about chet\u2019s course , you can visit the bird tricks webpage here .\n& lt ; a urltoken ; amp ; marketplace = us & amp ; amp ; id = v20070822 % 2fus % 2fstaramersignl - 20 % 2f8010 % 2f0da2a940 - 800f - 43c2 - 8252 - 02441f9cefef & amp ; amp ; operation = noscript\u201d onclick = \u201dreturn fix . track ( this ) ; \u201d & gt ; urltoken widgets & lt ; / a & gt ;\nshare your experience with others ! there\u2019s no better way to learn about a pet bird than from an owner .\nyour comment may just help someone decide whether or not this pet bird is for them .\ncurrently you have javascript disabled . in order to post comments , please make sure javascript and cookies are enabled , and reload the page . click here for instructions on how to enable javascript in your browser .\nmedical disclosure : the information at urltoken has not been prepared , endorsed , or reviewed by any form of certified bird expert or licensed veterinary professional . nothing on the this website should be taken as medical advice , but instead should act as a useful resource in providing general information that may be useful to members of the general public . all visitors are encouraged to consult with a certified expert or licensed veterinarian for accuracy or any form of pet safety or medical advice .\nphoto credits : images on this site are royalty - free , in the public domain , or under a creative commons license and are free to use on web sites and other projects . please see the photo credits page for more information .\npaid endorsement disclosure : we are grateful to be of service and bring you content free of charge for your information and benefit . in order for us to do this , please note that whenever you click on the links in this website and purchase items , ( in many but not all cases ) we will receive a referral commission . however , this commission does not influence the information we provide in this site . we always give honest opinions and reviews to share our findings , beliefs , and / or experiences .\nwhat made you want to look up ca\u00efque ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\nthe story of an imaginary word that managed to sneak past our editors and enter the dictionary .\ntake this quiz and discover 12 words for things you didn ' t know had words .\nthe narrow , 1 . 2 km long mountain pass that visitors ( a . k . a . tourons , mind ! ) , must pass in order to be face - to - face with what & apos ; s now being tirelessly given more than a & apos ; sporting chance & apos ; to be one of the new seven wonders of the world ( namely petra , a . k . a . the rose city ) . well , this chance is 10 - sigma ! see this blog that i particularily liked ! and . . . hey & apos ; all ! don & apos ; t vote petra ! blog . sweetestmemories . com / default . asp ? display = 572\nca\u00efque is the original turkish word for & apos ; any & apos ; mountainous pass not just petra & apos ; s . . . for\npete - ra & apos ; s\nsake ! also spelled siq / saiq .\na single - masted sailing vessel used on the eastern mediterranean sea , having a sprit mainsail , a square topsail , and two or more other sails .\nurltoken unabridged based on the random house unabridged dictionary , \u00a9 random house , inc . 2018\nwas to be had , the weather was so bad they could not cross .\ncollins english dictionary - complete & unabridged 2012 digital edition \u00a9 william collins sons & co . ltd . 1979 , 1986 \u00a9 harpercollins publishers 1998 , 2000 , 2003 , 2005 , 2006 , 2007 , 2009 , 2012\nany of four ( previously two ) species of parrot in the genus pionites .\nthis page was last edited on 12 november 2017 , at 14 : 07 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\n\u201ci may have fallen as hard for plyto in a tasting room or over dinner at home , but the setting of our first encounter made it inevitable . i was on a sloop , sailing past the stone bastions of spinalonga , the mysterious venetian fortress off crete\u2019s northern coast . friends i\u2018d met that afternoon had laid out meats and cheeses beside canap\u00e9s that looked like miniature sculptures . the sea was simmering , the sky a shade of el greco blue\u2026 . \u201d\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . this website uses cookies that provide targeted advertising and which track your use of this website . by clicking \u2018continue\u2019 or by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\n\u2018the lighter service was handled , at least in part , by caiques and other mostly locally owned small boats whose socio - economic leverage , unlike that of the elite property owners on the sea front , was not great . \u2019\n\u2018formerly known as caiques , gulets are beautiful , broad - beamed , hand - built wooden sailing boats , but unfortunately these days the sails are strictly for show . \u2019\n\u2018in fact only a small convoy of caiques , bearing a single battalion of mountain troops , was headed for maleme , not canea . \u2019\nearly 17th century : from french ca\u00efque , from italian caicco , from turkish kay\u0131k .\nstay up to date with our latest news and receive new words updates , blog posts , and more .\nin this article we explore how to impress employers with a spot - on cv .\narchaic words have a charm that never fades away , from french sounding to wondrously mysterious ones .\nmechanical transmission means the transfer of pathogens from an infected host or a contaminated substrate to a susceptible host , where a biological association between the pathogen and the vector is not necessary . the vectors in this case are not restricted to arthropods . birds , rats , mice , other animals and even humans can serve as mechanical vectors ; thus , vector ecologists must know about non - arthropod taxa and their roles in transmitting disease agents .\nthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .\n. 1996 . morbidity and mortality surveillance in rwandan refugees\u2014burundi and zaire , 1994 . morbid . mortal . weekly rpt .\n1988 . rotavirus survival on human hands and transfer of infectious virus to animate and nonporous inanimate surfaces . j . clin . microbiol .\n1914 . cockroaches and ants as carriers of the vibrios of asiatic cholera . philipp . j . sci .\n1960 . the incrimination of arthropods as vectors of disease . proc . 11 th intern . congr . entomol\nflies and streptococcal skin infection in trinidad . trans . royal soc . trop . med . hyg .\n1978 . natural mode of transmission of the bovine leukemia virus : role of bloodsucking insects . am . j . vet . res .\n1986 . infection de cellules d\u2019insectes en culture par le virus hiv , agent du sida , et mise en \u00e9vidence d\u2019insectes d\u2019origine africaine contamin\u00e9s par ce virus . c . r . acad . sci . paris\n1969 . insect allergy : the allergenic potentials of the cockroach . southern med . j .\n1968 . new concepts on the epidemiological features of bovine besnoitiosis as determined by laboratory and field investigations . onderstepoort j . vet . res .\n1973 . australia antigen in mosquitoes . feeding experiments and field studies . res . comm . chem . pathol . pharmacol .\n, to ingest and transmit viable spores of selected fungi . ann . entomol . soc . am .\n1983 . gnat sore eyes : seasonal , acute conjunctivitis in a southern state . southern med . j .\n1954 . myxomatosis : its use in the control of rabbit populations in australia . vet . rec .\n1988 . transmission of hiv in belle glade , florida : lessons for other communities in the united states . science\n1961 . mechanism of transmission of viruses by mosquitoes . annu . rev . entomol .\n1983 . modi e mezzi di diffusione dei microrganismi negli alimenti ad opera degli insetti . proc . dif . antiparassit . industr . aliment . protez .\n1950 . the coxsackie viruses . bull . n . y . acad . med .\n1949 . a virus recovered from the feces of \u201cpoliomyelitis\u201d patients pathogenic for suckling mice . j . exp . med .\n1992 . arthropods in a hospital and their potential significance in the epidemiology of hospital infections . folia parasitol .\n1990 . interrupted feeding of blood - sucking insects : causes and effects . parasitol . today\n1970 . anaplasmosis transmission : inoculation by the ocular route . res . vet . sci .\n1950 . the transmission of anaplasmosis . am . j . vet . res .\nin the transmission of parasitic helminth eggs and larvae . internat . j . zoonoses\n1954 . a note on domestic cockroaches in south texas . j . econ . entomol .\n1926 . on a bactericidal principle present in the alimentary canal of insects and arachnids . parasitol .\n1992 . mechanical transmission of venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus by hematophagous mites ( acari ) . j . med . entomol .\n1983 . flies as a source of enteric pathogens in a rural village in thailand . appl . environ . microbiol .\n1972 . epidemiology of the venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus complex . proc . 3rd intern . conf . equine infect . dis . ( paris ) , pp . 26\u2013145 .\n1988 . blood - feeding by vectors : physiology , behavior , and vertebrate defense . pp . 153\u2013189\nt . p . monath ( ed . ) , the arboviruses : epidemiology and ecology , vol . 1 . crc press , boca raton , florida .\n1987 . bovine leukosis virus : understanding viral transmission and the methods of control . vet . med .\n1943 . dysentery in the middle east with special reference to sulphaguanidine treatment . trans . royal soc . trop . med . hyg .\n1955 . experimental transmission of vesicular stomatitis virus by diptera . j . infect . dis .\n1973 . friend leukemia virus ( flv ) activity in certain arthropods . iii . transmission studies . neoplasma\n1984 . tabanid ( diptera ) populations associated with an equine infectious anemia outbreak in an inapparently infected herd of horses . j . med . entomol .\n( diptera : tabanidae ) and the potential for mechanical transmission of pathogens . j . med . entomol .\n1988 . quantifying the role of horse flies as vectors of equine infectious anemia . pp . 189\u2013195\nd . g . powell ( ed . ) , equine infectious diseases . proc . fifth intern . conf . university press , lexington , kentucky .\n) as carriers of microorganisms of medical importance in hospitals . epidemiol . infect .\n1993 . ants as potential vectors of pathogens in hospitals in the state of s\u00e0o paulo , brazil . insect sci . appl .\nfrancis jr . , t . , brown , g . c . and penner , l . r . 1948 . search for extrahuman sources of poliomyelitis virus . j . am . med . assoc .\n1987 . transmission of the human immunodeficiency virus . new england j . med .\n1951 . effet de la lutte antimouches sur l\u2019incidence des maladies oculaires dans le sud marocain . bull . soc . pathol . exot .\n1976 . incidence of pinkeye in relation to face fly control . tennessee farm & home sci .\n1973 . experimental studies of the epidemiology of bovine herpes mammillitis . res . vet . sci .\n1968 . can flies cause the spread of dermatophytosis ? acta dermat . - venereol .\nby regurgitation from the crop of the face fly ( diptera : muscidae ) . j . econ . entomol .\n. i . review of the literature . ann . soc . belge m\u00e9d . trop .\ny . h . hui , j . r . gorham , k . d . murrell and d . o . cliver ( eds . ) , foodborne disease handbook , vol . 3 . marcel dekker , new york .\n1914 . flies in relation to disease : non - bloodsucking flies . cambridge university press , cambridge , england . 389 pp .\n1968 . model for destruction of bacteria in the midgut of blow fly maggots . j . med . entomol .\n1971 . flies and disease . vol . 1 , ecology , classification and biotic associations . princeton university press , princeton , new jersey . 856 pp .\n1973 . flies and disease . vol . 2 , biology and disease transmission . princeton university press , princeton , new jersey . 447 pp .\n1964 . fly dispersion from a rural mexican slaughterhouse . am . j . trop . med . hyg .\nby flies : natural resistance to colonization and bacterial interference . infect . immun .\n1993 . role of fomites and flies in the transmission of bovine viral diarrhoea virus . vet . rec .\n1972 . role of the housefly in the transmission of intestinal parasitic cysts / ova . indian j . med . res .\n1946 . studies of the dissemination of cysts and ova of human intestinal parasites by flies in various localities on guam . am . j . trop . med . hyg .\n1989 . epidemiology and clinical spectrum of brazilian purpuric fever . j . clin . microbiol .\n1979 . entomology in human and animal health , 7th ed . macmillan , new york . 548 pp .\n1987 . rectal transmission of bovine leukemia virus in cattle and sheep . am . j . vet . res .\nlinn . ; its structure , habits , development , relation to disease , and control . cambridge university press , cambridge , england . 382 pp .\nby cat fleas ( siphonaptera : pulicidae ) . j . med . entomol .\n1989 . quantitation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in the blood of infected persons . new england j . med .\n1972 . the trypanosomes of mammals : a zoological monograph . blackwell scientific publications , oxford , england . 749 pp .\n1985 . mechanical transmission of rift valley fever virus by hematophagous diptera . am . j . trop . med . hyg .\nr . traub and h . starcke ( eds . ) , fleas : proceedings of the international conference on fleas , ashton wold , peterborough , uk , 21 - 25 june , 1977 . a . a . balkema , rotterdam .\ng . w . beran and j . h . steele ( eds . ) , bacterial , rickettsial , chlamydial , and mycotic diseases , 2nd ed . crc press , boca raton , florida ."]}
{"id": 1152, "summary": [{"text": "aethes argentilimitana , the silver-bordered aethes , is a species of moth of the family tortricidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from ontario , illinois , indiana , kentucky , maine , massachusetts , michigan , minnesota , mississippi , new jersey , ohio , pennsylvania , vermont and wisconsin .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of dry , open areas of meadows and fields .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is 3.9-5.7 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the ground colour of the forewings is white with buff to raw umber markings .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are drab .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing from april to september , probably in multiple generations per year . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "aethes argentilimitana", "paragraphs": ["aethes argentilimitana reference : mpg reference : bugguide . net reference : bold : aab7231 wa 05 / 07 / 2008\naethes argentilimitana ( robinson , 1869 ) was number 3809 in the 1983 hodges checklist and includes as a synonym 3833 ( 1983 list ) aethes labeculana ( robinson , 1869 ) .\nhome \u00bb guide \u00bb arthropods ( arthropoda ) \u00bb hexapods ( hexapoda ) \u00bb insects ( insecta ) \u00bb butterflies and moths ( lepidoptera ) \u00bb tortricid moths ( tortricoidea ) \u00bb tortricid moths ( tortricidae ) \u00bb tortricinae \u00bb cochylini \u00bb aethes \u00bb aethes argentilimitana - hodges # 3754 . 2 ( aethes argentilimitana )\nall galleries > > oklahoma moths > > tortricinae - pre - pyralids ( 3501 - 4702 ) > 3754 . 2 aethes argentilimitana\nrevised identities and new species of aethes from midwestern north america ( tortricidae ) . michael sabourin , william e . miller , eric h . metzler , james t . vargo . 2002 . journal of the lepidopterists ' society 56 ( 4 ) : 216 - 233 .\nsabourin m . , w . e . miller , e . h . metzle , and j . t . vargo . 2002 . revised identities and new species of aethes from midwestern north america ( tortricidae ) . journal of the lepidopterists ' society 56 ( 4 ) : 216 - 233 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nmeaning\nsilver - bordered ,\nfor the\nbasal patch , central fascia , sub - apical costal spot and subterminal band dull golden - yellow margined with lines of shining silvery scales .\nrobinson described\nas\nnot limited by silvery scales as in the preceding species .\nit was later designated by sabourin , miller , metzler & vargo ( 2002 ) as a junior synonym .\nheppner ( 2003 ) reported the range to include quebec to florida , manitoba to texas .\npeterson field guide to moths of northeastern north america david beadle and seabrooke leckie . 2012 . houghton mifflin .\nnotes on american tortricidae . coleman t . robinson . 1869 . transactions of the american entomological society 2 : 261 - 288 .\ncheck list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . hodges , et al . ( editors ) . 1983 . e . w . classey , london . 284 pp .\ncochylini ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) of canada razowski , j . 1997 . acta zoologica cracoviensia . 40 ( 1 ) : 107 - 163 .\narthropods of florida and neighboring land areas : lepidoptera of florida j . b . heppner . 2003 . florida department of agriculture 17 ( 1 ) : 1 - 670 .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nbiostor is built by @ rdmpage , code on github . page images from the biodiversity heritage library .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\ndistribution data for u . s . states and canadian provinces is known to be incomplete or has not been reviewed for this taxon .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nhodges , r . w . et al . , eds . 1983 . check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . e . w . classey limited and the wedge entomological research foundation , london . 284 pp .\nmetzler , e . h . and j . w . brown . 2014 . an updated check list of the cochylina ( tortricidae , tortricinae , euliini ) of north america north of mexico including greenland , with comments on classification and identification . journal of the lepidopterists ? society 68 ( 4 ) : 274 - 282 .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\nall documents and related graphics provided by this server and any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server are provided\nas is\nwithout warranty as to the currentness , completeness , or accuracy of any specific data . natureserve hereby disclaims all warranties and conditions with regard to any documents provided by this server or any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , including but not limited to all implied warranties and conditions of merchantibility , fitness for a particular purpose , and non - infringement . natureserve makes no representations about the suitability of the information delivered from this server or any other documents that are referenced to or linked to this server . in no event shall natureserve be liable for any special , indirect , incidental , consequential damages , or for damages of any kind arising out of or in connection with the use or performance of information contained in any documents provided by this server or in any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , under any theory of liability used . natureserve may update or make changes to the documents provided by this server at any time without notice ; however , natureserve makes no commitment to update the information contained herein . since the data in the central databases are continually being updated , it is advisable to refresh data retrieved at least once a year after its receipt . the data provided is for planning , assessment , and informational purposes . site specific projects or activities should be reviewed for potential environmental impacts with appropriate regulatory agencies . if ground - disturbing activities are proposed on a site , the appropriate state natural heritage program ( s ) or conservation data center can be contacted for a site - specific review of the project area ( see visit local programs ) .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\nphotographed at wilson tract , norfolk county , ontario on 31 may 2015 . photograph \u00a9 david beadle .\nphotographed at rondeau provincial park , kent county , ontario on 13 august 2011 . photograph \u00a9 david beadle .\nmarsh fern moth ( fagitana littera ) . photographed at portage lake , parry sound district , ontario on 5 july 2015 . \u00a9 david beadle ."]}
{"id": 1153, "summary": [{"text": "phidippus clarus is a species of jumping spider ( family salticidae ) found in old fields throughout eastern north america .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it often waits upside down near the top of a plant , which may be useful for detecting prey , and then quickly jumps down before the prey can escape .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the spider is one of 60 species in the genus phidippus , and one of about 5,000 in the salticidae , a family that accounts for about 10 % of all spider species .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "p. clarus is a predator , mostly taking insects , other spiders , and other terrestrial arthropods .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "like other jumping spiders , it has vision more acute than a cat and ten times more acute than a dragonfly .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the eyes are used to locate prey and rivals , and find and court mates .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "all spiders have sensors for smell , taste , touch and vibration protruding through their cuticle ( \" skin \" ) .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "jumping spiders can leap up to 50 times their own length by powerfully extending the third or fourth pairs of legs , with the longer forelimbs extended to grasp the prey .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "p. clarus , a relatively large salticid , takes prey up to the size of an adult earwig .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "in an experiment , p. clarus was offered as many fruit flies as it could eat , and in four-hour sessions individuals took 17 flies on average \u2013 while one took 41 .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "when p. clarus males compete for females , the winners are those that produce the most vibrations on the surface and those that are largest .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "contests between females involve less displaying , and physical fights between females are more likely to end in injury or death .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the most successful males choose the largest females , as these produce the most eggs and most quickly .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "if a female that has mated already then finds a larger male , she will often mate again with the larger male .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the average clutch is 135 eggs .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "unlike most of the genus phidippus , p. clarus females die after one brood has left the nest .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "p. clarus is parasitized by the californian wasp aporinellus completus and by mermithid nematodes .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "in an experiment in 2006 , p. clarus showed promise for controlling the fourlined plant bug , poecilocapsus lineatus , which severely damages the commercially grown sweet basil . ", "topic": 12}], "title": "phidippus clarus", "paragraphs": ["katja schulz selected\nphidippus clarus\nto show in overview on\nphidippus clarus keyserling , 1884 [ 1885 ]\n.\nthe potential of a jumping spider , phidippus clarus , as a biocontrol agent .\nmaggie whitson changed the thumbnail image of\njumping spider ( phidippus clarus )\n.\njumping spider ( phidippus clarus ) pouncing on a hoverfly ( digitally enhanced ) . north america .\nthe potential of a jumping spider , phidippus clarus , as a biocontrol agent . - pubmed - ncbi\nmaggie whitson marked\nimage of an unknown taxon\nas hidden on the\nphidippus clarus\npage .\nkatja schulz marked\nphidippus clarus , u , face redo , pg county _ 2013 - 07 - 30 - 16 . 53 . 20 zs pmax\nas hidden on the\nphidippus clarus\npage . reasons to hide : duplicate\nmaggie whitson marked\nimage of an unknown taxon\nas untrusted on the\nphidippus clarus\npage . reasons to untrust : misidentified\njumping spider - phidippus clarus live adult jumping spiders photographed at northern illinois . family salticidae - jumping spiders spider index | spider main | orb web | cobweb\nimmatures of other phidippus species could be mistaken for a female of this species , or the male might be mistaken for the female of phidippus johnsoni .\noscillogram of a male phidippus clarus ( a ) courtship vibration and ( b ) aggressive courtship vibration signal . male courtship vibrations are relatively longer in duration compared with male aggressive courtship vibrations .\nfor instance , in the jumping spider phidippus clarus , which the researchers examined in a separate study , the adult ' s digestive system is in the spider ' s cephalothorax\u2014its head and body cavity .\nmating strategy of phidippus johnsoni ( araneae : salticidae ) . 1 . pursuit time and presistence\nkasumovic , m , 2010 , ' vibratory communication in the jumping spider phidippus clarus : substrate - borne courtship signals are important for male mating success ' , ethology , vol . 116 , pp . 990 - 998\nkasumovic , m , 2010 , ' vibratory communication in the jumping spider phidippus clarus : polyandry , male courtship signals , and mating success . ' , behavioral ecology , vol . 21 , pp . 1308 - 1314\np . clarus is parasitized by the californian wasp aporinellus completus and by mermithid nematodes . in an experiment in 2006 , p . clarus showed promise for controlling the fourlined plant bug , poecilocapsus lineatus , which severely damages the commercially - grown sweet basil .\ni had almost forgotten that i had taken video of this handsome little male phidippus clarus . note the beautiful metallic scales between the red regions of the abdomen . for more spider photography and videos , head on over to urltoken\nthe behavioral ecology of jumping spiders ( phidippus sp . ) : laboratory\nby chad d hoefler\nsnetsinger r . 1955 . observations on two species of phidippus . entomological news 66 : 9 - 15 .\nthe mating strategy of phidippus johnsoni ( araneae : salticidae ) . 2 . sperm competition and the function of copulation\nedwards , g . b . 1981 . sound production by courting males of phidippus mystaceus ( araneae : salticidae ) . psyche 88 ( 3 - 4 ) : 199 - 214 ( male and female phidippus mystaceus , anterior views )\nmales have red lateral stripes on abdomen and white stripes on the dorsal portion of the palp ( femur , patella , tibia ) . female not vividly colored as in other phidippus species and might be confused with immatures of several phidippus .\nthe behavioral ecology of jumping spiders ( phidippus sp . ) : laboratory and field studies of mating behavior and space use\ni finally found a phidippus clarus jumping spider . there are several color and pattern variations of this species , i was so glad to find out that we have the red and orange variations around the area i live . i hope to find a male in the near future .\ncommon name : regal jumping spider scientific name : phidippus regius c . l . koch ( arachnida : araneae : salticidae )\nedwards , g . b . and d . e . hill . 1978 . representatives of the north american salticid fauna . peckhamia 1 ( 5 ) : 110 - 117 ( female agassa cyanea , female ballus n . sp . , male corythalia canosa , male eris flava , female euophrys diminuta , male evarcha falcata , male habrocestum bufoides , male habrocestum pulex , male and female hentzia grenada , male hentzia mitrata , male lyssomanes viridis , male maevia michelsoni , female and black form male maevia inclemens , male and female marpissa bina , male marpissa pikei , male marpissa lineata , male metacyrba floridana , female metaphidippus castaneus , male and female metaphidippus galathea , male neon nellii , male neonella vinnula , female peckhamia americana , male and female habronattus georgiensis , male and female habronattus brunneus , male and female habronattus calcaratus , male and female habronattus carolinensis , male pellenes wrighti , female phidippus apacheanus , female phidippus cardinalis , male and female phidippus clarus , female phidippus otiosus , male and female phidippus pulcherrimus , female phidippus purpuratus , male phidippus putnami , female phidippus richmani , female phidippus regius , female salticus scenicus , male sarinda hentzi , female sassacus papenhoei , male sitticus cursor , female synemosyna petrunkevitchi , male and female thiodina sylvana , male tutelina n . sp . , female tutelina similis , male and female zygoballus rufipes )\nadults exhibit sexual dimorphism . immatures have different coloration from adults , and may look very similar to immatures of other phidippus species .\nthis video shows a large jumping spider , an adult female phidippus clarus , as it feeds upon an araneid or orb - weaving spider , acasesia hamata . a . hamata normally rests on top of rolled leaves on herbaceous plants during the day , where it is vunerable to attack by these large jumping spiders ( salticidae ) .\nsenthurran sivalinghem , michael m . kasumovic , andrew c . mason , maydianne c . b . andrade , damian o . elias ; vibratory communication in the jumping spider phidippus clarus : polyandry , male courtship signals , and mating success , behavioral ecology , volume 21 , issue 6 , 1 november 2010 , pages 1308\u20131314 , urltoken\nanonymous . 1981 . currents , science 81 , 2 ( 1 ) : 7 ( male phidippus mystaceus , rare morph , anterior view ) .\njackson rr . 1977 . courtship versatility in the jumping spider phidippus johnsoni ( araneae : salticidae ) . animal behavior 25 : 953 - 957 .\nnice sharp images . be mindful of your white balance though . looks like you were using a tungsten light source , which most cameras have difficulty handling automatically , so you might try to setting the white balance manually before shooting . i can probably fix this series if you like . this is a phidippus clarus . appears to be an immature male .\nedwards , g . b . 1981 . the regal jumping spider , phidippus regius ( araneae : salticidae ) . florida dept . agric . cons . serv . , div . plant ind . , entomol . circ . 223 : 1 - 3 ( male and 2 female phidippus regius , dorsal views )\nbeal , k . g . 1986 . backyard predators - jumping spiders . timeline , ohio hist . soc . 3 ( 3 ) : 42 - 47 ( photo credits of female phiale guttata , male and female phidippus audax , male phidippus pulcherrimus , female salticus scenicus , and female tutelina similis ) .\nedwards , g . b . 1978 . two new southern phidippus ( araneae : salticidae ) . florida entomol . 61 ( 2 ) : 77 - 82 .\nedwards , g . b . 1994 . neotype designations for the type species of phidippus ( araneae : salticidae ) . insecta mundi 8 : 143 - 144 .\nfigure 1 . adult male regal jumping spider , phidippus regius c . l . koch . photograph by g . b . edwards , division of plant industry .\nrevision of the jumping spiders of the genus phidippus ( araneae : salticidae ) . occ . pap . of the florida state coll . of arth . 11 : 156\nroach , s . h . 1988 . reproductive periods of phidippus species ( araneae , salticidae ) in south carolina . j . arachnol . 16 : 95 - 101 .\nwhen p . clarus males compete for females , the winners are those that produce the most vibrations on the surface and those that are largest . contests between females involve less displaying , and physical fights between females are more likely to end in injury or death . the most successful males choose the largest females , as these produce the most eggs and most quickly . if a female that has mated already then finds a larger male , she will often mate again with the larger male . the average clutch is 135 eggs . unlike most of the genus phidippus , p . clarus females die after one brood has left the nest .\njumping spiders can leap up to 50 times their own length by powerfully extending the third or fourth pairs of legs , with the longer forelimbs extended to grasp the prey . p . clarus , a relatively large salticid , takes prey up to the size of an adult earwig . in an experiment , p . clarus was offered as many fruit flies as it could eat , and in four - hour sessions individuals took 17 flies on average \u2013 while one took 41 .\nedwards gb . 1975 . biological studies on the jumping spider , phidippus regius c . l . koch . m . s . thesis , university of florida . 64 p .\nrevision of the jumping spiders of the genus phidippus ( araneae : salticidae ) g . b . edwards , ph . d . 2003 . florida department of agriculture and consumer services .\ncarico , j . e . , editor . 1991 . journal of arachnology , volume 19 ( 3 numbers ) , ( cover photograph , female phidippus mystaceus , anterior view ) .\nedwards , g . b . 1981 . sound production by courting males of phidippus mystaceus ( araneae : salticidae ) . psyche 88 ( 3 - 4 ) : 199 - 214 .\nfigure 2 . adult female , gray form , regal jumping spider , phidippus regius c . l . koch . photograph by g . b . edwards , division of plant industry .\nfigure 3 . adult female , orange form , regal jumping spider , phidippus regius c . l . koch . photograph by g . b . edwards , division of plant industry .\nin this study , we examine courtship signaling of the jumping spider , phidippus clarus , and our primary goal was to test the hypothesis that vibratory courtship signals carry information about male size and that females choose males based on properties of vibratory courtship behavior . phidippus clarus are found throughout eastern north america ( edwards 2004 ; hoefler 2007 ; elias et al . 2008 ) where males and females build and live in silken nests ( hibernacula ) in rolled up leaves ( hoefler and jakob 2006 ; hoefler 2007 ; hoefler 2008 ) . phidippus clarus have a temporally restricted breeding season , mating in early to mid - july , and laying eggs in mid - to late august ( hoefler 2007 ; elias et al . 2008 ) . during the early part of the breeding season , adult males wander in search of hibernacula - dwelling immature females . males cohabit with these females , defending them against intruding males , and then attempt to mate with the females after they mature ( hoefler 2007 ; elias et al . 2008 ; kasumovic et al . 2009 ) . in the latter part of the season , when most females have mated at least once , males wander and may encounter further mating opportunities outside of hibernacula . like other jumping spiders , p . clarus produce substrate - borne vibrations ( gwynne and dadour 1985 ; maddison and stratton 1988a , 1988b ; elias et al . 2003 , 2008 ; elias , hebets , and hoy 2006 ; elias , hebets , hoy , maddison , et al . 2006 ) , many of which are produced along with visual signals ( multimodal signaling ) .\nfigure 4 . saw palmetto , a typical substrate for the regal jumping spider , phidippus regius c . l . koch . photograph by g . b . edwards , division of plant industry .\nedwards gb . 1980 . taxonomy , ethology , and ecology of phidippus ( araneae : salticidae ) in eastern north america . ph . d . dissertation , university of florida . 354 p .\nthe behavioral research presented here revolves around jumping spiders ( araneae : salticidae ) belonging to the genus phidippus . i studied the foraging behavior of p . audax . my findings suggest that foraging p . audax do not use chemical cues left by prey , while the wolf spider pardosa milvina in the same experimental setup does respond to chemical cues . i studied movement patterns and the use of navigational beacons in the jumping spider p . clarus . i measured the degree of nest site fidelity with individually marked spiders and a grid of artificial nest tubes . i tested whether females used beacons to find their nests . i demonstrated that p . clarus are likely to need navigational skills , and are able to use beacons as a method of navigation . i examined the use of p . clarus as a biocontrol agent , and my results suggest that jumping spider predation is effective at reducing pest numbers and has a positive effect on plant performance . lastly , i explored the role of male mate choice and size - assortative mating in p . clarus . i discovered that males and females pair assortatively for size , and adult males exhibit preferences for large females , which mature before smaller females . female size is strongly correlated with the number of spiderlings that emerge . ^\nedwards , g . b . 2004 . revision of the jumping spiders of the genus phidippus ( araneae : salticidae ) . occasional papers florida st . coll . arthropods 11 : 1 - 156 .\nmale jumping spiders ( phidippus clarus ) size one another up before engaging in a fight\u2014whether the aggression is based on rights to mating or territory\u2014and in many cases , the pre - fight displays are sufficient to deter physical contact . the males do not nest but instead wander between female nests looking for opportunities to mate . the females , on the other hand , are not nomads\u2014they build nests from silk and leaves in which they wait while they draw closer to sexual maturity .\nwright , s . 7 august 1990 . arachnophilia . san jose mercury news , science & medicine section , pg . 1 ( photo credit of female phidippus otiosus feeding on a cabbage looper larva ) .\nedwards , g . b . 1990 . anecdotal field notes of florida phidippus ( araneae : salticidae ) , with notes on territoriality in p . regius . peckhamia 2 ( 6 ) : 96 - 100 .\nedwards , g . b ( 2004 ) .\nrevision of the jumping spiders of the genus phidippus ( araneae : salticidae )\n. occasional papers of the florida state collection of arthropods 11 : vii , 1\u2013156 .\nhoefler , chad d ,\nthe behavioral ecology of jumping spiders ( phidippus sp . ) : laboratory and field studies of mating behavior and space use\n( 2005 ) . doctoral dissertations available from proquest . aai3193909 . urltoken\ncokendolpher , j . c . and g . b . edwards . 1992 . four florida widows . florida wildlife 46 ( 6 ) : 9 - 12 ( photo of female phidippus audax with orange spots , dorsal view ) .\nedwards , g . b . 2001 . revision of the jumping spiders of the genus phidippus ( araneae : salticidae ) . occ . pap . florida st . coll . arthr . 11 , 152 pp . ( submitted ) .\nphidippus regius is one of the few spiders that can be sexed in the early instars . juvenile females of more southern populations attain a scale cover as early as the 3rd instar ; males are stark black and white throughout their life cycle .\nedwards , g . b . ( 2004 ) . revision of the jumping spiders of the genus phidippus ( araneae : salticidae ) . occasional papers of the florida state collection of arthropods 11 : 1 - 156 . - - show included taxa\nspiders , particularly assemblages of species , have been shown to be effective in reducing pest insects and crop damage in field crops and orchards . we investigated the potential for a single jumping spider species to reduce pests in a greenhouse setting . we placed three treatments in large enclosures : 1 ) control treatment of only sweet basil , ocimum basilicum l . ; 2 ) sweet basil and a phytophagous pest , fourlined plant bug , poecilocapsus lineatus ( f . ) ( heteroptera : miridae ) ; and 3 ) sweet basil , fourlined plant bug , and jumping spider phidippus clarus ( keyserling 1884 ) . after 1 wk , jumping spiders reduced the number of plant bugs . plants exposed to plant bugs alone were significantly shorter than either control plants or plants exposed to plant bugs and spiders . chlorophyll concentration did not significantly differ across treatments . we discuss the feasibility of using p . clarus and similar salticids in biocontrol .\npeckham , g . w . & peckham , e . g . ( 1901a ) . spiders of the phidippus group of the family attidae . transactions of the wisconsin academy of sciences , arts and letters 13 : 282 - 358 . - - show included taxa\nedwards , g . b . 1981 . the regal jumping spider , phidippus regius ( araneae : salticidae ) . florida dept . agric . cons . serv . , div . plant ind . , entomol . circ . 223 : 1 - 3 , 4 f .\nedwards , g . b . and r . r . jackson . 1993 . use of prey - specific predatory behaviour by north american jumping spiders ( araneae , salticidae ) of the genus phidippus . j . zool . ( lond . ) 229 : 709 - 716 .\nedwards , g . b . and r . r . jackson . 1994 . the role of experience in the development of predatory behavior in phidippus regius , a jumping spider ( araneae : salticidae ) from florida . new zealand j . zool . 21 : 269 - 277 .\na secondary goal of our study is to examine polyandry in p . clarus as it is currently unknown whether females remate during the late stages of the breeding season . it has been suggested that multiple mating in p . clarus is unlikely ( hoefler 2007 ) due to the brief mating season and possible first male sperm precedence predicted by the morphology of the sperm storage organs ( eberhard et al . 1993 ; hoefler 2007 ) and the fact that males of a congener leave sperm plugs in females ( jackson 1980 ) . first male sperm precedence is also consistent with the intense contests that occur between males over access to virgin females ( hoefler 2007 ; elias et al . 2008 ; kasumovic et al . 2009 ) . however , at the end of the breeding season , wandering males may encounter mated females , and because sperm precedence is rarely absolute ( elgar 1998 ; simmons and siva - jothy 1998 ; eberhard 2004 ) , males may increase their fitness through additional copulations if females will accept them . thus , our second goal is to examine whether p . clarus females remate and whether this is mediated by vibratory signals .\nedwards , g . b . 1979 . rebuttal of objections to designation of attus audax hentz , 1845 , as type species of phidippus koch , 1846 ( aranea ) . z . n . ( s . ) 1904 . bull . zool . nomencl . 36 ( 1 ) : 4 - 5 .\nwe examined the importance of male courtship and female mating status in mating success in the jumping spider p . clarus . we demonstrate that mating success in p . clarus ( both virgin and mated females ) is dependent on high courtship vibration rates and that vibration rate is correlated with male size . thus , both virgin and mated females may be indirectly assessing male size through courtship vibration rates . size is likely an important predictor of fitness in this species as larger heavier males are more successful in male\u2013male competitive contexts ( hoefler 2007 ; elias et al . 2008 ; kasumovic et al . 2009 ) . we also show that female p . clarus mate multiply throughout the breeding season . remating occurred , but with longer latencies , as courtship duration almost doubled in cases where females mated a second time , suggesting that mated females were not as willing to mate as virgin females , which may be an indication of mated females becoming \u201cchoosier . \u201d although several studies demonstrate that substrate - borne vibrations are necessary for successful copulation in spiders ( scheffer et al . 1996 ; parri et al . 1997 ; hebets and uetz 1999 ; parri et al . 2002 ; elias et al . 2005 ; elias , hebets , and hoy 2006 ; hebets 2008 ; uetz et al . 2009 ) , this is one of only a few that shows that information about male phenotype is encoded by the vibratory signals and that variation in signal rate is linked to mating success ( shamble et al . 2009 ; rundus et al . 2010 ) .\nthis video contains six different sequences of predation upon spiders and flies by an adult female phidippus princeps from greenville county , south carolina , usa . these spiders are common inhabitants of old fields near forest margins , and move between nest sites on herbaceous plants and sites on nearby trees . they feed on a wide variety of spider and insect prey , including conspecifics , at all phases of their life cycle .\nexcept for two pantropical species ( edwards 1979 ) , the jumping spider most frequently encountered in florida is phidippus regius c . l . koch . this species is aptly named in terms of its size , as it is the largest jumping spider in eastern north america . the species is found in the southeastern u . s . , the greater antilles , and the bahamas , but is most common in peninsular florida .\nphidippus regius individuals are known to feed on a wide variety of other arthropods . smaller immatures feed heavily on diptera , while older juveniles and adults feed on large orthoptera and hemiptera , and larval and adult lepidoptera ( edwards 1980 ) . a male of p . regius was collected while feeding on an adult of diaprepes abbreviatus ( linnaeus ) , a pest of citrus and sugarcane ( d . gowan , collector ) .\nphidippus regius is found in most field and open woodland habitats , but not within mature hardwood forest . smaller immatures usually are found in the herbaceous zone , but subadults and particularly adults favor palms and palmettoes in semiarid habitats . where palms are absent , shrubs and trees are inhabited by the older stages . adults seem to prefer substrates with relatively monoplanar surfaces and are frequently found on walls of buildings ( edwards 1980 ) .\nthe mating system of p . clarus is highly complex and provides an opportunity to study the importance of signals during different phases of the mating period . elias et al . ( 2010 ) have suggested that in p . clarus , there is a shift in the mating system from \u201cmale\u2013male competition\u201d and \u201cmale mate choice\u201d to \u201cfemale mate choice\u201d due to changes in the sex ratio throughout the breeding season . during the early part of the mating season , when the sex ratio is male biased , male mating success is determined by male\u2013male competition , where larger and heavier males that signaled more were more likely to win contests and mate with larger , early maturing , and highly fecund females ( elias et al . 2008 ; hoefler 2008 ; kasumovic et al . 2009 ) . during mid - season , when the sex ratio becomes even or female biased , male mating success is determined by female choice , where males that have higher signaling rates ( indicating male phenotypic quality ) successfully copulate with both virgin and mated females ( shown in this study ) . furthermore , changes in female mating status is correlated with those in female threshold ( indicated by increased latency to copulate ) , and we suggest that males might be responding to this behavioral shift by changing their signaling behavior as male courtship signaling rates and aggressive courtship vibration proportions varied between virgin and mated females ( shown here ) . in addition , elias et al . ( 2010 ) have demonstrated that male p . clarus prevented from producing substrate vibrations can also achieve matings and suggest the importance of visual signals during courtship . the importance of vibratory signals has only recently been appreciated ( virant - doberlet and cokl 2004 ; cocroft and rodriguez 2005 ; hill 2008 ) , and the ubiquity of vibratory communication makes it essential to understand the form , function , and processing of vibratory information .\nas with all jumping spiders , p . regius uses its excellent vision to locate prey and potential mates . prey is caught by jumping on it , hence the common name of the family . males court females with a species - specific dance in which the leg fringes are displayed ( edwards 1975 ) . the chelicerae are also believed to be of use in recognition between the sexes , as no other jumping spiders within the geographic range of the genus phidippus have iridescent chelicerae .\nour results that a significant proportion of p . clarus females ( 53 % ) will mate multiply are surprising as it was previously thought that the mating system was primarily driven by male\u2013male competition and that males only gained fitness through guarding females ( hoefler 2007 , but see jackson 1981 ) . studies have shown that despite the high cost of polyandry ( pomiankowski 1987 ) , females of many species engage in multiple mating ( arnqvist and nilsson 2000 ; jennions and petrie 2000 ) . in mating systems like in p . clarus where the female can only assess mates sequentially , females can increase the genetic quality of their offspring by remating if a subsequent male proves to be superior to her first ( the \u201ctrade - up hypothesis\u201d ; halliday 1983 ; gabor and halliday 1997 ; pitcher et al . 2003 ) . the trade - up hypothesis suggests that virgin females should be relatively indiscriminant in order to ensure fertilization , but once sperm is obtained and stored , they can choose to mate with higher quality males ( halliday 1983 ; jennions and petrie 2000 ; pitcher et al . 2003 ) . for example , in guppies , poecilia reticulate , pitcher et al . ( 2003 ) showed that mated females were more responsive to second males with greater ornamentation than the first male and that these males were more likely to sire a greater proportion of offspring . multiple mating can also ensure that her eggs are fertilized by high - quality sperm through postcopulation sperm competition .\nalthough jumping spiders do not make webs to capture prey , they do use silk . hunting spiders trail a dragline behind them to break their fall in case they miss a jump . silken nests , ellipsoid structures with an opening at each end , are used for resting at night , molting , and egg - laying . juveniles may make their nests in the tops of herbs or in rolled leaves , while subadults and adults frequently make their nests along the inner mid - veins of palm fronds . adult males often cohabit with subadult and occasionally adult females in order to mate . a cohabiting male will mate with a subadult female soon after she matures . jackson ( 1977 ) showed that males of p . johnsoni ( peckham & peckham ) were able to employ a tactile type of courtship to females inside nests , which was much different than the visually - oriented courtship males employed for females outside nests . a similar tactile courtship has been noted for p . regius , p . cardinalis ( hentz ) , and p . whitmani peckham & peckham ( edwards 1980 ) . other species of phidippus , including p . audax ( hentz ) , p . clarus keyserling ( snetsinger 1955 ) , and p . otiosus ( hentz ) ( hill 1978 ) are known to cohabit .\nprevious research has suggested that most of a male\u2019s reproductive effort in p . clarus focuses on guarding subadult females early in the breeding season ( hoefler 2007 ; elias et al . 2008 ; hoefler 2008 ; kasumovic et al . 2009 ) . here , we demonstrate that males also invest resources in courting females found outside of this context ( jackson 1978 , 1980 ) . males readily court both virgin and mated females , and although successful males that courted virgin females had higher courtship vibration rates , males courting mated females persisted for relatively long periods and often included aggressive - like vibratory signals . despite the high costs associated with courtship vibrations , males may gain benefits from high courtship vibration rates when courting virgin females due to possible first - male sperm precedence given that females mate multiply ( shown in this study ) .\nlike many other spider species ( gaskett 2007 ) , male p . clarus can distinguish between virgin and mated females ( hoefler 2007 ) , and given that females are more discerning after mating , it is not surprising that males courting mated females became more aggressive toward mated than virgin females during courtship . aggressive courtship vibrations might function to suppress female aggression and indicate vigor . alternatively , these signals might also be used to ward off potential eavesdropping competitors ( morris et al . 2007 ) . a shift of male signaling effort to aggressive courtship vibrations with mated females could also account for the lower courtship vibration rates than those of males successfully courting virgin females . however , the function of male aggressive courtship vibrations remains unknown , and further studies looking at changes in male courtship behavior when courting virgin versus mated females are needed .\nthe jumping spider phidippus clarus uses signals that combine visual and substrate - borne vibrations , which predict the outcome of male\u2013male competition and are important to copulation success . we investigated the function of males\u2019 substrate - borne vibrations by examining phenotypic correlates of vibratory signal traits and assessing whether these affect female mating and remating decisions . virgin females were first paired with males , and females that copulated in first trials were then paired with a second male to determine whether females remate . we measured vibratory signals produced by males during these interactions to determine 1 ) correlations between substrate - borne signal traits and male phenotypes , 2 ) whether properties of substrate - borne signals predicted mating success in first and second copulations , and 3 ) whether females of different mating status have different acceptance thresholds for male characters . courtship vibration rate was positively correlated with male leg size , and signaling rate significantly predicted mating success in all copulations . some females were polyandrous ; however , copulation with mated females occurred after longer courtship durations , and courtship duration was positively correlated with male size , demonstrating that mated females are less receptive to mates and suggesting that females may be trading up in subsequent matings . our study shows that males invest significant effort in courtship and that sexual selection via female choice may play a nontrivial role in the mating system . these results are the first to show that honest information about male size is encoded by substrate vibrations , and these signals are important for male mating success in both virgin and mated females .\njumping spiders can be recognized easily by their eye arrangement . the eyes are arranged in three rows : the 1st row contains four eyes , the two large median eyes and two smaller lateral eyes ; the 2nd row contains two tiny eyes ; and the 3rd row contains two small eyes . the species of phidippus can be recognized because they are the largest , hairiest salticids in the region , and their iridescent chelicerae just below the front eyes are very conspicuous . two close relatives of p . regius , p . audax ( hentz ) and p . otiosus ( hentz ) , occur throughout most of the range of p . regius and are similar in appearance . the three species can be separated by the following key :\nadult male and penultimate instar female p . clarus were collected from the koffler scientific reserve at jokers hill , king city , ontario , canada , during mid - june to mid - july 2008 . all spiders were housed individually in cages and were kept in visual isolation . all spiders were kept on a 12 : 12 h light : dark cycle and fed small crickets ( acheta domesticus ) and / or several flies ( drosophila hydeii ) twice a week . all individuals were weighed and photographed at the end of trials . photographs were taken using a nikon digital camera ( dxm1200 ) attached to a dissecting microscope ( zeiss stemi 2000 - c ) and captured using nikon act - i ( v2 . 63 ) software . we measured male and female cephalothorax width and male femur , tibia\u2013patella , and tarsus length ( averaged between the 2 front legs ) . all measurements were taken using image tool ( image tool for windows , v3 . 0 , university of texas health science center in san antonio ) .\nphidippus regius is a common spider in peninsular florida . the first impression made upon the casual observer is of a moderately large , black , hairy spider ; to the uninformed , this impression leads naturally to the conviction that the spider is a black widow . the black widow , however , is a globose , shiny black spider with long , spindly legs that is not noticeably hairy at all . jumping spiders are harmless , beneficial creatures . the larger species , such as p . regius , are capable of delivering a painful bite , but will do so only if held tightly . the bite itself causes a sharp stinging sensation which subsides in a few minutes and requires no treatment . these spiders are easily tamed and can be induced to jump back and forth from hand to hand .\nin p . clarus , virgin females might be less discriminating because of the brief mating season ( hoefler 2007 ; elias et al . 2008 ; kasumovic et al . 2009 ) and the highly female - biased sex ratio ( hoefler 2007 ; hoefler 2008 ) because being too choosy might entail the risk of failure to reproduce . once a female has obtained her first mate and has secured sperm , however , the disadvantages of discriminatory behavior may be lost , and mated females are expected to be more reluctant to mate . our study shows that mated females had a longer latency to copulate than virgins , which indicates a reluctance to remate . longer latency to copulation may also indicate increased choosiness . this shift in behavior suggests that mated females require subsequent males to meet a higher courtship threshold to successfully copulate . furthermore , mating success in mated trials was also correlated with female weight , suggesting that larger females were more likely to remate . larger females were shown to be more fecund ( hoefler 2008 ) , and it is possible that larger females possess more eggs and need to remate to ensure that all their eggs are fertilized .\nour data suggest that males convey honest information about size to females through vibration rates . signal honesty is typically maintained through costs of signal production , with higher quality males able to maintain higher signaling levels ( andersson 1994 ; kotiaho et al . 1996 ; kotiaho 2000 ; but see kotiaho 2001 ) . furthermore , ryan ( 1988 ) suggested that a preference for a higher calling rate can be interpreted as a preference for higher energetic output . as a result , females that prefer high courtship vibration rates may be assessing the energetic output of the male and indirectly assessing male qualities , such as size , weight , and / or energetic reserves ( vigor ) ( see byers et al . 2010 ) . preference for higher courtship vibration rate has also been shown in wolf spiders . for example , in schizocosa ocreata , females prefer males with higher courtship signaling rates and longer durations ( delaney et al . 2007 ; gibson and uetz 2008 ) . in p . clarus , males producing courtship vibrations are at more risk of predation and have reduced longevity ( hoefler 2008 ) , further indicating the costs of vibratory signals in this system . although honest signaling of male quality has been shown in a wolf spider ( kotiaho et al . 1998 ) and the importance of vibrations has been demonstrated in some jumping spider species ( jackson 1977 ; elias et al . 2005 , 2008 ) , this is the first study to show that vibratory signals carry information about male phenotypic quality in jumping spiders .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\njournal of economic entomology . ( journal , magazine , 1908 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : journal of economic entomology . publisher : [ lanham , md . , etc . ] entomological society of america isbn / issn : 0022 - 0493 oclc : 1782240\naddress for accessing the journal using authorization number and password through oclc firstsearch electronic collections online . subscription to online journal required for access to abstracts and full text\naddress for accessing the journal from an authorized ip address through oclc firstsearch electronic collections online . subscription to online journal required for access to abstracts and full text\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\njournal of economic entomology . / entomological society of america . ; american association of economic entomologists . ; ; [ lanham , md . , etc . ] entomological society of america\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nthis is the cec archive of psyche through 2000 . psyche is now published by hindawi publishing .\nthe following unprocessed text is extracted automatically from the pdf file , and is likely to be both incomplete and full of errors . please consult the pdf file for the complete article .\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nbody lengths when mature : male : 3 . 2 to 10 . 1 mm , female : 4 . 2 to 14 . 2 mm\nnumber of eggs per sac : 83 . 3 ( range = 7 to 207 )\nthroughout the united states , it is found mostly in old fields at the top of vegetation , where it lays its eggs in the canopy .\nrevision of the attidae of north america . trans . wisconsin acad . sci . arts . lett . , madison , wisconsin 16 : 355 - 646\nthe salticidae ( jumping spiders ) of michigan . pap . michigan acad . sci . , arts and letters 29 ( 1943 ) : 139 - 222\nthe spider fauna of the upper cayuga lake basin . proc . acad . nat . sci . philad . 1892 11 - 81\ndescriptions and figures of the araneides of the united states . j . nat . hist . , boston 5 : 352 - 370\non the spiders collected in florida by dr einer l\u00f6nnberg 1892 - 93 . bih . svenska vet . - akad . handl . 27 ( 4 , 1 ) : 1 - 29\non tullgren\u00b4s florida spiders . florida entomol . 33 ( 2 ) : 71 - 83\nnew england spiders of the family attidae . trans . connect . acad . arts sci . , connecticut 8 : 220 - 252\ndescriptions of new or little known spiders of the family attidae from various parts of the united states of north america . , connecticut 1 - 35\nof inseminating a female : they use their palpi , the little ' feelers ' beside the face . in the females , these palpi are simple and leg - like . but adult males have the palpi swollen and more complex .\nhe spins a small web and deposits a drop of sperm on it from the underside of his abdomen . he then places the tip of the palp into the sperm , and draws the sperm through the palp ' s opening into the sperm duct of the palp , where it is stored . the male then goes out in search of females . if he finds one , he performs a courtship dance . if she accepts him , he places his palp against an opening on the underside of her abdomen ( her epigynum ) . he locks it in place by putting a thumb - like projection into a groove in the back of her epigynum . the palpus then expands and injects the sperm into the female .\n, among the highest acuity in invertebrates . the eight eyes are grouped four on the face ( the two big anterior median eyes in the middle , and two smaller anterior lateral eyes to the side ) , and four on top of the carapace . the two large , forward - facing eyes ( ame ) are tubular behind the lens , with a well - developed musculature , unique to salticids , that supports and moves the retina - the opposite arrangement of our own eyes . [ 1 ]\nspider musculature is also different from ours : in the spider , muscles operate from the inside to move external skeletal elements ; our own skeletal muscles surround the elements they operate . but even these glaring differences are nothing compared to the jumping spider ' s brain and digestive system - their esophagus passes right through the brain , and one branch of the gut ( analogous to our intestines ) actually overlies the eyes and brain ! [ 1 ]\njumping spider vision , david edwin hill , via creative commons attribution 3 . 0 unported\nwondering how to get that bug identified ? please see the kind folks at urltoken . ( north america ) north american insects & spiders is dedicated to macro photography of live , wild organisms in situ .\nclass arachnida / order araneae : spiders are the largest group of arachnids . they are easily recognized by their eight legs , and there are few creatures great or small that elicit such irrational fear in mankind . the vast majority of spiders are completely harmless and offer beneficial services , chief of which is keeping the burgeoning insect population in check . spider index | spider main | funnel web\na quick review of the venus v - dx 60mm f / 2 . 8 2 : 1 ultra - macro lens\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nworld spider catalog , version 11 . 0 , website ( version 11 . 0 )\nplatnick , norman i . 2011 . the world spider catalog , v . 11 . 0 . american museum of natural history . database built by robert j . raven from the files underlying the website at urltoken doi : 10 . 5531 / db . iz . 0001\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ngraduate program in organismic and evolutionary biology , department of plant , soil , and insect sciences , division of entomology , university of massachusetts , amherst 01003 , usa .\nresearch support , u . s . gov ' t , non - p . h . s .\nhistorically , jumping spiders have been classified in a linnaean hierarchical structure on the basis of morphological characters . in the early 1900s , eug\u00e8ne simon adopted this methodology using cheliceral dentition and body shape ; subsequently in the 1970s , pr\u00f3szy\u0144ski\u2019s applied genitalic characteristics to a linnaean structure . while simon\u2019s schema was hampered by the fact that many groups of unrelated jumping spiders have similar body shapes , convergent evolution has limited pr\u00f3szy\u0144ski\u2019s approach as different species may also have similar genitalic characters .\nby the turn of the century , molecular phylogenetics was being applied to salticid classification . molecular analysis is used to test various kinship hypotheses ; the resulting data suggest / confirm groups that best fit the assumptions of cladistics . * this methodology in combination with descriptive and interpretive taxonomy , as well as accessible and comprehensive online libraries and catalogs , has resulted in the most recent advances in salticid classification . it is worth repeating that this new schema is a synthesis based on field records , traditional laboratory taxonomy , and molecular analysis . as maddison makes clear , \u201cthe groups discovered by molecular data have coherence in general body form , in genitalia , and in geographical distribution . \u201d\nmaddison\u2019s 2015 publication draws on these efforts to construct the outlines , if not all the details , of a ground breaking structure for a phylogenetic classification of salticids . with a focus on groupings above genera , his classification defines salticid subfamilies , tribes , and subtribes within larger clades .\n* briefly , cladistics uses shared derived characteristics ( synapomorphies ) to define a clade = an ancestor and all its descendants . thus , a classification system employing cladistic analysis tells us something about the evolutionary history of the organisms involved .\n. . . it was long said that the orb - weaving spiders , with their intricate and orderly webs , had evolved from spiders with cobweb - like webs . the cladistic analysis of these spiders showed that , in fact , orb - weaving was the primitive state , and that cobweb - weaving had evolved from spiders with more orderly webs . urltoken\nanother example of the fruits of this methodology add insights into the worldwide distribution of jumping spiders . biogeographers have long noted that closely related species are generally found in discrete areas - e . g . each continental land mass has a characteristic jumping spider fauna . salticid clades defined by molecular analysis reflect this same general pattern of distribution . * * this , in turn , supports the hypothesis that salticid evolution and radiation occurred after the breakup of pangaea . see hill and edwards , 2013 for interesting details of the origins and distribution of north american jumping spiders .\n* * exceptions to the rule do occur and lead to additional hypotheses regarding distribution ( e . g . habronattus spiders are part of an old world group ) .\nmaddison , wayne . 2015 . a phylogenetic classification of jumping spiders ( araneae : salticidae ) . journal of arachnology 43 : 231 - 292 .\nhill , david e . and g . b . edwards . 2013 . origins of the north american jumping spiders ( araneae : salticidae ) . peckhamia 107 . 1 : 1 - 67\nanterior median eyes ( the pair of eyes in the center front ) are comparatively very large and give these spiders excellent color vision and high degree of resolution . the shape of the retinae appears to give the spider telephoto vision\nspiders of north america : an identification manual d . ubick , p . paquin , p . e . cushing and v . roth ( eds ) . 2005 . american arachnological society .\nflorida ' s fabulous spiders sam marshall , g . b . edwards . 2002 . world publications .\njumping spiders of canada buddle c . m . , shorthouse d . p . 2000 . newsletter of the biological survey of canada ( terrestrial arthropods ) 19 : 16 - 18 .\ncontributed by troy bartlett on 16 february , 2004 - 1 : 20pm additional contributions by cotinis , hannah nendick - mason , john and jane balaban , lynette elliott , dr . salticid , jeff hollenbeck , cheins , dick walton , ben coulter , kaldari , johnmaxwell22 , kschnei , v belov , mhedin last updated 3 july , 2018 - 8 : 22pm"]}
{"id": 1159, "summary": [{"text": "the acrothoracica are a superorder of barnacles .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "acrothoracicans bore into calcareous material such as mollusc shells , coral , crinoids or hardgrounds , producing a slit-like hole in the surface known by the trace fossil name rogerella .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "acrothoracicans are typically smaller than other types of barnacle , being only a few millimetres in length .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "being protected by the hard surfaces into which they have bored , they have no solid carapace of plates like other barnacles but have a soft , sac-like body fixed to the surface by a chitinous disc at the front of the head .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they have from four to six pairs of feathery limbs , or \" cirri \" , which they project out of their borings to catch drifting detritus for food .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the mouthparts consist of mandibles , maxillules and maxillae .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "one pair of cirri is close to these while the others are at the other end of the body .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "each individual acrothoracican is either male or female .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "a dwarf male is sometimes found attached to the mantle or wall of a female 's burrow .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the developing larva may omit the nauplius stage but always has a cyprid stage .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "this has chitinous teeth which are used after the larva has settled to abrade the surface and commence a burrow .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "two orders , three families , 11 genera and 63 species are recognized , and many more species probably remain to be identified . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "acrothoracica", "paragraphs": ["phylogenetic relationships of darwin\u2019s \u201cmr . arthrobalanus\u201d : the burrowing barnacles ( cirripedia : acrothoracica )\nphylogenetic relationships of darwin\u2019s \u201cmr . arthrobalanus\u201d : the burrowing barnacles ( cirripedia : acrothoracica ) - sciencedirect\nwhat made you want to look up acrothoracica ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\nnewman , w . a . , 1971 . a deep - sea burrowing barnacle ( cirripedia : acrothoracica ) from bermuda . j . zool . lond . 165 : 423\u2013429 .\ntomlinson , j . t . , 1969 . the burrowing barnacles ( cirripedia : order acrothoracica ) . bull . u . s . natn . mus . 296 : 1\u2013162 .\n, new species ( cirripedia : acrothoracica ) , a boring barnacle from guam , mariana islands , with new insights into cryptophialid ultrastructure . j . crust . biol . 6 : 143\u2013157 .\nnewman , w . a . , 1974 . two new deep - sea cirripedia ( ascothoracica and acrothoracica ) from the atlantic . j . mar . biol . ass . u . k . 54 : 437\u2013456 .\nkolbasov , g . a . , 1999 , the external mantle morphology of burrowing barnacles of the families lithoglyptidae and cryptophialidae ( cirripedia , acrothoracica ) . crustaceans and the biodiversity crisis . proceedings of the fourth international crustacean congress , 1998 1 : 139\u2013149 .\nburrowing barnacle s ( order acrothoracica , about 30 species ) are small , unisexual forms that lack shells and have fewer than six pairs of cirri . they burrow into hard limy material , such as clam shells and coral . trypetesa is found only inside snail shells occupied by hermit crabs .\nsuperorder acrothoracica ( burrowing barnacle s ) devonian to present ; globular in shape ; generally without conspicuous calcareous exoskeleton ; posterior cirri concentrated at end of trunk ; widely distributed in coralline seas , most primitive members in deep sea ; approximately 1 mm in length . all 30 species parasitize cnidarians or echinoderms . superorder thoracica\u2026\n\u2026the acrothoracica are known as burrowing barnacle s because they burrow into calcareous substrates ( e . g . , limestone , corals , and mollusk shells ) . the acrothoracicans are recognized as fossils primarily by their burrows , and , while their record extends back into the devonian period , they are particularly well represented in the cretaceous period , when they\u2026\nthe barnacles of the superorder acrothoracica are small , burrowing , epibiotic , and dioecious ( large female with dwarf male ) crustaceans largely found in the carbonate sediments and skeletons of marine invertebrates . the acrothoracicans represent the cirripedia with the most plesiomorphic characters and have prominently featured in phylogenetic speculations concerning these crustaceans . traditionally , acrothoracica was divided into two main orders , pygophora and apygophora . the apygophora had uniramus cirri and no anus . the pygophora had biramus terminal cirri and an anus and was further divided into two families , lithoglyptidae and cryptophialidae . kolbasov ( 2009 ) revised the superorder acrothoracica on the basis of morphological examinations of females , dwarf males , and cyprids and rearranged the acrothoracican species into two new orders , lithoglyptida and cryptophialida . the present study is the first attempt to reconstruct the phylogenetic relationships of acrothoracican barnacles by sequencing two mitochondrial ( cytochrome c oxidase i and 16s ribosomal dna ) and two nuclear ( 18s ribosomal dna and histone h3 ) markers of 8 of the 11 genera comprising 23 acrothoracican species . all monophylies of the eight acrothoracican genera sampled in this study were strongly supported . the deep interfamilial relationship constructed is consistent with the recent morphological phylogenetic relationship proposed by kolbasov , newman , and h\u00f8eg ( kolbasov , 2009 ) that cryptophialidae ( order cryptophialida ) is the sister group to all other acrothoracicans ( order lithoglyptida ) . according to an ancestral character state reconstruction analysis , the posterior lobes of females ; armament of opercular bars , attachment stalk , lateral projections of the body , and aperture slits in dwarf males ; and habitat use appear to have phylogenetic importance .\nbrusca , r . c . ; brusca , g . j . ( 1990 ) . invertebrates . sinauer associates : sunderland , ma ( usa ) . isbn 0 - 87893 - 098 - 1 . 922 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nmartin , j . w . , & davis , g . e . ( 2001 ) . an updated classification of the recent crustacea . science series , 39 . natural history museum of los angeles county . los angeles , ca ( usa ) . 124 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\np\u00e9rez - losada , m . ; crandall , k . a . ; kolbasov , g . a . ; h\u00f8eg , j . t . ( 2002 ) . reanalysis of the relationships among the cirripedia and the ascothoracida and the phylogenetic position of the facetotecta ( maxillopoda : thecostraca ) using 18s rdna sequences . journal of crustacean biology . 22 ( 3 ) : 661 - 669 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\nlove words ? you must \u2014 there are over 200 , 000 words in our free online dictionary , but you are looking for one that\u2019s only in the merriam - webster unabridged dictionary .\nthe story of an imaginary word that managed to sneak past our editors and enter the dictionary .\ntake this quiz and discover 12 words for things you didn ' t know had words .\nthis is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .\nhorse , ( equus caballus ) , a hoofed , herbivorous mammal of the family equidae . it comprises a single species , \u2026\nanimal , ( kingdom animalia ) , any of a group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms ( i . e . , as distinct from\u2026\nruggiero ma , gordon dp , orrell tm , bailly n , bourgoin t , brusca rc , et al . ( 2015 ) a higher level classification of all living organisms . plos one 10 ( 4 ) : e0119248 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0119248 . pmid : 25923521\nthis page was last edited on 5 december 2017 , at 01 : 57 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\na new species of the lithoglyptes from the seychelles is described . the external morphology of the mantle sac and the body were examined under sem . the position of a new species within lithoglyptes and the ultrastructural characters of different species of this genus are discussed .\n. trans . san diego soc . nat . hist . 21 : 1\u201322 .\nturquier , y . , 1978 . le t\u00e9gument des cirrip\u00e8des acrothoraciques . arch . zool . exp . g\u00e9n . 119 : 107\u2013125 .\nto learn more about subscribing to accessscience , or to request a no - risk trial of this award - winning scientific reference for your institution , fill in your information and a member of our sales team will contact you as soon as possible .\nlet your librarian know about the award - winning gateway to the most trustworthy and accurate \u0003scientific information .\nrecognized as an award - winning gateway to scientific knowledge , accessscience is an amazing online resource that contains high - quality reference material written specifically for students . its dedicated editorial team is led by sagan award winner john rennie . contributors include more than 9000 highly qualified scientists and 42 nobel prize winners .\ncopyright \u00a9 mcgraw - hill global education holdings , llc . all rights reserved .\nprivacy notice . any use is subject to the terms of use . additional credits and copyright information .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmclaughlin et al . 2005 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : crustaceans . american fisheries society special publication 31\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\njavascript is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .\nparasitic , barnacle - like cirripedia . these tiny animals burrow into coral or mollusk shells . ( tudge , 2000 )\nthey have from four to six pairs of feathery limbs , or\ncirri\n, which they project out of their burrows to catch drifting detritus for food . ( barnes , 1982 )\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u6709\u809b\u76ee\nto\npygophora\n.\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u7121\u809b\u76ee\nto\napygophora\n.\njennifer hammock split the classifications by nmnh invertebrate zoology resource from lithoglyptes to their own page .\njennifer hammock marked\niz crt 125218 cryptophialus tomlinsoni fragment b at 6x\nas hidden on the\ncryptophialus tomlinsoni newman and ross , 1971\npage .\njennifer hammock marked\niz crt 125218 cryptophialus tomlinsoni fragment b at 6x\nas untrusted on the\ncryptophialus tomlinsoni newman and ross , 1971\npage . reasons to untrust : misidentified\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !"]}
{"id": 1181, "summary": [{"text": "paracraga amianta is a moth in the dalceridae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by dyar in 1909 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in guyana .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of tropical moist forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is 11.5 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are light brown , with a yellow costa at the apex and outer margin .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is a silvery ovate spot surrounded by a thin brown line just above the anal angle .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are white with brownish suffusion .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults have been recorded on wing in february . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "paracraga amianta", "paragraphs": ["this is the place for paracraga definition . you find here paracraga meaning , synonyms of paracraga and images for paracraga copyright 2017 \u00a9 urltoken\nhere you will find one or more explanations in english for the word paracraga . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word paracraga and , of course , paracraga synonyms and on the right images related to the word paracraga .\nfigures 207 - 210 . male genitalia of paracraga , ventral oblique view of juxta complex and saccus ( a ) , with separate aedoeagus with vesica extended ( b ) ( scale = 0 . 5 mm ) . figure 207 . paracraga innocens , holotype ( usnm 22591 ) . figure 208 . paracraga amianta , holotype ( usnm 22585 ) . figure 209 . paracraga argentea ( usnm 22590 ) . figure 210 . paracraga canalicula , holotype ( usnm 22586 ) , aedoeagus with vesica only partially extended .\nbiostor is built by @ rdmpage , code on github . page images from the biodiversity heritage library .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmiller , s . e . 1994 . systematics of the neotropical moth family dalceridae ( lepidoptera ) . bulletin of the museum of comparative zoology 153 ( 4 ) : 1 - 495 .\n. note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own license , and they may or may not be available for reuse . click on an image or a media link to access the media data window , which provides the relevant licensing information . for the general terms and conditions of tol material reuse and redistribution , please see the\neach tol branch page provides a synopsis of the characteristics of a group of organisms representing a branch of the tree of life . the major distinction between a branch and a leaf of the tree of life is that each branch can be further subdivided into descendent branches , that is , subgroups representing distinct genetic lineages .\nfor a more detailed explanation of the different tol page types , have a look at the structure of the tree of life page .\ntree of life design and icons copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2004 tree of life project . all rights reserved .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\nclick here to view book online to see this illustration in context in a browseable online version of this book .\nplease note that these images are extracted from scanned page images that may have been digitally enhanced for readability - coloration and appearance of these illustrations may not perfectly resemble the original work ."]}
{"id": 1189, "summary": [{"text": "the sweetlip emperor ( lethrinus miniatus ) , also referred to as the sweetlip swoose , is a fish of the lethrinidae family .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it can be found on coral reefs and moderately warm waters in the western pacific ocean , although its primary habitat is the great barrier reef .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it can also be found in the coastal regions in the centre of western australia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "growing up to 90 centimetres ( 35 in ) in length , its light grey colour has small black scale centres dotted around its body .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its first dorsal ( on the back or top of the fish ) fin is red , before changing towards the tail to a darker colour .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the area around the base of its pectoral fins ( on the chest behind the head ) is red or orange .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the area around its eyes , the corner of its mouth and on parts of the fins on the bottom can also be red or orange .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "sweetlip emperors are carnivorous predators in the reef ; however , their main prey are small crustaceans such as crabs , as well as sand dollars and small fish .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "they also eat most other organisms that live near the bottom of the reef .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "even though sweetlip emperors live at the bottom of the reef , they are found only on the continental shelf where the bottom is sandy and light .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "they also choose a home near a reef for protection from other predators .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "today , species of emperor in the reef ( including the sweetlip emperor ) are threatened because they are desired by both commercial fishing operations and pleasure fishers , due to their lovely colour and nice taste .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "sweetlip emperors have a strange breeding and development pattern .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "off the coast of cairns , they spawn almost all the time .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "off the coast of townsville , they mate in june and august , and off the coast in october and november in more southern waters .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "these different breeding times are due to different water temperatures .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "sweetlip emperors can spawn ( like eggs that hatch eventually ) only in warmer water .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the young live near the shore in seagrass beds and mangrove swamps , where the water is shallow .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "as they grow older , they begin to move out towards the ocean like the adults .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "as they grow and get older , their sex changes from female to male . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "sweetlip emperor", "paragraphs": ["also known as trumpet emperor , red - throat emperor , red - lip emperor , redspot emperor , longnose emperor , long - nosed emperor .\nalso known as trumpet emperor , red - throat emperor , red - lip emperor , redspot emperor , longnose emperor , long - nosed emperor . found singly or in groups on sand and rubble areas of reefs . they feed on invertebrates and worms . length - 90cm depth - 5 - 35m widespread southwest pacific most members of lethrinidae are able to rapidly switch on and off dark mottled patterns , spots and bars to deter predators .\nthe grass emperor or grass sweetlip lethrinus laticaudis is not considered a coral reef fish under the fishery plan . the grass emperor is , however , a regulated tidal species under the fisheries regulation 1995 . please check current rules and regulations for specific size and in - possession limits\nsweetlip range from southern queensland right around to mid western australia . very commonly targeted and caught in central and southern barrier reef sections .\ndana bahar al arab fisheries llc oman - fishermen , producers , processors , exporters and wholesalers of fresh and frozen red sea bream , red grouper , greasy grouper amberjack , emperor fillets and tuna loins , sweetlip , croakers , small sharks , catfish , trevally , barracuda , parrot fish , job fish , cuttlefish . . .\nemperor fishes and large - eye breams of the world ( family lethrinidae ) . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of lethrinid species known to date\npt . arta mina tama indonesia - we are seafood manufacture in jakarta - indonesia , have 20 boats . product : tuna , loligo squid , round scad bait , oilfish , mahi mahi , swordfish , marlin , albacore , spanish mackerel , wahoo , skipjack , snapper , grouper , barramundi , gold band snapper , emperor , sweetlip , sea bream , cobia , barracuda , pompano , trevally\naqua trade international india - seafood export trading company . we can also offer you the full range of fresh and frozen seafood products include king fish , ribbonfish , emperor fish , reefcod / grouper , mahi mahi , marlin , sail fish , sword fish , sea bream , red snapper , white / grey snapper , sweetlip , spinefoot , unicorn leather jacket etc etc subject to the availabilities .\na redthroat emperor , lethrinus miniatus , in a depth of 22 metres at north solitary island , new south wales . source : ian v . shaw / reef life survey . license : cc by attribution\nsweetlip will take most bottom bouncing baits , however fresh fish flesh baits are the most successful . they respond very well to burley and if a school responds to a burley trail they can be brazen in their feeding and easy to catch . will readily take a lure such as soft plastic when fished around shallow coral bommies .\nwalker , m . h . 1975 . aspects of the biology of emperor fishes , family lethrinidae , in north queensland barrier reef waters . ph . d . thesis , james cook university , townsville , australia . 241 p .\nsweetlips are a typical emperor shape . colour wise they can vary but are often olive green on top and a olive brown body with dark brown spots . sweetlips are easily identifiable by the beautiful bright red dorsal ( and other fins , but particularly the dorsal ) and the bright red colour inside its large mouth ( hence the reference to red throat emperor ) . usually caught under the 2 kg mark however have been known to grow to about 9 kgs on the barrier reef .\ncentra fish indonesia - suppliers and processors of various reef fish fillet products , such as red snapper , gold band snapper , emperor , sweet lips , parrot fish , job fish , shark , marlin , oilfish , mahi , fish for bait , sardines for canning , octopus , cuttlefish , squid .\ncarpenter , k . e . and g . r . allen , 1989 . fao species catalogue . vol . 9 . emperor fishes and large - eye breams of the world ( family lethrinidae ) . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of lethrinid species known to date . fao fish . synop . 125 ( 9 ) : 118 p . rome : fao . ( ref . 2295 )\nidentifying features : body silver to pale greyish - brown , with a reddish head and sometimes with 8 - 9 darker bars ; pectoral - fin base bright red ; fins pale to reddish , spinous dorsal - and anal - fin membranes often bright red ; red streak often present from snout to upper gill cover ; lips often reddish ; centre of each scale usually dark . video of redthroat emperor\nmk fisheries ( pvt ) ltd sri lanka - suppliers of live , fresh chilled & frozen seafood . live mud crab , oysters , clams , eels , prawns , king fish , yellow fin tuna , skip jack tuna , bullet tuna , bonito , grouper , snappers , emperor , rabbit fish , sweet lips , parrot fish , ribbon fish , mackerels , sole , leather jackets , squids , cuttlefish , blue swimming crab , red crab and sri lankan fresh water fish , scampi prawns , shrimp , slipper lobster , crab .\ndavies , c . r . , williams , a . j . , mapstone , b . d . , benzie , j . , van herwerden , l . , choat , j . h . , adams , s . , murchie , c . d . , bean , k . , carlos , g . , tobin a . , ackerman , j . 2005 . stock structure and regional variation in population dynamics of the red throat emperor and other target species of the queensland tropical reef line fishery . crc reef research centre technical report . crc reef research centre , townsville , australia . 181 pp .\n- leading manufacture and exporter of safe & high quality seafoods , supplying hygienic and uncontaminated seafood products to customers worldwide . atlantic salmon . vannamei white shrimp , black tiger shrimp farmed , wild black sea tiger shrimps , freshwater shrimps , seawater shrimps . we can supply about 600 different species marine fish ( saltwater fishes ) including : red mullet , red snapper , grouper , barramundi , seabass , mahi mahi , yellowfin tuna , seer fish , king fish , spanish mackerel , silver croaker , yellow croaker , ribbonfish , cobia , escolar , butterfish , oilfish , fusilier , ghoul , kooth , leather jacket , mackerel , parrot fish , black pomfret , chinese pomfret , silver pomfret , red spot emperor , silver sillago ,\nmarine ; brackish ; reef - associated ; non - migratory ; depth range 5 - 30 m ( ref . 2295 ) . tropical ; 27\u00b0n - 34\u00b0s , 113\u00b0e - 168\u00b0e\nwestern pacific : the ryukyu islands , eastern philippines , northern australia , and new caledonia ( ref . 114226 ) . occurrence records outside distributional range probably refer to lethrinus olivaceus ( ref . 2295 ) .\nmaturity : l m 36 . 1 range ? - 42 . 2 cm max length : 90 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 2295 ) ; common length : 40 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 9987 ) ; max . published weight : 9 . 6 kg ( ref . 9987 ) ; max . reported age : 22 years ( ref . 2290 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 10 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 9 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 8 . snout moderately long . cheek without scales . body silvery , tan or yellowish in color , often with a series of 8 or 9 dark bars . vertical bars may be absent in some individuals . base of pectoral fin red . occasionally a red streak is present , originating on the upper operculum , passing beneath the eye and on to the snout . reddish lips . fins pale or reddish , sometimes brilliant red on membranes near base of pelvic fin and between spinous rays of dorsal and anal fin . the base of scales often black .\nadults inhabit coral reefs during daytime where they feed occasionally in sand and rubble areas between coral heads . at night , they move out over the sandy sea floor and forage actively . usually occur in small schools . juveniles live in shallow , inshore waters such as seagrass and mangrove areas , moving into deeper water as they age ( ref . 27260 , 28202 ) . feed mainly on crustaceans , echinoderms , mollusks and fish , with crabs and sea urchins predominating . much of the information reported for this species was based on misidentifications and referred to l . olivaceous ( see ref . 2295 ) . marketed fresh or frozen ( ref . 9987 ) .\nl . miniatus are serial hermaphrodites with a protogynous strategy ( i . e , female first , male second ) . sexual bimodality was present in both age and length frequency distributions ( brown et al 1994 ) . juveniles live in shallow , inshore waters such as seagrass and mangrove areas , moving into deeper water as they age ( ref . 27260 , 28202 ) . also ref . 103751 .\n) : 24 . 7 - 29 . 3 , mean 28 . 4 ( based on 1510 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01778 ( 0 . 01097 - 0 . 02882 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 91 - 3 . 17 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & genus - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 2 \u00b10 . 0 se ; based on diet studies .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( k = 0 . 1 - 0 . 4 ; tm = 2 - 3 ; tmax = 22 ) .\nprior r = 0 . 62 , 2 sd range = 0 . 36 - 1 . 09 , log ( r ) = - 0 . 48 , sd log ( r ) = 0 . 28 , based on : 2 m , 6 k , 2 tgen , 1 tmax , records\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 44 of 100 ) .\nour site is currently being updated and pages are changing regularly . we thank you for your patience during this transition and hope that you find our new site easy to use .\n& copy ; the state of queensland ( department of agriculture and fisheries ) 2010\u20132018 . queensland government\ncreated to help individuals around the world identify tropical fish found during their scuba dive and snorkelling excursions .\nrecorded from cape freycinet , southern western australia , to sydney , new south wales , and lord howe and norfolk islands , in the tasman sea . found elsewhere in the tropical western pacific . inhabits coral reefs , usually feeding in small schools over sandy and rubble areas between bommies and along reef edges during the day . at night , they move out onto open sandy areas to forage .\ncarnivore - feeds on crustaceans , echinoderms , molluscs and fishes - preferring crabs and sea urchins .\nsparus miniatus forster , 1801 , systema ichthyologiae : 281 . type locality : new caledonia .\nafma 2010 . norfolk island inshore fishery data summary 2006 - 2009 . australian fisheries management authority , canberra . 20 pp .\nallen , g . r . , hoese , d . f . , paxton , j . r . , randall , j . e . , russell , b . c . , starck , w . a . , talbot , f . h . & whitley , g . p . 1976 . annotated checklist of the fishes of lord howe island .\nthe marine fishes of north - western australia . a field guide for anglers and divers\n. perth , wa : western australian museum vi 201 pp . , 70 pls .\ncarpenter , k . e . 2001 . sparidae , lethrinidae . pp . 2990 - 3050 in carpenter , k . e . & niem , v . h . ( eds ) .\nthe living marine resources of the western central pacific . fao species identification guide for fisheries purposes\ncarpenter , k . e . & allen , g . r . 1989 . fao species catalogue .\n. fao fisheries synopsis . no . 125 , vol . 9 . rome : fao 118 pp .\ncurrey , l . m . , heupel , m . r . , simpfendorfer , c . a . & williams , a . j . 2014 . sedentary or mobile ? variability in space and depth use of an exploited coral reef fish .\ncurrey , l . m . , heupel , m . r . , simpfendorfer , c . a . & williams , a . j . 2014 . inferring movement patterns of a coral reef fish using oxygen and carbon isotopes in otolith carbonate .\nforster , j . r . in bloch , m . e . & schneider , j . g . 1801 .\nfrancis , m . 1993 . checklist of the coastal fishes of lord howe , norfolk , and kermadec islands , southwest pacific ocean .\ngloerfelt - tarp , t . & kailola , p . j . 1984 .\n. jakarta : dir . gen . fish . ( indonesia ) , german tech . coop . , aust . dev . ass . bur . 406 pp .\ngrant , c . , 1981 . high catch rates in norfolk island dropline fishery .\nhutchins , j . b . 1994 . a survey of the nearshore reef fish fauna of western australia ' s west and south coasts \u2014 the leeuwin province .\nhutchins , j . b . 2001 . biodiversity of shallow reef fish assemblages in western australia using a rapid censusing technique .\njohnson , j . w . 2010 . fishes of the moreton bay marine park and adjacent continental shelf waters , queensland , australia . pp . 299 - 353 in davie , p . j . f . & phillips , j . a . proceedings of the thirteenth international marine biological workshop , the marine fauna and flora of moreton bay .\n. canberra : bureau of resource sciences and the fisheries research and development corporation 422 pp .\nkulbicki , m . , y . - m . bozec , p . labrosse , y . letourneur , g . mou - tham & l . wantiez . 2005 . diet composition of carnivorous fishes from coral reef lagoons of new caledonia .\nrussell , b . c . 1983 . annotated checklist of the coral reef fishes in the capricorn - bunker group , great barrier reef , australia . great barrier reef marine park authority . special publication series 1 : 1 - 184 figs 1 - 2\nsainsbury , k . j . , 1987 . assessment and management of the demersal fishery on the continental shelf of northwestern australia . p . 465 - 503 . in j . j . polovina & s . ralston ( eds )\nspeare , p . , cappo , m . , rees , m . , brownlie , j . & oxley , w . 2004 . deep water fish and benthic surveys in the lord howe island marine park ( commonwealth waters ) : february 2004 . townsville : australian institute of marine sciences 30 pp .\n\u00a9 my fishing place pty . ltd . | disclaimer | privacy | contact us\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\neschmeyer , w . n . , fricke , r . and van der laan , r . ( eds ) . 2016 . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . updated 29 september 2016 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 29 september 2016 ) .\nis known from widely - scattered localities primarily in the west pacific ocean , though it has also been recorded from the west coast of australia . it is a protogynous hermaphrodite . this species has undergone localized population declines in parts of its range due to overexploitation ( japan ) . however , it is managed in australia and global - level population declines are not suspected at this time . therefore , this species is listed as least concern .\nlethrinus miniatus is found in the ryukyu islands , the eastern philippines , northern australia and new caledonia ( carpenter 2001 ) . there is also an unverified record from west timor ( b . russell pers . comm . 2016 ) . it is found to depths of 5 to 30 m ( carpenter 2001 ) .\nlethrinus miniatus has a discontinuous distribution in australia . the degree of genetic subdivision between east and west coast population suggests that they should be managed as discrete stocks . genetic diversity of l . miniatus was relatively high on the great barrier reef compared with western australia , indicating that west coast populations may be more susceptible to environmental and anthropogenic perturbations ( van herwerden et al . 2009 ) . lethrinus miniatus is a key resource in the coral reef fin fish fishery , great barrier reef , australia . in 2011 / 2012 the resource was considered to be not fully utilized , with only 35 % of the quota ( 955 , 604 kg ) used . around 725 t were landed in the commercial fishery , 53 t in the charter fishery , and 200 t in the recreational fishery ( department of fisheries 2013 ) . density within closed areas of the great barrier reef were higher than that in fished areas ( aims unpublished data ) . rates of stock decline have been very large in the waters off okinawa island ( ebisawa and ozawa 2009 ) .\nlethrinus miniatus feeds in sand around coral reefs in daytime . at nighttime , this species feeds mostly over the sandy sea floor near reefs at depths between 5 and 30 m . it is usually found in small schools . it feeds mostly on crustaceans , echinoderms , molluscs , and fishes with crabs and sea urchins predominating . it reaches a maximum size of 90 cm tl ( carpenter 2001 ) . the length range of 350 female l . miniatus obtained off the coast of japan was 22 . 5 to 54 . 0 cm fl , with a mode at 34 cm fl ( ebisawa 2006 ) . lethrinus miniatus spawning has been recorded from july to october in australia ( tobin et al . 2013 ) . lethrinus miniatus is considered a protogynous hermaphrodite ( ebisawa 2006 ) . in the waters off okinawa island the age at which the sex ratio decreased to 50 % due to sexual transition from female in this protogynous hermaphrodite species was 7 - 8 years old ( ebisawa and ozawa 2009 ) . ovaries were immature in size classes smaller than 30 cm fl , and were fully mature in classes larger than 44 cm ( ebisawa 2006 ) . if spawning aggregations of l . miniatus occur they may form on deep reef edge sites which are too deep to be targeted by fishers in australia ( tobin et al . 2013 ) .\nthis species is caught primarily by handline . it is one of the favourite food and sport fishes around the great barrier reef , although it is considered to be understudied ( mclean et al . 2010 ) . it is a major food fish in new caledonia ( carpenter 2001 ) . lethrinids are dominant features of fish landings in many parts of the pacific . in oceania , lethrinids are components of reef and lagoon and deep - slope species stocks , and are sometimes taken with small pelagics . lethrinids are the main targeted reef fish species in fiji . commercial hand - line fishing primarily targets lethrinids in guam in waters less than 150 m . lethrinids are landed using hand - lines , spears , surrounding nets , and drive - in nets , and occasionally using spears and beach seines ( dalzell et al . 1996 ) .\nfisheries management agencies in queensland and western australia have implemented harvest and conservation strategies ( newman et al . 2008 , van herwerden et al . 2009 ) ,\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\ncompanies by fish | seafood species - companies listed by the fish or seafood product that they deal in . fish & seafood products listed by common name .\nseafood producers - seafood & fish producers , companies that produce and manufacture seafood products , fishing boat & fleet owners .\nbait suppliers - companies who supply fishing bait products to commercial fishermen and wholesale suppliers of bait product to tackle stores .\nwholesale seafood - wholesale fish suppliers and seafood distributors , local suppliers or in country suppliers .\nretail seafood suppliers - companies who supply fish and seafood products to retail seafood outlets .\nseafood restaurants - companies who specialise in supplying seafood and fish products to restaurants , hotels and catering establishments .\ncompanies who provide services to commercial fishing and seafood industries directory : aquaculture , business , training , marketing consultants , fish processing services , biosecurity , environment , marine engineers & repairs , customs services , legal , finance , crewing agencies , insurance , testing services , ship provisioning , news & publications . . .\nsuppliers of other products to the commercial fishing & seafood industry : ice machines , refrigeration , fish & seafood processing equipment , packaging supplies , cleaning , fish feed , fishing tackle , marine engines parts & spares , repairs , fuel , other food products . . .\n, swordfish , threadfin bream , tongue sole , skipjack tuna . freshwater fish : rohu , tilapia , mrigal , ayer , boal , catla , puti , koi , climbing perch , pangasius basa , live & frozen king crab , snow crab , mud crab , loligo squid , japanese flying squid todarodes pacificus , cuttlefish , giant octopus , baby octopus .\n- komira group aim at being an integrated fishery supplier , delivering value and quality products to meet the fishery market demand in indonesia and overseas . komira group also working with groups fishermen in areas there are about 400 - 500 fisherman who regularly work in production chain connections , continuously acquire raw material supply of fish . our products of frozen fish such as muroaji , tuna loin , spanish mackerel , baby tuna , flying fish roe , skipjack , milkfish , ribbon fish , squid , cuttlefish , octopus , black pomfret , red snapper , red goat fish , threadfin bream , conger eel , big eye snapper ,\nkomira group indonesia - komira group aim at being an integrated fishery supplier , delivering value and quality products to meet the fishery market demand in indonesia and overseas . komira group also working with groups fishermen in areas there are about 400 - 500 fisherman who regularly work in production chain connections , continuously acquire raw material supply of fish . our products of frozen fish such as muroaji , tuna loin , spanish mackerel , baby tuna , flying fish roe , skipjack , milkfish , ribbon fish , squid , cuttlefish , octopus , black pomfret , red snapper , red goat fish , threadfin bream , conger eel , big eye snapper , sweetlips , robinson , parrot fish , etc .\nndt company limited vietnam - seafood exporter in vietnam , especially , barramundi products , reef fishes , octopus , cuttlefish , squid to the countries such as australia , new zealand , usa , eu and in asia .\nbowpan pty ltd australia - importers and exporters of shrimp : freshwater , black tiger , vannamei , pink and white shrimps . these are processed as raw peeled deveined tail - on / tail - off , peeled undeveined ( pud ) , hoso raw or cooked both in iqf , block frozen & semi - iqf form , crimson snapper , red snapper , grouper , white & cream basa , barramundi , spanish mackeral , king snapper , sweetlips , mahi mahi , tilapia , rohu .\njd ' s seafood export contractors pty ltd australia - export approved fish processing establishment , supplying all fin fish as whole , g & g and filleted , crustaceans , molluscs , live lobsters , crabs , yabbies , marron approved for export to the eu & russia . fresh product flown in daily from all over australia .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\njames jean \u2019s illustrations for the shape of water novel by guillermo del toro and daniel kraus .\n\u201camy poehler was new to snl and we were all crowded into the seventeenth - floor writers\u2019 room , waiting for the wednesday night read - through to start . [ \u2026 ] amy was in the middle of some such nonsense with seth meyers across the table , and she did something vulgar as a joke . i can\u2019t remember what it was exactly , except it was dirty and oud and \u201cunladylike\u201d , jimmy fallon [ \u2026 ] turned to her and in a faux - squeamish voice said , \u201cstop that ! it\u2019s not cute ! i don\u2019t like it . \u201d amy dropped what she was doing , went black in the eyes for a second , and wheeled around on him . \u201ci don\u2019t fucking care if you like it . \u201d jimmy was visibly startled . amy went right back to enjoying her ridiculous bit . with that exchange , a cosmic shift took place . amy made it clear that she wasn\u2019t there to be cute . she wasn\u2019t there to play wives and girlfriends in the boys\u2019 scenes . she was there to do what she wanted to do and she did not fucking care if you like it . \u201d\nthis sounds like a lot , but it\u2019s true . an estimated 100 , 000 , 000 sharks per year are killed , threatening many species with endangerment or extinction .\nscary predators are important to the ecosystem , too . conservation\u2019s not just about the panda bears .\nin 1994 when green day first became famous , they invited pansy division , an openly gay punk band , to open for them for the entire dookie tour knowing full well the responses would be mixed . in 2016 / 2017 , on their revolution radio tour , green day chose only female led punk bands to open for them to help create recognition for these artists in a male dominated scene . this band has always been using their voices for the right reasons and i love them so much for that .\nif i\u2019m not mistaken , there was a prom somewhere that was cancelled one time because a lesbian couple wanted to go , so green day rented a venue and had a prom for them . not sure about accuracy , my mom told me about that\nyes this is true as well ! ! green day helped to fund and organize this second prom when the first one was cancelled . the second prom was actually open not only to the students of the school , but also to any other lgbtq + students as well as supporters in the state of mississippi who wanted to attend as well ! !\nbilly joe armstrong once literally leapt into the crowd at green day show and drop - kicked a guy who wouldn\u2019t leave a girl alone .\nbrown or sand coloured body with red tint . red dorsal and anal fins with spines on the first half . sloped head with large eyes and red markings .\na fast strike followed by a series quick runs for shelter around submerged obstacles ."]}
{"id": 1192, "summary": [{"text": "prorasea simalis is a moth in the crambidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by grote in 1878 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from alberta , california , colorado , nevada and oregon .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 22 mm for males and 26-29 mm for females .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are variable in colour , ranging from ochereous to fuscous or blackish .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "there are indistinct oblique lines on the forewings , flecked with white .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the median lines are dark , the subterminal area is fuscous or ochereous and the subterminal shade is white .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are smoky fuscous , but paler at the base .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults have been recorded on wing from march to august . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "prorasea simalis", "paragraphs": ["photographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nadults are most common from june to august , earlier beginning flight times in california .\ngrote , a . r . 1878 . bulletin of the united states geological and geographical survey of the territories , 4 : 670 .\nan annotated list of the lepidoptera of alberta , canada gregory r . pohl , gary g . anweiler , b . christian schmidt , norbert g . kondla . 2010 . zookeys 38 : 1\u2013549 .\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 19 june , 2013 - 3 : 41pm last updated 23 october , 2013 - 4 : 53pm\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\ncontributed by robert a . martin on 19 june , 2013 - 3 : 31pm last updated 19 june , 2013 - 4 : 34pm\nselect your preferred way to display the comments and click ' save settings ' to activate your changes .\nwe do not yet have descriptive information on this species . please try the buttons above to search for information from other sources .\n. you can download select species by searching or when you ' re on a taxa page like class , order , and family .\nthis information is not automatically synchronized with globiz and can sometimes be lagging behind .\n[ nacl ] ; hodges , 1983 check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico check list lep . am . n of mexico\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhodges , r . w . et al . , eds . 1983 . check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . e . w . classey limited and the wedge entomological research foundation , london . 284 pp .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\ndistribution data for u . s . states and canadian provinces is known to be incomplete or has not been reviewed for this taxon .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\npoole , r . w . , and p . gentili ( eds . ) . 1996 . nomina insecta nearctica : a checklist of the insects of north america . volume 3 ( diptera , lepidoptera , siphonaptera ) . entomological information services , rockville , md .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\nall documents and related graphics provided by this server and any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server are provided\nas is\nwithout warranty as to the currentness , completeness , or accuracy of any specific data . natureserve hereby disclaims all warranties and conditions with regard to any documents provided by this server or any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , including but not limited to all implied warranties and conditions of merchantibility , fitness for a particular purpose , and non - infringement . natureserve makes no representations about the suitability of the information delivered from this server or any other documents that are referenced to or linked to this server . in no event shall natureserve be liable for any special , indirect , incidental , consequential damages , or for damages of any kind arising out of or in connection with the use or performance of information contained in any documents provided by this server or in any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , under any theory of liability used . natureserve may update or make changes to the documents provided by this server at any time without notice ; however , natureserve makes no commitment to update the information contained herein . since the data in the central databases are continually being updated , it is advisable to refresh data retrieved at least once a year after its receipt . the data provided is for planning , assessment , and informational purposes . site specific projects or activities should be reviewed for potential environmental impacts with appropriate regulatory agencies . if ground - disturbing activities are proposed on a site , the appropriate state natural heritage program ( s ) or conservation data center can be contacted for a site - specific review of the project area ( see visit local programs ) .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\n80x5 - 240x3 - 240x4 - 320x1 - 320x2 - 320x3 - 640x1 - 640x2 set display option above . click on image to enlarge ."]}
{"id": 1203, "summary": [{"text": "saunders ' bee hawkmoth ( hemaris saundersii ) is a moth of the sphingidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found from southern kashmir , northern pakistan , northern india ( himachal pradesh ) and north-eastern afghanistan , eastwards along the himalayan foothills of india ( punjab , uttar pradesh and sikkim ) to bangladesh and northern myanmar .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of scrub-jungle at 1,800 to 3,000 metres altitude .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the wingspan is 50 \u2013 60 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "it is a diurnal species .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "adults are on wing in june in kashmir and from april to may and again in july in himachal pradesh .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on lonicera quinquelocularis in india . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "hemaris saundersii", "paragraphs": ["hemaris saundersii - urdu meaning and translation of hemaris saundersii , translation , multiple word search ( seperate words with space ) , english to urdu machine translation of hemaris saundersii and more .\nhemaris fuciformis pseudodentata dubatolov , 2003 ; euroasian ent . j . 2 ( 1 ) : 75\nsaunders ' bee hawkmoth ( hemaris saundersii ) is a moth of the sphingidae family . it is found from southern kashmir , northern pakistan , northern india ( himachal pradesh ) and north - eastern afghanistan , eastwards along the himalayan foothills of india ( punjab , uttar pradesh and sikkim ) to bangladesh and northern myanmar .\nhemaris croatica fahira de freina , 2004 ; linneana belgica 19 ( 7 ) : ( 305 - 307 ) ; tl : se . iran\nhemaris rubra hampson , [ 1893 ] ; fauna br . india ( moths ) 1 : 120 ; tl : sind and gurais valleys , kashmir\npupa : 30mm . slender , dark brown , shiny , very similar to that of hemaris croatica ( esper , 1800 ) . the overwintering stage .\nlarva : full - fed 45mm . early instars undescribed . according to bell & scott ( 1937 ) , the fully - grown larva resembles that of hemaris fuciformis .\nwingspan : 50 - - 60mm . very like a large version of hemaris fuciformis ( linnaeus , 1758 ) , but without the scaled line across the forewing cell . according to bell & scott ( 1937 ) , upperside head , thorax and abdomen olive - green ; fourth and fifth abdominal segments brownish - red , with a mesal patch of the same colour on the sixth segment . underside of abdomen brownish - red , grey mesially . forewing upperside hyaline , with a broad reddish - brown marginal band as in hemaris fuciformis . hind wing hyaline , with a narrow reddish - brown marginal border as in hemaris tityus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) .\nholarctic ; western palaearctic region . pleistocene refuge : monocentric - - northern section of sindian refuge .\nuni - or bivoltine , depending on locality . in kashmir , on the wing in june ; in himachal pradesh during april / may and again in july .\nfound in may / june and again in august in scub - jungle at mussooree ( uttarakhand ) ; uncommen ( bell & scott , 1937 ) .\nhostplants . lonicera quinquelocularis in uttarakhand , india ( bell & scott , 1937 ) .\ncurrently known only from northeastern afghanistan ( danner , eitschberger & surholt , 1998 ) and northern pakistan ( khyber pakhtunkhwa ) ( rafi et al . , 2014 ) .\nextra - limital range . northern india ( kashmir and himachal pradesh to uttaranchal ) . reports of this species from farther east are erroneous , e . g . from bangladesh and northern myanmar .\ni think , if my identification is correct , that the eastern ran . . .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\njapan , ussuri , amurland , korea , n . china . see [ maps ]\nhaemorrhagia tityus aksana le cerf , 1923 ; bull . soc . ent . fr . 1923 ( 15 ) : 199 ; tl : morocco , azrou\nsweu , asia minor , transcaucasus , iraq , iran . see [ maps ]\nmacroglossa ducalis var . dentata staudinger , 1887 ; stettin ent . ztg 48 ( 1 - 3 ) : 66 ; tl : aintab\n: napa co . , big trees , calaveras co . , california ; vancouver island , britis columbia\nuzbekistan , kazakhstan , tajikistan , tian shan , pamirs , afghanistan . see [ maps ]\n450x510 ( ~ 32kb ) finland , kangasala , roikku , 6814 : 350 , 23 . 6 . 1996 , photo \u00a9 tero piirainen\nlarva on lonicera , l . xylosteum , l . tatarica , l . caerulea , l . caprifolium , symphoricarpos rivularis , knautia arvensis [ sprk ]\nnova scotia - florida , new england , michigan , new york . see [ maps ]\nhaemorrhagia gracilis grote & robinson , 1865 ; proc . ent . soc . philad . 5 : 174 , pl . 3 , figs . 1 - 2 ; tl : atlantic district\nmacroglossa fuciformis var . brunneobasalis staudinger , 1892 ; in romanoff , m\u00e9m . l\u00e9pid . 6 : 241 ; tl : amur\nmacroglossa pyramus boisduval , [ 1875 ] ; hist . nat . ins . , spec . g\u00e9n . l\u00e9pid . h\u00e9t\u00e9roc\u00e8res , 1 : 372 ; tl : northern unites states\nnaf , eu , russia , asia minor , c . asia . see [ maps ]\nthe dates of e . j . c . esper ' s die schmetterlinge in abblidungen . . . 1776 - [ 1830 ] ; archives of natural history ( 1981 ) 10 ( 2 ) : 251 - 254\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nl\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res du district de kouldj\u00e0 et des montagnes environnantes . ( 1 - 3 )\nhistoire naturelle des insectes . species g\u00e9n\u00e9ral des l\u00e9pidopt\u00e9res h\u00e9t\u00e9roc\u00e9res . tome premier . sphingides , s\u00e9siides , castnides\npacific coast lepidoptera , no . 11 . - list of the sphingidae of california and adjacent districts , with descriptions of new species\n( rothschild & jordan , 1903 ) stat . rev . 4 . erg\u00e4nzung zu\ndie sch\u00e4rmer der westlichen palaearktis\ndie schmetterlinge in abbildungen nach der natur mit beschreibungen . theil ii . die abendschmetterlinge\ndie schmetterlinge in abbildungen nach der natur mit beschreibungen . theil ii . supplement . zweiter abscnitt . die abendschmetterlinge\nreise der \u00f6sterreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859 unter den behilfen des commodore b . von w\u00fcllerstorf - urbair . zoologischer theil . band 2 . abtheilung 2 . lepidoptera . rhopalocera\n- 120 , ( inhalts - verz . ) 1 - 9 ( pl . 1 - 74 ) , ( felder & rogenhofer , 1874 ) , ( 5 ) : pl .\n( esper , 1800 ) du s . - o de l ' iran :\nbericht \u00fcber meine reise in das \u00f6stliche buchara ( correspondez ; mit 1 karte ) . nebst anghang : dianosen einger neuen species in romanoff ,\nsystema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum clases , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , symonymis , locis . tomis i . 10th edition\ndescriptions of new genera and species of lepidoptera heterocera collected by rev . j . h . hocking , chiefly in the kangra district , n . w . himalaya\ndie macrolepidopteren des amurgebiets . i . theil . rhopalocera , sphinges , bombyces , noctuae in romanoff ,\nannual report of lieutenant e . h . ruffner , corps of engineers , for the fiscal year ending june 30 , 1878 . explorations and surveys in the department of the missouri . report of the secretary of war for the year 1878 2 in ruffner ,\na natural history of the british lepidoptera . a text - book for students and collectors\nzeller , 1869 skandinaviens heterocer - fj\u00e4rilar , beskrifne af h . d . j . wallengren skymmings . fjarilarne stettin ent . ztg 30 ( 10 - 12 ) : 379 - 392\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\ncopyright \u00a9 2013 www . sphingidae - museum . com . all rights reserved .\nthe wingspan is 50\u201360 mm . it is a diurnal species . adults are on wing in june in kashmir and from april to may and again in july in himachal pradesh .\nthis page is based on a wikipedia article written by authors ( here ) . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 license ; additional terms may apply . images , videos and audio are available under their respective licenses ."]}
{"id": 1204, "summary": [{"text": "pyrausta aurea is a moth in the crambidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by hampson in 1913 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found from nevada , southern arizona , southern texas and mexico south at least to costa rica .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 18 mm for males and 20 mm for females .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are orange with a faint oblique antemedial line on the forewings .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing from june to august . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "pyrausta aurea", "paragraphs": ["pachyzancla aurea hampson , 1913 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 8 ) 11 ( 66 ) : 515 ( ? preocc . pyrausta aurea butler , 1875 ) ; tl : presidio , mexico\npyrausta aurea butler , 1875 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 4 ) 16 ( 96 ) : 414 ; tl : natal\nthere is confusion as to the author of pyrausta aurea : several internet sites give hampson ( 1913 ) as the author ( originally placed in genus pachyzancla ) , apparently based on specimens from mexico , while 3 or 4 sites give butler ( 1875 ) as the author , apparently based on specimens from africa . gbif lists both authors separately , and gives each name the status of\nprovisionally accepted name .\npyrausta tithonialis ; sumpich & skyva , 2012 , nota lepid . 35 ( 2 ) : 177\npyrausta cajelalis holland , 1900 ; novit . zool . 7 ( 3 ) : 590 ; tl : buru\npyrausta perlelegans hampson , 1899 ; proc . zool . soc . london 1899 : 256 ; tl : colombia ; peru\npyrausta lithosialis hampson , 1899 ; proc . zool . soc . london 1899 : 263 ; tl : natal , northdene\npyrausta tetraplagalis hampson , 1899 ; proc . zool . soc . london 1899 : 268 ; tl : mashonaland , salisbury\npyrausta ( pyraustinae ) ; hampson , 1899 , proc . zool . soc . london 1899 : 252 ; [ globiz ]\npyrausta phaeophoenica hampson , 1899 ; proc . zool . soc . london 1899 : 268 ; tl : brazil , castro para\u00f1a\npyrausta subsequalis subsequalis ; [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) : 122 , pl . 5 , f . 18 , 22\npyrausta perrubralis perrubralis ; [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) : 129 , pl . 9 , f . 49 - 51\npyrausta scurralis scurralis ; [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) : 130 , pl . 9 , f . 59 - 63\npyrausta unifascialis unifascialis ; [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) : 134 , pl . 9 , f . 73 - 80\npyrausta trizonalis hampson , 1899 ; proc . zool . soc . london 1899 : 267 ; tl : mexico , cordoba , orizaba\npyrausta pyrocausta hampson , 1899 ; proc . zool . soc . london 1899 : 264 ; tl : brazil , s\u00e3o paulo ; para\u00f1a\npyrausta nubigena rothschild , 1915 ; novit . zool . 22 ( 2 ) : 189 ; tl : algeria , guelt - es - stel\npyrausta cajelalis fortioralis rothschild , 1915 ; novit . zool . 22 ( 2 ) : 227 ; tl : manusela , central ceram , 650m\npyrausta arenicola hampson , 1913 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 8 ) 12 ( 67 ) : 28 ; tl : algeria\npyrausta coccinea warren , 1892 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 6 ) 9 ( 50 ) : 176 ; tl : california\npyrausta borealis packard , [ 1867 ] ; proc . boston soc . nat . hist . 11 : 53 ; tl : square island , labrador\n= pyrausta unifascialis subolivalis ( packard , 1873 ) ; [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) , 133 ; [ nacl ] , # 5068a\npyrausta obtusanalis druce , 1899 ; biol . centr . - amer . ins . lep . het . 3 : pl . 100 , f . 12\npyrausta ploimalis dyar , 1914 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 47 ( 2050 ) : 284 ; tl : trinidad r .\npyrausta flavibrunnea hampson , 1913 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 8 ) 12 ( 67 ) : 32 ; tl : cuernavaca , mexico\npyrausta subsequalis plagalis haimbach , 1908 ; ent . news 19 ( 6 ) : 263 ; tl : miller ' s canyon , huachuca mts . , arizona\npyrausta unifascialis arizonensis munroe , 1957 ; can . ent . 89 : 93 , f . 5 ; tl : wildcat creek , white mts . , arizona\npyrausta perrubralis saanichalis munroe , 1951 ; can . ent . 83 : 166 , pl . 1 , f . 5 ; tl : ; duncan , british columbia\npyrausta perrubralis saanichalis ; [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) : 129 , pl . 9 , f . 55 - 56 ; [ nacl ] , # 5064a\npyrausta unifascialis subolivalis ; [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) : 133 , pl . 9 , f . 66 - 72 ; [ nacl ] , # 5068a\npyrausta unifascialis rindgei ; [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) : 134 , pl . 9 , f . 81 - 82 ; [ nacl ] , # 5068b\npyrausta unifascialis arizonensis ; [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) : 134 , pl . 9 , f . 83 - 84 ; [ nacl ] , # 5068c\npyrausta scurralis awemealis munroe , 1976 ; [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) : 130 , pl . 9 , f . 64 - 65 ; tl : aweme , manitoba\npyrausta californicalis californicalis ; [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) : 113 , pl . 6 , f . 16 , 19 - 223 , pl . t , f . 3\npyrausta perrubralis shastanalis munroe , 1976 ; [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) : 129 , pl . 9 , f . 52 - 54 ; tl : mt . shasta , california\npyrausta unifascialis rindgei munroe , 1957 ; can . ent . 89 : 93 , f . 6 - 7 ; tl : rancho la sierra , near arlington , riverside co . , california\npyrausta shirleyae munroe , 1976 ; [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) : 102 , pl . u , f . 1 - 2 , 5 - 7 ; tl : pensacola , florida\npyrausta retidiscalis munroe , 1976 ; [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) : 126 , pl . t , f . 7 ; tl : the basin , big bend national park , texas\npyrausta andrei munroe , 1976 ; [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) : 127 , pl . t , f . 8 ; tl : green gulch , big bend national park , texas\npyrausta socialis perpallidalis munroe , 1976 ; [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) : 141 , pl . 9 , f . 35 - 36 ; tl : kusshi canyon , yakima co . , washington\npyrausta californicalis sierranalis munroe , 1976 ; [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) : 114 , pl . 6 , f . 17 - 18 ; tl : mineral spr . , tulare co . , california\npyrausta subgenerosa munroe , 1976 ; [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) : 118 , pl . k , f . 2 ; tl : chipmunk flat , near sonora pass , tuolumme co . , california\npyrausta fodinalis monticola munroe , 1976 ; [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) : 139 , pl . 9 , f . 30 - 32 ; tl : mt . shasta , siskiyou co . , california\npyrausta corinthalis barnes & mcdunnough , 1914 ; contr . nat . hist . lep . n . am . 2 ( 6 ) : 243 , pl . 1 , f . 27 ; tl : palmerlee , arizona\npyrausta pythialis barnes & mcdunnough , 1918 ; contr . nat . hist . lepid . n . am . 4 ( 2 ) : 164 , pl . 23 , f . 7 ; tl : cartwright , manitoba\npyrausta inveterascalis barnes & mcdunnough , 1918 ; contr . nat . hist . lepid . n . am . 4 ( 2 ) : 165 , pl . 23 , f . 6 ; tl : new brighton , pennsylvania\npyrausta tuolumnalis barnes & mcdunnough , 1918 ; contr . nat . hist . lepid . n . am . 4 ( 2 ) : 165 , pl . 23 , f . 11 ; tl : tuolumme meadows , california\npyrausta socialis socialis ; [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) : 140 , pl . 9 , f . 33 - 34 , 37 , pl . k , f . 6 , pl . t , f . 10\npyrausta arizonensis munroe , 1976 ; [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) : 131 , pl . 9 , f . 57 - 58 ( preocc . munroe , 1957 ) ; tl : prescott , yavapai co . , arizona\npyrausta sartoralis barnes & mcdunnough , 1914 ; contr . nat . hist . lep . n . am . 2 ( 6 ) : 242 , pl . 1 , f . 26 ; tl : loma linda , san bernardino co . , california\npyrausta roseivestalis munroe , 1976 ; [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) , 94 , pl . 8 , f . 41 , pl . j , f . 3 , l . s , f . 5 ; tl : vidal , california\npyrausta zonalis barnes & mcdunnough , 1918 ; contr . nat . hist . lepid . n . am . 4 ( 2 ) : 164 , pl . 24 , f . 10 ; tl : palm sprs . , riverside co . , california\npyrausta ochreicostalis barnes & mcdunnough , 1918 ; contr . nat . hist . lepid . n . am . 4 ( 2 ) : 163 , pl . 23 , f . 8 ; tl : palm sprt . , riverside co . , california\npyrausta pilatealis barnes & mcdunnough , 1914 ; contr . nat . hist . lep . n . am . 2 ( 6 ) : 242 , pl . 1 , f . 25 ; tl : loma linda , san bernardino co . , california\npyrausta subsequalis borealis ; [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) : 122 , pl . 5 , f . 19 - 21 , 23 - 25 , pl . 9 , f . 13 - 14 , 17 ; [ nacl ] , # 5060a\npyrausta pseudonythesalis munroe , 1976 ; [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) : 105 , pl . 6 , f . 28 - 29 , pl . j , f . 5 , pl . s , f . 7 ; tl : vidal , california\npyrausta pseuderosnealis munroe , 1976 ; [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) : 114 , pl . 8 , f . 9 - 13 , pl . j , f . 8 , pl . t , f . 4 ; tl : georgetown , texas\npyrausta subsequalis plagalis ; [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) : 123 , pl . 9 , f . 4 - 6 , 10 - 12 , 15 - 16 , 18 , pl . k , f . 3 ; [ nacl ] , # 5060b\npyrausta subsequalis petaluma munroe , 1976 ; [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) : 123 , pl . 9 , f . 1 - 3 , 7 - 9 , pl . t , f . 5 ; tl : petaluma , sonoma co . , california\npyrausta fodinalis septenrionicola munroe , 1976 ; [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) : 139 , pl . 9 , f . 27 - 29 , pl . k , f . 5 , pl . t , f . 9 ; tl : scandia , alberta\npyrausta klotsi munroe , 1976 ; : : mna13 . 2 : 108 , pl . 6 , f . 32 - 33 , pl . j , f . 7 , pl . t , f . 1 ; tl : ramsey canyon , huachuca mts . , arizona\npyrausta antisocialis munroe , 1976 ; [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) : 141 , pl . 9 , f . 38 - 39 , pl . k , f . 7 , pl . t , f . 11 ; tl : mcgaffey , zu\u00f1i mts . , mckinley co . , new mexico , 7500 '\nnew york - to ( arizona , texas ) , tropical america . see [ maps ]\nfrom ( washington - montana ) - to ( california - texas ) . see [ maps ]\nwashington - california , w . arizona , n . mexico . see [ maps ]\nparaedis napaealis hulst , 1886 ; trans . amer . ent . soc . 13 : 145 ; tl : california\nloxostege linealis fernald , 1894 ; insect life 6 : 255 ; tl : argus mts . , california\ncalifornia ( mojave desert , los angeles ) - s . nevada , s . arizona - texas ( big bend ) . see [ maps ]\nbotis lethalis grote , 1881 ; can . ent . 13 ( 2 ) : 33 ; tl : [ havilah ] , california\ntexas , colorado , arizona - mexico ( chiapas ) . see [ maps ]\nbotis volupialis grote , 1877 ; bull . u . s . geol . surv . 3 ( app . ) : 799 ; tl : hills w of denver , colorado\nwashington ( yakima co . ) , california - texas , nevada ( clark co . ) , mexico . see [ maps ]\nmetasia morenalis dyar , 1908 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 10 ( 1 - 2 ) : 58 ; tl : grapevine , california\nbotis atropurpuralis grote , 1877 ; can . ent . 9 ( 6 ) : 104 ; tl : texas , belfrage\nfrom ( quebec - british columbia ) - utah , colorado , nevada , california . see [ maps ]\nwashington , california , utah , colorado , wyoming , arizona . see [ maps ]\nbotis augustalis grote , 1881 ; bull . u . s . geol . surv . 6 ( 2 ) : 273 ( preocc . felder & rogenhofer , 1874 ) ; tl : colorado\nfrom ( british columbia - ontario ) - to ( north carolina , south carolina , texas , arizona ) . see [ maps ]\nbotys ( rhodaria ) vinulenta grote & robinson , 1867 ; trans . amer . ent . soc . 1 : 17 ( ? repl . rhodaria signatalis walker , [ 1866 ] ) ; tl : north america\nw . pennsylvania - s . ontario , illinois , missouri . see [ maps ]\nsyllythria rosa druce , 1895 ; biol . centr . - amer . ins . lep . het . 3 : pl . 60 , f . 19\nnova scotia - michigan - to ( florida - texas ) . see [ maps ]\nendotricha julialis walker , 1859 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 17 : 389 ( part )\nbotys augustalis felder & rogenhofer , 1874 ; reise fregatte novara , bd 2 ( abth . 2 ) ( 5 ) : pl . 134 , f . 26\npachyzancla xanthomela hampson , 1913 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 8 ) 11 ( 66 ) : 515 ; tl : purulha , guatemala\nflorida - na . georgia , iowa , kansas , oklahoma , texas . see [ maps ]\nbotys onythesalis walker , 1859 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 18 : 734\ncalifornia , nevada , arizona , new mexico , texas . see [ maps ]\nsouth carolina - florida , west indies , ca , sa . see [ maps ]\nrhodaria insignitalis guen\u00e9e , 1854 ; hist . nat . ins . , spec . g\u00e9n . l\u00e9pid . 8 : 173 ; tl : [ rio maroni ] , cayenne\nbotis flavofascialis grote , 1882 ; bull . u . s . geol . surv . 6 ( 3 ) : 577 ; tl : new mexico\nflorida - south carolina , louisiana , e . texas . see [ maps ]\nna . georgia - florida , west indies , tropical , queensland . see [ maps ]\nlarva on hyptis capitata , dicerandra frutescens smedley , mccormick & eisner , 1990 , j . lep . soc . 44 ( 3 ) : 156\nbotys californicalis packard , 1873 ; ann . lyc . nat . hist . n . y . 10 : 260 ; tl : california\nlarva on mentha sp . , ( california ) [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) , 114\ntexas , florida , louisiana , arkansas , missouri , illinois , oklahoma , mexico . see [ maps ]\nbotis dapalis grote , 1881 ; can . ent . 13 ( 1 ) : 17 ; tl : california\n712x659 ( ~ 89kb ) russia , moscow area ( 36\u00b025 ' e , 56\u00b000 ' n ) , 8 . 8 . 2009 , photo \u00a9 d . smirnov\n827x557 ( ~ 97kb ) russia , moscow area , 26 . 7 . 2010 ( 36\u00b025 ' e , 56\u00b000 ' n ) , photo \u00a9 d . smirnov\n980x598 ( ~ 109kb ) russia , moscow area ( 36\u00b025 ' e , 56\u00b000 ' n ) , 1 . 8 . 2009 , photo \u00a9 d . smirnov\n673x646 ( ~ 110kb ) russia , moscow area , 10 . 8 . 2010 ( 36\u00b025 ' e , 56\u00b000 ' n ) , photo \u00a9 d . smirnov\n500x343 ( ~ 22kb ) finland : ka : virolahti , 671 : 53 , 27 . 7 . 1973 , markku savela leg .\nherbula ? submarginalis walker , [ 1866 ] ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 34 : 1286 ( preocc . walker , 1866 )\nfrom ( ontario - alberta ) - florida , missouri . see [ maps ]\nbotys generosa grote & robinson , 1867 ; trans . amer . ent . soc . 1 : 20 , pl . 2 , f . 10 ; tl : pennsylvania\nnewfoundland , s . canada - to ( florida , new mexico , california ) . see [ maps ]\nlarva on satureia hortensis , monarda [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) , 120\nw . northwest territory , yukon , alaska ? , rocky mountains . see [ maps ]\n500x318 ( ~ 18kb ) finland : om : perho j\u00e4nk\u00e4 , 7020 : 376 , 10 . 6 . 1971 , markku savela leg .\n500x339 ( ~ 21kb ) finland : ka : virolahti , 20 . 7 . 1970 , markku savela leg .\nherbula subsequalis guen\u00e9e , 1854 ; hist . nat . ins . , spec . g\u00e9n . l\u00e9pid . 8 : 177 ; tl : north ameria\n900x678 ( ~ 83kb ) usa : pike national forest , sugar creek on cr - 67 ( about 39\u00b018 ' n 105\u00b010 ' w ) , douglas co . , co , 29 . 7 . 2012 , photo \u00a9 markku savela\ns . nova scotia , s . ontario - to ( illinois - n . florida , mississippi , e . texas )\n( deltoides & pyralides ) pl . 8 , f . 3 ( repl .\nbotis tatalis grote , 1877 ; can . ent . 9 ( 6 ) : 106 ; tl : [ texas , belfrage ]\nbotys perrubralis packard , 1873 ; ann . lyc . nat . hist . n . y . 10 : 264 ; tl : california\nbotis scurralis hulst , 1886 ; trans . amer . ent . soc . 13 : 155 ; tl : arizona\ns . british columbia - california , nevada , colorado , arizona . see [ maps ]\nbotys semirubralis packard , 1873 ; ann . lyc . nat . hist . n . y . 10 : 263 ; tl : california\nbotys unifascialis packard , 1873 ; ann . lyc . nat . hist . n . y . 10 : 261 ; tl : california\ns . new york - to ( illinois - florida , texas ) , mexico - venezuela , west indies . see [ maps ]\nsyllythria idessa druce , 1895 ; biol . centr . - amer . ins . lep . het . 3 : pl . 60 , f . 20\nnew jersey - florida , missouri , texas , oklahoma , s . california . see [ maps ]\nfrom ( nova scotia - ontario , missouri ) - to ( n . florida - texas ) . see [ maps ]\ns . canada - to ( florida - colorado ) . see [ maps ]\nbotis niveicilialis grote , 1875 ; bull . buffalo soc . nat . sci . 2 : 232 ; tl : new york\nbotys fodinalis lederer , 1863 ; wien . ent . monats . 7 ( 10 ) : 369 , ( 12 ) : 461 , pl . 8 , f . 9 ; tl : california\nlarva on monardella villosa , ( reared ) [ mna13 . 2 ] ( b ) , 138\nbotis socialis grote , 1877 ; can . ent . 9 ( 6 ) : 107 ; tl : canada\n= hapalia bicoloralis ; whalley , 1963 , bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent . ) 13 ( 11 ) : 446\nbotys tinctalis lederer , 1863 ; wien . ent . monats . 7 ( 10 ) : 371 , ( 12 ) pl . 9 , f . 5 ; tl : venezuela\nbotys extinctalis lederer , 1863 ; wien . ent . monats . 7 ( 10 ) : 372 , ( 12 ) pl . 9 , f . 18 ; tl : himalaya ?\nbotys catasemalis r\u00f6ber , 1891 ; tijdschr . ent . 34 : 334 ; tl : key i .\nbotys aulicalis m\u00f6schler , 1886 ; abh . senckenb . nat . ges . 14 ( 3 ) : 75 ; tl : jamaica\nbotys villicalis m\u00f6schler , 1886 ; abh . senckenb . nat . ges . 14 ( 3 ) : 76 ; tl : jamaica\nbotys matronulalis m\u00f6schler , 1886 ; abh . senckenb . nat . ges . 14 ( 3 ) : 76 ; tl : jamaica\nbotys collustralis m\u00f6schler , 1886 ; abh . senckenb . nat . ges . 14 ( 3 ) : 76 ; tl : jamaica\nbotys hilaralis m\u00f6schler , 1886 ; abh . senckenb . nat . ges . 14 ( 3 ) : 77 ; tl : jamaica\nbotys meropialis m\u00f6schler , 1886 ; abh . senckenb . nat . ges . 14 ( 3 ) : 77 ; tl : jamaica\nbotys janiralis m\u00f6schler , 1886 ; abh . senckenb . nat . ges . 14 ( 3 ) : 78 ; tl : jamaica\nthis information is not automatically synchronized with globiz and can sometimes be lagging behind .\n[ spl ] varis , v . ( ed ) , ahola , m . , albrecht , a . , jalava , j . , kaila , l . , kerppola , s . , kullberg , j . , 1995\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nhistoire naturelle des insectes . species g\u00e9n\u00e9ral des l\u00e9pidopt\u00e9res . tome huiti\u00e9me . deltoides et pyralites\nreise der \u00f6sterreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859 unter den behilfen des commodore b . von w\u00fcllerstorf - urbair . zoologischer theil . band 2 . abtheilung 2 . lepidoptera . rhopalocera\n- 120 , ( inhalts - verz . ) 1 - 9 ( pl . 1 - 74 ) , ( felder & rogenhofer , 1874 ) , ( 5 ) : pl .\nin uhler , p . r . report upon the insects collected by p . r . uhler during the explorations of 1875 , including monographs of the families\na revision of the moths of the subfamily pyraustinae and family pyralidae . part 1\na revision of the moths of the subfamily pyraustinae and family pyralidae . part 2\nhistoire naturelle , g\u00e9n\u00e9rale et particuli\u00e8re des crustac\u00e9s et des insectes . ouvrage faisant suite a l ' histoire naturelle g\u00e9n\u00e9rale et particuli\u00e9re , compos\u00e9e par leclerc de buffon , et redig\u00e9e par c . s . sonnini , member de plusieurs soci\u00e9t\u00e9s savantes\ndescriptions of lepidopterous insects collected the late dr . f . stoliczka during the indian - government mission to yarkund in 1873\n( a ) : 1 - 78 , pl . 1 - 4 , a - h , ( b ) : 79 - 150 , pl . 5 - 9 , j - u\nlist of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum . supplement\nwhalley , 1963 a revision of the world species of the genus endotricha zeller ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent . ) 13 ( 11 ) : 395 - 454 , pl . 1 - 37\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nmunroe , e . , 1976 . moths of america north of mexico , fascicle 13 . 2b , p . 107 ; pl . 6 . 30 - 31 . order\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\npresence in costa rica ; list of 35 specimen records with dates and locations ( u . of alberta )\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nthe information below is based on images submitted and identified by contributors . range and date information may be incomplete , overinclusive , or just plain wrong .\nhover over black occurrence boxes to see number of images submitted . log in to make states , months and boxes clickable .\n80x5 - 240x3 - 240x4 - 320x1 - 320x2 - 320x3 - 640x1 - 640x2 set display option above . click on images to enlarge .\nthis system is free software released under gnu / gpl 3 . 0 - portal version 1 . 0\nthis work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial - sharealike 3 . 0 united states license ."]}
{"id": 1212, "summary": [{"text": "chrysonoma fascialis is a moth of the oecophoridae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is known from australia and papua new guinea .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 20 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults have yellow forewings , each with three dark brown stripes .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are brown .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on the green leaves of eucalyptus and lophostemon species .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they live in flattened portable cases , made from silk and bits of leaf . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "chrysonoma fascialis", "paragraphs": ["chrysonoma fascialis is a moth of the oecophoridae family . it is known from australia and papua new guinea .\nthe banded concealer moth ( chrysonoma fascialis ) is a common and attractive member of the family oecophoridae . this photograph was taken on willans hill , in wagga wagga , nsw .\nthese caterpillars live in flat cases , made from two bits of leaf joined with silk , which they carry around with them . the caterpillars feed on :\nband 2 , abtheilung 2 ( 5 ) ( 1875 ) , plate cxxxviii fig . 48 ,\nthe adult moths have yellow forewings , each with three dark purplish - brown stripes . the hindwings are rusty - brown . the wingspan is about 2 cms .\nthis species was the first of the oecophorinae from australia to be named ( in 1775 ) .\nmelbourne university press , 1990 , pl . 4 . 19 , p . 223 .\ncsiro publishing , melbourne 1994 , pp . xi , 16 , 24 , 31 , 36 , 281 , 286 - 290 .\nissue 78 ( september 2015 ) , pp . 11 - 15 , fig . 3 ,\ncharacters of a few australian lepidoptera , collected by mr . thomas r . oxley\nnew series , volume iii , number 8 ( 1856 ) , p . 295 ,\nthis page contains information and pictures about purple - banded concealer moths that we found in the brisbane area , queensland , australia .\ni . f . b . common , melbourne university press , 1990 , p 223 , plate 4 . 19 .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 613f2a51 - 6513 - 4ee9 - 9437 - 2dbf7857763c\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 7cb44343 - 2b7f - 44b4 - a791 - 3b890434cd66\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 6b6c9a14 - 8eb5 - 4a1a - 8a24 - 31dd13eff412\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 258992\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nthe wingspan is about 20 mm . adults have yellow forewings , each with three dark brown stripes . the hindwings are brown .\nthe larvae feed on the green leaves of\neucalyptus\nand\nlophostemon\nspecies . they live in flattened portable cases , made from silk and bits of leaf .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nif you have any queries or any sightings to report , email me at davidorchard0 @ urltoken .\nthis earlier post listed a few of the insect species found in the area . the present post is a continuation of that one .\na common and widespread mantid , orthodera ministralis is often found ( as its common name suggests ) in suburban gardens . this individual was photographed on the south american potato vine solanum jasminoides .\nbreeding pairs of the tricolor soldier beetle were commonly seen in late summer and early autumn . other species of soldier beetle , c . lugubris and c . pulchellus , routinely form enormous breeding colonies , and so are often called plague soldier beetles . see the brisbane insects website for more information .\nthe circulionidae ( true weevils ) is among the largest and most diverse of the insect families . it is often very difficult to identify particular species . this particular individual bears a very strong resemblance to the elephant weevil orthorhinus cylindrirostris and may belong to the same subfamily ( the molytinae ) .\nthis individual was photographed on a kurrajong ( brachychiton populneus ) , which seems to be a favourite foodsource of a couple of weevil species .\nthis is another weevil species , this time photographed in a suburban garden . the relatively short , broad rostrum ( snout ) suggests that this individual belongs to the subfamily entiminae ( broad - nosed weevils ) .\nthis species of leaf beetle ( chrysomelidae ) is common in vegetable gardens , particularly as a pest of cucurbits ( in this case zucchini ) . they can be extremely destructive . this article from the department of primary industries ( now industry & investment and formerly nsw agriculture ) has some information on pests of cucurbits , including this species .\nchrysodeixis spp . are quite conspicuous \u2013 at least as caterpillars . the adults are not nearly as noticeable . as a leaf - eater with a taste for cultivated vegetables ( this one was photographed on a bean plant ) they can be quite destructive .\nthe banded ( or purple - banded ) concealer moth belongs to the family oecophoridae ( concealer moths ) , which is particularly well - represented around wagga . several other species are known from the area \u2013 some entirely white , some entirely yellow , some yellow with brownish or purplish markings . they are often found clinging to the underside of plant stems and leaves .\nthese are the nymphs of the two - lined gum treehopper . the adults can be seen at the brisbane insects website . the young are attended by ants ( in this case probably a species of golden - tailed sugar ant camponotus sp . ) who collect from them a sugar secretion called honeydew . the ants essentially \u2018farm\u2019 the nymphs .\nanother species of hopper , also in the family cicadellidae , though belonging to a different subfamily ( tartessinae , not eurymelinae ) . leafhoppers are plant - feeders , using their piercing mouthparts to extract sap from trees . these individuals were seen on a young eucalypt ( possibly the river red gum eucalyptus camaldulensis ) near lake albert .\nthat\u2019s all for now . in bird - related news , the black - chinned honeyeater ( a vulnerable species ) was recorded at mates gully rd . tsr and has been added to the lists for mates gully and for wagga wagga . also added to the wagga list was the swift parrot , an endangered species , which was recorded ( by call only ) at red hill reserve , near pomingalarna . it is also known to overwinter in mates gully rd . and kyeamba tsrs .\nin less encouraging news , the scarlet robin has recently been declared a vulnerable species ( see here ) . its numbers are apparently in decline . in the wagga area it is known from livingstone national park and mates gully rd . tsr .\nnest hill nature reserve , formerly pulletop state forest , was gazetted in january 2001 . it is located roughly 35km south of wagga wagga and 25km north of holbrook . it is accessible only via management trails . the management plan can be found here , but is sadly rather light on details .\nsurveys carried out by the national parks and wildlife service recorded only 20 bird species in the park . the following is a list of more than thirty recorded by me in the space of a single visit ( the discrepancy is hard to explain ) : 1 . australian magpie 2 . australian raven 3 . + australian wood - duck 4 . + black swan 5 . black - faced cuckoo - shrike 6 . brown falcon 7 . brown treecreeper 8 . common bronzewing 9 . crested pigeon 10 . eastern rosella 11 . eastern yellow robin 12 . flame robin 13 . galah 14 . grey fantail 15 . grey shrike - thrush 16 . laughing kookaburra 17 . magpie - lark 18 . + masked lapwing 19 . pied currawong 20 . red wattlebird 21 . red - rumped parrot 22 . restless flycatcher 23 . rufous whistler 24 . striated pardalote 25 . sulphur - crested cockatoo 26 . superb fairy - wren 27 . weebill 28 . welcome swallow 29 . white - plumed honeyeater 30 . white - throated treecreeper 31 . white - winged chough 32 . willie wagtail 33 . yellow thornbill\n( those species marked with a + were recorded on a farm dam immediately adjacent to the reserve ) . of particular note is the brown treecreeper , the eastern subspecies of which ( climacteris picumnus victoriae ) is classed as vulnerable . ( though there is some debate as to whether the local subspecies is c . p . victoriae or c . p . picumnus ) . the fantail cuckoo and cockatiel were recorded in the surrounding area in spring .\nthe reserve is dominated by three vegetation communities : 1 . rough - barked red box ( eucalyptus polyanthemos ) / white box ( e . albens ) 2 . inland scribbly gum ( e . rossii ) / norton\u2019s box ( e . nortonii ) 3 . red stringybark ( e . macrorhyncha ; pictured above ) / inland scribbly gum / rough - barked red box\nnest hill nr contains what is probably the largest stand of red box in the wagga area ( it is found in smaller quantities in livingstone np and mates gully rd tsr ) . the presence of red stringybark is also noteworthy for similar reasons .\nthe understorey is sparse and generally lacking in diversity , owing to extensive grazing prior to the reserve\u2019s gazettal . weeds ( including * sonchus asper , * galium aparine and * trifolium spp . ) are encroaching on the reserve\u2019s boundaries .\namong the species recorded were the heaths melichrus urceolatus ( urn heath ; pictured above ) and lissanthe strigosa ( peach heath ) ; the orchids pterostylis sp . aff . parviflora ( tiny greenhood ; see here and here ) and pterostylis falcata ( autumn or sickle greenhood ) ; and the small herbs goodenia hederacea ( ivy goodenia ; pictured below ) , cymbonotus preissianus ( austral bear\u2019s - ear ; pictured below ) , geranium solanderi ( native geranium ) , hydrocotyle laxiflora ( stinking pennywort ) and dauchus glochidiatus ( austral carrot ) .\nalso recorded were the grasses austrostipa scabra ( rough speargrass ) , microlaena stipoides ( weeping or meadow rice - grass ; uncommon ) and a species of poa ( tussock grass ) . grass trees ( xanthorrhoea sp . ) were also present .\nthere was also a substantial fungus population , including several large colonies of phylloporus clelandii ( pictured above ) , limacella spp . , pisolithus tinctorius ( horse dropping fungus ) and a small , woolly bracket fungus ( possibly a species of stereum ; pictured below ) .\nthis information comes from a single visit to the reserve . future visits are likely to yield much more .\nlivingstone national park has been logged , mined for gold , tin and wolframite , and used as a bombing range . and yet it is almost certainly the best - preserved area of remnant vegetation in the vicinity of wagga . it was finally gazetted ( as livingstone national park and nature reserve ) in 2001 . in 2006 , the southern end ( adjacent to the locality of burrandana ) was declared a state conservation area .\nthe park is apparently home to 20 or more species of orchid . nine spring - flowering species were documented in this earlier post . plantnet lists four further spring - flowering species ( caladenia dimorpha , c . phaeoclavia , pterostylis mutica and thelymitra ixioides ) in the park . the management plan lists another four species : the greenhoods pterostylis curta and pterostylis longifolia , the ruddyhood pterostylis pusilla and the tiny finger orchid caladenia mentiens . additionally , four species of autumn - flowering orchid are known from the park . these are profiled here .\neriochilus cucullatus is a tiny , delicate and inconspicuous species . each plant may carry up to five flowers , though most have only one or two . it has been recorded from the both the northern and southern sections of the park , and also from murraguldrie flora reserve .\nthis identification is tentative . genoplesium is a large genus , but g . rufum is the only species listed by plantnet for the nsw south - west slopes bioregion . this species is extremely variable . its colouration runs the gamut from deep purple - black to mostly green with reddish or brownish tips to the lateral sepals ( as in this case ) . some debate exists as to whether genoplesium rufum constitutes a single species or a complex of related varieties . the flowers on this particular specimen have closed for the year .\nthe pterostylis sp . aff . parviflora complex accounts for almost a dozen species , subspecies or varieties of orchid . the variety found at livingstone ( assuming there is only one ) may be the one referred to in bishop\u2019s 1996 field guide ( currently out of print ) as pterostylis sp . aff . parviflora ( large red - brown ) . complicating this identification is the fact that many plants were found to have seven or eight flowers , whereas bishop claims that pterostylis sp . aff . parviflora ( large red - brown ) only rarely has more than six . another variety it resembles commonly has up to eight flowers , but is known only from the melbourne , victoria area ( designated by bishop as pterostylis sp . aff . parviflora ( eastern melbourne ) ) .\ntthe genus speculantha has been proposed to distinguish the tiny greenhoods from the larger species , like the one below .\nis not recognised by bishop and does not have an entry in plantnet\u2019s flora of new south wales . nevertheless it is the only autumn - flowering greenhood that comes up in a\nthis species is extremely common in livingstone national park , often occuring in colonies of up to thirty plants . these colonies are composed of plants at varying stages of maturity . younger and older flowers often take on unusual shapes :\ncoming soon : posts on nest hill nature reserve and plum pudding hill tsr and a series of posts on common urban and suburban birds of wagga .\ni\u2019ve produced three wallpaper versions ( 1024\u00d7768 , 1280\u00d71024 and 1600\u00d71200 ) of the resupinatus cinerascens shot from the previous post , if anybody is interested .\ni may do this with other photographs ( flowers , birds , and so on ) if there is any interest .\nthe rains in december , february and march brought out a large crop of fungi of various kinds , and now , with the temperature dropping and dew beginning to form , there seems to be a constant supply of unusual and interesting fungus species . a few of the more interesting are shown below .\nis a tiny fungus \u2013 the largest fruiting body being around 1cm in diameter \u2013 found on the underside of rotting logs . this particular specimen was found in wallacetown .\nis a common but inconspicuous fungus of lawns and gardens . the fruit has an extremely short life , sometimes lasting only a few hours before\ncontains a number of very similar \u2018jelly\u2019 fungi . this specimen was photographed on the side of a rotting log in ganmain state forest .\nis larger and more attractive than most of the earth stars found in the area . it seems to occur in colonies in very wet leaf litter .\nthis particular colony was found in a wet gully on the northern end of livingstone national park .\n, one of a group of large , fleshy fungi sometimes referred to as gilled boletes ( true boletes have pores rather than gills on the undersurface of the cap ) . this fungus is , according to bruce fuhrer\u2019s field guide , generally uncommon . this particular specimen was again photographed on the northern end of livingstone national park .\nspecies are very large ( around 20cm , in this case ) and are found in a variety of locations . the specimens seen here were part of a very large colony found in the grounds of the wagga wagga botanic gardens . despite their size the young fruiting bodies grew very close together :\n. this particular species \u2013 found as it was in a lawn composed of exotic grasses \u2013 may not be native to australia .\n. this extraordinary species is usually found on herbivore dung \u2013 in this case cow . the small \u2018seeds\u2019 or \u2018eggs\u2019 are called peridioles . these contain the spores and are dispersed by raindrops . this cluster of fruiting bodies was spotted at the kyeamba tsr ( which may recieve a full profile at a later date ) .\ni hope soon to add a post on the autumn - flowering orchids recorded in the area . the bird count remains unchanged .\nan earlier post ( willans hill in summer , january 5 ) listed a number of insect species found in the wagga area . the present post can be considered a continuation of that one . where possible the insects illustrated have been identified to the level of species , but identification is not always straightforward . of the many resources i have used , the brisbane insects website is probably the most useful ( i take the blame for any incorrect identifications , of course ) .\nthis is likely to be the first of many posts on the insect fauna of the area .\nthe tailed emperor is a large and beautiful butterfly in the family nymphalidae . it is probably not a permanent resident here , but vagrants have been known to reach southern victoria and south - eastern south australia . the larva is pictured here on a kurrajong ( brachychiton populneus ) , one of the species\u2019 many larval foodsources , on willans hill . the \u201chorns\u201d are purely for intimidation : the caterpillar is completely harmless .\nthe larva of the privet hawk moth is a large , robust and strikingly patterned caterpillar that \u2013 despite its name \u2013 is equally at home on a variety of introduced garden plants . the individual photographed was seen in a suburban garden , apparently feeding on the leaves of the purple trumpet vine ( podranea ricasoliana ) , a south african import . privet ( ligustrum spp . ) is a significant garden escapee . two species , l . sinense and l . vulgare , are declared noxious weeds in nsw .\nwasp moths belong to the ctenuchinae , a subfamily of the arctiidae ( tiger moths ) . there are a number of similar amata species , which cannot be easily distinguished . a number of individuals were seen recently in livingstone national park .\nthe tiger lichen moth is also a member of the arctiidae , this time of the subfamily lithosiinae ( lichen moths ) . once again , several individuals were seen in livingstone .\nthis stocky , distinctive moth was seen on willans hill and at mundwaddery cemetery . it belongs to the family notodontidae . its face is obscured by a dense mane of fibrous hairs :\nthe diamond beetle , also known as the botany bay diamond weevil , was the first australian insect to be formally described . it is apparently very common around sydney but is less so here .\nmost ladybird species are considered to be important control agents of crop and garden pests . the twentyeightspotted ladybird ( also referred to as epilachna 28 - punctata and epilachna cucurbitae ) , on the other hand , is a leaf - eater , and is also highly prolific . the larva is bizarre :\nparopsis variolosa resembles a large ladybird . it feeds exclusively on the leaves of eucalyptus species . this individual was photographed on willans hill .\nthis longicorn ( \u201clong - horned\u201d ) beetle was photographed on a kangaroo thorn ( acacia paradoxa ) shrub in livingstone national park . the precise identity of the beetle is uncertain , but it may be a species of platyomopsis .\nthe green potato bug is \u2013 like the twentyeightspotted ladybird \u2013 a common resident of suburban gardens . it feeds on tomatoes , potatoes and other cultivated plants .\ni have added the black - faced woodswallow ( artamus cinereus ) to the birdlist for wagga wagga . this brings the total number of species recorded over the past twelve months to 157 , exactly 150 of which are native .\n\u201ctorrential\u201d screamed the front page of the daily advertiser , following wagga\u2019s wettest march day on record . the lake has filled for the first time in a very long time . this is the lake as of march 11 . by way of contrast , the photograph below shows the lake as it looked on january 21 .\nvery few shorebirds remain at the lake , of course , as there is no longer a very distinct shoreline . the water will most likely recede before long . \u2014 apologies for the lack of posts lately . i have two in the works : one on fungi and one on insects .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy"]}
{"id": 1214, "summary": [{"text": "diacme adipaloides , the darker diacme moth , is a moth in the crambidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by grote and robinson in 1867 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from alabama , arkansas , florida , indiana , maine , maryland , massachusetts , michigan , minnesota , new brunswick , new hampshire , new jersey , new york , north carolina , nova scotia , ohio , oklahoma , ontario , quebec , south carolina , tennessee , texas , virginia , west virginia and wisconsin .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 18 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults resemble diacme elealis , but the forewings are darker and greyish brown with irregular pale orange bands .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are paler yellow with a wide brown border .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults have been recorded year round . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "diacme adipaloides", "paragraphs": ["species diacme adipaloides - darker diacme moth - hodges # 5143 - bugguide . net\nthe presence of a basal line on the hindwing appears to be useful in for separating light examples of d . adipaloides from elealis .\ni do call some things d . elealis in sc , but these have a different wing shape , and never have any hint of a basal line on the hw . i call everything with a basal line d . adipaloides .\nbrian scholtens - reference here\naccording to brian scholtens and others , the presence of a basal line on the hindwing is diagnostic for the darker diacme . reference despite the common name , some forms of the\ndarker diacme\ncan be just as pale as the\npaler diacme\n, but the presence or absence of the basal line is distinctive .\nidentification based on this marking seems to be supported by dna evidence at bold . the bin group for elealis , aae7559 , shows no examples with the basal line / loop . all examples show a pale yellow basal area with no dark markings . the bin for adipaloides , aab2577 shows no examples with this mark absent .\nresembles paler diacme , but darker fw is grayish brown with irregular pale orange bands . hw is paler yellow with wide brown border .\na darker diacme moth in worcester co . , maryland ( 6 / 10 / 2013 ) . photo by scott housten . ( mbp list )\na darker diacme moth in worcester co . , maryland ( 4 / 25 / 2014 ) . photo by scott housten . ( mbp list )\na darker diacme moth in worcester co . , maryland ( 6 / 11 / 2013 ) . photo by mike burchett . ( mbp list )\na darker diacme moth in dorchester co . , maryland ( 4 / 18 / 2015 ) . photo by jonathan willey . ( mbp list )\na darker diacme moth in howard co . , maryland ( 4 / 20 / 2004 ) . photo by larry line . ( mbp list )\na darker diacme moth in calvert co . , maryland ( 9 / 11 / 2006 ) . photo by arlene ripley . ( mbp list )\na darker diacme moth in howard co . , maryland ( 2002 ) . determined by hugh mcguinness . photo by larry line . ( mbp list )\na darker diacme moth in prince george ' s co . , maryland ( 7 / 21 / 2017 ) . photo by barbara thurlow . ( mbp list )\na darker diacme moth in st . mary ' s co . , maryland ( 7 / 26 / 2017 ) . photo by tyler bell . ( mbp list )\na darker diacme moth in cecil co . , maryland ( 7 / 31 / 2015 ) . determined by hugh mcguinness . photo by shannon schade . ( mbp list )\na darker diacme moth in dorchester co . , maryland ( 8 / 31 / 2017 ) . determined by hugh mcguinness . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na darker diacme moth in harford co . , maryland ( 7 / 16 / 2017 ) . determined by hugh mcguinness . photo by dave webb . ( mbp list )\na darker diacme moth in anne arundel co . , maryland ( 9 / 15 / 2017 ) . determined by hugh mcguinness . photo by bill hubick . ( mbp list )\na darker diacme moth in harford co . , maryland ( 4 / 14 / 2018 ) . verified by roger downer / bamona . photo by dave webb . ( mbp list )\na darker diacme moth in worcester co . , maryland ( 5 / 1 / 2013 ) . determined by nancy dowd / bugguide . photo by scott housten . ( mbp list )\na darker diacme moth in anne arundel co . , maryland ( 9 / 1 / 2016 ) . verified by roger downer / bamona . photo by tyler bell . ( mbp list )\na darker diacme moth in anne arundel co . , maryland ( 6 / 6 / 2015 ) . determined by hugh mcguinness . photo by robert aguilar , serc . ( mbp list )\na darker diacme moth in anne arundel co . , maryland ( 9 / 6 / 2016 ) . verified by roger downer / bamona . photo by tyler bell . ( mbp list )\na darker diacme moth in st . mary ' s co . , maryland ( 3 / 27 / 2017 ) . verified by hugh mcguinness . photo by tyler bell . ( mbp list )\na darker diacme moth in howard co . , maryland ( 7 / 25 / 2017 ) . determined by high mcguinness . verified by bob biagi / bugguide . photo by bill harms . ( mbp list )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nthe bold sample size for elealis is small and these two species may be part of a complex with undescribed species . brian scholtens expressed in an email from 12 / 5 / 2017 that the taxonomy in this group may not be settled .\ngrote , a . r . , c . t . robinson , 1867 . descriptions of american lepidoptera , no 1 . transactions of the american entomological society . 1 : 26 . plate 2 , fg . 19 .\npeterson field guide to moths of northeastern north america david beadle and seabrooke leckie . 2012 . houghton mifflin .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nuse of images featured on maryland biodiversity project is only permitted with express permission of the photographer .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhodges , r . w . et al . , eds . 1983 . check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . e . w . classey limited and the wedge entomological research foundation , london . 284 pp .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\ndistribution data for u . s . states and canadian provinces is known to be incomplete or has not been reviewed for this taxon .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\nall documents and related graphics provided by this server and any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server are provided\nas is\nwithout warranty as to the currentness , completeness , or accuracy of any specific data . natureserve hereby disclaims all warranties and conditions with regard to any documents provided by this server or any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , including but not limited to all implied warranties and conditions of merchantibility , fitness for a particular purpose , and non - infringement . natureserve makes no representations about the suitability of the information delivered from this server or any other documents that are referenced to or linked to this server . in no event shall natureserve be liable for any special , indirect , incidental , consequential damages , or for damages of any kind arising out of or in connection with the use or performance of information contained in any documents provided by this server or in any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , under any theory of liability used . natureserve may update or make changes to the documents provided by this server at any time without notice ; however , natureserve makes no commitment to update the information contained herein . since the data in the central databases are continually being updated , it is advisable to refresh data retrieved at least once a year after its receipt . the data provided is for planning , assessment , and informational purposes . site specific projects or activities should be reviewed for potential environmental impacts with appropriate regulatory agencies . if ground - disturbing activities are proposed on a site , the appropriate state natural heritage program ( s ) or conservation data center can be contacted for a site - specific review of the project area ( see visit local programs ) .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\nbesides being memorable , . com domains are unique : this is the one and only . com name of it ' s kind . other extensions usually just drive traffic to their . com counterparts . to learn more about premium . com domain valuations , watch the video below :\n73 % of all domains registered on the web are . coms . the reason is simple : . com is the where most of web traffic happens . owning a premium . com gives you great benefits including better seo , name recognition , and providing your site with a sense of authority .\nvery fast and eay service to understand . . . - ivan baca , 12 / 25 / 2017\nthe purchase of domain was easy and fast . - ivan gusinskiy , 12 / 25 / 2017"]}
{"id": 1215, "summary": [{"text": "atlantic torpedo ( tetronarce nobiliana ) is a species of electric ray in the family torpedinidae .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is found in the atlantic ocean , from nova scotia to brazil in the west and from scotland to west africa and off southern africa in the east , occurring at depths of up to 800 m ( 2,600 ft ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "younger individuals generally inhabit shallower , sandy or muddy habitats , whereas adults are more pelagic in nature and frequent open water .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "up to 1.8 m ( 6 ft ) long and weighing 90 kg ( 200 lb ) , the atlantic torpedo is the largest known electric ray .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "like other members of its genus , it has an almost circular pectoral fin disk with a nearly straight leading margin , and a robust tail with a large triangular caudal fin .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "distinctive characteristics include its uniform dark color , smooth-rimmed spiracles ( paired respiratory openings behind the eyes ) , and two dorsal fins of unequal size .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "solitary and nocturnal , the atlantic torpedo is capable of generating up to 220 volts of electricity to subdue its prey or defend itself against predators .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "its diet consists mainly of bony fishes , though it also feeds on small sharks and crustaceans .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it is an aplacental viviparous species , wherein the developing embryos are nourished by yolk and later maternally provided histotroph ( \" uterine milk \" ) .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "females give birth to up to 60 young following a gestation period of one year .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the electric shock of this species can be quite severe and painful , though it is not fatal .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "because of its electrogenic properties , the atlantic torpedo was used in medicine by the ancient greeks and romans and became the namesake of the naval weapon .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "prior to the 19th century , its liver oil was used as lamp fuel , but it is no longer of any economic value .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has listed this species as data deficient ; it is caught unintentionally by commercial and recreational fishers , but the impact of these activities on its population is unknown . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "atlantic torpedo", "paragraphs": ["the common torpedo was originally described by linnaeus as raja torpedo in 1758 tenth edition of his systema naturae . in 1838 , it placed under the torpedo genus and assigned its currently valid scientific name of torpedo torpedo by bonaparte ( linnaeus 1838 ) . synonyms include torpedo narce risso 1810 , torpedo narke risso 1810 , torpedo ocellata rafinesque 1810 , torpedo unimaculata risso 1810 and torpedo oculata davy 1834 . torpedo is the roman name referring to electric rays with the latin origin , torpere , meaning\nto be numb\n.\nscalloped hammerhead shark ( sphyrna lewini ) and atlantic torpedo ray ( tetronarce nobiliana ) . photo by jan factor .\nthe atlantic torpedo has a diet consisting of crustaceans , mollusks , worms , as well as other invertebrates and fishes .\nthe common torpedo resides in the eastern atlantic ocean in the southern bay of biscay and throughout the mediterranean to angola .\nthe electric organs of the atlantic torpedo are capable of producing 220 volts of electricity , partially due to the large size attained by this species . however , the atlantic torpedo has not been known to seriously injure humans in its natural environment .\nabdel - aziz , s . h . 1994 . observations on the biology of the common torpedo ( torpedo torpedo , linnaeus , 1758 ) and marbled electric ray ( torpedo marmorata , risso , 1810 ) from egyptian mediterranean waters . australian journal of marine and freshwater research 45 ( 4 ) : 693 - 704 .\nthe atlantic torpedo occurs on both side of the north atlantic ocean . in the northwest atlantic , it ranges from nova scotia south to florida and the northern gulf of mexico . in the eastern atlantic , it ranges from northern scotland to tropical west africa , including the mediterranean . this species is not common in the canadian atlantic as it is primarily a warmer water species ; however , strays are occasionally captured , especially during the summer months .\nafter seeing the pictures of the discovery , new england aquarium media relations director tony lacasse told wbz - tv the man had come across an atlantic torpedo ray .\ntorpedo ray / electric ray . . . . . raie torpille / raie electrique ! .\noceanic whitetip first shark listed as \u201cthreatened\u201d in the continental u . s . atlantic\ntorpedo rays are only seen in the boston area a few times each summer , lacasse said .\ncommon torpedo grow to a maximum total length of 23 . 6 inches . photo \u00a9 george burgess\nurltoken copyright ( c ) 2018 by the atlantic monthly group . all rights reserved .\nthe electric shock from the common torpedo is quite strong but is not life - threatening to humans .\n[ 57 ] this torpedo is also reported from the florida keys and from cuba but on doubtful evidence .\n\u2026the shocks of the species torpedo nobiliana were used as a treatment for gout , headache , and other maladies .\nparasites known parasites of the common torpedo include the tapeworm phyllobothrium lactuca and the monogeneans amphibdella paronaperugiae and amphibdelloides benhassinae .\nlike most batoids , the atlantic torpedo is a bottom - dwelling fish inhabiting muddy or sandy bottom ecosystems , usually in shallow water areas but reaching depths of 60 fathoms . individuals often lie partially buried in the substrate .\ndid a huge glowing sea creature help push the u . s . into the vietnam war ? - the atlantic\nstegeman jj . hepatic microsomal monooxygenase activity and biotransformation of hydrocarboms in deep benthic fish from the western north atlantic .\non this day in 1917 , germany announces the renewal of unrestricted submarine warfare in the atlantic as german torpedo - armed submarines prepare to attack any and all ships , including civilian passenger carriers , said to be sighted in war - zone waters .\nthe battle of the atlantic , from 1939 to 1945 , was the longest continuous battle of the second world war .\nrarely utilised . historically , in adriatic sea , torpedo marmorata was sold smoked although its meat was of the lowest commercial value ( ninni 1912 ) .\nlacasse said it is not a sting ray , and is instead is the only electric ray in this part of the atlantic ocean .\nin a wonderful passage from fishes of the gulf of maine , bigelow and schroeder provide perspective on the historical abundance of atlantic herring .\nthis species has a wide distribution in the atlantic ocean . western atlantic : from nova scotia , canada , south to brazil . eastern atlantic : from scotland ( rare in north sea ) , south to morocco , including the mediterranean sea , and from mauritania to the gulf of guinea , and namibia to mossel bay in south africa ( whitehead et al . 1984 , florida museum of natural history ) .\nkidd rb , huggett qj . rock debris on abyssal plains in the northeast atlantic : a comparison of epibenthic sledge hauls and photographic surveys .\nvan der vat d . the atlantic campaign : the great struggle at sea , 1939\u20131945 . 1988 . 424 hodder & stoughton , london .\natlantic bluefin tunas have streamlined bodies built for speed and endurance . they can even retract their dorsal and pectoral fins into slots to reduce drag .\nw . a . b . douglas . 2010 . battle of the atlantic . the canadian encyclopedia urltoken ( accessed july 9 , 2018 ) .\nin the english language , this ray is commonly referred to as pacific electric ray , torpedo , pacific torpedo , and electric ray . in other languages , common names include californisk darrocka ( swedish ) , raya electrica ( spanish ) , pazifischer zitterrochen ( german ) , dretwa kalifornijska ( polish ) , and pacifische sidderrog ( dutch ) .\nthe atlantic torpedo is easily recognizable from other species of batoid inhabiting the northwest atlantic due to its subcircular , disc - shaped body formed partially by its pectorals which attach anteriorly to either side of the head , extending beyond the eyes . other distinguishing characteristics include its stout tail , which is either as long as or shorter than its body ; and its distinct head , which contains powerful electric organs visible as large , kidney - shaped patches on sides of head that are capable of producing extremely painful shocks . the atlantic torpedo has a small mouth filled with small , rounded teeth , with some having sharp cusps ; small , almost absent , eyes ; and skin that is naked , soft , and loose . the dorsal ( x 2 ) and caudal fins of the atlantic torpedo are well - developed , with the first dorsal larger than the second and located partially posterior to the pelvic fins . coloration varies from uniform ( or slightly spotted ) dark - chocolate brown to nearly slate - gray or black on the dorsal surface , with the ventral surface being white edged with light brown .\nthe waters off the north carolina coast are known as the graveyard of the atlantic and torpedo junction . here , dozens of ships \u2014 mostly merchant vessels \u2014 were sunk by german u - boats . the national oceanic and atmospheric administration ( noaa ) estimates that from january to august 1942 , more than 50 vessels were lost to the u - boat assault . the remains of those ships , along with several u - boats , rest on the atlantic ocean seafloor .\nhareide n - r , garnes g . the distribution and catch rates of deep water fish along the mid - atlantic ridge from 43\u00b0n to 61\u00b0n .\nthe torpedo , like others of its tribe , is a bottom fish . it is a fish eater . the stomach of one taken at woods hole contained a summer flounder (\ndue to their great abundance , the atlantic herring became one of the most important and sought after fish species in the gulf of maine . they still are .\nprince ed , luo j , goodyear lp , hoolihan jp , snodgrass d , et al . ocean scale hypoxia - based habitat compression of atlantic istiophorid billfishes .\non january 31 , 1917 , germany announces the renewal of unlimited submarine warfare in the atlantic , and german torpedo - armed submarines prepare to attack any and all ships , including civilian passenger carriers , said to be sited in war - zone waters . three days later , the united states broke diplomatic relations with germany , and just . . .\njustification : the spotted torpedo ( torpedo marmorata ) seems to have a wide distribution throughout the eastern atlantic ocean and the mediterranean sea . its life history traits are relatively well known , however its abundance and possible threats faced by this species are not well known throughout its range . trawl survey data indicate that this species is more common that other torpedo species in the northern mediterranean sea and may be increasing in coastal waters of italy . little is known of population trends or the impact of fisheries off western africa and throughout the rest of its range , where demersal trawl effort is high . therefore it is assessed as data deficient globally at present , until information on its population status can be obtained from throughout its range .\njustification : the great torpedo ray ( torpedo nobiliana ) has a relatively wide range in the atlantic ocean , including the mediterranean sea . adults are frequently pelagic or semi - pelagic , from near the surface to 800 m depth , whereas juveniles are mainly benthic living on soft - substrate and coral reef habitat in shallower water . very little data are available on population or catch trends , although surveys suggest that this species is rare in the mediterranean sea . when caught , torpedo rays are usually discarded at sea , resulting in very little data on catches of these species . the great torpedo ray is caught with bottom trawls and line gear and further research is required to determine the impact of fishing activities on the species . destruction and degradation of the species ' shallow water nursery grounds may threaten juveniles . at present this species is assessed as data deficient globally due to very little information on catches and population trends .\njustification : this electric ray occurs in the eastern atlantic , from the southern bay of biscay , south to angola and in the mediterranean sea . the ocellate torpedo ( torpedo torpedo ) is primarily coastal , found in inshore waters , although occasionally found to depths of > 300 m . the species is apparently more common in southern mediterranean waters than in the northern mediterranean . trawl survey data available from the northern mediterranean indicate that the ocellate torpedo is less common than other torpedo species in this area . few data are currently available from throughout the rest of the species\u2019 range . this species is taken as bycatch in demersal fisheries , including coastal artisanal fisheries , trawls and trammel nets , although no specific data are available on its capture and it is most likely discarded at sea . post discard survival may be relatively high because it is often caught in shallow waters . at present insufficient data are available to assess this species beyond data deficient globally . demersal fishing pressure is relatively intensive in large areas of its range and there is a need to further investigate the impact of fisheries and habitat pressures on this species .\ncapap\u00e9 , c . 1979 . the marble ray , torpedo marmorata risso 1810 ( pisces , rajiformes ) of the tunisian coasts : new data on ecology and biology of reproduction of the species with a comparison between mediterranean and atlantic populations . ann . sci . nat . zool . , biol . anim . 1 ( 2 ) : 79 - 97 .\neastern central and southeast atlantic ocean : recorded from senegal to angola ( cadenat et al . 1978 , capap\u00e9 and desoutter 1990 , carvalho and s\u00e9ret in press ) .\nw . a . b . douglas , r . the canadian encyclopedia . ( 2010 ) . battle of the atlantic . retrieved july 9 , 2018 , from urltoken\ncopley jtp , jorgensen pbk , sohn ra . assessment of decadal - scale ecological change at a mid - atlantic hydrothermal vent and reproductive time - series in the shrimp\npredators potential predators include larger marine fish such as sharks especially in cooler waters where it is unknown if the common torpedo ' s electric organs are able to discharge a charge to deter predators .\ndouglas , w . & dubreuil , b . . r . the canadian encyclopedia . ( 2010 ) . battle of the atlantic . retrieved july 9 , 2018 from urltoken\ndouglas , w . & dubreuil , b . . r . the canadian encyclopedia . ( 2010 ) . battle of the atlantic . retrieved july 9 , 2018 from urltoken\ndouglas , w . a . b . and dubreuil , brian . 2010 . battle of the atlantic . the canadian encyclopedia urltoken ( accessed july 9 , 2018 ) .\nw . a . b . douglas .\nbattle of the atlantic\nin the canadian encyclopedia . historica canada , 1985\u2013 . article published april 25 , 2010 . urltoken\nin recognition of canada\u2019s substantial role , the allies put the entire northwest atlantic \u2014 from nova scotia to the arctic circle \u2014 under canadian control . rear admiral leonard murray was named commander - in - chief , canadian northwest atlantic . he was the only canadian to command an allied theatre of conflict in either the first or second world wars .\nthis species is captured in demersal fisheries , including bottom trawls , trammel nets , and artisanal coastal fisheries . even though it is edible , it is landed in very few fisheries and is most often discarded at sea . post discard survival may be relatively high because it is often caught in shallow waters . torpedo torpedo appears to be consistently present in the demersal catch of fisheries on northern mediterranean shores . no information is currently available on catches throughout the rest of the species\u2019 range in the eastern atlantic , although inshore fishing pressure is relatively intensive across large areas of this range .\ncanada declared war on germany a week later , on 10 september 1939 . immediately , canada\u2019s navy , merchant marine and air force were thrust into the battle of the atlantic .\neastern atlantic : scotland ( rare in north sea ) to morocco , whole of mediterranean , but not black sea ; cap blanc in mauritania to gulf of guinea , s\u00e3o tom\u00e9 island ; walvis bay , namibia to mossel bay , south africa ( ref . 5578 ) . western atlantic : nova scotia , canada south to brazil ( ref . 26340 ) .\neastern atlantic and mediterranean sea : from the northern uk , south to cape of good hope , south africa , and throughout the mediterranean sea ( whitehead et al . 1984 ) .\nw . a . b . douglas and brian dubreuil .\nbattle of the atlantic .\nin the canadian encyclopedia . historica canada , 1985\u2014 . article published april 26 , 2010\nw . a . b . douglas\nbattle of the atlantic\nthe canadian encyclopedia . eds . . toronto : historica canada , 2010 . web . 9 jul . 2018 .\nthe pacific electric ray is one of 14 described species of electric rays , but is the only species limited to the west coast of the us . the species was first described as torpedo californica by ayres in 1855 , but was later placed in the genus tetronarce by gill in 1861 . the animal was ultimately returned to its previous genus and is currently known as torpedo californica . its genus name , torpedo , comes from the latin word ' torpidus ' meaning numbness in reference to the effect of the electric organ . the species name , californica , denotes where the animal was first discovered - the state of california ( u . s . ) .\ndouglas , w . a . b . and brian dubreuil .\nbattle of the atlantic\n. the canadian encyclopedia . toronto : historica canada , 2010 . web . 26 apr 2010 .\ndouglas , w . a . b . and brian dubreuil .\nbattle of the atlantic\n. the canadian encyclopedia . toronto : historica canada , 2010 . web . 26 apr 2010 .\npeele er , singleton fl , deming jw , cavari b , colwell rr . effects of pharmaceutical wastes on microbial populations in surface waters at the puerto rico dump site in the atlantic ocean .\nbailey dm , collins ma , gordon jdm , zuur af , priede ig . long - term changes in deep - water fish populations in the northeast atlantic : a deeper reaching effect of fisheries ?\nbenn a , weaver pp , billett dsm , van den hove s , murdock ap , et al . human activities on the deep seafloor in the north east atlantic : an assessment of spatial extent .\nmellinger , j . 1971 . croissance et reproduction de la torpille ( torpedo marmorata ) . i . introduction \u00e9cologie , croissance g\u00e9n\u00e9rale et dimorphisme sexuel , cycle , f\u00e9condit\u00e9 . bull . biol . fr . belgique 105 : 165 - 218 .\nalthough the common torpedo is edible , it is typically discarded when taken as bycatch in commercial and artisanal fisheries . due to its shallow water habitats , the common torpedo often survives being captured and discarded . it is susceptible to demersal fishing gear such as bottom trawls and trammel nets and although fishing pressure is intense within its geographic range , there is no specific data on this species . this species can be maintained in aquariums , however it requires a supply of live fish for food .\nthe battle of the atlantic , from 1939 to 1945 , was the longest continuous battle of the second world war . canada played a key role in the allied struggle for control of the north atlantic , as german submarines worked furiously to cripple the convoys shipping crucial supplies to europe . victory was costly : more than 70 , 000 allied seamen , merchant mariners and airmen lost their lives , including 4 , 600 canadians .\nthe common torpedo is currently listed as data deficient with the world conservation union ( iucn ) . the iucn is a global union of states , governmental agencies , and non - governmental organizations in a partnership that assesses the conservation status of species .\nin the north pacific ocean the pacific herring , clupea pallasii , closely resembles our atlantic species , clupea harengus . while morphologically similar , there are some differences in their life histories . atlantic herring spawn in the spring and fall whereas pacific herring are strictly spring spawners . pallasii is the latinized last name of petrus simon pallas , a russian naturalist and explorer who first described the pacific species during his travels in the north pacific .\nwigham b , hudson i , billett dsm , wolff ga . is long - term change in the abyssal northeast atlantic driven by qualitative changes in export flux ? evidence from selective feeding in deep - sea holothurians .\nthe atlantic bluefin tuna is one of the largest , fastest , and most gorgeously colored of all the world\u2019s fishes . their torpedo - shaped , streamlined bodies are built for speed and endurance . their coloring\u2014metallic blue on top and shimmering silver - white on the bottom\u2014helps camouflage them from above and below . and their voracious appetite and varied diet pushes their average size to a whopping 6 . 5 feet in length and 550 pounds , although much larger specimens are not uncommon .\nmany of these attacks took place in an area of the mid - atlantic that became known as the \u201cblack pit\u201d \u2014 a stretch of ocean beyond the range of allied aircraft tasked with providing aerial coverage for the convoys .\natlantic menhaden migrate north from the mid - atlantic states in the summer and , in some years , are very abundant in the gulf of maine . schools of menhaden can be so abundant that when they crowd into warm , shallow , inshore waters , or are forced in by predatory bluefish , they use up all the oxygen in the water and die . the last time this happened in maine was in the early 1990 ' s .\neastern atlantic , including mediterranean sea : occurs from the southern bay of biscay ( records as far north as belgium are questionable ) , south to angola . also occurs throughout the mediterranean sea ( whitehead et al . 1984 ) .\nwhitehead , p . j . p . , bauchot , m . - l . , hureau , j . and tortonese e . 1984 . fishes of the northeastern atlantic and the mediterranean , vol . i . unesco , paris .\nthe marbled electric ray , also known as the marbled torpedo ray , is one of many ray species that will literally leave prey in shock . equipped with electric organs , this ray is an advanced ambush predator whose mottled skin color renders it nearly invisible to unsuspecting eyes .\nfor the most part , herring in the gulf of maine are similar in appearance . upon closer examination , there are some notable differences among these species ; for example , the narrow atlantic round herring is 1 / 6 deep as long while the deep - bodied hickory shad can be 1 / 3 deep as it is long . [ 3 ] some are entirely marine species while others are anadromous river herring . in total , there are nine herring species in the gulf , including the commonly found atlantic herring , blueback herring , alewife , american shad , and atlantic menhaden . less common are the atlantic thread herring , round herring and hickory shad . gizzard shad have invaded some rivers and possibly estuaries in the gulf of maine region . according to bigelow and schroeder , co - authors of fishes of the gulf of maine , hickory shad were at one time caught in a number of rivers in the gulf of maine , which is the northern extreme of their range .\nwhat distinguishes atlantic herring from all other herring and , in fact , all other fish species in the gulf of maine , is their great abundance . linneaeus ( the father of modern classification ) referred to the herring as\ncopiosissimus piscis ,\nor , in other words , the most prolific of fish . [ 4 ] count the individual fish in the gulf of maine - ( a task akin to counting the ants in portland , maine ) - and the atlantic herring vastly outnumbers the other species .\nthe atlantic herring is a relatively small fish that schools in waters of northern latitudes , filtering plankton from the water . in contrast , the tropical wolf herring grows up to a meter in length and is a voracious predator of fish , including other herring species .\nmany of those who died have no gravesite \u2014 their bodies were lost to the atlantic . their names are commemorated on the sailors\u2019 memorial in point pleasant park in halifax . their sacrifice is also honoured in special ceremonies held every year on the first sunday in may .\n. on a global scale , most deep - sea bottom trawling happens on sedimentary slopes . in the ospar area ( northeastern atlantic ) , the spatial extent of bottom trawling is orders of magnitude greater than that of submarine cables , waste disposal and oil and gas exploitation\nthis british ocean liner traveled the route between liverpool , england and new york city , including a port of call at queenstown , ( now cobh ) ireland . during world war i , the ship was hit by a german torpedo on may 7 , 1915 , and then sank within just 18 minutes of being hit .\nto begin probing the living communities of the sites , last year scientists conducted biological and ecological investigations on four world war ii shipwrecks ( the keshena , city of atlanta , dixie arrow and em clark ) , as part of noaa ' s battle of the atlantic research project .\n. the most common litter types found on the deep\u2013sea floor in the mediterranean and northeastern atlantic are soft plastic ( e . g . bags ) , hard plastic ( e . g . bottles , containers ) , glass and metal ( e . g . tins , cans ) (\nthis small torpedo has an oval pectoral disc with a straight edge at the very front , an elongated body with rounded pelvic fins , and two small dorsal fins set back on its stout tail near its triangular caudal ( tail ) fin . it is white underneath , and reddish brown on top , with five dark blue spots ringed with dark and light accents . the solitary nocturnal fish scavenges the shallow coastal sea floor for crustaceans and bony fish , using the kidney - shaped electric organs on either side of its head to stun its prey . although it can only shock a human , because of its shallow habitat , caution should be used when possibly interacting with this torpedo .\nthe most interesting thing about the torpedo is its ability to give electric shocks of considerable strength to anyone touching it . the statement , even , has long been current that the shock from a large one in rested condition may be strong enough to throw a full grown man to the ground . and the story is told of a dog which was in the habit of wading on a cape cod beach in shoal water to catch flounders , but was so shocked by a torpedo that it ran away howling and could never be persuaded to go fishing again . in fact , this anecdote antedates the scientific naming of the new england torpedo . but shocks of a strength even approaching what is suggested by such reports are to be expected only from torpedos of the largest size in rested condition . the voltage recorded recently was 170 to 220 for one that had been kept in a live well . and the most we have felt ourselves from medium - sized torpedos lying on the dock at woods hole has been a slight benumbing sensation .\nboth sides of the north atlantic [ 56 ] from southern nova scotia ( la have bank ) , bay of fundy , and georges bank to north carolina in the west ; [ 57 ] and from northern scotland to the mediterranean , azores , madeira , and tropical west africa in the east .\nfroescheis o , looser r , cailliet gm , jarman wm , ballschmiter k . the deep sea as a final global sink of semi - volatile persistent pollutants ? part i : pcbs in surface and deep - dwelling fish o the north and south atlantic and the monterey bay canyon ( california ) .\nlooser r , froescheis o , cailliet gm , jarman wm , ballschmiter k . the deep sea as a final global sink of semi - volatile persistent pollutants ? part ii : organochlorine pesticides in surface and deep - dwelling fish o the north and south atlantic and the monterey bay canyon ( california ) .\ncentury and , for the next 150 years , one of the main waste products of steam power was a hard residue of burnt coal called clinker . this material was usually dumped over the ship ' s side . in a survey on the nodule - free abyssal plain in the northeastern atlantic , kidd and huggett\non this day in 1953 , flooding in the north sea kills more than 1 , 500 people in the netherlands and destroys 1 million acres of farmland . the storm also caused death and destruction in great britain and belgium . the storm began in the north atlantic and moved slowly toward the british isles . . .\n) ( bini 1967 ) . the medits trawl survey covers the north mediterranean coast almost continuously from western morocco and spain in the west mediterranean to the aegean sea in the eastern mediterranean . a total of 6 , 336 tows were performed during 1994 - 1999 in depths ranging from 10 - 800 m . torpedo marmorata occurred in 317 of 6 , 336 hauls ( baino\nthe name as allocated to the southern african material is provisional . work underway suggests that there may be a tropical species from off southern mozambique that is more similar to true t . nobiliana from the north atlantic than to specimens from namibia and the cape . work is underway to clarify the taxonomy of the indian ocean species .\nbluefins attain their enormous size by gorging themselves almost constantly on smaller fish , crustaceans , squid , and eels . they will also filter - feed on zooplankton and other small organisms and have even been observed eating kelp . the largest tuna ever recorded was an atlantic bluefin caught off nova scotia that weighed 1 , 496 pounds .\nherring are pelagic , fish that inhabit the open sea and offshore banks for most of their lives . young juveniles (\nbrit\n) are numerous in inshore waters along the maine coast in the spring and summer . adults migrate across hundreds of miles of ocean during their life span . in the winter , schools of migrating atlantic herring can join forces , forming massive expanses of fish as far as the eye can see . in the north atlantic , people have observed herring schools measuring up to 4 . 5 billion cubic meters ( over 4 cubic kilometers ) in volume , with densities of up to 1 fish per cubic meter . [ 5 ]\nit bears\nliving\nyoung , but there is no placental connection between embryo and mother . and it seems that the young are born offshore , for the smallest torpedo yet recorded from american inshore waters ( from new jersey ) was about 2 feet ( 610 mm . ) long . and we doubt if it succeeds in producing young in the colder waters of our gulf .\npresumably taken as bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries . intensive artisanal fisheries and industrial trawl fisheries operate within this species\u2019 known range and although torpedo rays are of little commercial value , they still suffer fishing mortality as bycatch . fisheries off western africa have undergone huge development during the past 20 years , in terms of numbers of boats and improvement of gear ( walker et al . 2005 ) .\n) . observations from submersibles at depths of 1000\u20132000 m on the southern california margin reveal that litter , in the form of torpedo wire , plastic bags and miscellaneous items ( shoes , furniture , naval debris , etc . ) is the primary source of solid substrata at bathyal depths in this region ( cr smith , pers . obs . from about 50 submersible and rov dives ) (\nin the mediterranean sea , this species is more common along the northern african ( southern mediterranean ) coasts . surveys in the northern mediterranean sea suggest that it is uncommon and less abundant than t . marmorata there . standardized index of abundance in italian \u2018grund\u2019 trawl surveys ranged from 0 . 01 to 0 . 1 specimens per hour ( ferretti unpublished analyses ) . torpedo torpedo was recorded in 28 of 6 , 336 hauls conducted during medits trawl surveys in the northern mediterranean sea , from 1994 - 1999 at depths of 10 - 800 m ( baino et al . 2001 ) . the species is rare around the balearic islands . in some regions t . torpedo was recorded in the past but now are under detectable levels by trawl surveys . for example in the adriatic sea ( northern mediterranean ) , it was reported as rare in species lists but has not been recorded in recent trawl surveys ( ninni , 1912 , jukic - peladic et al . 2001 ) . the species has been recorded in trawl surveys along the western coast of africa ( gulyugin et al . 2006 ) , but virtually no other information is currently available from throughout the rest of the species range .\nthe first shots on the atlantic were fired on 3 september 1939 , just hours after britain formally declared war on germany . off the coast of ireland , a german submarine , u - 30 , torpedoed the ss athenia , a passenger ship en route to montr\u00e9al with more than 1 , 400 passengers and crew on board ; 112 people were killed , including 4 canadians .\njustification : mediterranean regional assessment : least concern ( lc ) the great torpedo ray ( tetronarce nobiliana ) is a widespread , large ( up to 180 cm total length ) electric ray . adults are pelagic and / or semi - pelagic , swimming in the water column at depths of zero to 800 m , whereas juveniles are mainly benthic and live on soft substrate and reef habitat in shallower water . this electric ray is caught incidentally in bottom trawls and line gear in the mediterranean sea , and usually discarded at sea , resulting in limited catch data ; very little catch data are available from scientific trawl surveys either . given that this is a widespread pelagic species that is rarely caught in fisheries , the great torpedo ray is assessed as least concern in mediterranean waters . further research is required to assess the effect of fishing activities on the population and identify important habitats .\nthis type of coloration (\ncountershading\n) is common in pelagic species of fish , as it provides a degree of camouflage in open waters . if viewed at close range , the atlantic herring can be positively identified by its conspicuous cluster of small teeth arranged in an oval shape on the roof of its mouth . no other herring species possesses this distinctive circle of teeth .\nthe torpedo is more common south and west from cape cod than to the northward and eastward . but it strays past the elbow of the cape often enough for it to be classed as a regular member of the gulf of maine fish fauna . the most northeasterly records for it are of one presumably of this species taken in st . margarets bay , nova scotia , some 30 years ago ; one caught on a long line set for cod\ntwo nights after the august 2 attack , a storm struck . the black sea blended with the black sky , obscuring a horizon of heavy waves . crews aboard the two destroyers thought they detected small , fast - moving vessels that mimicked the attack patterns of the north vietnamese torpedo boats . for several hours , the two ships defended themselves , performing high - speed evasive maneuvers , firing almost 650 cannon shells and several depth charges into salty darkness .\nperhaps the best - known maritime tragedy of all time , the rms titanic was a passenger liner that sank in the north atlantic ocean on april 15 , 1912 , after colliding with an iceberg during her maiden voyage from southampton , uk to new york city , us . the sinking of titanic caused the deaths of 1 , 514 people in the third deadliest non - military maritime disaster in history .\nfood habits adult common torpedos feed primarily on benthic bony fish such as soles , herring , gobies , mullet , goatfish , porgies , dragonets , and jack mackerels . in addition , they are also known to occasionally eat crustaceans and even skates . in contrast , juveniles feed on a variety of marine invertebrates . this species is solitary and nocturnal , living along the ocean floor often buried in sediments as it waits in hiding . as an ambush predator , it pounces on its prey and stuns it in a fraction of a second with an electrical current . once the prey is stunned , the torpedo swallows it whole . the common torpedo can use its pair of large electric organs to stun prey and deter threats . each organ is comprised of 400 - 500 columns that contain jelly - filled disks referred to as\nelectroplaques\n. these columns work together and are capable of discharging up to 200 volts either singly or in bursts .\nthe torpedo is of no commercial value nowadays , but its liver oil was considered equal to the best sperm for illuminating purposes before the use of kerosene oil was general . there is an old tale that its oil was a good cure for cramps if rubbed on externally , for stomach trouble if taken internally . and when one is landed on the dock at woods hole it is an object of interest to the workers at the biological laboratory because of its electric discharges .\nduring the battle , the maddox crew reported detecting more than 20 torpedoes on sonar . sailors claimed to have seen enemy cockpit lights , and searchlights across the water . sonarmen also thought they heard the sound of torpedo propellers over the hydrophones . turner joy \u2019s crew reported spotting the wakes of two torpedoes 300 feet off their port side . but when the heat of battle finally subsided , no enemy vessels were accounted for . none were seen retreating ; none had been destroyed .\nthis benthic ray is common in tropical waters , found on soft substrates , usually inshore , but also down to 70m or occasionally to depths of > 300 m ( gulyugin et al . 2006 ) . the maximum recorded size is reported at about 60cm total length ( tl ) ( serena 2005 ) , although data from egyptian waters suggests that maximum size is smaller at 38 . 6 cm tl ( abdel - aziz 1994 ) . this study in egyptian waters reports that size at maturity is 18 cm for males and 22 cm for females ( abdel - aziz 1994 ) . aplacental viviparous . the species appears to have a restricted breeding season , and females appear to breed annually ( abdel - aziz 1994 ) . births usually occur between march and september with 3 - 21 juveniles of 8 - 10 cm length ( serena 2005 ) . numbers depend on the size of the female . torpedo torpedo feeds on small fishes , but also takes benthic invertebrates .\nstehmann , m . and d . l . b\u00fcrkel , 1984 . torpedinidae . p . 159 - 162 . in p . j . p . whitehead , m . - l . bauchot , j . - c . hureau , j . nielsen and e . tortonese ( eds . ) fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and mediterranean . unesco , paris . vol . 1 . ( ref . 2803 )\natlantic bluefins are warm - blooded , a rare trait among fish , and are comfortable in the cold waters off newfoundland and iceland , as well as the tropical waters of the gulf of mexico and the mediterranean sea , where they go each year to spawn . they are among the most ambitiously migratory of all fish , and some tagged specimens have been tracked swimming from north american to european waters several times a year .\nthe battle of the atlantic was a critical part of the allied victory in the second world war . canada entered the war as a small country with an even smaller navy . from a handful of ships and a few thousand personnel , the royal canadian navy expanded into a major fleet , with more than 400 ships and 90 , 000 sailors . by war\u2019s end , canada had the fourth - largest navy in the world .\nstreamlined for swimming , the herring body is relatively deep and flattened laterally ( side - to - side ) , with a distinctly forked tail ( caudal fin ) . turn an atlantic herring sideways and you could probably slide it under your closet door . the compressed body and silvery scales serve as camouflage in the open waters of the ocean , scattering light and helping to conceal herring from predators attacking from the deep . [ 1 ]\ncanada\u2019s role was primarily escort duty for the hundreds of convoys that gathered in halifax and sydney , nova scotia , for the treacherous journey across the atlantic . other canadian ports , including st . john ' s , newfoundland , harboured naval and merchant vessels that joined the convoys . the first convoy , hx - 1 , left halifax on 16 september 1939 escorted by british cruisers and two canadian destroyers , hmcs st . laurent and hmcs saguenay .\nthe maximum reported length of a male common torpedo is 23 . 6 inches ( 60 . 0 cm ) total length ( tl ) and 16 . 1 inches ( 41 . 0 cm ) tl for a female specimen . however , this species more commonly reaches lengths of 11 . 8 inches ( 30 cm ) tl ( male ) and 15 . 6 inches ( 39 cm ) tl ( female ) . common torpedos reach larger sizes in waters off of africa in comparison to those residing in the mediterranean sea .\nwe need also consider the mix of regional commercial land uses ( e . g . , agriculture , ornamental aquaculture ) , and outdoor recreational activities ( e . g . , fishing and boating ) that have the potential to act as vectors for the introduction of new species . consider the ease with which recreational boaters can transport marine invaders large distances when they trailer boats up and down the coast or between florida ' s gulf and atlantic coasts .\n) . furthermore , a study of the blanes margin ( northwestern mediterranean ) between 900 and 1500 m depth has shown that litter accumulates in the deepest areas sampled ( ramirez - llodra , unpublished data ) . conversely , careful examination of the lisbon , set\u00fabal , nazar\u00e9 and whittard canyon systems of the northeastern atlantic by rov showed only minor litter with the majority in the lisbon canyon off the tagus mouth ( paul tyler , pers . obs . ) (\nthe great torpedo ray occurs at depths of zero to 800 m . juveniles are mainly benthic on soft substrates and coral reef habitats at depths of 10\u2212150 m , and sometimes considerably deeper ( up to 350 m ) . adults may be pelagic or semi - pelagic , solitary , and are reportedly capable of migrating over great distances ( ebert and stehmann 2013 ) . specimens were captured in medits surveys throughout the depth range surveyed ( 10\u2212800 m ) , but mostly at depths of 200\u2212500 m ( baino et al . 2001 ) .\na likely factor contributing to the myliobatoidei and torpedinoidei having relatively few dietary studies and low sample sizes is the availability of specimens and the type and location of the fisheries they interact with . the three skate species with the highest sample numbers l . erinacea ( 19 , 738 ) , a . radiata ( 8 , 381 ) and r . clavata ( 3 , 424 ) are all caught in the atlantic ocean and retained for human consumption or for use as lobster bait [ 25 ] \u2013 [ 27 ] . likewise , s . ancathias from the atlantic ocean , mediterranean sea and pacific ocean is retained for commercial sale [ 28 ] . importantly , these species are , at least in part , caught in well - developed and regulated fisheries such as those of the united states of america and the united kingdom [ 25 ] , [ 26 ] . this provides greater access and opportunity with respect to collection and processing of large sample sizes .\nthe atlantic herring is a small , pelagic plankton - feeder that grows to a maximum of 17 inches and 1 . 5 pounds . distinguishing characteristics include a dorsal fin located midway along the body and a weak saw - toothed keel along the belly . the fish is iridescent , greenish or grayish blue dorsally with a silvery abdomen and sides . the\npearl essence\nof the scales was extracted by the englehard corporation of eastport , maine for use as a pigment in cosmetics and paints .\n\u201che was not supposed to be talking about this stuff , i\u2019m sure , \u201d says newberry , a professor emeritus of marine biology at the university of california , santa cruz who recently recounted this conversation to me . as newberry tells it , the sonar engineer spoke of strange shapes picked up on the turner joy \u2019s sonar displays during the supposed attack . the objects were the size of torpedoes , but they didn\u2019t move like any torpedo the engineer had ever seen before . they seemed to have a will of their own\u2014to come at the ship , then drift right under .\njustification : this poorly known electric ray is sporadically recorded from senegal to angola in the eastern atlantic ocean at depths of 5 to 60 m . very little is currently known about this species\u2019 habitat and biology , except that it is ovoviviparous and attains a maximum size of at least 60 cm tl . intensive artisanal fisheries and industrial trawl fisheries operate within this species\u2019 known range , in which it is presumably taken as bycatch . insufficient information is currently available to assess this species beyond data deficient and information is urgently needed for reassessment .\nbluefin tuna have been eaten by humans for centuries . however , in the 1970s , demand and prices for large bluefins soared worldwide , particularly in japan , and commercial fishing operations found new ways to find and catch these sleek giants . as a result , bluefin stocks , especially of large , breeding - age fish , have plummeted , and international conservation efforts have led to curbs on commercial takes . nevertheless , at least one group says illegal fishing in europe has pushed the atlantic bluefin populations there to the brink of extinction .\nthe laying of underwater telegraph cables came early in our understanding of the deep sea . hms cyclops in 1855 was used to determine the depth profile between the uk and newfoundland for the laying of the first transatlantic cable . the first effort in 1857 failed when the cable - dispensing machinery became disabled and cut the wire , but the cable was finally successfully connected in 1858 [ 81 ] . in subsequent years , cables were laid in many parts of the global oceans . it was the recovery of a broken cable from 2180 m between sardinia and bona , encrusted with the coral caryophyllia that demonstrated the viability of life at lower bathyal depths . in the northeastern atlantic , a maximum spatial extent of submarine cables in the ospar northeastern atlantic area has been estimated to range between 5 and 10 km 2 , although this is most likely an underesftimate as it does not take into account the effects of plough burial [ 27 ] . pipelines offer a similar scenario , although they tend to be physically bigger than cables . we predict minimal impact of underwater cables ( tables s2 and s3 ) .\nat its largest , a colony of giant pyrosomes can reach up to 60 feet . they live worldwide , in tropical and temperate oceans , and are known to inhabit the gulf of tonkin . moreover , pyrosomes are sometimes found floating in clusters of several colonies near the surface of the ocean at night . the colonies swim much slower than a moving torpedo , but their appearance in a pitched battle could have been very confusing . \u201cthese things are the size of torpedoes , so they produce the same [ sonar ] image , \u201d says newberry . \u201cit all fit together , as far as the character of the colony and its behavior . \u201d\nby 1943 , a series of factors helped turn the tide of the battle . british intelligence , which had already cracked the germans ' enigma code , made even further advances in this field , allowing the allies to better track german communications and u - boat movements . new long range aircraft were also developed that allowed for full aerial coverage of the atlantic . britain\u2019s royal navy undertook more aggressive tactics against the u - boats , forming elite hunter groups of its best anti - submarine ships to prowl the ocean searching for submarines and to aid convoys under attack .\nsilvery scales , however , are of no help during attacks from above . even in murky water , the flashing of silver alerts fishermen to the herring ' s presence . anglers searching for tarpon , a tropical herring - like fish , scan the water for that distinctive silver flank and single dorsal fin breaking the surface . the long , slender , highly - prized tropical tarpon is herring - like in appearance but weighs over one hundred and sixty times more than an average atlantic herring and can grow almost 80 inches longer , up to eight feet in length .\nthis german transport ship had 6 , 100 documented passengers on board ( and possibly hundreds more undocumented ) when it was struck on april 16 , 1945 , by a soviet submarine in the baltic sea during world war ii . just seven minutes after being struck by the torpedo , the ship sank , killing almost all of the passengers and crew aboard , either inside the ship , or outside by drowning and hypothermia in the icy waters . this disaster is largely believed to be the second - worst in maritime history , based on the number of casualties . the ship was loaded with women and children ( only two children were among the 183 passengers who survived ) .\nthis species is occasionally caught with bottom trawls and line gear , including recreational fisheries . torpedo rays are usually discarded at sea , resulting in very little data on catches of these species . historically this species was valued for its liver oil for use in lamps , prior to the use of kerosene oil , but a lack of data on catches makes it difficult to determine population trends ( florida museum of natural history ) . this is a large , potentially vulnerable species , and the impact of bycatch on populations needs to be assessed . the species ' preference for reef environments for spawning may make it vulnerable to the indirect effects of habitat degradation from destructive bottom trawling practices .\nadult torpedoes are usually 2 to 5 feet long or a little longer , and heavy for their size . specimens taken at woods hole average about 30 pounds , while most of those taken anywhere on our atlantic coast weigh less than 75 pounds . but we have seen one only about 4 feet long from chesapeake bay that weighed about 100 pounds ; one of 144 pounds was brought from nantucket to the u . s . fisheries station at woods hole many years ago ; and the heaviest taken near provincetown were estimated long ago by a fisherman of keen observation as 170 to 200 pounds ."]}
{"id": 1223, "summary": [{"text": "the pin-tailed sandgrouse ( pterocles alchata ) is a medium large bird in the sandgrouse family .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it has a small , pigeon like head and neck and a sturdy , compact body .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it has long pointed wings , which are white underneath , a long tail and a fast direct flight .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "flocks fly to watering holes at dawn .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the call is a loud kattar-kattar .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "this gregarious species breeds on dry open treeless plains and similar habitats .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "its nest is a ground scrape into which two or three cream-coloured eggs with cryptic markings are laid .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "both sexes incubate the eggs .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the pin-tailed sandgrouse is about 35 centimetres ( 14 in ) long .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its head and upperparts are yellowish-green .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the underparts are white with a chestnut breast band separating the belly from the green neck .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "sexes are somewhat similar , but the female is better camouflaged and has a shorter tail than the male .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "there are two subspecies ; p. a. alchata breeds in southern europe and p. a. caudacutus breeds in northwestern africa , the middle east and southeastern asia .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is a partial migrant , with some asian birds moving to the middle east and northern pakistan in winter .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "males of the eastern race have duller underparts than the european birds , and the females have white , rather than yellow , wing coverts . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "pin - tailed sandgrouse", "paragraphs": ["chestnut bellied sandgrouse , common indian sandgrouse , indian sandgrouse , lesser pin - tailed sandgrouse , small pin - tailed sandgrouse .\nenglish : common indian sandgrouse , common sandgrouse , indian sandgrouse , kenyan pin - tailed sandgrouse , lesser pintailed sandgrouse , singed sandgrouse , small pin - tailed sandgrouse , somaliland pin - tailed sandgrouse , chestnut - breasted sandgrouse ; french : ganga \u00e0 ventre brun ; german : braunbauchflughuhn ; spanish : ganga moruna .\nnobody uploaded sound recordings for pin - tailed sandgrouse ( pterocles alchata ) yet .\n) species factsheet : pin - tailed sandgrouse pterocles alchata [ www document ] . url\nthe pin - tailed sandgrouse ( pterocles alchata ) is a bird in the columbiformes order .\nthe pin - tailed sandgrouse is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nchanges in behaviour and faecal glucocorticoid levels in response to increased human activities during weekends in the pin - tailed sandgrouse .\ninformation on the pin - tailed sandgrouse ( pterocles alchata ) is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nthe iba of pin - tailed sandgrouse species in turkey are ak\u00e7akale plains , ceylanp\u0131nar and southern euphrates valley and birecik plains . the iba of pin - tailed sandgrouse species in turkmenistan is chokrak - tutly . the iba of these sandgrouse species in portugal is upper river tejo . the iba in france is crau .\nthe pin - tailed sandgrouse does not approach the thresholds for being vulnerable either under the range size criterion or under the population trend criterion or under the population size criterion . the iucn ( international union for conservation of nature ) has categorized and evaluated the pin - tailed sandgrouse (\nchanges in behaviour and faecal glucocorticoid levels in response to increased human activities during weekends in the pin - tailed sandgrouse . - pubmed - ncbi\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - pin - tailed sandgrouse eggs\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - pin - tailed sandgrouse eggs\ntitle =\narkive photo - pin - tailed sandgrouse eggs\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - pin - tailed sandgrouse chick\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - pin - tailed sandgrouse chick\ntitle =\narkive photo - pin - tailed sandgrouse chick\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe irises of the pin - tailed sandgrouse are brown . the bare skin around the eyes is slaty blue . the bill is slaty gray . the pin - tailed sandgrouse call is a loud \u201c kattar - kattar\u201d in flight and also a nasal \u201cga - ga - ga\nsound .\nspline correlograms for pin - tailed and black - bellied sandgrouse with 95 % pointwise bootstrap confidence intervals and maximum lag distance of 15 km derived for 1 ) landscape scale and 2 ) microhabitat scale . a ) pin - tailed sandgrouse ; b ) black - bellied sandgrouse . distance was measured in meters ( doc 54 kb )\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - pin - tailed sandgrouse pair in flight\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - pin - tailed sandgrouse pair in flight\ntitle =\narkive photo - pin - tailed sandgrouse pair in flight\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - pin - tailed sandgrouse nest in habitat\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - pin - tailed sandgrouse nest in habitat\ntitle =\narkive photo - pin - tailed sandgrouse nest in habitat\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe landscape requirements are analysed and population sizes are estimated for the pin - tailed and black - bellied sandgrouse during the breeding season in peninsular spain . the estimated populations in the 26 study zones , which comprise the main breeding areas of spain , are c . 13 , 000 individual pin - tailed sandgrouse and 3500 black - bellied sandgrouse . the overall population estimate for peninsular spain is < 14 , 000 pin - tailed sandgrouse and 9000\u201311 , 000 black - bellied sandgrouse . the latter figure places the species within the \u2018endangered\u2019 category in europe .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - pin - tailed sandgrouse ( pterocles alchata )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - pin - tailed sandgrouse ( pterocles alchata )\ntitle =\narkive species - pin - tailed sandgrouse ( pterocles alchata )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - male pin - tailed sandgrouse collecting water in feathers\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - male pin - tailed sandgrouse collecting water in feathers\ntitle =\narkive photo - male pin - tailed sandgrouse collecting water in feathers\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nenglish : abyssinian sandgrouse , close - barred sandgrouse , somaliland sandgrouse , suk sandgrouse ; french : ganga de lichtenstein ; german : wellenflughuhnl ; spanish : ganga de lichtenstein .\nmart\u00edn ca , casas f , mougeot f et al ( 2010b ) seasonal variations in habitat preferences of the pin - tailed sandgrouse in agrarian pseudo - steppes . ardeola 57 : 191\u2013198\nreproduction : breeding season occurs from april to august , with peak in may - june . pin - tailed sandgrouse nests on the ground , in shallow depression or scrape , without lining .\ndiet : pin - tailed sandgrouse feeds on seeds , green shoots and leaves , mainly from leguminosae , but also from other plant species . they can add cereal grains and cultivated legumes .\nthese pin - tailed sandgrouse species are partially migratory birds . the breeding populations in northwest africa , spain , portugal , france , middle east and parts of afghanistan are sedentary or nomadic .\nspline correlograms for pin - tailed and black - bellied sandgrouse ( large geographical spatial scale ) with 95 % pointwise bootstrap confidence intervals and maximum lag distance of 100 km derived from 1 ) glm models ( on the left ) and 2 ) glm analyses after applying the moran eigenvector filtering function ( on the right ) . a ) pin - tailed sandgrouse ; b ) black - bellied sandgrouse . distance was measured in meters . ( doc 67 kb )\nben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , a . & garc\u00eda - egea , i . 2015 . first record of an aberrantly colored pin - tailed sandgrouse pterocles alchata . wilson journal of ornithology 127 , 755 - 759 .\nmart\u00edn ca , casas f , mougeot f , garc\u00eda jt , vi\u00f1uela j ( 2010b ) seasonal variations in habitat preferences of the pin - tailed sandgrouse in agrarian pseudo - steppes . ardeola 57 ( 1 ) : 191\u2013198\nthe diet of these pin - tailed sandgrouse species is mostly wild seeds , especially of legumes . they also feed on grain , green shoots , flowers and leaves . they fly in large flocks to watering holes at dawn .\nthe breeding populations of the pin - tailed sandgrouse in kazakhstan , uzbekistan , turkmenistan and kyrgyzstan are migratory and migrate to central saudi arabia , northern iraq , southern afghanistan , pakistan and northwest india ( rajasthan , punjab and haryana ) for wintering .\nben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , ana and garc\u00eda - egea , iv\u00e1n 2015 . first record of an aberrantly colored pin - tailed sandgrouse ( pterocles alchata ) . the wilson journal of ornithology , vol . 127 , issue . 4 , p . 755 .\nthese species of sandgrouse are distributed in north africa , middle east , turkey , iran , iraq , kazakhstan , uzbekistan , turkmenistan , kyrgyzstan , spain , portugal , france , afghanistan , pakistan and india . the pin - tailed sandgrouse species are gregarious and flocks of hundreds of birds fly to watering holes at dawn . there are two recognized subspecies of these sandgrouse species .\nmart\u00edn ca , casas f , mougeot f et al ( 2010a ) positive interactions between vulnerable species in agrarian pseudo - steppes : habitat use by pin - tailed sandgrouse depends on its association with the little bustard . anim conserv 13 : 383\u2013389 . doi :\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto pin - tailed sandgrouse gives contact calls in flight . these loud calls are repeated at shot intervals \u201ckhattar - khattar\u201d . the french name comes from this sound ( cata ) . on the ground , the bird utters some clucking sounds .\n2010 . fran\u00e7ois mougeot , ana ben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , carlos a . mart\u00edn , fabi\u00e1n casas , jes\u00fas t . garc\u00eda , javier vi\u00f1uela . seasonal movements and breeding of pin - tailed sandgrouse pterocles alchata . xx congreso espa\u00f1ol de ornitolog\u00eda . tremp ( lleida ) , spain .\npin - tailed sandgrouse abundance is positively correlated with the area of fallow and stubble , while black - bellied sandgrouse abundance is positively correlated with the amount of medium / long - term fallow land and the proportion of land used for dry pasture . all of these landscape variables have undergone profound changes in spain since the 1960s due to agricultural intensification .\nstatus : rare ( category iii ) , decreasing in number and area of distribution . the pin - tailed sandgrouse inhabits the deserts of north africa , the near east and central asia . in kazakstan it is found from the aral sea to the betpak dala desert . during the past several years , both the area where it is found and its numbers have been considerably reduced . in the 1960s , flocks of tens and even hundreds of thousands of birds could be observed . today , flocks of several hundreds is a rarity . the basic factors causing the decline in pin - tailed sandgrouse populations are poaching ( at the water holes ) and the disturbance of nesting birds by humans . to protect the pin - tailed sandgrouse , it is necessary to create both the betpak dala preserve and the kyzyl kum preserve and to forbid hunting at all watering places .\noutside the breeding season of the pin - tailed sandgrouse , all the upperparts , including head are barred in black and pale - yellow and the throat patch becomes whitish . the female has duller colors . the chin is whitish and the back and the wings are grayish with black barring .\n2010 . ana ben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , carlos a . mart\u00edn , fabi\u00e1n casas , jes\u00fas t . garc\u00eda , fran\u00e7ois mougeot , javier vi\u00f1uela . first mortality records in pin - tailed sandgrouse ( pterocles alchata ) in spain . xx congreso espa\u00f1ol de ornitolog\u00eda . tremp ( lleida ) , spain .\n2010 . ana ben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , carlos a . mart\u00edn , fabi\u00e1n casas , fran\u00e7ois mougeot , jes\u00fas t . garc\u00eda , javier vi\u00f1uela . home ranges and seasonal movements of pin - tailed sandgrouse ( pterocles alchata ) . xiii congreso nacional y x iberoamericano de etolog\u00eda . ciudad real , spain . links\nenglish : imperial sandgrouse , large sandgrouse , oriental sand - grouse ; french : ganga unibande ; german : sandflughuhn ; spanish : ganga ortega .\nreasons for the need for protection / inclusion in annex i the pin - tailed sandgrouse is undergoing a widespread decline in both its popualtion size and distribution . this is due mainly to the destruction of dry grassland which has followed the agricultural intensification , particularly in the form of irrigation schemes , and hunting .\n2014 . iv\u00e1n perag\u00f3n , carlos a . mart\u00edn , fabi\u00e1n casas , ana ben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , fran\u00e7ois mougeot , jes\u00fas t . garc\u00eda , javier vi\u00f1uela . satellite - tracking of pin - tailed sandgrouse ( pterocles alchata ) : home ranges and seasonal movements . xxii congreso espa\u00f1ol de ornitolog\u00eda , madrid , spain .\nthere is a broad brownish yellow band on the breast of pin - tailed sandgrouse , bordered on either side by a thin black stripe . the outer wing coverts are reddish brown with black and pale - yellow edges . the rump and tail are barred dark brown and pale - yellow . the central tail streamers are grayish brown . the sandgrouse underparts , underwing and feathered legs are whitish .\nprotection / threats / status : pin - tailed sandgrouse is common or locally common in several parts of the range , but the species is threatened in most parts of europe , due to changes in agricultural practices . it is still common in spain , and at this moment , this species is not globally threatened .\nthe pin - tailed sandgrouse is distributed in northwest africa , spain , portugal , france , middle east , afghanistan , kazakhstan , uzbekistan , turkmenistan , kyrgyzstan , saudi arabia , northern iraq , southern afghanistan , pakistan and northwest india . in india they are distributed in the states of rajasthan , punjab and haryana .\npredictive species\u2019 distribution models may answer ecological questions about habitat selection , co - occurrence of species and competition between them . we studied the habitat preferences and segregation of two sympatric species of declining sandgrouse , the black - bellied sandgrouse ( pterocles orientalis ) and the pin - tailed sandgrouse ( pterocles alchata ) , during the breeding season . we developed predictive models that related sandgrouse presence to environmental variables at three different spatial levels : large geographical , landscape and microhabitat scales . at the large geographical scale , differences between sandgrouse distributions , in the iberian peninsula , seem to be explained mainly in terms of bioclimatology : pin - tailed sandgrouse appear to be a more thermophilous species and occupy warmer sites usually located in flatter areas . at the landscape spatial level , in those areas that exhibit environmental conditions allowing for both species\u2019 co - existence at a large geographical scale , black - bellied sandgrouse appear to be more tolerant to environmental variation than pin - tailed sandgrouse . at the microhabitat level , however , differences between species could be related to different flocking behaviour as a consequence of different sensitivities to vegetation structure and predators . thus , the observed spatial distribution patterns are the result of different ecological factors that operate at different spatial levels . conservation guidelines for these species should therefore consider their habitat preferences at large geographical , landscape and microhabitat scales .\nhabitat : pin - tailed sandgrouse frequents arid and semi - arid treeless plains such as semi - desert , steppes , dry mudflats near marshes , and dry cereal fields . this bird avoids dense scrub or tall vegetation , and prefers clay or sandy surfaces . it can be seen in hilly areas and at high elevation .\nthese pin - tailed sandgrouse species do not occur normally in forest . they inhabit various dry inland ecosystems . they inhabit semi - arid plains , fallow agricultural fields , arid treeless plains , semi - deserts , hot deserts , temperate grasslands , shrublands with sparse short shrubs , steppe , open grassland plains and dry mudflats .\nben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , a . , mougeot , f . , garc\u00eda , j . t . , mart\u00edn , c . a . & vi\u00f1uela , j . 2015 . individual traits and extrinsic factors influence survival of the threatened pin - tailed sandgrouse ( pterocles alchata ) in europe . biological conservation 187 , 192 - 200 .\nknowledge of the factors determining species distributions is essential for developing conservation strategies . sandgrouse\nthe breeding season of these pin - tailed sandgrouse species depends upon availability of feed . these sandgrouse species are monogamous and feeding flocks break into pairs . the nest is a ground scrape , which is usually unlined . typically three eggs are laid . the male incubates in the night and the female incubates in the day . the eggs hatch in about 25 days and hatchlings are led to feed by both the parents .\n2012 . fabi\u00e1n casas , jes\u00fas t . garc\u00eda , fran\u00e7ois mougeot , ana ben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , carlos a . mart\u00edn , sergio gonz\u00e1lez , alejandro urmeneta , javier vi\u00f1uela . seasonal movements of pin - tailed sandgrouse in bardenas reales biosphere reserve ( navarra ) . poster . xiii congreso nacional y x iberoamericano de etolog\u00eda . sevilla , spain .\nrange : pin - tailed sandgrouse of race \u201calchata\u201d is sedentary and nomadic in spain and se france . the race \u201ccaudacutus\u201d is found in nw africa , se turkey and middle east . it is resident in north africa and middle east , whereas the populations of the northernmost parts of the range are migratory , wintering in pakistan and nw india .\ndescription smaller ( l 33 cm ) than black - bellied sandgrouse ( pterocles orientalis ) , and easy to tell from latter by long tail extension and lack of black belly . in winter gathers in large flocks . the pin - tailed sandgrouse is a species of steppe country , requiring plains without trees or high bushes . it favours lowland plains which comprise a mosaic of arable and non - irrigated fields . the diet consists mainly of seeds . resident .\npin - tailed sandgrouse - the sandgrouse of the agricultural fields of the north - western negev and the species with the narrowest distribution of all four . autumn and winter gatherings at urim have reached between 2000 - 4000 birds annually , and occasionally have exceeded 6000 , all during the 80 ' s and first half of the 90 ' s . since the mid 90 ' s , however , numbers have been ranging between 500 to less than 1000 birds only .\ncasas , fabi\u00e1n ben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , ana tarjuelo , roc\u00edo barja , isabel vi\u00f1uela , javier garc\u00eda , jes\u00fas t . morales , manuel b . and mougeot , francois 2016 . changes in behaviour and faecal glucocorticoid levels in response to increased human activities during weekends in the pin - tailed sandgrouse . the science of nature , vol . 103 , issue . 11 - 12 ,\none of the most common sandgrouse in africa and india ; in no danger of decline .\nthere are currently no known conservation plans targeting the chestnut - bellied sandgrouse ( 1 ) .\npin - tailed sandgrouses are gregarious birds and live in flocks of different sizes . in spain , they are often seen with groups of little bustards ( tetrax tetrax ) . sandgrouses are very difficult to see , due to their cryptic plumage and their unobtrusiveness , except when they are flying .\npin - tailed sandgrouse are monogamous and breed in isolated pairs or in loose colonies with nests about six metres apart on the ground . courtship displays by male are simple . it holds the head low , with wings slightly away from the body , and the tail fanned out and raised . before mating , the male approaches its mate holding the legs very stiff and straight and the body erect .\nben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , a . casas , f . mougeot , f . garc\u00eda , j . t . mart\u00edn , c . a . tatin , l . wolff , a . and vi\u00f1uela , j . 2015 . individual traits and extrinsic factors influence survival of the threatened pin - tailed sandgrouse ( pterocles alchata ) in europe . biological conservation , vol . 187 , issue . , p . 192 .\na pin - tailed sandgrouse flew across the front of the hide and landed on the other side of a freshwater sluice , just a few meters away under the watchful eye of a slender - billed gull . a security guard who mans the hide had spotted it earlier and pointed it out , but at the time it was quite a long way off and in a small hollow , making it difficult to identify .\npin - tailed sangrouse adult male in breeding plumage has yellowish upperparts with cryptic pattern and yellow spots . rump and uppertail coverts are black , finely vermiculated creamy - white . the upperwing shows dark grey flight feathers . wings are long and pointed . the tail has long central rectrices , giving the bird its english name .\nthe breeding male pin - tailed sandgrouse has yellowish face , cheek , neck , throat and upper chest . the crown and upper back are brownish yellow . there are large golden yellow spots and streaks on the shoulder and back . a narrow black stripe starts from the base of the bill and extends through the eyes to half the way to the center of nape . there is a dark patch immediately below the bill .\nenglish : saharan sandgrouse ; french : ganga tachet\u00e9 ; german : w\u00fcstenflughuhn ; spanish : ganga moteada .\nnot many regularly occuring birds remain on my southern europe wish list now but of the lingerers , three \u2013 pin - tailed sandgrouse , rock sparrow and ( greater ) spotted eagle \u2013 all winter in provence . finding a \u00a353 flight ( luggage included ) from lisbon to marseilles with the portuguese airline tap meant i could add a winter visit here to my algarve break . and so the opportunity to find these birds has arisen .\ntime budgets and activity patterns of sandgrouse were studied in semi - arid agricultural land in spain ( black - bellied and pin - tailed sandgrouse ) and in more desertic conditions in israel ( black - bellied and spotted sandgrouse ) . during c . 75 % of daylight hours , all four species were either foraging or inactive . the birds in israel spent more time foraging than those in spain , despite having lower thermoregulatory costs , reflecting a likely difference in the productivity of the sites . partitioning of foraging habitat was evident at both sites and , contrary to expectation , it was the larger black - bellied sandgrouse which spent the most time foraging . in israel , spotted sandgrouse became inactive at high temperatures whereas the black - bellied continued to forage , utilizing the shade available in its dwarf shrub foraging habitat . the range of black - bellied sandgrouse may be limited by its thermoregulatory ability in hot conditions and its need to forage for long periods .\nthe important bird and biodiversity areas ( iba ) of pin - tailed sandgrouse species in spain are ballobar - candasnos , bardenas reales , belchite - mediana , brozas - membr\u00edo , campo de montiel , cogul - alf\u00e9s steppes , la serena , monegrillo - pina steppe area - pina , plain between c\u00e1ceres and trujillo - aldea del cano , san clemente - villarrobledo , tembleque - la guardia plains , tierra de campi\u00f1as steppes , tordesillas - mota del marqu\u00e9s and villaf\u00e1fila .\nde juana , e . , kirwan , g . m . & mart\u00edn , c . a . ( 2018 ) . pin - tailed sandgrouse ( pterocles alchata ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nmaclean , g . l .\nevolutionary trends in the sandgrouse .\nmalimbus 6 ( 1984 ) : 75\u201378 .\nthe chestnut - bellied sandgrouse is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\npterocliformes ( sandgrouse ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nbehaviour : pin - tailed sandgrouse feeds on the ground , taking mainly seeds , and in less extent shoots and leaves . its preferred plants are leguminosae . when foraging in cultivated fields , it feeds on cereal grains and legumes . this bird drinks during the morning , and needs to drink regularly every day because its diet is particularly dry . it walks and runs easily and fast , thanks to the robust legs and the strong , short feet , with three front - toes and a small rudimentary raised hind - toe .\nflight : pin - tailed sandgrouse has long , pointed wings and strong musculature , allowing the bird to spring up into the air vertically , and to maintain high speeds over long distances . the flight is strong , direct and sustained , with cruising speeds of about 60 - 70 km / hour , kept up over long distances . . the bird performs continuous wing - flapping , only gliding when about to land . take off is sudden , and when flying in flocks , they fly in close formation , maintaining their distances .\njohnsgard , paul a . bustards , hemipodes , and sandgrouse : birds of dry places . oxford : oxford university press , 1991 .\nkalchreuter , heribert .\nthe breeding season of the chestnut - bellied sandgrouse pterocles exustus and the black - faced sandgrouse p . decoratus in northern tanzania and its relation to rainfall .\nproceedings of the 4th pan - african ornithological congress ( 1976 ) : 277\u2013282 .\nferns pn , hinsley sa ( 1995 ) importance of topography in the selection of drinking sites by sandgrouse . funct ecol 9 : 371\u2013375\nthe chestnut - bellied sandgrouse prefers to eat legumes such as beans , but also eats shoots and insects on rare occasions ( 2 ) .\nalthough population numbers are unknown , there appear to be no major threats to the chestnut - bellied sandgrouse ( 1 ) ( 3 ) .\nmodelling sandgrouse ( pterocles spp . ) distributions and large - scale habitat requirements in spain : implications for conservation | environmental conservation | cambridge core\nmaclean , g . l .\nfield studies on the sandgrouse of the kalahari desert .\nliving bird 7 ( 1968 ) : 209\u2013235 .\npterocliformes ( sandgrouse ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\nthe effects of european union agricultural regulations on this problem are discussed . the voluntary set - aside regulation , r . 797 / 85 / eec and 1094 / 88 / cee , has received very little acceptance . regulation r . 1765 / 92 / eec , compulsory withdrawal of cropland , involves the ploughing - up of fallows and thus the loss of an important habitat for both species , especially for pin - tailed sandgrouse . agri - environmental schemes linked to r . 2078 / 92 / eec potentially have the most positive effects , although it is still too early to evaluate their impact on bird populations .\nthe pin - tail sandgrouse , pterocles alchata , is a bird of the dry lands , inhabiting stony semi - desert and plain . the bird featured today is a female of the eastern race p . a . caudacutus which includes northern africa and the middle east within its range . it was introduced into uae . the nominate form can be seen in spain and southern france .\nmaclean , g . l .\nsandgrouse : models of adaptive compromise .\nsouth african journal of wildlife research 15 ( 1985 ) : 1\u20136 .\nspotted sandgrouse \u2013 the commonest sandgrouse in the whole negev . the species used to occupy all the loess plains from the northern negev near bear sheva , to the uvda valley in the south , including parts of the arava . peak numbers at a specific drinking spot at nizzana have reached 5000 birds a day .\nup until 30 years ago , birders visiting nizzana during each summer and autumn could have witnessed clouds of hundreds , or even thousands , of both spotted and black - bellied sandgrouses gathering to drink every morning . even i , who only started birding during the early 90 ' s , can ' t forget the amazing sight and sound of a noisy cloud of no less than 4200 pin - tailed sandgrouses performing their aerial maneuvers north of urim , the north - western negev , in december 1993 .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - chestnut - bellied sandgrouse ( pterocles exustus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - chestnut - bellied sandgrouse ( pterocles exustus )\ntitle =\narkive species - chestnut - bellied sandgrouse ( pterocles exustus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nmaclean , g . l .\nadaptations of sandgrouse for life in arid lands .\nproceedings of the 16th international ornithological congress ( 1974 ) : 502\u2013516 .\nin order to try to understand the sandgrouses ' s behavior and movement , the ioc , together with the inp , have launched a year - round monthly monitoring programme at four different drinking spots in the western negev and a 3 - monthly programme at another 11 drinking spots between arad in the judean desert and mitzpe ramon in the high negev mountains . in addition , a few spotted sandgrouses have been fitted with high - tech satellite transmitters , and the plan for the coming year is to do the same with some pin - tailed sandgrouses , whilst at a less sophisticated level , some clean water troughs will be scattered among the main sandgrouse concentration hot - spots .\nwonderful images ! sandgrouse and the way they carry water back to their chicks were featured on the television series , earth 2 . i\u2019d love to visit this hide .\nsandgrouse occur from south africa and namibia through the drier parts of east africa to north africa , spain , the arabian peninsula , central asia , mongolia , and india .\nsimiyu , a .\nsome aspects of demography and movement patterns of sandgrouse in southern kenya .\nostrich 69 , no . 3 and 4 ( 1998 ) : 452 .\ncade , t . j . , and g . l . maclean .\ntransport of water by adult sandgrouse to their young .\ncondor 69 ( 1967 ) : 323\u2013343 .\nthe chestnut - bellied sandgrouse occurs along a narrow strip of sub - saharan africa , from the west coast to the east coast , where a larger distribution is found , as well as over much of india and pakistan . there are also scattered populations along the coasts of the middle east . the chestnut - bellied sandgrouse has also been introduced in the usa ( 1 ) .\nsandgrouse are abundant throughout their distribution and are not in need of special conservation measures . however , where they are hunted for sport , the shooting season needs to be regulated to avoid overexploitation .\nthe resident pin - tailed sandgrouse had huge lifer status for the usual reason that i had not found the species on two previous visits to provence in may 2012 and march 2013 . doing so was my top priority this time . trip research had revealed a hitherto untried access point to la crau , at the north - western end near the town of st - martin - de - crau , that appeared to be a good pts location . this is the reserve peau de meau , managed by a regional association for nature conservation , ceep ( conservatoire etudes des ecosystemes de provence ) . after getting a permit dutifully from ceep\u2019s ecomusee de la crau in saint - martin , i arrived on site late on wednesday morning ( 20th ) , having first seen to buying provisions . stomach again , call myself a birder ?\nsandgrouse are known as fossils of the genus archaeoganga from the upper eocene of france , some 35 million years ago , one species of which is estimated to have been about three times the size of the largest living sandgrouse species , weighing perhaps 3 lb ( nearly 1 . 5 kg ) . other fossil genera occur into the lower miocene , about 20 million years ago . the general consensus , based on morphological , behavioral , and chromosomal evidence , is that sandgrouse are derived from the shorebirds ( order charadriiformes ) and are sometimes grouped in that order under the suborder pterocli . however , even the earliest fossil sandgrouse show marked divergence from the ancestral shorebird . they are no longer regarded as closely related to doves and pigeons ( order columbiformes ) , with which they were placed for many years .\nin many parts of their range , sandgrouse are considered good eating and are hunted at watering points . because most species inhabit remote areas , they generally suffer little human disturbance away from their drinking places .\nfirst , away to my left four little bustard went up before seemingly vanishing into thin air . quite an achievement for such a large bird but a not unusual experience for the species . that also maintained my 100 % record for it at this site . then away on my other side , five pin - tailed sandgrouse at last flew across the sunny morning expanse of the coussoul . mission accomplished ! the middle distance flight view was pretty much what i had expected . i have seen some good birds in the past at la crau : little bustard , stone curlew , red - backed shrike , tawny pipit , melodious warbler and a possible spotted eagle that i didn\u2019t put on my life list . now having gained the elusive top prize i felt very relieved not to have to re - visit this flat and otherwise dour landscape unless i choose to .\nmost desert - adapted sandgrouse . normally in pairs or small groups by day , gathering into larger flocks at dusk to fly to water . lands a few yards from water , then runs down to drink .\nthomas , d . h .\nadaptations of desert birds : sandgrouse ( pteroclididae ) as highly successful inhabitants of afro - asian arid lands .\njournal of arid environments 7 ( 1984 ) : 157\u2013181 .\nsandgrouse are the most terrestrial of birds , feeding , roosting , and nesting on the ground . they fly to water almost every day , covering up to about 75 mi ( 120 km ) round - trip ,\nkidney structure is especially well adapted to water conservation ; water - carrying capacity of male ' s belly plumage is greatest for any sandgrouse studied . largely nocturnal , roosting by day in shade of rocks or plants .\ndel hoyo , j . , elliott , a . and christie , d . a . ( 1997 ) handbook of the birds of the world . volume 13 : sandgrouse to cuckoos . lynx edicions , barcelona .\nenly becomes a glorified and distant memory . due to reasons not yet fully understood , the populations of three of the four sandgrouse species of the negev desert have shrunk by an order of magnitude within a decade .\ncrowned sandgrouse \u2013 widespread but uncommon . its range varies from uvda valley in the south to nizzana \u2013 wadi zin line in the north . reported regularly also in the arava valley from yahel to hazeva . even at major drinking spots numbers range from 10 to 100 birds at most . although scarce , this species seems to have suffered the least from population decrease or habitat loss , compared with other species of sandgrouse in israel .\nlloyd , penn , et al .\nrainfall and food availability as factors influencing the migration and breeding activity of namaqua sandgrouse pterocles namaqua .\nostrich 72 , no . 1 and 2 ( 2001 ) : 50\u201362 .\nde juana e ( 1997 ) family pteroclidae ( sandgrouse ) . in : del hoyo a , elliot a , sargatal j ( eds ) handbook of the birds of the world . lynx edicions , barcelona , pp 30\u201359\nmougeot f , ben\u00edtez\u2013l\u00f3pez a , casas f et al ( 2014 ) a temperature - based monitoring of nest attendance patterns and disturbance effects during incubation by ground - nesting sandgrouse . j arid environ 102 : 89\u201397 . doi :\nare threatened in spain , the stronghold of european populations . spatial modelling was used to : ( 1 ) assess the relative importance of abiotic , anthropogenic and geographical factors in the distribution of both sandgrouse species , ( 2 ) determine the most important anthropogenic predictors for each species occurrence , and ( 3 ) identify areas where conservation efforts should be prioritized . abiotic and anthropogenic factors explained most of the variation in sandgrouse distributions . both species were associated with arid flatlands , arable land cover being the most important anthropogenic variable determining their distribution . the common agricultural policy ( cap ) is the main driver of agricultural management in europe , and may thus have a direct effect on sandgrouse distributions .\nben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , a . 2014 . ecology and conservation of iberian sandgrouse : a multiscalar approach - ecolog\u00eda y conservaci\u00f3n de pter\u00f3clidos ib\u00e9ricos : una aproximaci\u00f3n multiescalar . phd dissertation . university of castilla - la mancha , uclm , spain .\nben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez a , vi\u00f1uela j , herv\u00e1s i et al ( 2014 ) modelling sandgrouse ( pterocles spp . ) distributions and large - scale habitat requirements in spain : implications for conservation . environ conserv 41 : 132\u2013143 . doi :\nalthough perhaps rather plain in appearance , the plumage of the chestnut - bellied sandgrouse ( pterocles exustus ) is in fact wonderful camouflage against the sand of its arid habitats . a somewhat small , plump bird , the chestnut - bellied sandgrouse has an unmarked head , dark under - wings , a blackish lower - belly , and a chestnut upper - belly , after which it is named . the dark - tipped bill is slate - blue , and there is a pale green circle around the eyes . the male chestnut - bellied sandgrouse is somewhat drabber than the female , with a pale brown back and a narrow chest band , compared to the female\u2019s more elaborate , mottled back of tan , brown and dark brown . the juvenile lacks the elongated tail feathers of the adult bird , and has more densely barred upperparts . six subspecies of the chestnut - bellied sandgrouse are currently recognised , and these vary mainly in the colouration of the upperparts ( 2 ) .\nsandgrouse probably evolved in the arid zone of north africa and the middle east , spreading to southern africa and central asia . they are more closely associated with the afro - asian deserts than any other family of birds . the 14 species of the genus pterocles retain a rudimentary hind toe ; this toe has been lost in the two species of syrrhaptes that are likely to be more recent offshoots of the ancestral sandgrouse stock . four species of sandgrouse ( lichtenstein ' s , double - banded , four - banded , and painted ) share the habit of crepuscular or nocturnal drinking and may constitute a separate genus ( or at least a subgenus ) nyctiperdix on the basis of this and the possession of a strongly barred abdomen in both sexes .\nmaclean , g . l . , and c . h . fry .\npteroclidae , sandgrouse .\nin the birds of africa , vol . 2 . , edited by emil k . urban , et al . london : academic press , 1986 .\n) is estimated to be around 170000 to 250000 individual birds . the overall population size is considered to be stable . the modern agricultural practices are degrading the habitat of these sandgrouse species and threaten their survival . their generation length is 5 . 6 years .\nthe chestnut - bellied sandgrouse inhabits a range of environments , including shrubland , semi - desert scattered with thorny shrubs or trees , arable land and grassland ( 1 ) ( 2 ) , up to altitudes of 1 , 500 metres ( 1 ) ( 3 ) .\nsandgrouse feed almost exclusively on small seeds picked up from the surface of the soil ; the birds also use their bills to flick loose sand sideways to uncover buried seed . because of the dry diet , they must drink often , especially in hot weather when drinking may occur daily . most species drink an hour or two after sunrise , but some drink only at dusk or at night . sandgrouse drink by dipping the bill , sucking a draft of water , and raising the head to swallow , taking several drafts at each bout of drinking .\nlloyd , penn , et al .\nthe population dynamics of the namaqua sandgrouse : implications for gamebird management in an arid , stochastic environment .\nproceedings of the 22nd international ornithological congress , durban , south africa . compact disk . johannesburg : birdlife south africa , 1999 .\ndepending on the location of feeding areas . all species are gregarious , except when breeding : flocks may number hundreds or thousands of birds . they call to each other in flight and sometimes when flocking on the ground . adaptations of sandgrouse to arid zones include : seeking shade in hot conditions , flying and feeding in the cooler hours of the day , insulation against overheating by dense plumage , and huddling together under extreme conditions . some species of sandgrouse also may limit their frequency of drinking to conserve energy , though this may not be possible in hot conditions .\nben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , a . , vi\u00f1uela , j . , su\u00e1rez , f . , herv\u00e1s , i . & garc\u00eda , j . t . 2014 . niche - habitat mechanisms and biotic interactions explain the coexistence and abundance of congeneric sandgrouse species . oecologia 176 , 193 - 206 .\nsandgrouse are stocky terrestrial birds with dense , beautifully camouflaged plumage . they are covered with an underdown even between the main feather tracts . their lower legs are feathered in front in the genus pterocles , whereas the whole lower leg and the toes are feathered in syrrhaptes , possibly as an adaptation to cold climates . despite their short legs , sandgrouse walk and run well . the nostrils of all species are covered with fine feathers . their wings are long and pointed , giving them exceptional powers of flight . the sexes differ markedly in plumage pattern , the females being more cryptically colored than the males .\nfeathers at a drinking place and flies back to the chicks , which take the water from his plumage . this method of providing the chicks with water is unique among birds . sandgrouse young fly at about four to five weeks , after which they accompany their parents on flights to the watering hole .\ncasas , fabi\u00e1n ben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , ana garc\u00eda , jes\u00fas t . mart\u00edn , carlos a . vi\u00f1uela , javier mougeot , francois and marsden , stuart 2015 . assessing the short - term effects of capture , handling and tagging of sandgrouse . ibis , vol . 157 , issue . 1 , p . 115 .\ncasas , f . , ben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , a . , garc\u00eda , j . t . , mart\u00edn , c . a . , vi\u00f1uela , j . & mougeot , f . 2015 . assessing the short - term effects of capture , handling and tagging of sandgrouse . ibis 157 , 115 - 124 .\nben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , a . , vi\u00f1uela , j . , herv\u00e1s , i . , su\u00e1rez , f . & garc\u00eda , j . t . 2014 . modelling sandgrouse ( pterocles spp . ) distributions and large - scale habitat requirements in spain : implications for conservation . environmental conservation 41 : 132 - 143 .\nmougeot , f . , ben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , a . , casas , f . , garc\u00eda , j . t . & vi\u00f1uela , j . 2014 . a temperature - based monitoring of nest attendance patterns and disturbance effects during incubation by ground - nesting sandgrouse . journal of arid environments 102 , 89 - 97 .\nwhen a predator is detected , rather than fleeing and risk giving away its location , the chestnut - bellied sandgrouse sits still and relies on its wonderfully camouflaged plumage to conceal itself . it tends to live in small , scattered groups to reduce its visibility except for times when it gathers in often large numbers around watering holes ( 4 ) .\nsomething strikes me as i write ; the sluice was opened up and freshwater was allowed to flow just as the bird arrived . sandgrouse are generally noted for visiting water in the early morning , late evening or nocturnally . this occurred close to midday . i wonder if the sluice is opened at the same time each day and she timed her arrival . another thought ; the tide had just turned . was the sluice closed to prevent salt water flowing upstream ? if so the sluice would be operational at a different time each day depending on the time that the tide receded below the sluice gate . what do desert - dwelling sandgrouse know of tides , i wonder ? this is simply musing unless anyone knows any better ?\nthe timing of breeding in the chestnut - bellied sandgrouse is heavily influenced by the level of local rainfall , but generally occurs sometime between january and july , except in kenya and tanzania where the breeding season is more lengthy , ranging from february until november ( 2 ) . the chestnut - bellied sandgrouse may produce two clutches a year , the nest being a simple scrape in the ground , holding three eggs per clutch ( 4 ) , with both the male and female birds incubating the eggs ( 5 ) . the chicks are active from hatching , soon foraging for food with the adult birds ( 4 ) , but are unable to fly large distances and so must rely on the adults for water . at a water hole , the adult birds soak up water in the breast feathers before returning to the nest to \u201cwater\u201d the chicks - a unique feature of the sandgrouse family . adult birds can fly distances of up to 16 kilometres per day to find water , gathering in large flocks to drink a couple of hours after sunrise , and on very hot days at sundown ( 6 ) .\nthese sandgrouse species are sexually dimorphic . the males are larger than the females and have brighter plumage in the breeding season . the males weigh 250 to 400 grams whereas the females weigh 200 to 370 grams . the wingspan is 55 to 65 cm . the central rectrices ( central tail streamers ) are long , stiff and pointed . the central rectrices are longer in males .\nben\u00edtez - l\u00f3pez , a . , mougeot , f . , mart\u00edn , c . a . , casas , f . , calero - riestra , m . , garc\u00eda , j . t . & vi\u00f1uela , j . 2011 . an improved night - lighting technique for the selective capture of sandgrouse and other steppe birds . european journal of wildlife research 57 , 389 - 393 .\n; the latter species tolerates warmer climates . consequently , the network of core and marginally suitable areas identified for each species differs , and connectivity between the populations of these areas seems unlikely . potential future changes in sandgrouse distribution will probably be directed principally by the synergistic effects of climate change and expected land - use transformations resulting from the new cap and ongoing population growth , urbanization and infrastructure development .\nsandgrouse will often arrive at a waterhole in large groups that form en - route . in company , there would be many eyes to keep watch for the local greater spotted eagles and other predators . they can drink their fill quickly by tipping their heads back , allowing the water to flow into their crops , but on her own she had to keep returning to the top of the bank between sips to maintain a look - out .\nabout 9 . 8 in ( 25 cm ) ; 6 . 2\u20138 . 8 oz ( 175\u2013250 g ) . smallish , without elongated , central tail feathers . both sexes strongly barred black on buff above and below ; male distinguished by black - and - white forehead pattern , yellow bill , and two broad breast - bands of buff , each bordered black below . downy chick , unusual in being almost plain brown ; other sandgrouse chicks boldly patterned above .\nsandgrouse are famed for having breast feathers that can absorb water which is carried back to chicks in their waterless habitat . they are noted for flying many miles to a freshwater source to provide water for their young . in keeping with most of the species in the genera , it is only the male that carries water . he will take over parenting duties while the female fends for herself . so it was with a sense of something missing that i watched her take a drink .\nblack - bellied sandgrouse \u2013 this species dominated hilly habitats within the central negev mountains , nizzana area , the northern negev and judean desert . while historic peak numbers at a drinking pool at nizzana exceeded 2000 birds , current numbers struggle to reach 300 at most within the same region . in other parts of the negev there has been no big change in distribution though numbers have diminished . at a local level , the species has disappeared from specific locations where it was once regular .\ngregarious in flocks of up to about 60 , but birds congregate to drink at watering sites in flocks of several hundred about two hours after sunrise . some birds may drink again in evening . birds call to each other with a bubbling sound . in egypt , may gather with flocks of crowned sandgrouse ( pterocles coronatus ) to feed on grain spilled by trucks traveling from nile to red sea ports . nonbreeding flocks roost on ground in open desert , each bird making a shallow scrape .\nlong central rectrices , underwing and belly white . 30 = 39 cm , 210 - 400 g , wingspan 55 - 65 cm . broad chestnut band on breast , bordered with black lines . bill bluish grey - horn , orbital ring blue . female duller , and has additional black line on neck . exceptionally among sandgrouse , a non - breeding plumage exists in male , showing white throat , black eyestripe reduced or absent , and dorsal parts barred , without yellow spots . race caudacutus paler , with longer wings .\nmy base is the cheap and cheerful , self catering top motel in istres . i find this arrangement ideal because french breakfasts aren\u2019t worth their cost and evening meals also become more affordable . then there is the essential of tea and coffee whenever i want one , that isn\u2019t possible in a budget chain hotel unless a kettle is smuggled in . oh , and this establishment in a secure compound behind the 3 - star ariane hotel is also hard by the plaine de la crau sandgrouse site , and conveniently placed to visit birding sites in les alpilles and la camargue .\nsandgrouse are monogamous , solitary nesters , though nests may be fairly close together , giving the appearance of a loose colony . the nest is a shallow scrape , often under a plant , but also in the open ; it is usually lined with fragments of soil , stone , or plants . clutches usually contain three rather elongated , spotted eggs . each clutch is incubated by the female during the day and by the male at night , at least in those species which have been studied . the chicks hatch after about 21\u201331 days , depending on the species . they feed themselves but are given water by the male parent , which soaks his belly\nabout 15 in ( 39 cm ) ; female 10 . 6\u201316 . 4 oz ( 300\u2013465 g ) , male 14 . 1\u201319 . 4 oz ( 400\u2013550 g ) . largest sandgrouse ; robustly built , without elongated , central tail feathers . male rust - colored buff above , mottled grayish on back and wings ; throat a bright rusty color with triangular black patch ; breast gray , bordered with narrow , black band and broad , pinkish band ; belly black . female similar to male but less strongly tinged rust coloring ; lacks rust coloring and black on throat ; breast spotted black ; narrow black collar on throat and below breast . underwing white in both sexes .\nmainly on lowland plains , including baked mud on dried - out marshes by tidal water on spanish marismas , stony hammada on desert edge , and bare clay expanses alternating with sand , as well as dusty or sunbaked flats and sand - dunes . often on infertile areas of dry cultivation , or near irrigation ditches . inhabits areas of scattered tamarisk and other bushes , but avoids trees and scrubland , and rocky broken terrain . like other sandgrouse , unable to exist far from water , essential not only for adults but for carrying in soaked belly feathers to chicks , in regular social flights . will drink brackish water in absence of fresh , and will not only wade but alight on river far from shore , floating high like gull and taking off without difficulty .\npeau de meau has a 5km waymarked trail around it\u2019s perimeter , but first i set off in the car along a rough track for some distance beyond the reserve . after all i had been wanting to do that for the past three years and there was nobody there to stop me . seeing only pipits , skylarks and corvids i returned to walk the full distance of the trail , but still no sandgrouse . so i applied my usual solution to a no show , deciding to return early the next day . but first i took another drive through the rough roads of la crau eventually reaching the n508 road that runs north - west between the plaine and the neighbouring camargue . guess what ? at track\u2019s end was a roadside notice proclaiming access to this military land is prohibited . oh well !"]}
{"id": 1235, "summary": [{"text": "epicallima argenticinctella , the orange-headed epicallima moth , is a moth of the oecophoridae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from nova scotia to south carolina , west to kansas and texas .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of deciduous forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the wingspan is 10-13 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are yellowish-orange with a silvery black-margined line along the basal margin from the fold to the basal angle .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is a similar line from the basal third of the inner margin to the costa .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the basal area between these lines is deep reddish orange .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are fuscous .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing from april to october . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "epicallima argenticinctella", "paragraphs": ["species epicallima argenticinctella - orange - headed epicallima - hodges # 1046 - bugguide . net\nepicallima argenticinctella ( fig . 2 ) likewise is a common species in deciduous forest , where the adult sometimes is abundant at uv light .\norange - banded epicallima moth in montgomery co . , maryland ( 6 / 25 / 2009 ) . photo by ashley bradford . ( mbp list )\norange - banded epicallima moth in howard co . , maryland ( 7 / 29 / 2014 ) . photo by nancy magnusson . ( mbp list )\nan orange - banded epicallima moth in baltimore city , maryland ( 7 / 23 / 2015 ) . photo by thomas wilson . ( mbp list )\norange - banded epicallima moth in baltimore co . , maryland ( 7 / 12 / 2014 ) . photo by emily stanley . ( mbp list )\nan orange - banded epicallima moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 7 / 14 / 2017 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\nan orange - banded epicallima moth in garrett co . , maryland ( 7 / 21 / 2014 ) . photo by mike burchett . ( mbp list )\nan orange - banded epicallima moth in harford co . , maryland ( 6 / 16 / 2018 ) . photo by josh emm . ( mbp list )\nan orange - banded epicallima moth in harford co . , maryland ( 8 / 15 / 2015 ) . photo by dave webb . ( mbp list )\nan orange - banded epicallima moth in harford co . , maryland ( 7 / 21 / 2014 ) . photo by mike burchett . ( mbp list )\nan orange - banded epicallima moth in dorchester co . , maryland ( 6 / 7 / 2015 ) . photo by jonathan willey . ( mbp list )\nan orange - banded epicallima moth in worcester co . , maryland ( 6 / 10 / 2013 ) . photo by scott housten . ( mbp list )\nan orange - banded epicallima moth in allegany co . , maryland ( 6 / 25 / 2013 ) . photo by mike burchett . ( mbp list )\nan orange - banded epicallima moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 7 / 30 / 2016 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\nan orange - banded epicallima moth in worcester co . , maryland ( 6 / 11 / 2013 ) . photo by mike burchett . ( mbp list )\nan orange - banded epicallima moth in howard co . , maryland ( 7 / 24 / 2015 ) . photo by nancy magnusson . ( mbp list )\nan orange - banded epicallima moth in howard co . , maryland ( 8 / 7 / 2017 ) . photo by anthony vanschoor . ( mbp list )\nan orange - banded epicallima moth in anne arundel co . , maryland ( 6 / 30 / 2018 ) . photo by bill hubick . ( mbp list )\nan orange - banded epicallima moth in anne arundel co . , maryland ( 7 / 5 / 2014 ) . photo by hans holbrook . ( mbp list )\nan orange - banded epicallima moth in anne arundel co . , maryland ( 6 / 6 / 2015 ) . photo by judy gallagher . ( mbp list )\nan orange - banded epicallima moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 6 / 25 / 2016 ) . determined by roger downer / bamona . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\nan orange - banded epicallima moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 7 / 17 / 2016 ) . verified by roger downer / bamona . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\nan orange - banded epicallima moth in cecil co . , maryland ( 6 / 6 / 2015 ) . verified by roger downer / bamona . photo by shannon schade . ( mbp list )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nthe flight period appears to be april to october with the peak in july and august .\nclemens , b . 1860 . contributions to american lepidopterology - no . 4 . proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia 12 : 166 - 167\n. e . w . classey ltd . and rbd publications inc . p . 110 ; plate 7 , figs . 10 - 11 .\nthe moths of america north of mexico fascicle 6 . 2 gelechioidea , oecophoridae ronald w . hodges . 1974 . e . w . classey ltd . and rbd publications inc .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhodges , r . w . , 1974 . moths of america north of mexico , fascicle 6 . 2 , p . 110 ; pl . 7 . 10 - 11 . order\nthe present concept of oecophoridae is restricted to this group , as defined on basis of the genus oecophora . larvae of nearctic species usually are found in dead wood , where they probably feed on fungus . little is known of the specific habits of these larvae , and some of the species apparently never have been reared . adults are small moths , some species of which are rather brightly colored . not surprisingly , given the larval habits , they are most commonly collected in deciduous forest .\nfor information on the genera idioglossa ( one native species ) and stathmopoda ( two native and one introduced species ) , which were listed under oecophoridae in the 1983 checklist , see the page on batrachedridae .\ndecantha boreasella ( fig . 1 ) is sometimes abundant at uv light in deciduous forest in late june .\nfabiola edithella ( fig . 3 ) generally is seen less frequently than the previous two species , but in areas where populations occur , it can be locally common . the adult has the noticeable habit of flying during the 15 minutes or so immediately before the first light of dawn ( j . wiker , pers . comm . ) . it is collected most frequently in late june .\nmathildana newmanella ( fig . 4 ) is found in deciduous forest ; in central illinois , the adult flight period begins in late may .\neido trimaculella ( fig . 5 ) , like mathildana newmanella , occurs as an adult in deciduous forest beginning in late may .\na generic revision of american moths of the family oecophoridae , with descriptions of new species .\nbusck , a . 1908 . a generic revision of american moths of the family oecophoridae , with descriptions of new species . proceedings of the united states national museum 35 : 187 - 204\nphylogeny and feeding trait evolution of the mega - diverse gelechioidea ( lepidoptera : obtectomera ) . . .\nby sohn , j . c . , j . c . regier , c . mitter , d . adamski , j . f . landry , m . heikkil\u00e4 , k . t . park , t . harrison , k . mitter , a . zwick , a . y . kaw\nsohn , j . c . , j . c . regier , c . mitter , d . adamski , j . f . landry , m . heikkil\u00e4 , k . t . park , t . harrison , k . mitter , a . zwick , a . y . kawahara , s . cho , m . p . cummings & p . schmitz , 2016 . phylogeny and feeding trait evolution of the mega - diverse gelechioidea ( lepidoptera : obtectomera ) : new insight from 19 nuclear genes . systematic entomology , 41 ( 1 ) : 112\u2013132 . abstract and link to fee based access here . cite : 1412991\ndescriptions of new species , including : isophrictis occidentalis , aristotelia amelanchierella , aristotelia planitia , gnorimoschema consueta , gnorimoschema macromaculata , gelechia fructuaria , gelechia prognosticata , brachmia casca . available online ( requires jstor access ) here\nby heikkil\u00e4 , m . , mutanen , m . , kekkonen , m . and kaila , l .\nheikkil\u00e4 , m . , m . mutanen , m . kekkonen & l . kaila , 2014 [ 2013 ] , morphology reinforces proposed molecular phylogenetic affinities : a revised classification for gelechioidea ( lepidoptera ) . cladistics , 30 : 563\u2013589 . doi : 10 . 1111 / cla . 12064\nas of 2015 , this was the most current revision of gelechioidea . a summary of the revision is found on p . 585 . as of 2016 , the phylogeny of gelechioidea remains in flux with a paper published by sohn et al . ( 2016 )\ntwo new species of coniferous needle miners from louisiana and the description of a new genus ( lepidoptera : gelechiidae ) .\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 2 october , 2014 - 12 : 44am\na review of coelopoeta ( elachistidae ) , with descriptions of two new species .\nkaila , l . 1995 . a review of coelopoeta ( elachistidae ) , with descriptions of two new species . journal of the lepidopterists ' society 49 ( 2 ) : 171 - 178\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 10 may , 2014 - 8 : 55pm\neach antenna ringed with black and white scales . forewing orange , including fringe ; lines white , edged with black . note white reniform spot at costa . brown basal patch , rounded patch along inner margin near anal angle , and mixed brown and white shade in st . area . hindwing gray .\nlarva has been reared on corn plants ; found under bark of elm trees in the wild .\nuse of images featured on maryland biodiversity project is only permitted with express permission of the photographer ."]}
{"id": 1236, "summary": [{"text": "the saddle butterflyfish , chaetodon ephippium , is a species of butterflyfish ( family chaetodontidae ) .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in the indian and pacific oceans from sri lanka and the cocos-keeling islands to the hawaiian , marquesan and tuamoto islands , north to southern japan , south to rowley shoals and new south wales in australia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it is a large butterflyfish , at up to 30 cm ( nearly 12 in ) long together with the lined butterflyfish ( c. lineolatus ) the giant among its genus .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "in shape it resembles certain angelfishes more than most of its relatives .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the overall color is yellowish grey , with a large black spot bordered below by a broad white band on the back and wavy blue lines on the lower sides .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the throat and the outline of the hind parts is bright yellow .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "adults have a filament extending posteriorly from the upper part of the soft portion of the dorsal fin .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the saddle butterflyfish is found at depths between 0 and 30 m in coral reefs .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it feeds on filamentous algae , small invertebrates , coral polyps , and fish eggs .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it belongs to the large subgenus rabdophorus which might warrant recognition as a distinct genus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "in this group , it appears to represent a distinct lineage , with the dotted butterflyfish ( c. semeion ) perhaps the only somewhat closely related species .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "next closest seems to be a group including the black-backed butterflyfish ( c. melannotus ) , spot-tailed butterflyfish ( c. ocellicaudus ) and yellow-dotted butterflyfish ( c. selene ) , but these are already so distant that their ancestors must have diverged from the saddle butterflyfish 's soon after the rabdophorus lineage started to diversify . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "saddle butterflyfish", "paragraphs": ["saddle butterflyfish , chaetodon ephippium , in timor leste . source : nick hobgood / wikimedia commons . license : cc by attribution - sharealike\nthe saddle butterflyfish can be recognised by the large white - bordered black area on the upper side below the dorsal fin . the species occurs in marine tropical waters of the western and central pacific .\ntherefore it is important to choose the correct species in relation to the corals wanted , if one desires to keep butterflyfish in a coral - aquarium . bristleworms , tubeworms and other small invertebrates are also a part of the diet for many butterflyfish .\nthe saddle butterflyfish can be recognised by the large white - bordered black area on the upper side below the dorsal fin . the body is grey with blue - grey stripes across the lower sides . the breast and snout are yellow . adults have a filament extending from the back of the dorsal fin .\nthe saddle butterflyfish owes its name to the large dark spot delimited by a wide white band that it exhibits near the dorsal fin , on its greyish - yellow body . it occurs in lagoons and reefs up to 30 metres in depth , and prefers coral - rich areas . juveniles are solitary and , during the breeding season , they find a mate which they keep for several years .\nthey ignore most other fish and are generally peaceful , therefore multiple butterflyfish will have no problem living together . one should however be cautious about keeping similar species together unless they are a couple .\na bluish - grey butterflyfish with a large black patch bordered in white on the upper rear of the body , blue lines on the lower sides , and an orange area from snout to breast .\nningaloo reef to dampier archipelago , rowley shoals and scott reef , western australia , ashmore reef , timor sea , and the northern great barrier reef , queensland , and reefs in the coral sea to wollongong , new south wales ; also the lord howe island region , tasman sea , and cocos ( keeling ) islands and christmas island , indian ocean . elsewhere , the saddle butterflyfish occurs in the tropical indo - pacific . inhabits rich coral areas in lagoons and seaward reefs .\nthe butterflyfish are known for their attractive patterns and colours . they are closely related to angelfishs , but can always be distinguished , as they lack the spines on each side of the head of the angelfish .\na smaller group of these fish will seek out primairily soft corals , like zoanthus . a larger part of the species will target different types of lps corals . butterflyfish are also known to seek out anemones , tubeworms and bristleworms .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\ngreek , chaite = hair + greek , odous = teeth ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; reef - associated ; depth range 0 - 30 m ( ref . 1602 ) . tropical ; 30\u00b0n - 30\u00b0s , 79\u00b0e - 130\u00b0w\nindo - pacific : sri lanka ( ref . 10361 ) and cocos - keeling islands to the hawaiian , marquesan and tuamoto islands , north to southern japan , south to rowley shoals and new south wales , australia .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 30 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 559 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 12 - 14 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 21 - 25 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 20 - 23 .\noccur in lagoons and seaward reefs to a depth of 30 m , prefer coral - rich and clear water areas ( ref . 205 ) . benthopelagic ( ref . 58302 ) . encountered singly , in pairs or small groups ( adults often in pairs ; juveniles solitary and inshore ) . feed on filamentous algae , small invertebrates , coral polyps , and fish eggs . oviparous ( ref . 205 ) . form pairs during breeding ( ref . 205 ) .\ndistinct pairing ( ref . 205 ) . monogamous mating is observed as both obligate and social ( ref . 52884 ) .\nmyers , r . f . , 1991 . micronesian reef fishes . second ed . coral graphics , barrigada , guam . 298 p . ( ref . 1602 )\n) : 25 - 29 . 3 , mean 28 . 5 ( based on 2323 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 02239 ( 0 . 01381 - 0 . 03628 ) , b = 3 . 02 ( 2 . 88 - 3 . 16 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & genus - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 0 \u00b10 . 43 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 23 of 100 ) .\nit occurs in marine tropical waters of the western and central pacific . in australia it is known from the central coast of western australia , around the tropical north and south to the northern coast of new south wales .\nthe map below shows the australian distribution of the species based on public sightings and specimens in australian museums . click on the map for detailed information . source : atlas of living australia .\nallen , g . r . 1997 . marine fishes of tropical australia and south - east asia . western australian museum . pp . 292 .\nallen , g . r . , steene , r . & m . allen . 1998 . a guide to angelfishes & butterflyfishes . odyssey publishing / tropical reef research . pp . 250 .\nallen , g . r . & r . swainston . 1988 . the marine fishes of north - western australia . a field guide for anglers and divers . western australian museum . pp . 201 .\nhutchins , b . & r . swainston . 1986 . sea fishes of southern australia . complete field guide for anglers and divers . swainston publishing . pp . 180 .\nkuiter , r . h . 1996 . guide to sea fishes of australia . new holland . pp . 433 .\nkuiter , r . h . 2000 . coastal fishes of south - eastern australia . gary allen . pp . 437 .\nrandall , j . e . , allen , g . r . & r . c . steene . 1997 . fishes of the great barrier reef and coral sea . crawford house press . pp . 557 .\nadults are distinguished from juveniles by a filament extending from the rear part of the dorsal fin .\nsri lanka and cocos - keeling islands to the hawaiian , marquesan and tuamoto islands ; north to southern japan ; south to rowley shoals and new south wales , australia .\ndianne j . bray & audrey s . thompson , chaetodon ephippium in fishes of australia , accessed 10 jul 2018 , urltoken\nfeeds on coral polyps , algae , sponges , fish eggs and benthic invertebrates .\nchaetodon ephippium cuvier , 1831 , hist . nat . poiss . 7 : 80 . type locality : bora bora ; moluccas .\n. christmas island : christmas island natural history association 2 edn , 284 pp .\nthe marine fishes of north - western australia . a field guide for anglers and divers .\nperth , wa : western australian museum vi 201 pp . , 70 pls .\n. new jersey : t . f . h . publications inc . 832 pp . figs .\ncuvier , g . l . in cuvier , g . l . & valenciennes , a . 1831 .\n. paris : levrault vol . 7 531 pp . pls 170 - 208 .\nhobbs , j - p . a . , newman , s . j . , mitsopoulos , g . e . a . , travers , m . j . , skepper , c . l . , gilligan , j . j . , allen , g . r . , choat , h . j . & ayling , a . m . 2014 . checklist and new records of christmas island fishes : the influence of isolation , biogeography and habitat availability on species abundance and community composition .\nhobbs , j - p . a . , newman , s . j . , mitsopoulos , g . e . a . , travers , m . j . , skepper , c . l . , gilligan , j . j . , allen , g . r . , choat , h . j . & ayling , a . m . 2014 . fishes of the cocos ( keeling ) islands : new records , community composition and biogeographic significance .\njohnson , j . w . 2010 . fishes of the moreton bay marine park and adjacent continental shelf waters , queensland , australia . pp . 299 - 353 in davie , p . j . f . & phillips , j . a . proceedings of the thirteenth international marine biological workshop , the marine fauna and flora of moreton bay .\nguide to sea fishes of australia . a comprehensive reference for divers and fishermen .\noxley , w . g . , ayling , a . m . , cheal , a . j . & osborne , k . 2004 . marine surveys undertaken in the elizabeth and middleton reefs marine national nature reserve , december 2003 . townsville : australian institute of marine sciences 64 pp .\npratchett , m . s . 2005 . dietary overlap among coral - feeding butterflyfishes ( chaetodontidae ) at lizard island , northern great barrier reef .\npratchett , m . s . & berumen , m . l . 2008 . interspecific variation in ditributions and diets of coral reef butterflyfishes ( teleostei : chaetodontidae ) .\npyle , r . 2001 . chaetodontidae , pomacanthidae . pp . 3224 - 3286 in carpenter , k . e . & niem , v . h . ( eds ) .\nthe living marine resources of the western central pacific . fao species identification guide for fisheries purposes .\nfrom the day we opened the first store in maidenhead , we\u2019ve firmly believed that one key to our success is employing fish keepers .\nnot recommended . will pick on anemones , mushroom corals , stony corals , tubeworms , and other small invertebrates .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nyearsley , g . k . , last , p . r . & morris , g . b . 1997 ,\ncodes for australian aquatic biota ( caab ) : an upgraded and expanded species coding system for australian fisheries databases\n, pp . 15 pp . + appendices\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 0cf1a534 - 13d1 - 424a - ac46 - e20d300d5fae\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f8f65564 - 1270 - 4f28 - a3ab - 30d6a33503bf\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 357500\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nsource : bernard e . picton / cc - by - sa - 3 . 0\nwhen the fish can find its natural food in the aquarium it requires less frequent feeding .\nthis species will better acclimatize to the aquarium ` s condition if introduced , when young .\nsome species of the chaetodon genus are grouped together in what is known as a\ncomplex\n, since they are so very similar .\nregardless of resemblance , it is important to be able to distinguish them , as in some cases they vary greatly in their needs . sometimes there are just small differences in colour or pattern , but in other instances it is vital to know where the fish originally come from .\nit can be problematic , with many of these species , to get them eating in the beginning , but many of the species cannot resist live zooplankton or live mussels with crushed shells . another option is to mimic their natural behaviour by stuffing their food into coral skeletons or stones .\nas these fish can be difficult to acclimatize and get feeding , it is important to buy healthy fish , to avoid having to deal with more problems . make sure to check that they do not have parasites or any visible infections .\nthere are some species that should not be kept in an a aquarium , as they are food specialists and will almost always refuse to eat replacement foods . it can be possible to breed some species , which will eat frozen foods . otherwise the only way to keep food specialists is by feeding them their natural diet , which consists of live sps or lps corals for example .\nindo - pacific : cocos - keeling islands to the tuamoto islands , north to japan .\nscott w . michael . 2004 . angelfishes and butterflyfishes ( reef fishes series book 3 ) tfh publications / microcosm ltd . - ( english ) bob fenner . butterflyfishes ; separating the good ones and those you don ' t want - wet web media - ( english ) collection of links to additional information - wet web media - ( english ) tea yi kai . 2014 . reef nuggets 2 : aquatic lepidopterans for your reef ( revised edition ) - reef builders - ( english )\nfroese , r . and d . pauly . editors . 2014 . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . urltoken , version ( 08 / 2014 ) .\nminimum volume\nindicates the size of the tank needed to house this species under optimal conditions .\nthis is based on a medium size animal , which you want to keep for several years . it might be possible to keep smaller specimens for a limited period in a smaller tank . a larger tank might be needed for fully - grown specimens .\nhardiness\nindicates how resistant this species is to disease and how well i tolerates bad conditions in general . some species doesn ' t handle transportation very well , but that doesn ' t mean that the species isn ' t hardy under the right conditions .\nin this case , a\nnormal\naquarium is a reef aquarium with mixed corals or a fish only aquarium with an approximately salinity of 1 . 026 ( sg ) and a temperature close to 26\u00b0c . species requiring more than a 4000 - liter tank are considered not suitable for home aquarium .\nspecial aquariums may cover tanks with low salinity , sub - tropical temperature , deep sand bed , sea grass etc .\nalways reef safe : no sources indicate that this species will harm corals or other invertebrates .\noften reef safe : only a few aquarists has reported problems keeping this species with corals and other invertebrates .\nreef safe with caution : this species may be a threat to some types of invertebrates .\nreef safe with luck : most specimens will harm corals and / or other invertebrates , but you might be lucky .\nnot reef safe : this species is a threat to most corals and / or other invertebrates ."]}
{"id": 1250, "summary": [{"text": "the forest cobra ( naja melanoleuca ) , also commonly called the black cobra and the black and white-lipped cobra , is a species of venomous snake in the family elapidae .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "the species is native to africa , mostly the central and western parts of the continent .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is the largest true cobra species with a total length ( including tail ) of up to 3.1 meters ( 10 feet ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "although it prefers lowland forest and moist savanna habitats , this cobra is highly adaptable and can be found in drier climates within its geographical range .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is a very capable swimmer and is often considered to be semi-aquatic .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the forest cobra is a generalist in its feeding habits , having a highly varied diet : anything from large insects to small mammals and other reptiles .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "this species is alert , nervous and is considered to be a very dangerous snake .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "when cornered or molested , it will assume the typical cobra warning posture by raising its fore body off the ground , spreading a narrow hood , and hissing loudly .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "bites to humans are less common than from other african cobras due to various factors , though a bite from this species is a life-threatening emergency . ", "topic": 4}], "title": "forest cobra", "paragraphs": ["it also inhabits mangroves in western africa . the banded form of forest cobra in\nit ' s a trap !\ntaking advantage of a forest cobra .\nforest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .\n) . the species is also known by other common names like african banded cobra , banded cobra , brown cobra or arabian cobra .\nexploring the venom of the forest cobra snake : toxicovenomics and antivenom profiling of naja melanoleuca .\nthe egyptian cobra ( naja haje ) is a species of cobra found in africa . it is one of the largest cobra species native to africa , second to the forest cobra ( naja melanoleuca ) .\nmillburn , naomi .\nhabitat of a forest cobra\naccessed july 09 , 2018 . urltoken\nthe forest cobra once held the record for longevity in captivity with a specimen that lived 28 years . like most other cobra species ,\nthe colour of this species is variable , with three main colour morphs . those from the forest or forest fringe , from\na snake of forest or woodland , it is the only one of africa ' s cobras that will live in high forest .\nmillburn , naomi .\nhabitat of a forest cobra .\nanimals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / habitat - forest - cobra - 5429 . html . accessed 09 july 2018 .\nforest cobra snake ( black and white cobra , naja melanoleuca ) eating chicks at the meserani snake park at duka bovi in tanzania , africa .\nmillburn , naomi . ( n . d . ) . habitat of a forest cobra . animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / habitat - forest - cobra - 5429 . html\nthe forest cobras are snakes that are well adapted to many environments and the habitat of the forest cobra is strongly dependent on what part of its african range the snake originates from . forest cobras originating in the southern african regions are typically found in\nmaximum longevity : 29 . 1 years ( captivity ) observations : these animals are also known as forest cobra .\nexploring the venom of the forest cobra snake : toxicovenomics and antivenom profiling of naja melanoleuca . - pubmed - ncbi\nnaja melanoleuca ( forest cobra ) venom . the amino acid sequence of phospholipase a , fraction de - iii .\nrain forest facts : the forest cobra is the second largest species of cobra on earth . the rainforests of western africa are home to this large predator . reaching lengths of over 7 feet , this cobra can deliver a very powerful bite to any would - be predator . not afraid to stand their ground , the forest cobra is often regarded as an aggressive species in captivity .\nsome species like the forest cobra are habitat specialists and occupy specific niches while others like the indian cobra are habitat generalists and occur across a range habitat types .\nin the event of an actual or probable bite from a forest cobra , execute the following first aid measures without delay .\nnaja melanoleuca ( forest cobra , black and white lipped cobra ) , kwazulu - natal , south africa . [ photo f . grundlingh \u00a9 , from sarca virtual museum ]\nnaja melanoleuca ( forest cobra , black and white lipped cobra ) , kwazulu - natal , south africa . [ photo a . coetzer \u00a9 , from sarca virtual museum ]\nnaja melanoleuca ( forest cobra ) venom . the amino acid sequence of phospholipase a , fraction de - iii . - pubmed - ncbi\noccurs in wild forest and in cultivated areas . ( tropical rainforest animals , 2000 )\nthe north american coral snake habitat is highly variable , ranging from forest to desert .\nwear down and drop out in pieces , making the back pair shift forward and two new molars emerge in the back of the african forest elephant ' s mouth . african forest\nanother time i found one on penang hill in malaysia while running down a forest trail .\nthe seven species of asiatic spitting cobras are the mandalay spitting cobra ( n . mandalayensis ) , palawan spitting cobra ( n . miolepis ) , philippine spitting cobra ( n . philippinensis ) , samar cobra ( n . samarensis , also known as the peter\u2019s cobra ) , indochinese spitting cobra ( n . siamensis , also known as the black and white or thai spitting cobra , javan spitting cobra ( n . sputatrix ) , and the equitoral spitting cobra ( n . sumatrana ) .\nfor digging for roots in the ground and to strip the bark off trees . the african forest\nopheodrys vernalis were hatched as part of breeding program in conjunction with lake county forest preserve district .\nthe forest cobra can be identified the following features ; highly polished body scales , its good climbing ability , a preference for thick vegetation in close proximity to water and its narrow hood . this snake grows to an average length of 2 meters but can grow up to 2 . 7 meters in length ( the forest cobra is the largest cobra in africa ) .\nthe forest cobra kicks off the list of deadliest snakes . members of this species , which grow to eight feet in length , are native to central africa .\nseven species of african spitting cobras exist today . they are ashe\u2019s spitting cobra ( n . ashei ) , the mali cobra ( n . katiensis ) , mozambique spitting cobra ( n . mossambica ) , zebra spitting cobra ( n . nigricincta ) , black - necked spitting cobra ( n . nigricollis ) , nubian spitting cobra ( n . nubiae ) , and the red spitting cobra ( n . pallida ) .\npopulation has fortunately begun to recover . in 1980 , there were an estimated 380 , 000 african forest\nthe population of forest cobras in uganda are almost always found close to water . the brown colour phase occurs in coastal and high altitude forest , woodland and thicket , and grassland areas ( i . e .\nthe forest cobra is fast , very active , and an agile climber . it is active both day and night and can be aggressive if not able to retreat .\n. the subgenus is united by their restriction to central and west african forest and / or forest - edge type habitat . they are also more aquatic and feed more on aquatic species . the species of the subgenus\nlargely due its forest - dwelling habits . the symptomology is thought to be very similar to that of the\nthis species is found from desert to savanna to thick forest . it can be found in urban areas .\ngives birth to a single calf ( twins have been known but are extremely rare ) . the african forest\nnear streams in dense or open forest , bamboo thickets , adjacent agricultural areas , and dense mangrove swamps .\nthe forest cobra has a length of 79\u2013118 in ( 2\u20133 m ) . with its large , thick body , it is africa ' s largest cobra . its color is variable by region but usually is dark with crossbars or blotches .\ncobra de capelo translated from portuguese means \u201csnake with hood\u201d a term which loosely places a variety of snakes into the cobra bracket .\nobservation - forest cobra - southern africa . description : this was the second cobra found within an hour on this day ( only captured the tail in a photo so not good enough for an observation ) . also saw 5 other forest cobras in the same area over a period of two days in late september . the snakes appear to be acti\nas its common name indicates , the forest cobra lives primarily in forest or woodlands , and it is the only cobra species found in such areas in africa . due to its ecological niche , humans do not often encounter forest cobras , and the species is one of the least frequent causes of snakebites in africa ( it possesses a primarily neurotoxic venom ) . it is primarily a diurnal species , and it exhibits some arboreal tendencies due to its natural habitat .\nis the only african cobra that lives in high altitude forest , residing in a wide range of altitudes from sea level to 2800 m . forest cobras are highly adaptable snakes , and its habitat varies depending on which part of its african range it is living in . in southern africa ,\nthe forest cobra is one of the least frequent causes of snake bite among the african cobras , largely due its forest - dwelling habits and its shy , retiring demeanor . although one of the largest of the african naja cobras , the venom is considered less toxic than the others . if the snake becomes cornered or is agitated , it can quickly attack the aggressor , and if a large amount of venom is injected , a rapidly fatal outcome is possible . the forest cobra does not normally spit or spray its venom . the forest cobra is also felt by many her - petologists to be one of the most intelligent of the african elapids .\nblack - lipped cobra are also known as forest cobras and are most frequently found among the thick vegetation in lowland forest or coastal savannah thickets . they are noted for their climbing ability , often seen resting on the branches of shrubs or trees , having been spotted 30m up in the branches .\nthis snake seems to be highly adaptable and will readily move into drier areas if it can . in western kenya , the forest cobra has been found in wide stretched grassland areas .\nthe bite of the forest cobra with envenomation can be rapidly fatal ( possibly as early as 30 to 120 minutes ) . please read the attached medical management protocol and respond appropriately .\nlives in savanna and grassland ( but usually along streams ) and well vegetated areas , especially riverine forest , up to latitude 14 n . the species ' preferred habitat are lowland forest and moist savanna where it favours coastal thickets .\nking cobra beer or other king cobra drinks have nothing to do with king cobras , except in name . there is no king cobra venom in the beer or other drinks , it is just a catchy name .\nrenal symptoms have not yet been reported in forest cobra envenomation , but may complicate the situation , and if severe ( i . e . , acute renal failure ) may necessitate peritoneal dialysis .\nforest cobra bites intimidate many due to their venomous natures . when forest cobras encounter human beings , they often react by retreating immediately to clandestine hiding spots . if they are frustrated and feel out of options , however , they will bite . the sturdy snakes ' venom can be extremely dangerous and even life - threatening . if you ever experience a bite from a forest cobra , seek medical assistance immediately . without urgent attention , death is a possibility , so take the matter seriously and do not hesitate to get help .\nthe king cobra is an example of a snake with\ncobra\nin its name , but it is not a member of the naja genus . the king cobra ( ophiophagus hannah ) is the only member of its genus .\nthe forest cobra is africa\u2019s largest cobra species , with an average length of 1 . 4 to 2 . 2 m and a maximum recorded length of 2 . 7 m . males and females grow to similar sizes , there is no sexual dimorphism in the species . forest cobras are thick - bodied , cylindrical snakes with a tapering tail . their head is fairly large with black and white markings on the side which look like black and white bars on the jaws . like all cobra species ,\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive video - king cobra catching and feeding on indian cobra\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive video - king cobra catching and feeding on indian cobra\ntitle =\narkive video - king cobra catching and feeding on indian cobra\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nnephrotoxicity : acute renal failure has not yet been reported in cases of forest cobra bites in humans . oliguria or anuria with possible changes in urinary composition will herald the development of renal shutdown . dialysis is advised .\nthe king cobra is found in dense , high jungle , often near water .\nzoo officials were confident the missing cobra would be found in the building and not outside , since the egyptian cobra is known to be uncomfortable in open areas .\nthis species generally inhabits forest and woodland , but it can also be found in open savanna and grassland in some parts of its range .\ncobras are large snakes ; many species reach more than 6 feet long ( 2 meters ) . according to cape snake conservation , the forest cobra is the largest true cobra , reaching 10 feet ( 3 m ) , and ashe\u2019s spitting cobra is 9 feet ( 2 . 7 m ) , making it the world\u2019s largest spitting cobra . the smallest species is the mozambique spitting cobra , which is about 4 feet long ( 1 . 2 m ) . king cobras , the longest of all venomous snakes , can reach 18 feet ( 5 . 5 m ) .\nsource / reference article learn how you can use or cite the african forest elephant article in your website content , school work and other projects .\nit is not advisable to utilize subcutaneous or intradermal testing for sensitivity to equine products in that such testing may be unreliable , and may unnecessarily delay antivenom therapy which must be used if any signs of forest cobra envenomation are present .\nif it doesn\u2019t belong to the genus naja , then it\u2019s not a true cobra .\nit should come as no surprise though , that a cobra\u2019s biggest enemy is man .\nmany of the species can reach lengths of 2 m ( 6 . 0 ft . ) ; the largest of which , the forest cobra ( n . melanoleuca ) , has been recorded at a whopping 3 . 1 m ( 10 ft . ) . at 2 . 7 m ( 8 . 9 ft ) , ashe\u2019s spitting cobra ( n . ashei ) is the largest spitting cobra in the world .\nforest cobras are a polygynandrous species , as both the male and the female may pair with multiple mates . male - male combat has been observed in\nacts as a secondary and tertiary consumer , and are prey to other tertiary consumers and apex predators . forest cobras help control rodent and amphibian populations .\nthe forest cobra is a quick and agile terrestrial snake that is also inclined to climb in trees of 10 meters and higher . within some of its geographic range , it swims quite often and has been known to feed on fish , so it can be regarded as semi - aquatic . forest cobras are diurnal in uninhabited areas and nocturnal in urban zones around human activity . when inactive ,\ncardiotoxicity : direct toxic effects on the myocardium or conducting system have not yet been reported in forest cobra envenomation . however , effects on the nervous or vascular systems may manifest as cardiac complications . monitoring of cardiac function and rhythm is advised .\nking cobra eating a red - tailed racer ( g . oxycephalum ) snake \u2013 thailand .\nthe king cobra mates and the eggs are laid approximately 60 days later . the female king cobra builds a nest , while the male doesn\u2019t play any role in protecting the young .\nthe king cobra is not considered to be a true cobra species , such as the other cobras in the naja genus ; instead , it belongs to its own genus , ophiophagus .\nsome authorities believe it is one of the most dangerous african snakes to be kept as many captive forest cobras are described to be particularly aggressive when handled .\na grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .\nthe king cobra habitat includes dense highland forests , open woods and pasturelands near bodies of water .\nking cobra skull showing large teeth and thick , rather short fangs for injecting venom during envenomation .\none of the most interesting snakes in the world , the king cobra ( ophiophagus hannah ) .\nmake sure that at least 10 vials of south african institute for medical research ( s . a . i . m . r ) polyvalent antivenom are present with the patient . this antivenom contains the appropriate fractions necessary to neutralize the components of forest cobra venom .\nas a whole . scales protect the body of the snake , aid it in locomotion , allow moisture to be retained within , and alter the surface characteristics such as roughness to aid in camouflage . the dorsal scales of the forest cobra are smooth , glossy and strongly oblique .\nis one of the most frequently used in the\nsnake charming\nshows it ' s wide hood and impressive build make the egyptian cobra species a good choice for the charmers . unlike other cobra species , the egyptian cobra doesn ' t display the noticeable dorsal marking or \u201ceyespots\u201d of other famous cobras including the\nmating behavior of the african forest cobra includes male ritual combat . two males will literally\ndance\nwith each other to determine who wins the right to mate with the female cobra . death or serious injury rarely occurs from such ritual behavior . once a male has established his dominance , the loser will generally move on with out any further incident . juvenile cobras , however , must beware of large adults . the cobra is cannibalistic and will readily make a meal out of smaller snakes .\nthe forest cobra ( n . melanoleuca ) is considered the largest true cobra species , and specimens have been documented at up to 10 feet in length . it occurs mainly in western and central africa , where it can be found from senegal in the west to angola , western kenya , uganda and rwanda in the east . it can also be found in some parts of south africa .\nthe mongoose is the best - known enemy of the cobra . according to urltoken , mongooses have thick fur to protect against cobra fangs and often defeat cobras in fights using their speed and agility . they can bite the cobra\u2019s back before the snake can defend itself . cobras are also threatened from other snakes and humans .\nother enemies include birds of prey and other snakes . it\u2019s a snake eat snake world for a cobra .\nhematological symptoms may present as a disseminated intravascular coagulopathy , and are treated as are other dics . this has not been reported in forest cobra envenomations . however , spontaneous hemorrhage , prolonged clot lysis with failure of clot retraction secondary to a platelet defect , delayed rise in fibrin degradation products , and complement ( c3 ) depletion have been seen following bites from the spitting cobra ( naja nigricollis ) .\nthe egyptian cobra was represented in egyptian mythology by the cobra - headed goddess meretseger . a stylised egyptian cobra \u2014 in the form of the uraeus representing the goddess wadjet \u2014 was the symbol of sovereignty for the pharaohs who incorporated it into their diadem . this iconography was continued through the ptolemaic kingdom ( 305 bc\u201330 bc ) .\nforest cobras ( naja melanoleuca ) are members of family elapidae . they are big cobras . called\nblack and white cobras\ndue to their body patterning , forest cobras are often combinations of black and white , with dark upper bodies and pale white or off - white undersides . their shiny top portions , however , are frequently brownish - yellow rather than black .\n. adults do show some preference towards frogs . juveniles feed mainly on anuran tadpoles , but will also consume small lizards . forest cobras in west africa have also been observed to prey upon\n) which can attain lengths of 2 . 7 metres ( 8 . 9 feet ) to the burrowing cobra (\nthis cobra has a varied diet , including reptiles and amphibians ( even toads ) , birds , and eggs .\nking cobra eating a red - tailed racer ( oxycephalum gonyosoma ) snake \u2013 thailand . copyright 2009 vern lovic .\nmany people are trying to find a king cobra in thailand , india , indonesia , malaysia , and elsewhere .\ncobras can be found across most of africa and in many parts of asia . they inhabit a range of habitat types including desert , forest , fynbos , grassland , thicket and cultivated areas .\nare pretty straight instead of curved to help them move through the thick jungle with greater ease . this , along with their pinkish tinge , has made the ivory of the african forest elephant ' s\nhas many potential predators , and they are the most vulnerable when they are juveniles . the most deadly enemy to forest cobras is the mongoose . there are several species of mongoose within the range of\naccording to the university of michigan , human victims may stop breathing just 30 minutes after being bitten by a cobra .\nin hinduism shiva is depicted meditating with a cobra around his neck and vishnu rests on the cosmic cobra ananta while dreaming the universe into being ; in buddhism the image of a five - headed cobra or naga is often seen sheltering the buddha as he attained enlightenment and in tibet , cobras symbolise the rainbow as a connecting link between heaven and earth .\nthe egyptian cobra can also be found in captivity at zoos both in and outside of the snake\u2019s natural range . the\nlike most cobra species it has an average life span of 20 years ( one specimen lived for 28 years ) .\nwhen threatened , a forest cobra expands its hood and lifts the front of its body far off of the ground to appear larger . they are able to strike very quickly , with great distance . if the snake feels further threatened after these defensive postures , it will make an effort to bite . for these reasons ,\nthe indian cobra eats rats and mice that carry disease and eat human food . also , cobra venom is a potential source of medicines , including anti - cancer drugs and pain - killers . ( discovery , 2000 ; burton , 1991 )\nexcluding the associated subspecies there are currently 28 species of snake belonging to the genus naja . this may came as a surprise to many of you but the king cobra is taxonomically speaking no more of a cobra than is a black mamba .\nthe red spitting cobra is a medium - sized cobra that may reach a length of up to 4 feet . originally , it was thought to be a subspecies of the mozambique spitting cobra , but is now considered its own species . it is favored by venomous snake keepers due to its coloration , which is typically a salmon to red color with black banding .\nat about 8 feet in length , the egyptian cobra ( n . haje ) is the second - largest cobra species on the african continent , after the forest cobra ( discussed next ) . egyptian cobras range across most of northern africa , in the northern saraha , through the savannahs of west africa to the southern sahara , south to the congo basin and east to kenya and tanzania . specimens may also be found in southern areas of the arabian peninsula . the species thrives in savannah and arid semi - desert regions of africa where some water and vegetation is available .\npredominantly a forest - dwelling species , the king cobra occurs in rainforest , bamboo thickets and mangrove swamps , as well as other habitats with dense undergrowth and heavy rainfall ( 3 ) ( 7 ) . it is known to occur from sea level to mountainous regions , at elevations of over 2 , 000 metres ( 3 ) .\nthe king cobra is also harvested for its meat , skin and bile which are used in traditional medicine ( 7 ) .\ni hope that you have enjoyed this guide to cobra snake facts . if you have ever seen a cobra or have a favourite from the list below i\u2019d love to hear from you ! if you have a favourite don\u2019t forget to tell us why \ud83d\ude42\nmore than 34 stories of venomous snakebite and very near misses from southeast asia\u2019s most deadly snakes \u2013 king cobra , malayan pit viper , monocled cobra , banded krait , malayan krait , and more ! digital book with over 100 pages by vern lovic .\nmeaning that it only eats plants and other vegetation . they predominantly eat leaves and fruit from trees , herbs and low - lying shrubs . however , the front pair of molars in the mouth of the african forest\nthis cobra is terrestrial but is a good climber . it is generally active at night but sometimes during the day as well .\nthe king cobra bite is the most powerful bite in kilograms per square inch of bite pressure \u2013 of any venomous snake in the world . this was tested by luke yeomans in the united kingdom before he passed away \u2013 of king cobra bite and envenomation .\nmorphologically , the king cobra has a larger head and more narrow hood compared to other cobra species . a key to identifying them is the presence of a pair of large scales , known as occipitals , located at the back of the top of the head . these are behind the usual \u201cnine - plate\u201d arrangement typical of colubrids and elapids , and are unique to the king cobra .\nfor living environment , forest cobras are found in a multitude of habitat types . they can adjust swiftly to diverse surroundings , and as such inhabit damp savannas , thickets , rainforests , lowland forests , rivers , wetlands , plantations , streams , grasslands and coastal locales . forest cobras can reside at heights of more than 9 , 000 feet . they are rapid , nimble snakes and are swift whether they ' re within trees or on the ground .\nbut it was nonetheless a major milestone as cobsy is the oldest known black - lipped cobra living at a zoo in the world .\nthe black - necked spitting cobra generally prefers open savanna but can be found in all types of terrestrial habitat , including urban areas .\nthere is some disagreement about what exactly a cobra is , and the number of cobra species ranges from 28 to about 270 depending on how a cobra is defined . genetically , \u201ctrue\u201d cobras are members of the genus naja , but according to viernum , often \u201cthe name cobra references several species of snakes , most of which are in the venomous snake family elapidae . elpididae includes other snakes like coral snakes , kraits and mambas . \u201d many of these snakes either possess hoods or the ability to raise the upper part of their body .\nanother interesting bit of information is that the king cobra is said to be able to see as far as 100 meters during daylight .\nthis cobra species has a highly dangerous neurotoxic venom , it is however responsible for very few bites and there is an antivenom available .\ndespite its armoury , the king cobra\u2019s instinctive response to humans is to flee . but they seem to find other animals less intimidating . one old report from burma described a cobra biting a full - grown elephant on the trunk ; the pachyderm died several hours later .\nif you happen to have a fear of snakes , take time to say thanks to the king cobra\u2014it\u2019ll eat those snakes for dinner .\nforest cobras are frequently found near water , mainly rivers or streams , particularly in otherwise dry habitats such as savannas and grasslands . the snake can also live around human developments , and is encountered in the trees of fruit plantations .\nthe highly venomous egyptian cobra is extremely dangerous , their venom contains primarily neurotoxins as well as cytotoxins . in a single bite , these cobra snakes can inject anywhere from 175 to 300 mg , with a subcutaneous ld50 value in mice of 1 . 15 mg / kg .\nthe king cobra is one of the only snake species to construct a nest , which is made of dead vegetation and soil . bamboo thickets\nking cobra juvenile , hatchling snake found in krabi , thailand . this snake is less than one month old , hatched from an egg .\nthanks to robert abrams for permission to post this photo of a king cobra which washed over a waterfall while he was swimming . amazing thailand .\nthe king cobra is the world\u2019s largest venomous snake \u2013 and a ruthless snake - hunter . but it is also a devoted parent . . .\nregarded as one of the most dangerous species in all of africa , the cape cobra ( n . nivea ) is a golden brown / black to yellow - colored cobra species that primarily inhabits southern africa , particularly the countries of south africa , namibia , lesothos , and part of botswana . it has one of the smallest geographic distributions of all the african cobra species . it is a medium - sized cobra measuring approximately 4 to 5 feet in length . the cape cobra is considered the most dangerous of the africian species because it ventures into human - inhabited areas to escape the heat or seek prey items . this increases the species\u2019 interactions with humans . other than humans , its main predators include the honey badger , meerkat , and the mongoose , all of which are thought to have evolved a resistance or decreased sensitivity to the cape cobra\u2019s predominately neurotoxic and cardiotoxic venom .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - king cobra ( ophiophagus hannah )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - king cobra ( ophiophagus hannah )\ntitle =\narkive species - king cobra ( ophiophagus hannah )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe egyptian cobra is one of the largest cobras of the african continent . the head is large and depressed and slightly distinct from the neck . the neck of this species has long cervical ribs capable of expanding to form a hood , like all other cobras . the snout of the egyptian cobra is moderately broad and rounded . the eyes are quite big with round pupils . the body of the egyptian cobra is cylindrical and stout with a long tail . the length of the egyptian cobra is largely dependent on subspecies , geographical locale , and population . the average length of this species is between\nadult indian cobras measure about 4 to 7 feet in length and feed primarily on rodents . individuals are often encountered in villages because of the associated abundant prey items , although the cobra\u2019s natural habitat includes open fields , forest edges , agricultural land and wetlands . the indian cobra is the species typically used by snake charmers in india . in hindu mythology , it is considered a powerful god , and it remains greatly respected and feared in hindu culture . rudyard kipling featured a pair of indian cobras in his famous short story rikki - tikki - tavi .\ncolors vary widely from species to species . there are red , yellow , black , mottled , banded and many other colors and patterns of cobra .\nthe egyptian cobra has grown in popularity among herpetoculturists in the west and is now frequently bred in captivity and readily available in the exotic pet trade .\nwhile the king cobra\u2019s venom is not as toxic as that of some highly venomous species , the sheer volume produced in a single bite is enough to kill 20 to 30 adult humans or a fully - grown asian elephant ( 3 ) ( 8 ) . nevertheless , as this species is generally non - aggressive and occupies deep forest , bites to humans and the resulting fatalities are rare ( 2 ) .\nsources : 1 . african forest elephant classification ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 10 nov 2008 ] 2 . african forest elephant conservation ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 10 nov 2008 ] 3 . african forest elephant habitat ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 10 nov 2008 ] 4 . african forest elephant information ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 10 nov 2008 ] 5 . african forest elephant threats ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 10 nov 2008 ] 6 . david burnie , dorling kindersley ( 2008 ) illustrated encyclopedia of animals [ accessed at : 10 nov 2008 ] 7 . david burnie , kingfisher ( 2011 ) the kingfisher animal encyclopedia [ accessed at : 01 jan 2011 ] 8 . david w . macdonald , oxford university press ( 2010 ) the encyclopedia of mammals [ accessed at : 01 jan 2010 ] 9 . dorling kindersley ( 2006 ) dorling kindersley encyclopedia of animals [ accessed at : 10 nov 2008 ] 10 . richard mackay , university of california press ( 2009 ) the atlas of endangered species [ accessed at : 01 jan 2009 ] 11 . tom jackson , lorenz books ( 2007 ) the world encyclopedia of animals [ accessed at : 10 nov 2008 ]\ntryon , bw . ( 15 november 1979 ) .\nreproduction in captive forest cobras , naja melanoleuca ( serpentes : elapidae )\n. journal of herpetology ( society for the study of amphibians and reptiles ) 13 ( 4 ) : 499 . jstor 1563487 .\nin thai language , it sounds like ngoo how chang ( literally \u201csnake cobra elephant\u201d , or ngoo chong ahng . there are many names for this snake .\nforest cobras hail from africa - - specifically the central portion of the continent and then further south . their geographic grounds are made up of nations such as uganda , south africa , angola , mozambique , congo , the central african republic and cameroon , among others .\njust then , a deep growl emanated from the bushes . i looked up and towering above me was a king cobra , its golden hood afire in the evening light , its eyes pinned on me . i let go of its tail , but instead of attacking me , the cobra streaked off through the undergrowth .\nwhat makes a king cobra scary is its size \u2013 males can reach over five metres long \u2013 and its venom . it has huge toxin glands in its \u2018cheeks\u2019 and can inject up to 7ml at a time ( though , drop for drop , its venom is less toxic than that of a common cobra ) .\nthe king cobra is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and is listed on appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) .\nmackay , n . , j . ferguson , g . mcnicol . 1969 . effects of three cobra venoms on blood coagulation , platelet aggregation , and fibrinolysis .\nrecently tom charlton and i found a 3 - meter king cobra in krabi and got some great shots and video of it . facebook photo of it here .\ninformed the public that their reptile house was closed after a venomous adolescent female banded egyptian cobra was discovered missing from its off - exhibit enclosure on march 25 .\ni raced after the fleeing serpent , and grabbed its tail a second time . the cobra swung around and charged at me open - mouthed . using a stick to keep the snake at bay , i managed to pull my sleeping bag out of my rucksack and prop it open . the cobra saw the dark hole as an escape route and slid inside . this was my very first encounter with a wild king cobra and i can still feel that adrenalin rush 30 years later .\ndue to the legend that states that cleopatra committed suicide by being bitten by an egyptian cobra . she probably chose this snake for its quick - acting venom .\nfinding a king cobra comes down to just two things . persistence , and luck . that\u2019s it really . you can try to go out during daytime hours , or limited daytime hours . you can go out early evenings only . you can target patches of bamboo . you can go out during mating season . you can go out in areas where they are known to have been previously . you can rub captive king cobra feces all over your pants and walk around the forest . to my knowledge , it is only people who are persistent and who get lucky , that will find king cobras .\nhabitat tropical and subtropical rainforest and formerly forested regions , but restricted to more open savanna forest near the coast in southern africa . usually found in the vicinity of water in dryer regions . persists in and around inhabited areas , particularly many central african towns and formerly forested regions .\nhas a very small distribution only being found in the following areas north east kwazulu - natal , southern mozambique and on the east zimbabwe border . its preferred habitat is lowland forest or costal savanna thickets . it is common to find these snakes both in trees and small shrubs .\nbut what about the black mamba ( dendroaspis polylepis ) then ? look closely \u2013 it also has the ability to spread a small hood . is it a cobra ?\nthe monocled cobra ( naja kaouthia ) is one of the most readily recognized cobra species because of the unique , o - shaped pattern on its dorsal hood . its range extends from southeast to southern asia , including india , china , vietnam , cambodia , malaysia , bangladesh , thailand ( where they are responsible for the greatest number of human fatalities resulting from snake envonmation ) , nepal , laos and myanmar . monocled cobras can inhabit a wide range of habitats , including grassland , forest , scrubland , and in or around human - inhabited areas . often , they are found in agricultural zones such as rice paddies .\nby this definition snakes like the king cobra ( ophiophagus hannah ) , the rinkhals ( hemachatus haemachatus ) and the cape coral snake ( aspidelaps lubricus ) are all cobras .\nin thai language , it sounds like ngoo chang ang ( \u0e07\u0e39\u0e08\u0e07\u0e2d\u0e32\u0e07 ) ( literally \u201csnake elephant cobra\u201d , or ngoo chong ahng . there are many names for this snake .\nyoung , b . a . ( 1991 ) morphological basis of \u201cgrowling\u201d in the king cobra , ophiophagus hannah . the journal of experimental zoology , 260 : 275 - 287 .\nand although these iconic snakes are quite familiar to us , there is still very little known about them . many so - called cobra snake facts are nothing more than hearsay .\none of the best short king cobra films i\u2019ve been able to shoot is here with my friend , tom charlton as he catches his first king after a decade of trying .\nsenegal eastward through ivory coast , ghana , nigeria , cameroon , central african republic , gabon , congo , and democratic republic of congo to uganda , kenya , western ethiopia , southern somalia , and tanzania , south to angola and zululand , in forest and savanna regions . also on zanzibar island .\n, this cobra is highly adaptable and can be found in drier climates within its geographical range . it is a very capable swimmer and is often considered to be semi - aquatic .\nblack - lipped cobras are the largest true cobra species native to africa . cobsy measures about 2 . 4m in length , close to the maximum recorded length of 2 . 7m .\nthe table below shows the 28 species of cobra currently recognised worldwide but excludes any subspecies . ten of the 28 are spitting cobras as can been seen in the \u2018common name\u2019 column .\nthe king cobra ( ophiophagus hannah ) is the longest venomous snake species , with adults ranging from about 8 to 18 feet in length . they may live up to 25 years .\nthe ancient egyptians worshiped the egyptian cobra or asp and it represented the\nfiery eye of re\n, so it was used as a symbol on the crown of the pharaohs .\nthe forest cobra can be found in forests and and shrublands throughout most of sub - saharan africa . countries in which it occurs include : sierra leone , liberia , ghana , togo , benin , nigeria , cameroon , gabon , kenya , uganda , rwanda , burundi , cote d\u2019ivoire , mali , senegal , guinea , the republic of congo , angola , and the central african republic . it is found in only small portions of south africa , but does occur in southern mozambique and eastern zimbabwe .\nsnakes have appeared strongly in the lore of many cultures as symbols of strength , creativity , cosmic energy and of creation itself . but no snake features more prominently than the iconic cobra .\nbroadley , d . g . ( 1995 ) the snouted cobra , naja annulifera , a valid species in southern africa . journal of the herpetological association of africa , 44 , 26\u201332 .\nthe egyptian cobra gained notoriety in the u . s . in 2011 , when mia , a resident of the bronx zoo , escaped . she was eventually discovered in the reptile house .\nking cobra venom is highly toxic and the snake can deliver a considerable amount in a single bite , upwards of 200 to 500 mg of venom . the venom affects the central nervous system , which causes blurred vision , vertigo , drowsiness , and paralysis . it then causes the collapse of the cardiovascular system and eventually respiratory failure . immediate medical treatment is essential to enhance survival from a king cobra snakebite . it is said that death can come to a person bitten by a king cobra within 30 minutes , depending on the amount of venom delivered during the envenomation .\nthe king cobra is listed on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) which controls trade through the use of permits and maximum export quotas ( 3 ) .\nbut there are times when even an alert cobra gets surprised by an unsuspecting person or other large animal . when this happens the first thing you\u2019ll often see is the cobra snake spread a hood ; an impressive display of sign language which , if you read between the lines , clearly states \u201ci\u2019m frightened but don\u2019t test me , i will defend myself if you get too close ! \u201d\nking cobras use their venom to subdue their prey \u2013 other snakes . rising up over its intended victim , the king cobra clamps its jaws around the snake\u2019s body and holds it in a suffocating grip until it stops struggling . the cobra\u2019s venom attacks its victim\u2019s nervous system , making its muscles limp . in about 10 minutes , the victim suffocates ; swallowing takes another 10 or 15 minutes .\nthais are a bit crazy about cobras \u2013 it is the most easily recognized snake , and though i have met few people that can identify other snakes , most know what a cobra looks like .\nrecently tom charlton wrote the first comprehensive book on the history of king cobras , called \u201cking cobra : natural history and captive management . \u201d you can contact tom directly at the email address below .\nfarmers near mangalore witnessed a four - metre - long king cobra subdue and swallow a two - metre - long python , which it went on to digest in a ditch for the following week .\nvery toxic , but monocled cobras ( naja kaouthia ) and kraits ( genus bungarus ) are more potent on the ld50 scale . the power of the king cobra is in the volume of venom it can inject in one bite \u2013 maximum around 7 ml ! kings can ( and have ) supposedly killed elephants with a good bite . more information on venom constituents and treatment for king cobra snakebite here .\nthe forests of agumbe in karnataka are the wettest and thickest in south india , and excellent snake habitat . i was walking along a forest path when i saw a black snake tail disappear into some bushes . \u201crat snake ! \u201d i thought , and dived for it , bruising knees and elbows as my fingers wrapped around its smooth skin .\ncan be quick to strike in response to sudden movements . the tongue is also used to search for and pick up scent molecules in the air . the molecules are then brought into the mouth and analyzed inside the jacobson\u2019s organ , which is located at the base of the nasal cavity . through this process , forest cobras can detect the scent of nearby prey or pheromones secreted by the opposite sex . while snakes lack an external ear , they are able to detect vibrations ranging from 50 to 1000 hz . when the snake is on the ground , sound waves travel via spinal nerves to the jaw muscle , where it is then transferred to the quadrate bone . the stapes ( or columella ) then transmits the vibrations to the inner ear . when threatened , the forest cobra will perform a defensive display typical of its genus . it will extend its hood and rear up its body .\nthey don\u2019t . not like spitting cobras spit venom . however , if your face is close to one , and the king cobra strikes , you may feel venom hit your face as it leaks out .\nforest cobras tend to weigh between 5 and 8 pounds , they measure 6 to 8 feet . the arboreal meat - eating reptiles have broad , flesh - based diets ; some of their typical prey include fellow fish , rodents , birds , frogs and other reptiles . in captivity , they generally eat rats . these venomous snakes employ neurotoxins to paralyze their targeted meals . when forest cobras live in captive settings like zoos , they can live for as long as 18 years . they lead independent , rather than companionable , lifestyles . they are highly aquatic . in times of breeding , the females of the species produce between 15 and 26 eggs . they are oviparous , and their eggs hatch externally .\nthe indian cobra feeds on rodents , lizards and frogs . it bites quickly , and then waits while its venom damages the nervous system of the prey , paralyzing and often killing it . like all snakes ,\nthe king cobra has a large range , extending from india , east to bangladesh , myanmar , cambodia , southern china , laos , thailand , vietnam , malaysia , indonesia and the philippines ( 5 ) .\nto learn more about this fascinating genus of snakes , i have put together this article to dispel some myths and set the cobra snake facts straight . i hope you learn something new , i certainly did .\nin egypt the cobra goddess wadjet , the celestial serpent , was seen as the giver of food and immortality and at an even deeper level may have represented mother earth ; the symbol , known as uraeus , is a stylised upright version of the egyptian cobra naja haje ( see table at the end of this post ) which was also indicated in the suicidal death of cleopatra and represents royalty , deity and divine authority .\nin contrast to the normal hissing sound produced by most snake species in response to threats , the king cobra makes a distinctive growl , which emanates from the throat and deepens as the snake grows ( 6 ) .\nthe longest of all living venomous snakes , the magnificent king cobra ( ophiophagus hannah ) has been the inspiration for a variety of myths and legends within its native range ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . this species is not a true cobra of the genus naja , and instead belongs to a unique genus ophiophagus , whose scientific name derives from the greek for \u201csnake - eating\u201d , in reference to its dietary habits ( 5 ) .\nthe most well - known snake enemy is the mongoose \u2013 its lightning speed ( watch the video to see this ) allows it to quickly bite the back of a cobra\u2019s neck and head before it can defend itself .\nthe king cobra ' s average size is 10 - 12 feet , but can reach 18 feet . the full grown king cobra is yellow , green , brown , or black . there are usually yellowish or white cross - bars or chevrons on its body . the belly may be uniform in color or ornamented with bars . the throat is light yellow or cream - colored . the juveniles are jet - black , with yellow or white cross - bars on the body and tail and four similar cross - bars on the head . the king cobra is regarded as a fierce and aggressive snake , and its length and size give it an awesome appearance ."]}
{"id": 1254, "summary": [{"text": "desmoxytes rhinoceros is an aposematic species of dragon millipede in the genus desmoxytes .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it is only known from champasak and sekong provinces in southern laos .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it was first described , along with d. rhinoparva , in 2015 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "both species were discovered in laos , the first dragon millipedes identified there , d. rhinoceros in the south of the country and d. rhinoparva in the north .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "the holotype is in the museum of zoology , chulalongkorn university , bangkok , thailand .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "the body length is 17 \u2013 24 mm ( 0.67 \u2013 0.94 in ) in males and 20 \u2013 25 mm ( 0.79 \u2013 0.98 in ) in females .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the color is dark red . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "desmoxytes rhinoceros", "paragraphs": ["meet desmoxytes rhinoceros ( top ) and desmoxytes rhinoparva ( bottom ) \u2013 two of the newest additions to the dragon millipede family .\n[ invertebrate \u2022 2015 ] desmoxytes rhinoceros & d . rhinoparva \u2022 two new sspecies of dragon millipedes , genus desmoxytes chamnerlin , 1923 ,\ndesmoxytes rhinoceros is an aposematic species of dragon millipede in the genus desmoxytes . it is only known from champasak and sekong provinces in southern laos .\nspecies new to science : [ invertebrate \u2022 2015 ] desmoxytes rhinoceros & d . rhinoparva \u2022 two new sspecies of dragon millipedes , genus desmoxytes chamn\u2026 | pinteres\u2026\nfigure 1 . habitus , live coloration . a , b : desmoxytes rhinoceros sp . n . , male holotype . c , d : desmoxytes rhinoparva sp . n . , male holotype . photographed not to scale .\nspecies new to science : [ invertebrate \u2022 2015 ] desmoxytes rhinoceros & d . rhinoparva \u2022 two new sspecies of dragon millipedes , genus desmoxytes chamnerlin , 1923 , from laos ( diplopoda : polydesmida : paradoxosomatidae ) , with redescriptions of all four species of attems from vietnam\nsome of the other specimens of d . rhinoceros were donated to the zoological museum , state university of moscow in russia .\ntwo new species of desmoxytes are described and abundantly illustrated : d . rhinoceros sp . n . and d . rhinoparva sp . n . , from southern and northern laos , respectively . illustrated redescriptions of all four vietnamese desmoxytes species proposed by carl attems are also provided , based on type material .\ntwo new species of desmoxytes are described and abundantly illustrated : d . rhinoceros sp . n . and d . rhinoparva sp . n . , from southern and northern laos , respectively . illustrated redescriptions of all four vietnamese desmoxytes species proposed by carl attems are also provided , based on type material .\nthe new species , d . rhinoceros , is clearly aposematic , whereas the authors of the latest study noted d . rhinoparva as\nquite remarkable\nin its colouration , having contrasting pale brownish segments in the middle of the body in both sexes .\ntwo new species of dragon millipedes , genus desmoxytes chamnerlin , 1923 , from laos ( diplopoda : polydesmida : paradoxosomatidae ) , with redescriptions . . . - pubmed - ncbi\ndragon millipedes are members of the desmoxytes genus , which currently contains 33 species ranging from northern china , through indochina and south through myanmar , thailand , vietnam and southern malaysia .\ntwo new species of dragon millipedes , genus desmoxytes chamnerlin , 1923 , from laos ( diplopoda : polydesmida : paradoxosomatidae ) , with redescriptions of all four species of attems from vietnam .\nenghoff , h . , sutcharit , c . & panha , s . ( 2007 ) the shocking pink dragon millipede , desmoxytes purpurosea , a colourful new species from thailand . zootaxa , 1563 , 31\u201336 .\nit was first described , along with d . rhinoparva , in 2015 . both species were discovered in laos , the first dragon millipedes identified there , d . rhinoceros in the south of the country and d . rhinoparva in the north . the holotype is in the museum of zoology , chulalongkorn university , bangkok , thailand .\ngolovatch , s . i . & enghoff , h . ( 1994 ) review of the dragon millipedes , genus desmoxytes chamberlin , 1923 ( diplopoda , polydesmida , paradoxosomatidae ) . steenstrupia , 20 ( 2 ) , 45\u201371 .\nfigure 1 . habitus , live coloration . a , b in two new species of dragon millipedes , genus desmoxytes chamnerlin , 1923 , from laos ( diplopoda : polydesmida : paradoxosomatidae ) , with redescriptions of all four species of attems from vietnam\nfigure 1 . habitus , live coloration . a , b in two new species of dragon millipedes , genus desmoxytes chamnerlin , 1923 , from laos ( diplopoda : polydesmida : paradoxosomatidae ) , with redescriptions of all four species of attems from vietnam | zenodo\nliu , w . , golovatch , s . i . & tian , m . ( 2014 ) a review of the dragon millipede genus desmoxytes chamberlin , 1923 in china , with descriptions of four new species ( diplopoda , polydesmida , paradoxosomatidae ) . zookeys , 448 , 9\u201326 .\nnguyen , a . d . , golovatch , s . i . & anichkin , a . e . ( 2006 ) the dragon millipedes in vietnam ( polydesmida : paradoxosomatidae , genus desmoxytes chamberlin , 1923 ) . arthropoda selecta , 14 ( 3 ) , 251\u2013257 . [ for 2005 ]\ngolovatch , s . i . , geoffroy , j . j . & mauri\u00e8s , j . p . ( 2010 ) two new species of the millipede genus desmoxytes chamberlin , 1923 ( diplopoda , polydesmida , paradoxosomatidae ) from caves in southern china . arthropoda selecta , 19 ( 2 ) , 57\u201361 .\n( of pteroxytes jeekel , 1980 ) golovatch , s . i . ; enghoff , h . ( 1994 ) . review of the dragon millipede , genus desmoxytes chamberlin , 1923 ( diplopoda , polydesmida , paradoxosomatidae ) . steenstrupia , 20 ( 2 ) : 1 - 71 . copenhagen page ( s ) : 46 [ details ]\n( of hylomus cook & loomis , 1924 ) golovatch , s . i . ; enghoff , h . ( 1994 ) . review of the dragon millipede , genus desmoxytes chamberlin , 1923 ( diplopoda , polydesmida , paradoxosomatidae ) . steenstrupia , 20 ( 2 ) : 1 - 71 . copenhagen page ( s ) : 46 [ details ]\ngolovatch , s . i . , li , y . , liu , w . & geoffroy , j . j . ( 2012 ) three new cavernicolous species of dragon millipedes , genus desmoxytes chamberlin , 1923 , from southern china , with notes on a formal congener from the philippines ( diplopoda , polydesmida , paradoxosomatidae ) . zookeys , 185 , 1\u201317 . urltoken\nsergei i . golovatch , youbang li , weixin liu , and jean - jacques geoffroy . 2012 . three new cavernicolous species of dragon millipedes , genus desmoxytes chamberlin , 1923 , from southern china , with notes on a formal congener from the philippines ( diplopoda , polydesmida , paradoxosomatidae ) . zookeys . 2012 ; ( 185 ) : 1\u201317 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 185 . 3082\ngolovatch , s . ; li , y . ; liu , w . ; geoffroy , j . - j . ( 2012 ) . three new cavernicolous species of dragon millipedes , genus desmoxytes chamberlin , 1923 , from southern china , with notes on a formal congener from the philippines ( diplopoda , polydesmida , paradoxosomatidae ) . zookeys . 185 : 1 - 17 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 13 ; note : key to species currently known to occur in china . [ details ]\nif you go down to the woods today , you\u2019re in for a big surprise . well , if you happen to be in certain parts of laos .\nand , according to the authors of the paper published in zootaxa , these are the first species of dragon millipedes to be recorded in laos .\nall but one of the species are found in a single or , at most , a very small group of locations .\nso named for their peculiar - looking spiky appendages and often brightly coloured bodies , most dragon millipedes look like characters from an extra - terrestrial horror movie going to a rave .\none of the most vividly coloured , d . purpurosea , from northern thailand , has been nicknamed the ' shocking pink dragon millipede ' , or ' mangkorn chomphoo ' in thai .\nits bright aposematic colouration is a clear warning to potential predators that these millipedes are seriously poisonous : they have glands that produce hydrogen cyanide for protection .\nand because they produce cyanide , it has been said that they give off an almond - like smell .\nthe holotypes \u2013 a single type specimen upon which the description and naming of a new species is based \u2013 of laos ' first dragon millipedes are currently housed in the museum of zoology , chulalongkorn university in bangkok , thailand .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nanimal systematics research unit , department of biology , faculty of science , chulalongkorn university , bangkok , 10330 , thailand . ; email : kongerrrr @ hotmail . com .\ninstitute for problems of ecology and evolution , russian academy of sciences , leninsky pr . 33 , moscow 119071 , russia ; email : sgolovatch @ yandex . ru .\nanimal systematics research unit , department of biology , faculty of science , chulalongkorn university , bangkok , 10330 , thailand . ; email : somsak . pan @ chula . ac . th .\nnew & recent described flora & fauna species from all over the world esp . asia , oriental , indomalayan & malesiana region\n, natdanai , sergei i . golovatch & somsak panha . 2015 . two new sspecies of dragon millipedes , genus\n, from laos ( diplopoda : polydesmida : paradoxosomatidae ) , with redescriptions of all four species of attems from vietnam .\nwuodendron b . xue , y . h . tan & chaowasku wuodendron praecox ( hook . f . & thomson ) b . xue , y . h . tan & x . l . hou in xue , tan . . .\n[ botany \u2022 2017 ] begonia fulgurata | \u0e14\u0e32\u0e14\u0e14\u0e32\u0e23\u0e32\u0e23\u0e31\u0e28\u0e21\u0e35 \u2022 a new species ( sect . diploclinium , begoniaceae ) from chiang mai , northern thailand\nbegonia fulgurata c . - i peng , c . w . lin & phutthai \u0e14\u0e32\u0e14\u0e14\u0e32\u0e23\u0e32\u0e23\u0e31\u0e28\u0e21\u0e35 | | doi : 10 . 3767 / blumea . 2017 . 62 . 03 . 01 urltoken be . . .\nchamaelirium viridiflorum l . wang , z . c . liu & w . b . liao in liu , feng , wang & liao , 2018 . doi : 10 . 11646 / phytotaxa . 357 . . . .\ngreat - billed seed - finch sporophila maximiliani ( cabanis , 1851 ) in ubaid , silveira , medolago , et . al . , 2018 . doi : 10 . 11646 / . . .\nendocerids with their filtering apparatus in mironenko , 2018 . doi : 10 . 1080 / 08912963 . 2018 . 1491565 reconstruction by andre . . .\naristolochia tongbiguanensis j . y . shen , q . b . gong & s . landrein in gong , landrein , xi , et al . , 2018 . doi : 10 . 6165 / tai . . . .\nbagualosaurus agudoensis pretto , langer & schultz , 2018 doi : 10 . 1093 / zoolinnean / zly028 illustration : jorge blanco c . . .\nthe hypothetical phylogenetic relationships of ceratosaurs based on current topologies . the main source is from wang et al . ( 2016 . . .\nnipponosaurus sachalinensis nagao , 1936 in takasaki , chiba , kobayashi , et al . , 2018 \u30cb\u30c3\u30dd\u30ce\u30b5\u30a6\u30eb\u30b9 | | doi : 10 . 1080 / 08912963 . 2017 . . . .\nbegonia medogensis jianw . li , y . h . tan & x . h . jin in li , tan , wang , et al . , 2018 . doi : 10 . 3897 / phytokeys . 103 . 25392 . . .\n[ ichthyology \u2022 2015 ] ghatsa spp . \u2022 on the paraphyl . . .\n[ ichthyology \u2022 2015 ] four new species of trimma ( p . . .\n[ mammalogy \u2022 2014 ] a summary of the taxonomy and d . . .\npartial solar elipse to be visible from parts of australia , new zealand and antarctica on firday 13 july 2018 .\non this day ( july 10th ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .\nthe benefits and costs of academic travel . or\nthere and back again ; again and again\ncanon renueva su gama de 70 - 200 mm f : 2 . 8 y f : 4\nplants go extinct , but sometimes species are rediscovered . this one after 151 years .\ni ' m killing antediluvian salad but even in death there is rebirth . . .\nnecps carnivorous plant show : sept . 9 - 10 at tower hill botanical garden\nthis is a particularly beautiful species of centrolenid - the granular glass frog , cochranella granulosa .\nthe body length is 17\u201324 mm ( 0 . 67\u20130 . 94 in ) in males and 20\u201325 mm ( 0 . 79\u20130 . 98 in ) in females . the color is dark red .\nchamnerlin , 1923 , from laos ( diplopoda : polydesmida : paradoxosomatidae ) , with redescriptions of all four species of attems from vietnam .\nchamberlin , r . v . ( 1923 ) . two diplopod immigrants taken at honolulu . proceedings of the biological society of washington , 36 : 165 - 168 page ( s ) : 165 [ details ]\n( of pratinus attems , 1937 ) attems , c . m . t . graf von ( 1937 ) . myriapoda 3 . polydesmoidea i . fam . strongylosomidae . das tierreich , 68 : 1 - 300 . berlin , leipzig page ( s ) : 113 [ details ]\n( of ceylonesmus chamberlin , 1941 ) chamberlin , r . v . ( 1941 ) . new polydesmoid diplopods intercepted at quarantine . proceedings of the entomological society of washington , 43 ( 2 ) : 32 - 35 page ( s ) : 33 [ details ]\n( of prionopeltis pocock , 1895 ) pocock , r . i . ( 1895 ) . viaggio di leonardo fea in birmania e regioni vicine . lxvii . the myriopoda of burma , pt . iv . report upon the polydesmoidea collected by sig . l . fea , mr . e . w . oates and others . annali del museo civico di storia naturale di genova , serie 2 . 14 : 787 - 834 . genova . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 828 [ details ]\n( of pteroxytes jeekel , 1980 ) jeekel , c . a . w . ( 1980 ) . the generic allocation of some little - known paradoxosomatidae from south - ast asia ( diplopoda , polydesmida ) . revue suisse de zoologie , 87 : 651 - 670 . gen\u00e8ve page ( s ) : 655 [ details ]\n( of ceylonesmus chamberlin , 1941 ) jeekel , c . a . w . ( 1980 ) . the generic allocation of some little - known paradoxosomatidae from south - ast asia ( diplopoda , polydesmida ) . revue suisse de zoologie , 87 : 651 - 670 . gen\u00e8ve page ( s ) : 652 ; note : described as a subgenus of euphyodesmus for a new species intercepted in hawai\u2019i on plants imported from sri lanka . [ details ]\n( of pratinus attems , 1937 ) jeekel , c . a . w . ( 1980 ) . the generic allocation of some little - known paradoxosomatidae from south - ast asia ( diplopoda , polydesmida ) . revue suisse de zoologie , 87 : 651 - 670 . gen\u00e8ve page ( s ) : 652 ; note : treated as a valid genus by zhang , 1986 : acta zootaxonomica sinica , 11 ( 3 ) , 253\u2013257 , as a synonym by subsequent authors [ details ]\n( of prionopeltis pocock , 1895 ) jeekel , c . a . w . ( 1980 ) . the generic allocation of some little - known paradoxosomatidae from south - ast asia ( diplopoda , polydesmida ) . revue suisse de zoologie , 87 : 651 - 670 . gen\u00e8ve page ( s ) : 652 ; note : preoccupied by prionopeltis hawle and corda , 1847 , trilobita ; see attems , 1938 : m\u00e9moires du mus\u00e9um national d\u2019histoire naturelle , 6 ( 2 ) : 217 ; replaced by pratinus attems , 1937 [ details ]\n( of hylomus cook & loomis , 1924 ) jeekel , c . a . w . ( 1971 ) . nomenclator generum et familiarum diplopodorum : a list of the genus and family - group names in the class diplopoda from the 10th edition of linnaeus , 1758 , to the end of 1957 . monografieen van de nederlandse entomologische vereniging , 5 : 1 - 412 . amsterdam page ( s ) : 224 [ details ]\n( of hylomus cook & loomis , 1924 ) hoffman , r . l . ( 1980 ) . classification of the diplopoda . 1 - 237 . gen\u00e8ve . page ( s ) : 169 [ details ]\nnatdanai likhitrakarn animal systematics research unit , department of biology , faculty of science , chulalongkorn university , bangkok , 10330 , thailand .\nsergei i . golovatch institute for problems of ecology and evolution , russian academy of sciences , leninsky pr . 33 , moscow 119071 , russia\nsomsak panha animal systematics research unit , department of biology , faculty of science , chulalongkorn university , bangkok , 10330 , thailand .\nattems , c . ( 1938 ) die von dr . c . dawydoff in franz\u00f6sisch indochina gesammelten myriopoden . m\u00e9moires du mus\u00e9um national d\u2019histoire naturelle , nouvelle s\u00e9rie , 6 , 187\u2013321 .\nattems , c . ( 1953 ) myriopoden von indochina . expedition von dr . c . dawydoff ( 1938\u20131939 ) . m\u00e9moires du mus\u00e9um national d ' histoire naturelle , new series , s\u00e9rie a , 5 ( 3 ) , 133\u2013230 .\ndecker , p . ( 2010 ) contributions to the myriapod fauna of thailand\u2014new records of millipedes and centipedes from thailand ( myriapoda : diplopoda , chilopoda ) . schubartiana , 4 , 23\u201334 .\nenghoff , h . ( 2005 ) the millipedes of thailand ( diplopoda ) . steenstrupia , 29 ( 1 ) , 87\u2013103 .\nenghoff , h . , golovatch , s . i . & nguyen , a . d . ( 2004 ) a review of the millipede fauna of vietnam ( diplopoda ) . arthropoda selecta , 13 ( 1\u20132 ) , 29\u201343 .\ngolovatch , s . i . ( 1983 ) millipedes ( diplopoda ) of the fauna of vietnam . in : sokolov , v . e . ( ed . ) , fauna and animal ecology of vietnam . nauka , moscow , pp . 178\u2013186 . [ in russian ]\njeekel , c . a . w . ( 1964 ) two new species of pratinus attems , with taxonomoc notes on the genus and a redescription of its type - species ( diplopoda , polydesmida ) . beaufortia , 11 ( 137 ) , 61\u201373 .\njeekel , c . a . w . ( 1968 ) on the classification and geographical distribution of the family paradoxosomatidae ( diplopoda , polydesmida ) . academisch proefschrift , rotterdam , 162 pp .\njeekel , c . a . w . ( 1980 ) the generic allocation of some little - known paradoxosomatidae from south - east asia ( diplopoda , polydesmida ) . revue suisse de zoologie , 87 , 651\u2013670 .\nlikhitrakarn , n . , golovatch , s . i . & panha , s . ( 2014a ) a checklist of the millipedes of laos ( diplopoda ) . zootaxa , 3754 ( 4 ) , 473\u2013482 . urltoken\nlikhitrakarn , n . , golovatch , s . i . & panha , s . ( 2014b ) the millipede genus orthomorpha bollman , 1893 in laos ( diplopoda , polydesmida , paradoxosomatidae ) , with descriptions of new species . zookeys , 374 , 1\u201322 .\nlikhitrakarn , n . , golovatch , s . i . & panha , s . ( 2014c ) review of the southeast asian millipede genus enghoffosoma golovatch , 1993 ( diplopoda , polydesmida , paradoxosomatidae ) , with descriptions of new species . zootaxa , 3811 ( 4 ) , 491\u2013514 .\nlikhitrakarn , n . , golovatch , s . i . & panha , s . ( 2014d ) three new species of the millipede genus tylopus jeekel , 1968 from thailand , with additional notes on species described by attems ( diplopoda , polydesmida , paradoxosomatidae ) . zookeys , 435 , 63\u201391 . urltoken\nnguyen , a . d . & sierwald , p . ( 2013 ) a worldwide catalog of the family paradoxosomatidae daday , 1889 ( diplopoda : polydesmida ) . check list , 9 ( 6 ) , 1132\u20131353 . available from : urltoken ( accessed 9 december 2014 )"]}
{"id": 1262, "summary": [{"text": "enoplidia simplex is a moth in the oecophoridae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by turner in 1896 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in australia , where it has been recorded from queensland , new south wales and victoria .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 20 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are plain dark brown .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are plain pale yellow .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on dead phyllodes of eucalyptus and acacia species .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they construct a shelter of two irregular pieces of dead phyllode joined by silk .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "pupation takes place in a cocoon , formed inside the shelter . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "enoplidia simplex", "paragraphs": ["enoplidia common , 1994 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 3 : 262 ; ts : heliocausta simplex turner\nthe cocoon of this species is dark brown and formed inside its shelter and is hung from a suitable stem . it has a length of about 3 . 5 cms .\nthe adult moth has plain dark brown forewings , and plain pale yellow hindwings . its wingspan is about 2 cms .\ncsiro publishing , melbourne 1994 , pp . 29 , 258 , 262 - 265 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnb : the taxon name search is for single names only . for example , to locate dysodia vitrina flammata warren , 1904 you should enter flammata only .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nturner , a . j . 1896 ,\ndescriptions of micro - lepidoptera from queensland\n, transactions of the royal society of south australia , vol . 20 , pp . 1 - 34\nturner , a . j . 1946 ,\nrevision of australian lepidoptera . oecophoridae . xiii\n, proceedings of the linnean society of new south wales , vol . 70 , pp . 93 - 120\nmeyrick , e . 1921 ,\nexotic microlepidoptera\n, pp . pp . 385 - 416 , 417 - 448 , 449 - 480\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 38e84771 - c4f8 - 4500 - 90b3 - 8fa1ade97a3f\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : dce58fbd - 8c9e - 4ee8 - 88e9 - 22c86e56d12e\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : fb782980 - f5b3 - 4a26 - bfc5 - 0a8b89d625e2\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 325611\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nmachimia stenomorpha turner , 1946 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 70 ( 3 - 4 ) : 114\nsangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nturner , 1946 revision of australian lepidoptera . oecophoridae . xiii proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 70 ( 3 - 4 ) : 93 - 120\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nthis sighting hasn ' t been described yet ! be the first to describe this sighting .\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy ."]}
{"id": 1263, "summary": [{"text": "the sharptooth houndshark , or spotted gully shark ( triakis megalopterus ) , is a species of houndshark , belonging to the family triakidae , found in shallow inshore waters from southern angola to south africa .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "favoring sandy areas near rocky reefs and gullies , it is an active-swimming species that usually stays close to the bottom .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "this robust shark reaches 1.7 m ( 5.6 ft ) in length and has characteristically large , rounded fins ; the pectoral fins in particular are broad and sickle-shaped in adults .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it also has a short , blunt snout and long furrows around its mouth .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this species is gray or bronze in color above , with variable amounts of black spotting .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "mainly active at night , the sharptooth houndshark feeds mostly on crustaceans , bony fishes , and cephalopods .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "it has been observed gathering in groups in shallow water during summertime , possibly for reproductive purposes .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "this species is aplacental viviparous , meaning that the unborn young are sustained mainly by yolk .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "females give birth to 6 \u2013 12 pups between late may and august , on a two - or three-year cycle .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the sharptooth houndshark is often hooked by recreational anglers , and some are also captured on commercial bottom longlines .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "because of its small range , its low growth and reproductive rates , it is very vulnerable to overfishing .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has therefore listed this species as near threatened . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "sharptooth houndshark", "paragraphs": ["you selected sharptooth houndshark ( english ) . this is a common name for :\nthe sharptooth houndshark , or spotted gully shark ( triakis megalopterus ) , is a species of houndshark , belonging to the family triakidae , found in shallow inshore waters from southern angola to south africa .\npredators predators of the brown shyshark include larger sharks and fishes . the sharptooth houndshark triakis megalopterus is a documented predator of this shark . mollusks may feed on the egg cases .\nis the common houndshark mustelus mustelus and the whitespotted houndshark mustelus palumbes . both of these sharks are more slender and lack the back spots of the spotted gully shark .\nthe flapnose houndshark , scylliogaleus quecketti , is a houndshark of the family triakidae , and the only member of the genus scylliogaleus . it is found in the waters off subtropical south africa , in the western indian ocean between latitudes 27\u00b0 s and 33\u00b0 s .\nthe sharptooth houndshark is hardy and keeps well in captivity . observations by the writer of healthy individuals in a large circular tank at the port elizabeth oceanarium , south africa , shows them to be very active , mostly bottom swimmers , that are usually seen patrolling in irregular patterns close to the bottom in open , flat areas , often with a centimetre or less between the shark ' s underside and the\naerial stock video footage showing the beauty of cape town and its surrounding area , including lion ' s head , table mountain , cape point , hout bay , simon ' s town , and seal island . footage includes great white sharks from above at seal island , an aggregation of spotted gully sharks / sharptooth houndshark ( triakis megalopterus ) in the surf near cape point in table mountain national park , and a brown fur seal surfing in the waves .\n) is an uncommon species , the flapnose houndshark is of low fecundity and has a very restricted distribution in inshore waters of the western indian ocean ( south africa : kwazulu - natal and eastern cape ) which are subjected to heavy fishing pressure and potential habitat degradation .\nthis species has an extremely restricted range in the western indian ocean , off the east coast of south africa ( northeastern part of the eastern cape to northern kwazulu - natal ) . the flapnose houndshark is found close inshore at the surfline and in the intertidal ( compagno in prep . b ) .\na blunt - nosed houndshark with large , fused nasal flaps , and small , blunt , pebble - like teeth ; 2nd dorsal fin as large as 1st ( ref . 5578 ) . grey above , cream below ; newborn with white rear edges on dorsal , anal and caudal fins ( ref . 5578 ) .\nnocturnal and largely solitary , the banded houndshark preys on benthic invertebrates and bony fishes . it is aplacental viviparous , with the developing embryos sustained by yolk . after mating during summer , females bear as many as 42 pups following a gestation period of 9\u201312 months . the banded houndshark poses no danger to humans and adapts well to captivity . it is caught as bycatch off japan , taiwan , and likely elsewhere in its range ; it may be eaten but is not as well - regarded as related species . because fishing does not appear to have diminished this shark ' s population , the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has listed it under least concern .\nthe banded houndshark ( triakis scyllium ) is a species of houndshark , in the family triakidae , common in the northwestern pacific ocean from the southern russian far east to taiwan . found on or near the bottom , it favors shallow coastal habitats with sandy or vegetated bottoms , and also enters brackish water . this shark reaches 1 . 5 m ( 4 . 9 ft ) in length . it has a short , rounded snout and mostly narrow fins ; the pectoral fins are broad and triangular , and the trailing margin of the first dorsal fin is almost vertical . it is gray above and lighter below ; younger sharks have darker saddles and dots , which fade with age .\nthe blackspotted smooth - hound ( mustelus punctulatus ) is a houndshark of the family triakidae . it is found on the continental shelves of the subtropical eastern atlantic from the mediterranean to the western sahara , between latitudes 45\u00b0 n and 20\u00b0 n , from the surface to a depth of 250 m . it can reach of a length of 1 . 5 m .\nthe starry smooth - hound ( mustelus asterias ) is a houndshark of the family triakidae . it is found on the continental shelves of the northeast atlantic , between latitudes 61\u00b0 n and 16\u00b0 n , from the surface to a depth of 200 m ( 660 ft ) . it can grow up to a length of 1 . 4 m ( 4 ft 7 in ) .\nharmless to humans , [ 16 ] the banded houndshark is commonly displayed in public aquariums in china and japan , [ 1 ] and has reproduced in captivity . [ 8 ] individuals have survived in captivity for over five years . [ 5 ] this species is often caught incidentally off japan in gillnets and set nets ; the meat is sometimes sold , but is considered to be of poorer quality than that of other houndsharks in the region . it is caught in lesser numbers off taiwan , and is probably also fished off korea and northern china . the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has listed the banded houndshark under least concern , as it remains abundant throughout its range . off japan , it can be found in rocky areas that provide refuge from fishing pressure . [ 1 ]\n: field marks : a very stout houndshark with a short , broadly rounded snout , lobate anterior nasal flaps that do not reach the mouth and are far separated from each other , long upper labial furrows that reach the lower symphysis of the mouth , semimolariform teeth with straight erect cusps and cusplets little - developed or absent , broad large fins with the pectorals broadly falcate and the first dorsal fin with a vertical posterior margin , and often black spots .\nthe first scientific description of the banded houndshark was authored by german biologists johannes peter m\u00fcller and friedrich gustav jakob henle , based on a dried specimen from japan , in their 1838\u201341 systematische beschreibung der plagiostomen . they gave it the specific epithet scyllium , derived from the ancient greek skylion (\ndogfish\n) , and placed it in the genus triakis . [ 3 ] within the genus , it is placed in the subgenus triakis along with the leopard shark ( t . ( triakis ) semifasciata ) . [ 2 ]\nnative to the northwestern pacific ocean , the banded houndshark occurs from the southern russian far east to taiwan , including japan , korea , and eastern china ; records from the philippines are questionable . [ 1 ] this common , benthic shark is found over continental and insular shelves , mostly close to shore but also to a depth of 150 m ( 490 ft ) . [ 4 ] it frequents sandy flats and beds of seaweed and eelgrass ; additionally it is tolerant of brackish water and enters estuaries and bays . [ 1 ]\nthe banded houndshark is nocturnal and generally solitary , though several individuals may rest together , sometimes piled atop one another inside a cave . [ 4 ] [ 5 ] it feeds mainly on crustaceans ( including shrimps , crabs , hermit crabs , and mantis shrimps ) , cephalopods ( including octopus ) , and spoon worms ; polychaete worms , tunicates , peanut worms , and small , bottom - living bony fishes ( including flatfishes , conger eels , herring , jacks , drums , and grunts ) are occasionally consumed . shrimp and spoon worms are important prey for sharks up to 70 cm ( 28 in ) long ; cephalopods predominate in the diets of larger sharks . [ 6 ]\nthe banded houndshark is a moderately slender - bodied species growing up to 1 . 5 m ( 4 . 9 ft ) long . the snout is short , broad , and rounded ; the widely separated nostrils are each preceded by a lobe of skin that does not reach the mouth . the horizontally oval eyes are placed high on the head ; they are equipped with rudimentary nictitating membranes ( protective third eyelids ) and have prominent ridges underneath . the mouth forms a short , wide arch and bears long furrows at the corners that extend onto both jaws . each tooth has an upright to oblique knife - like central cusp flanked by strong cusplets . there are five pairs of gill slits . [ 2 ]\nthe flapnose houndshark occurs in inshore waters that are subjected to heavy commercial and sports hook - and - line fisheries . small numbers have been taken in directed inshore fisheries for small sharks and the species has been sporadically utilised for its flesh recently in southern kwazulu - natal . no fisheries statistics are available on catches . it may also be a possible bycatch of inshore fisheries , but details are lacking . the species is caught by sports surf anglers and possibly recreational boat anglers . increased fishing pressure in its limited environment suggests that the population may be vulnerable and could decline . loss of habitat as a result of development and pollution along the coast of kwazulu - natal ( where there is extensive coastal development ) and the eastern cape during the last few decades may also be a threat .\nmating occurs during the summer , and involves the male swimming parallel to the female and gripping her pectoral fin with his teeth ; thus secured , he then twists the aft portion of his body to insert a single clasper into her cloaca for copulation . the banded houndshark is aplacental viviparous , in which the developing embryos are sustained to birth by yolk . females bear litters of 9\u201326 pups after a gestation period of 9\u201312 months , though litters as large as 42 pups have been recorded . [ 5 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ] the newborns measure 18\u201320 cm ( 7 . 1\u20137 . 9 in ) long . males mature sexually at 5\u20136 years old , when they are 93\u2013106 cm ( 37\u201342 in ) long , and live up to 15 years . females mature sexually at 6\u20137 years old , when they are 106\u2013107 cm ( 42\u201342 in ) long , and live up to 18 years . [ 1 ] known parasites of this species include the tapeworms callitetrarhynchus gracilis , [ 9 ] onchobothrium triacis , and phyllobothrium serratum , [ 10 ] the leech stibarobdella macrothela , [ 11 ] and the copepods achtheinus impenderus , [ 12 ] caligus punctatus , [ 13 ] kroyeria triakos , [ 14 ] and pseudopandarus scyllii . [ 15 ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\n) is an uncommon inshore species with limited distribution in waters off south africa , namibia and southern angola . the species is exploited by unregulated shark fisheries .\nfound in the eastern south atlantic and western indian ocean in temperate coastal waters of southern angola , namibia and south africa ( northern , western and eastern cape coasts , rarely north - east to kwazulu - natal ) .\nthis species is uncommon to locally common in the intertidal and surfline to less than 50 m ( compagno in prep . b ) .\nan inshore , bottom - dwelling shark of temperate coastal waters with a limited geographic and bathymetric range , found often in shallow water up to the surfline . it prefers sandy shores and rocks and crevices in shallow bays . during summertime this shark congregates in schools , particularly in false bay and off the cape peninsula , western cape , south africa , which may include pregnant females . development is ovoviviparous , without a yolk - sac placenta and the number of young is 6 - 10 per litter . this shark eats crabs , bony fishes and small sharks ( one had eaten a scyliorhinus capensis ) ( compagno in prep . b ) .\nthere is a fairly large directed commercial shark demersal longline fishery centred in gansbaai and false bay in south africa , which takes the spotted gully shark as a minor bycatch along with the target species , soupfin or vaalhai ( galeorhinus galeus ) , and other more abundant bycatch species such as common smoothhound ( mustelus mustelus ) and bronze whaler ( carcharhinus brachyurus ) . there are no separate statistics available for commercial catches of spotted gully sharks . the meat of such sharks is dried into shark\nbiltong\nor jerky , which sells for a relatively high price locally , or is shipped fresh or frozen overseas ( italy or taiwan ( poc ) ) . also caught recreational anglers in south africa and namibia , but not eaten much locally although perfectly edible .\nthe species occurs in at least one marine reserve , but it is not specifically protected . there is a proposal currently under consideration at sea fisheries research institute , the main fisheries research and body in south africa , to decommercialise the spotted gully shark and protect it from expanding commercial export fisheries for small sharks , although it still could be caught by sports anglers .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range 1 - 50 m ( ref . 5578 ) . subtropical ; 30\u00b0s - 36\u00b0s\nmaturity : l m ? , range 140 - 150 cm max length : 142 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 244 ) ; 174 . 0 cm tl ( female ) ; max . published weight : 20 . 0 kg ( ref . 5485 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 0 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 0 . blunt snout and a large mouth with small pointed teeth ; caudal peduncle short and heavy ( ref . 5578 ) . grey with numerous black spots which may be sparse or absent in some specimens ; new born pups with fewer black spots compared to adults ( ref . 5485 ) ; white below ( ref . 5578 ) .\noccurs off sandy beaches , rocky shores and in shallow bays ( ref . 5578 ) . feeds on crabs , lobsters , bony fish and small sharks ( ref . 5578 ) . ovoviviparous ( ref . 50449 ) . forms schools in summer ( ref . 244 ) . hardy and keeps well in captivity ( ref . 244 ) . commonly caught by rock and surf sports anglers but not eaten much ( ref . 244 ) . meat is dried into shark ' biltong ' or jerky which commands a relatively high price ( ref . 244 ) . attains 160 cm , tl ( ref . 36731 ) .\novoviviparous , embryos feed solely on yolk ( ref . 50449 ) , with 6 to 12 young in a litter ( ref . 244 ) . 30 - 32 cm at birth ( ref . 244 ) .\ncompagno , l . j . v . , 1984 . fao species catalogue . vol . 4 . sharks of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date . part 2 - carcharhiniformes . fao fish . synop . 125 ( 4 / 2 ) : 251 - 655 . rome : fao . ( ref . 244 )\n) : 15 . 8 - 22 . 4 , mean 19 . 3 ( based on 26 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5312 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00269 ( 0 . 00133 - 0 . 00544 ) , b = 3 . 15 ( 2 . 97 - 3 . 33 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 0 \u00b10 . 5 se ; based on diet studies .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : very low , minimum population doubling time more than 14 years ( fec = 6 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : high to very high vulnerability ( 74 of 100 ) .\ncounts 162 to 166 . body with a few to numerous small black spots , few or absent in young , often numerous in adults although plain adults have been recorded .\nwater up to the surfline . it prefers sandy shores and rocks and crevices in\nbays . during summertime this shark congregates in schools , particularly in false bay , western cape , south africa , which may have many pregnant females .\nbetween 140 and 150 cm , with adults reported at 140 to 174 cm ; size at birth about 30 to 32 cm .\nvery commonly caught by rock and surf sports anglers , but not eaten much although perfectly edible . there is a fairly large commercial shark fishery in gans bay in south africa that probably takes this\nalong with others ; the meat of such sharks is dried into shark ' biltong ' or jerky , which sells for a relatively high price .\nfollows compagno ( 1973c , 1979 ) , heemstra ( 1973 ) , and bass , d ' aubrey and kistnasamy ( 1975b ) . bass , d ' aubrey and kistnasamy ( 1975b ) recognized\nand gradually become spotted with black ( some adults may retain a plain coloration ) .\nsmith , j . l . b . , 1952 . a new hound shark from south africa , and new records . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( ser . 12 ) , 5 : 223 - 6\ncompagno , l . j . v . , 1970 . systematics of the genus hemitriakis ( selachii : carcharhinidae ) , and related genera . proc . calif . acad . sci . , 33 ( 4 ) : 63 - 98\ncompagno , l . j . v . , 1973c . interrelationships of living elasmobranchs . in interrelationships of fishes , edited by p . h . greenwood , r . s . miles and c . patterson . j . linn . soc . ( zool . ) , 53 suppl . 1 : 37 p .\ncompagno , l . j . v . , 1979 . carcharhinoid sharks : morphology , systematics and phylogeny . unpublished ph . d . thesis , stanford university , 932 p . available from university microfilms international , ann arbor , michigan\nheemstra , p . c . , 1973 . a revision of the shark genus mustelus ( squaliformes carcharhinidae ) . university of miami , ph . d . thesis , 187 p . ( unpubl . )\nbass , a . j . , j . d . d ' aubrey and n . kistnasamy , 1975b . sharks of the east coast of southern africa . 4 . the families odontaspididae , scapanorhyn chidae , isuridae , cetorhinidae , alopiidae , orectolobidae and rhiniodontidae . invest . rep . oceanoar . res . inst . , durban , ( 39 ) : 102 p .\nvan der elst , r . , 1981 . a guide to the common sea fishes of southern africa . capetown , c . struik , 367 p .\nl . j . v . compagno and m . smale ( unpub . data )\nshot with dji phantom 2 / zenmuse h3 - 3d gimbal / gopro hero 3 + black .\nobservation - multimammate mouse - southern africa . description : only caught at night in both grasslands and thicket ( added as a separate record ) .\nonly caught at night in both grasslands and thicket ( added as a separate record ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c1faa - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 32795a44 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 32795c13 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 327968a9 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 331240f6 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nyear from eschmeyer ( coff ver . nov . 1999 : ref . 33021 ) .\nfroese r . & pauly d . ( eds ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase ( version feb 2018 ) . in : roskov y . , abucay l . , orrell t . , nicolson d . , bailly n . , kirk p . m . , bourgoin t . , dewalt r . e . , decock w . , de wever a . , nieukerken e . van , zarucchi j . , penev l . , eds . ( 2018 ) . species 2000 & itis catalogue of life , 30th june 2018 . digital resource at urltoken species 2000 : naturalis , leiden , the netherlands . issn 2405 - 8858 .\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 7b95748c - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\n. if you continue to use the site we will assume that you agree with this .\ndyer island cruises offers a variety of opportunities for budding nature enthusiasts and students to volunteer and get involved with our work .\nwhen you go on a tour with dyer island cruises , you are making an active contribution to wildlife research and conservation .\nget in touch via our online contact form and one of our team will be in touch to confirm your booking .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nfao fisheries synopsis , no . 125 , vol . 4 , pt . 2\nspecial publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\n: urltoken contains images of sharks , skates , rays , and a few chimaera ' s from around the world . elasmodiver began as a simple web based\nto help divers find the best places to encounter the different species of sharks and rays that live in shallow water but it has slowly evolved into a much larger project containing information on all aspects of shark diving and shark photography .\nthere are now more than 10 , 000 shark pictures and sections on shark evolution , biology , and conservation . there is a large library of reviewed shark books , a constantly updated shark taxonomy page , a monster list of shark links , and deeper in the site there are numerous articles and stories about shark encounters . elasmodiver is now so difficult to check for updates , that new information and pictures are listed on an elasmodiver updates page that can be accessed here :\nthe taxonomy of sharks and rays is a subject that remains in hot debate . although the majority of elasmobranch families have been nailed down there will always be individual species that don ' t quite fit the characteristics of their sibling species . consequently species are occasionally reclassified or simply listed as awaiting review . one of the most confusing of families is the potamotrygonidae - the fresh water stingrays of south america . not only do these ray species adopt extremely varied patterns that are sometimes visually indistinguishable from other species , they also produce hybrids in certain parts of their ranges leaving us wondering what exactly a true species is anyway .\namong shark taxonomists conservative estimates of the number of known shark species is now approaching 500 . combined with the 700 or more species of rays and skates there are well over a thousand valid species of elasmobranches . in the past many more species were described only to be discounted later as being synonymous with elasmobranches already described from other geographic areas . in recent years this problem has lessened because taxonomic data has become easier to share over the internet . however , taxonomists are as vain as the rest of us and in their efforts to be the first to describe ( and name ) a new species there is often a counterproductive lack of collaboration .\nsome abyssal species have been described from only one or two specimens captured during deep water trawls . this implies that in all likelihood there are many shark and ray species lurking on the abyssal plain that have not yet been seen or captured . the best example being the relatively recent discovery of the megamouth shark . if this large and slow moving shark could remain hidden until the 1980 ' s , who knows how many other elasmobranches have gone unnoticed .\nfollowing is a list ( in need of an update ) of all the described species of elasmobranchs . included at the bottom are the holocephali ( the chimaeras or ghost sharks ) that share many characteristics with modern sharks and rays but are thought to be descended from a different group of cartilaginous fishes that thrived during the late devonian period .\noccasionally new species of sharks and rays are described by science . in some cases they have been well known for a while e . g . the western wobbegong but no one has gotten around to describing them . more exciting is when a deep water trawl or a lucky diving expedition uncovers a species that the scientific community was completely unaware of . this page on elasmodiver highlights the discovery of these species . many thanks to helmut nickel who somehow manages to find out whenever a new species is described and diligently informs the rest of the lay community of shark fanatics through shark - l . without his input i wouldn ' t have a clue .\nif you have information about a species i have overlooked please email me the information and i will add it to the list .\nincludes a key to identifying the genus of the dasyatidae ( whiptail stingrays ) .\nincludes a key to identifying the genus of the potamotrygonidae ( river stingrays ) .\nphylum chordata - animals that at some point in their life cycle have the following : pharyngeal slits ( a series of openings connecting the inside of the throat to the outside of the neck . in fish these become gill slits ) , dorsal nerve cord ( a bundle of nerve fibres running down the back , connecting the brain with the organs and extremities , a notochord ( a cartilaginous rod supporting the nerve cord ) , post anal tail ( an extension of the ' back ' past the anal opening ) .\nsubphylum vertebrata - animals with a vertibral column or backbone and neural crest cells which are released as the nerve cord is forming , these cells move through the body to form major nerves , neural ganglia , and many head and facial features . other features that separate vertebrates from other chordates include : a relatively well - developed brain , paired complex eyes , a muscularized mouth and pharynx , and a well - developed circulatory system with a heart .\nclass chondrichthyes - cartilaginous fishes lacking true bone . chondrichthyes can be split into two distinct subclasses elasmobranchii and bradyodonti .\nsubclass elasmobranchii - sharks , skates and rays ( and some fossil relatives ) . elasmobranchs have an upper jaw that is not fused to the braincase and separate slitted gill openings .\nsubclass holocephali - includes forms with an upper jaw fused to the braincase and a flap of skin , the operculum , covering the gill slits . the holocephalii includes the chimaeras and ratfishes , which are relatively rare , often deep - water , mollusc - eating forms .\nnarcine brevilabiata - ( offshore species found on continental tropical waters , known from a depth of 49 m ) .\nnarcine prodorsalis - ( continental waters both inshore and offshore . known from a depth of 49m ) .\nnarcine vermiculatus - vermiculate electric ray ( benthic on soft bottoms in protected coastal areas ) .\ntemera hardwickii - pari karas ( malay / indonesian . found inshore and offshore )\nj . p . c . b . da silva & m . r . de carvalho , 2011\ntarsistes philippii jordan , 1919 no common name . known from one dried head from chile\nrhynchobatus immaculatus peter r . last1 , hsuan - ching ho2 , 3 , * & rou - rong chen3 2013\ncallorhinchus milii ( elephantfish ) occurs on continental shelves of cool temperate areas of australia and new zealand to depths of at least 200 m . migrates into large estuaries and inshore bays in spring to breed .\nchimaera monstrosa ( rabbit fish ) atlantic . upper continental slopes , 40 to 100m .\nhydrolagus affinis ( smalleyed rabbitfish , atlantic chimaera ) eastern atlantic , mediterranean . continental slopes to deep - sea plains .\nhydrolagus lemures ( blackfin ghostshark ) common and wide - ranging chimaera of the australian outer continental shelf and upper slopes .\nhydrolagus mirabilis ( large - eyed rabbitfish ) moderately common on continental slopes . feeds on small fishes and invertebrates . oviparous\nharriotta haeckeli ( smallspine spookfish ) north atlantic , taken in 1800 - 2600 m ; specimens collected by russian vessels from submarine seamounts of the indian ocean in 1400 - 1730 m ; off st . helens ( tasmania ) in 1480 - 1700 m .\np . o . box 8719 station central , victoria , bc . , v8w 3s3 , canada\nspecies is usually found over sandy or rocky bottoms . measuring up to 73 cm ( 29 in ) long , the brown shyshark is stoutly built , with a broad , flattened head and rounded snout . unlike other shysharks , the brown shyshark has a plain brown color , though some individuals have faint\nsaddle\nmarkings or light or dark spots . when threatened , this shark curls into a circle with its tail over its eyes , which is the origin of the name\nshyshark\n. it feeds on\nto a depth of 35 m ( 110 ft ) . however , it has been reported from as deep as 133 m ( 440 ft ) .\nthe range of this species overlaps with the puffadder shyshark in the southeastern cape region . there , the brown shyshark tends to favor shallow inshore habitats , while the puffadder shyshark inhabits deeper offshore waters .\na small species reaching a maximum known length of 73 cm ( 29 in ) , the dark shyshark has a stocky body and a short , broad head . the snout is blunt and dorsally flattened . the eyes are large and oval - shaped , with a rudimentary\nare very large , and are flanked by greatly expanded , triangular flaps of skin that reach the mouth . these nasal flaps cover a pair of deep grooves that connect the nasal excurrent ( outflow ) openings and the mouth . there are furrows at the corners of the mouth on both jaws . the teeth have a central cusp and a pair of smaller cusplets on the sides . the five pairs of\nare moderately large , and the dorsal , pelvic , and anal fins are of similar sizes . the\nis short and broad , with a notch near the tip of the upper lobe and an indistinct lower lobe . the skin is thick and covered by well -\nthe coloration is a plain brown above and while below , though some individuals have a series of faint darker saddle - like markings or black or white spots .\nspecies ; one tag - recapture study found that recaptured sharks had moved no more than 8 km ( 5 . 0 mi ) from their original tagging location .\n. like its relatives in the genus , it exhibits a curious response of curling into a ring with its tail covering its eyes when threatened , hence the name\nshyshark\n.\nat a length of 68\u201369 cm ( 27\u201327 in ) , and females at a length of 60\u201361 cm ( 24\u201324 in ) .\n^ compagno , l . j . v . and m . krose ( 2000 ) . haploblepharus fuscus . in : iucn 2000 . iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on august 31 , 2009 .\ncompagno , l . j . v . , m . dando and s . fowler ( 2005 ) . sharks of the world . princeton university press . p . 235 . isbn 9780691120720 .\ncompagno , l . j . v . ( 1984 ) . sharks of the world : an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date . rome : food and agricultural organization . p . 334 . isbn 9251013845 .\nhuman , b . a . , e . p . owen , l . j . v . compagno and e . h . harley ( may 2006 ) . [ expression error : missing operand for >\ntesting morphologically based phylogenetic theories within the cartilaginous fishes with molecular data , with special reference to the catshark family ( chondrichthyes ; scyliorhinidae ) and the interrelationships within them\n] . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 39 ( 2 ) : 384\u2013391 .\nfowler , s . l . , r . d . cavanagh , m . camhi , g . h . burgess , g . m . cailliet , s . v . fordham , c . a . simpfendorfer , and j . a . musick ( 2005 ) . sharks , rays and chimaeras : the status of the chondrichthyan fishes . international union for conservation of nature and natural resources . pp . 265\u2013266 . isbn 2831707005 .\nkohler , n . e . and p . a . turner ( 2001 ) . [ expression error : missing operand for >\nshark tagging : a review of conventional methods and studies\n] . environmental biology of fishes 60 : 191\u2013223 .\nsmith , c . and c . griffiths ( 1997 ) . [ expression error : missing operand for >\nshark and skate egg - cases cast up on two south african beaches and their rates of hatching success or causes of death\n] . south african journal of zoology 32 : 112\u2013117 .\n^\nhaploblepharus fuscus\n. fishbase . ed . ranier froese and daniel pauly . august 2009 version . n . p . : fishbase , 2009 .\nune fen\u00eatre ( pop - into ) d ' information ( contenu principal de sensagent ) est invoqu\u00e9e un double - clic sur n ' importe quel mot de votre page web . la fen\u00eatre fournit des explications et des traductions contextuelles , c ' est - \u00e0 - dire sans obliger votre visiteur \u00e0 quitter votre page web !\nles jeux de lettre fran\u00e7ais sont : \u25cb anagrammes \u25cb jokers , mots - crois\u00e9s \u25cb lettris \u25cb boggle .\nlettris est un jeu de lettres gravitationnelles proche de tetris . chaque lettre qui appara\u00eet descend ; il faut placer les lettres de telle mani\u00e8re que des mots se forment ( gauche , droit , haut et bas ) et que de la place soit lib\u00e9r\u00e9e .\nil s ' agit en 3 minutes de trouver le plus grand nombre de mots possibles de trois lettres et plus dans une grille de 16 lettres . il est aussi possible de jouer avec la grille de 25 cases . les lettres doivent \u00eatre adjacentes et les mots les plus longs sont les meilleurs . participer au concours et enregistrer votre nom dans la liste de meilleurs joueurs ! jouer\nla plupart des d\u00e9finitions du fran\u00e7ais sont propos\u00e9es par sensegates et comportent un approfondissement avec littr\u00e9 et plusieurs auteurs techniques sp\u00e9cialis\u00e9s . le dictionnaire des synonymes est surtout d\u00e9riv\u00e9 du dictionnaire int\u00e9gral ( tid ) . l ' encyclop\u00e9die fran\u00e7aise b\u00e9n\u00e9ficie de la licence wikipedia ( gnu ) .\nles jeux de lettres anagramme , mot - crois\u00e9 , joker , lettris et boggle sont propos\u00e9s par memodata . le service web alexandria est motoris\u00e9 par memodata pour faciliter les recherches sur ebay .\nchanger la langue cible pour obtenir des traductions . astuce : parcourir les champs s\u00e9mantiques du dictionnaire analogique en plusieurs langues pour mieux apprendre avec sensagent .\ncopyright \u00a9 2000 - 2016 sensagent : encyclop\u00e9die en ligne , thesaurus , dictionnaire de d\u00e9finitions et plus . tous droits r\u00e9serv\u00e9s .\nles cookies nous aident \u00e0 fournir les services . en poursuivant votre navigation sur ce site , vous acceptez l ' utilisation de ces cookies . en savoir plus\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\nthe first updated and comprehensive checklist of chondrichthyes from the southeast pacific off peru , based on the revision of scientific literature , is presented . the group of chondrichthyes in the peruvian coast is composed of 115 species that include 66 species of sharks , 43 species of batoids , and six species of chi - maeras . we present nine new records and one recent discovery obtained from secondary sources . for some species , we also compiled the extensions in the geographic distributions .\ninstituto de investigaciones marinas , ( iim - csic ) . 36208 . vigo , spain\nreports ( velez - zuazo et al . \ue017\ue016\ue01c\ue01b ) . in this light , a better\n\ue017\ue016\ue016\ue01bb , \ue017\ue016\ue016\ue01bc ) , didier et al . ( \ue017\ue016\ue01c\ue017 ) , naylor et al . ( \ue017\ue016\ue01c\ue017 ) ,\n( \ue017\ue016\ue016\ue01c ) , hooker ( \ue017\ue016\ue016\ue013 ) , nakaya et al . ( \ue017\ue016\ue016\ue013 ) , angulo et\net al . ( \ue017\ue016\ue01c\ue01b ) . we used compagno et al . ( \ue017\ue016\ue016\ue01bc ) and the\nchimaeras reported ( didier et al . \ue017\ue016\ue01c\ue017 ; naylor et al . \ue017\ue016\ue01c\ue017 ;\nkawauchi et al . \ue017\ue016\ue01c\ue019 ; weigmann et al . \ue017\ue016\ue01c\ue019 ; kemper et al .\nthan chile ( \ue013\ue01a species : sharks = \ue01b\ue018 spp . , batoids = \ue018\ue013 spp . ,\nmarinos del per\u00fa . lima : instituto del mar del per\u00fa . \ue019\ue013\ue01a pp .\npeces marinos del per\u00fa . lima : instituto del mar del per\u00fa . \ue018\ue01c\ue019 pp .\n. , d . a . didier and g . h . burgess . \ue017\ue016\ue016\ue01bb . classi\ue01fcation\nof chondrichthyan \ue01fsh ; pp . \ue019\u2013\ue01c\ue01c , in : s . l . fowler ( ed . ) .\ncompagno , l . , m . dando and s . fowler , s . \ue017\ue016\ue016\ue01bc . sharks of the\nmobulidae . journal of fish biology \ue012\ue016 ( \ue01b ) : \ue01c\ue016\ue015\ue01b\u2013\ue01c\ue01c\ue01c\ue013 . doi :\nand classi\ue01fcation of extant holocephalans ; pp . \ue013\ue015\u2013\ue01c\ue017\ue017 , in : j . c .\ncarrier , j . a . musick , and m . r . heithaus ( eds . ) . biology of sharks\nel per\u00fa . revista peruana de biolog\u00eda \ue01c\ue01a ( \ue01c ) : \ue018\ue018\u2013\ue019\ue01c . doi :\ntiburones , rayas y quimeras en el pac\u00ed\ue01fco sudeste . chile . \ue019\ue019 pp .\n. r . , h . ho and r . chen . \ue017\ue016\ue01c\ue018 . a new species of wedge\ue01fsh ,\nnakaya , k . , m . yabe , h . imamura , m . c . romero and m . yoshida .\n\ue017\ue016\ue016\ue013 . deep - sea \ue01fshes of peru . tokyo : japan deep sea tra\na revised generic diagnosis . zootaxa \ue018\ue012\ue019\ue015 ( \ue018 ) : \ue018\ue01b\ue013\u2013\ue018\ue012\ue015 . doi :\n. , k . furumitsu and a . yamaguchi . \ue017\ue016\ue01c\ue018 . a new species\n. . . since then , a couple of publications reported the presence of sawfishes inspecifying them . the other publication is a revised list of chondrichthyans in peru ( cornejo et al . 2015 ) , which included p . pristis and p . pectinata . given that the inclusion of this species in produce ( 2014 ) andcornejo et al . ( 2015 ) are the result of literature reviews and are not based on field surveys , the documentation here of 2 new specimens provide the first empirical records of p . pristis in peru since 1999 . . . .\n. . . the other publication is a revised list of chondrichthyans in peru ( cornejo et al . 2015 ) , which included p . pristis and p . pectinata . given that the inclusion of this species in produce ( 2014 ) and cornejo et al . ( 2015 ) are the result of literature reviews and are not based on field surveys , the documentation here of 2 new specimens provide the first empirical records of p . pristis in peru since 1999 . these records demonstrate that p . pristis is not extirpated from peru , and they highlight the need to identify and protect critical habitats that could contribute to sawfish conservation . . . .\nthis project aims to do the crucial baseline research of the whale shark in peruvian waters in order to determine basic information such as seasonality , abundance , and population structure .\nour goal with this work was to identify putative origins for the populations of invasive green iguana ( iguana iguana ) on puerto rico . moreover , we set out to describe how populations were interacti\u2026\n[ more ]\nfield studies of vertebrates , with major interest in symbioses ( in a broad sense ) and other association types , feeding and defensive behaviors , urban fauna . presently focused on fishes , birds , and\u2026\n[ more ]\nperuvian waters exhibit high conservation value for sharks . this contrasts with a lag in initiatives for their management and a lack of studies about their biology , ecology and fishery . we investigated the dynamics of peruvian shark fishery and its legal framework identifying information gaps for recommending actions to improve management . further , we investigated the importance of the . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe smooth hammerhead shark , sphyrna zygaena ( linnaeus , 1758 ) , is the third shark specie most captured in peru , its situation is vulnerable and is included in cites . however , their fishery lacks management and its biology is poorly understood . this study aims to know the trophic ecology and identify their nursery areas in northern peru , through the analysis of stomach contents , fishing areas , . . . [ show full abstract ]\nfish dna barcoding around large marine infrastructure for improved biodiversity assessment and monit . . .\naccurate species - level identification is pivotal for environmental assessments and monitoring . the peru lng terminal is composed of large marine infrastructure located on the central coast of peru . since construction , taxonomically challenging species such as drum fishes ( sciaenidae ) have been attracted to the new hard - bottom habitat . we conducted a dna barcoding study to investigate fish . . . [ show full abstract ]\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range 1 - 50 m ( ref . 5578 ) . subtropical , preferred ? ; 30\u00b0s - 36\u00b0s\nsmith , elder , london , vol . 4 , 77 pp . , not numbered , pls 1\u201331\n( smith , 1839 ) : in : database of modern sharks , rays and chimaeras , www . shark - references . com , world wide web electronic publication , version 07 / 2018\ndiagnostic features : teeth with strong erect cusps on at least . the middle two - thirds of the dental band but often not well developed on more distal teeth , cusplets low or absent on almost all teeth , semimolariform but not bladelike . first dorsal fin with abruptly vertical posterior margin ; pectoral fins broadly falcate in adults . total vertebral counts 162 to 166 . body with a few to numerous small black spots , few or absent in young , often numerous in adults although plain adults have been recorded\n) ; 174 cm tl ( female ) ; max . published weight : 20 . 0 kg\nhost - parasite list / parasite - host list ( version : 01 . 04 . 2015 ) 544 pp , 5 , 37 mb new !\noccurs from the surf line to close offshore ( ref . 5578 ) . feeds mainly on crustaceans ( including lobsters ) , also squid ( ref . 244 ) . viviparous ( ref . 50449 ) . caught by rock and surf anglers ( ref . 5578 ) .\n89 . 0 cm tl ( male / unsexed ; ( ref . 244 ) ) ; 102 cm tl ( female )\nthis is a little - known and uncommon inshore demersal shark with an extremely restricted range . less than 30 specimens recorded , including unpublished material . a live - bearing species ( with presence or absence of placenta uncertain ) with litter size of 2 - 4 ( usually two or three ) young and a gestation period of 9 - 10 months . it is unknown whether there is a year break in the reproductive cycle , but the low litter size suggests a year - long cycle and a yearly fecundity of similar numbers , 2 - 4 young per year ( this needs further investigation ) . the species feeds predominantly on crustaceans , also squid ( compagno in prep . b ) .\ndepth range based on 1 specimen in 1 taxon . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 15 - 15 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .\nviviparous , placental ( ref . 50449 ) . with 2 to 4 young in a litter ( ref . 244 , 5578 ) . size at birth about 34 cm ( ref . 244 ) . gestation period is 9 to 10 months ( ref . 244 ) . distinct pairing with embrace ( ref . 205 ) .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there is 1 barcode sequence available from bold and genbank .\nbelow is the sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .\nfroese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2011 ) .\nscylliogaleus quecketti\nin fishbase . february 2011 version .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nobservation - spotted gully shark 3 - southern africa . description : caught and released during rasspl nationals 2015\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nthese elongated torpedo - shaped sharks rarely grow longer than 24 inches from rounded snout to stout caudal ( tail ) fin . they prefer resting on the rocky seafloor off of coastal south africa , scavenging invertebrates and small fishes . like most catsharks , they have oval cat - like eyes , and they are named shyshark because when threatened , they curl into circles and cover their faces with their tails . considered harmless to humans because of their size , they are sometimes caught for food or shown in public aquariums .\nenglish language common names for this species include brown shyshark and brown shy shark . other common names are brauner katzenhai ( german ) , bruin skaamoog ( afrikaans ) , bruine schaamhaai ( dutch ) , roussette brune ( french ) , and alit\u00e1n marr\u00f3n ( spanish ) . this species is referred to as a shyshark because they have been observed coiling themselves and covering their eyes with their tails when caught . this may be a defense mechanism , deterring predators from swallowing the shark .\nwhile this species is not targeted by a directed fisherie , the brown shyshark is utilized in subsistence fisheries . it is also considered a gamefish and is caught by sport fishers with rod and reel . in addition , this shyshark adapts well to captivity and may be observed at public aquarium facilities .\ndue to is small size and feeding habits , this small shark is considered harmless to humans .\nalthough the brown shyshark is a locally common species that is not targeted by commercial fisheries or utilized for its meat , there is some concern for its future as it likely appears in the bycatch of other fisheries . it may also be threatened by the degradation of its inshore habitat . due to this species limited geographic distribution , any increase in bycatch mortality or habitat degradation could impact the entire population .\nthe iucn is a global union of states , governmental agencies , and non - governmental organizations in a partnership that assesses the conservation status of species .\nthe brown shyshark range is restricted in range to the southeast atlantic ocean from just west of cape agulhas to southern natal in south africa . this shark shares its range with the closely related h . edwardsii in the southeastern cape region , however there is at least partial microhabitat separation between these two species . h . fuscus resides primarily in inshore waters in contrast to h . edwardsii which occurs in deeper waters offshore .\nthis shark is typically found in shallow rocky intertidal zones to a depth of 110 feet ( 35 m ) although it as been reported as deep as 436 feet ( 133 meters ) . it reportedly rests on the bottom substrate during the day . when threatened , this shark will curl its body into a circle with its tail over the eyes hence the name\nshyshark\n.\nthe largest of all catsharks , the stout - bodied brown shyshark has a broad head with large nasal flaps on the short snout and elongated cat - like eyes typical of the catsharks . the two dorsal fins are of equal size with the first dorsal fin located over the ends of the pelvic fins . the second dorsal fin originates over or slightly behind the anal fin midbase . the pectoral fins are moderately large . the anal fin is similar in size to the dorsal fins ; the origin of the anal fin is located well behind the pelvic bases and the insertion separated from the lower caudal origin by a broad space subequal to the anal fin base . the caudal ( tail ) fin is short and broad .\ncoloration coloration of the brown shyshark is yellow - brown dorsally , transitioning to yellowish in color on the ventral surface . small light spots along with indistinct brown saddles may be visible in some specimens of this species .\na ) brown shyshark dentition . b ) brown shyshark denticle . illustrations courtesy fao\nthe teeth of the brown shyshark consist of a central cusp with a pair of smaller cusplets on the sides . the holotype of this species has 84 rows of teeth in the upper jaw and 83 rows of teeth in the lower jaw .\ndenticles the brown shyshark possesses thick skin covered with well - calcified dermal denticles . there are no crests of denticles on the caudal fins and no suprorbital crests on the cranium .\nsize , age , and growth the maximum reported length of this species is 27 inches ( 69 . 0 cm ) total length ( tl ) for males and 29 inches ( 73 cm ) tl for females . the average size of the brown shyshark is between 20 inches ( 50 cm ) and 24 inches ( 60 cm ) . sexual maturity is attained at lengths of 26 inches ( 65 cm ) for males and 24 - 28 inches ( 60 - 70 cm ) for females .\nfood habits prey items of the brown shyshark include marine invertebrates including lobsters , crabs , cuttlefish , and worms as well as small bony fishes .\nreproduction this small shark is oviparous , laying two egg cases at a atime . each egg case has long tendrils at the corners for attachment to the substrate . during development inside the egg , each embryo feeds solely on the yolk . in captivity , whelks have been observed piercing the egg cases and extracting the yolk .\nthe brown shyshark was originally described as haploblepharus fuscus by the south african ichthyologyist james leonard brierley smith in 1950 . there are no known synonyms for this species . the genus name haploblepharus is derived from the greek\nhaploos\nmeaning single and\nblepharos\nmeaning eyelash . the species name fuscus is latin for dusky or dark in reference to its brown coloration . scyliorhinidae is the largest shark family with at least 15 genera and over 110 species . they are known as catsharks due to their elongated cat - like eyes , although a few species are referred to as dogfish ."]}
{"id": 1278, "summary": [{"text": "coleophora pennella is a moth of the coleophoridae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in most of europe .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 15 \u2013 20 millimetres ( 0.59 \u2013 0.79 in ) .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on wing from june to july .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on anchusa officinalis , cynoglossum officinale , echium italicum , echium vulgare , lithospermum officinale , myosotis , nonea , onosma , pentaglottis , pulmonaria officinalis and symphytum officinale .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "young larva feed on the developing seeds and hibernate in their first case which is made of the tip of a petal .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "after hibernation , they make a laterally flattened , composite leaf case .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "fleck mines are made at the margin of the leaves .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the mouth angle is about 70 \u00b0 .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "full-grown larvae can be found from mid may to early june . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "coleophora pennella", "paragraphs": ["valter jacinto marked\nborboleta noturna / / moth ( coleophora pennella )\nas trusted on the\ncoleophora pennella\npage .\nno one has contributed data records for coleophora pennella yet . learn how to contribute .\ncoleophora pennella ( bugloss case - bearer ) - norfolk micro moths - the micro moths of norfolk .\n\u2022 clipsham quarry , leics , july . gen . det . jon clifton . \u2022 \u00a9\nan inhabitant of shingle beaches and dry chalky habitats , the recent known distribution of this species is in south - east england and east anglia , with scattered records elsewhere .\n) , in a distinctive case made from hairy leaf fragments of the foodplant .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 06 - 16 10 : 51 : 57 page render time : 0 . 2334s total w / procache : 0 . 2764s\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nnotes : nationally scarce ( na ) in dry sandy areas , calcareous grassland and on shingle beaches in england , south - east of a line from gibraltar point to portland bill . not recorded in hampshire or on the isle of wight to date . wingspan 15 - 21 mm . larva mines leaves of viper ' s - bugloss , living and feeding within a movable case ; case length 12 mm .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nscarce , possibly under - recorded in norfolk , appears to be well established in the brecks in areas where the foodplant can be found .\nlarval cases collected and bred out from hockwold ( j . clifton , adult emerged 09 / 06 / 2013 ) and weeting ( i . barton ) in 2013 .\nrecorded in 8 ( 12 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1874 . last recorded in 2017 .\nunderlying maps using digital map data \u00a9 norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola\u2122 2018 . \u00a9 james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data \u00a9 nola\u2122 2018\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nyour browser doesn ' t support javascript or you have disabled javascript . please enable javascript , then refresh this page . javascript is required on this site .\neuropean union funding : for a one - year period ( 2017 - 12 - 16 to 2018 - 12 - 15 ) , eppo has been awarded an eu grant for the further development of the eppo code system ( agreement nb : sante / 2017 / gs / eppo / s12 . 768842 ) . the eu commission is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information from this project subsequently included in the eppo global database .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .\nbl\u00e5 punkter visar fynd registrerade i artportalen och \u00f6vriga databaser anslutna till lifewatch . kan inneh\u00e5lla observationer som inte \u00e4r validerade . kartan uppdateras var fj\u00e4rde vecka .\ni det avancerade verktyget kan man s\u00f6ka ut och f\u00e5 fram artlistor , t ex arter i ett visst l\u00e4n , i en viss biotop , substrat , som p\u00e5verkas av en hotfaktor , eller som \u00e4r knutna till en sk v\u00e4rdart , t ex tr\u00e4det alm . dessa kan \u00e4ven kombineras .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , knutna till alm , \u00e4r beroende av d\u00f6d ved och som finns i kronobergs l\u00e4n .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , lever i sm\u00e5vatten och som p\u00e5verkas negativt av igenv\u00e4xning .\ndefaultl\u00e4get i verktyget \u00e4r arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade 2015 och dessa \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga s\u00f6kfaktorer . under fliken r\u00f6dlistekategori kan man dock v\u00e4lja att \u00e4ven inkludera arter som inte \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade . om man v\u00e4ljer att inkludera icke r\u00f6dlistade arter beh\u00f6ver man vara medveten om att samtliga arter inte \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga faktorer . nedan en sammanst\u00e4llning av vad som \u00e4r komplett .\ndenna funktion anv\u00e4nds n\u00e4r du vill skapa din egen lista av arter att hantera . du kan t . ex . navigera mellan arterna i listan genom att klicka p\u00e5 deras namn . du kan ocks\u00e5 v\u00e4lja att anv\u00e4nda knappen \u201dj\u00e4mf\u00f6r arter\u201d f\u00f6r att se bilder , kartor och k\u00e4nnetecken i en j\u00e4mf\u00f6relsevy .\ndu kan komponera ditt eget urval av arter genom att klicka dig fram via sl\u00e4kttr\u00e4det och d\u00e4r v\u00e4lja arter eller artgrupper till din lista . ett annat s\u00e4tt att g\u00f6ra ditt urval \u00e4r att anv\u00e4nda fliken \u201dfiltrera\u201d , d\u00e4r du kan s\u00f6ka p\u00e5 olika egenskaper . ovanf\u00f6r listan med s\u00f6kresultatet finns en knapp \u201dl\u00e4gg i mitt urval\u201d .\nthe mit license copyright ( c ) 2014 - 2016 google , inc . urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\nthe mit license ( mit ) copyright ( c ) 2011 - 2015 twitter , inc permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright ( c ) 2008 - 2013 sprymedia limited urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright 2008 - 2015 martin wendt , urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright jquery foundation and other contributors , urltoken this software consists of voluntary contributions made by many individuals . for exact contribution history , see the revision history available at urltoken the following license applies to all parts of this software except as documented below : = = = = permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software . = = = = all files located in the node _ modules and external directories are externally maintained libraries used by this software which have their own licenses ; we recommend you read them , as their terms may differ from the terms above .\nthe mit license ( mit ) - 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2014 openlayers contributors . all rights reserved . redistribution and use in source and binary forms , with or without modification , are permitted provided that the following conditions are met : 1 . redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice , this list of conditions and the following disclaimer . 2 . redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice , this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and / or other materials provided with the distribution . this software is provided by openlayers contributors ` ` as is ' ' and any express or implied warranties , including , but not limited to , the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose are disclaimed . in no event shall copyright holder or contributors be liable for any direct , indirect , incidental , special , exemplary , or consequential damages ( including , but not limited to , procurement of substitute goods or services ; loss of use , data , or profits ; or business interruption ) however caused and on any theory of liability , whether in contract , strict liability , or tort ( including negligence or otherwise ) arising in any way out of the use of this software , even if advised of the possibility of such damage . the views and conclusions contained in the software and documentation are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as representing official policies , either expressed or implied , of openlayers contributors ."]}
{"id": 1281, "summary": [{"text": "loxostegopsis polle is a moth in the crambidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by dyar in 1917 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from arizona , california , nevada , new mexico , texas , wyoming and alberta .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consist of short grass prairie .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 17 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are shaded with brown .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are silky-white with a narrow dark margin .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults have been recorded from may to june and in september . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "loxostegopsis polle", "paragraphs": ["loxotegopsis [ = loxostegopsis ] dyar , 1917 ; ins . insc . menstr . 5 ( 4 - 6 ) : 84 ; ts : loxotegopsis polle dyar\nloxotegopsis [ sic ] polle dyar , 1917 ; ins . insc . menstr . 5 ( 4 - 6 ) : 84 ; tl : brownsvile , texas\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndyar , h . g . 1917 : seven new crambids from the united states ( lepidoptera , pyralidae ) . \u2013 insecutor inscitiae menstruus , washington 5 ( 4\u20136 ) : 84 .\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 7 april , 2014 - 8 : 29pm additional contributions by kyhl austin last updated 24 april , 2016 - 1 : 57pm\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\ndiaphania costata ( f . ) ( lepidoptera : crambidae : spilomelinae ) , a commonly misidentified pest of ornamental apocynaceae . . .\nby hayden , j . e . , e . r . hoebeke , m . a . bertone & v . a . brou jr .\nproceedings of the entomological society of washington , 119 ( 2 ) : 173 - 190 . , 2017\nhayden , j . e . , e . r . hoebeke , m . a . bertone & v . a . brou jr , 2017 . diaphania costata ( f . ) ( lepidoptera : crambidae : spilomelinae ) , a commonly misidentified pest of ornamental apocynaceae in the southern united states . proceedings of the entomological society of washington , 119 ( 2 ) : 173 - 190 . view and download at bioone here cite : 1415021\ntaxonomic revision of the spilomelinae ( lepidoptera , pyralidae s . l . ) of the gal\u00e1pagos islands , ecuador\nkearfott , w . d . 1909 . descriptions of new species of north american crambid moths . proceedings of the united states national museum 35 : 367 - 393 .\na generic revision of the aquatic moths of north america : ( lepidoptera : pyralidae , nymphulinae ) .\nsolis m . a . , 2009 . transfer of all western hemisphere cybalomiinae to other subfamilies ( crambidae pyraloidea : lepidoptera ) : elusia schaus , dichochroma forbes , schacontia dyar , cybalomia extorris warren , and c . lojanalis ( dognin ) . proceedings of the entomological society of washington . 111 : 493\u2013504 download at researchgate here\nstudies on the crambidae ( lepidoptera ) . part 41 . on some tropical crambidae with descriptions of new genera and species .\nnacoleia charesalis ( walker , 1859 ) ( pyraloidea : crambidae : spilomelinae ) is a medium - sized brown moth with a native range from the southeast asian tropics to northern australia . it was first detected in southern florida , usa , in 2012 and known to be spreading rapidly northward . it resembles some native north american pyraustine species . this paper summarizes its current distribution , diagnostic characters and known behavior . download pdf here\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\nthis information is not automatically synchronized with globiz and can sometimes be lagging behind .\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\n[ nacl ] ; hodges , 1983 check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico check list lep . am . n of mexico\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nclick on species name for the species details page . click on the image for a pop - up of a larger image .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more"]}
{"id": 1295, "summary": [{"text": "horned lizards are a genus ( phrynosoma ) of lizards which are the type genus of the subfamily phrynosomatinae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the horned lizard has been affectionately called a \" horny toad \" , or \" horned frog \" , though they are not moist-skinned toads or frogs .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "the common names come from the lizard 's flattened , rounded body and blunt snout , which make it resemble a toad or frog ( phrynosoma means \" toad-bodied \" ) , as well as its tendency , in common with larger true frogs and toads , to move sluggishly , making them easy to hand-catch ( such slow , undramatic movements may also avoid triggering attacks by predators , discussed later in this article ) .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "they are totally adapted to desert areas .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the spines on its back and sides are made from modified reptile scales which prevent the water loss through the skin , whereas the horns on the heads are true horns ( i.e. they have a bony core ) .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "of 15 species of horned lizards in north america , eight are native to the united states .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the largest-bodied and most widely distributed of the us species is the texas horned lizard .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "horned lizards use a wide variety of means to avoid predation .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "their coloration generally serves as camouflage .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "when threatened , their first defense is to remain still to avoid detection .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "if approached too closely , they generally run in short bursts and stop abruptly to confuse the predator 's visual acuity .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "if this fails , they puff up their bodies to cause them to appear more horned and larger , so that they are more difficult to swallow .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "at least eight species ( p. asio , p. cornutum , p. coronatum , p. ditmarsi , p. hernandesi , p. orbiculare , p. solare , and p. taurus ) are also able to squirt an aimed stream of blood from the corners of the eyes for a distance of up to 5 feet ( 1.5 m ) .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "they do this by restricting the blood flow leaving the head , thereby increasing blood pressure and rupturing tiny vessels around the eyelids .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "this not only confuses predators , but also the blood tastes foul to canine and feline predators .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "it appears to have no effect against predatory birds .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "only three closely related species ( p. mcallii , p. modestum , and p. platyrhinos ) are certainly known to be unable to squirt blood .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "to avoid being picked up by the head or neck , a horned lizard ducks or elevates its head and orients its cranial horns straight up , or back .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "if a predator tries to take it by the body , the lizard drives that side of its body down into the ground so the predator can not easily get its lower jaw underneath . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "horned lizard", "paragraphs": ["what is a horned lizard ? : the horned lizard conservation society ( hlcs ) .\ntcu folks embrace the horned frog as their quirky symbol . but do they actually mean horned lizard ?\nthe purpose of the corporation is to document and publicize the values and conservation needs of horned lizards , to promote horned lizard conservation projects and to assist with horned lizard management initiatives throughout their ranges .\nthe texas horned lizard rarely lives up to that scary stereotype , experts say .\na horned frog is an amphibian . a horned lizard is a reptile . tcu is mighty confused . or is it ?\ncheck parks and wildlife ' s texas horned lizard watch for programs and monitoring activities .\nresolved , that the texas horned lizard be officially designated the state reptile of texas .\ntexas state reptile , texas horned lizard ( phrynosoma cornutum ) , from netstate . com\nin recent times , the horned lizards ' habitat has shrunk , imported fire ants have supplanted their food supply , and their numbers have declined drastically . the horned lizard is no longer seen in many regions where it was once common . two of the three native texas species of horned lizard are now listed as threatened ( texas horned lizard and the mountain short - horned lizard ) .\nphrynosoma coronatum , coast horned lizard - dick schwenkmeyer and brad hollingsworth . san diego natural history museum\nthe texas horned lizard currently is listed as a threatened species in texas ( federal category c2 ) .\nas recchio explained , those reptiles discovered on the practice field 114 years ago were not horned frogs , but horned lizards . it is a horned lizard that is found in texas . in a story that every football player can recite , it is a horned lizard that shoots blood out of his eye when threatened .\ncanids are not averse to blood , but they dislike horned lizard blood , even though it is not poisonous .\nin the dream , i saw a lizard ( small flying dragon type lizard ) which was red - skin in color and there was also a cat which was searching for that lizard . i saw that the cat found that lizard and suddenly attacked that flying lizard and killed it with the claw .\nin 1897 texas christian university in fort worth adopted the horned lizard as the school mascot , but for reasons not entirely clear , called it a horned\nfrog .\nah , we know it ' s a horned lizard ,\nsaid center jake kirkpatrick with a smile and a shrug .\nbut horned frogs just sounds better .\ncompare the slightly enlarged throat scales of the desert horned lizard ( phrynosoma platyrhinos ) , above , with the much enlarged throat scales of a flat - tailed horned lizard ( phrynosoma mcallii ) . flat - tailed photo \u00a9 2006 s . ferrand\nhorned lizards ( in general ) play an important role in many native american cultures . the horned lizard is often seen as a symbol of strength and important as a symbol for healing ( pianka and hodges ) . in mexico the horned lizard is believed to help bring rain ( manaster 1997 ) .\nthis was the first meeting of the horned lizard conservation society ( hlcs ) . bart cox was the society\u2019s first president .\nfire ants are believed to out - compete native harvester ants for food and space .\nharvester ants are the preferred food of the texas horned lizard and if the food resource declines , lizard\nsometimes called a horny toad , this fascinating creature is actually a lizard , the texas horned lizard . it became the official state reptile in 1993 . how many states have an official reptile ?\nview image of a regal horned lizard ( p . solare ) rolls over when threatened ( credit : daniel heuclin / npl )\nview image of the desert horned lizard ( p . platyrhinos ) is 13 % stomach ( credit : daniel heuclin / npl )\nhorned lizards are found in extremely diverse habitats . the flat - tailed horned lizard occurs in areas of fine sand , while the short - horned lizard ( p . douglassii ) is found in shortgrass prairie all the way up into spruce - fir forest . the most common species in the arizona upland subdivision is the regal horned lizard ( p . solare ) , which frequents rocky or gravelly habitats of arid to semiarid plains , hills and lower mountain slopes .\ninstead of puffing up , regal horned lizards roll over . when threatened by a whip snake , the lizard flips onto its back .\nview image of a regal horned lizard ( p . solare ) shoots blood from its eyes ( credit : john cancalosi / npl )\nmilner , b . j . 1979 . northern short - horned lizard in southeastern alberta . alberta naturalist 9 : 90 - 92 .\nthere are 17 known species of horned lizard , all in the genus phrynosoma . most of them seem to be capable of squirting blood .\npack , h . j . 1918 . some habits of the pygmy horned lizard . copeia 1918 ( 63 ) : 91 - 92 .\nschowalter , d . b . 1976 . new distribution records of the horned lizard in alberta . blue jay 37 : 26 - 27 .\nthe short - horned lizard is often referred to as a \u201chorned toad\u201d or \u201chorny toad\u201d because its squat , flattened shape and short , blunt snout give it a toad - ish look . there are over a dozen recognized horned - lizard species found in the deserts and semi - arid environments of north and central america , from southern canada to guatemala .\nbart cox loved texas horned lizards . bart cox was concerned . he was concerned about the declining populations of horned lizards in texas .\npowell , g . l . 1980 . diet of the short - horned lizard in alberta . american zoologist 20 ( 4 ) : 842 .\na horned frog just hangs out all day on a lily pad , doing nothing ,\nrecchio said .\nhe doesn ' t look or act anything like the horned lizard that is used by tcu .\nreeve , w . l . 1952 . taxonomy and distribution of the horned lizard genus phrynosoma . kansas university science bulletin 34 : 817 - 960 .\nin 1967 the texas horned lizard was designated a threatened species by the texas parks and wildlife department . twenty years later , nothing much had changed .\nthe texas horned lizard became the official state reptile of texas when governor ann richards signed house concurrent resolution no . 141 on june 18 , 1993 .\nphrynosoma cornutum - ( harlan , 1825 ) texas horned lizard : a network connecting science with conservation - natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life .\nthe short - horned lizard is a one - reptile wrecking crew with a bizarre self - defense strategy . when defending its own life , this lizard squirts blood from the thin blood vessels around its eyes that rupture under pressure .\na horned lizard sits motionless in the desert sun , eyeing a young coyote skulking nearby . five inches long , with a crown of horns like a dinosaur , the lizard ' s mottled skin helps it blend into the background .\nhorned lizards are no exception to the general rule that lizards are not attracted to dead insects as food\u2014the ants must be alive and moving for the lizard to show interest in them as prey . harvester ants can bite and have a potent venom , but apparently this has little effect on the esophagus or stomach of the lizard . however , when faced with swarming ants the lizard will make a hasty retreat , for these little invertebrates can kill an adult horned lizard .\nwhip snakes are lightning fast , and actively hunt their prey . the portly horned lizard cannot outrun one , so it opts for camouflage and keeping still .\nto make up for it , a horned lizard has to eat a lot of ants , and to do that it needs a big stomach . the desert horned lizard has a stomach that makes up 13 % of its mass : akin to a 150 - pound person with an almost 20 - pound stomach .\nguyer , c . 2006 . phrynosoma douglasii ( pigmy short - horned lizard ) copulatory position . herpetological review 37 ( 1 ) : 91 - 92 .\ntaylor , b . n . 2003 . short - horned lizard ( phrynosoma hernandesi hernandesi ) . alberta species at risk report 72 : 154 - 160 .\na residue of blood is left on the face of the texas horned lizard ( phrynosoma cornutum ) , as it was used to defend itself against predation .\nbarber is working on the horned lizard breeding and re - introduction program at the zoo . they are partnered with the texas parks and wildlife department and it ' s the only program like it for horned lizards in the country .\nto show that horned lizards can discern dogs from other large predators , sherbrooke recruited a golden retriever called dusty . she was trained to bark , paw and gently nibble at a horned lizard . within a minute of dusty barking , each lizard squirted her .\nshe was the perfect dog ,\nsays sherbrooke .\nthe horned lizard conservation society is a nonprofit organization dedicated to the conservation and recovery of the declining horned lizard populations . they publish a newsletter , are active in research and recovery and educate the public about the threatened reptile . they can be contacted at p . o . box 122 , austin , tx 78767 .\nneither defence works every time , but on average , standing still for a whip snake and running from a rattlesnake are a horned lizard ' s best bets .\ngoldberg , s . r . 1971 . reproduction in the short - horned lizard phrynosoma douglassi in arizona . herpetologica 27 ( 3 ) : 311 - 314 .\nhodges wl , & zamudio kr ( 2004 ) . horned lizard ( phrynosoma ) phylogeny inferred from mitochondrial genes and morphological characters : understanding conflicts using multiple approaches .\nthe state of texas placed the horned lizard on the threatened species list 20 years ago making it illegal to pick up , touch or possess the fading reptile .\nthe texas horned lizard was named the official reptile of the state of texas by house concurrent resolution and is not , therefore , listed in the texas statutes .\nthe lizard is believed to be from the genus anolis and is a complete animal .\nstatewide , overall declining numbers have led authorities to offer the lizard moderate legal protection .\ni do know that when a lizard stretches the skin on it\u2019s neck that it is a male lizard . establishing it\u2019s dominant role with other lizards in a territory dispute .\ncalifornia indian legend about a neighborly lizard prevailing over a family of greedy grizzly bears .\nthe blood squirting defense mechanism of the horned lizard is the last ditch effort by the horned lizard to attempt to deter any predators that are shot . due to the fact that the horned lizard feeds primarily on ants and must dissolve the tough chitin layer of ants horned lizards end up with a large stomach and , in effect , lose mobility ( cooper 2010 ) . this hinders the ability of a horned lizard to escape and the horned lizard increasingly must rely on crypsis to help it survive predators . one thing to consider for horned lizards is escape theory . escape theory states that the probability of fleeing and flight initiation distance increase as predation risk increases and decrease when escape risk increases ( cooper 2010 ) . given that the cost of fleeing for a horned lizard is high , it is less likely to flee from a predator and instead rely on its defense mechanisms . the blood from its eyes is effective because of chemicals in the blood that is noxious to all dogs , wolves , and coyotes . in this way a horned lizard is able to deter a canine from attacking it . while such a mechanism does exist studies have shown that even though an organism may have well - developed crypsis the general rules of cost - benefit escape behavior do still apply ( cooper 2010 ) .\na texas horned lizard or alberta ' s short - horned lizard will tip up on its front legs , fan out its ribs to form a dorsal shield , or puff up its torso to make itself as big as possible .\nit ' s sort of like a person wearing a fat suit ,\nsays powell .\ntexas horned lizards have been called horned toads or horned frogs , but they are , in fact , lizards . toads and frogs are tailless amphibians that live in land or water . toads have rough , warty skin and frogs have smooth skin . horned lizards are reptiles with tails and a scaled body .\nhorned lizards can have an intimidating appearance but are docile and gentle in nature . when a horned lizard feels threatened , it flattens and freezes in place , trying to blend with the ground . texas now lists this unique animal as threatened .\nrestlessness info most like is general but its up to you to decipher its meaning in a more personal way , how it connects to you . tips , look up color symbolism , lizard totem , use intuitive guidance , ex : the horned lizard would probably relate to protecting , connect each lizard general and personal traits to your own life !\nso while an individual horned lizard might succumb to a particularly determined coyote or carnivorous mouse , it has a good chance of passing on its genes before it does .\ngeographic distribution : this very rare horned lizard occurs in pine - oak woodland and xeric thorn - scrub of puebla and oaxaca , mexico . it may inhabit veracruz .\nanother behavior horned lizards exhibit is the ability to inflate their bodies until they look like spiny balloons . however , they most effectively avoid predators by simply holding still . horned lizards ' color patterns closely match the soil on which they live and they can eliminate their shadows by flattening against the ground . if forced to move , a horned lizard runs only a short distance , stopping unexpectedly . the horned lizard lies flat , blending into its surroundings , and the predator is left chasing nothing .\nsimilar species : there are no other species of horned lizards in central and southern nevada . the short - horned lizard ( phrynosoma douglassii ) occurs in northern - most nevada , and it can be identified by very short horns on the head .\nrust , carol .\nwhere have all the horned toads gone ?\nthe houston chronicle [ houston ] 02 aug 1998 , section texas magazine , 2 star edition 8 . print .\nbylaws of the horned lizard conservation society .\nthe horned lizard conservation society . the horned lizard conservation society , 01 may 2008 . web . 15 mar 2012 .\nsaving the horned toad not an easy task .\nthe times - union [ warsaw ] 01 apr 1986 , 15a . print . henke , scott , and bill brooks .\n10 years of horned lizard conservation .\nthe horned lizard conservation society . the horned lizard conservation society , 2001 . web . 15 mar 2012 . the state of texas . texas legislature online . house concurrent resolution no . 141 . austin : texas state legislature , 1993 . web . the state of texas . texas legislature online . texas statutes . austin : texas state legislature , 2012 . web .\ntexas horned lizard ( phrynosoma cornutum ) .\ntexas parks and wildlife department . texas parks and wildlife department , n . d . web . 15 mar 2012 . leatherwood , art .\nhorned lizard .\nthe handbook of texas online . texas state historical association . , n . d . web . 15 mar 2012 . shearer , benjamin f . and barbara s . state names , seals , flags and symbols : a historical guide third edition , revised and expanded . westport , conn : greenwood press , 3 sub edition , 2001 .\nthe texas horned lizard or\nhorny toad\nis a flat - bodied and fierce - looking lizard . the head has numerous horns , all of which are prominent , with two central head spines being much longer than any of the others . this lizard is brownish with two rows of fringed scales along each side of the body . on most texas horned lizards , a light line can be seen extending from its head down the middle of its back . it is the only species of horned lizard to have dark brown stripes that radiate downward from the eyes and across the top of the head .\nof course , sometimes camouflage , armour and squirting blood aren ' t enough , and a horned lizard gets eaten anyway . but even then they sometimes manage one last act of defiance : it ' s not unheard - of for a horned lizard to become lodged in the throat or stomach of a bird or snake , killing its attacker .\nmontanucci , r . r . 1984 . breeding , captive care and longevity of the short - horned lizard phrynosoma douglassi . international zoological yearbook 23 : 148 - 156 .\nthere is , however , some conjecture about the taxonomy of the baja horned lizards starting with the ones found directly south of the san diego subspecies , and they may actually be one or more different species / subspecies related to the coast horned lizard .\nsome do diverge from the ant diet at certain times of the year such as the regal horned lizard , which gorges itself on tiny beetles and eschews ants altogether when the beetles are abundant . also , the coast horned lizard can survive on inverts other than ants . but the flattail and shorthorned , as well as the desert horned lizards , are closely tied to ants and will die if those are not supplied in quantity .\nguyer , c . and a . d . linder . 1985a . growth and population structure of the short - horned lizard ( phrynosoma douglassi ) and the sagebrush lizard ( sceloporus graciosus ) in southeastern idaho . northwest science 59 ( 4 ) : 294 - 303 .\nlaird , m . and r . leech . 1980 . observations on the short - horned lizard in southeastern alberta . blue jay 38 ( 4 ) : 214 - 218 .\nor any other horned lizard for that matter because not only are they virtually impossible to keep as a pet , it is illegal in the state of texas to do so .\nthis is a little awkward but , um , er , as currently constituted , in photos and drawings and legend , the horned frogs are not really horned frogs .\nsome species mimic inedible objects . the round - tailed horned lizard is almost indistinguishable from the rocks it hides in , when it hunches up its back and tucks in its legs .\nthe technique works . a whip snake trying to get its mouth around a texas horned lizard may well give up , because it just can ' t fit the whole thing in .\nthe large , flat body surface of the horned lizard also works well as a solar collecting panel : at cooler temperatures , the lizard will orient its body to maximize the amount of exposure to the sun . when it gets too hot , the horned lizard will burrow into loose soil . initially , the lizard uses the scales on the front edge of its lower jaw to literally cut into the earth as it vibrates its head into the ground . then it will shake and shimmy its body into the soil until almost none of it is above the surface .\nthe body form and armor of the horned lizard cost it speed and mobil - ity , but they confer great advantages as well . small animals , such as snakes , have more difficulty with a horned lizard\u2019s wide , thorny body than with a smooth , slender lizard . in fact , when confronted by a snake , a horned lizard will continually present the largest part of its body to the snake . some horned lizards are difficult to distinguish from rocks ; thus they avoid detection by would - be predators . in response to a threat , a horned lizard may play dead , or it may run away and then suddenly turn around to face its attacker , hissing or vibrating its tail in leaf litter . several species can rupture small capillaries around their eyes and squirt a bloody solution at would - be predators . these fluids , beyond coming as a surprise , can be irritating to the mucous membranes of some predators .\nwhen a lizard crosses you and hit your leg . secondly , a water you are going to use to bath tmyour baby a lizard jump into and jump out . not dream but real life .\nthe most common horned lizard in the western deserts is aptly named the desert horned lizard ( phrynosoma platyrhinos ) consisting of two subspecies : the northern ( p . p . platyrhinos ) which inhabits the great basin desert , and the southern ( p . p . calidiarum ) which inhabits the sonoran and mojave deserts including a finger of the east coast of northern baja california .\ncorn , p . s . and l . j . gingerich . 1987 . phrynosoma douglassii brevirostre ( eastern short - horned lizard ) . herpetological review 18 ( 1 ) : 20 .\npowell , g . l . , a . p . russell , and p . fargey . in prep . the distribution of the eastern short - horned lizard in saskatchewan , canada .\nthe current range appears to be decreasing . the texas horned lizard no longer occurs in texas east of an imaginary line from fort worth to corpus christi except for small , isolated populations .\nfor more information on this program and to learn how to conduct horned lizard surveys , contact the texas parks and wildlife department at 4200 smith school road , austin , tx , 78744 .\ntexas parks and wildlife has set up a program to help monitor the status of our state reptile . if you\u2019d like to help , check out their website : texas horned lizard watch .\npowell , g . , a . russell . 1983 . the diet of the eastern short - horned lizard ( phrynosoma douglassii brevirostre ) in alberta and its relationship to sexual size dimorphism .\npopulations of the texas horned lizard have disappeared in east and central texas , and are decreasing in north texas as well . a decline and disappearance of them in oklahoma and new mexico has been noted . other species of horned lizards throughout the southwest are also in trouble including the san diego coast horned lizard and the flat - tailed horned lizard . the primary cause for population decline is the loss of habitat by agricultural and urban conversion . other causes also have lead to declining populations including overharvesting for the pet trade and curio trade and the invasion of exotic species , particularly exotic ants which the lizards can not survive on and outcompete their preferred ant .\ni saw the albino lizard again tonight . i am trying to understand the meaning you provided . thanks\nfolktale about the california indian hero lizard , compellingly narrated by the last survivor of the yana tribe .\nguyer , c . and a . d . linder . 1985b . thermal ecology and activity patterns of the short - horned lizard ( phrynosoma douglassi ) and the sagebrush lizard ( sceloporus graciosus ) in southeastern idaho ( usa ) . great basin naturalist 45 ( 4 ) : 607 - 614 .\ndr . scott henke , associate professor in the animal and wildlife science department at texas a & m university - kingsville , has been studying the disappearing horned lizard for the past six years .\nbut harvester ants are killed by pesticides and insecticides . so the fort worth zoo is doing what it can to improve the horned lizard population in texas by breeding and re - introducing them .\ntexas designated the texas horned lizard ( phrynosoma cornutum ) the official state reptile in 1993 ( texas adopted a second reptile symbol in 2013 ; an official state sea turtle ) . all state reptiles\nno information currently exists regarding the migration patterns of greater short - horned lizards in montana .\nthere are currently 13 species of horned lizards , three of which are found in texas .\nwhile the adult horned lizards were embraced the heat , more babies are waiting to hatch .\nthe texas horned lizard also called the horny toad or horned frog , is in decline in most of the state of texas except west texas , according to russell martin , a wildlife biologist with the texas parks and wildlife department . west texas is where there are large oil and gas exploration fields , and where the fight over the proposed endangered species listing of the dunes sagebrush lizard ( sceloporus arenicolus ) occurred over the last few years . that lizard was not put on the endangered species list .\nashton , k . g . and k . l . ashton . 1998 . phrynosoma douglasii ( short - horned lizard ) . reproduction . herpetological review 29 ( 3 ) : 168 - 169 .\nmore recently , as the lizards\u2019 habitat has shrunk and as imported fire ants have supplanted their favored prey , the numbers of horned lizards have declined drastically . in many regions where the little creatures once abounded , they are no longer seen . in texas , two of the three native species , the texas horned lizard and the mountain short - horned lizard , are now designated as threatened . jane manaster has written this book for a general audience , but she discusses all aspects of the lizards\u2019 biology as well as the horned lizard\u2019s place in the culture of the west . most of all , she has written it to attract attention to this little animal that deserves our respect and protection .\ni recently saw an albino lizard for two days . can you tell me the significance of it ? thanks\nlizards are also used as clan animals in some native american cultures . tribes with lizard clans include the hopi ( whose lizard clan is named kuukutsngyam or kukuts - wungwa ) and the pueblo tribes of new mexico .\nthe broad , flattened body separates this lizard from the other three lizard species regularly documented in montana , and the range overlaps only with the common sagebrush lizard . the pygmy short - horned lizard has been reported from extreme southwestern montana , in the centennial valley , beaverhead county ( maxell et al . 2003 ) , but adults of this species are much smaller than greater short - horned lizards , the small horns on the back of the head project almost vertically rather than horizontally , and they lack the wide notch between the horns on the back of the head that gives the head of greater short - horned lizards a\nheart - shaped\nappearance when viewed from above ( st . john 2002 ) .\nsnakes , and some birds such as roadrunners , need to swallow their prey whole . that means they have to get their mouth around the entire body . a horned lizard will not make it easy .\nsherbrooke , w . c . and m . d . greenfield . 2002 . phrynosoma hernandesi ( short - horned lizard ) . defensive hiss . herpetological review 33 ( 3 ) : 208 - 209 .\nwhile many texans have fond memories of finding the texas horned lizard or ' horny toad ' in their backyard as they were growing up , population decline of the reptile has made that a rarity today .\ni found this horned lizard basking on a rock on a cool morning in the mohave desert . it only had two speeds - sit still and hide , and run away as fast as you can .\nnative americans have looked to the horned lizard as a symbol good health , strength and as a keeper of secrets . its image has appeared on pottery and petroglyphs as far back as 4000 years ago .\ndesert horned lizards have only 1 row of slightly enlarged scales on each side of the throat .\nhorned lizards leave for west , south texas : texas state historical association : the texas almanac .\nhorned lizards : by eric r . pianka and wendy l . hodges , university of texas .\nsherbrooke , w . c . and f . mendoza - quijano . 2001 . phrynosoma braconnieri ( short - tailed horned lizard ) . defensive behavior . herpetological review 36 ( 1 ) : 65 - 66 .\n\u0093a comparison of diets among age classes of coastal horned lizards suggests a diversity of ants is necessary to support lizard populations , \u0094 write suarez and case in their paper in the february issue of ecological applications .\nthat range includes areas from southwestern missouri and central kansas to throughout much of the southwest and mexico . as its name suggests , the texas horned lizard holds the lone star state as a favorite stomping ground .\ni like the idea of the shrewd lizard who can move between otherworlds easily . i think channeling the lizard can help us cut through some layers of rhe human thought pattern that are not necessary and get in the way .\ncollection of children ' s stories based on native american legends about the origins of the lizard and other animals .\nmoll , e . o . 2004 . patronyms of the pioneer west . ix . phrynosoma hernandesi ( girard , 1858 ) greater short - horned lizard . sonoran herpetologist 17 ( 6 ) : 58 - 61 .\npowell , g . l . 1982 . the eastern short - horned lizard in alberta : basic field ecology of northern marginal populations . unpublished m . s . thesis , university of calgary , calgary , alberta .\ni had a dream today that a huge lizard size of a komodo dragon but looks like a gecko ( indian lizard ) with 3 legs on each end and ut was crawling on opposite side of the wall and it had something in his mouth probably baby lizard or something . pls explain this . there are some changes happening in my life\nresearch by the texas parks and wildlife department on the chaparral wildlife management area , under the leadership of david synatske , have added to our knowledge of texas horned lizards ,\nhenke said . tpwd employees melisa montemayor and chip ruthven have been studying population dynamics and horned lizard movements for the past seven years .\nmost lizards scatter at the first sight of a human approaching , and horned ones are no exception .\ndesert horned lizards are covered with small granular scales interspersed with larger pointed scales on the dorsal surfaces .\nmontanucci , r . r . and b . e . baur . 1982 . mating and courtship - related behaviors of the short - horned lizard , phrynosoma douglassi . copeia 1982 ( 4 ) : 971 - 974 .\nlizard is letting you know that it is time to take do an internal audit . are you being ruled by your\nand i too noticed that also another agama lizard is on my back inside the polo shirt i was wearing . as i approached the girl to touch her , she slipped away from me and left the bed entirely . i noticed the lizard on her back and also on mine , i immediately felt a hand on my back taking away the lizard .\nthe texas horned lizard can be distinguished from other species of horned lizards by the two very sharp spikes that protrude from the back of their head , two rows of fringed scales on their sides , dark brown to sooty - colored dorsal spots edged with lighter colors and a light - colored stripe down the middle of their back .\nthe horned lizard population is decreasing in north texas , so the fort worth zoo is partnering with the texas parks and wildlife department to breed and re - introduce them to nature . ( published tuesday , july 25 , 2017 )\nin addition to texas , the lizard can also be found in southwestern missouri , kansas , much of the southwestern united states and mexico . it is against the law in texas to kill the horned lizard or to collect it and keep it as a pet . while horned lizards are probably the coolest looking reptiles in north america , unless you have a steady supply of harvester ants ( these lizards eat thousands of ants everyday ) they are virtually impossible to keep .\nnew , e . r . 1991 . drilling in short - horned lizard country . abstract presented at the cade / caodc spring drilling conference , april 10 - 12 , 1991 . cade / caodc conference publications , calgary , ab .\npowell , g . l . and a . p . russell . 1985 . field thermal ecology of the eastern short - horned lizard ( phrynosoma douglassi brevirostre ) in southeastern alberta . canadian journal of zoology 63 : 228 - 238 .\nhorned lizards , by jason glaser . 24 pages . publisher : capstone press ( january 1 , 2006 ) reading level : ages 6 + . an introduction to horned lizards including a description of their appearance and information on where they live , what they eat , how they produce young , and the dangers that horned lizards face .\nblainsville ' s horned lizards have 2 or 3 rows of enlarged pointed scales on each side of the throat .\nblainville ' s horned lizards have 2 or 3 rows of enlarged pointed scales on each side of the throat .\npowell , g . l . and a . p . russell . 1993a . the range and status of the eastern short - horned lizard in the canadian prairies . provincial museum of alberta natural history occassional paper 19 : 279 - 290 .\npowell , g . l . , a . p . russell , and p . j . fargey . 1998 . the distribution of the short - horned lizard phrynosoma hernandesi in saskatchewan , canada . northwestern naturalist 79 : 19 - 26 .\ni dreamt of an indian lizard usually found in homes in india \u2026dreamt of it in the home where i used to live as a child but the dream had me , my daughter and husband where i was asking my husband to get rid of the lizard and he tried but he did not follow my instructions so the lizard climbs the ceiling and then when he tries to get rid the lizard stops in the air for . 5 seconds and then falls on the bed , i rush away from the bed with my dot and the lizard is trying to run away from us making way from beneath the quilts and finally i woke up . .\nhumans and horned lizards have shared each other ' s company for thousands of years . this relationship is recorded from anasazi , hohokam , mogollon , and mimbres cultures through their use of horned lizard images on pottery , petroglyphs , effigy bowls , figures , and shells . hopi , navajo , papago , pima , tarahumara and zuni cultures portray horned lizards in their ceremonies and stories as symbols of strength . piman people believe horned lizards can cure them of a staying sickness by appealing to the lizard ' s strength and showing their respect to the animal . they formulate a cure by singing at a patient ' s side songs describing the lizards and their behaviors . a horned lizard fetish may be placed on an afflicted person ' s body during the songs . native mexican people also respect horned lizards attributing the words ,\ndon ' t tread on me ! i am the color of the earth and i hold the world ; therefore walk carefully , that you do not tread on me .\na mexican common name for horned lizards is\ntorito de la virgen\nor the virgin ' s little bull . this name apparently was given to the lizards both because of their horns and because horned lizards are sacred to many people due to their blood squirting behaviors , otherwise considered weeping tears of blood .\nhammerson , g . a . and h . m . smith . 1991 . the correct spelling of the name of the short - horned lizard of north america . bulletin of the maryland herpetological society 27 ( 3 ) : 121 - 127 .\npowell , g . l . and a . p . russell . 1992b . the staus of the short - horned lizard ( phrynosoma douglassii ) in canada . committee on the status of endangered wildlife in canada , ottawa , on . 22pp .\npowell , g . l . , and a . p . russell . 1991 . distribution of the eastern short - horned lizard ( phrynosoma douglasi brevirostre ) in alberta , canada . northwestern naturalist . 72 ( 1 ) : 21 - 26 .\nthere does not appear to be any one single reason for their statewide decline ,\nhe said .\nmost likely , it is a combination of these factors that is causing the decline in the population of the texas horned lizard .\na horned lizard will lap up its food with the tip of its sticky tongue . it does not chew the ants . instead , before swallowing , it wraps the ants in strands of thick mucus secreted by special cells at the back of its throat . this protects the lizard from the ants ' stings , allowing them to exploit a resource that most animals can ' t .\nhorned lizards are found throughout the sonoran desert region from near sea level up to 11 , 300 feet ( 3440 m ) . some species are widespread , such as the round - tailed and texas horned lizards which occur in several u . s . and mexican states , while the flat - tailed horned lizard ( p . mcalli ) is restricted to southwestern arizona , extreme southeastern california , a small part of northeastern baja california and the upper neck of northwestern sonora , mexico .\nthe diet of some horned lizards consists of specific insects , while other species are more catholic in their tastes . not only does p . solare prefer ants , it has a strong preference for harvester ants , which may make up to 90 percent of its diet . as diets go , ants are low return items because so much of their body consists of indigestible chitin . thus , the regal horned lizard must eat a great number of ants to meet its nutritional needs . this diet requires space , which is why the stomach of the regal horned lizard may represent up to 13 percent of its body mass .\nthis one just hatched out yesterday ,\nbarber said , holding a tiny lizard that barely covered the end of her finger .\njay snow took this series ( left to right , top to bottom ) of a red racer trying to eat a live southern desert horned lizard over a period of 44 minutes . the snake failed to swallow the lizard and crawled away . in the last picture you can see that the lizard lay prone for several minutes after the coachwhip left then took up to 15 minutes to clean the saliva off its face before slowly walking away , no doubt thankful for the row of horns behind its head . \u00a9 jay snow\nthe coast horned lizard ( phrynosoma coronatum ) , which is found in coastal and cismontane california , crosses to the east side of the baja peninsula , actually making contact with the desert horned lizard in the vicinity of bah\u00eda de los angeles . the two live sympatrically for a distance along the east coast . as the coastal form has taken over the balance of the peninsula , it could also be considered a desert form since it does live in the deserts of baja right down to cabo san lucas .\nsherbrooke , w . c . , e . r . brown , and j . l . brown . 2002 . phrynosoma hernandesi ( short - horned lizard ) . successful open - mouthed threat defense . herpetological review 33 ( 3 ) : 208 .\nwe hope that the efforts generated by concerned citizens and state and private organizations will stop the decline of the texas horned lizard and young texans will again know the excitement of finding a ' horny toad ' in their backyards ,\nhenke said .\nchandler , j . d . 1965 . horned toad record . the blue jay 23 ( 2 ) : 92 .\n- sherbrooke , wade c .\nintroduction to horned lizards of north america .\ncalifornia natural history guides , 2003\nyou can download a printable pdf with 8 different species of horned lizards found in the u . s . here .\nphotos above used by permission of wade sherbrooke from his book ,\nintroduction to horned lizards of north america\n.\nonly a horned frog , it seems , can revel in a symbol that fits in the palm of your hand .\nthe short - horned lizard is a small lizard species that lives in north america , in saskatchewan and alberta canada , through montana , utah , colorado , arizona , new mexico and into mexico through northeastern sonora , chihuahua , and durango . the creature is best known for having one of the weirdest defensive mechanisms out there , and that is the ability to shoot blood from its eyes !\nto the uninitiated , their dragon - like appearance is quite formidable . the squat form and head armor has given rise to the name\nhorny toad ,\nhorned toad\nand\nhorned lizards .\nhowever , since there is a true toad with horns , it is best that we speak of this genus as the\nhorned lizards .\nhabitat destruction and ant destruction have placed several species of horned lizards in danger . after all , the first thing people do when they move into the desert is kill the pesky ants , thereby depriving horned lizards of their only dependable diet .\nnevertheless , the coyote spots it . the predator pounces and holds the lizard down . then it gingerly nibbles \u2013 and immediately regrets it .\ni had a dream about a lizard last night , and in my dream , i heard someone say that the lizard\u2019s pituitary gland needed to be cut out . craziest dream ever . no clue as to what it may mean , but i clearly remember seeing this lizard , it having a so called \u201csurgery , \u201d and it struggling afterwards but coming through . anyone have an idea as to what it may mean ?\ni have been meditating or journeying for about 2 years now but in the past 6 months i have been seeing lizards , first was a komono dragon , and i could find information on him , but then i saw a black lizard with yellow spots , again i went in search of info and found general info on lizards . but yesterday i saw a horned lizard . i am wondering should i accept the information on all of these as one or is there specific knowledge to each type of lizard ? i am not able to find much on the horned lizard and find my self seeking the answer perhaps it is just not time to understand his meaning but if you have any thing that coould halp me on the diferent species of lizards i would really apreciate it . thank you in advance !\nfort worth zoo ' s diane barber talks about the zoo ' s breeding and re - introduction program for horned lizards .\nblainsville ' s horned lizards have 2 rows of pointed fringe scales on the lower part of each side of the body .\nblainville ' s horned lizards have 2 rows of pointed fringe scales on the lower part of each side of the body .\nup to 10 species of horned lizards occur in the sonoran desert region , from the 2\u00be inch ( 69 mm ) long round - tailed horned lizard ( p . modestum ) to the 5 inch ( 127 mm ) long texas horned lizard ( p . cornutum ) . with squat , flat , toad - like bodies ( phrynosoma means \u201ctoad - body\u201d ) and thorn - like projections at the rear of their heads , horned lizards are easily distinguished from other lizards . the projections differ in size and arrangement from one species to another . along the sides of the body , fringe - like scales occur in one row , two parallel rows , or they may be absent . males have enlarged post - anal scales , and during the breeding season , a swollen tail base .\nhorned lizards in lava rock habitat tend to have dark coloring to match the dark soil , as you can see on this adult from san bernardino county . ( both are the same lizard ; the picture on the right was taken with flash . ) \u00a9 filip tkaczyk\na stream of nasty - tasting blood squirts from the lizard ' s eyes , straight into the coyote ' s mouth . the coyote steps back , shaking its head from side to side in disgust . it retreats , wiping its muzzle , while the uninjured lizard skitters away to safety .\nhowever , rattlesnakes don ' t chase . they wait for prey to come to them before biting , injecting venom and swallowing . so when a horned lizard encounters a rattlesnake , it runs for its life , safe in the knowledge that the snake will probably not follow .\npowell , g . l . and a . p . russell . 1985 . growth and sexual size dimorphism in alberta ( canada ) populations of the eastern short - horned lizard , phrynosoma douglassi brevirostre . canadian journal of zoology 63 ( 1 ) : 139 - 154 .\nhorned lizards are the most fearsome - looking and distinctive by virtue of the pointed , protruding\nhorns\nabove their eyes .\nalmost everything will try to eat horned lizards , from coyotes to carnivorous mice . in response they have evolved an arsenal of defences\nview image of round - tailed horned lizards ( p . modestum ) hide among rocks ( credit : daniel heuclin / npl )\nnero , r . w . 1957 . records of the horned toad in saskatchewan . blue jay 15 : 119 - 120 .\nthe caesar kleberg wildlife research institute recently published a management bulletin by henke and william scott fair entitled management of texas horned lizards .\nbehind the scenes at the fort worth zoo , and inside the texas native reptile center , they are focused on horned lizards .\nlegislation exists in most states to protect horned lizards from capture and sale into the pet trade . one obstacle to continued success that\npowell , g . l . and a . p . russell . 1984 . the diet of the eastern short - horned lizard ( phrynosoma douglassi brevirostre ) in alberta and its relationship to sexual size dimorphism . canadian journal of zoology 62 ( 3 ) : 428 - 440 .\nthese are lizards . a lot of people call them horny toads here in texas . but they are indeed a lizard ,\nbarber said .\nhornbeck , g . e . and j . e . green . 1990 . a reconnaissance field survey of the eastern short - horned lizard and its habitat in samedan manyberries 9 - 13 - 4 - 5 w4m . delta environmental management group ltd . calgary , ab . 27pp .\nthe bulletin discusses what is currently known about the texas horned lizard and what steps can be taken to help restore this threatened species ,\nhenke said .\nhopefully , by publishing this information , we can create more awareness and get texans interested in helping this unique reptile .\ni once had a dream i was alone in the desert wearing a white robe and i swallowed a live lizard whole . does anyone have any insight ?\nmost species of horned lizards lay eggs between may and august , with clutches ranging from 3 to 45 depending on species . even with such high numbers of eggs only around 2 from each clutch will reach sexual maturity . the short - horned lizard bears live young . this is considered an adaptation to living at higher elevations , where eggs may be at risk due to low temperatures , and egg development might be slowed considerably .\npygmy short - horned lizard ( phrynosoma douglasii ) the pygmy short - horned lizard is found in the pacific northwest from northern california through oregon and washington to british columbia , canada , and east through southeastern idaho . the species occurs in forest habitats and open plains with sagebrush at elevations from about 400 to 8 , 000 feet . phrynosoma douglasii can be distinguished from other horned lizards by its small adult size of only 2 - 3 inches , one rowof abdominal fringe scales , and head spines that are very short and reduced with a deep notch between them . their back scales are irregular in size and distribution and set in a rosette of smaller , keeled scaleswhile scales on their ventral ( belly ) side are smooth .\nhorned lizards are a rather fecund group , and lay or give birth to many offspring compared to other lizards . the median clutch size for\nhornbeck , g . e . and j . e . green . 1991 . year two of a reconnaissance field survey of the eastern short - horned lizard and its habitat in samedan manyberries 9 - 13 - 4 - 5 w4m . delta environmental management group ltd . calgary , ab . 17pp .\n. i tamed 3 identical rare moths and another group of 3 i found had a rare lizard and snake so i was able to get both of them .\npowell , g . l . and a . p . russell . 1992a . a preliminary survey of the distribution and abundance of the eastern short - horned lizard ( phrynosoma douglassii brevirostre ) in alberta . a report submitted to the recreation , parks , and wildlife foundation , edmonton , alberta . 135pp .\ngreater short - horned lizard ( phrynosoma hernandesi ) the greater short - horned lizard is a wide - ranging species ; it occurs from southern alberta and saskatchewan , canada , through montana , wyoming , utah , colorado , arizona , new mexico , texas , then through northeastern sonora , chihuahua , and durango , mexico . the species lives in short - grass communities of the northern great plains , in sagebrush and greasewood of the great basin , and on mountain hillsides and valleys with pine , juniper , aspen , and coniferous forests throughout its range . the species is found between 2 , 000 and 10 , 400 feet in elevation . phrynosoma hernandesi can be distinguished from other horned lizard species by the following : one rowof abdominal fringe scales , reduced central horns separated by a deep notch and slightly longer side horns , back scales are arranged in 6 - 8 rows . this species is the wyoming state reptile ."]}
{"id": 1299, "summary": [{"text": "stigmella prunetorum is a moth of the nepticulidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in all of europe ( except the ireland , the iberian peninsula and the mediterranean islands ) .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 4.3-4.7 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on wing in may .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on prunus armeniaca , prunus avium , prunus brigantina , prunus cerasifera , prunus cerasus , prunus cocomilia , prunus domestica , prunus insititia , prunus spinosa and prunus triloba .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "they mine the leaves of their host plant .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the mine consists of a corridor , running in several half or whole circles around the oviposition ( egg laying ) site .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the last segment breaks loose , and mostly runs along the leaf margin . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "stigmella prunetorum", "paragraphs": ["nepticula prunetorum stainton , 1855 . entomol . ann . : 50 . stigmella prunetorum ( stainton , 1855 ) .\n- ectoedemia cerris - ectoedemia contorta - ectoedemia gilvipennella - ectoedemia hexapetalae - ectoedemia klimeschi - ectoedemia leucothorax - ectoedemia liechtensteini - ectoedemia phyllotomella - ectoedemia preisseckeri - etainia albibimaculella - fomoria groschkei - fomoria viridissimella - stigmella buhri - trifurcula austriaca - trifurcula beirnei - trifurcula chamaecytisi - trifurcula iberica - trifurcula pallidella - trifurcula serotinella - trifurcula victoris - simplimorpha promissa - enteucha acetosae - stigmella lapponica - stigmella confusella - stigmella freyella - stigmella diniensis - stigmella tiliae - stigmella betulicola - stigmella sakhalinella - stigmella luteella - stigmella glutinosae - stigmella alnetella - stigmella microtheriella - stigmella prunetorum - stigmella aceris - stigmella malella - stigmella rhamnella - stigmella alaternella - stigmella catharticella - stigmella anomalella - stigmella centifoliella - stigmella ulmivora - stigmella viscerella - stigmella thuringiaca - stigmella rolandi - stigmella paradoxa - stigmella regiella - stigmella crataegella - stigmella magdalenae - stigmella nylandriella - stigmella oxyacanthella - stigmella pyri - stigmella minusculella - stigmella desperatella - stigmella hybnerella - stigmella mespilicola - stigmella floslactella - stigmella tityrella - stigmella salicis - stigmella myrtillella - stigmella obliquella - stigmella trimaculella - stigmella assimilella - stigmella sorbi - stigmella plagicolella - stigmella lemniscella - stigmella continuella - stigmella aurella - stigmella auromarginella - stigmella splendidissimella - stigmella aeneofasciella - stigmella tormentillella - stigmella dryadella - stigmella poterii - stigmella incognitella - stigmella perpygmaeella - stigmella hemargyrella - stigmella speciosa - stigmella suberivora - stigmella lonicerarum - stigmella basiguttella - stigmella svenssoni - stigmella zangherii - stigmella dorsiguttella - stigmella ruficapitella - stigmella atricapitella - stigmella samiatella - stigmella roborella - stigmella eberhardi - acalyptris platani - acalyptris minimella - glaucolepis alypella - glaucolepis melanoptera - glaucolepis headleyella - glaucolepis saturejae - glaucolepis thymi - glaucolepis teucriella - glaucolepis stoechadella - glaucolepis rosmarinella - glaucolepis bupleurella - glaucolepis bleonella - glaucolepis sp . - glaucolepis sp . - glaucolepis cryptella - glaucolepis eurema - glaucolepis ortneri - trifurcula luteola - trifurcula coronillae - trifurcula subnitidella - trifurcula josefklimeschi - trifurcula silviae - trifurcula immundella - trifurcula orientella - trifurcula aurella - trifurcula squamatella - parafomoria cistivora - parafomoria pseudocistivora - parafomoria helianthemella - parafomoria liguricella - bohemannia pulverosella - bohemannia quadrimaculella - bohemannia auriciliella - etainia obtusa - etainia sericopeza - etainia decentella - etainia louisella - laqueus euphorbiella - fomoria weaveri - fomoria septembrella - zimmermannia atrifrontella - zimmermannia liebwerdella - zimmermannia longicaudella - zimmermannia hispanica - zimmermannia amani - zimmermannia liguricella - ectoedemia intimella - ectoedemia hannoverella - ectoedemia turbidella - ectoedemia argyropeza - ectoedemia caradjai - ectoedemia suberis - ectoedemia andalusiae - ectoedemia quinquella - ectoedemia algeriensis - ectoedemia haraldi - ectoedemia ilicis - ectoedemia heringella - ectoedemia rufifrontella - ectoedemia albifasciella - ectoedemia pubescivora - ectoedemia subbimaculella - ectoedemia heringi - ectoedemia erythrogenella - ectoedemia agrimoniae - ectoedemia angulifasciella - ectoedemia atricollis - ectoedemia arcuatella - ectoedemia rubivora - ectoedemia spinosella - ectoedemia mahalebella - ectoedemia occultella - ectoedemia minimella\nstigmella prunetorum ( scarce sloe pigmy ) - norfolk micro moths - the micro moths of norfolk .\nthe adult is similar to many other stigmella species . stigmella prunatorum has a black head , white eye - caps and collar . the base of the wing is purplish with a golden area beyond . there is a silvery - white fascia beyond the middle bordered either side by a purplish band .\nnotes : nationally scarce ( nb ) in woodland , downland and clifftops along the south coast and in the west . on the isle of wight , a few recent records from the north of the island . in hampshire there have been no acceptable records since 1900 . wingspan 4 . 3 - 4 . 7 mm . adults difficult to distinguish from other stigmella species , and more frequently recorded in the larval stage , when mines are relatively easy to find where they are present . larva mines leaves of blackthorn , wild cherry and dwarf cherry , over - wintering as a pupa . the mines are described in the following link : urltoken .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ninsect systematics & evolution . ( ejournal / emagazine , 2000 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : insect systematics & evolution . publisher : stenstrup , denmark : apollo books , 2000 - isbn / issn : 1399 - 560x oclc : 526026810\nfull text available 10 / 1 / 2009 - . ( due to publisher restrictions , the most recent 36 months are not available . ) .\nmacewan university access : 2009 - . most recent 3 year ( s ) not available .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\ninsect systematics & evolution ( online ) insect systematics & evolution . insect systematics and evolution\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nurltoken ; % 5fver = z39 . 88 - 2004 & ctx ; % 5fenc = info : ofi / enc : utf - 8 & rfr ; % 5fid = info : sid / sfxit . com : opac % 5f856 & url ; % 5fctx % 5ffmt = info : ofi / fmt : kev : mtx : ctx & sfx . ignore ; % 5fdate % 5fthreshold = 1 & rft . object ; % 5fid = 111018467303010 & svc ; % 5fval % 5ffmt = info : ofi / fmt : kev : mtx : sch % 5fsvc &\nurltoken ; _ ver = z39 . 88 - 2004 & rfr ; _ id = info % 3asid % 2fualberta . ca % 3aopac & rft . genre ; = journal & rft . object ; _ id = 111018467303010 & rft . issn ; = 1399 - 560x & rft . eissn ; = 1876 - 312x & rft ; _ val _ fmt = info % 3aofi % 2ffmt % 3akev % 3amtx % 3ajournal & url ; _ ctx _ fmt = info % 3aofi % 2ffmt % 3akev % 3amtx % 3actx & url ; _ ver = z39 . 88 - 2004\nurltoken ; = % 2295ds % 22 & scope ; = site & loginpage ; = cpidlogin . asp & custid ; = s9204635\ninsect systematics & evolution . / societas entomologica scandinavica . ; ; stenstrup , denmark : apollo books , 2000 -\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies . by continuing to browse the site you are agreeing to our use of cookies .\nbrill\u2019s mybook program is exclusively available on brillonline books and journals . students and scholars affiliated with an institution that has purchased a brill e - book on the brillonline platform automatically have access to the mybook option for the title ( s ) acquired by the library . brill mybook is a print - on - demand paperback copy which is sold at a favorably uniform low price .\n< ? xml version =\n1 . 0\nencoding =\nutf - 8\n? > < event > < eventlog > < portalid > brill < / portalid > < sessionid > dwsejimanzfdaejpvslbehgc . x - brill - live - 03 < / sessionid > < useragent > python / 3 . 5 aiohttp / 3 . 3 . 2 < / useragent > < identityid > guest < / identityid > < identity _ list > guest < / identity _ list > < ipaddress > 35 . 232 . 247 . 97 < / ipaddress > < eventtype > personalisation < / eventtype > < createdon > 1531164193116 < / createdon > < / eventlog > < eventlogproperty > < item _ id > urltoken < / item _ id > < type > favourite < / type > < / eventlogproperty > < / event >\na checklist , containing all discribed nepticulidae from the western palaearctic region , is provided . all species - group names given to western palaeartic species are listed , including those in synonymy , whether available or not . eleven new synonymies are established at generic level , and 18 at species level ; 48 new combinations are made and two lectotypes are designated . the arrangement of species reflects present phylogenetic opinion . hostplant data are provided for each species , and a systematic catalogue concludes this paper .\nr . de jong ; r . i . vane - wright and p . r . ackery\na nationally scarce species with a rather scattered distribution across the south and west of the uk .\nthe larvae mine the leaves of prunus spinosa ( blackthorn ) , and occasionally other prunus species , in two generations during july and then september / october . the mine is a contorted gallery . larvae are green .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 06 - 16 07 : 25 : 44 page render time : 0 . 2826s total w / procache : 0 . 3426s\nleaf - miner : a contorted gallery filled with green frass ( british leafminers ) .\negg at the underside of the leaf , often close to a vein . the mine is a corridor , running in several half or whole circles around the oviposition site . only the last segment breaks loose , and often runs along the leaf margin . the frass is greenish , lying in coils that are so wide as to almost completely fill the corridor ( bladmineerders van europa ) .\nlarva : the larvae of moths have a head capsule and chewing mouthparts with opposable mandibles ( see video of a gracillarid larva feeding ) , six thoracic legs and abdominal legs ( see examples ) .\nthe larva is green ( british leafminers ) . bottle green . the larva is described by gustafsson and van nieukerken ( 1990a ) ( bladmineerders van europa ) .\npupa : the pupae of moths have visible head appendages , wings and legs which lie in sheaths ( see examples ) .\nadult : the adult is not illustrated in ukmoths ( check for update ) . the species is included in urltoken .\ncomments : in the older literature also crataegus and even mespilus are mentioned [ as hosts ] . this is surprising , because the mines are so unmistakable ( bladmineerders van europa ) .\ntime of year - larvae : july , september - early october ( british leafminers ) .\ndistribution in great britain and ireland : britain including carmarthenshire , dorset , east cornwall , herefordshire and west kent ( nbn atlas ) .\ndistribution elsewhere : widespread in continental europe including austria , belgium , bulgaria , croatia , czech republic , danish mainland , french mainland , germany , greek mainland , hungary , italian mainland , lithuania , luxembourg , macedonia , republic of moldova , poland , romania , russia - central , slovakia , slovenia , sweden , switzerland , the netherlands , ukraine and yugoslavia ( karsholt and van nieukerken in fauna europaea ) .\nprunus armeniaca , prunus avium , prunus cerasifera , prunus cerasus , prunus domestica , prunus domestiva subsp . insititia , prunus spinosa\ntaxa with small populations that are not at present endangered or vulnerable , but are at risk . ( in gb , this was interpreted as species which exist in fifteen or fewer 10km squares ) . superseded by new iucn categories in 1994 , but still applicable to lists that have not been reviewed since 1994 .\ntaxa with small populations that are not at present endangered or vulnerable , but are at risk . ( in gb , this was interpreted as species which exist in fifteen or fewer 10km squares ) . superseded by new iucn categories in 1994 , so no longer in use .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\nthe adults fly in two generations a year : may - june , and july - august .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nrecorded in 1 ( 1 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1874 . last recorded in 1874 .\nunderlying maps using digital map data \u00a9 norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola\u2122 2018 . \u00a9 james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data \u00a9 nola\u2122 2018\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services ."]}
{"id": 1306, "summary": [{"text": "hyles hippophaes ( seathorn hawk-moth ) is a species of moth in the family sphingidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in afghanistan , armenia , azerbaijan , china , france , georgia , germany , greece , iran , iraq , kazakhstan , kyrgyzstan , mongolia , pakistan , romania , serbia and montenegro , spain , switzerland , syria , tajikistan , turkey , turkmenistan , and uzbekistan .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 65 \u2013 80 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "subspecies bienerti is paler and browner than related subspecies .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "a pale , oblique median line is noticeable on the underside of the forewing .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwing patches are more orange than red .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "larvae of subspecies bienerti have been recorded on elaeagnus angustifolia and hippophae rhamnoides in china and tajikistan . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "hyles hippophaes", "paragraphs": ["hyles hippophaes hippophaes , male , upperside . france , basses alpes , st . andrer\nhyles hippophaes hippophaes , male , underside . france , basses alpes , st . andrer\novum : as subsp . hyles hippophaes hippophaes , with up to 500 being laid by each female .\nsynonym . hyles hippophaes miatleuskii eitschberger & saldaitis , 2000 , atalanta 31 : 213 .\nhabitat : in europe , hyles hippophaes settles hot , dry , stony habitats up to about 1300m above sea level , and preferably at the edge of wild floodplains close to or in the alps , where hippophaes grows in an early succession stage . hyles hippophaes inhabits also rocky slopes in these regions .\nhyles hippophaes ( esper , 1789 ) = sphinx hippophaes esper , 1789 = crocea ( rebel , 1910 ) = flava ( denso , 1913 ) = obscurata ( dannehl , 1929 ) = teriolensis ( dannehl , 1929 ) = expallidata ( dannehl , 1933 ) = celerio hippophaes kiortsii koutsaftikis , 1974 .\nas subsp . hyles hippophaes hippophaes ( esper , 1789 ) , northern spain , southern france , southern switzerland and northern italy to slovenia . then , as a separate population , romania , bulgaria , moldova , northern greece , the aegean islands and western turkey .\nthe early stages are very similar to subsp . hyles hippophaes hippophaes . fully grown , usually also very similar to those of subsp . hippophaes ; however , some are dark green with a dorsal lilac tint on the anterior segments and a broken , white ventro - lateral streak . in others , the basic body colour may even be dark grey / black .\npupa : similar to subsp . hyles hippophaes hippophaes ; during the summer months it remains in this stage for no more than 20 days . formed in a chamber in the soil , often up to 10cm deep ( chu & wang , 1980b ) . overwinters as a pupa .\ncelerio hippophaes kiortsii koutsaftikis , 1974 , annls mus . goulandris 2 : 99 - - 103 .\nremarks : hyles hippophaes does not occur north of the alps . in europe , the moth is very rare in the alpine region , more frequently , for example , in the southwestern french alps , particularly in the valley of the durance . there i found , for example , caterpillars in mid - july 2005 and 2012 at xerothermic places . hyles hippophaes is distributed from the pyrenees locally across southern france , the southern alps , parts of italy ( apennines ) and obviously also of the balkans to the black sea . additionally , hyles hippophaes occurs from asia minor to central asia .\n( ii ) there is some contact between subsp . hyles hippophaes hippophaes ( esper , 1789 ) and subsp . bienerti in the crimea and in western and southern turkey . this produces intermediate hybrids , such as f . malatiatus gehlen , 1934a , and f . kiortsii koutsaftikis , 1974 . the aegean population is most certainly subsp . hippophaes , but with a trace of subsp . bienerti visible in many examples . some adults of the crimean population are intermediate in coloration and pattern between subsp . hippophaes and subsp . bienerti . )\nendangerment factors : hyles hippophaes is strongly threatened by river regulation , gravel and electricity industry , construction of roads , housing developments , agricultural intensivication ( creation of vineyarrds on rocky slopes in floodplains ) and by succession . most once mile - wide floodplains have been destroyed , the river forced into a straitjacket . this proved fatal for many specialist insects ( and other living beings ) such as many grasshoppers like bryodemella tuberculata . hyles hippophaes can be preserved only if the habitats are protected extensively . in southern central europe , hyles hippophaes is largely eradicated . last outpost is a residual presence in the rhone valley , valais , where it could also possibly be gone already .\nfrom central turkey and the southern ukraine eastwards to liaoning ( china ) and mongolia , extending south to kashmir and north - west india and north to lake baikal and the tuva a . s . s . r . in russia as subsp . hyles hippophaes biernerti .\n( taxonomic note . there is some contact between subsp . hippophaes and subsp . bienerti ( staudinger , 1874 ) in the crimea and in western and southern turkey . this produces intermediate hybrids , such as f . malatiatus gehlen , 1934a , and f . kiortsii koutsaftikis , 1974 . the aegean population is most certainly subsp . hippophaes , but with a trace of subsp . bienerti visible in many examples . some adults of the crimean population are intermediate in coloration and pattern between subsp . hippophaes and subsp . bienerti , but can be assigned to the latter . )\nhyles hippophaes ( seathorn hawk - moth ) is a species of moth in the family sphingidae . it is found in afghanistan , armenia , azerbaijan , china , france , georgia , germany , greece , iran , iraq , kazakhstan , kyrgyzstan , mongolia , pakistan , romania , serbia and montenegro , spain , switzerland , syria , tajikistan , turkey , turkmenistan , and uzbekistan .\nlife cycle : hyles hippophaes forms one or two generations , but the second one is only partial . the moths fly from may to july and separated again in august / september . the larval time is from june to october , but by far the most caterpillars are observed in late june and july . the pupa hibernates as with all european sphingids ( except the migrant butterfly taubenschw\u00e4nzchen ) .\ntransferred to hyles by h\u00fcbner , [ 1819 ] , verz . bekannter schmett . : 137 . transferred to celerio by rothschild & jordan , 1903 , novit . zool . 9 ( suppl . ) : 714 ( key ) , 729 ; then back to hyles by pittaway , 1983 , entomologist ' s gaz . 34 : 80 . implicitly transferred to celerio by zhu & wang , 1997 , fauna sinica insecta 11 : 342 ( key ) , 344 . implicitly transferred back to hyles by danner , eitschberger & surholt , 1998 , herbipoliana 4 ( 1 ) : 202 .\nit should be noted that in the french alps larvae of natural hybrids between this species and hyles vespertilio ( esper , 1780 ) are regularly found on epilobium dodonaei , with many being of the pink form ( j . - m . bompar , pers . comm . ) .\nwithin its range , populations can be somewhat isolated . however , as this species is prone to wander , individuals may turn up at great distances from known breeding grounds , leading to confusing records . frequents river valleys in mountainous areas ( up to 500m in spain and switzerland ) , mountainous steppe and sand - dunes . river islands overgrown with hippophae rhamnoides are a favoured haunt in central europe . in some western european localities , as a result of river flood - control measures , hyles hippophaes is becoming increasingly rare as its hostplant cannot compete with riverine shrubs and trees which take over stabilized riverbanks .\nafter a very long period of inactivity on this blog , i\u2019m finally posting some new shots . not \u201castro\u201d ones , but nature - related ones . the following shots are of a hawk moth ( fam . sphingidae ) , hyles hippophaes ( esper , 1789 ) . this species is threatened by human activity , as many other insect species . in romania it occurs mainly in dobrogea , but can occasionally be found further to the west . the larva was found in august 2016 , and the adult emerged in may 2017 . the moth is active at night , and is attracted to artificial light .\nsynonymized with celerio euphorbiae as a subspecies by rothschild & jordan , 1903 , novit . zool . 9 ( suppl . ) : 720 ; then with hyles centralasiae as a subspecies by pittaway , 1983 , entomologist ' s gaz . 34 : 78 . reinstated as a species by danner , eitschberger & surholt , 1998 , herbipoliana 4 ( 1 ) : 205 , 280 .\nwingspan : 60 - - 80mm . very unlikely to be confused with other hyles species . most individuals from the aegean population have more extensive black markings than those from central europe ; however , there is sufficient overlap in colour variation not to split the two groups into separate taxa . the original description and illustrations by esper ( [ 1789 ] ) clearly indicate that the romanian population is indistinguishable from that in the aegean . where multiple climatic conditions are present , such as along mountain chains , adults of this species are very variable in wingspan , markings and colour intensity . in fact , adult coloration is very much dependent on the temperature developing pupae are exposed to . heat produces more reddish and paler individuals , while low temperatures give rise to darker and greyer adults .\ndeilephila bienerti staudinger , 1874 , stettin . ent . ztg 35 : 91 . type locality : northeast persia [ iran ] , schahrud [ emamrud ] .\nnote . this subspecies can be very variable in both coloration and size where numerous climatic conditions occur in close proximity to each other , such as in mountainous areas . many of these forms were described as distinct subspecies but this is not warranted . subspecies ornatus , transcaucasica , anatolica , bucharana , shugnana , malatiatus , caucasica and baltistana were therefore synonymized with subsp . bienerti by pittaway ( 1993 ) and should be regarded as forms .\nwingspan : 65 - - 80mm . considerably paler and browner than related subspecies . a pale , oblique median line is noticeable on the underside of the forewing ; hindwing patches more orange than red . some large specimens found above 2000m in north - west iran and kashmir tend to f . caucasica in coloration .\noften common in mountainous , arid steppe , especially along rivers overgrown with hippophae or elaeagnus . although found at any altitude from 400 - - 3000m , most populations occur from 1000 - - 2000m where hippophae rhamnoides often forms discrete thickets away from rivers .\nchina : 29 . iv - 5 . v ( shihezi ) ; urltoken ( shihezi ) ; urltoken ( shaanxi ) ; 1 . vii ( zada ) ; vii ( yining / gulja , 1000m ) ; 5 - 31 . vii ( shihezi ) ; 28 . ix ( dingbian ) . mongolia : urltoken ( hovd prov . ) ; 19 . vii ( hovd prov . ) . russia : 19 - urltoken ( karasuk , novosibirsk area ) ; 14 . vii ( tuva ) ; 18 - 21 . vii ( altai ) ; 30 . viii ( karasuk , novosibirsk area ) .\nthere are two generations a year in northeastern and central china , with adults flying in may and july / august ( yang , 1978 ; chu & wang , 1982 ) . in xinjiang , the first brood emerges between late april and mid june , depending upon the weather .\novum : pale greenish - grey , almost spherical ( 1 . 0 x 1 . 1mm ) . deposited on both the upper and under surface of leaves , usually near the edge , on the lower branches of the hostplant . thicket - edge or isolated shrubs are preferred , with up to 500 being laid by each female .\nlarva : full - fed 75 - - 80mm . dichromatic : unstriped or striped .\non hatching , the eggshell is ignored , the 3 - - 4mm - long larva proceeding to find a resting place below a leaf , a site to which it returns after each spell of feeding . at this stage it is dark green , thickly speckled with white and dark grey . the final instar has two colour forms . one is dark green ( in some cases suffused with pink ) , thickly speckled with white and grey ; superimposed on this are an off - white dorso - lateral line , often with orange eye - spots , and a broader , white , ventro - lateral stripe running just above the legs . horn long , thin , orange below , black above , with two elongated orange spots at its base ; head green , with two brown lines . the other colour form is silvery grey , with a black , broken dorso - lateral line from which emanate black , equally broken oblique lateral stripes with white , red , or yellow patches often present in between . head brown and grey ; horn as above . in a very rare colour form , all green coloration is replaced by pinkish brown .\nlarvae frequently sun themselves openly on the upper branches , amongst those they have already stripped of leaves . there is a very heavy mortality due to parasitoids . those that survive eventually become light brown before descending to find a pupation site , often after hours of perambulation on the ground .\nthis stage lasts as little as 28 days , during which the larva basks quite openly on the topmost branches of its hostplant .\npupa : 40 - - 50mm . pale yellowish brown , or light grey - brown , with dark brown striations . more elongated than others of the genus . enclosed in a flimsy cocoon amongst roots or under stones . the overwintering stage .\nin the summer months it remains in this stage for no more than 20 days . formed in a chamber in the soil , often up to 10cm deep ( chu & wang , 1980b ) .\nlarval hostplants . recorded in china on elaeagnus angustifolia ( sensu lato ) and hippophae rhamnoides ( wang , 1978 ; pittaway & kitching , 2000 ) , which are also the hostplants in tajikistan ( shchetkin , 1956 ) .\nchina : xinjiang ( shihezi ; \u00fcr\u00fcmqi ; yining / gulja ) ; nei mongol ( alxa zuoqi ; alxa youqi ) ; liaoning ; shaanxi ( dingbian ) ; ningxia ( yinchuan ; lingwu ; pingluo ) ; gansu ; xizang / tibet ( zada , 2950m ) .\nmongolia hovd prov . ( bodonchijn river valley , elkhony - ekhen - tal , 30km s altai village , 1200m ( 45\u00b043 ' n 92\u00b005 ' e ) ; dzun - dzhargalant - khairkhan , ar - shatyn - gol ( river ) valley , 2100m ( 47\u00b044 ' n 92\u00b027 ' e ) ; bulgan river basin , bayan river valley , ulyastayn - sala river , 1900m ( 46\u00b021 ' n 91\u00b008 ' e ) ; bulgan river valley , 45km n bulgan , 1500m ; dzhungarian gobi , 45km sw bulgan , uvhod - ula mts . , 1350m ) .\nrussia : western siberia ( karasuk , novosibirsk area ) ; altai ( cherga ; 5km sww mikhailovskoe ) ; tuva ( khovu - aksy ) ; transbaikalia .\ncentral ( rebel , 1933 ) , south - eastern and eastern turkey ( daniel , 1932 ; daniel , 1939 ; de freina , 2012 ) , southern ukraine ( efetov & budashkin , 1990 ; zolotuhin , pers . comm . ; vasilyuk & inozemtseva , 2003 ) , the caucasus and southern russia ( zolotuhin , pers . comm ; poltavsky , pers . comm 2003 ; anikin , 2004 ) , northern and central iran ( bienert , 1870 ; barou , 1967 ; kalali , 1976 ; ghassemi , alemansoor & alehossein , 2009 ) , turkmenistan ( danov & pereladov , 1985 ) and uzbekistan ( derzhavets , 1984 ) , the southern urals ( nupponen & fibiger , 2002 ; dubatolov , 2012 ) , eastern kazakhstan ( kondratiev coll . , nhmuk ) , western xinjiang province , china ( pittaway & kitching , 2000 ) , tajikistan ( shchetkin , 1956 ) , afghanistan ( ebert , 1969 ; daniel , 1971 ) , northern pakistan / azad kashmir ( karakoram mountains , juglot valley , 2550m , 26 . vii . 2011 ( leg . bal\u00e1zs benedek ) ) ( rafi et al . , 2014 ) , and north - west india / kashmir ( o . bang - haas , 1939 ) to the western tian shan .\nalso , china , from xinjiang province ( china ) north to the altai mountains ( izerskiy , 1999 ) and eastwards across the provinces of ningxia , gansu , shaanxi and nei mongol ( inner mongolia ) to liaoning ( chu & wang , 1980b ; pittaway & kitching , 2000 ) , and also mongolia ( derzhavets , 1977 ; yakovlev , gus ' kova , doroshkin & titov , 2015 ; yakovlev & doroshkin , 2017 ) . from these areas north to karasuk ( dubatolov , 2012 ) , the tuva a . s . s . r . ( viidalepp , 1979 ; izerskiy , 1999 ) , the altai kray ( yakovlev , dubatolov & titov , 2013 ) and lake baikal ( kondratiev coll . , nhmuk ) in russia .\nholarctic ; palaearctic ( both eastern and western subregions ) . pleistocene refuge : polycentric - - caspian , iranian , turanoeremic , turkestan and mongoloeremic refugia .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhost plants : the caterpillar lives on sea buckthorn ( hippophae rhamnoides ) , in the southeast ( turkey ) also on other eleagnaceae ( eleagnus ) .\ngb : seabuckthorn hawkmoth ; seathorn hawkmoth , f : sphinx de l ' argousier , d : sanddornschw\u00e4rmer , ru : oblepikhovyi brazhnik ; yuzhnyi brazhnik , h : d\u00e9li szender , e : esfinge del espino amarillo , fi : tyrnikiit\u00e4j\u00e4 , it : sfinge dell ' olivella spinosa .\ntype locality : wallachei , milkowfluss bei foran [ wallachia region , southern romania ] .\nholarctic ; western palaearctic region . pleistocene refuge : poly / monocentric - - adriatomediterranean and pontomediterranean subsections of the mediterranean refuge .\nas with nearly all members of this genus , pairing is a short affair lasting not more than three hours , generally before midnight . afterwards , most females spend a few hours every night feeding , mainly before 23 . 00 hours and before dawn . oddly , this species does not fly very much and spends much of the night resting .\nlate april to early july , with a peak in mid - june . a partial second brood in august often occurs . it is not unusual for only three weeks to elapse between the two broods .\novum : almost spherical ( 1 . 1 x 1 . 0mm ) , pale greenish grey . deposited on both the upper and under surface of leaves , usually near the edge , on the lower branches of the hostplant . thicket - edge or isolated shrubs are preferred , most eggs being laid in late june .\nlarva : full - fed , 75 - - 80mm . polymorphic : unstriped or striped .\non hatching , the eggshell is ignored , the 3 - - 4mm - long larva proceeding to find a resting place below a leaf , a site to which it returns after each spell of feeding . at first only the cells on the leaf upperside are eaten , leaving clear ' windows ' in the leaf ; in the second instar leaves are consumed in the normal fashion . initially pale grey with a white dorso - lateral line and grey horn , it gradually becomes dark green , thickly speckled with white and dark grey .\nthe final instar has several colour forms . the main one is dark green ( in some cases suffused with pink ) , thickly speckled with white and grey ; superimposed on this are an off - white dorso - lateral line , often with orange eye - spots , and a broader , white , ventro - lateral stripe running just above the legs . horn long , thin , orange below , black above , with two elongated orange spots at its base ; head green , with two brown lines .\na less common form is silvery grey , with a black , broken dorso - lateral line from which emanate black , equally broken oblique lateral stripes with white , red , or yellow patches often present in between . head brown and grey ; horn as above .\nthere are also two very rare colour forms in which all green coloration is replaced by either pinkish brown or dark grey / black . the latter appears more readily under cold conditions .\nlarvae frequently sun themselves openly on the upper branches , amongst those they have already stripped of leaves . there is a very heavy mortality due to parasitoids . those that survive eventually become light purple - brown before descending to find a pupation site , often after hours of perambulation on the ground .\nmost common during late june and july ; in some areas also during early september .\nminor hostplants . elaeagnus angustifolia , an introduced oleaster from central and eastern turkey now established over much of southern europe . this is the main hostplant of the aegean population ( pittaway , 1982a ) . [ in captivity , the larvae will thrive on many species of ornamental elaeagnus , and will also accept epilobium angustifolium when larger . ]\npupa : 40 - - 50mm . pale yellowish brown , or light grey - brown , with dark brown striations . more elongated than others of the genus . enclosed in a flimsy yellowish cocoon amongst roots or under stones . the overwintering stage .\ntachinidae : exorista fasciata ( fall\u00e9n ) , exorista larvarum ( linnaeus ) , exorista grandis ( zetterstedt ) , masicera sphingivora ( robineau - desvoidy ) .\nseparated into two main areas which seem to be the remnants of a much larger , post - glacial range . from northeastern spain ( portbou , catalonia ( pittaway , 1983b ) ) across southern france ( frionnet , 1910 ; chanselme , 1997 ) , southern switzerland ( schweizerischer bund f\u00fcr naturschutz , 1997 ) and northern italy to slovenia . then , as a separate population , romania ( esper , [ 1793 ] ; sz\u00e9kely & szab\u00f3 , 1995 ; vlad dinca , pers . comm . 2007 ) , bulgaria ( beshkov , 1998 ; danner , eitschberger & surholt , 1998 ) , moldova ( derzhavets , 1984 ) , northern greece ( koutsaftikis , 1970 ; 1973 ; 1974 ) , the aegean islands ( de freina & piatkowski , 1999 ) and western turkey ( pittaway , 1982a ) .\nthis species will very probably also be found in more areas of northern spain , hungary and romania , countries with large areas of hostplant . it has been recorded as a vagrant in england ( gilchrist , 1979 ) , northwestern spain ( basque country ( g\u00f3mez bustillo & fern\u00e1ndez - rubio , 1976 ) ) , southern spain ( malaga ( ribbe , 1909 - 1912 ) ) , southern portugal ( near faro ) and slovakia ( danner , eitschberger & surholt , 1998 ) . recently recorded from the apennine mountains east of florenz , italy ( dapporto , fiorini , fiumi & flamigni , 2005 ) .\nrecorded in the past from germany ( bavaria ) ( heinemann , 1859 ; forster & wohlfahrt , 1960 ) , but no longer resident in that country ( danner , eitschberger & surholt , 1998 ) .\nthis species appears on the british list as a result of a supposed vagrant record from devon in approximately 1857 .\n, and fly between april and june , sometimes with a second generation in august .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 06 - 15 16 : 47 : 21 page render time : 0 . 2454s total w / procache : 0 . 3098s\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\ndie schmetterlinge in abbildungen nach der natur mit beschreibungen . fortsetzung der europ\u00e4ischer schmetterlinge 6\nlectotype \u2640 [ romania : ] wallechei [ wallachia region ] , near foxan , milkowfluss [ milkov river ] [ wmhg ] ; designated by hacker , 1999 , esperiana 7 : 453 . the lectotype is the largest female (\ndas gr\u00f6\u00dfere weibchen\n) in\nkasten 20\n.\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nwe use cookies to give you the best possible experience . by using our website you agree to our use of cookies .\n( taxonomic notes . ( i ) this subspecies can be very variable in both coloration and size where numerous climatic conditions occur in close proximity to each other , such as in mountainous areas . many of these forms were described as distinct subspecies but this is not warranted . subspecies ornatus , transcaucasica , anatolica , bucharana , shugnana , malatiatus , caucasica and baltistana have been synonymized with subsp . bienerti and should be regarded as forms .\nwingspan : 65 - - 80mm . can be considerably paler and browner than related subspecies . a pale , oblique median line is noticeable on the underside of the forewing ; hindwing patches more orange than red . some large specimens found above 2000m in north - west iran and kashmir tend to f . caucasica in coloration .\noften common in mountainous , arid steppe , especially along rivers overgrown with hippophae or elaeagnus . although found at any altitude from 400 - - 3000m , most populations occur from 1000 - - 2000m where hippophae rhamnoides often forms discrete thickets away from rivers . attracted to the flowers of cistanche at dusk ( shchetkin , 1956 ) .\nlarva : full - fed , 75 - - 85mm . dimorphic : unstriped or striped .\nmajor hostplants . hippophae rhamnoides and elaeagnus spp . , especially elaeagnus angustifolia and elaeagnus hortensis in tajikistan ( shchetkin , 1956 ) . in the crimea it is found on elaeagnus argentea ( efetov & budashkin , 1990 ) .\ncentral ( rebel , 1933 ) , south - eastern and eastern turkey ( daniel , 1932 ; daniel , 1939 ; de freina , 2012 ) , southern ukraine ( efetov & budashkin , 1990 ; zolotuhin , pers . comm . ; vasilyuk & inozemtseva , 2003 ) , the caucasus and southern european russia ( zolotuhin , pers . comm ; poltavsky , pers . comm . 2003 ; anikin , 2004 ) , the republic of georgia ( didmanidze , petrov & zolotuhin , 2013 ) , armenia ( w\u0105sala & zamorski , 2015 ) and azerbaijan ( didmanidze , petrov & zolotuhin , 2013 ) , northern and central iran ( bienert , 1870 ; barou , 1967 ; kalali , 1976 ; ghassemi , alemansoor & alehossein , 2009 ; lehmann & zahiri , 2011 ) , turkmenistan ( danov & pereladov , 1985 ) and uzbekistan ( derzhavets , 1984 ) , the southern urals ( nupponen & fibiger , 2002 ; dubatolov , 2012 ) , eastern kazakhstan ( kondratiev coll . , nhmuk ; shovkoon , 2015 ) , western xinjiang province , china ( pittaway & kitching , 2000 ) , tajikistan ( shchetkin , 1956 ) , afghanistan ( ebert , 1969 ; daniel , 1971 ) , northern pakistan / azad kashmir ( karakoram mountains , juglot valley , 2550m , 26 . vii . 2011 ( leg . bal\u00e1zs benedek ) ( rafi et al . , 2014 ) ) , and north - west india / kashmir ( o . bang - haas , 1939 ) to the western tian shan .\nas elaeagnus angustifolia is widely planted as a hedge and windbreak throughout eastern europe and central asia , this moth has not only expanded its range northwards ( dubatolov , 2012 ) but may turn up as a vagrant far from its resident range , e . g . the northern ukraine ( plyushch & sheshurak , 1997 ) .\nthe anatolian plateau forms the western resident limit of this subspecies , although individuals can penetrate as far west as istanbul .\nextra - limital range . in china , from xinjiang province ( china ) north to the altai mountains ( izerskiy , 1999 ) and eastwards across the provinces of ningxia , gansu , shaanxi and nei mongol ( inner mongolia ) to liaoning ( chu & wang , 1980b ; pittaway & kitching , 2000 ) , and also mongolia ( derzhavets , 1977 ; yakovlev & doroshkin , 2017 ) . from these areas north into russia to karasuk ( dubatolov , 2012 ) , the tuva a . s . s . r . ( viidalepp , 1979 ; izerskiy , 1999 ) , the altai kray ( yakovlev , dubatolov & titov , 2013 ) and lake baikal ( kondratiev coll . , nhmuk ) .\nlectotype \u2642 [ turkey : toros mountains , ] bulghar dagh [ bolkar da\u011flari ] , lydia , [ bred ex larvae ( w . siehe ) ] [ mnhu ] ; implicitly designated by danner , eitschberger & surholt , 1998 , herbipoliana 4 ( 2 ) : 74 .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\n2011 - 01 - 26 by & van nieukerken , dr erik j . karsholt , dr ole & by dr ian kitching\nthis work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - share alike 3 . 0 license\npesi is funded by the european union 7th framework programme within the research infrastructures programme . contract no . ri - 223806 . activity area : capacities . period 2008 - 2011 - website hosted & developed by vliz banner picture : gannet ( morus bassanus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) by karl van ginderdeuren - contact pesi\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\naustria , bulgaria , germany , greece , spain , italy , corsica , romania , the soviet union - the european part of turkey - european part of france , switzerland , yugoslavia .\nregions of the russian federation : the volga - don , east caucasus , western caucasus , lower volga , tuva , southern urals .\nbulgaria , the british isles , hungary ? , germany , greece ( mainland ) , spain ( mainland ) ? , italy ( mainland ) , corsica , moldova , russia , romania , north aegean , slovenia , ukraine , france ( mainland ) croatia , switzerland .\n[ 10 ] de jong , y . s . d . m . ( ed . ) ( 2011 ) fauna europaea version 2 . 4 ( faunaeur . org )\n[ 28 ] moths and butterflies of europe and north africa ( leps . it ) , 2012\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nthe wingspan is 65\u201380 mm . subspecies bienerti is paler and browner than related subspecies . a pale , oblique median line is noticeable on the underside of the forewing . the hindwing patches are more orange than red .\nlarvae of subspecies bienerti have been recorded on elaeagnus angustifolia and hippophae rhamnoides in china and tajikistan ."]}
{"id": 1308, "summary": [{"text": "the saddleback darter ( percina vigil ) is a freshwater fish native to the eastern united states .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "this darter species is widespread , occurring from the escambia river drainage west to the mississippi river basin and as far north as the wabash river historically .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "some populations have been reported in the tennessee river drainage .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the saddleback darter is aptly named as it has 5 saddle-like patterns on its dorsum , with the first occurring near the first dorsal fin and the fifth near the caudal penduncle .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "adults can attain a maximum size of about 3 inches or 7.8 centimeters .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the saddleback darter typically occurs over sand and gravel runs of creeks and small to medium-sized rivers and is sometimes found in very shallow water .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this darter 's diet consists of invertebrates such as caddisfly larvae , beetles , mayflies , and stoneflies .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the saddleback darter deposits eggs over sand and gravel shoals during the spring .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "this species has an average lifespan between 2 and 3 years . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "saddleback darter", "paragraphs": ["1 saddleback darter in alabama distribution : percina vigil occurs from lake pontchartrain east to the escambia . . . percina vigil is fairly widespread and often abundant in the conecuh river and . . . www . outdooralabama . more\ncharacteristics : the saddleback darter has eyes set more on top of the head and less pigmentation than other members of imostoma . it has separate to slightly connected gill membranes , a narrow frenum , and an elongate anal fin on breeding males . more\nsaddleback college offers a new course in new product development to students and ties it to the concept of creating , innovation , and the ccc makers space .\nformerly included in p . uranidea . ioa vigil was regarded as a senior synonym of p . ouachitae by suttkus ( 1985 ) . the 1991 afs checklist ( robins et al . 1991 ) followed suttkus and changed the name of p . ouachitae to p . vigil . page and burr ( 1991 ) evidently followed page ( 1983 ) , who included i . vigil in p . shumardi , and continued to use the name p . ouachitae for the saddleback darter .\ni am currently in the new product development course at saddleback college . let along learning the theory of product design in class , i personally enjoyed the field trips to manufacturing and design companies . seeing how new products are designed and made , i am very excited hearing about the new saddleback college maker space . the new product development course could have been better had we had the opportunity to develop prototypes of the ideas created in class . can\u2019t wait to see the maker space .\nlearning the techniques to make a product come to life is a great skill to have . but actually building the products we come up with is even better . we need both the knowledge of the business world as well as the skills needed to create the product . the maker space idea would be perfect for learning both of these skills . this is also an opportunity to bring the most creative minds at saddleback together to experiment with actual product development . the business world is always expanding and this is an amazing opportunity for saddleback students to get a head of everyone else .\ni started at saddleback as an accounting major with an interest in all branches of business . after taking dr . fredrickson\u2019s product innovative class , i became very interested in the practical skills and experiences needed to create and design new products and how i can use my accounting and management skills to better understand the entrepreneurship and business processes . this new maker space will be the perfect bridge from the management aspect to the actual creating and manufacturing process .\nmy father is a mechanical engineer for boeing and i am interested in following in his footsteps as a new product entrepreneur . i want to learn the theory as well as practical skills to create new and innovative products . i am really looking forward to having a great learning experience in the new entrepreneurship and innovation makerspace currently being designed at saddleback college . this maker space will give me and other students more of a real world experience so that we will be better able to transition to work in the business field .\ndata on dispersal and other movements generally are not available . though larvae of some species may drift with the current , turner ( 2001 ) found no significant relationship between a larval transport index and gene flow among several different darter species . separation distances are arbitrary but reflect the likely low probability that two occupied locations separated by less than several kilometers of aquatic habitat would represent truly independent populations . because of the difficulty in defining suitable versus unsuitable habitat , especially with respect to dispersal , and to simplify the delineation of occurrences , a single separation distance is used regardless of habitat quality . occupied locations that are separated by a gap of 10 km or more of any aquatic habitat that is not known to be occupied generally represent different occurrences . however , it is important to evaluate seasonal changes in habitat to ensure that an occupied habitat occurrence for a particular population does not artificially separate spawning areas and nonspawning areas as different occurrences simply because there have been no collections / observations in an intervening area that may exceed the separation distance .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of the large extent of occurrence , large number of subpopulations , large population size , and lack of major threats . trend over the past 10 years or three generations is uncertain but likely relatively stable , or the species may be declining but not fast enough to qualify for any of the threatened categories under criterion a ( reduction in population size ) .\ngulf slope from escambia river drainage , alabama and florida , west to mississippi river , louisiana ; mississippi river basin from southwestern indiana ( formerly ) and southeastern missouri to louisiana ; mostly confined to coastal plain ; apparently extirpated in green river , kentucky , and in wabash river system , indiana - illinois ; common but somewhat localized ( page and burr 1991 ) .\nthis species is represented by a large number of subpopulations and locations . total adult population size is unknown but relatively large . trend over the past 10 years or three generations is uncertain but likely relatively stable or slowly declining .\ncreeks and small to medium rivers in areas of moderate current over sand and gravel or gravel and rubble substrates , often at foot of chute or riffle or near snags or logjams ; sometimes in very shallow water ( kuehne and barbour 1983 , page and burr 1991 ) . larvae may drift downstream from spawning areas to quiet backwaters ( heins and baker 1989 ) .\nlocalized threats may exist , but on a range - wide scale no major threats are known .\ncurrently , this species is of relatively low conservation concern and does not require significant additional protection or major management , monitoring , or research action .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nlouisiana department of wildlife and fisheries po box 98000 2000 quail drive baton rouge , la 70898 800 . 256 . 2749 225 . 765 . 2800\na curated database of candidate human ageing - related genes and genes associated with longevity and / or ageing in model organisms .\na curated database of genes associated with dietary restriction in model organisms either from genetic manipulation experiments or gene expression profiling .\nprojects focused on gene expression profiling of ageing and of dietary manipulations of ageing , such as caloric restriction .\nsoftware for ageing research , including the ageing research computational tools ( arct ) perl toolkit .\na curated database of ageing and life history information in animals , including extensive longevity records .\nthe benchmark genome assembly and annotation of the long - lived , cancer - resistant naked mole - rat ( heterocephalus glaber ) .\na high - coverage genome of the bowhead whale ( balaena mysticetus ) , the longest - lived mammal .\nanalyses using the anage database to study the evolution of longevity and ageing in vertebrate lineages .\na portal of ageing changes covering different biological levels , integrating molecular , physiological and pathological age - related data .\nthe whosage database contains people and biotech companies that are contributing to increase our understanding of ageing and life - extension .\ncomments , suggestions , ideas , and bug reports are welcome . please contact us .\nrobins , c . r . , r . m . bailey , c . e . bond , j . r . brooker , e . a . lachner , r . n . lea , and w . b . scott . 1991 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states and canada . american fisheries society , special publication 20 . 183 pp .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\ntrend over the past 10 years or three generations is uncertain but likely relatively stable or slowly declining .\nupper conecuh ( 03140301 ) , sepulga ( 03140303 ) , lower conecuh ( 03140304 ) , escambia ( 03140305 ) + , lower tallapoosa ( 03150110 ) , upper alabama ( 03150201 ) , cahaba ( 03150202 ) , middle alabama ( 03150203 ) , lower alabama ( 03150204 ) , upper tombigbee ( 03160101 ) , buttahatchee ( 03160103 ) , luxapallila ( 03160105 ) , middle tombigbee - lubbub ( 03160106 ) , sipsey ( 03160107 ) , lower black warrior ( 03160113 ) , middle tombigbee - chickasaw ( 03160201 ) , sucarnoochee ( 03160202 ) , lower tambigbee ( 03160203 ) , chunky - okatibbee ( 03170001 ) , upper chickasawhay ( 03170002 ) , lower chickasawhay ( 03170003 ) , upper leaf ( 03170004 ) , lower leaf ( 03170005 ) , pascagoula ( 03170006 ) , black ( 03170007 ) , upper pearl ( 03180001 ) , middle pearl - strong ( 03180002 ) , middle pearl - silver ( 03180003 ) , lower pearl . mississippi ( 03180004 ) , bogue chitto ( 03180005 )\nlower mississippi - memphis ( 08010100 ) , bayou de chien - mayfield ( 08010201 ) , upper hatchie ( 08010207 ) , lower hatchie ( 08010208 ) , lower st . francis ( 08020203 ) * , upper ouachita ( 08040102 ) , little missouri ( 08040103 ) , lower ouachita - smackover ( 08040201 ) , lower ouachita - bayou de loutre ( 08040202 ) , upper saline ( 08040203 ) , bayou d ' arbonne ( 08040206 ) , lower ouachita ( 08040207 ) , castor ( 08040302 ) , little ( 08040304 ) , lower big black ( 08060202 ) , bayou pierre ( 08060203 ) , coles creek ( 08060204 ) , homochitto ( 08060205 ) , buffalo ( 08060206 ) , lower mississippi - baton rouge ( 08070100 ) * , bayou sara - thompson ( 08070201 ) , amite ( 08070202 ) * , tangipahoa ( 08070205 ) * , liberty bayou - tchefuncta ( 08090201 )\napparently spawns in late winter ( kuehne and barbour 1983 ) . in mississippi , spawned february - april at water temperatures of 12 - 22 c , produced multiple clutches , sexually mature within 1 year , maximum lifespan less than 3 years ( heins and baker 1989 ) .\nsome populations eat mainly crustaceans and immature insects , other populations feed heavily on snails ( page 1983 ) .\noccurrences are based on evidence of historical presence , or current and likely recurring presence , at a given location . such evidence minimally includes collection or reliable observation and documentation of one or more individuals ( including eggs and larvae ) in appropriate habitat .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nbart , h . l . , jr . , and l . m . page . 1992 . the influence of size and phylogeny on life history variation in north american percids . pages 553 - 572 in r . l . mayden , editor . systematics , historical ecology , and north american freshwater fishes . stanford university press , stanford , california . xxvi + 969 pp .\neschmeyer , william n . ( editor ) . 1998 . catalog of fishes . volumes 1 - 3 . california academy of sciences , san francisco , california . 958 pp . updates available online at : urltoken\nheins , d . c . , and j . a . baker . 1989 . growth , population structure , and reproduction of the percid fish percina vigil . copeia 1989 : 727 - 736 .\nkuehne , r . a . , and r . w . barbour . 1983 . the american darters . university press of kentucky , lexington , kentucky . 177 pp .\nlee , d . s . , c . r . gilbert , c . h . hocutt , r . e . jenkins , d . e . mcallister , and j . r . stauffer , jr . 1980 . atlas of north american freshwater fishes . north carolina state museum of natural history , raleigh , north carolina . i - x + 854 pp .\nnelson , j . s . , e . j . crossman , h . espinosa - perez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , r . n . lea , and j . d . williams . 2004 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico . american fisheries society , special publication 29 , bethesda , maryland . 386 pp .\npage , l . m . 1983b . identification of the percids , boleosoma phlox cope and ioa vigil hay . copeia 1983 : 1082 - 1083 .\npage , l . m . , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , r . n . lea , n . e . mandrak , r . l . mayden , and j . s . nelson . 2013 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico . seventh edition . american fisheries society , special publication 34 , bethesda , maryland .\npage , l . m . , and b . m . burr . 1991 . a field guide to freshwater fishes : north america north of mexico . houghton mifflin company , boston , massachusetts . 432 pp .\npage , l . m . , and b . m . burr . 2011 . peterson field guide to freshwater fishes of north america north of mexico . second edition . houghton mifflin harcourt , boston . xix + 663 pp .\nsuttkus , r . d . 1985 . identification of the percid , ioa vigil hay . copeia 1985 : 225 - 227 .\nboschung , h . t . , and r . l . mayden . 2004 . fishes of alabama . smithsonian institution press , washington , d . c . 960 pp .\nburr , b . m . , and m . l . warren , jr . 1986a . distributional atlas of kentucky fishes . kentucky nature preserves commission , scientific and technical series no . 4 , frankfort , kentucky . 398 pp .\ndouglas , n . h . 1974 . freshwater fishes of louisiana . claitor ' s publishing division , baton rouge , louisiana . 443 pp .\netnier , d . a . , and w . c . starnes . 1993 . the fishes of tennessee . university of tennessee press , knoxville , tennessee . xiv + 681 pp .\nmettee , m . f . , p . e . o ' neil , and j . m . pierson . 1996 . fishes of alabama and the mobile basin . oxmoor house , birmingham , alabama . 820 pp .\npage , l . m . 1983a . handbook of darters . t . f . h . publications , inc . , neptune city , new jersey . 271 pp .\nrobison , h . w . and t . m . buchanan . 1988 . fishes of arkansas . the university of arkansas press , fayetteville , arkansas . 536 pp .\nross , s . t . , and w . m . brenneman . 1991 . distribution of freshwater fishes in mississippi . freshwater fisheries report no . 108 . d - j project completion report f - 69 . mississippi department of wildlife and freshwater fisheries and parks . jackson , mississippi . 548 pp .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\nall documents and related graphics provided by this server and any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server are provided\nas is\nwithout warranty as to the currentness , completeness , or accuracy of any specific data . natureserve hereby disclaims all warranties and conditions with regard to any documents provided by this server or any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , including but not limited to all implied warranties and conditions of merchantibility , fitness for a particular purpose , and non - 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disturbing activities are proposed on a site , the appropriate state natural heritage program ( s ) or conservation data center can be contacted for a site - specific review of the project area ( see visit local programs ) .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\nwelcome to crcpress . com ! we have customized the taylor & francis india website to host crc press titles . please choose urltoken to get the following benefits :\nthe garland science website is no longer available to access and you have been automatically redirected to crcpress . com .\nall instructor resources will be made available on our instructor hub shortly . your urltoken instructor credentials will not grant access to the hub , but existing and new users may request access here . the student resources previously accessed via urltoken are no longer available to existing or new users .\nexclusive web offer for individuals . print titles only . terms & conditions may apply .\nknowledge of the early life stages of fishes is crucial for the effective monitoring and management of fish populations and habitats , and the evaluation of environmental impacts and recovery of endangered species . unfortunately , the proper identification of targeted species has stunted the development of the field .\nnow a series has emerged that stands as the leading resource on the reproduction and development of many north american fishes . reproductive biology and early life history of fishes in the ohio river drainage fills immense gaps in knowledge of issues related to early life development of fishes in the ohio basin . volume 4 addresses the developmental and morphological issues of perch , pikeperch , and darters .\nthis volume describes the characteristics of the family percidae , and provides a detailed pictorial guide to the young of all fish families present in the ohio river drainage . subtopics within each species description include range , distribution , occurrence , spawning , eggs , development , ecology of early life phases , and more .\nthis book serves as both a handbook to help identify individual larval fish , and as a reference for those concerned with the overall health of the ecosystems or fisheries that they are monitoring .\na much - needed taxonomic aid , complete with keys , diagnostic criteria , and illustrated descriptions for identification of the eggs , larvae , and early juveniles of most of about 285 fishes in the ohio river basin . it is also an equally needed compendium of information on the ecology of those early life stages , as well as a summary of the distribution , habitat , and reproductive biology of their parents\u2026\nthe fish fauna of the ohio river drainage includes a large proportion of the fishes of eastern north america , including many species whose ranges extend well beyond the ohio river . for that reason these volumes are valuable beyond the ohio river drainage . they provide a systematic approach to the study of early life histories of fishes and are useful as a guide to scientists and managers beyond the region , even in areas such as western north america . this series will prove useful to scientists and managers from state and federal agencies , to industry and consulting firm staff dealing with river fish issues , and to faculty and students in regional universities .\nprovides invaluable information for anyone interested in protecting the spawning grounds or habitat of the fish . \u2026represents the definitive authority on the subject and represent a type of research that has been all to infrequent in these days of bioinformatics and concentrations on things like gene analysis .\nwe provide complimentary e - inspection copies of primary textbooks to instructors considering our books for course adoption .\ncrc press ebooks are available through vitalsource . the free vitalsource bookshelf\u00ae application allows you to access to your ebooks whenever and wherever you choose .\nonline \u2013 access your ebooks using the links emailed to you on your urltoken invoice or in the\nmy account\narea of urltoken .\nmobile / ereaders \u2013 download the bookshelf mobile app at urltoken or from the itunes or android store to access your ebooks from your mobile device or ereader .\noffline computer \u2013 download bookshelf software to your desktop so you can view your ebooks with or without internet access .\ncpd consists of any educational activity which helps to maintain and develop knowledge , problem - solving , and technical skills with the aim to provide better health care through higher standards . it could be through conference attendance , group discussion or directed reading to name just a few examples .\nuse certain crc press medical books to get your cpd points up for revalidation . we provide a free online form to document your learning and a certificate for your records .\nby using this website , you agree to the use of cookies . learn more about how we use cookies .\nwill be removed from your cart because it is not available in this region .\nvalues shown below are defaults ; and k is an estimate from the family where the species belongs . please double - check , replace with better values as appropriate , and ' recalculate ' .\ns . e . - years estimated from linf . , k and t o .\ns . e . - years estimated from lopt , linf . , k and t o .\ns . e . - years estimated from lm , linf . , k and t o .\nestimate y ' / r from m / k , lc / linf and e . lc = cm e = / year e msy / year e opt / year f msy / year f opt / year\nvulnerable to extinction if decline in biomass or numbers exceeds threshold over the longer of 10 years or 3 generations .\nlr = cm estimated from fmsy at lc = length of recruitment ( lr ) .\nnote : the estimates are derived from default values taken from fishbase and will thus not be appropriate for every population . you can change these values and recalculate the life history parameters .\nlife history data created by : eli , 01 . 06 . 99 , php script by : kbanasihan , 11 . 02 . 10 , last modified by kbanasihan , 11 . 11 . 10\nreproductive biology and early life history of fishes in the ohio river drainage . volume 4 percidae - perch , pikeperch , and darters | copac\nwe use cookies to give you the best experience and to help improve our website . by closing this banner or by continuing to use the site , you agree to this .\nsome parts of this website require javascript to be enabled in your web browser .\nthis record is part of the copac national , academic & specialist library catalogue .\nreproductive biology and early life history of fishes in the ohio river drainage . volume 4 percidae - perch , pikeperch , and darters\nknowledge of the early life stages of fishes is crucial for the effective monitoring and management of fish populations and habitats , and the evaluation of environmental impacts and recovery of endangered species . unfortunately , the proper identification of targeted species has stunted the development of the field . now a series has emerged that stands as the leading resource on the reproduction and development of many north american fishes . reproductive biology and early life history of fishes in the ohio river drainage fills immense gaps in knowledge of issues related to early life development of fishes in the ohio basin . volume 4 addresses the developmental and morphological issues of perch , pikeperch , and darters . this volume describes the characteristics of the family percidae , and provides a detailed pictorial guide to the young of all fish families present in the ohio river drainage . subtopics within each species description include range , distribution , occurrence , spawning , eggs , development , ecology of early life phases , and more . this book serves as both a handbook to help identify individual larval fish , and as a reference for those concerned with the overall health of the ecosystems or fisheries that they are monitoring .\nnote : documents recorded on copac may be available for loan . to try to borrow a document , make an inter - library loan request via a library of which you are a member , for instance your university library .\nto enable emailing of records you need to enter your email address in the settings page .\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\nnorth america : mississippi river basin from southwestern indiana and southeastern missouri to louisiana in the usa ; gulf slope from escambia river drainage in alabama and florida to mississippi river in louisiana . the name percina vigil replaces percina ouachitae .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 7 . 8 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5723 ) ; common length : 4 . 8 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 12193 ) ; max . reported age : 2 years ( ref . 12193 )\ninhabits sand and gravel runs of creeks and small to medium rivers , sometimes in very shallow water ( ref . 3814 , 10294 ) . feeds on pleurocerid ( leptoxis ) river snails , hydropsychid caddisfly larvae , midge larvae , and small mayfly nymphs , such as baetids ( ref . 10294 ) .\nrobins , c . r . , r . m . bailey , c . e . bond , j . r . brooker , e . a . lachner , r . n . lea and w . b . scott , 1991 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states and canada . am . fish . soc . spec . publ . ( 20 ) : 183 p . ( ref . 3814 )\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00501 ( 0 . 00201 - 0 . 01253 ) , b = 3 . 14 ( 2 . 92 - 3 . 36 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref .\n) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( tmax = 2 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en strict\nlinked life history provided courtesy of natureserve explorer . records may include both recent and historical observations . us status definitions kentucky status definitions\nhartnell college assigned a room 25\u2032 x 30\u2032 for the dirty makerspace lab . this room used to be used for \u2026\nwe opened our clean makerspace lab during the month of june to the community . they were invited to take some \u2026\nthis website and all activities are conducted by the innovation maker 3 grant ( 16 - 203 - 001 ) funded in part by the chancellor ' s office , california community colleges and administered by the sierra joint community college district .\nyou may be trying to access this site from a secured browser on the server . please enable scripts and reload this page .\nthe perch family is second only to the minnow family in diversity of north american fishes . most species in this family are darters . darters tend to live on the bottom of streams or lakes and dart about for food . they generally do not have a gas bladder . characteristics include two dorsal fins , thoracic pelvic fins with one spine and five rays and ctenoid scales ."]}
{"id": 1309, "summary": [{"text": "minacraga disconitens is a moth in the dalceridae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by schaus in 1905 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in venezuela , trinidad , guyana , surinam , french guiana , brazil , eastern peru and bolivia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of tropical moist , tropical premontane wet , tropical premontane moist , subtropical moist and warm temperate moist or dry forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is 14 \u2013 16 mm for males and 19 \u2013 22 mm for females .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are pale metallic buff , except the outer margin which is dull .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is a broad dark brown streak at the base of the inner margin and a dark fuscous dot at the end of the cell .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is also a subterminal wavy light brown line , followed by metallic buff spots and a dark brown shade along the margin .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are pale buff , the outer margin shaded with brown .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing from february to august and october to december .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on macadamia species . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "minacraga disconitens", "paragraphs": ["how can i put and write and define minacraga disconitens in a sentence and how is the word minacraga disconitens used in a sentence and examples ? \u7528minacraga disconitens\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528minacraga disconitens\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528minacraga disconitens\u9020\u53e5 , minacraga disconitens meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .\ntype - species : minacraga disconitens schaus , 1905 . proc . u . s . natn . mus . 29 : 331 . [ bhl ]\ntype - species designation : by original designation . [ ( in anticipation of schaus ` s description of disconitens ) ]\ngenus : minacraga dyar , 1905 . proc . u . s . natn . mus . 29 : 176 . [ bhl ]\nminacraga was nomenclaturally available but was without an included nominal species between the date of its publication by dyar and that of its type - species by schaus .\nbiostor is built by @ rdmpage , code on github . page images from the biodiversity heritage library .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmiller , s . e . 1994 . systematics of the neotropical moth family dalceridae ( lepidoptera ) . bulletin of the museum of comparative zoology 153 ( 4 ) : 1 - 495 .\n. note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own license , and they may or may not be available for reuse . click on an image or a media link to access the media data window , which provides the relevant licensing information . for the general terms and conditions of tol material reuse and redistribution , please see the\neach tol branch page provides a synopsis of the characteristics of a group of organisms representing a branch of the tree of life . the major distinction between a branch and a leaf of the tree of life is that each branch can be further subdivided into descendent branches , that is , subgroups representing distinct genetic lineages .\nfor a more detailed explanation of the different tol page types , have a look at the structure of the tree of life page .\ntree of life design and icons copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2004 tree of life project . all rights reserved .\ntype specimens : type ( s ) french guiana : maroni river , ( ? depository ) . .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more"]}
{"id": 1316, "summary": [{"text": "the molossidae , or free-tailed bats , are a family of bats within the order chiroptera .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "they are generally quite robust , and consist of many strong flying forms with relatively long and narrow wings .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "another common name for some members of this group , and indeed a few species from other families , is mastiff bat .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the western mastiff bat ( eumops perotis ) , a large species from the southwestern united states and mexico with wings over 0.5 m ( 1.6 ft ) across , is perhaps one of the best known with this name .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "they are widespread , being found on every continent except antarctica .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the family 's scientific name comes from the type genus molossus , which in turn is from the molossus breed of dog .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the family 's common name is derived from a length of \" free \" tail , projecting beyond the end of the uropatagium \u2013 the membrane that connects the base of the tail to the hind legs .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the tail is usually best seen when resting .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "a special ring of cartilage slides up or down the tail vertebrae by muscular action to stretch or retract the tail membrane .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this gives many species a degree of fine tuning in their flight maneuvers to rival their day-flying ecological equivalents , such as swifts , swallows , and martins .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "as a result , these animals include the fastest-flying of all bat species among their number .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the dental formula of free-tailed bats varies between species : free-tailed bats are usually grey , brown , or black in color , with some exceptions .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they range from 4 to 12 cm ( 1.6 to 4.7 in ) in length , excluding the tail , and can weigh from 8 to 220 g ( 0.28 to 7.76 oz ) , depending on species .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "they are insectivorous , and catch their food on the wing .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "while some species roost in small groups in hollow trees or rocky crevices , some cave-dwelling species form vast colonies of up to 50 million individuals .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "molecular sequence data supports the monophyly of molossidae as a whole , but not that of many of its genera , such as chaerephon , mops , mormopterus and tadarida .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the grouping of chaerephon minus c. jobimena plus mops was found to be monophyletic , as was otomops . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "free - tailed bat", "paragraphs": ["the mexican free - tailed bat ( tadarida brasiliensis ) is also known as the brazilian free - tailed bat . it is one of the most abundant free - tailed bats in the world and one of the most abundant mammals in north america . in places like south texas , the free - tailed bat roosts in large colonies during the summer months .\ntracy barbaro changed the thumbnail image of\nmexican free - tailed bat ( tadarida brasiliensis )\n.\nmexican free - tailed bats are the\njets\nof the bat world . they are very fast flyers .\nrefer to the online version of the mammals of texas for additional details on the brazilian free - tailed bat .\nbrazilian free - tailed bat order chiroptera : family molossidae : tadarida brasiliensis ( i . goef . st . - hilaire )\nlike others of their genus , mexican free - tailed bats have prominent wrinkled lips .\nthe brazilian free - tailed bat is a medium - sized bat with broad ears , large feet , and the end of its tail free . they have short , velvety , reddish to black - colored fur . for more information , see\nanother colonial bat ( myotis velifer ) is a common associate of the brazilian free - tailed bat in the guano caves . this bat also gives birth to its young in the guano caves , but at a time about 2 weeks in advance of the brazilian free - tailed bats . while the two kinds of bats tend to roost in separate clusters , some mixing may occur .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - brazilian free - tailed bat ( tadarida brasiliensis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - brazilian free - tailed bat ( tadarida brasiliensis )\ntitle =\narkive species - brazilian free - tailed bat ( tadarida brasiliensis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe brazilian free - tailed bat is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and is listed on appendix i of the convention on migratory species ( 4 ) .\nthis bat is a known carrier of rabies . although the proportion of rabies cases caused by brazilian free - tailed bats is minuscule when compared to the size of their population as a whole , caution should be exercised when one of these bats is encountered , or any species of bat for that matter .\nalthough perhaps no species\u2019 fate should be judged solely on its importance to humans , the brazilian free - tailed bat is known to have an enormous impact on insect numbers , thereby contributing to both the ecology and economy of those countries that are home to it . it is crucial to continue to protect its roost sites and to educate the public and the media as to the reality of rabies and the benefits of the brazilian free - tailed bat ( 7 ) .\nwith their long , narrow wings , mexican free - tailed bats are speedsters in the bat world , designed for fast , long - distance flight . they get their name from their tail , which extends freely beyond their tail membrane .\ntuttle , m . d . ( 1994 ) the lives of mexican free - tailed bats . bats , 12 ( 3 ) : 6 \u2013 14 .\ntuttle , m . d . ( 1994 ) the lives of mexican free - tailed bats . bats , 12 ( 3 ) : 6 - 14 .\nthe brazilian free - tailed bat is a highly colonial cave bat that has adapted to human structures , where many now roost . in some parts of the southern united states the species is active year round , roosting in buildings , under bridges , and in caves ; many also migrate southward into mexico and central america . several caves in texas harbor millions of these bats during the summer months . free - tailed bats forage on a variety of flying insects especially small moths and beetles .\ncopyright bat conservation international \u00a9 2018 . all rights reserved . unless otherwise noted , all images are copyright \u00a9 merlin d . tuttle and / or \u00a9 bat conservation international .\nthe densest concentrations of free - tailed bats are found living in bracken cave near san antonio , texas . their colonies can number over 20 , 000 , 000 .\nmastiff bat , any of various species of free - tailed bats ( family molossidae ) named for their doglike faces . the eight new world species of bats making up the genus molossus are called mastiff bats . several other genera also include species commonly called mastiff\u2026\ns , so called for the way in which part of the tail extends somewhat beyond the membrane connecting the hind legs . some free - tailed bats are also known as\nconstruction type ( certain types of construction are easier or harder to bat - proof ) .\nthis bat has received considerable attention because it is a known carrier of rabies . with the exception of the eastern red bat ( lasiurus borealis ) , the brazilian free - tailed bat has been reported to the texas department of health ( tdh ) more often than any other species . of 430 specimens reported to the tdh from 1984 to 1987 , 105 ( 24 % ) tested positive for the rabies virus . this is the highest incidence of rabies known for any texas bat . although the total number of confirmed rabies cases is minuscule when compared to the population of bats as a whole , caution should be exercised when one of these bats is encountered , or any species of bat for that matter .\nthe mexican free - tailed bat ( tadarida brasiliensis ) is a medium sized bat . their fur is reddish to dark brown or gray in color . they have broad , black , forward pointing ears , and wrinkled lips . their tails extend more than one third beyond the tail membranes ; most other bats have tails that are completely enclosed within the tail membranes . their wings are long and narrow .\n( 305 mm ) . the free - tailed bat is so named because the tail protrudes noticeably beyond the membrane that stretches between the tail and hind legs . it is the only bat in the eastern united states that has this trait . these bats are medium to dark brown in color , slightly lighter on the belly . their ears are broad and rounded . toe hairs are very long and stiff .\na single free - tail baby bat is born during the summer . young mexican free - tailed bats roost separately from their mothers . babies roost in the highest reaches of the cave , where temperatures are the warmest . the warm conditions are essential for rapid growth and survival . in the large maternity colonies of mexican free - tails , the mother must find her own pup among the thousands . it is thought that she locates her baby by recognizing its individual call .\nthe mexican free - tailed bat has a range that extends from coast to coast in the us and from texas to argentina . in the us , the bats migrate south in the winter and return to roosting sites in the summer . it is still unknown where the bats go in the winter months .\nget bats out \u2013 we are bat exclusion experts ready to help with your bat problem . we are professional , safe and offer rapid response to any situation if needed . call ( 877 ) 264 - 2287 .\nabundance of brazilian free - tailed bats in roosts in buildings in texas follows an annual pattern of one peak in spring and another in fall , with general mid - summer and mid - winter lows or periods of complete absence . this pattern complements that of bat abundance in the guano caves . brazilian free - tailed bats in buildings in texas during spring and fall usually are itinerant between tropical latitudes and the mid - latitude guano caves of texas , oklahoma , kansas , and new mexico . sufficient interchange of banded brazilian free - tailed bats has occurred among the guano caves of texas and between those in texas and the ones in neighboring states to demonstrate that individual bats are not compelled to return each year to the cave of their birth . rather , brazilian free - tailed bats exhibit ability to range over great distances and find the widely separated , often well hidden , entrances to the few traditional guano caves and roosts in buildings .\nthe brazilian free - tailed bat is found in many different habitats from desert through pinion - juniper woodland to pine - oak forests . it inhabits areas from sea level to 3 , 000 metres , and roosts in limestone caves , abandoned mines , under bridges , in buildings and in hollow trees ( 6 ) .\nalthough campbell observed bats of unknown identity catching mosquitoes in the area , there is no documentation that the free - tailed bats from his artificial roosts actually ate them . given the high - speed , relatively low - maneuverability flight of free - tails , it seems unlikely that they would prey extensively on mosquitoes . bats , however , are highly opportunistic ; the larger , also fast - flying , hoary bat\nrabies , a disease often associated with bats , is found in members of the brazilian free - tailed bat population . humans who attempt to handle bats without the proper precautions have been infected with rabies , which can be fatal . media sensationalism of this problem has resulted in deliberate eradication attempts and roost destruction ( 7 ) .\non its first attempt at flight , a young free - tail must avoid several mid - air collisions per second , relying on an as yet untested navigation system in a dark cave . although amazingly few serious collisions occur , those that do can break wings or ground a bat long enough to be attacked by swarms of dermestid beetles and their larva that live on the floors of most free - tailed bat caves . as with other bats , the heaviest mortality probably occurs in the first year , perhaps as much as 50 percent .\nmexican free - tailed bats live for an estimated seven to eight years . once born it takes a couple years before they start breeding . mature females will give birth to one pup each year for about five years .\nfree - tailed bats have supported several american war efforts as well . when confederacy ports were blockaded in the latter part of 1863 , a gun powder factory was established near san antonio . the powder ' s most valuable ingredient , saltpeter , was made from local bat guano . during world war 11 , major free - tailed bat caves near san antonio were carefully guarded during top - secret research coded\nproject x - ray .\n* the u . s . air force hoped to use bats as carriers of small incendiary bombs that would be dropped on japan . the project began to lose favor when escaped bat bombardiers set fire to air base barracks and a general ' s car . after being passed on to the navy , and finally the marine corps , the project was canceled .\ncopyright template design \u00a9 2007 travel portal . all rights reserved . designed by free css templates .\nfree - tailed bats eat insects and roost in tree hollows , caves , and buildings . they are found worldwide in warm regions . most species live in groups , and some form colonies with populations numbering in the millions , such as the\nwashington d . c . bat conservation international 1012 14th street nw , suite 905 washington , d . c . 20005 , usa\nwelcome to our wonderful website that we created to inform you about the amazing tadarida brasiliensis . for those of you who don ' t know this organism , it is also known as the brazilian / mexican free - tailed bat . for our organismal biology course we were told to pick an animal that primarily lives in caves and we decided to research a bat species . this species in particular is distinguished by its brown fur and large ears , medium size , short snout , and wrinkled upper lips . they are also recognized by their\nfree - tail\nthat pushes out farther than their legs .\nby summer , male and female free - tails will have divided into bachelor and nursery colonies . bachelor groups are relatively small , consisting of dozens to hundreds of individuals , but can number 100 , 000 or more . in contrast , most nursery colonies are large , numbering from the hundreds of thousands to millions . bracken cave is home to some 20 million free - tailed bats , a population that almost doubles when the bats give birth . this is the largest known bat colony in the world .\na particularly well - studied species , the brazilian free - tailed bat exhibits some spectacular behaviour . it forms the largest warm - blooded colonies in the world , emerging to feed at dusk in huge columns of several million individuals . their flapping wings create a sound equivalent to a white - water river and their numbers are great enough to be detected by airport and weather radars ( 5 ) . feeding for longer each night than any other bat species , it travels as far as 31 miles from the roost to the feeding grounds and uses echolocation to find its prey . the brazilian free - tailed bat flies at up to 47 mile per hour in open spaces , foraging with fast , straight flight ( 7 ) . each bat consumes between 200 and 600 insects a night , selecting mainly moths , but also eating beetles , flying ants and leafhoppers ( 3 ) . the brazilian free - tailed bats of texas are estimated to consume from 6 , 000 to 18 , 000 metric tons of insects each year , many of which are agricultural pests ( 2 ) . at dawn , they return to their roosts where they swarm before re - entering . thought to be a predator - avoidance tactic , the bats gather into groups at a great height above the cave , before closing their wings and dropping rapidly in one continuous stream . predators waiting at the mouth of the cave to catch emerging bats include red - tailed hawks , owls , raccoons , opossums , skunks and snakes ( 5 ) .\non this site you will find a variety of information about the brazilian / mexican free - tailed bat . such information includes classification , habitat , form and function , reproduction , and interactions . to see where this amazing creature tadarida brasiliensis fits into the world of organisms please click at the bottom of the page to continue to the classification page . we hope you enjoy learning more about the tadarida brasiliensis !\n> free - tailed bats ( family molossidae ) , and horseshoe bats ( family rhinolophidae ) \u2014are well represented in the temperate zones . a few american leaf - nosed bats ( family phyllostomidae ) range into mild temperate regions . several vesper bats range well into canada . \u2026\nthe flight of brazilian free - tailed bats on leaving and returning to a roost uniformly is accomplished in groups . it is presumed , therefore , that group flight is the norm in this animal . yet , in the roosting clusters , where grouping is also the norm , there is strong evidence that each bat has affinity not to a specific , stable group of acquaintances but to any convenient group of its kind .\ndespite their rather plain appearance , these are some of the world ' s most intriguing bats . speedsters of the bat world , they have been clocked flying at 60 miles per hour using tail winds , and at altitudes over 10 , 000 feet , higher than any other bat . free - tails can live in an atmosphere more like another planet than earth , one that can quickly kill most other creatures , including humans . and they form colonies larger than any other bat , larger , in fact , than any warm - blooded animal in the world .\nin texas , the brazilian free - tailed bat seems to be primarily a cave dweller , and its use of buildings as roosts is likely a relatively recent , possibly expanding practice . only a small fraction of the numbers of bats found in caves is ever found in the total of all roosts in buildings . every town in the brazilian free - tailed bats\u0092 range in texas is likely to have at least 15 roosts per 5 , 000 human population , but the occupation of buildings is especially common in eastern texas . most roosts in buildings house less than 100 bats at a time , but a few buildings traditionally house many hundreds each year . overwintering in buildings occurs infrequently in the southern gulf coast prairies of texas .\ngeneral condition of the building ( older or more deteriorated buildings are typically more expensive because they require more man hours / materials to bat - proof ) .\ndozens to millions of brazilian free - tailed bats roost closely together in dark , dry retreats . because of their use of roof underhangs , attics , and narrow spaces between signs and buildings , brazilian free - tailed bats are often called\nhouse bats .\nmillions arrive in central texas each spring and take up residence in a few particular caves in the balcones escarpment and the edwards plateau . they migrate to mexico , central america , and possibly south america for the coldest winter months . however , in east texas , these bats are non - migratory and are year - round residents .\na member of the molossidae family , the brazilian free - tailed bat has the characteristic mouse - like tail protruding beyond the flight membrane stretched between its hind legs . relatively plain when compared to many bats , this species has brown fur , large ears that are nearly square , and a strongly wrinkled upper lip . however , it is superbly adapted to its aerial lifestyle , having long , narrow wings with pointed tips to enable very fast flight , and long hairs on the toes to judge flight speed and turbulence . the hind legs are short and powerful , making this bat an excellent climber ( 3 ) .\na member of the molossidae family , the brazilian free - tailed bat has the characteristic mouse - like tail protruding beyond the flight membrane stretched between its hind legs . relatively plain when compared to many bats , this species has brown fur , large ears that are nearly square , and a strongly wrinkled upper lip . however , it is superbly adapted to its aerial lifestyle , having long , narrow wings with pointed tips to enable very fast flight , and long hairs on the toes to judge flight speed and turbulence . the hind legs are short and powerful , making this bat an excellent climber ( 3 ) .\nmexican free - tails are found in the western united states , south through mexico , central america and into northern south america .\nmexican free - tails feed exclusively on flying insects , mostly moths , flying ants , and beetles , according to samples thus far reported . at the turn of the century , charles campbell , the city bacteriologist for san antonio , texas , built large artificial bat roosts to\ncontrol mosquitoes\nfamily molossidae ( free - tailed bats ) 100 robust , small to very large species in 16 genera , some ranging into mild temperate regions . tail projects well beyond the well - developed interfemoral membrane ; ears large , rather immobile , often fused to one another , and unusually shaped ; lips and snout often heavy ; eyes\u2026\neach free - tail cave is also a potential treasure trove for biotechnologists . microbiologist bernie steele examined guano from bracken cave , finding that a\n. although every effort is made by google to ensure translation accuracy , errors may occur . bat conservation international does not guarantee or warrant the accuracy or reliability of this tool .\naustin bat conservation international 500 n capital of tx hwy . , bldg . 1 austin , tx 78746 , usa + 1 ( 512 ) 327 9721 1800 - 538 - bats\nthe annual movement of this animal between texas and mexico may be accomplished by most individuals in a few direct , long - distance flights between guano caves . most adult male brazilian free - tailed bats apparently do not leave the tropical and subtropical portion of the range and play no part in the sociology of bearing and rearing the young .\nthat free - tailed bats can thrive in this toxic atmosphere may be one of the most remarkable things about them . concentrations of ammonia in free - tail caves can quickly build to levels that are lethal to humans , but the bats survive by lowering their metabolic rates . carbon dioxide then accumulates , both in the bats ' blood and in respiratory mucous , directly proportional to increases in ammonia inhalation . the carbon dioxide neutralizes the ammonia in a buffering mechanism that protects the lungs .\nfor answers to our 9 most commonly asked questions , please download our free faq\u2019s brochure . if you would like additional information about the risks bats pose to your property , family , and health , or if you would like information on how to remove the bats from yourself , please download our ebook , \u201cthe complete guide to bat removal\u201d .\nthen again , you may not even see a bat , you may just hear weird noises coming from your attic or walls . or , perhaps you catch a whiff of some peculiar smells .\nswift fliers with long , slender wings , free - tailed bats are small - eyed , often heavy - snouted bats about 4\u201313 cm ( 1 . 6\u20135 . 1 inches ) long excluding the 1 . 5\u20138 - cm ( 0 . 6\u20133 . 1 - inch ) tail . their ears are large and are joined across the forehead in some species . except for the\nbrazilian free - tailed bats appear on the wing several minutes before dark . the famous bat flights at carlsbad caverns are made up almost entirely of this species . one of us ( davis ) watched these bats emerge from the attic of a house one evening . they fell from the exit , dropped nearly to the ground , then zoomed upward and , flying high , disappeared from view , each bat following the general direction of the one in front of it . in foraging , the bats fly rather high \u0097 15 m or more as a rule \u0097 except when sweeping over some body of water to drink . their flight is rapid and aggressive , reminding one of swifts , and the long , angular , and narrow wings , plus relatively large size , make them easy to identify .\nwalston and bates ( 2001 ) report a single bat captured in lowland degraded mixed deciduous forest ( nearby one of the few semi - evergreen patches in the area ) at 140 m asl in cambodia .\na number of species of snakes , birds , and mammals prey on house bats at the caves , but the total of this loss of bats is a very small proportion of the total bat population .\ndespite its name , the brazilian free - tailed bat is actually widespread throughout south , central and north america . it has fairly complex migratory habits ; some populations travel from the extreme north of the range to the extreme south , whilst others remain resident year - round . the largest and most well - known populations are found in mexico and texas , usa . there are nine subspecies in total ; all occupy different ranges and have different migration routes ( 3 ) . the population is thought to total between 95 and 105 million individuals , with bracken cave in texas holding between 20 and 40 million individuals alone ( 2 ) .\nlose roosting habitat as old buildings are destroyed . human disturbance and vandalism of key roosting sites in caves are likely the single most serious causes of decline . grossly exaggerated media stories about rabies have led to the intentional destruction of large colonies . one of the most cost - effective ways to help this highly beneficial bat is through key roost protection , public education , and provision of\nbat - friendly\nbridge designs and other artificial roosts .\nthe largest populations of mexican free - tailed bats live in central texas and mexico , but they are also common throughout much of western north america , southward through central america , and into the arid and semi arid regions of western and southern south america . they live in many habitats , including urban areas , and range - from deserts to pi\u00f1on - juniper woodlands and pine - oak forests . although bachelor colonies of free - tails have been found at elevations over 9 , 000 feet , large nursery colonies tend to prefer relatively dry areas below 5 , 000 feet . mexican free - tails typically live in caves , abandoned mines , or tunnels , and also roost in buildings , under bridges , in rock shelters , in hollow trees , and in cliff - face crevices .\nwhether you live in the outer banks , eastern carolina , the piedmont or the appalachian mountains in the west , you can count on get bats out for all your bat problems . when you need us , we\u2019ll be there .\nfree - tails spend more time on the wing each night than most bats , consuming countless insects , including many agricultural pests . a large colony collectively can eat literally tons of insects .\nat the bottom of the article , feel free to list any sources that support your changes , so that we can fully understand their context . ( internet urls are the best . )\nno particular style , size , age , state of repair , or use by man exempts a building from use by brazilian free - tailed bats . the critical feature is whether the building has any accessible small cracks or niches into which bats can retreat into semidarkness during the day . such openings usually are to be found even in the most modern , compact types of structure . one architectural type common in south texas , the spanish style building with clay tile roof , is among the most vulnerable to invasion by brazilian free - tailed bats . the bats roost under the tiles and seldom can be driven out permanently from a roost in a building either by killing those present or by chemical treatment of the surface of the roost . the simplest , most effective method is to close the entrance to the roost . with clay tile roofs this is almost impossible unless the tile is replaced by some other kind of roofing material .\nthe accumulation , under crowded conditions , of millions of brazilian free - tailed bats per guano cave each summer in texas for the purpose of giving birth and rearing young may be an outgrowth of overpopulation , but it probably is functional in creating favorable conditions for survival of the young . mortality among prenatal and prefledgling babies , as well as among adults , appears to be low . longevity of adults probably is great , with an average of more than 11 years .\nadult male brazilian free - tailed bats arriving in texas in spring are still sexually active , but sperm production is waning . their sex glands decrease steadily in size in spring , and reach a resting stage size by early may . the small proportion of the male population which shows no sexual activity is composed principally of the youngest age class . in these , the testes , prostate , and hedonic glands are smaller than the resting stage sizes of the same glands in adult males . in late fall , the few adult males remaining in texas again show some increase in size of testes and prostates , but sperm are absent . peak production of sperm , thus , must occur during winter while the males are in lower latitudes . since the highly disproportionate ratio of male to female brazilian free - tailed bats in texas cannot be explained easily as resulting from higher mortality among males , it must be that most males do not summer in texas .\nat dusk , just before dark , brazilian free - tailed bats emerge from their roosts to feed . their flight is rapid and forceful , similar to swifts . their long , angular , narrow wings and relatively large size make them easy to identify . insects such as moths , beetles , flying ants , and june bugs are their sole source of food . it is estimated that house bats eat 6 , 000 to 18 , 000 metric tons of insects annually in texas .\nover a 24 - hour period , she may produce as much as a quarter of her own body weight in milk . young free - tails grow rapidly , benefitting from prodigious quantities of this extremely rich\nfree - tail bats consume enormous amounts of moths and other insects . some roosts are known to contain millions of bats . in those colonies it is estimated that 250 tons of insects can be consumed every night .\nin world war ii this species was secretly investigated by the u . s . air force for its potential to carry tiny bombs into japan . bat caves were carefully guarded but the bats refused to cooperate , instead wreaking havoc in air force bases ( 5 ) .\nit is believed that this bat may have occurred commonly in kentucky at some time in the past , but the only recent record is of an individual collected at murray , calloway county , in 1971 . the species is to be expected only as an occasional vagrant here .\none roosting spot is located in the urban setting of austin , texas , underneath the congress street bridge , south of downtown . every night 700 , 000 to 1 . 5 million bats ( depending on how many baby bats have been born in the season ) emerge to feed on flying insects in the night sky . the bats in austin are a spectacle that tourists have flocked to see since the bridge construction was made \u201cbat - friendly\u201d in 1980 . interestingly enough , this was done completely by accident . small 1 . 5 inch slats on the bridge\u2019s concrete extend 20 inches into the bridge . this hiding space proved to be an ideal roosting spot for mexican free - tailed bats . today other bridges in texas are being fitted with similar slats to allow for the habitation of bats .\nthe gestation period of brazilian free - tailed bats appears to be slightly in excess of 90 days . no more than one young is born per year by each adult female . females in texas are almost all pregnant the summer following birth . the left horn of the uterus does not carry an embryo . lactation begins after delivery of the young , and two long mammae are located laterally , each with one functional pectoral teat . a vaginal plug still exists in some females arriving at the texas caves in early spring .\ndavis believed that migratory movements were rapid , crossing texas in one or a few nonstop flights , covering at least 290 miles a night . given knowledge of bat flight speeds with tail winds , migrating free - tails should be able to cover that distance in no more than five hours , perhaps substantially less , depending on wind velocity . such timing would ensure arrival at stopover caves at optimal times for following other bats in , if necessary , and allow for unanticipated delays due to bad weather .\ncontains billions of bacteria . he concluded that the cave contains thousands of species of bacteria , many of which may live nowhere else , and most of which we know nothing about . species he identified produce enzymes useful in detoxifying industrial wastes , producing natural insecticides , improving detergents , and converting waste byproducts into alcohol . a large proportion are also potential sources of new antibiotics . stratified guano deposits in free - tail bat caves have also been used to monitor environmental pollution and to investigate prehistoric climatic changes .\nto be clear , professional exclusion of bat colonies can be very expensive . but , going about it on your own , or through a cut rate or inadequately equipped pest control service may end up costing you more in the long run ( even if they claim to have experience in\nbrazilian free - tailed bats can live up to 11 years in the wild . their residency in central texas is marked by the birth and development of their young . females born in texas are almost all pregnant when they return the summer following their birth . most mating in the texas population takes place each spring before the bats ' return journey to the texas caves . male house bats outnumber females at the caves only briefly , in early spring . however , by mid - june , adult females outnumber adult males more than three to one .\nmexican free - tailed bats are also known as\nguano bats\nfor the prodigious quantities of droppings that they produce . extraction of guano for use as natural fertilizer was once big business , and some is still sold commercially . from 1903 to 1923 , at least 100 , 000 tons were removed from carlsbad caverns alone and sold to fruit growers in california . according to charles campbell , bracken and frio caves in central texas on average each produced 75 to 80 tons annually in the early 1900s . officials of the southern pacific railroad estimated that , early this century , they annually transported 65 carloads of 30 , 000 pounds each from texas , making bat guano the state ' s largest mineral export before oil . bracken cave , now owned and protected by bci , was still producing from 80 to 85 tons per year in the late 1980s .\nmexican free - tailed bats are designed for rapid , long - distance travel . their exceptionally long , narrow wings are geared for relatively highspeed , low - maneuverability flight in open areas . even their short , velvety fur appears to be an adaptation to reduce drag , and their ear orientation appears to form airfoils that contribute lift during flight . they have been clocked at average flight speeds of 25 miles per hour and as high as 47 miles per hour in level flight , but they can also attain speeds of over 60 miles per hour using tail winds .\nwhilst the brazilian free - tailed bat exists in extremely large numbers and across a great range of countries and habitat types , it is still classed as a threatened species . this is due to its reliance on a relatively low number of roost sites . with the loss of just one roost site , a large proportion of the population could be destroyed . some significant declines have been documented , such as the population of eagle creek cave , which fell from 25 million individuals in 1963 to just 30 , 000 individuals in 1969 . these declines are not fully understood , but several threats are present , particularly from the alteration of roost sites and the use of organochlorine pesticides . insecticides which are found in the bodies of living insects accumulate in the bodies of the bats that eat them in such large numbers , resulting in reduced reproductive success and death ( 7 ) .\ndon\u2019t delay ! if you do have bats , the longer you allow a colony to roost in a given location , the stronger their instinct will be to stay and even return to that location . basically , time is not on your side when you suspect a bat infestation \u2013 it is in your best interest to\nmexican free - tails prefer to roost in caves , but will also choose attics , under bridges , or in abandoned buildings . they choose roosts near water . the water attracts the insects they eat , as well as allowing them the opportunity to drink .\nthese morphological data dictate that cynocephala and mexicana be regarded only as subspecies rather than as separate species , which has been the tendency in the past . recent biochemical genetic studies of these bats have pointed strongly to specific status for each , however . additional study will be required to finally settle the taxonomy of this most interesting bat .\nthe longest proven migrations are of bats banded by bryan glass in northwestern oklahoma and later recovered up to 1 , 104 miles south in mexico . the northernmost area where he believed any of his bats could have overwintered was 480 miles south in texas . the original bandings were made at four caves less than 48 miles apart , between which the bats intermingled . one bat was recaptured at its cave of birth in oklahoma after having completed eight migratory circuits . free - tails typically return to their home areas , but for these long distance travelers , a home area may include caves over 100 miles apart .\nwhile free - tailed bats are among the more studied , what remains to be discovered about them may be even more fascinating than what we already know . why do so many fly so high ? are they simply catching tail winds to aid in rapid travel to distant locations , or are they actually feeding at such high altitudes ? how do they navigate at high altitudes , given the fact that their echolocation signals reach little more than 100 feet and that cave entrances can be nearly impossible to see from even a few hundred yards ? bats are known to use celestial cues , but whatever cues they are relying on must work both night and day , since flights often arrive in midmorning .\nwalston and bates ( 2001 ) report a single bat captured in cambodia . the population in barapede cave seems to fluctuate between 40 and 100 as reported by different workers , while the population numbers and trends in the two new locations are unknown . the average count from the barapede cave from 2012 to 2015 is about 82 + individuals ( prabhukhanolkar , pers . comm . 2015 ) .\ntrue southward migration of the free - tails appears not to begin until october . the vast majority of the u . s . population spends the winter mostly in large caves of northern and central mexico . populations living in california , western arizona , oregon , nevada , and southwestern utah apparently live in roughly the same areas year - round , though seasonal movements among roosts are common . there are two main migrations . most of those from the southwest migrate south along the sierra madre occidental and the west coast of mexico at least as far south as the state of sinaloa . free - tails from the great plains typically travel southward through\nwe are experts at getting bats out \u2013 it\u2019s all we do . plus , we have the local knowledge and experience that makes us confident that our solution and service will knock your socks off . however , if for some reason we don\u2019t achieve 100 % removal and prevention , you can still rest assured that your investment with us is worthwhile \u2013 we offer a minimum 1 - year warranty on all bat control services . *\npredation at entrances to nursery caves increases dramatically as the young bats learn to fly . avian predators are many , with red - tailed hawks and owls the most common , catching flying bats during emergence and occasionally entering caves to catch those roosting near entrances . raccoons , opossums , skunks , and other mammals also prey on the emerging bats , as well as several types of large snakes . given the huge numbers of bats present , such predators likely have relatively little impact .\nbats begin arriving in central texas in late february , having migrated from overwintering sites in mexico . active year - round , free - tails do not hibernate . just before their northward migration , they mate . although young males apparently do not reach sexual maturity until their second year , females as young as a year old have been found pregnant .\nmost populations of the migratory subspecies , mexicana , have normally completed their move into mexico prior to the onset of breeding , whereas cynocephala remains in the united states during the breeding season . this movement pattern would indicate that the two races are reproductively isolated and possibly separate species . however , overwintering populations of mexicana have been discovered in an area of contact between the two in southeastern texas . a colony of mexicana was known to overwinter at the old animal pavilion on the texas a & m university campus in college station ( brazos county ) , which is only 160 km from colonies of cynocephala in extreme eastern texas . a morphological analysis of cranial measurements from free - tailed bats captured near navasota ( grimes county ) found these bats to be intermediate between cynocephala and mexicana . thus , it appears the two subspecies are not reproductively isolated and that they likely interbreed in this part of texas .\nas annoying and frightening as they may be ( especially when they are terrorizing your home ) , you shouldn\u2019t kill bats . despite their bad reputation , general lack of physical appeal ( they are ugly ) , and the fact that they and their guano can be very hazardous to human health , bats are actually quite important to our ecosystem . so , for those reasons a responsible property owner should not attempt to eradicate their bat problem using lethal force \u2013 also , it\u2019s illegal\nthe species is threatened from increased tourism , human interference and collections for scientific purposes ( molur et al . 2002 ) . the habitat close to the barapede cave is threatened from submergence due to a proposed dam and river diversion project in the region ( prabhukhanolkar , pers . comm . 2015 ) ( molur et al . 2002 ) . the spread of alien plants species prosopis sp . at the cave mouth is a visible hindrance to bat activities ( pradhan pers . comm . 2003 ) .\neven among populations that migrate , not all bats leave . several thousand have been observed overwintering in bracken cave , as well as in concrete crevices beneath the congress avenue bridge , and in old buildings in austin . although free - tails can enter torpor during inclement winter weather , they are not true hibernators . during extremely cold weather , many die . it is unknown why some stay behind .\nfree - tails spend more time traveling and feeding each night than most bats , in part due to competition from large numbers of roost mates . they typically are on the wing from dusk until dawn . nursing mothers require at least twice as much food as nonreproductive bats , especially as their pups near fledging . at such times , researcher thomas kunz found that they may consume their body weight nightly .\nbrazilian free - tailed bats appear every year in texas in multimillion numbers to inhabit a few select caves ( known as\nguano caves\n) located in the balcones escarpment and the adjacent edwards plateau . the total population of these bats that inhabit texas caves during the summer has been estimated at 95 - 104 million . the largest of the caves , bracken cave near san antonio , is thought to hold between 20 and 40 million bats . these same caves have been the summer homes of this animal for at least the past 100 years . few , if any , house bats ever overwinter in the texas guano caves . they spend the depth of winter , from early december to late february , at lower latitudes \u0097 probably in mexico , central america , or even south america . in east texas , where these bats are common inhabitants of old buildings and similar structures , they are nonmigratory and are year - round residents of that part of the state .\nwhile most people are unaware of the presence of these bats in their area , mexican free - tails are very much a part of life in central texas , where the largest populations in the united states make their summer homes . these huge colonies , several numbering in the millions each , are where mothers congregate to give birth . the importance of these nursery sites is enormous ; bats born here help replenish colonies throughout much of the southwest and other areas .\ndescription . a medium - sized bat with broad ears , large feet , and terminal half of tail free ; ears broad , extending to tip of snout when laid forward , apparently , but not actually , united across forehead , with a series of wartlike structures on anterior rim ; tragus small and blunt ; second joint of fourth finger 6 - 9 mm long ; feet with distinct white bristles on sides of outer and inner toes ; ratio of foot to tibia about 75 ; pelage short ( 3 - 4 mm ) and velvety ; upperparts varying from reddish to black ; underparts slightly paler ; membranes and ears blackish . dental formula : i 1 / 2 or 1 / 3 , c 1 / 1 , pm 2 / 2 , m 3 / 3 x 2 = 30 or 32 . the total number of lower incisors is variable , usually six , sometimes four , occasionally five . external measurements average : total length , 95 mm ; tail , 38 mm ; foot , 10 mm ; ear , 19 mm ; forearm , 42 mm . weight , 11 - 14 g .\nin his research gary mccracken ( left ) marked pairs of mothers and nursing young , discovering that mother bats did not randomly nurse any pup , as had been previously believed . after her pup is born , mother and young spend up to an hour getting to know each other ' s scent and vocalizations ( right ) . she roosts separately from her pup , returning only to nurse it . remarkably , among the many thousands of other pups covering the cave walls ( opposite page ) , she will find her own young . note the other bat in the upper right corner , nearly buried by pups .\nbe enough to warrant a comprehensive inspection . why would we say that ? the fact is , these creatures are reclusive by nature and typically only come out at a time of day when they are difficult to see ( this is obviously a strategic advantage both for their own hunting purposes as well as protection from predators ) . and , it is rare ( although it can happen ) that a bat will randomly get trapped in your home , so if you happen see one or one gets into your home , then it\u2019s likely that there are more and / or that they have been there for a while .\nat dawn , the free - tails return to their roost in an event sometimes said to be even more spectacular than evening emergences . richard davis and his fellow researchers observed flocks of thousands of bats each , first becoming visible 4 , 900 to 8 , 200 feet above bracken cave . these high - altitude flocks sometimes flew past the entrance at speeds of almost 60 miles per hour before turning around and diving toward the entrance . beginning about two hours before sunrise , small groups built up into a continuous diving stream , reaching the greatest density about 30 minutes before dawn . the first arriving bats came in shallow , zigzagging glides , but as flight density increased , they formed a continuous stream of individuals dropping out of the sky into the mouth of the cave . each was executing a rapid series of free falls with closed wings , alternating with abrupt , brief wing openings to control speed and direction . some groups dropped nearly 10 , 000 feet at speeds estimated to exceed 80 miles per hour .\nplease subscribe now ! urltoken caves are without question the number one habitat we think of when it comes to bats , but it might surprise you to know that there could literally be thousands of bats living right under a place many of us use every single day . . . the road ! this week coyote has teamed up with wildlife expert philip\nwildman\nrakoci to seek out the mexican free - tail bat under the dark desert highways of arizona . most people are terrified of bats but coyote and wildman phil are determined to show you why these stealthy little predators are nothing to fear and are actually pretty darn cute ! special thanks to wildman phil for all of his help on this episode and make sure to check out his work in animal conservation and education at urltoken breaking trail leaves the map behind and follows adventurer and animal enthusiast coyote peterson and his crew as they explore a variety of wildlife in the most amazing environments throughout north america ! watch more breaking trail : urltoken subscribe now ! urltoken find more info at : urltoken coyote peterson on twitter : urltoken coyote peterson on facebook : urltoken coyote peterson g + : urltoken\nas large numbers of bats leave the cave , they begin appearing in groups of tens to hundreds of thousands under highway bridges and in almost any other available place . during 1993 , an extremely dry year in central texas , so many free - tails attempted to move under austin ' s congress avenue bridge that tens of thousands were forced to hang out in the open on the concrete pillars . with three - quarters of a million bats of its own , the bridge is the site of the largest urban colony of bats in the world ."]}
{"id": 1321, "summary": [{"text": "the sarus crane ( antigone antigone ) is a large non-migratory crane found in parts of the indian subcontinent , southeast asia and australia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the tallest of the flying birds , standing at a height of up to 1.8 m ( 5 ft 11 in ) , they are conspicuous and iconic species of open wetlands .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the sarus crane is easily distinguished from other cranes in the region by the overall grey colour and the contrasting red head and upper neck .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they forage on marshes and shallow wetlands for roots , tubers , insects , crustaceans and small vertebrate prey .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "like other cranes , they form long-lasting pair-bonds and maintain territories within which they perform territorial and courtship displays that include loud trumpeting , leaps and dance-like movements .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "in india they are considered symbols of marital fidelity , believed to mate for life and pine the loss of their mates even to the point of starving to death .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the main breeding season is during the rainy season , when the pair builds an enormous nest \" island \" , a circular platform of reeds and grasses nearly two metres in diameter and high enough to stay above the shallow water surrounding it .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "sarus crane numbers have declined greatly in the last century and it has been suggested that the current population is a tenth or less ( perhaps 2.5 % ) of the numbers that existed in the 1850s .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the stronghold of the species is in india , where it is traditionally revered and lives in agricultural lands in close proximity to humans .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "elsewhere , the species has been extirpated in many parts of its former range . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "sarus crane", "paragraphs": ["sarus crane : feeding . sarus crane ( grus antigone ) feeding in its natural habitat and lighting conditions sarus crane ( grus antigone ) . a sarus crane ( grus antigone ) feeding in the water sarus crane pair in a misty morning seen at bharatpur . rajasthan , india sarus crane . a full shot of sarus crane in its natural habitat sarus crane pair dacing and courtship display at bharatpur . rajasthan , india sarus crane : pair . sarus crane ( grus antigone ) pair in its natural habitat sarus crane grus antigone in keoladeo ghana national park , bha . ratpur , rajasthan , india . sarus crane is the tallest of the flying birds sarus crane pair . close up photo of a sarus crane couple in keoladeo national park , bharatpur sarus crane calling . . sarus crane grus antigone calling portrait with beautiful background sarus crane . preening ( grus antigo portrait of sarus cranes . sarus crane grus antigone portrait with beautiful background sarus cranes courting . sarus crane grus antigone courting with beautiful background sarus cranes grus antigone in keoladeo ghana national park , bh . aratpur , rajasthan , india . sarus crane is the tallest of the flying birds sarus cranes grus antigone in keoladeo ghana national park , bh . aratpur , rajasthan , india . sarus crane is the tallest of the flying birds sandhill crane near the lake is drinking water . taken in florida cranes in beautiful pose . sarus crane ( grus antigone ) pair in its natural habitat cranes in beautiful pose . sarus crane grus antigone pair in its natural habitat pelican fishing in water seen at bharatpur . rajasthan , india\nareas contained the highest number of sarus cranes . our analysis showed that the population of sarus crane\n\u2193 india : sarus crane pair and goatherd . little is known about sarus - human interactions in australia\ninternational crane foundation , 2015 .\nsarus crane grus antigone\n( on - line ) . internation crane foundation . accessed may 29 , 2015 at urltoken .\nthe study areas where sarus crane were directly observed and nest sites were recorded .\ndescription : sarus crane is the tallest crane species and of all flying birds , with a height of about 176 cm .\nconservation of the species . we studied the sarus crane in the rupandehi district of nepal\nsarus crane ( antigone antigone ) is a species of bird in the gruidae family .\nthe current range of the indian sarus crane includes the plains of northwestern india , the western half of nepal\u2019s terai lowlands and parts of pakistan . the eastern sarus crane occurs in myanmar , laos , vietnam and cambodia . the australian sarus crane occurs in northern australia .\nsarus crane \u2013 grus antigone complete detail . description of sarus crane \u2013 grus antigone \u2013 saras . classification of sarus crane . habit and habitat of sarus crane . they prefer wetlands areas . they also found in cultivated areas , canals , ponds , and marshes . during dry season , sarus crane is found in shallow wetlands , cultivated fields , and wet grasslands . they roost in shallow water , where they may be safe from some ground predators .\nindian sarus crane chick , the second egg is pipping ( india , k . s . gopi sundar ) ; australian sarus crane egg ( mhnt , mus\u00e9um de toulouse , see sidebar )\n\u2191 l : atherton tablelands , sarus crane hunting invertebrates in hayfield ( sandy carroll ) ; r : india , sarus crane pecking rice grains from the stalks ( k . s . gopi sundar )\nmarital fidelity and congregation of indian sarus crane , grus antigone antigone in and around alwara . . .\nwhooping cranes are the least common crane species . red - crowned cranes are the second rarest crane species .\nthe idea for an eastern sarus crane reintroduction program in thailand\nhatched\nat an international . . .\nindian sarus crane shaking and stretching wings to dry off after bathing ( k . s . gopi sundar )\nduring the breeding season , the red legs , head , and neck of the sarus crane turn brighter .\neastern sarus cranes , phu my nature reserve , vietnam . courtesy mr pau tang & international crane foundation .\nthe sarus crane occurs in india , south - east asia and australia . genetic studies indicate it ' s more than 30 , 000 years since australian sarus cranes interbred with sarus from se asia , and there is no known migration of australian sarus outside northern australia .\nsarus crane is found in the northern , central and north - eastern pars of india . sultanpur bird sanctuary ,\nlongevity of sarus crane exceeds up to 15 - 20 years in the wild and for 40 years in captivity .\nmukharjee a , soni vc , borad ck , et al . 2000 . nest and egg of sarus crane (\nconservation of the vulnerable sarus crane grus antigone antigone in kota , rajasthan , india : a case . . .\n\u2191 eastern sarus cranes , phu my nature reserve , vietnam ; courtesy mr pau tang & international crane foundation .\npopulation structure , behavior , and current threats to the sarus crane ( grus antigone antigone ) in n . . .\nif a sarus crane lays two eggs , there is a 48 - hour gap between the first and second egg .\nsarus crane habitat is meagerly protected within reserves . in india , most sarus cranes are found scattered throughout private and village lands , but they do occur in many protected areas , including\nreducing threats to sarus crane populations from power line collisions , illegal conversion of wetlands and poisoning by agricultural and industrial chemicals .\nthey have black hair like bristles cover the upper throat and neck . the crown of sarus crane is grey or dirty white .\nrange : sarus crane is resident in n pakistan and india , nepal , south - east asia , and queensland in australia .\nnatural resource management group southern gulf nrm is continuing its recognition of champions of the land with the organisation\u2019s annual sarus crane awards .\na sarus crane flock rests beside a bustling village in central uttar pradesh . very little is known about sarus flocks , and our work is leading to new understanding of their requirements and behaviour .\nsarus crane is regarded as the threatened species . it is currently listed in the schedule iv of the wildlife ( protection ) act , 1972 . iucn ( red list ) classifies sarus crane as vulnerable . the total population of sarus crane approximately lies between 13 , 500 to 15 , 500 . loss of wetland areas , egg damage by the humans and heavy use of pesticides has seriously declined the population of sarus crane . it is widely haunted by the villagers and is also used for the trade purpose in many countries .\nlisten to short calls of sarus cranes\u00bb and brolgas\u00bb on ozcranes . long calls of australian sarus and brolgas in the field can be played for comparison at new zealand birds online . listen to a sarus crane calling near the curtain fig , yungaburra , atherton tableland .\nthe sarus crane ( grus antigone ) is a resident breeding bird in northern india , nepal , southeast asia and queensland , australia .\nmukherjee a . , borad c . k . and parasharya b . m . 2002 . the factors affecting distribution of the indian sarus crane\nsarus crane ( antigone antigone ) is a flagship species . its population is declining globally . first recorded in 1877 in nepal , so far only a few studies have been conducted on sarus crane and results of these studies confirm their declining state . based on previous studies , the author reviewed the status of sarus crane in nepal . studies show that it is uncommon with patchy distribution from . . . [ show full abstract ]\n\u2193 gulf of carpentaria . l : sarus subadult foraging on edge of borrow pit , miranda downs . r : sarus crane and juvenile hunting in borrow pit , gilbert river ( k . s . gopi sundar )\nmaterial from philippines sarus is being included in genetic analyses for the first time as part of tim nevard ' s phd study\u00bb , with the potential to add insight into relationships between the different forms of sarus crane .\nin india , they found in west bengal , assam , gujarat , punjab and uttar pradesh . sarus crane also found in bihar and rajasthan .\nthey prefer wetlands areas . sarus crane also found in cultivated areas , canals , ponds , and marshes . during dry season , sarus crane is found in shallow wetlands , cultivated fields , and wet grasslands . they roost in shallow water , where they may be safe from some ground predators .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - sarus crane ( grus antigone )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - sarus crane ( grus antigone )\ntitle =\narkive species - sarus crane ( grus antigone )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe size of a crane egg depends on the species . the larger the crane , the larger the egg . the largest of crane eggs will be about 4 . 6 inches long . they are usually tan with brown speckles .\nbirdlife international , 2015 .\nsarus crane antigone antigone\n( on - line ) . birdlife international . accessed april 02 , 2015 at urltoken .\nflight : sarus crane flies with straight neck , and long legs trailing behind them . they perform powerful wing beats , and they are good fliers .\n\u2191 indian sarus crane . the bird has dunked its head right underwater to probe for tubers , water flows off the bill as it lifts it head\nrange of sarus crane includes the plains of northern , northwestern , and western india and the western half of nepal\u00eds tarai lowlands . sarus cranes are most common in the indian states of uttar pradesh , rajasthan , gujarat , and\ndiet : sarus crane is omnivorous , feeding on wide range of food items such as aquatic plants including sedge tubers , rice , seeds and other grains , snails , crustaceans , grasshoppers and other large insects , amphibians , reptiles , fish and small vertebrates . sarus crane forages in both wetlands and uplands .\nsecuring the sarus crane population in south asia through community - supported conservation practices and governmental policies that maintain the rich biodiversity of agricultural landscapes . we are :\nsarus crane is a schedule \u2013 iv bird , according to wildlife ( protection ) act , 1972 and classified as vulnerable ( vu ) by the iucn .\nthe sarus crane is the tallest flying bird in the world , standing at a height of up to 180 cm . size of adult sarus crane is between 140 to 160 cm . the weight of adult is between 5 . 0 to 8 . 4 kg . they have a wingspan of 200 to 280 cm .\nbehaviour : sarus crane feeds on wide range of wetland plants materials , seeds and grains , and also large insects , molluscs , amphibians , reptiles and small vertebrates . when searching for food , sarus crane walks slowly , head down . it does not dig , but it probes the soil with its long bill .\nsarus crane is resident in australia and india , with only some seasonal dispersion in dry period . we can observe some limited migrations in south - east asia .\nvyas r . and kulshreshtha m . 1989 . sarus nidification , egg and embryo . paper presented in the asian crane congress at rajkot , gujarat , india .\nsarus cranes live in southeast asia , northern india and in northern australia . three populations are currently recognized , each one occupying a distinct range . the indian sarus crane lives in northern and central india , pakistan and nepal . the eastern sarus crane used to live throughout southeast asia but now is confined to vietnam and cambodia , with a small population in myanmar . the australian sarus crane lives in northern australia . these cranes live mainly in wetlands such as canals , marshes and ponds , sometimes near humans . they inhabit cultivated areas too , and high - altitude wetlands . breeding is further inland , but always in a wet area . during the dry season , the sarus crane occurs in shallow wetlands , wet grasslands or rice fields .\nthe sarus crane ( grus antigone antigone ) is listed as \u201cvulnerable\u201d in the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) red list of threatened species . sarus cranes are distributed in the lowlands , but most live outside protected areas , especially in agricultural areas and wetlands of nepal . the continuous expansion of agricultural land and the reduction of wetland habitats pose the greatest threats to the conservation of the species . we studied the sarus crane in the rupandehi district of nepal to understand their population structure , behavior , and current threats . we used the line ( i . e . , road ) transect method from august 2013 to february 2014 . the study area contained 147 sarus cranes . agricultural land and wetland areas contained the highest number of sarus cranes . our analysis showed that the population of sarus crane in the area has declined since 2007 . most sarus cranes lived in pairs . a single flock contained 13 cranes at maximum . sarus crane behavior was not significantly different before and after the breeding seasons . human\u2013sarus crane conflict began when cranes started utilizing agricultural areas . the main threats to the hatching success and survival of sarus cranes in the rupendehi district are egg theft and the hunting of cranes for meat . the findings of this study establish baseline information on the overall conservation status , habitat availability , and ecological behavior of sarus cranes in the district . we propose regular surveys to monitor sarus crane population levels in the face of multiple anthropogenic threats to their survival .\ncrane papercut \u00a9cranesnorth | site \u00a9cranesnorth & authors | xhtml1 . 0 : : css 3\nadult sandhill crane ; steveston waterfront , richmond , bc , canada ; 18 august .\nthe range , status and winter ecology of the siberian crane ( gus leucogenanus ) .\na positive correlation was observed between the crane numbers and the area of agricultural land .\ncrane were also recorded as shown in tables 1 , 2 and fig . 1 .\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto sarus crane utters loud , high - pitched calls . during courtship displays , female utters two calls while male gives only one .\ndesai r . m . 1980 . studies in the biology of the indian sarus crane , m . phil . thesis , south gujarat university , surat , india .\nsarus cranes in seasonally - flooded savannah woodlands , gulf of carpentaria : the only known major breeding habitat for australian sarus ( k . s . gopi sundar )\nmortality of sarus cranes ( grus antigone ) due to electricity . . | inis\nwas it the sarus that valmiki referred to ? in different literature , the krau\u00f1cha has been described as a dove , flamingo , swan , snipe , curlew or even a demoiselle crane . the wiki for demoiselle crane has a reference to krau\u00f1cha and valmiki . however , more recent studies have established the identity of valmiki\u2019s krau\u00f1cha pair as sarus cranes .\nour monthly summary of media stories highlighting the international crane foundation\u2019s global programs . . . .\nadult sandhill crane ; bosque del apache nwr , socorro co . , nm ; january .\ncrane is inseparably associated with wetland habitats . several investigators have tried to study different aspects of\ncrane was recorded in all the three transects of the lake as shown in images 3\u20135 .\nsarus crane is a monogamous bird and well known as an eternal symbol of unconditional love , devotion and good fortune . its occurrence represents a healthy wetland ecosystem . these cranes are large , long - legged and long - necked birds belonging to family : gruidae , order : gruiformes , class : aves and phylum : chordata . indian sarus crane , grus antigone antigone is the largest of the crane species . . . [ show full abstract ]\nsarus crane footsteps are larger than a grown man ' s hand , as shown by this photograph from a trapeang ( watering hole ) in mondulkiri protected forest , northeastern cambodia .\n( 26 . 31 % ) were stolen by people . killing of some juvenile sarus\nmuralidharan s . 1992 . poisoning the sarus . hornbill 1 : 2 - 7 .\nsarus spreading wings in nest defence display ( research intruder ) , and sarus pair duetting in rice field . uttar pradesh , india ( k . s . gopi sundar )\n\u2191 sarus dance in rupandehi , nepal . \u2193 two out of three young indian sarus , in one brood ( \u2018triplets\u2019 ) . images by k . s . gopi sundar\nhabitat : sarus crane lives mainly in various wetlands such as canals , ponds , marshes , even near humans . they can be found in cultivated areas too , and also in high - altitude wetlands . they breed more inland , but always in wet areas . during dry season , sarus crane is found in shallow wetlands , rice fields or wet grasslands .\nozcranes is the website of the australian crane network so mainly concentrates on australian sarus cranes\u00bb , but we often refer to studies and include images from better - studied populations elsewhere . by contrast , this page specifically features resources and images for sarus cranes in other countries .\nsecuring crane dry season habitats in the mekong delta and breeding habitats in northern cambodia and vietnam by strengthening conservation practices at existing crane sites and safeguarding small remnant wetlands that cranes could use .\narchibald gw , sundar ksg , barzen j . 2003 . a review of three species of sarus crane grus antigone . j . of ecological soc . 16 : 5 - 15 .\neggs 2 to 3 , chalky white . incubation period is between 27 to 35 days . both parents take part in incubation . the average lifespan of sarus crane is 20 years .\nreproduction : sarus crane breeds during wet season in its range . they nest on the ground . bulky nest is made with wetland vegetation . nest materials are associated with breeding habitat .\n. very little is known about sarus - human interactions in australia , though observers and photographers agree that sarus seem more wary and prone to flight than brolgas in similar conditions .\nthree populations of the sarus crane are currently recognised and each occupies a distinct range . the indian sarus crane population is found in pakistan , northern and central india and nepal . the eastern sarus crane population was historically found throughout southeast asia but is now confined to cambodia and vietnam , with a small remnant population persisting in myanmar . finally , the australian sarus crane population is found in northern australia . although the indian population is largely resident , the eastern sarus crane populationin indochina migrates from breeding areas in cambodia to the mekong delta in vietnam outside of the breeding season ( 2 ) . there has been recent debate as to whether these populations are in fact distinct subspecies . however , a recent genetic assessment of the populations suggests that although previously classified as subspecies , they may not be genetically diverse enough to allow them to be regarded as such , and therefore should be regarded only as separate populations ( 6 ) .\nliebherr - installation work of a ltc 1045 - 3 . 1 mobile crane in carcassonne , france\nin the area has declined since 2007 . most sarus cranes lived in pairs . a single\nstudy . our study found that the density of sarus cranes as 4 . 2 in -\nsingh v . p . and khan s . a . 1989 . status of sarus (\nthere are four surviving sarus crane populations : south asia ( india , with some in nepal ) ; eastern ( southeast asia , mostly cambodia and vietnam ) ; myanmar - china ; and australia . these were previously thought to be three sub - species , combining myanmar and southeast asia , with the extinct philippines sarus as a possible fourth . genetic studies now show gradual variation across the range [ 1 ] , with myanmar - china sarus distinct from the eastern sarus . philippines sarus cranes are now being studied for the first time ( see below ) .\nthere have been no systematic studies of crane behaviour in australia , and for sarus cranes we even have few observations . roost behaviour , unison calling , pairbonding and dance displays are believed similar to\nour monthly summary of media stories highlighting the international crane foundation ' s global programs . . . .\n( blashfield , 2004 ; international crane foundation , 2015 ; yaseen , et al . , 2013 )\nimage : bugeranus carunculatus . jpg | thumb | right | a crane ( bird ) . wikipedia see | cr\u00e3\u00a2ne english image : towercrane . jpg | thumb | right | a crane ( mechanical ) .\nworld association of zoos and aquariums , 2015 .\nsarus crane grus antigone\n( on - line ) . world association of zoos and aquariums waza . accessed april 01 , 2015 at urltoken .\nthe image of the australian sarus crane egg is by d descouens from the collection of mhnt ( mus\u00e9um de toulouse ) and used under a creative commons attribution - share alike 4 . 0 international licence\nborad c . k . , mukherjee a . and parasharya b . 2001a . nest site selection by the indian sarus crane in the paddy crop agroecosystem . biological conservation 98 : 89 - 96 .\na comprehensive literature review for south asian sarus \u2013 ks gopi sundar & bc choudhury ( 2003 ) , \u2018the indian sarus crane grus a . antigone : a literature review\u2019 . journal of ecological society 15 : 5 - 15 \u2013 can be read online or downloaded free in various formats from urltoken .\n, there are a lot of positives in australia . brolgas and sarus cranes are widely respected across the pastoral rangelands or farmlands where they nest , and later feed and roost in flocks . the birds keep coming back , implying many properties are managed positively for brolgas and sarus cranes . for more on habitat and conservation , continue on to ozcrane brolga and sarus crane faqs , and check ozcranes\nhabitat availability , and ecological behavior of sarus cranes in the district . we propose regular surveys to\nand other sarus ( see links below ) . flight behaviour for both species is covered in ozcranes\nsundar , k . s . g . ( 2006 ) conservation of the sarus crane grus antigone in uttar pradesh , india . journal of the bombay natural history society , 103 : 182 - 190 .\nsarus cranes drink and bathe every morning and evening and often also during the day . unlike brolgas they have no specialised gland for excreting salt , but some eastern sarus cranes roost in saline wetlands and indian sarus sometimes feed on beaches and would ingest some salt from prey . sarus cranes have been seen on the beach at karumba , queensland ( j grant ) . there appear to be no published observations of australian sarus drinking , to document whether they drink brackish as well as fresh water .\nthe sarus crane , a bird species characteristic of wetlands , is categorized as vulnerable on the iucn red list . in india , sarus cranes occur mostly outside protected areas and use these unprotected areas for feeding and breeding . they are consequently threatened by poaching and the destruction of their eggs and juveniles . to protect the crane ' s habitat and nests a community education and . . . [ show full abstract ]\n2016 ) . although state and federal authorities list sarus crane as \u201ccommon\u201d or \u201cleast concern\u201d wildlife , it is included as a migratory species covered by international treaties to which australia is a signatory ( e . scambler\n[ 2 ] tin nwe latt , 2016 . sarus crane taxonomy , habitat and wetland conservation status in shan plateau and rakhine state . conference presentation , wetlands alliance cambodia : currently ( june 2017 ) offline .\nin india , sarus cranes nest during the annual monsoon , when yearly rains replenish the . . .\naustralian sarus cranes are mostly concentrated as shown , in far north queensland and the far ne of the northern territory . occasional records occur s of the area shown , and across the top end . sarus\nborad c . k . , mukherjee a . and parasharya b . m . 2001b . damage potential of the indian sarus crane in paddy crop agroecosystem . agriculture , ecosystems and environment 86 : 211 - 215 .\nauthenticated ( 31 / 03 / 05 ) by k . s . gopi sundar , international crane foundation . urltoken\net al . ( 2002 ) observed that openness of habitat is a requirement for the existence of the crane .\nthe sarus crane is the world ' s tallest flying bird . this crane , when standing , is as tall as a man . these elegant birds are predominantly gray , with long , pale red legs . their naked head is red , as is their neck . juveniles have buff feathers on their head and slightly darker plumage .\nthe sarus crane ( grus antigone antigone ) , one of the world\u2019s tallest flying birds , has been listed as \u2018vulnerable\u2019 in the iucn red list of threatened species . sarus cranes are distributed in the lowlands and most of them are found outside protected areas especially in agricultural areas and wetlands of nepal . continued expansion of agricultural land and reduction in wetland habitats pose the greatest threats to the conservation of the species . we conducted a study on sarus crane in rupandehi district of nepal and aiming to understand their population structure , behaviour and current threats .\nin addition to ensuring that sarus cranes at the att are protected , conservation staff also conduct annual surveys of crane numbers to determine population size and monitor project success . education campaigns help to raise local awareness of sarus cranes , and a nest protection scheme protects the cranes at their key breeding sites in cambodia ' s northern plains .\njones , j . l . , barzen , j . a . and ashley , m . v . ( 2005 ) geographical partitioning of microsatellite variation in the sarus crane . animal conservation , 8 : 1 \u2013 8 .\nsundar , k . s . g . and choudhury , b . c . ( 2003 ) the indian sarus crane grus a . antigone : a literature review . journal of the ecological society , 16 : 16 - 41 .\nsarus crane is omnivorous . it feeds on he diet includes frogs , reptiles , eggs of birds , turtles eggs , invertebrates , butterflies , grasshoppers , tubers of aquatic plants , cereals , potatoes , peas , berries and seeds .\nduring the breeding season , sarus cranes establish territories , but little is known about the size of the territories .\nvation of nature ( iucn ) red list of threatened species . sarus cranes are distributed in the lowlands , but\nramachandran n . k . and vijayan v . s . 1994 . distribution and general ecology of the sarus (\nmy sanskrit teacher in school , mrs . sulabha v hubli , explained ma nishada in great detail with its many meanings and interpretations , imprinting the epic scene on my memory . a few months ago , i had attended shyamal\u2019s talk , where he discussed melchior de hondecoeter\u2019s 1680 artwork , het drijvend veertje , one of the most accurate representations of the sarus crane . the sarus crane ( grus antigone ) at the center of the frame got me thinking about this verse again .\nsarus crane is a omnivorous bird . they feed on marshes , berries , seeds , roots , tubers , insects , frogs , reptiles , fishes , eggs of birds , invertebrates , butterflies , and grasshoppers . they forage in shallow water .\n[ 1 ] gw archibald & sr swengel ( 1987 ) . \u2018comparative ecology and behavior of eastern sarus cranes and brolgas in australia\u2019 proceedings of the 1985 crane workshop , ed . jc lewis : 107 - 116 . download article from ozcranes downloads\u00bb\nparasharya b . m . , mathew k . l . and yadav d . n . 1989 . status and habitat preference of indian sarus crane in gujarat , india . paper presented in the asian congress at rajkot , gujarat , india .\nvideos : brolga making single calls while walking through swamp ; indian sarus unison call at the nest ( youtube ) .\nsundar , k . 2009 . are rice paddies suboptimal breeding habitat for sarus cranes in uttar pradesh , india ? .\nare the only known stable areas for breeding sarus cranes in the state and have one breeding pair each . at the end of 1994 , icf signed an agreement with the lumbini development trust in nepal to lease 120 ha of land at lumbini , the birthplace of the buddha , to establish the lumbini crane sanctuary and to protect nepal\u00eds remnant population of sarus cranes .\nstrong cultural ties to cranes and wetlands in south / southeast asia provide unique opportunities to engage people in the conservation of these intensely settled landscapes using the sarus crane as a flagship species , which in turn also benefits local communities and other species .\nin asia , most sarus cranes breed in cultivated rice ( more in cranes on farms 2\u00bb ) . breeding habitat in the gulf of carpentaria is in different types of flooded grassy woodlands or savannah . many ( though not all ) sarus crane pairs apparently choose different habitat types for their nest sites than brolgas , however some are found close to brolga pairs in other habitat types . for more detail and references see sarus faq2 and john grant ' s article on his ongoing gulf study\u00bb .\njones , k . l . , f . chavez - ramirez , x . galvez - aguilera , l . torella and m . v . ashley . 2005b .\ngenetic assessment of non - migratory sandhill crane populations .\nin proceedings of the ninth north american crane workshop , edited by f . chavez - ramirez , 250 . sacramento : north american crane working group . close\nprange h . 1995 . crane research and protection in europe . europeanworking group and martin luther \u00a8 universitat , halle - wittenberg .\nconservation interventions focus on working with local communities , government agencies and other conservation partners to improve management and protection of sarus cranes at some of the most important non - breeding season refuges . the principal site is the ang trapeang thmor ( att ) sarus crane reserve , a permanently flooded , man - made reservoir situated in banteay meanchey province , north - west cambodia .\nthe main breeding season for sarus cranes typically lies within the rainy season , between the months of june and september . it has been suggested that sarus cranes will mate for life , though there has been little research to substantiate this claim .\nthe species is venerated in india and legend has it that valmiki cursed a hunter for killing a sarus and was then inspired to write the epic ramayana [ 1 ] . in australia , the sarus can easily be mistaken for the brolga .\nthe sarus crane is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) . listed on appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) and appendix ii of the convention on migratory species ( cms or bonn convention ) ( 4 ) .\ngole p . 1987 . observing the sarus . in : archibald g . w . and pasquier r . f . ( eds ) , proceedings of the 1983 international workshop , bharatpur . international crane foundation , baraboo , pp . 107 - 114 .\nbrolgas are adapted to dry habitats provided water exists , even occupying some desert regions as well as higher rainfall areas ( see map in brolga faq 1\u00bb ) . all australian sarus cranes however , live in wet or seasonally wet regions in the northern tropics ( see maps in ozcranes crane intro\u00bb ) . brolgas occur throughout the range of australian sarus but based on records so far , seem to use a wider variety of habitats with sarus found mainly in swamp woodlands , swamps , croplands and grasslands .\nmigration : sarus cranes do not migrate but will make short seasonal movements between wet and dry habitats in asia and australia .\ncrane chicks grow very rapidly up to an inch per day some days , or five feet in three months . some growing crane chicks can put on almost one pound of weight for every pound of food they eat . in the wild , crane chicks may gain up to 20 % of their body weight per day , however , we limit them to about 10 % per day at icf .\nalthough sarus cranes are non - migratory , populations move on a seasonal basis in response to monsoons and droughts . indian sarus cranes are more sedentary than eastern and australian sarus cranes , undertaking extended movement only during times of severe drought . the indian sarus crane have adapted to the high growth of human population and they are able to use even small wetlands if they are not heavily disturbed . breeding pairs and families with pre - fledged chicks are typically dispersed among scattered natural and artificial wetlands . adult pairs will use drier habitats such as cultivated and fallow fields , and degraded ( saline and water - logged ) lands . eastern sarus cranes are less tolerant of people and are dependent on natural wetlands in both the wet and dry seasons . australian sarus cranes nest in open wetlands during wet season and feed in upland agricultural fields and grasslands at other times of the year .\n. in 2008 the atherton tablelands important bird area was established based on population distribution data from the annual counts , and continuing counts from 2009 monitor the iba and surrounding sites . authorities have flagged particular sections of powerline after sarus crane deaths or injuries were reported by concerned observers in the iba . the australian crane network ( website urltoken established in 2005 , remains a contact point for crane researchers , landowners and interested individuals , including international networks ; and provides updates on ongoing and completed research and conservation issues ( e . scambler\ncontinuing mekong delta community - based wetland and livelihood conservation programs and adapting these models to other important crane areas in cambodia and vietnam .\nin the last 50 years the eastern sarus crane has disappeared from thailand , malaysia and much of indochina . it is still in serious decline and multiple research and wetland conservation programs are underway in cambodia and vietnam . in thailand , a captive breeding program has released sarus into protected wetland areas in an attempt to restore the original population extinct since about 1980 . across southeast asia the major threats are wetland drainage or other habitat changes , as well as hunting , egg collection and taking sarus chicks as pets .\nthe sarus crane is the tallest flying bird in the world , standing at a height of up to 180 cm . size of adult sarus crane is between 140 to 160 cm . the overall body color is grey or dirty white . the upper neck and head is bright red in color . they have predominantly grey plumage . the bill is pointed , long and strong , the color of bill is paler grey or dirty white . the legs are also long and strong , and paler red or pinkish red in color .\nindian sarus show high nest site fidelity [ 1 ] , returning year after year to nest in the same place . offspring also return to nest close to their birthplace , sometimes many years later . in uttar pradesh , a 1 - month old male indian sarus crane was banded at the nest by ks gopi sundar in 2001 . fourteen years later the bird returned , paired and established a nesting territory within 500m of the original nest . in australia , no sarus cranes have been tracked so these factors are unknown .\nin mixed non - breeding season flocks one species usually predominates , but as yet there are no data on why brolgas concentrate in some dry season locations while sarus concentrate in others . even where mixed flocks forage during the day , the two species may choose different roost sites to spend the night . one example is the regular occurrence of feeding sarus cranes in the drier outer parts of the atherton tablelands , e . g . kaban and tumoulin , while roosts in these locations are almost exclusively used by brolgas ( see ozcranes research nq crane counts\u00bb ) . a significant phd study is now underway on brolga / sarus crane interactions and habitat differences in northern queensland .\ncrane , but the vegetation at the edge of the crop field and the type of crop grown also affected the availability of the cranes .\nsarus cranes have grown accustomed to living in large agricultural areas , specifically along low wetlands and flooded rice paddies . they tend to prefer natural wetlands over agricultural paddies however , there is still debate on which habitat these birds prefer . extensive research has been performed to understand the interaction of the sarus crane with paddy ecosystems . paddies have become more desirable habitats for these cranes because nesting sites are situated in proximity to areas with an abundance of food . sarus cranes , though likely to use wetlands adjoining flooded rice paddies , also have the ability to make use of drier habitats relative to other crane species . they have also adapted well to the increased presence of human activity .\nalthough overhead electrical wires are known to have caused severe declines of bird populations , there are no studies in india that address this danger , even for endangered species . rates of mortality , factors affecting mortality and population effects of electrical wires on the globally endangered sarus crane (\nsarus cranes time their breeding with the indian monsoon aided by the farmers whose rice planting in the same time ensures a flooded landscape .\nalthough the sarus crane was included in a set of postage stamps featuring important burmese birds in 1964 , very little is known about the sarus located in myanmar and adjoining parts of yunnan province , china . in his \u2018catalogue of mammals and birds of burma\u2019 ( 1875 ) , blyth described sarus as very numerous in the interior in large flocks , and cited a breeding reference . in \u2018the birds of burma\u2019 ( 1953 ) smythies gives more details of habitats and locations including breeding sites , and reports flocks of up to 60 in \u2018mid - monsoon\u2019 .\nadult sandhill crane flying at bosque del apache national wildlife refuge , socorro county , new mexico in january 2011 . photo credit : terry cacek .\nthe sg is located at , and affiliated to , the nature conservation foundation , the international crane foundation , and the complutense university of madrid .\na positive correlation was observed between the crane numbers and the area of agricultural land , e . g . , paddy field , sugarcane field ,\n) were assessed for breeding and non - breeding cranes in etawah and mainpuri districts , uttar pradesh , india . non - breeding cranes were most susceptible to wires and , within territories , mortalities were higher for pre - dispersed young . similar proportions of non - breeding and breeding cranes were killed , together accounting for nearly 1 % of the total sarus crane population annually . supply wires accounted for the majority of sarus crane deaths , and only non - breeding cranes were killed by both supply and high - tension power lines . non - breeding crane deaths at roost sites were correlated with numbers of roosting birds and numbers of wires at each site . over 40 % of 251 known sarus crane territories had at least one overhead wire posing a risk to breeding adults and pre - dispersed young . a risk index for wires over territories of cranes was computed ; mortality was not affected by increasing the number and therefore risk posed by wires . most crane deaths in territories occurred as a result of wires at edges of territories . wires around roosting sites , territoriality and age of sarus cranes appear to be the most important factors affecting their mortality due to wires . mitigation measures will be most effective around roost sites and for wires that border territories of breeding pairs .\nalthough overhead electrical wires are known to have caused severe declines of bird populations , there are no studies in india that address this danger , even for endangered species . rates of mortality , factors affecting mortality and population effects of electrical wires on the globally endangered sarus crane ( grus antigone ) were assessed for breeding and non - breeding cranes in etawah and mainpuri districts , uttar pradesh , india . non - breeding cranes were most susceptible to wires and , within territories , mortalities were higher for pre - dispersed young . similar proportions of non - breeding and breeding cranes were killed , together accounting for nearly 1 % of the total sarus crane population annually . supply wires accounted for the majority of sarus crane deaths , and only non - breeding cranes were killed by both supply and high - tension power lines . non - breeding crane deaths at roost sites were correlated with numbers of roosting birds and numbers of wires at each site . over 40 % of 251 known sarus crane territories had at least one overhead wire posing a risk to breeding adults and pre - dispersed young . a risk index for wires over territories of cranes was computed ; mortality was not affected by increasing the number and therefore risk posed by wires . most crane deaths in territories occurred as a result of wires at edges of territories . wires around roosting sites , territoriality and age of sarus cranes appear to be the most important factors affecting their mortality due to wires . mitigation measures will be most effective around roost sites and for wires that border territories of breeding pairs . ( author )\nthe moon sets as the day begins for sarus cranes , storks , herons and hundreds of other species in india ' s gangetic floodplains .\nin 2005 john grant published the first and only formal scientific paper so far , on sarus breeding success\u00bb in australia . mean recruitment rate for wintering sarus on the atherton tablelands was 6 . 5 % , this study has now covered 20 years . the study and its significance are discussed by k . s . gopi sundar in an ozcranes research report , breeding for success , a story of the sarus in queensland\u00bb .\nsarus cranes utter loud , high - pitched calls . in courtship displays , the female gives two calls while the male gives only one .\nthe sarus crane is found in south - east asia and australia and is the tallest of the crane species . they have light grey wings and bodies . the head and the upper neck is red bare skin and the crown is greenish skin . their pointed bill is long and greenish - grey . the legs and feet are pink and their iris is orange - red . both sexes are plumage is similar but the male are larger .\nthe above article has been updated with the help of sh . k . s . gopi sundar , research associate , international crane foundation and principal coordinator , indian cranes and wetlands working group ( a program of the wildlife protection society of india and affiliated to the international crane foundation ) . email :\nbesides actual sightings , inquiries from local people were also made to ensure the estimate of existing population and their perceptions about the existence of the crane .\nthere are references to instances where bereaved sarus cranes have pined away to death . you may call this poignant episode and the female lamenting as anthropomorphic . maybe it is , maybe it is not . all i can say is , most of mankind has transformed into a more vicious form of the hunter of valmiki\u2019s story . to make our lives better \u2013 be it in the form of more money , better infrastructure , real estate , agriculture \u2013 we destroy homes of not only the sarus crane , but of many other wild citizens . we kill them without giving a second thought . the sarus crane will continue to lament . there are people who narrate those stories . but will the audience read , listen and care ?\nlike brolgas , sarus cranes are omnivorous , eating many foods . however there are few feeding records for australian sarus . maize seeds , native plants including grasses , grasshoppers and rats have been recorded , and it ' s been suggested they may feed on plentiful pipis ( small molluscs ) along the shores of lake tinaroo , atherton tableland . there are occasional observations of sarus cranes stretching up to take ripe maize kernels from the cob on the edges of fields ( c edwards , j munro : atherton tablelands ) . dr john grant ' s 20 year study of sarus crane foraging on the atherton tablelands shows they feed preferentially on maize stubble , then plough , low - grazed pasture , and occasionally sugar cane trash .\nas a predator on small vertebrates and invertebrates , sarus cranes play an important role in maintaining these populations . abundance of their eggs can also influence food sources for jackals and house crows . they also help maintain vegetation . sarus cranes can be primary , secondary , and tertiary consumers .\nthis page covers sarus crane habitats and behaviour , including interactions with brolgas . features , locations and population numbers are in faq 1 , food , water and breeding are in faq 2 , and conservation is covered in faq 4 . the cranes intro has background and comparisons including images and calls .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - pair of sarus cranes feeding\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - pair of sarus cranes feeding\ntitle =\narkive photo - pair of sarus cranes feeding\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nwwf - india has provided technical support for the restoration and management of key wetlands , , such as the surajpur wetland in greater noida , uttar pradesh . two wetlands in kanpur , uttar pradesh have been adopted for restoration activities . local communities are made aware of the hazards of releasing agrochemicals into the wetlands and discouraged to continue practices that would be detrimental to the health of the wetland . policy and advocacy : wwf - india played an instrumental role in setting up the sarus crane conservation committee in uttar pradesh . it also assists the state in developing projects to enhance sarus crane conservation initiatives .\nthere are 15 species in the crane family gruidae . according to the conservation status designations assigned by icf , six of the species are considered endangered . these are the blue , red - crowned , sarus , siberian , wattled , and whooping cranes . icf classifies another five species as vulnerable , including the black crowned , black - necked , grey crowned , hooded , and white - naped cranes . we have all 15 species of cranes at icf . the total number of cranes we have varies from season to season , but we normally have between 100 - 120 birds . we typically have up to 30 birds on display in the wattled crane exhibit , johnson exhibit pod , and whooping crane exhibit , with approximately 70 additional birds housed in crane city .\nwhat made you want to look up sarus ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\nsarus cranes fly with a straight neck , and their long legs trailing behind . they beat powerfully with their wings , and are good fliers .\nadult florida sandhill crane ( a . c . pratensis ) from venice , florida in april . photo credit : d . mcnicholas . ; photographer david mcnicholas\nplumage / molt like most cranes , molts annually during the post - breeding season . the main flight feathers are lost at the same time leaving the crane flightless\ncalls \u2013 hissing , shrill korrrs , and throaty hrrrrs . sarus crane utters loud , high - pitched calls . during courtship displays , female utters two calls while male gives only one . the unison call made by paired adults is the most well - known call and is a loud far - reaching trumpeting .\nas the story goes , the female lamented with a pitch and tonal quality so deep in emotion , that compassion welled up within valmiki . julia leslie\u2019s paper , a bird bereaved , does an exhaustive study of the verse , considering thirty two separate species , and eliminating all but one , the sarus crane .\nsarus cranes are omnivores , foraging for a wide range of food including seeds and grains as well as frogs , lizards and grasshoppers ( 7 ) .\nsarus cranes are monogamous and mate for life . they have long - lasting pair bonds and maintain territories within which they perform territorial and courtship displays .\nivey , g . l . , c . p . herziger and t . j . hoffman . 2005 .\nannual movement of pacific coast sandhill cranes .\nin proceedings of the ninth north american crane workshop , edited by f . chavez - ramirez , 25 - 36 . sacramento : north american crane working group . close"]}
{"id": 1325, "summary": [{"text": "the giant trevally , caranx ignobilis ( also known as the giant kingfish , lowly trevally , barrier trevally , ulua , or gt ) , is a species of large marine fish classified in the jack family , carangidae .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the giant trevally is distributed throughout the tropical waters of the indo-pacific region , with a range stretching from south africa in the west to hawaii in the east , including japan in the north and australia in the south .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "two were documented in the eastern tropical pacific in the 2010s ( one captured off panama and another sighted at the gal\u00e1pagos ) , but it remains to be seen if the species will become established there .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the giant trevally is distinguished by its steep head profile , strong tail scutes , and a variety of other more detailed anatomical features .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is normally a silvery colour with occasional dark spots , but males may be black once they mature .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "it is the largest fish in the genus caranx , growing to a maximum known size of 170 cm ( 67 in ) and a weight of 80 kg ( 176 lbs ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the giant trevally inhabits a wide range of marine environments , from estuaries , shallow bays and lagoons as a juvenile to deeper reefs , offshore atolls and large embayments as an adult .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "juveniles of the species are known to live in waters of very low salinity such as coastal lakes and upper reaches of rivers , and tend to prefer turbid waters .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the giant trevally is an apex predator in most of its habitats , and is known to hunt individually and in schools .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the species predominantly takes various fish as prey , although crustaceans , cephalopods and molluscs make up a considerable part of their diets in some regions .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the species has some quite novel hunting strategies , including shadowing monk seals to pick off escaping prey , as well as using sharks to ambush prey .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the species reproduces in the warmer months , with peaks differing by region .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "spawning occurs at specific stages of the lunar cycle , when large schools congregate to spawn over reefs and bays , with reproductive behaviour observed in the wild .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the fish grows relatively fast , reaching sexual maturity at a length of around 60 cm at three years of age .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the giant trevally is both an important species to commercial fisheries and a recognised gamefish , with the species taken by nets and lines by professionals and by bait and lures by anglers .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "catch statistics in the asian region show hauls of 4,000 \u2013 10,000 tonnes , while around 10,000 lbs of the species is taken in hawaii each year .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the species is considered poor to excellent table fare by different authors , although ciguatera poisoning is common in the fish .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "dwindling numbers around the main hawaiian islands have also led to several proposals to reduce the catch of fish in this region . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "giant trevally", "paragraphs": ["meyer cg , holland kn , papastamatiou yp . seasonal and diel movements of giant trevally\ninformation on the giant trevally is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\n* increased awareness of the need for conservation and management strategy for giant trevally in omani waters .\nfigure 2 . giant trevally are captured at night using pole & line , and fishing depths of 30 - 100m .\nben with an average sized hard fighting giant trevally , or gt , taken on spin gear . image : ben diggles\nall species of trevally are well known for their determined and powerful fighting ability , making them excellent sportfish on light tackle . various species of trevally offer plenty of action , from the aggressive golden trevally ( gnathanodon speciosus ) of the tropics and the dirty fighting coastal silver trevally ( pseudocaranx dentex ) to the powerful giant trevally ( caranx ignoblis ) .\nthe giant trevally movement data obtained in this study will be used to shape management strategies for this important food and game fish .\nthe giant trevally is a powerful apex predator in most of its habitats , and is known to hunt individually and in schools .\nthey are also often targetted for recreational fishing . the giant trevally in particular is often killed to become a trophy on display .\nthe giant trevally dominantly eats other fishes and likes to prey in packs - explaining the vast numbers of the fish in this video .\nfigure 4 : ( a ) color dimorphism in giant trevally from school at rapture reef . ( b ) giant trevally school at rapture reef ( ffs atoll ) , may 23 2006 . photographs reproduced by permission of jill zamzow . from meyer et al . [ 49 ] .\nc . g . meyer , k . n . holland , and y . p . papastamatiou , \u201cseasonal and diel movements of giant trevally\nthe giant trevally can be recognised by its steep head profile , strong scutes on the straight , posterior portion of the lateral line and its large size . it is the largest species of trevally in australian waters .\nthe recent capture on march 18 of a giant trevally off the pacific coast of panama is certain to stun fishery biologists and recreational fishermen alike .\nwetherbee bm , holland kn , meyer cg , lowe cg . use of a marine reserve in kaneohe bay , hawaii by the giant trevally ,\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - giant trevally ( caranx ignobilis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - giant trevally ( caranx ignobilis )\ntitle =\narkive species - giant trevally ( caranx ignobilis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\n( any angler catching what he or she believes to be a giant trevally off central america is encouraged to contact editor @ sportfishingmag . com . )\ngiant trevally are often confused for brassy trevally \u2013 caranx papuensis and although there are many similarities between the two species the brassy trevally is easily identified by its yellow fin colouration as opposed to the darker fins and body colouration of the gt . giant trevally generally have a much broader , deeper body shape to that of the brassy also . sharp tail scoots are present at the base of the tail and the mouth is extremely powerful with some nasty teeth present .\nthe heru cubera and heru skipjack , both excellent giant trevally lures . that red head / green body color has been excellent for me in various locations .\nwe are using an array of underwater listening receivers to study the long - term movements of giant trevally and answer key management questions , such as how far they range and what are their typical patterns of movement . this technology has already provided unprecedented insight into the scale and patterns of giant trevally movements in the remote north west hawaiian islands ( papahanaumokuakea marine national monument ) . giant trevally at remote nwhi atolls are site - attached to home ranges where they swim back and forth daily between separate day and night habitats . during the full moons in summer , giant trevally migrate up to 30km to reach traditional spawning grounds where they form large aggregations . we are now using this system to determine whether giant trevally show similar patterns of behavior in the main hawaiian islands ( mhi ) .\ngiant trevally is sought after for food . but catches have declined by 84 percent in the course of the last century , which implies the population is only getting smaller . if that ' s not enough to make you throw the fish back , remember that the hawaiians once revered the giant trevally as a god .\nrising or full tides are best suited for targeting most inshore species including trevally .\ngiant trevally can be located from as far south as shark bay right up to the magnificent kimberley region throughout western australia and also parts of queensland and the northern territory .\ngiant trevally grow to a staggering 60kg in weight and measure up to 1 . 9m in length although a typical sized gt is around 10 \u2013 15kg in most australian locations .\none species that has reached cult status in sportfishing circles in recent years is the giant trevally ( caranx ignobilis ) , better known as the\ngt\nby those who target them .\nwill giant trevally join their ranks as yet another great game fish available to anglers off central america ? that remains to be seen , but it is an interesting and for many fishermen tantalizing prospect .\nthis terrifying video shows a group of carnivorous gigantic trevally fish devouring a whole tuna within seconds .\nthe giant trevally a fish of many names is quickly becoming a premier target to hunt on the flats . it is an incredibly strong and ferocious reef fish that is aggressive and deliberate when hunting and takes no prisoners . it is a large member of the jack family and is also known as the giant kingfish , pacific jack fish , goyan fish , lowly trevally , barrier trevally , ulua in hawaii , mamulan in the marianas , r\u014dnin - aji in japan and just plain gt for short .\nthink of the giant trevally as the mr . t of the oceans , a burly , aquatic intimidator , that ' s so voracious and powerful , it doesn ' t have anything to fear besides sharks and humans . known to anglers as the\ngt ,\nthe giant trevally ranges in color from silver to jet black and grows to as much as 5 . 5 feet long and 175 pounds .\ngiant trevally are generally caught around coastal offshore reefs from the central wa coast north around to the central nsw coast . anglers target them with high quality , strong , lightweight outfits using large poppers and stickbait lures .\nthe giant trevally as its name suggests is the giant of the trevally species . its enormous size and incredible power have gained the gt a reputation of a tackle destroying monster ! they are a super aggressive predator that is capable of mind blowing surface strikes and is highly regarded around the world by many as being the hardest pulling sport fish imaginable . these bad boys are certainly not for the faint hearted or under gunned angler !\n< p > a phenomenal underwater shot from matt jones of a giant trevally in the . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> fly fishing photo : underwater giant trevally < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > throwback to a great photo of jako lucas admiring a giant trevally in . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> fly fishing photo : seychelles giant trevally < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > giant trevally attacked by barracuda from aos fly fishing on vimeo . another salty . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : barracuda attacks giant trevally < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\nthe giant trevally ( caranx ignobilis ) , better known in south africa by its common name , the giant kingfish , is considered an iconic top predator on coral and rocky reefs across the indo - pacific and is heavily targeted by recreational , commercial and artisanal fisheries . c . ignobilis has been overfished in the most - studied part of its range ( hawaii , usa ) , which raises concern for its status in less - studied areas , including the western indian ocean , where significant knowledge gaps concerning basic aspects of giant trevally biology remain .\nda silva , i . m . , hempson , t . and hussey , n . e . 2014 . giant trevally spawning aggregation highlights importance of community fisheries management no - take zone . marine biodiversity : 2 .\n< p > a nice christmas island giant trevally release photo from hawaii guide , jesse cheape ! . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> fly fishing photo : giant trevally release < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > an excellent shot of a christmas island giant trevally . what a beast of . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> fly fishing photo : christmas island giant trevally < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\nalso known as barrier trevally , black ulua , giant kingfish , giant ulua , goyan fish , great trevally , horse mackerel , horse mackerel trevally , jackfish , kingfish , lowly trevally , trevallies , white ulua , yellowfin jack . found singly over rock and sandy areas of clearwater lagoons and seaward reefs . they feed nocturnally on large crustaceans like crabs and lobsters as well as fish . juveniles found in estuaries . length - 120cm depth - 0 - 180m widespread indo pacific jacks are fast swimming fish that can roam over great distances . the larger fish hunt other fish and the smaller fish eat zooplankton . in turn they are hunted by large tuna and dolphins .\n< p > the seychelles is the place for giant trevally , and the crew at aos . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : fly fishing for giant trevally in the seychelles < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > another great new video from kast takes on giant trevally in the south . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : fly fishing for giant trevally in the south pacific < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > if anyone has been looking for increased motivation to pursue giant trevally ( gts ) . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : fierce and speedy giant trevally on the attack < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\ngiant trevally baits i never fish for them with bait but i know in hawaii octopus and eels are popular baits to use from shore . i ' m sure various live and dead baitfish like mullet and flying fish work . where to get the big giant trevally the great barrier reef and new caledonia have some big ones that can be caught on poppers and stickbaits . indonesia has some good gt fishing , as does fiji and many of the remote pacific atolls . i have also heard about some good gt fishing in oman of all places . other giant trevally resources the above barely scratches the surface on how to catch giant trevally . the resources below will provide a wealth of information : urltoken is a great forum . everything you need to know , you can learn here . urltoken is the outfitter i used for my trip to new caledonia urltoken is probably the king of gts . not cheap but amazing trips .\nlowe cg , wetherbee bm , meyer cg . using acoustic telemetry monitoring techniques to quantify movement patterns and site fidelity of sharks and giant trevally around french frigate shoals and midway atoll . atoll res bull . 2006 ; 543 : 281\u2013303 .\n< p > gangsters of the flats 2 & # 8211 ; fly fishing for giant trevally from the . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : fly fishing for giant trevally in gangsters of the flats 2 < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\nc . g . lowe , b . m . wetherbee , and c . g . meyer , \u201cusing acoustic telemetry monitoring techniques to quantity movement patterns and site fidelity of sharks and giant trevally around french frigate shoals and midway atoll , \u201d\nthe giant trevally ( caranx ignobilis ) is a powerful oceanic predator fish also known as the gt for short . it\u2019s also called the giant kingfish , the lowly trevally , or the barrier trevally . like the mustang gt muscle car , this gt has its own muscle power : strong and thick midsection , and is distinguished by its steep and blunt head shape , and 26 to 38 scutes ( sharp , bony plates ) along its lateral line . its color ranges from silver to black , and on those with darker color , it can have remarkable silvery - white patterns on its upper body .\n< p > giant trevally aren & # 8217 ; t just big and fast & # 8212 ; they exhibit attractive physical characteristics . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> fly fishing photo : black giant trevally on the flats < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\nlowe cg , wetherbee bm , meyer cg ( 2006 ) using acoustic telemetry monitoring techniques to quantify movement patterns and site fidelity of sharks and giant trevally around french frigate shoals and midway atoll . atoll research bulletin . 543 : 281 - 303 .\n< p > giant trevally at the lakshadweep islands ! from sportquest holidays : & # 8220 ; every now & # 38 ; then . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : fly fishing for giant trevally at the lakshadweep islands < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\nmeyer cg , holland kn , papastamatiou yp ( 2007 ) seasonal and diel movements of giant trevally ( caranx ignobilis ) at remote hawaiian atolls : implications for the design of marine protected areas . marine ecology progress series . 333 : 13 - 25 .\nfigure 3 . acoustically - tagged trevally range in size from 70 - 150cm total length ( 6 - 34 kg ) .\n< p > gt hunt - official trailer from black fly eyes on vimeo . giant trevally in cosmoledo . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> trailer : fly fishing for giant trevally in cosmoledo in & # 8220 ; gt hunt & # 8221 ; < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\ntop predators in the pmnm consume a wide variety of prey including invertebrates , fishes , marine mammals , turtles , and sea birds . giant trevally are the most abundant predator in the pmnm , and diet studies suggest their foraging activities significantly impact lower trophic levels [ 24 ] . their diet is dominated by reef fishes and invertebrates , including octopus and adult lobsters , but also includes pelagic species such as squid and mackerel scad ( decapterus macarellus ) . overall diet indicates giant trevally forage primarily in shallow - water reef habitats but also feed in open water [ 24 , 73 ] . their diet contains a large amount of nocturnally active prey indicating a significant amount of nighttime feeding by this species [ 24 ] . dietary overlap between giant and bluefin trevally ( another abundant reef - associated jack ) is moderate , with shallow - water reef fishes and small crustaceans , respectively , making larger and smaller contributions to bluefin trevally diet [ 24 ] . a low incidence of nocturnally active prey items and the absence of pelagic species suggest bluefin trevally are primarily diurnal foragers in shallow - water reef habitats . differences in foraging strategies and the ability of large adult giant trevally to feed on larger prey ( e . g . , adult lobsters ) may reduce niche overlap between these two sympatric species [ 24 , 73 ] .\n< p > gt hunt - cosmoledo from black fly eyes on vimeo . chasing giant trevally in the . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> film : fly fishing for giant trevally in & # 8220 ; gt hunt & # 8211 ; cosmoledo & # 8221 ; < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\ncitation :\ngiant trevally , caranx ignobilis ~ marinebio . org .\nmarinebio conservation society . web . accessed monday , july 9 , 2018 . < urltoken > . last update : 1 / 14 / 2013 2 : 22 : 00 pm ~ contributor ( s ) : marinebio\nin an exclusive report to sport fishing , panama fishing - resort manager olivier charpentier shares a photo of his catch \u2014 leaving no doubt of its identity as a giant trevally ( caranx ignobilis ) \u2014 that he caught on a popper off montuosa island ( clearly visible in the background ) .\nfigure 2 . horizontal ( left ) and vertical ( right ) movements of a giant trevally captured outside kealakekua bay . daytime and nighttime movements are indicated in yellow and black respectively . this tracks was obtained after the fish had been at liberty for 74 days after initial capture and tagging .\none of the most distinguishing features of the giant trevally , or \u2018gt\u2019 as they are commonly called on the reef , is its speed . giant trevally will hunt on their own , or in large schools , and have a top speed estimated at over 60 kilometres per hour . the species predominantly takes various fish as prey , although crustaceans , cephalopods and molluscs make up a considerable part of their diets in some regions . the species has some quite novel hunting strategies , including shadowing monk seals to pick off escaping prey , as well as using sharks to ambush other smaller fish .\nabdussamad , e . m . , kasim , h . m . and balasubramanian , t . s . 2008 . distribution , biology and behaviour of the giant trevally , caranx ignobilis - a candidate species for mariculture . bangladesh journal of fisheries research 12 ( 1 ) : 89 - 94 .\nleis , j . , hay , a . , clark , d . , chen , i . and shao , k . 2006 . behavioral ontogeny in larvae and early juveniles of the giant trevally ( caranx ignobilis ) ( pisces : carangidae ) . fishery bulletin 104 : 401 - 414 .\nmeyer , c . g . , holland , k . n . and papastamatiou , y . p . 2007 . seasonal and diel movements of giant trevally caranx ignobilis at remote hawaiian atolls : implications for the design of marine protected areas . marine ecology progress series 333 : 13 - 25 .\nwetherbee , b . m . , holland , k . n . , meyer , c . g . and lowe , c . g . 2004 . use of a marine reserve in kaneohe bay , hawaii by the giant trevally , caranx ignobilis . fisheries research 67 : 253 - 263 .\nphysical description : trevally have deep , flat bodies that are silver to white in colour . they have large lips but no biting teeth . size : trevally range in size depending on the species . silver trevally grow from 500g to 10kg , golden trevally grow to 4kg - 8kg , and giant trevally can be anywhere between 1kg and 25kg . habitat : trevally occupy both coastal and offshore waters . the best way to spot trevally is to search for places where an obstruction has created eddies , as they tend to lay in wait for food in these areas . try the corner of an island where the current sweeps past a rocky outcrop or the junction where two streams meet in the mangroves . hint ! look for trawlers tied up and dumping trash as trevally know that this will attract potential food items . how to catch : bait - trevally hit both baits and lures hard and keep going hard until they break the line , pull the hook or are caught , and this is what makes catching them such great fun . generally , they prefer baits of yabbies , small poddy mullet , herrings , peeled prawns , whitebait , worms , pipis , and winter whiting . lures to try include medium to deep diving lures , small chrome jigs and leadheads . rod and reel - a medium to fast taper boat rod with sidecast reel or eggbeater reel should be all you need . line and tackle - smaller species will only need light line ( 2 - 4kg ) and small hooks with minimum lead . larger species will need heavy line and a heavy mono trace as they tend to rush for reefs and other structures to get rid of the hook . hot spots : trevally can generally be found from northern queensland down to tasmania and across to southern western australia . golden trevally can be found along the queensland coast in estuaries , surf beaches and rocky and coral reefs . silver trevally are present in all states of australia in inshore reefs , estuaries , beaches and bays . giant trevally occupy the warm tropical waters of northern queensland , western australia and the northern territory . hint ! the best times to catch trevally , in general , are winter and spring when there are plenty of small fish in southern estuaries and larger fish on southern offshore reefs . tropical species can be found in the cooler months of the dry season .\n< p > the venturing angler has a whole lotta love for the ferocity of giant . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : fighting a kiritimati island giant trevally with a broken rod ! < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\ngiant trevally are found around reefs in the warmer waters of the pacific and indian oceans , from africa in the east to the hawaiian islands in the west , and from australia in the south to as far north as japan . it ' s known to venture into shallow bays , lagoons and estuaries as well .\nafonso p , fontes j , holland kn , santos rs . multi - scale patterns of habitat use in a highly mobile reef fish , the white trevally\ntrevallies grow fast , depending on species reaching sexual maturity between 3 and 5 years of age , and an average 300 to 500 mm in length . giant trevally can grow to be as big as 170 cm and weigh up to 80 kg . they can live up to 30 - 40 years , depending on species and habitat .\nthere are many species that you may encounter on scuba including giant , silver , gold - spotted , banded , blue , thicklip , black , bluefin , bigeye , golden , sand and diamond trevally . trevallies belong to the jack family , carangidae , which also includes pompanos , runners , amberjacks , pilotfish , jack mackerels and scads .\ngiant trevally prefer shallow sand flats and reef with near by access to deeper water with large numbers of small bait fish present , they also frequent areas such as jetty\u2019s , in shore reef systems and estuary\u2019s . gt\u2019s can also be encountered in deeper water to 50 meters when spawning and are often seen feeding amongst other pelagic species such as mackerel and tuna .\ngiant trevally grow slightly faster and reach a larger maximum size than the closely related bluefin trevally ( figure 8 ) , but the latter reproduce at an earlier age and smaller size [ 24 ] ( table 1 ) . based on the von bertalanffy growth coefficient ( ) , giant and bluefin trevally attain 95 % of their theoretical maximum sizes at 31 and 15 years , respectively , but these are likely only minimum estimates as maximum observed ages were 9 and 6 years ( table 1 , figure 9 ) . bluefin trevally are highly fecund ( > 4 million mature ova in the ovary of a 6 . 5 kg female ) , with an exponential increase in the number of eggs produced with size [ 24 ] . spawning activity peaks for both giant and bluefin trevally between may and august [ 24 ] . age , growth , and reproductive data are not available for other common teleost predators in the pmnm , but green jobfish in the mhi reach sexual maturity between 0 . 45\u20130 . 5 m fork length ( fl ) ( table 1 ) and have a protracted spawning season between may and october [ 26 ] . green jobfish on the great barrier reef ( gbr ) reach maximum ages of 16 years and a theoretical maximum size of 0 . 7 m fl [ 27 ] ( table 1 ) . size of sexual maturity for green jobfish on the gbr was not determined , but all sampled fishes were mature at 0 . 3 m fl .\nthe giant trevally can be recognised by its steep head profile , strong scutes on the straight , posterior portion of the lateral line and its large size . its colouration varies from uniform silvery to almost black . it can sometimes be a dusky golden colour and have dark irregular bands on the back , but never has a dark spot on the rear of the operculum .\nthe distribution of the giant trevally occurs in the tropical or coastal areas of the indian and pacific oceans . the range extends from the eastern coast of africa , along the coasts of india and pakistan , across the coast of northern australia , to as far east as hawaii . its habitat is in the shallow coral reefs and lagoons and channels in these tropical areas .\nin australia , gts are most commonly encountered by anglers fishing on or adjacent to coral or rocky reefs from perth in wa north around the top end to central nsw , with the best known locations for targeting large numbers of large fish being the outer drop offs of the great barrier reef and coral sea . also sometimes known as the lowly trevally ( or ulua in hawaii ) , the giant trevally is the largest member of the trevally family ( carangidae ) . the gt is a powerful apex predator of coral reefs , growing to at least 1 . 7 metres long and 180 pounds on the old scale ( 80 kg ) , but the current world record is \u201conly\u201d 160lb / 72 . 8 kg for a fish taken in japan .\ncovered with long , venomous spikes , the crown - of - thorns starfish ( acanthaster planci ) is a voracious feeder that can eat living corals because of a unique adaptation : a wax - digesting enzyme system . populations of the starfish were once kept low by a few key predators , namely the giant triton . since humans decimated giant triton populations , crown - of - thorns starfish outbreaks periodically kill vast expanses of hard coral .\ngiant trevally ( gt ) inhabit coastal and offshore waters from the central western australian coast north around to the central coast of new south wales . gt\u2019s are wide ranging and can be found cruising in shallower nearshore as well as offshore reef structures such as coral reefs and atolls , pinnacles and drop - offs . when targeting gt\u2019s look for washy areas where bait are holding up , particularly fusiliers around offshore reefs and atolls .\nhowever , upon seeing the photo of charpentier\u2019s catch , william smith - vaniz , ph . d . , one of the world\u2019s leading experts on carangids \u2014 the family of jacks and trevallies \u2014 agrees that \u201cthis fish is definitely a giant trevally . \u201d smith - vaniz tells sf that a comprehensive search of all electronic fish - collection data bases would seem to confirm this as the first gt caught along the coast of central america .\n< p > the gangster of the flats ! a very cool photo from matt jones of . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> fly fishing photo : cosmoledo giant trevally < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\nlarge mullet and whiting make great live baits for giant trevally , try fishing them on long , nylon or fluoro carbon leaders and running sinker rigs . it is also important to match your hook size to your bait . medium to large sized hard bodied lures are also ideal for both casting from shore and trolling from a boat at around 4 \u2013 6 knots for many species including trevally with metal slices , soft plastics , surface lures and fly\u2019s also proving to be incredibly effective on this super aggressive species . surface lures such as poppers and stick baits are not only especially effective but also visually spectacular when launched upon by large , powerful gt\u2019s !\n< p > nice shot ! eugene pawlowski made his way to christmas island last year among . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> fly fishing photo : christmas island giant trevally < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > an amazing video that circulated a while back and never gets any less . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : giant trevally attacks and eats a bird < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > celebration time ! christiaan pretorius and lindi blaauw show some gt stoke in the . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> fly fishing photo : seychelles giant trevally celebration < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > flyfishing team sylt movie have a great video featuring a fly fishing trip . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : fly fishing the seychelles for milkfish and giant trevally < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\nmeyer , cg & rr honebrink ( 2005 ) transintestinal expulsion of surgically implanted dummy transmitters by bluefin trevally\u2014implications for long - term movement studies . transactions of the american fisheries society 134 ( 3 ) : 602 - 606 .\nthere is evidence from studies done in the hawaiian islands and south africa that the black coloured gts are mature males , which most commonly take up this unusually dark colouration in spawning aggregations once they exceed around 70cm in length . juvenile gts can be harder to identify , however , as they often frequent estuaries and inshore waters which are home to populations of other trevallies of similar appearance like brassy trevally and juvenile bigeye trevally ( caranx sexfasciatus ) , which can also have the yellowish pelvic and anal fins ( as well as yellowish lower lobe of the tail ) possessed by juvenile gts . in these instances , it ' s worth looking at the \u201cchest\u201d ( pectoral girdle ) area , which is scaleless on gts , but not in the other species . while gts look very different to the beautiful bluefin trevally ( caranx melampygus ) , studies in hawaii have shown that gts can interbreed with bluefin trevally to form hybrids . the existence of the bluefin / gt hybrids was discovered after investigation of a world record claim for a 43 kg \u201cbluefin trevally\u201d that had bluish fins but other body shape characteristics typical of gts .\n< p > captain jako lucas just got back from astove and took on one of . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> fly fishing photo : capt . jako lucas with an astove giant trevally < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\nlargest trevally , usually reaching 5 . 7 feet ( 1 . 7 m ) in length and about 132 lbs . ( 60 kg ) . the maximum published weight is 176 lbs . ( 80 . 0 kg ) .\n< p > astove atoll & # 8211 ; flats fishing for gts from fin chasers magazine on vimeo . . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : fly fishing for giant trevally at astove atoll < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > monster ! from captain jako lucas , a great - looking farquhar atoll geet . to check out more . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> fly fishing photo : farquhar atoll giant trevally < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > in this photo , jako lucas of south africa hoists the gangster of the . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> fly fishing photo : capt . jako lucas with a nice giant trevally < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > fly angler , mark hargadon , of california has one incredible photo to show for . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> fly fishing photo : mark hargadon with a christmas island giant trevally < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > gts aren & # 8217 ; t just in the seychelles and christmas island . in a video from . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : fly fishing for giant trevally in australia < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > maybe the ultimate flats specie & # 8212 ; at least when it comes to putting . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> fly fishing photo : christiaan pretorius and a giant trevally on the flats < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > in an episode of the endless session , jonathan jones takes on more australia . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : fly fishing for barramundi , giant trevally , and coral trout in australia < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > the newest issue of fin chasers magazine is now live with a packed . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> features on giant trevally , permit , mongolia , tasmania , and more in fin chasers < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\nto date we have captured 18 giant trevally off the kona ( west ) coast of hawaii island and surgically implanted them with small acoustic transmitters . we are monitoring their movements with the west hawaii listening array consisting of 37 underwater receivers deployed along 109km of coastline . these receivers identify and record the presence of any acoustic transmitters within range ( up to 250 m ) . the receivers have a battery life of approximately 15 months and are being downloaded at 3 - 6 month intervals .\nto date , our understanding of the ecological role of top predators in coral reef ecosystems is based largely on correlative studies ( e . g . , giant trevally density versus size at sex change of labroids [ 5 , 84 ] ) , but manipulative experiments are required to definitively demonstrate causation . the pmnm provides ideal environments for conducting manipulative experiments without the confounding effects of anthropogenic influences . such experiments would greatly increase our understanding of the specific biological and physical factors driving observed relationships .\n< p > from giant trevally to queenfish , there & # 8217 ; s a lot going on at the great . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : fly fishing the claremont isles in aquasoul part 2 < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\nthe bluefin trevally rarely reach the length of more than 80 cm . they have a much more pointed snout than most of the other carangides . this species is named after the electric blue of their dorsal , anal and caudal fins .\n< p > from rio products : idaho falls , idaho ( february 2 , 2015 ) \u2013 rio products , industry - leading . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> anglers chasing giant trevally get special line from rio products < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > um & # 8230 ; wow ! peter laurelli has been making saltwater fly fishing films for . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> trailer : giant trevally insanity and more in siff13 : islands from peter laurelli < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< div class =\njetpack - video - wrapper\n> < iframe class = ' youtube - player ' type = ' text / html ' width = ' 798 ' height = ' 479 ' src = ' urltoken ; rel = 1 & # 038 ; fs = 1 & # 038 ; autohide = 2 & # 038 ; showsearch = 0 & # 038 ; showinfo = 1 & # 038 ; iv _ load _ policy = 1 & # 038 ; wmode = transparent ' allowfullscreen = ' true ' style = ' border : 0 ; ' > < / iframe > < / div > < p > an amazing video that circulated a while back and never gets any less incredible . we all know that giant trevally are absolutely relentless and vicious predators . this might take things to a whole new level . < / p > < p > from the bbc : < / p > < p > & # 8220 ; watch what happens when a giant trevally versus an tern in this amazing fish eats bird clip from blue planet ii . usually giant trevally are solitary hunters but they have come in numbers to try their luck at catching potential prey . fledgling tern are wary to spend too much time on the water but even flying close to the surface puts them in grave danger . & # 8221 ; < / p > < p > to check out more videos from blue planet ii , please click < a href =\nurltoken ; list = pl50kw6at4ugyv68lmn5 - zjx4d250 - zsgv\ntarget =\n_ blank\nrel =\nnoopener\n> here < / a > . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : giant trevally attacks and eats a bird < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > & # 160 ; when cpt jack ( jako lucas ) gets back from the seychelles , it & # 8217 ; s a . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> photo : underwater giant trevally in the seychelles < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\nbut of the 26 key species of sharks on coral reefs , only a few infrequent visitors\u2014namely tiger sharks , bull sharks , and hammerheads\u2014can be placed in the top tier of the food chain . \u201cshark\u201d isn\u2019t a blanket term for a huge voracious hunter , but a family of fish that encompasses a diversity of diets and lifestyles . the vast majority of species , such as whitetips and grey reef sharks , for example , are more akin to large - mouthed groupers and giant trevally\u2014they are all mesopredators .\n< p > t & # 38 ; t seychelles from thomas & # 38 ; thomas on vimeo . it & # 8217 ; s seychelles season and the . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : giant trevally in the seychelles < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > siff13 : islands from peter laurelli on vimeo . several months ago , peter laurelli offered . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : giant trevally and other salty beasts in & # 8220 ; siff13 : islands & # 8221 ; < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > kiritimati island is & # 8230 ; in the middle of the nowhere . that & # 8217 ; s the appeal . . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : fly fishing for the flats of kiritimati island for giant trevally < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > it & # 8217 ; s rare that a book tackles a new subject in fly fishing nowadays , . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> gt \u2013 a flyfisher & # 8217 ; s guide to giant trevally by peter mcleod coming soon < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\nnature has gifted them with superior swimming abilities and power that they use when hunting prey . if the prey has not been killed by the first strike , they are then usually killed by the strike impact itself . the prey is eaten quickly as there is high competition with other specimens hunting together . some species hunt individually ( e . g . the giant trevally ) but some also in schools , which increases efficiency . group hunting seems to be a disadvantage only when single prey are present and close to the reef .\n< p > let & # 8217 ; s start by calling it like it is . there & # 8217 ; s no shortage of mediocre . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> book review : gt \u2013 a flyfisher\u2019s guide to giant trevally by peter mcleod < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< div class =\njetpack - video - wrapper\n> < div class =\nembed - vimeo\nstyle =\ntext - align : center ;\n> < iframe src =\nurltoken\nwidth =\n798\nheight =\n449\nframeborder =\n0\nwebkitallowfullscreen mozallowfullscreen allowfullscreen > < / iframe > < / div > < / div > < p > the venturing angler has a whole lotta love for the ferocity of giant trevally . these beasts are strong , fast , and & # 8230 ; giant . in the video above , chris eckley , will sands , and others chase gts at kiritimati island and offer a & # 8220 ; gorilla tape tough story & # 8221 ; after fighting a gt with a broken rod . < / p > < p > to check out more from chris eckley , please click < a href =\nurltoken\ntarget =\n_ blank\n> here < / a > . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : fighting a kiritimati island giant trevally with a broken rod ! < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\n< p > from squidman productions is a great new video on fly fishing for bonefish . . . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : fly fishing for giant trevally and bonefish in christmas island in & # 8220 ; bones & amp ; gts & # 8221 ; < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\nwhat are those dark shapes circling the boat ? with sleek bodies and pointy fins , the back of your mind screams shark ! and with this , your thoughts begin race . i\u2019m definitely not getting in the water . what if the boat sinks ? am i going to get eaten ? ! well , you can put your mind at ease , because those large fish circling the boat aren\u2019t sharks . they are large ocean - going fish called giant trevally , and they are some of the largest , fastest predators in the world\u2019s oceans .\ntrevally are among the more common fish encountered by divers , in a variety of species . these powerful silvery predators patrol the reefs and are often seen preying on smaller fish , making exciting , sudden dashes around the reef and thrilling any on - looking scuba divers .\ncrabs and shrimps often form commensalistic symbiotic relationships with anemones in tropical waters , again for the purposes of protection from predation . for instance the anemone crab , neopetrolisthes oshimai , which is a filter feeding porcelain crab , lives and captures its food from within the tentacles of giant anemones .\ngiant trevally will take live or dead whole fish and fillet baits as well as soft plastics and trolled minnows , but by far the most exciting and sporting way to target them is on large surface lures like poppers and stickbaits . when targeting gt\u2019s by boat pull up in deeper water within casting distance of an area of interest , a reef outcrop for example , and cast large poppers or stickbaits towards the reef edge and work the lure back to the boat , imparting as much action to the lure as possible . upon hookup drive the fish off the reef fast !\na combined possession limit of 20 applies to members of the carangidae family ( including but not limited to trevallies , queenfishes , scads , darts and kingfishes ) except for amberjack , highfin amberjack , samsonfish , swallow - tailed dart , giant queenfish and yellowtail kingfish , where individual possession limits apply .\ngiant trevally , hereon referred to as gt , are a member of the jack family carangidae ( know in australia as trevallies ) . they are the largest growing member of the genus caranx , and are known for their immense power and high speed . they are thick and muscular through the body with a steep sloping forehead and a row of sharp horizontal scutes along the lateral line between the dorsal fin and tail . pattern and colour varies greatly in this species and individuals can display silvery grey to jet - black colouration and none to numerous tiny black dots scattered across the body .\nthe ability of gts to hybridise with other species might also explain the existence of some of the supersized \u201cbrassy trevally\u201d sometimes observed in australia ' s northern territory and kimberley regions , although to date i am not aware of any specific studies that have confirmed or ruled out this possibility .\ni received my b . s . in biology from yale college in 2010 , and a m . s . in fisheries from the university of alaska fairbanks in 2014 . broadly , i ' m interested in biological and physical drivers of evolution and translating my research into sustainable management practices of commercially and recreationally important marine fishes . i am studying phylogenetic relationships of marine fishes in a group known as the carangiforms , which includes the jacks , trevallies , scads , pompanos , remoras , dolphinfish , and cobia . i am also conducting population genetic and phylogeographic analyses on two carangid species important for recreational and small - scale fisheries throughout the indo - pacific : the giant trevally ( caranx ignobilis ) and bluefin trevally ( caranx melampygus ) . much of my research focuses on the western indian ocean , spanning south africa to seychelles , and i collaborate closely with scientists at the south african institute for aquatic biodiversity .\n< p > < div class =\njetpack - video - wrapper\n> < iframe class = ' youtube - player ' type = ' text / html ' width = ' 798 ' height = ' 479 ' src = ' urltoken ; rel = 1 & # 038 ; fs = 1 & # 038 ; autohide = 2 & # 038 ; showsearch = 0 & # 038 ; showinfo = 1 & # 038 ; iv _ load _ policy = 1 & # 038 ; wmode = transparent ' allowfullscreen = ' true ' style = ' border : 0 ; ' > < / iframe > < / div > < br / > if anyone has been looking for increased motivation to pursue giant trevally ( gts ) on the fly , check out the video above . this crew of gts is not to be messed with ( except with a fly rod , of course ) . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> video : fierce and speedy giant trevally on the attack < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\nalthough the effects of predation on lower trophic levels are fairly well documented [ 23 , 84 , 88 , 89 ] , the effects of inter - specific interactions between top predators are less well understood . we do know predatory fishes and sharks may be an important source of interference competition for critically endangered hawaiian monk seals in the pmnm . seal - borne video cameras show giant trevally , bluefin trevally , amberjacks , green jobfish , and reef sharks swimming in close association with monk seals , and competing for prey items flushed from cover by the foraging seals [ 91 ] . however , seals still have their greatest foraging success in the presence of these competitors , suggesting benefits of feeding in prey - rich patches may outweigh costs of interference competition [ 91 ] . new technologies such as hydrophone tags , which record biologically significant sounds and inter - animal interactions [ 72 ] , could further clarify the nature and importance of inter - specific competition between top predators .\n< p > < iframe src =\nurltoken\nwidth =\n640\nheight =\n360\nframeborder =\n0\nallowfullscreen =\nallowfullscreen\n> < / iframe > < / p > < p > < a href =\nurltoken\n> gt hunt - official trailer < / a > from < a href =\nurltoken\n> black fly eyes < / a > on < a href =\nurltoken\n> vimeo < / a > . < / p > < p > giant trevally in cosmoledo are the focus of a new upcoming film from black fly eyes . this is going to be a good one ! < / p > < p > to check out more from black fly eyes , please click < a href =\nurltoken\ntarget =\n_ blank\nrel =\nnoopener noreferrer\n> here < / a > . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> trailer : fly fishing for giant trevally in cosmoledo in & # 8220 ; gt hunt & # 8221 ; < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\ntrevally larvae are able to swim against a current when they measure 7 - 14 mm and feed on zooplankton while swimming . they avoid reefs and live pelagically , using jellyfish and other floating objects as protection . some species are known to prefer estuarine conditions and various species are known to have a wide salinity tolerance .\n< p > < img data - attachment - id =\n20125\ndata - permalink =\nurltoken\ndata - orig - file =\nurltoken ; ssl = 1\ndata - orig - size =\n6416 , 3285\ndata - comments - opened =\n1\ndata - image - meta =\n{ & quot ; aperture & quot ; : & quot ; 13 & quot ; , & quot ; credit & quot ; : & quot ; & quot ; , & quot ; camera & quot ; : & quot ; canon eos 7d mark ii & quot ; , & quot ; caption & quot ; : & quot ; & quot ; , & quot ; created _ timestamp & quot ; : & quot ; 1504465761 & quot ; , & quot ; copyright & quot ; : & quot ; & quot ; , & quot ; focal _ length & quot ; : & quot ; 15 & quot ; , & quot ; iso & quot ; : & quot ; 500 & quot ; , & quot ; shutter _ speed & quot ; : & quot ; 0 . 00125 & quot ; , & quot ; title & quot ; : & quot ; & quot ; , & quot ; orientation & quot ; : & quot ; 1 & quot ; }\ndata - image - title =\nchristmas island giant trevally\ndata - image - description =\ndata - medium - file =\nurltoken ; ssl = 1\ndata - large - file =\nurltoken ; ssl = 1\nclass =\nalignnone size - full wp - image - 20125\nsrc =\nurltoken ; ssl = 1\nalt =\nchristmas island giant trevally\nwidth =\n798\nheight =\n409\ndata - recalc - dims =\n1\n/ > < / p > < p > nice shot ! < a href =\nurltoken\ntarget =\n_ blank\nrel =\nnoopener\n> eugene pawlowski < / a > made his way to christmas island last year among many other destinations . along the way , he hooked up with gts everywhere from the seychelles to christmas island . in the photo above , eugene holds up a giant trevally from the pacific side . < / p > < p > the post < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> fly fishing photo : christmas island giant trevally < / a > appeared first on < a rel =\nnofollow\nhref =\nurltoken\n> the venturing angler < / a > . < / p >\nyou can be gently finning alongside a colourful wall and then see a trevally or two swimming just off the reef . then , in a flash of bright silver they will hurtle into a school of small reef fish and , almost as quickly , retreat into the blue with a tasty snack firmly secured in their jaws .\nour knowledge of the species composition and abundance of coral reef - associated predators in the pmnm comes from studies utilizing a variety of fishing and visual census sampling methods , which collectively suggest reef habitats in this region are dominated , both numerically and in biomass , by a small number of predator species , especially the giant trevally ( caranx ignobilis ) and the galapagos shark ( carcharhinus galapagensis ) ( figure 2 ) . giant trevally account for 55 % of all top predators counted by divers in the pmnm ( figure 2 ) and comprise 71 % of apex predator biomass ( equivalent to about 39 % of total fish biomass ) in this region [ 1 , 21 ] . galapagos sharks are the most abundant elasmobranch , accounting for 9 . 3 % of all top predators counted during towed - diver surveys and comprising 36 to 53 % of all sharks sampled by towed - diver surveys or longline fishing methods ( figure 2 ) ( see [ 21 , 22 ] , j . dale , unpublished data ) . other relatively abundant top predators on pmnm reefs include tiger sharks ( galeocerdo cuvier ) , grey reef sharks ( carcharhinus amblyrhinchos ) , whitetip reef sharks ( triaenodon obesus ) , green jobfish ( aprion virescens ) , bluefin trevally ( caranx melampygus ) , amberjack ( seriola spp . ) , and the endemic hawaiian grouper ( epinephelus quernus ) ( see [ 1 , 21 \u2013 23 ] , j . dale , unpublished data ) ( figure 2 ) . less abundant predators documented from pmnm coral reefs include several other carcharhinid sharks , hammerhead sharks , and large jacks ( see [ 21 , 22 ] , j . dale , unpublished data ) ( figure 2 ) ."]}
{"id": 1329, "summary": [{"text": "trichinorhipis is a monotypic genus of beetles in the family buprestidae , the jewel beetles .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the single species , trichinorhipis knulli , is endemic to california in the united states , where it has been collected from riverside and imperial counties .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "this beetle is black with large whitish marks across its elytra .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the original specimen measured less than 4 millimeters in length .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it has fan-like ( flabellate ) antennae .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "very few specimens of this beetle have been collected , but it has usually been associated with jojoba ( simmondsia chinensis ) .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the beetle has been collected close to the mexico \u2013 united states border , so it likely occurs in mexico , as well .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the genus is so far monotypic , another undescribed beetle found in west texas likely belongs to the genus as well . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "trichinorhipis", "paragraphs": ["html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nbarr , w . f . 1948 . a new genus and species of buprestidae from southern california ( coleoptera ) . entomological news 59 ( 3 ) : 69 - 72 .\na catalog and bibliography of the buprestoidea of america north of mexico . nelson et al . 2008 . the coleopterists society , special publication no . 4 . 274 pp .\ncalifornia department of fish and wildlife . special animals list . california department of fish and wildlife\u2019s california natural diversity database ( cnddb ) . 2016 . periodic publication . 51 pp .\nthe tribe xenorhipidini is currently being revised by my colleague and friend , dr . charles bellamy , california department of food and agriculture , sacramento .\nted c . macrae is a research entomologist by vocation and beetle taxonomist by avocation . areas of expertise in the latter include worldwide jewel beetles ( buprestidae ) and north american longhorned beetles ( cerambycidae ) . more recent work has focused on north american tiger beetles ( cicindelidae ) and their distribution , ecology , and conservation .\nthis entry was posted in buprestidae , coleoptera and tagged beetles , california , entomology , insects , jewel beetles , nature , science , taxonomy . bookmark the permalink .\nvery interesting about the cage and the 2 year wait . maybe that\u2019s something i could do with long - horned beetles here . i have yet to see the beetle !\nsteven \u2014 yes , you can do this . i have reared thousands of woodboring beetles by caging infested branches . i use fiber drums of various sizes ( plastic is not breathable and will cause condensation and mold ) . the trick is learning how to discern truly infested wood in the field before investing in the time and effort needed to retrieve and cage it . maybe i should write a post on \u201chow to rear\u2026\u201d \u2013 it is a learned skill that is as much art as it is science .\ni feel like an old war - horse at the sound of a trumpet when i read about the capture of rare beetles . - - charles darwin\nthe creator , if he exists , must have an inordinate fondness for beetles . - - j . b . s . haldane buy bitb apparel and gifts at cafepress .\nted c . macrae is an agricultural research entomologist with\nan inordinate fondness for beetles .\nprimary expertise includes taxonomy and host associations of wood - boring beetles , with more recent interest also in tiger beetle survey and conservation . i am currently serving as managing editor of the the pan - pacific entomologist , layout editor for the journal cicindela and newsletter editor for the webster groves nature study society . read my interview at nature blog network , and visit me at these other sites :\nall text and photos appearing on this website are \u00a9 ted c . macrae , all rights reserved . see\nimage use policy\nbelow for details regarding conditions for allowed use .\nenter your email address to follow this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email .\nbiodiversity in focus blog the musings of entomology graduate student and nature photographer morgan d . jackson\nbug eric \u2026 . about anything related to insects , spiders , and other arthropods .\nall images appearing on this website are \u00a9 ted c . macrae unless stated otherwise and may not be reproduced in any form without prior written permission . the following\nreposting online on social media ( e . g . , facebook , twitter , personal blogs , etc . ) by individuals acting in a strictly personal capacity .\nimages must be visibly credited to\nted c . macrae\nand , if posted online , include a link back to\nbeetlesinthebush . wordpress . com .\nany other use requires prior permission and may require a licensing agreement . direct all inquiries to\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\npoole , r . w . , and p . gentili ( eds . ) . 1996 . nomina insecta nearctica : a checklist of the insects of north america . volume 1 ( coleoptera , strepsiptera ) . entomological information services , rockville , md . available online : urltoken\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\ndistribution data for u . s . states and canadian provinces is known to be incomplete or has not been reviewed for this taxon .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\ndata and apps idaho fish and wildlife information system bringing information to bear on the management and conservation of fish , wildlife , and plants in idaho .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en"]}
{"id": 1335, "summary": [{"text": "orthoporus ornatus ( also known as the desert millipede ) is a north american species of millipede in the family spirostreptidae that can be found in the u.s. states of arizona , new mexico and texas , and as far south as the mexican state of san luis potos\u00ed .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "individuals on average are 4 inches ( 10 cm ) in length , but can either be as small as 3 inches ( 76 mm ) , or exceed up to 6 inches ( 150 mm ) in length .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "they are dark brownish coloured , but can sometimes be yellow .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "in fact , in every state the species look different .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the antennae are located near the organs of t\u00f6m\u00f6sv\u00e1ry .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the species feed on both living and dead organic material .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the species prefer sunshine , but can be seen on summer rainy days as well .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "a disturbed orthoporus ornatus may curl into a coil and release a toxic substance that is located on all sides of its body .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the species can live more than 10 years .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the species feed on shrubs of ephedra , which grows in jornada del muerto , and on salsola that grows in albuquerque . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "orthoporus ornatus", "paragraphs": ["orthoporus ornatus . texas gold millipedes . first captive bred o . ornatus . spirostreptida . spirostreptidae .\nfeeding - season production in the desert millipede orthoporus ornatus ( girard ) ( diplopoda ) .\nmaggie whitson set\nimage of orthoporus ornatus\nas an exemplar on\nspirostreptidae\n.\northoporus ornatus . texas gold millipede . baby . first of hopefully many more to come .\ndesert millipede , orthoporus ornatus ( spirostreptidae ) detail . tucson , pima co . arizona .\nclick the button below to add the orthoporus ornatus - giant arizona brown to your wish list .\northoporus ornatus . texas gold millipedes . feeding . even these guys are enjoying the new blend !\northoporus ornatus . texas gold millipede . adult . these fellas are happy , burrowing and eating well .\nit ' s definitely an orthoporus species . whether it ' s actually o . ornatus would require dissection .\ndesert millipede ( orthoporus ornatus ) desert _ millipede . jpg ( 504\u00d7378 ) | esp\u00e9cies da fauna | pinterest\nevan white with texas gold - banded millipedes ( orthoporus ornatus ) . ( photo by kathy keatley garvey )\nfeeding - season production in the desert millipede orthoporus ornatus ( girard ) ( diplopoda ) . - pubmed - ncbi\northoporus ornatus . texas gold millipedes . juveniles . so happy and pleased to say , to my knowledge these are the first 2 captive bred orthoporus ornatus juveniles ! hopefully more to come . 2 more pics being uploded without tags .\nbob corrigan added the english common name\ndesert millipede\nto\northoporus ornatus ( girard , 1853 )\n.\nbirthday present ! 2 more orthoporus ornatus . 3 tonkinbolus dolfusii . 4 narceus gordanus\nocal gold ' s\n. thankyou\northoporus ornatus . texan gold millipede . adult . a stunning millipede to observe ! hopefully the mating season is upon us .\nordered an orthoporus ornatus for one of my friends . currently feeding it a banana slice while it sits on my leg .\northoporus ornatus . texas gold millipedes . adult . the largest north american species that is native to alot of the deserts ! there are also brown phase orthoporus but these are a different species . spirostreptida . spirostreptidae .\no . ornatus is a cool species . i kept 8 smaller ( 3\n) o . ornatus in a 10gallon tank no prob .\northoporus ornatus . texas gold millipedes . coiled . love these guys , ive set them up with rotten wood , cuttle fish , fresh fruit and dry food .\ncurrently measuring at about 4 inches . orthoporus are the largest regularly available millipedes anywhere .\northoporus ornatus . texas gold millipede . yet another beautiful us species which is hopefully producing more babies as i leave to be in peace 99 % of the time .\northoporus ornatus from albuquerque , new mexico increased in dry weight during 92 days in 1974 more rapidly and to a greater extent than comparable size classes at tornillo flat .\nclick here for the complete photographic archive of all burrows produced by o ornatus .\northoporus texicolens looooove dogwood apparently . seconds after tossing in some leaf fragments they all swarmed \ud83d\ude02\nrespiratory metabolism was measured each month for orthoporus ornatus throughout a year . respiratory rates were determined at a standard 20\u00b0c and at the mean ambient soil temperature at time of collection .\n3 . ) i have heard that o . ornatus stinks . is this true ?\northoporus ornatus . texas gold millipedes . adult . i am so happy to see the progress of my breeding project and you will see in the next post ! spirostreptida . spirostreptidae .\ntaylor , e . c . ( 1982 ) . fungal preference by a desert millipede , orthoporus ornatus ( spirostreptidae ) . pedobiologia , 23 ( 5 ) : 331 - 336 [ details ]\northoporus ornatus . texas gold millipedes . juveniles . well after digging through and searching a while i ' ve discovered after half a year another 2 small juveniles of this impossible to breed species .\northoporus ornatus . texas gold millipedes . 2 / 3 . these large beautiful millipedes from the american deserts are popular kept pets . their crazy habits and scurrying around will make amusement for ages !\northoporus ornatus . texas gold millipede . adult . well weve had fun chewing on my little finger , doesnt hurt but it really send your nerves off on a weird one , a bit like tickling .\nproduction during an assumed 131 - day feeding season in 1974 was estimated for orthoporus ornatus between 4 . 0 and 12 . 0 mm in midsegment width at tornillo flat , big bend national park , texas .\n( of julus ornatus girard , 1853 ) causey , n . b . ( 1954 ) . three new species and new records of southern millipeds . tulane studies in zoology , 2 ( 4 ) : 63 - 68 . new orleans page ( s ) : 67 ; note : orthoporus ornatus [ details ]\northoporus ornatus ( the sonoran desert millipede ) is present in soils of the dry grasslands of the southwestern united states . sonoran desert millipedes are considerably smaller than the giant african millipedes , reaching only 10\u201313 cm long .\ni cannot match the gonopod structure of \u201ccaperanus\u201d exactly with any species known to me , but it comes very close to one of the local variants recorded for orthoporus ornatus ( girard ) , the most co . . .\nafter looking up the difference in orthoporus ( on google image search ) i ' m wondering if mukmewx has both texicolens and and ornatus . can we see a bigger picture of your striped and all brown ones side by side ?\nseasonal changes in the use of metabolic reserves by o . ornatus were indicated by corresponding changes in rq values .\ncrawford , c . s . ( 1972 ) . water relations in a desert millipede orthoporus ornatus ( girard ) ( spirostreptidae ) . comparative biochemistry and physiology , part a , 42 ( 2 ) : 521 - 535 [ details ]\ni ' ve kept orthoporus ornatus for over a year with no losses . i keep them the same as any other millipede , but water a little less and drill extra ventilation holes in their tub . what was your setup like ?\nthese two make a nice contrast . the most orange porcellionides floria i have and the orthoporus ornarus millipedes side by side .\nokay , thanks so much ! that was very helpful . is the sonoran desert millipede the same thing as the brown variety of orthoporus ornatus ? ( i was looking at bugsincyberspace for that one . it has the same scientific name . )\ni was gifted 22 beautiful orthoporus texicolens for my research ! each weighing 5 - 6g . time to get sciencey up in here\nnunez , f . s . & c . s . crawford ( 1977 ) . anatomy and histology of the alimentary tract of the desert millipede orthoporus ornatus ( girard ) ( diplopoda : spirostreptidae ) . journal of morphology 151 ( 1 ) : 121\u2013130 .\nwooten , r . c . , jr . , and c . s . crawford ( 1975 ) food , ingestion rates and assimilation in the desert millipede orthoporus ornatus ( girard ) ( diplopoda ) . oecologia 20 : 231 - 236 . ( pdf )\nnunez , f . s . ; crawford , clifford s . ( 1976 ) . digestive enzymes of the desert millipede orthoporus ornatus ( diplopoda spirostreptidae ) . comparative biochemistry and physiology , part a , 55 ( 2 ) : 141 - 145 [ details ]\nwooten , r . c . ; crawford , c . s . ( 1975 ) . food , ingestion rates , and assimilation in the desert millipede orthoporus ornatus ( girard ) ( diplopoda ) . oecologia , 20 : 231 - 236 . berlin [ details ]\ni cannot match the gonopod structure of \u201ccaperanus\u201d exactly with any species known to me , but it comes very close to one of the local variants recorded for orthoporus ornatus ( girard ) , the most common and widespread spirostreptid of southwestern united states and northern mexico .\ntrace morphology orthoporus ornatus produces five distinct burrow architectures : vertical shafts , subvertical ramps , j - , u - , and y - shaped burrows ; examples of each are shown below . each photo is linked to an information page about the specific burrow architecture shown .\ntexas gold - banded millipedes ( orthoporus ornatus ) . they ' re new and permanent residents of the museum ' s \u201cpetting zoo\u201d and they ' re ready to be observed or held , said lynn kimsey , director of the bohart museum and uc davis professor of entomology .\nwooten , jr . , r . c . , c . s . crawford & w . a . riddle ( 1975 ) . behavioural thermoregulation of orthoporus ornatus ( diplopoda : spirostreptidae ) in three desert habitats . zoological journal of the linnean society 57 ( 1 ) : 59\u201374 .\nwalker , l . j . ; crawford , clifford s . ( 1980 ) . integumental ultrastructure of the desert millipede , orthoporus ornatus ( girard ) ( diplopoda : spirostreptidae ) . international journal of insect morphology and embryology , 9 ( 3 ) : 231 - 249 [ details ]\northoporus ornatus . texas gold millipede . adult . these are one of the larger and extremely beautiful species available in the pet trade ! they are a desert species which live naturally in a large area of the usa ! and they freaking nibble all the time ! ! ! ! !\northoporus ornatus feeds mostly on dead plant material and on superficia tissue of desert shrubs . sand , small particles of rock , and parts of arthropods are also ingested . millipedes could not be induced to feed in the absence of moist soil in the laboratory after an initial day of feeding .\nconsidering probable net primary production at tornillo flat , local o . ornatus exert a trophic impact similar to that of other large invertebrate detritivores elsewhere .\npugach , s . ; crawford , clifford s . ( 1978 ) . seasonal changes in hemolymph amino acids , proteins , and inorganic ions of a desert millipede orthoporus ornatus ( girard ) ( diplopoda : spirostreptidae ) . canadian journal of zoology , 56 ( 6 ) : 1460 - 1465 [ details ]\nburrowing technique orthoporus ornatus burrows primarily by excavation , physically removing sediment particles and transporting them to the surface . the millipede uses its mandibles and the legs on the first three body segments to pluck sediment grains from the burrow walls . it then uses its walking legs on the posterior segments to transport the individual grains and particles along the length of the body and deposits them on the sediment surface . this technique allows o . ornatus to burrow into very dense , clay - rich soil .\nhave you been having trouble keeping orthoporus ? i just knew they were impossible to breed , i didn ' t know they had a reputation as difficult to keep . my d . macracanthus doesn ' t really like carrots , i wonder if he ' s just an oddball . after looking up the difference in orthoporus ( on google image search ) i ' m wondering if mukmewx has both texicolens and and ornatus . can we see a bigger picture of your striped and all brown ones side by side ?\nhorst , d . h . van der ; oudejans , r . c . h . m . ( 1973 ) . cyclopropane fatty acids in the millipede orthoporus ornatus ( girard ) ( myriapoda : diplopoda : spirostreptidae ) . comparative biochemistry and physiology , part b comparative biochemistry , 46 ( 2 ) : 277 - 281 [ details ]\nthe desert millipede ( orthoporus ornatus ) is a large , docile millipede species found throughout north america . depending on the species , the color of millipedes can range from a dark gray , brown or tan . millipedes have cylindrical , segmented bodies with two pairs of legs per segment . they can grow as long as 6 inches in length .\nthe 1000 - foot elevation line usually makes a suitable line of separation between o . ornatus ( above ) and o . texicolens ( below ) * 01 * .\nupton , s . j . ; crawford , c . s . ; hoffman , r . l . ( 1983 ) . a new species of thelastomatid ( nematoda : thelastomatidae ) from the desert millipede , orthoporus ornatus ( diplopoda : spirostreptidae ) . proceedings of the helminthological society of washington , 50 ( 1 ) : 69 - 82 [ details ]\nit is rare to find o . ornatus in either caves or cave entrances , although there are caves within their ranges that are occupied by other millipedes * 01 * .\nedit : i ' m not 100 % if mine are orthoporus or texicolens . they were collected in central texas and have the gold / brown bands rather than the solid dark markings .\ncrawford , c . s . ( 1979 ) . a year in the life of orthoporus ornatus , a desert millipede . in : linn , r . m . [ ed . ] . proceedings of the first conference on scientific research in the national parks , new orleans , louisiana , november 9 - 12 , 1976 . volume 1 . national park service [ details ]\ni could be wrong . i ' m not sure on the specifics of how to tell apart ornatus and texicolens , i don ' t want to imply anything bad about greenjewls !\ni bet it is fun ! ! i ' ve decided i ' m not getting o . ornatus because of their high maintenance needs . i ' m getting florida ivories instead i think .\ni would actually really rather not bother with the bumblebee relocation , i just worry about getting babies from the orthoporus texicolens if there is any problem there ? that ' s my big goal is to get them to breed . i know i shouldn ' t have a problem with the bumblebees . i ' m mostly concerned about the overall well - being of the orthoporus texicolens , since the bumblebees seem to be hardier .\nalthough there is considerable variation in the lateral coxal spine of the gonopod of o . ornatus , it is never in the form of a broad , flattened wedgelike process , as in o . flavior\nyeah , the setup might have been to blame , though they didn ' t all die at once , so i ' m not too sure about that . like i said , since they don ' t readily breed in captivity , i ' ll probably pass on orthoporus in the future . its really a shame though , because my orthoporus were some of the most mellow , easy going pedes that i have . however , peter from urltoken ( that ' s where i got my n . americanus ) told me he ' s getting some dendrostreptus in stock soon , so maybe i ' ll replace my orthoporus with them as the ' big pede ' in my collection .\nmillipedes usually live in dark damp habitats , but archispirostreptus syriacus and orthoporus ornatus prefer dry habitats and live in deserts . most species are under leaf litter , woodpiles , and stones . soil dwellers are usually found in the top inch or two of soil . a few species climb trees . for example , some species of bristly millipedes live in the small cracks in tree bark . although many millipedes are active at night , pill millipedes , such as glomeris marginata , are usually active during the day .\n( of julus ornatus girard , 1853 ) loomis , h . f . ( 1966 ) . descriptions and records of mexican diplopoda . annals of the entomological society of america , 59 : 11 - 27 page ( s ) : 25 [ details ]\nhere is a photo i took this morning , i wad lucky enough to find them this way this morning when i turned their light on . and it ' s totally fine if he gave me some ornatus , since they were more expensive ! lol\n( of julus ornatus girard , 1853 ) loomis , h . f . ( 1966 ) . millipeds from the region of monterrey , mexico . journal of the kansas entomological society , 39 : 513 - 524 page ( s ) : 523 [ details ]\nhave you been having trouble keeping orthoporus ? i just knew they were impossible to breed , i didn ' t know they had a reputation as difficult to keep . my d . macracanthus doesn ' t really like carrots , i wonder if he ' s just an oddball .\nfigure 20 . bray curtis cluster diagram comparing the 21 burrow casts produced by orthoporus ornatus ( oo ) and archispirostreptus gigas ( ag ) . branch points near the top of the diagram indicate higher levels of similarity . key branch points are marked with their similarity value ( at arrows ) . values > 0 . 80 indicate high similarity , 0 . 79\u20130 . 60 indicate moderate similarity , and values of 0 . 59 or less indicate dissimilarity . groups of burrow casts found to be most similar are marked with brackets and their level of similarity .\nnunez , f . s . ; crawford , clifford s . ( 1977 ) . anatomy and histology of the alimentary tract of the desert millipede ornothoporus ornatus ( diplopoda : spirostreptidae ) . journal of morphology , 151 ( 1 ) : 121 - 130 [ details ]\nselling 2 female orthoporus ornatus ( sonoran desert millipede ) with their habitat . they ' re both about 6\n. i ' ve had them for about a year , but my new apartment isn ' t too fond of me having millipedes . great pet for a classroom or kids ! and yes , if threatened they do ooze cyanide . . . so please do not eat them . ( old picture of the habitat . it ' s much drier now . they ' re a desert species so i also added lots of dead wood . ) \u200b\n5 . ) i have also heard that o . ornatus is prone to\njuicing\na person that handles them . i don ' t really care if they do that , except i ' m worried it will make my fingers all pink like i got burned .\n( of julus ornatus girard , 1853 ) loomis , h . f . ( 1963 ) . millipeds from states immediately north abd south of the mexican boundary . journal of the kansas entomological society , 36 : 118 - 126 page ( s ) : 125 [ details ]\n( of julus ornatus girard , 1853 ) hoffman , r . l . ( 1999 ) . checklist of the millipedes of north and middle america . virginia museum of natural history , special publication , 8 : 1 - 584 . martinsville page ( s ) : 127 [ details ]\ncrawford ( 1971 ) found that the dessication resistance of o . ornatus is considerably than in millipedes previously studied . forced coiling reduced transpiration of his specimens at 40 degrees c , but not at 30 degrees c . the metabolic waste products are ammonia and uric acid * 01 * .\nunfortunately there ' s been no success breeding them in captivity as far as i know . if you wanna give breeding a try , i suggest something easy to care for and breed in captivity , like c . spinigerus or n . americanus . unfortunately neither of these have the colors or size of an orthoporus .\ni noticed something odd about my orthoporus ornatus , they like to eat meat , as well as plant matter ! i saw them chewing on each others legs , so i decided to throw in some live crickets , and the millipedes\nattacked !\nthey grabbed the crickets , coiled around them , and began feasting away . since then i have been feeding them crickets / roaches weekly . i would like to know if anyone else has had the same experience with these millipedes , or if anyone would be willing to try feeding their millies crickets . btw i use prekilled cricketss now , for the safety of the\n( of julus ornatus girard , 1853 ) krabbe , e . ( 1982 ) . systematik der spirostreptidae ( diplopoda , spirostreptomorpha ) . abhandlungen und verhandlungen des naturwissenschaftlichen vereins in hamburg ( n . f . ) , 24 : 1 - 476 . hamburg page ( s ) : 350 [ details ]\northoporus ornatus are millipedes native to the southwestern united states in the states of texas , new mexico , and arizona . they grow to be between 5 - 6 inches , but the ones shown in the video are about 4 1 / 2 inches long . they are not venomous , but can secrete a toxin through their skin when they feel threatened . they are deterivores , feeding primarily on decomposing plant matter . music :\nindustrial revolution\nkevin macleod ( incompetech . com ) licensed under creative commons : by attribution 3 . 0 urltoken . . . the bugguide page for this species can be found here : urltoken\ni noticed something odd about my orthoporus ornatus , they like to eat meat , as well as plant matter ! i saw them chewing on each others legs , so i decided to throw in some live crickets , and the millipedes\nattacked !\nthey grabbed the crickets , coiled around them , and began feasting away . since then i have been feeding them crickets / roaches weekly . i would like to know if anyone else has had the same experience with these millipedes , or if anyone would be willing to try feeding their millies crickets . btw i use prekilled cricketss now , for the safety of the rnatus .\nproduction during an assumed 131 - day feeding season in 1974 was estimated for orthoporus ornatus between 4 . 0 and 12 . 0 mm in midsegment width at tornillo flat , big bend national park , texas . a conservative density estimate in 1973 of 1 , 302 millipedes ha - 1 involved daily specimen removal from three , 929 - m 2 plots for a month . each plot typified a different aspect of local desert vegetation ; most specimens came from the plot with greatest plant diversity and relatively high ( 20 % ) cover . production calculations using 1973 density estimates were based on increase in size - class specific dry weight ( minus gut contents ) between 14 may and 21 september , 1974 . production ha - 1 of cuticle and tissue was estimated at 0 . 85 kg ( 1972 kcal ) , while that of tissue alone came to 0 . 29 kg ( 1971 kcal ) . orthoporus ornatus from albuquerque , new mexico increased in dry weight during 92 days in 1974 more rapidly and to a greater extent than comparable size classes at tornillo flat . an estimated feeding - season energy budget based on ash - free values of shrub food eaten at tornillo flat indicated ingestion ha - 1 of 3 , 434 g ( 13 , 712 kcal ) and defecation of 3 , 181 g ( 9 , 187 kcal ) . an independent estimate of ingestion based on known ingestion rates was 8 , 851 g ha - 1 . considering probable net primary production at tornillo flat , local o . ornatus exert a trophic impact similar to that of other large invertebrate detritivores elsewhere .\n( of spirobolus ornatus ( girard , 1853 ) ) krabbe , e . ( 1982 ) . systematik der spirostreptidae ( diplopoda , spirostreptomorpha ) . abhandlungen und verhandlungen des naturwissenschaftlichen vereins in hamburg ( n . f . ) , 24 : 1 - 476 . hamburg page ( s ) : 350 [ details ]\nwooten , r . c . jr . ; crawford , c . s . ; riddle , w . a . ( 1975 ) . behavioural thermoregulation of orthopoms ornatus ( diplopoda : spirostreptidae ) in three desert habitats . zoological journal of the linnean society , 57 ( 1 ) : 59 - 74 [ details ]\n( of orthoporus caperanus ( attems , 1950 ) ) hoffman , r . l . ( 1997 ) . deletion of two enigmatic milliped species from the hawaiian fauna ( diplopoda : spirostreptida ) . bishop museum occasional papers , 49 : 49 - 50 page ( s ) : 389 - 390 ; note : o . caperanus . [ details ]\ntype locality : restricted ( causey , 1954 ) to palo duro canyon state park , randall county , texas . neotype ( causey , 1967 ) male , national museum of natural history * 01 * . variations in somatic and sexual characters have made the taxonomy of orthoporus difficult , and many names have been placed in synonymy * 01 * .\nthousand\nand ped for\nfoot .\nscroll down to read more about me , complete an activity , and test your knowledge in a quiz . go on get going and have fun ! who am i ? i am long and have more legs than you can count . i am usually brown or black . do you know who i am ? yes , i am a desert millipede . i can grow to be about 4 to 5 inches and i can be found in the sonoran desert . i am part of the orthoporus ornatus family which is , commonly known as the arizona desert millipede . some of my predators are birds , badgers , and rodents .\nappendix 9 . bray curtis similarity matrix comparing burrows produced by narceus americanus ( na ) to burrows produced by orthoporus ornatus ( oo ) . cells outlined in thick black lines in the matrix indicate comparison of burrows with the same architecture . oo1 , oo7 , and oo10 are subvertical burrows . oo2 , oo4 , oo6 , oo8 , and oo9 are vertical burrows . oo5 is a sinuous burrow . oo3 is a u - shaped burrow . oo11\u201313 are j - shaped burrows . colors inside the matrix indicate the level of similarity : blue cells indicate highly similar burrows ; orange cells indicate moderately similar burrows ; red cells indicate dissimilar burrows . appendixes 5 - 13 are presented in pdf format .\ntoday i will teach you about a desert crawler ! have you ever heard of the term orthoporus ornatus ? no ? well let me tell you a little about myself i am commonly known as the desert millipede . i am about four to five inches long and i can be found in arizona lying under a rock in the sonoran desert ! i enjoy eating decaying material and staying moist . i have two pairs of legs on each segment of my body and depending how many segments i have can mean i have hundreds of legs . male millipedes enjoy the benefits of a few pairs of gonopods , which is how you can identify females and males . the name millipede comes from the latin milli for\n( of julus ornatus girard , 1853 ) girard , c . ( 1869 ) . myriapods . in : marcy , randolph barnes : exploration of the red river of louisiana , in the year 1852 , by randolph b . marcy , assisted by george b . mcclellan . 243 - 246 . page ( s ) : 274 [ details ]\n7 . ) since o . ornatus apparently can ' t be bred in captivity , that means any i buy will be wild - caught . does anyone know if they are taken in such numbers as to possibly affect the ecosystem they live in ? i know they ' re\njust a bug\nbut it still concerns me that way .\nappendix 10 . bray curtis similarity matrix comparing burrows produced by floridobolus penneri ( fp ) to burrows produced by orthoporus ornatus ( oo ) . cells outlined in thick black lines in the matrix indicate comparison of burrows with the same architecture . oo1 , oo7 , and oo10 are subvertical burrows . oo2 , oo4 , oo6 , oo8 , and oo9 are vertical burrows . oo5 is a sinuous burrow . oo3 is a u - shaped burrow . oo11\u201313 are j - shaped burrows . colors inside the matrix indicate the level of similarity : green cells indicate identical burrows ; blue cells indicate highly similar burrows ; orange cells indicate moderately similar burrows ; red cells indicate dissimilar burrows . appendixes 5 - 13 are presented in pdf format .\nthe surface of the prozonites and metazonites of o . ornatus and o . flavior is finely pitted and obscurely wrinkled . males of each species have postfemoral and tibial pads on the legs , and the coxae of legpair 1 are of a somewhat uniform shape . two tibial spurs , the proximal acute and the distal blunt , are on the gonopods of each species\nappendix 13 . bray curtis similarity matrix comparing burrows produced by orthoporus ornatus ( oo ) to burrows produced by archispirostreptus gigas ( ag ) . cells outlined in thick black lines in the matrix indicate comparison of burrows of the same architecture . oo1 , oo7 , and oo10 are subvertical burrows . oo2 , oo4 , oo6 , oo8 , and oo9 are vertical burrows . oo5 is a sinuous burrow . oo3 is a u - shaped burrow . oo11\u201313 are j - shaped burrows . ag2 and ag8 are sinuous burrows . ag1 , ag3 , ag4 , and ag6 are helical burrows . ag7 and ag5 are u - shaped burrows . colors inside the matrix indicate the level of similarity : blue cells indicate highly similar burrows ; orange cells indicate moderately similar burrows ; red cells indicate dissimilar burrows . appendixes 5 - 13 are presented in pdf format .\nappendix 5 . bray curtis similarity matrix comparing all burrow casts produced in this study . from top - down and left - right ; 29 narceus americanus burrows ( na ) , 42 floridobolus penneri burrows ( fp ) , 13 orthoporus ornatus burrows ( oo prefix ) , and 8 archispirostreptus gigas burrows ( ag ) . color bars along the sides and top indicate primary burrow architectures : black = subvertical burrow , gray = vertical burrow , tan = j - shaped burrow , brown = helical burrow , magenta = o - shaped burrow , dark green = sinuous burrow , yellow = u - shaped burrow . colors inside the matrix indicate the level of similarity : green cells indicate identical burrows ; blue cells indicate highly similar burrows ; orange cells indicate moderately similar burrows ; red cells indicate dissimilar burrows . appendixes 5 - 13 are presented in pdf format .\nburrowing behavior orthoporus ornatus begins to burrow within 1 - 3 hours of placement in experimental enclosures . prior to burrowing , the millipede move around the perimeter of the terrarium . specimens are able to burrow completely below the surface within 15 - 45 minutes . while there is no consistent placement of the burrows within the enclosure , more than 80 % are constructed away from the terrarium walls . burrows are produced during detritus feeding as well as for temporary shelters to permanent dwellings . when occupied for long durations ( days to months ) , chambers were constructed at the end of the burrow . many of the chambers were sealed off from the surface by backfilling the shaft or tunnel just above the chamber entrance . fecal pellets are deposited both on the surface and within shallow , subhorizontal burrows occupied for short periods . fecal pellets are not deposited in burrows with chambers .\nfigure 18 . bray curtis cluster diagram comparing the 71 burrow casts produced by narceus americanus ( na ) and floridobolus penneri ( fp ) with 13 burrow casts produced by orthoporus ornatus ( oo ; shaded gray ) from hembree ( 2009 ) . burrow cast id numbers are color coded by architecture : red = subvertical burrow ; blue = vertical burrow ; orange = helical burrow ; purple = o - shaped burrow ; green = j - shaped burrow . branch points near the top of the diagram indicate higher levels of similarity . key branch points are marked with their similarity value ( at arrows ) . values > 0 . 80 indicate high similarity , 0 . 79\u20130 . 60 indicate moderate similarity , and values of 0 . 59 or less indicate dissimilarity . groups of burrow casts found to be most similar are marked with brackets and their level of similarity .\nmillipedes lay their eggs in the soil . some species make individual cases for their eggs out of chewed - up leaves . in some species , the female , and occasionally the male , guards the eggs until they hatch . although young millipedes resemble small adults , they are usually legless when they first hatch from the egg . after they molt , or shed their exoskeleton for the first time , they have six body segments and three pairs of legs . they add additional body segments and pairs of legs with each molt until they reach the maximum adult number . millipedes molt in sheltered places underground or in cracks in the soil . narceus americanus and orthoporus ornatus seal themselves off in special chambers dug for this very delicate stage of their lives . millipedes reach adulthood in one or two years , sometimes longer . adults live for one to eleven years , although some individuals may live longer .\nhey everyone ! i am pretty new to keeping millipedes . . . a couple months ago was the first i really fell in love with millipedes because i found two yellow - spotted millipedes ( harpaphe haydenia i think is how the scientific name is spelled . . . lol ) anyway . those aren ' t the problem . i found out how to keep those from the internet and they ' re doing just fine . but in researching them i found out about all these other beautiful species for sale online . and that led me to wanting more . so i would like you experienced millipede hobbyists ' advice . is orthoporus ornatus texas gold phase a good\nbeginner\nmillipede ? i do want a large specimen , and since a . gigas are quite a bit out of my reach . . . i decided the next best thing would be to get the largest american species . especially since it ' s beautiful as well .\ngrabende detritivoren wie tausendf\u00fc\u00dfer spielen eine wichtige rolle bei der bodenbildung . um das erkennen von tausendf\u00fc\u00dfer - grabg\u00e4ngen zu verbessern und somit die pr\u00e4senz von millipeden makrodetritivoren im fossilbericht zu erh\u00f6hen , beschreibt diese arbeit das grabverhalten und die daraus resultierenden grabgang - morphologien von zwei arten spirobolider tausendf\u00fc\u00dfer : narceus americanus und floridobolus penneri . sieben bis 94 tage lang wurden tausendf\u00fc\u00dfer in terrarien mit kontrollierten feuchtigkeitsgehalten gesetzt , die mit sediment verschiedenster zusammensetzung gef\u00fcllt waren . offene g\u00e4nge wurden mit gips abgeformt , ausgegraben und sowohl qualitativ als auch quantitativ beschrieben . sowohl n . americanus als auch f . penneri fertigten vertikale , subvertikale , helicale und o - f\u00f6rmige grabg\u00e4nge an . floridobolus penneri erzeugte zudem j - f\u00f6rmige grabg\u00e4nge . die grabgang - morphologien beider arten wurden unbeeintr\u00e4chtigt von sedimenteigenschaften als \u00e4hnlich befunden , indem die bray curtis \u00e4hnlichkeit beziehungsweise der spearman ' s rank korrelationstest angewendet wurde . grabg\u00e4nge von zwei anderen tausendf\u00fc\u00dferarten der ordnung spirostreptida , orthoporus ornatus und archispirostreptus gigas , die w\u00e4hrend einer vorangegangenen studie erzeugt worden waren , wurden ebenfalls mit den spiroboliden grabg\u00e4ngen verglichen . w\u00e4hrend grabg\u00e4nge von o . ornatus \u00e4hnlich waren , waren die g\u00e4nge von a . gigas , der gr\u00f6\u00dften der vier arten , am wenigsten \u00e4hnlich selbst nach entfernung von gr\u00f6\u00dfenabh\u00e4ngigen grabgang - eigenschaften aus der analyse . unterschiede und \u00e4hnlichkeiten in der grabgang - morphologie waren stattdessen der verhaltensfunktion des grabgangs , refugiums oder ern\u00e4hrung zuzuschreiben . trotz einiger unterschiede hatten alle sch\u00e4chte und tunnel der tausendf\u00fc\u00dfer - grabg\u00e4nge ein mittleres verh\u00e4ltnis von weite zu breite von 1 . 0\u20131 . 14 . diese ergebnisse zeigen , dass juliforme tausendf\u00fc\u00dfer grabg\u00e4nge mit einzigartiger morphologie produzieren , welche dazu genutzt werden k\u00f6nnen ihre grabg\u00e4nge von denen anderer bodenorganismen zu unterscheiden .\nhello everyone ! so , i ' m a relative newbie to the whole bug keeping thing ( just passed my 1 year anniversary this august ) and , for now , most of my interest is in keeping millipedes . i ' ve acquired several species at this point , managed to keep most of them alive and successful bred two of them . but , sadly one of my favorite species has neither done that well for me or bred , namely orthoporus ornatus\ntexas gold\n. i stared with 2 of them ( my first bugs , actually ! ) and then picked up a 3rd in hopes of getting a male for breeding , which i did . however , the two original ones have since passed on to the great compost pile in the sky and the poor male has been left all alone . i ' m here now because i ' m at a turning point . i want to make a decision about whether to try to keep any more orhtoporus or not . i ' ve read a lot of conflicted things online about them : some people say their easy to care for , some people say their hard to care for , some people say they live a long time , some people say they tend to die off quickly , etc , etc . so , given that i know there are number of experienced ' peders on here , i thought this would be the best place to come for answers . anything you can tell me about your experiences with orthoporus care and breeding would be greatly appreciated . i think the golds are some of the biggest , prettiest , most easy going millipedes around ( at least mine were ) and i hate to have to write them off as a species to keep in my collection . thanks !\nburrowing animals like millipedes that consume decaying vegetation play an important role in soil formation but are seldom preserved as body fossils . their burrows , however , are capable of being preserved as trace fossils but are poorly understood . to improve the recognition of millipede burrows and , therefore , the presence of millipedes in the fossil record , this study describes the burrowing behavior and resulting burrows of two species of spirobolid millipedes : narceus americanus and floridobolus penneri . forty millipedes were placed in terraria filled with sediment composed of different amounts of organic matter , soil , and sand and different moisture levels for 7\u201394 days . at the end of the experiments , any open burrows were cast with plaster and described . both n . americanus and f . penneri produced vertical , subvertical , helical , and o - shaped burrows . floridobolus penneri also produced j - shaped burrows . the burrow casts were compared to each other and to the environmental conditions using nonparametric statistics . burrows of two spirostreptid millipede species , orthoporus ornatus and archispirostreptus gigas , were also included in the comparisons . burrows of n . americanus , f . penneri , and o . ornatus were found to be similar , and their morphology was unaffected by sediment properties . burrows produced by a . gigas , the largest species , were the least similar to other species even after removing the size - dependent burrow properties such as tunnel height and width from the analysis . differences and similarities in burrow morphology were instead attributed to the behavioral function of the burrow , such as dwelling vs . feeding . despite their differences , all millipede burrows had a mean width - to - height ratio of 1 . 0\u20131 . 14 . these results show that millipedes produce burrows with unique morphologies that may be used to differentiate their burrows from those of other soil animals . the presence of millipedes in ancient soils may , therefore , be interpreted based on trace fossils .\no . ornatus may not be the best species for someone just getting into the hobby . they require high humidity , but twice the ventilation as other millipedes . these conditions may be hard to maintain over the long run . also , wild caught adults usually only live one to three years in captivity . for a starter millipede , i would recommend either chicobolus spinigerus ( florida ivory millipede ) or one of the narceus species . both are quite hardy and can reach lengths of over 4 inches . the albino narceus americanus is quite colorful and narceus gordanus is considered the largest north american millipede , although not the longest .\nlos detrit\u00edvoros que producen madrigueras , tales como mil\u00edpedos o milpi\u00e9s , juegan un papel importante en la formaci\u00f3n del suelo . con el fin de avanzar en el reconocimiento de las madrigueras de los mil\u00edpedos y , por lo tanto , de la presencia de mil\u00edpedos macrodetrit\u00edvoros en el registro f\u00f3sil , el presente estudio describe el comportamiento de realizaci\u00f3n de madrigueras y las morfolog\u00edas resultantes de las madrigueras de dos especies de milpi\u00e9s espirob\u00f3lidos : narceus americanus y floridobolus penneri . los mil\u00edpedos se colocaron en terrarios llenos de sedimentos de composiciones variadas y niveles de humedad controlados durante 7 - 94 d\u00edas . se abrieron las madrigueras y se rellenaron con yeso , luego se excavaron , para posteriormente describirlas tanto cualitativa como cuantitativamente . tanto n . americanus como f . penneri produjeron madrigueras helicoidales , verticales , subverticales y en forma de o . floridobolus penneri tambi\u00e9n produjo madrigueras en forma de j . se observ\u00f3 que las morfolog\u00edas de las madrigueras de ambas especies eran similares y no estaban afectadas por las propiedades de los sedimentos de acuerdo con los tests de similitud de bray curtis y rangos de correlaci\u00f3n de spearman , respectivamente . las madrigueras de otras dos especies de mil\u00edpedos del orden spirostreptida , orthoporus ornatus y archispirostreptus gigas , producidas en un estudio anterior , tambi\u00e9n se compararon con las madrigueras de espirob\u00f3lidos . mientras que las madrigueras de o . ornatus fueron similares , las madrigueras producidas por a . gigas , la mayor de las cuatro especies , fueron las menos similares , incluso despu\u00e9s de que se eliminasen del an\u00e1lisis las propiedades de la madriguera dependientes del tama\u00f1o . las diferencias y las similitudes en la morfolog\u00eda de las madrigueras fueron en cambio atribuidas a la funci\u00f3n del comportamiento de formar una madriguera , es decir , si la funci\u00f3n era la de refugio o la de alimentaci\u00f3n . a pesar de algunas diferencias , todos los ejes y galer\u00edas de las madrigueras de los mil\u00edpedos ten\u00edan una proporci\u00f3n media entre anchura y altura de 1 , 0 a 1 , 14 . estos resultados muestran que los mil\u00edpedos juliformes producen madrigueras con morfolog\u00edas \u00fanicas que pueden utilizarse para diferenciar sus madrigueras particulares de las producidas por otros organismos del suelo .\nles d\u00e9tritivores fouisseurs tels que les mille - pattes jouent un r\u00f4le important dans la formation des sols . afin d ' am\u00e9liorer la reconnaissance des terriers de mille - pattes et , par cons\u00e9quent , la pr\u00e9sence de mille - pattes macrod\u00e9tritivores dans le registre fossile , cette \u00e9tude d\u00e9crit le comportement fouisseur et les morphologies r\u00e9sultantes des terriers de deux esp\u00e8ces de mille - pattes spirobolide : narceus americanus et floridobolus penneri . des mille - pattes ont \u00e9t\u00e9 plac\u00e9s dans des terrariums remplis de s\u00e9diments de compositions vari\u00e9es et des teneurs en humidit\u00e9 contr\u00f4l\u00e9es pendant 7 \u00e0 94 jours . les terriers ouverts ont \u00e9t\u00e9 coul\u00e9s avec du pl\u00e2tre , d\u00e9terr\u00e9s , et d\u00e9crits \u00e0 la fois qualitativement et quantitativement . n . americanus et f . penneri ont tous deux produits des terriers verticaux , subverticaux , h\u00e9lico\u00efdales , et en forme de ' o ' . floridobolus penneri a \u00e9galement produit des terriers en forme de ' j ' . les morphologies des terriers des deux esp\u00e8ces ont \u00e9t\u00e9 jug\u00e9s similaires et non affect\u00e9 par les propri\u00e9t\u00e9s des s\u00e9diments \u00e0 l ' aide de la similarit\u00e9 de bray curtis et des tests de corr\u00e9lation de rang de spearman , respectivement . les terriers de deux autres esp\u00e8ces de mille - pattes de l ' ordre spirostreptida , orthoporus ornatus , et archispirostreptus gigas , produit dans une \u00e9tude pr\u00e9c\u00e9dente ont \u00e9t\u00e9 \u00e9galement compar\u00e9s aux terriers spirobolides . alors que les terriers d ' o . ornatus \u00e9taient similaires , les terriers produits par a . gigas , le plus grand des quatre esp\u00e8ces , \u00e9taient les moins similaire , m\u00eame apr\u00e8s avoir retir\u00e9 de l ' analyse les propri\u00e9t\u00e9s des terriers d\u00e9pendant de la taille . les diff\u00e9rences et similitudes dans la morphologie des terriers ont \u00e9t\u00e9 \u00e0 la place attribu\u00e9e \u00e0 la fonction du comportement du terrier , du refuge , ou de l ' alimentation . malgr\u00e9 quelques diff\u00e9rences , tous les tubes et tunnels de terrier de mille - pattes avaient une moyenne de rapport largeur \u00e0 hauteur entre 1 , 0 \u00e0 1 , 14 . ces r\u00e9sultats montrent que les mille - pattes juliformes produisent des terriers avec des morphologies uniques qui peuvent \u00eatre utilis\u00e9es pour diff\u00e9rencier leurs terriers \u00e0 ceux produits par d ' autres organismes du sol .\nall p . monodon used in this study were seen to have bacteria attaching to the surface of the hindgut or to the posterior part of the midgut wall where it connects with the start of the hindgut . these findings support those of harris [ 12 ] who reported that the presence of bacteria in the hindguts of crustacea are widespread , occurring throughout taxa belonging to marine thalassinidae and brachyura ( 9 genera , 16 species ) . there was , however , a high degree of variability between specimens in both the types and the total numbers of bacteria in the hindguts , indicating that this bacterial population may be regulated by its host . it has been suggested that molting may have a direct influence on the bacterial communities within the hindgut [ 64 , 65 ] . for each molting cycle of the exoskeleton , the chitinous hindgut lining is displaced and replaced with a new lining [ 66 ] . while there is no report in the literature on the effect of molting on the hindgut microbiota of shrimp , the newly molted hindgut surface was shown to be devoid of microbes in a study on desert millipedes orthoporus ornatus ( girard ) [ 67 ] . it is not currently known how microbes recolonize in the hindgut after molting . from our observations in penaeid shrimp , however , it can be hypothesized that the bacteria attached to the posterior part of the midgut , i . e . immediately adjacent to the hindgut , can function as a bacterial inoculum . the presence of bacteria in the posterior midgut in our study supports this hypothesis .\ni kept them in a large kk with my usual substrate mix of 50 % cocofiber , 25 % rotten wood , 25 % dead leaves , and an extra layer of dead leaves on top . the substrate reached nearly the top of the kk . i mist once or twice a week as the top layer of sub dries out . i felt like they needed more space so a few days ago i moved them into a big plastic sweater box with way more airholes than i usually add ( millipedes in captivity says these guys need a lot more ventilation than most pedes ) . they started mating before i even finished the rehousing . i ' ve found them mating several times over the past year , but never got any offspring . i give them a piece of dog kibble or some fruit of vegetables every couple weeks . i ' ve noticed this species loves carrots , which my other pedes aren ' t real fond of . i hope this is helpful for everyone ! edit : i ' m not 100 % if mine are orthoporus or texicolens . they were collected in central texas and have the gold / brown bands rather than the solid dark markings .\ndesert millipedes are docile , fairly large millipedes from north america . there are many different colors of desert millipedes . depending on the locality of the specimen , a desert millipede could be a dark brown to a bright orange , or a glossy tan to yellow and black stripes ! the specimen to the left was collected in new mexico , usa . it is not a particularly colorful specimen , but she is a large one . desert millipedes come out during the summer , after heavy rains , and can be collected by the hundreds on a night like that in some areas ! there are many orthoporus species that are known as the desert millipede . don ' t worry , most of them have a similar shape , and require the same conditions in captivity , so it is safe to put them all in one caresheet . desert millipedes seem easy to keep alive in captivity . humidity is not as important with these millipedes as it is with some of the tropical species . desert millipedes are interesting in any millipede collection , simply because they are large , they come in many different colors , and they are of the few giant millipedes that come from the desert instead of the tropics .\nobservations on feeding and locomotion of the desert millipede orthopoms ornatus were made in three separate habitats during the summer feeding season . the habitats were tornillo flat in big bend national park , texas ; the jornada validation site of ibp / desert biome near las cruces , new mexico ; and the base of a volcanic escarpment near albuquerque , new mexico . in each habitat diurnal or diel temperatures were monitored in a typical millipede microsite . microsites included portions of a larrea / opuntia shrub complex ( tornillo flat ) , an ephedra shrub ( jornada site ) , and a salsola shrub ( albuquerque ) . adjacent mammal - burrow temperatures were also monitored , as were soil - surface temperatures ( two habitats ) and air temperatures ( one habitat ) . diurnal feeding and locomotion were greatest in early morning and late afternoon ; nocturnal activity also occurred . soil - surface activity generally ceased before surface temperatures reached 35 o c and began again when they cooled to about the same level . in the meantime , movement to burrows , to beneath rocks and vegetation , and to aerial portions of shrubs occurred . additional behavioural thermoregulation was manifested by horizontal and vertical movements within shrubs , maximum air temperatures encountered being 35 . 5 o c . such behaviour is considered in light of recent studies of water balance and metabolism in this species .\nthe experiment has begun . it was a bit earlier than i intended for a number of reasons , but all three millipedes have been burrowed under the substrate for several weeks now . i check the moisture level of the lower substrate from time to time , by eye and finger ( bought a soil moisture meter but it was worthless , stayed on dry when i tested it in mud ) . anyway , i guess they ' re hibernating for now . . . probably won ' t lay eggs for a while yet . . . or have and they stay dormant for a while too . . . ( i hope my o . ornatus weren ' t virgins because i think all three of mine were girls , but being wild - caught and then kept with others of their kind before being sold to me , surely they would have mated . . . or i ' m really hoping for a miracle , lol ) . time , temperature , and moisture are the factors now . . . i guess i should wait nearly a year before i make it rain . . . temperature is the only thing i really can ' t change now as in a one bedroom apartment with numerous other lifeforms , i have to settle on what we can all live with . . . someday i ' m going to have incubators for species that need it a bit cooler or warmer . . . oh , and the native cacti are doing well at least . i rotate the terrarium regularly so they don ' t grow crooked . i miss my lovely golden millipedes and hope that at worst this does them no harm . . . if i have three healthy adults plus plings next year it will be worth it !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthese desert millipedes are found only on a few rainy nights each year . these millipedes are the longest us species in the hobby . they tolerate dry conditions for a short while , but their substrate should be wet down from time to time since they spend most of their lives underground ."]}
{"id": 1339, "summary": [{"text": "the pallas 's leaf warbler or pallas 's warbler ( phylloscopus proregulus ) is a bird that breeds in mountain forests from southern siberia east to northern mongolia and northeastern china .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "it is named for german zoologist peter simon pallas , who first formally described it .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "this leaf warbler is strongly migratory , wintering mainly in southern china and adjacent areas of southeast asia , although in recent decades increasing numbers have been found in europe in autumn .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "pallas 's leaf warbler is one of the smallest eurasian warblers , with a relatively large head and short tail .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it has greenish upperparts and white underparts , a lemon-yellow rump , and yellow double wingbars , supercilia and central crown stripe .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is similar in appearance to several other asian warblers , including some that were formerly considered to be its subspecies , although its distinctive vocalisations aid identification .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "the female builds a cup nest in a tree or bush , and incubates the four to six eggs , which hatch after 12 \u2013 13 days .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the chicks are fed mainly by the female and fledge when they are 12 \u2013 14 days old ; both parents then bring food for about a week .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "pallas 's leaf warbler is insectivorous , feeding on the adults , larvae and pupa of small insects and spiders .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "birds forage in bushes and trees , picking items from leaves or catching prey in short flights or while hovering .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the pallas 's leaf warbler has a large range , and its numbers are believed to be stable .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it therefore is evaluated as of \" least concern \" by the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "pallas ' s leaf warbler", "paragraphs": ["select an image : 1 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 2 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 3 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 4 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 5 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 6 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 7 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 8 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 9 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 10 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 11 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 12 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 13 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 14 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 15 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 16 . pallas ' s leaf warbler > > adult 17 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 18 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 19 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 20 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 21 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 22 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 23 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 24 . pallas ' s leaf warbler > > adult 25 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 26 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 27 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 28 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 29 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 30 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 31 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 32 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 33 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 34 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 35 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 36 . pallas ' s leaf warbler 37 . pallas ' s leaf warbler > > adult\nthe pallas ' s warbler or pallas ' s leaf warbler ( phylloscopus proregulus ) is a leaf warbler which breeds in southern siberia , mongolia and parts of tibet and china . it is strongly migratory and winters in subtropical asia .\nnote that the sixth edition of clements checklist [ 3 ] refers to pallas ' s grasshopper warbler , rather than this species , as\npallas ' s warbler\n.\nmartens j , tietze dt , eck s . veith m . radiation and species limits in the asian pallas\u2019s warbler complex (\npallas\u2019s leaf warbler was found to be an abundant breeding visitor to the mid - and higher altitudes . martens et al . (\nthe pallas ' s leaf warbler or pallas ' s warbler is a leaf warbler which breeds in southern siberia ( from novosibirsk oblast east to magadan oblast ) , northern mongolia , and northeastern china . it is strongly migratory and winters mainly in subtropical southern china and northeastern indochina , but also in small numbers in western europe .\nlike pale - legged leaf warbler , sakhalin leaf warbler pumps its tail steadily , often remaining otherwise motionless . ( craig brelsford )\ntwo different pallas ' s leaf warblers ( phylloscopus proregulus ) singing near erdenebulgan , khovsgol aimag , mongolia , july 2009 .\nthe pallas ' s leaf warbler or pallas ' s warbler ( phylloscopus proregulus ) is a leaf warbler which breeds in southern siberia ( from novosibirsk oblast east to magadan oblast ) , northern mongolia , and northeastern china . it is strongly migratory and winters mainly in subtropical southern china and northeastern indochina , but also in small numbers in western europe .\npallas\u2019s leaf warbler song was the most conspicuous background bird noise from 750 to 800 m up to the highest forests ( which grew almost to the highest peak ) , with some birds in the taller stands of montane shrubland . loud , near - continuous , song right through to late summer is typical of pallas\u2019s leaf warbler elsewhere ( dementiev and gladkov\nthese three or four species and the chinese leaf - warbler , p . yunnanensis ( sometimes p . sichuanensis ) were until recently united in the pallas ' warbler sensu lato .\np\u00e4ckert m , blume c , sun y - h , wei l . martens j . acoustic differentiation reflects mitochondrial lineages in blyth\u2019s leaf warbler and white - tailed leaf warbler complexes ( aves :\n) . this species does not breed in myohyang . eastern crowned leaf warbler (\n) and allows confidence that the observations document the species\u2019s real ecological distribution within myohyang . the sharp lower altitudinal limit to territorial pallas\u2019s leaf warbler in natural forest reflected no change in vegetation obvious to the human eye : it occurred within a wide band of mixed broad - leaf and\nof these , phylloscopus chloronotus forresti is possibly also a separate species , but further analysis is required to confirm this . gansu leaf warbler and chinese leaf warbler overlap in breeding range in southern gansu , but are separated ecologically , with gansu leaf warbler using taller forest habitats and chinese leaf warbler in lower , often scrubby habitats .\nof these , phylloscopus chloronotus forresti is possibly also a separate species , but further analysis is required to confirm this . gansu leaf warbler and chinese leaf warbler overlap in breeding range in southern gansu , but are separated ecologically , with gansu leaf warbler using taller forest habitats and chinese leaf warbler in lower , often scrubby habitats .\nan arrival of spring pallas ' s warblers in coastal habitat in beidaihe , china . filmed using a panasonic g2 .\npallas\u2019s warblers can best be distinguished from the similar yellow - browed warbler ( p . inornatus ) by the stripe on their cap and their bright yellow rump .\n\u2014\u2014\u2014 . kamchatka leaf warbler in shanghai . post to urltoken published 6 june 2017 .\n4 . 11 march 2000 kawasaki - shi , kanagawa prefecture . only pallas ' s leaf warbler have yellowish rump in japanese phylloscpus warblers . the call is weak and short ' chui ' . it is softer and shorter than yellow - browed warbler .\non two hill trails , ca . 10 km apart , which led almost directly uphill , the lowest territorial singing pallas\u2019s leaf warblers were consistently at 700\u2013800 m ( table\n) suggest that , as with these pallas\u2019s leaf warblers , links with tree species may be particularly strong when the tree is structurally distinct from others in the area .\nlike its sister species pale - legged leaf warbler , sakhalin leaf warbler has an affinity for sturdy , leafless branches . here , the leaf warbler , drawn by playback of its own voice , is using the perch to investigate the source of the sound . ( craig brelsford )\nquerytime : 0 . 0498 s , querycount : 810 , parsetime : 0 . 7050 s , totaltime : 0 . 7548 s , source : database\nchinese leaf warbler phylloscopus yunnanensis ( syn . p . sichuanensis ) . western china . monotypic .\nchinese leaf warbler phylloscopus yunnanensis ( syn . p . sichuanensis ) . western china . monotypic .\nmartens j , eck s , p\u00e4ckert m . sun y - h . the golden - spectacled warbler\n) . however , fir cannot be the only cue for settling pallas\u2019s leaf warblers at myohyang , because the warbler\u2019s lower edge of breeding lies 200\u2013300 m below the lower margin of unplanted firs , and the warbler is abundant within this band . no cause of the warbler\u2019s lower altitudinal limit in natural forest suggested itself during these observations . tree species distributions may be found to have a widespread role in how birds locate themselves on a mountain . among eight\nmartens j . systematic notes on asian birds : 72 . a preliminary review of the leaf warbler genera\non sun . 17 sept . 2017 at pudong\u2019s cape nanhui , i achieved a personal first : photos of an unmistakable sakhalin leaf warbler phylloscopus borealoides . as expected , the photos show a leaf warbler whose plumage and bare parts are virtually indistinguishable from those of pale - legged leaf warbler p . tenellipes . coupled , however , as they are with sound - recordings of the same individual , ensuring the id , the photos constitute a rare visual record of sakhalin leaf warbler in shanghai .\nplanting of firs in these temple gardens at altitudes much lower than they naturally grow has apparently stimulated individual pallas\u2019s leaf warblers to settle well below the species\u2019s usual altitudinal zone . not many fir trees are needed : pulyong temple holds only five mature trees yet attracted one singing male , while at kumgang temple many trees within an area 200 m across held three territorial birds , a density broadly similar to those in natural hill forest . pallas\u2019s leaf warbler is a long - distance migrant , wintering in southern china and indochina ( dickinson\n\u2014 century yielded yet another regional record of sakhalin leaf warbler . evidence is growing that in the shanghai area this passage migrant has been neglected and is more common than previously thought . i recently wrote a series of posts , the latest being this one , on distinguishing sakhalin leaf warbler from its sister species pale - legged leaf warbler .\neven when the pallas\u2019s warbler did appear , the views it gave were frustratingly brief \u2013 often just a glimmer of yellow wing bars , or a quick flash of its stripy crown as it flitted rapidly between the leaves .\npallas\u2019s warbler is one of the smallest of all british birds \u2013 just nine centimetres long and weighing a mere seven grams . so it\u2019s difficult to believe that it can migrate at all , let alone fly several thousand miles from the forests of northern russia all the way to britain .\n\u2014\u2014\u2014 . separating pale - legged & sakhalin leaf warbler on call . post to urltoken published 31 aug . 2017 .\npallas\u2019s leaf warbler ( phylloscopus proregulus ) is a common breeding bird above 700 m in the forests of the myohyang range , korea . within the largely natural forest are several temple gardens , four of which at 140\u2013520 m held territorial pallas\u2019s leaf warblers . all had mature planted firs ( abies ) , which occur naturally in the area only over 1 , 000 m . the planted firs evidently stimulated the warblers to settle below their natural altitudinal range , but cannot be the only stimulus because the natural lower distribution of the warbler is 300 m below that of the tree .\nthe closely related southern species , pale - rumped warbler ( or lemon - rumped warbler ) , p . chloronotus , and gansu leaf warbler , p . kansuensis , move to lower latitudes in winter , but do not migrate long distances .\nhere is the recording i made of the calling sakhalin on thurs . 5 oct . apart from a dna assay , call as well as song is the only reliable way to separate sakhalin leaf warbler from pale - legged leaf warbler . at 4 . 9 khz , the \u201ctink\u201d recorded below is a full kilohertz deeper than the call of pale - legged leaf warbler .\nbrelsford , craig . sakhalin & pale - legged leaf warbler , singing together . post to urltoken published 5 may 2016 .\npale - legged leaf warbler , call , magic parking lot , 4 sept . 2017 ( 00 : 10 ; 2 mb )\npale - legged leaf warbler , call , magic parking lot , 4 sept . 2017 ( 00 : 01 ; 332 kb )\nthe first description of pallas ' s leaf warbler was by pallas in 1811 as motacilla proregulus . the committe for check - list of japanese birds ( 2000 ) treated it as a polytypic species and described pallas ' s leaf warbler that have been recorded in japanes was p . p . proregulus . many authors , however , treate non - nominate subspecies as full species and the pallas ' s leaf warbler p . proregulus as a monotypic species ( dickinson 2003 , del hoyo et al . 2006 , rheindt 2006 ) . the first record of pallas ' s leaf warbler for japan was in april , 1967 , tsuno - shima , yamaguchi prefecture . it is rare in japan , but recently recorded on the islands in the sea of japan almost annually . there is also some wintering records in main island , honshu . references del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . and christie , d . ( eds ) . 2006 . handbook of the birds of the world vol . 11 . old world flycatchers to old world warblers . lynx , barcelona . dickinson , c . ( ed . ) 2003 . the howard and moore complete checklist of the birds of the world , 3rd edition . christopher helm , london . the committe for check - list of japanese birds ( ed . ) 2000 . check - list of japanese birds sixth revised edition . ornithological society of japan , obihiro . rheindt , f . e . 2006 . split galore : the revolution in asian leaf warbler systematics . birdingasia 5 : 25 - 39 .\nmadge , s . c . 1987 . field identification of radde ' s and dusky warblers . brit . birds 80 : 595 - 603 .\nround , philip d . , pierce , andrew j . , saitoh , takema , & shigeta , yoshimitsu . 2016 . addition of kamchatka leaf warbler phylloscopus examinandus and sakhalin leaf warbler p . borealoides to thailand\u2019s avifauna . bulletin of the japan bird banding association 28 : 9\u201321 . available here for download ( 708 kb ) through shanghaibirding . com .\nexperts since at least as far back as 1989 have been arguing that pale - legged leaf warbler phylloscopus tenellipes and sakhalin leaf warbler p . borealoides are separable not only by their distinctive songs but also by their calls . thailand - based birder and urltoken contributor phil round is among those making that argument . round and his co - authors write : \u201c [ t ] he call of p . tenellipes is markedly higher in frequency than that of p . borealoides \u201d ( round et al . , \u201caddition of kamchatka leaf warbler phylloscopus examinandus and sakhalin leaf warbler p . borealoides to thailand\u2019s avifauna , \u201d downloadable through urltoken ) .\nthe sound - recordings and audio spectrograms below show clearly the difference in frequency between the calls of sakhalin and pale - legged leaf warbler .\npale - legged leaf warbler , call , magic parking lot , 4 sept . 2017 ( 00 : 41 ; 7 . 9 mb )\neditor\u2019s note : in the photo above , a pale - legged leaf warbler emits its characteristic \u201ctink\u201d call in microforest 4 , cape nanhui , pudong , 27 aug . 2017 . the tink call of pale - legged is appreciably higher - pitched than that of sakhalin leaf warbler . distinguishing the two calls is the subject of this post . \u2014 craig brelsford\nc & ne china ( e qinghai , s gansu , shaanxi , shanxi and hebei s to sichuan ) ; non - breeding apparently se asia .\n) . no singing pallas\u2019s leaf warbler was ever found during may\u2013june along many kilometres of trail walked ( repeatedly , in all 3 years ) in the intervening natural forest at these low altitudes . to the human eye , a striking difference between the gardens and the surrounding natural forest was that all gardens held mature stands of planted fir (\nthe new entries on the urltoken list are sakhalin leaf warbler , dusky warbler , and white - throated rock thrush . the new entries on the ebird list are those three plus japanese paradise flycatcher and taiga flycatcher .\n) found 15 spring migrant pallas\u2019s leaf warblers , all during 8\u201326 april except for one atypically late non - singing bird on 25 may 2002 . nor could post - breeding dispersal account for these garden birds ; observations on the sangwon trail suggested such roaming began about 1 july ( table\n) , there is no published information on the species\u2019s breeding ecology in korea .\npodos j . correlated evolution of morphology and vocal signal structure in darwin\u2019s finches .\nfeatured image : sakhalin leaf warbler phylloscopus borealoides , cape nanhui , shanghai , 17 sept . 2017 . craig brelsford photographed and sound - recorded this individual , getting a rare record of the poorly known species in earth\u2019s greatest city .\nhere are photos of the sakhalin leaf warbler of 17 sept . 2017 . the bird below is the same individual whose voice i sound - recorded .\npale - legged leaf warbler phylloscopus tenellipes , call , magic parking lot , 4 sept . 2017 ( 00 : 19 ; 3 . 7 mb )\nforest which extended several hundred metres above and below the warbler\u2019s limit . nor was there any plausible replacement bird species at lower altitudes . bourski and forstmeier (\nsakhalin leaf warbler , call , microforest 4 ( 30 . 953225 , 121 . 959083 ) , 8 may 2016 ( 00 : 15 ; 1 mb )\nthe pallas ' s leaf warbler occurs exceptionally in central europe . it is a resident of the southeast siberian taiga , of mongolia and china . most of them spend the winter in south china . its size and behaviour is similar to a goldcrest . this species is easy to identify by its yellow supercilium and its pale yellow crown stripe as well as its yellow rump patch .\nnow consider the spectrograms and sound - recordings of pale - legged leaf warbler below . the spectrogram immediately below was recorded by me on 10 june 2016 in my wife elaine du \u2019s hometown of boli , heilongjiang , part of the breeding range of pale - legged leaf warbler . the call ( here a grace note ) and song both clock in at about 6 khz , a frequency a full 25 percent higher than the call of sakhalin leaf warbler and , as with sakhalin , consistent with the frequencies of pale - legged calls on xeno - canto . org .\npale - legged leaf warbler p . tenellipes , magic parking lot , cape nanhui , 4 sept . 2017 ( 00 : 19 ; 3 . 7 mb )\nlast september , in \u201c pale - legged leaf warbler & the shanghai big 5 , \u201d i asserted that \u201cpale - legged leaf warbler is safely separable from sakhalin leaf warbler only by song . \u201d i was wrong . call as well as song is a reliable separator . in this post , i am going to tell you how i arrived at this insight , and i will show you how you too can achieve clear , indisputable ticks of these tricky species through call alone .\nthis article is part of project phylloscopidae , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each leaf - warbler , including made - up species .\nin the wake of my recent post on distinguishing pale - legged leaf warbler from sakhalin leaf warbler by call , i have been hoping to find more members of this species pair in shanghai . on 4 sept . 2017 at pudong \u2019s cape nanhui , my hopes were fulfilled in a big way . at the magic parking lot ( 30 . 884889 , 121 . 968222 ) , not one but both species were calling .\nthat does indeed apply to rare birds from north america , found in places such as the isles of scilly or the western isles , which have been swept across the atlantic on autumn gales . but it isn\u2019t true for those species \u2013 like the pallas\u2019s warbler \u2013 that birders call \u201csibes\u201d after their place of origin .\n) . most species migrate seasonally ( from seasonal elevational movements to long - distance migration between continents ) . leaf warbler males vocalize a lot in the breeding period . despite a remarkable interspecific variation in leaf warbler song , song characteristics are highly repeatable within species . all that makes phylloscopid warblers a good model to study vocal trait evolution .\nbergman s ( 1935a ) n\u00e5gra korta brev fr\u00e5n korea . fauna och flora 30 : 170\u2013172\nding t - s , yuan h - w , geng s , lin y - s , lee p - f ( 2005 ) energy flux , body size and density in relation to bird species richness along an elevational gradient in taiwan . global ecol biogeogr 14 : 299\u2013306\nround , philip d . e - mail message to craig brelsford , 18 oct . 2016 . round\u2019s e - mail message was originally cited in the urltoken post \u201c pale - legged leaf warbler & the shanghai big 5 , \u201d published 26 sept . 2016 .\n9\u201310 cm ; 4\u00b76\u20135\u00b71 g . a small , \u201cchunky\u201d leaf - warbler with well - patterned plumage . nominate race has well - defined pale buffish or whitish . . .\npale - legged leaf warbler , call , microforest 4 ( 30 . 953225 , 121 . 959083 ) , 27 aug . 2017 ( 00 : 01 ; 193 kb )\nin shanghai in 2017 , important facts about common birds such as pale - legged leaf warbler and sakhalin leaf warbler remain unknown . this ornithological semi - wilderness is both difficult and exciting . if we rise to the challenge and become better birders , then we will make new discoveries and blaze a trail of knowledge for future birders to follow .\n) . breeding leaf warblers could be found between 34\u00b0s and 71\u00b0n and between 18\u00b0w and 41\u00b0w ( across eurasia and north america ) with a diversity hotspot in southwest china ( fig .\nmay have increased in recent years . the presence of an unknown population of swinhoe ' s petrel\nsakhalin leaf warbler phylloscopus borealoides , century park ( 31 . 219361 , 121 . 551900 ) , pudong , 5 oct . 2017 ( 00 : 20 ; 3 . 9 mb )\nsakhalin leaf warbler phylloscopus borealoides , microforest 1 ( 30 . 953225 , 121 . 959083 ) , cape nanhui , 17 sept . 2017 ( 01 : 03 ; 12 . 2 mb )\nbergman s ( 1935b ) glimtar fram djulivet i en koreanask floddal . fauna och flora 30 : 203\u2013209\n\u2014 white\u2019s thrush : a healthy 11 taking advantage of the high - quality woodland in the park .\n( pallas ) goldhanchenlaubsanger . in : dathe h , loskot wm ( eds ) atlas der verbreitung palaearktischer vogel . akademie verlag , berlin , lieferung 17 ( unpaginated )\nc . 9\u201310 cm . a small , rather \u201cchunky\u201d leaf - warbler with prominent head stripes . median crownstripe is pale olive - grey , more distinct posteriorly than anteriorly ( often . . .\nalstr\u00f6m , p . , clement , p . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . pallas ' s leaf - warbler ( phylloscopus proregulus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nour first exhibit is the spectrogram of a call i sound - recorded of sakhalin leaf warbler on 8 may 2016 in cape nanhui\u2019s microforest 4 ( 30 . 953225 , 121 . 959083 ) . the frequency is 4 . 8 kilohertz , a number that matches closely the frequency of sakhalin calls on urltoken . *\npale - legged leaf warbler , call and song , xidaquan national forest ( 45 . 727751 , 130 . 317316 ) , boli , heilongjiang , 10 june 2016 ( 01 : 59 ; 6 mb )\nsakhalin leaf warbler phylloscopus borealoides , call , microforest 4 ( 30 . 953225 , 121 . 959083 ) , cape nanhui , pudong , shanghai , 4 sept . 2017 ( 00 : 02 ; 528 kb )\npallas\u2019s warbler is as small as a goldcrest , and looks like a small plump leaf - warbler . they have olive green backs with distinctive bright yellow rumps . their dark green heads are clearly marked with a yellowish cap stripe and a brighter yellow eye - stripe . their primary wing feathers are brown with pale edges . their inner secondaries and tertials ( large feathers at the base of their wings ) have yellowish edges and two pale stripes run across their wings . their underparts are pale yellowish . they have dark greenish brown legs , dark brown beaks with a yellowish base , and dark brown irises .\nbertelli s . tubaro pl . body mass and habitat correlates of song structure in a primitive group of birds .\nforced copulation occurs when one animal subverts another\u2019s mating choice and uses physical means to force copulation on that animal .\na stunning black - throated accentor was found by nils kjell\u00e9n when he was trying to relocate a pallas ' s leaf warbler . it was seen feeding at some clumps of salix and dense herbage several kilometres inland in the southeast part of scania , southernmost sweden . representing the first record for the province of scania and the second for sweden . the previous one was of a ringed individual in june 1988 at stora fj\u00e4der\u00e4gg , v\u00e4sterbotten . a sought after species in the western palearctic and a real stunner !\n( left ) typifies the family . it is a small , plain , rather drab but restless little bird whose vocalizations make it much easier to identify than anything in its plumage . as it happens , chinese leaf - warbler is a newly described species , discovered and split from the pallas ' s / lemon - rumped warbler group on the basis of its distinctive song and calls ( alstr\u00f6m , olsson & colston 1992 ) . it breeds in a few forested mountains outside of beijing ; its winter range and migration routes are virtually unknown because it is almost impossible to identify when silent . it was initially named\nappearance : a small leaf - warbler , about the size of a goldcrest . distinctive markings include two pale wing stripes , bright yellow rump , orange - yellow eye - stripe and pale yellowish stripe on cap .\nsakhalin leaf warbler , call , magic parking lot ( 30 . 884889 , 121 . 968222 ) , cape nanhui , pudong , shanghai , 4 sept . 2017 ( 00 : 07 ; 1 . 4 mb )\nlee p - f , ding t - s , hsu f - h , geng s ( 2004 ) breeding bird species richness in taiwan : distribution on gradients of elevation , primary productivity and urbanization . j biogeogr 31 : 307\u2013314\nto summarize what i argued in the previous post : the calls , as well as the very distinctive songs , of pale - legged leaf warbler and sakhalin leaf warbler are diagnostic\u2013that is , they differ markedly and consistently and are a reliable basis for an id . the diagnosability of the calls of the two species has been affirmed by various researchers , among them yap et al . ( 2014 ; birding asia 21 : 76\u201381 ) .\ngil d , slater pj . graves ja . extra - pair paternity and song characteristics in the willow warbler\naltitudinal migrant . post - breeding descent to lower levels in himalayas , and also to s assam hills . . .\ndistribution map . breeding distribution of leaf warbler ( phylloscopidae ) species according to birdlife international & natureserve ( 2011 ) ; species richness increases from dark blue ( 1 ) via green and yellow to red ( 16 ) .\n1 . 22 may 1996 wajima - shi , ishikawa prefecture . the both sides of the head are darker than yellow - browed warbler and the yellow mediun crown stripe is distinct . the supercilium is broader and yellower in front of eye than yellow - browed warbler . the superciliums of both sides join over the forehead , while yellow - browed warbler ' s superciliums are usually not join . the tips of greater and median coverts are yellowish .\nleaf warblers ( aves : sylviidae ) : a tale of sexual selection , habitat adaptation , and morphological constraints .\nprice td , helbig aj . richman ad . evolution of breeding distributions in the old world leaf warblers ( genus\n( j . e . gray & g . r . gray , 1847 ) \u2013 c & e himalayas ( e from c nepal ) ; non - breeding in foothills at lower altitudes s to s assam hills ( ne india ) .\nto assess the generality of this fortuitous observation , there are probably many other culturally revered mountains in north - east asia where , amid a largely natural forest matrix , small manicured gardens hold mature planted trees outside their natural altitudinal zones . of the 12 passerines with myohyang breeding distributions restricted to higher slopes ( author\u2019s unpublished data ) , pallas\u2019s leaf warblers was the only one to settle in the temple gardens ; so perhaps such simple linkage by a bird to a single tree type may be unusual , as further suggested by the lack of previous examples in the literature .\nthe total data set used for phylogenetic reconstructions comprised sequence data of 80 leaf warbler taxa compared with 30 taxa analyzed by mahler and gil ( 2009 ) . genbank sequences of acrocephalus dumetorum were included in the analysis for hierarchical outgroup rooting .\npallas ' s leaf warbler is named after the german zoologist peter simon pallas , who discovered it on the ingoda river in siberia in 1811 ; the species name proregulus derives from its similar size to the goldcrest regulus regulus . in the past , it was treated as a complex of several subspecies ; apart from the nominate subspecies breeding in northern asia , two to four other subspecies were accepted , breeding much further south at high altitudes in the sino - himalayan mountain system from the western himalaya east to western china ( yunnan north to gansu and hebei ) . even though they differ only slightly in plumage , they are very distinct vocally with both song and calls differing . genetic analysis has also shown them to be distinct , and they are now treated as separate species :\npallas ' s leaf warbler is named after the german zoologist peter simon pallas , who discovered it on the ingoda river in siberia in 1811 ; the species name proregulus derives from its similar size to the goldcrest regulus regulus . in the past , it was treated as a complex of several subspecies ; apart from the nominate subspecies breeding in northern asia , two to four other subspecies were accepted , breeding much further south at high altitudes in the sino - himalayan mountain system from the western himalaya east to western china ( yunnan north to gansu and hebei ) . even though they differ only slightly in plumage , they are very distinct vocally with both song and calls differing . genetic analysis has also shown them to be distinct , and they are now treated as separate species :\n) . only in 2003 were the gardens specifically visited , but pohyon temple is beside the site\u2019s main stream , and several territorial pallas\u2019s leaf warblers were found there during river - bird surveys in 2002 ; hence , 2003 was not an aberrant year . at least in pohyon temple and the scenic spots administration office ( the two sites visited on many dates ) , males occurred right through the breeding season , although it is impossible to tell whether it was the same individual birds on each visit . females may also have settled , as suggested by a non - singing bird in mid - june ( table\npodos j , southall ja . rossi - santos mr . vocal mechanics in darwin\u2019s finches : correlation of beak gape and song frequency .\nsome of the siberian vagrants that appear in western europe have managed to survive into winter . records are frequent for richard ' s pipits\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\ncramp s ( ed ) ( 1992 ) the birds of the western palearctic , vol . vi . warblers . oxford university press , oxford\ngreig ei , price jj . pruett - jones s . song evolution in maluridae : influences of natural and sexual selection on acoustic structure .\nalstr\u00f6m p , saitoh t , williams d , nishiumi i , shigeta y , ueda k , et al . the arctic warbler\neven though the expectant crowd of birders knew the pallas\u2019s warbler was there , it was not proving easy to see . the bird was doing a feeding circuit with a loose flock of goldcrests , chiffchaffs , long - tailed tits and a lone female blackcap , which meant that we had to wait at least half an hour between sightings . there were the usual false alarms , as a shout would go up , only for our hopes to be dashed when a more familiar bird came into view .\nt\u2019s hard to imagine a bird that weighs less than a two pence coin travelling all the way from siberia to end up near my home in somerset . but that\u2019s exactly what the tiny creature making its way through the dense foliage of ivy and sycamores in front of me had just done .\nhypothesis 2 : body size is negatively correlated with frequency characteristics ( wallschl\u00e4ger 1980 ; badyaev and leaf 1997 ; mahler and gil 2009 ) .\nsakhalin leaf warbler shows the classic features of the pale - sak species pair , among them an olive - brown crown contrasting with olive - green mantle and wings , a long and creamy supercilium , and faint wing bars on the median and greater coverts . ( craig brelsford )\npallas\u2019s warblers used to migrate south and east , to spend the winter in the jungles of south - east asia . but in recent years a significant minority have changed their migration strategy , travelling west , and probably spending the winter in spain or northwest africa . on the way , each october and november , they pass through britain \u2013 with up to 100 being seen here every year .\nonly members are able to see the rest of the text . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now .\nyou don ' t have any subscription to the hbw alive . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\ndean , a . r . 1985 . review of british status and identification of greenish warbler . brit . birds 78 : 437 - 451 .\nonly subscribers have complete access to the families of the hbw alive . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nthe leaf warbler i found was easily identifiable as a member of the pale - sak species pair . it had strikingly pale pink tarsi , an olive - brown crown contrasting with olive - green mantle and wings , a long and creamy supercilium , and faint wing bars on the median and greater coverts .\nhypothesis 3 : song characters ( particularly frequency parameters ) are strongly influenced by habitat characteristics ( badyaev and leaf 1997 ; rheindt et al . 2004 ) .\nolsson u , alstr\u00f6m p , ericson pg . sundberg p . non - monophyletic taxa and cryptic species - evidence from a molecular phylogeny of leaf - warblers (\nmain season jun\u2013jul , nests with eggs found between mid - jun and late jul ; one brood , in s part of range possibly two . nest built by . . .\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nbasic components of leaf warbler song evolve under a brownian motion model , being possibly innate . although body size is also phylogenetically constrained , it is strongly correlated with frequency even after phylogenetic correction . this indicates a causal correlation for physical reasons reported earlier . the habitat variable might still be too simplified , because it merely reflects increasing habitat density . the impact of habitat on leaf warbler song appears to be more complicated than could be tested in this approach . habitat and geographical dimensions should be replaced by environmental - niche components in order to work out ecological\u2013physiological causalities . this should be further combined with historical biogeography in order to trace song trait evolution more realistically .\nin recent months , my work with sound - recordings has helped give shanghai birders a clearer picture not only of sakhalin leaf warbler but also of kamchatka leaf warbler phylloscopus examinandus , like sakhalin a poorly known passage migrant through shanghai ( brelsford , june 2017 ) . in the case of pale - sak in shanghai , a picture is emerging of overlapping migratory pathways . this finding comports with the findings of yap et al . at beidaihe , a thousand kilometers to the north . after analyzing calls obtained at beidaihe of both pale - legged and sakhalin , yap hypothesizes that in coastal hebei \u201cthe migratory pathways of the two sister species may largely overlap\u201d ( 2014 ) .\nderryberry ep , seddon n , claramunt s , tobias ja , baker a , aleixo a , et al . correlated evolution of beak morphology and song in the neotropical woodcreeper radiation .\nlemon - rumped warbler phylloscopus chloronotus . himalaya , sw china . three subspecies , p . c . chloronotus , p . c . forresti , p . c . simlaensis .\nthe simla warbler is the westernmost subspecies p . chloronotus simlaensis which may be anything between a distinct species and invalid due to clinal variation ( alstr\u00f6m 2006 [ 2 ] ) .\nlemon - rumped warbler phylloscopus chloronotus . himalaya , sw china . three subspecies , p . c . chloronotus , p . c . forresti , p . c . simlaensis .\ntamura k , peterson d , peterson n , stecher g , nei m . kumar s . mega5 : molecular evolutionary genetics analysis using maximum likelihood , evolutionary distance , and maximum parsimony methods .\nthe spectrogram below is of a brief sound - recording i made in microforest 4 this past sunday . the song element of this passage migrant is absent ( though note that i have heard pale - legged and sakhalin singing in shanghai in spring ) . the call has a frequency of 5 . 9 khz and clearly belongs to pale - legged leaf warbler .\n: 0 . 7\u20131 . 1 ) was only detected for the duration of the longest and of the shortest element \u2013 much larger than for any other song parameter . a medium signal strength ( blomberg\u2019s\nit\u2019s often said that these unexpected autumn visitors are \u201clost\u201d , or \u201cblown off course\u201d \u2013 waifs and strays that have taken the wrong turn , or been the unwitting victims of a rogue weather system .\n9\u201310 cm ; 4\u00b75\u20137\u00b75 g . a small , short - tailed and extremely active warbler with well - marked plumage . has well - defined pale median crownstripe , equally . . .\nphylogeny of leaf - warblers ( phylloscopidae ) . molecular phylogeny of leaf - warblers ( phylloscopidae ) based on a 1900 - bp alignment of three genes ( for details see table s5 ) reconstructed in beast ( genes and codon positions partitioned , gtr + \u03b3 + i model for cytochrome b and myoglobin , gtr + i model for 12s rdna , 30 million generations ) .\nmartens j . 2013 . vocalizations of leaf - warblers and spectacled warblers ( phylloscopus and seicercus ) . double audio cd , no . sx 419 726 , syrinx tonstudio berlin [ urltoken ]\nthere is no\nfamily book\ncovering the leaf - warblers so information must be sought in a variety of texts . the next volume of hbw will cover all the sylvioid warblers .\npatterson bd , stotz df , solari s , fitzpatrick jw , pacheco v ( 1998 ) contrasting patterns of elevational zonation for birds and mammals in the andes of southeastern peru . j biogeogr 25 : 593\u2013607\n: 0 . 7\u20131 . 1 ) was found in body length and mass as well as habitat . mean elevation , maximal range extension to the west , and main biogeographic region exhibited medium signal strength ( blomberg\u2019s\nthe exact parameters of the phylloscopidae is not yet known . there are at least 56 species that are currently assigned to the genus phylloscopus , and another 12 assigned to seicercus which , as noted above , is embedded within phylloscopus from a biochemical standpoint . our headline species \u2014 chinese leaf - warbler ( above ) \u2014 is a phylloscopus , one of several recently described species ( e . g . , alstr\u00f6m et al . 1992 , 1997 ) . so a whole lot of this family is composed of these leaf - warblers . dickinson ( 2003 ) has a subfamily\nphylloscopinae\nthat might suggest the limits of this group , but it includes a variety of genera that proved not to be related . for example , both the monotypic genus tickellia ( broad - billed warbler ) and the 3 species in abroscopus proved to be members of the cettiidae . all of the phylloscopidae breed exclusively in the old world , except for arctic warbler phylloscopus borealis , whose range extends across the bering strait into northern alaska .\nalstr\u00f6m , p . ( 2018 ) . chinese leaf - warbler ( phylloscopus yunnanensis ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nyap , f . , yong , d . l . , low , b . , cros , e . , foley , c . , lim , k . k . & rheindt , f . e . 2014 . first wintering record of the sakhalin leaf warbler in south east asia , with notes on vocalisations . birdingasia 21 : 76\u201381 . downloadable here ( accessed : 28 sept . 2017 ) .\n) . the species\u2019s small size and habitual hover - picking allow it to forage readily within the needle - like foliage of conifers and to feed upon the abundant small arthropods , e . g . spiders ( forstmeier and ke\u00dfler\norme d , freckleton r , thomas g , petzoldt t , fritz s , isaac n , et al . 2012 . caper : comparative analyses of phylogenetics and evolution in r . r package version 0 . 5 urltoken .\nadditionally , there is the tendency for more complex song further east in eurasia where the diversity hotspot of leaf warblers is . this could be explained by some contrast reinforcement or acoustic niche partitioning within this bird family .\nfeatured image : pale - legged / sakhalin leaf warbler , yangkou , rudong , jiangsu , 1 may 2014 . photo by craig brelsford . some of the salient characteristics of pale - sak are pointed out . separating pale - legged from sakhalin on the basis of plumage and bare parts is not possible ; because this bird was neither singing nor calling , it cannot be determined to which of the two species it belongs .\nin case you\u2019re wondering , this elusive little sprite was named after the 18th - century german - born russian ornithologist peter simon pallas . he also gave his name to a gull , a sandgrouse , a now - extinct cormorant , a volcano , a new kind of meteorite , three species of reptile and no fewer than seven mammals . but when i finally got a decent view of the bird \u2013 a two - second glimpse as it flew from one tree to another \u2013 i was reminded of its older , and in many ways more appropriate name : lemon - rumped warbler .\nin contrast to previous studies , song complexity indicated by both relative element dissimilarity and diversity of leaf warbler songs decreased northwards . in more detail , greig et al . ( 2013 ) found the opposite latitudinal gradient for the same complexity measure ( their \u201csong versatility\u201d is based on the same calculation as \u201celement diversity\u201d in our study ) , while complexity indices ( pcs ) used by mahler and gil ( 2009 ) and cardoso et al . ( 2012 ) were more strongly influenced by syllable structure rather than by element dissimilarity and diversity ( our study ) . although we did not account for repertoire sizes as a measure of complexity in our study while mahler and gil ( 2009 ) did , by far the greatest individual male repertoires in the phylloscopidae were documented from tropical seicercus species , with no < 44 distinct verse types per male ( s . omeiensis ; see martens et al . 1999 ; p\u00e4ckert et al . 2004 ) . thus , even considering repertoire sizes of tropical species , our results cast some doubt on a predicted greater selective pressure at temperate latitudes on male leaf warbler repertoires or on complexity of verse patterns .\nprecise definitions of all song parameters used for analysis and explanatory variables with phylogenetic signal ( blomberg\u2019s k with p value , pagel\u2019s \u03bb ) , estimated model of evolution ( bm : brownian motion , eb : early burst , ou : ornstein\u2013uhlenbeck , \u03bb : lambda ; alternative models in parentheses , if \u03b4aicc < 2 ; for details see text ) and r labels used in the electronic appendix . temporal parameters were measured in seconds to three digits , frequency parameters in kilohertzes to three digits .\nalstr\u00f6m , p . & christie , d . a . ( 2018 ) . lemon - rumped leaf - warbler ( phylloscopus chloronotus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\na clearer picture will add to our knowledge of the movement of leaf warblers along the central chinese coast , focus attention on little - known east asian species , and heighten the allure of shanghai as a world - class birding location .\nwhy should you care about all this ? because prepared birders have a chance to get solid ticks of \u201cpale - saks\u201d that are merely calling and not necessarily singing . if you hear a pale - sak calling and trust your ear ( or better yet , sound - record the call and later analyze the spectrogram ) , then you may be able to go beyond the safe , boring record of \u201cpale - legged / sakhalin leaf warbler\u201d to a more satisfying full tick .\nin leaf warblers trait conservation of element duration might have a strong heritable component , too , at least with respect to the results of experiments with na\u00efve birds reared in acoustic isolation showing that element length is largely innate ( schubert 1976 ; thielcke 1983 ) . although these experiments were conducted with two leaf warbler species only ( p . collybita , p . trochilus ) and thus the results might not easily be generalized for the entire family , element parameters in these species seem to be the relevant song traits involved in species recognition ( schubert 1971 ; helb 1973 ; martens and h\u00e4nel 1981 ; martens and meincke 1989 ; martens et al . 2004 ) and might therefore be more strongly conserved than other song traits .\nin this model , when the female chooses to pair bond with a male , she gains the male\u2019s services in protecting her from forced copulations by other males . females can also combat forced copulations by evolving methods of expelling or not using the resulting sperm .\nthe bird , which was in microforest 1 , behaved in a way typical of the pale - saks i have observed in the cape nanhui microforests , eight tiny woodlands that dot the coastline of the cape . rarely venturing more than 2 m off the ground , the leaf warbler favored low branches and vines for browsing and sturdy low branches for perching . it pumped its tail steadily , called spontaneously , and upon hearing playback of its own call moved in to investigate the source .\nthe long distances traveled by phylloscopus warblers present much opportunity for migratory mistakes and vagrancy . a few such birds will go the\nwrong way\nand become vagrants to western north america . i refuted one claim years ago (\nwillow warbler ;\nroberson & pitelka 1983 ) but recently an actual willow warbler was found as a vagrant in alaska . i ' ve had the good fortune to see both arctic p . borealis and dusky p . fuscatus warblers in california .\nanswers to these questions are currently unknown , but they are probably knowable , and it is very much possible for the citizen - scientists of shanghai to be the producers of that knowledge . we only need to change our habits . when it comes to identifying lookalike species such as pale - legged and sakhalin leaf warbler , birders need to understand that photos do nothing to cut through the muddle . only sound - recordings lead to indisputable records and a clearer picture of the species in shanghai .\nsongs in passerine birds are important for territory defense and mating . speciation rates in oscine passerines are so high , due to cultural evolution , that this bird lineage makes up half of the extant bird species . leaf warblers are a speciose old - world passerine family of limited morphological differentiation , so that songs are even more important for species delimitation . we took 16 sonographic traits from song recordings of 80 leaf warbler taxa and correlated them with 15 potentially explanatory variables , pairwise , and in linear models . based on a well - resolved molecular phylogeny of the same taxa , all pairwise correlations were corrected for relatedness with phylogenetically independent contrasts and phylogenetic generalized linear models were used . we found a phylogenetic signal for most song traits , but a strong one only for the duration of the longest and of the shortest element , which are presumably inherited instead of learned . body size of a leaf warbler species is a constraint on song frequencies independent of phylogeny . at least in this study , habitat density had only marginal impact on song features , which even disappeared through phylogenetic correction . maybe most leaf warblers avoid the deterioration through sound propagation in dense vegetation by singing from exposed perches . latitudinal ( and longitudinal ) extension of the breeding ranges was correlated with most song features , especially verse duration ( longer polewards and westwards ) and complexity ( lower polewards ) . climate niche or expansion history might explain these correlations . the number of different element types per verse decreases with elevation , possibly due to fewer resources and congeneric species at higher elevations .\nsc & se siberia , from altai mts e to n sea of okhotsk , s to n mongolia , ne china ( heilongjiang , e & n jilin and n inner mongolia ) , sakhalin and n korea ; non - breeding se china , n thailand and n indochina .\ncibois , a . , e . pasquet , and t . s . schulenberg . 1999 . molecular systematics of the malagasy babblers ( timaliidae ) and warblers ( sylviidae ) , based on cytochrome b and 16s rrna sequences . molecular phylogenetics & evolution 3 : 581 - 595 .\ndiversity - tempo index , combining relative element diversity and speed of element delivery according to the formula : complexity2 + zel / tges / 30 . 268 s . tempo component is adjusted to set the fastest tempo in the data set to 1 . 0 ( p . borealis ) .\n: 0 . 4\u20130 . 8 ) was found for all other compositional parameters but the element diversity , for the frequency parameters maximum frequency and maximum element bandwidth , and for complexity2 . element diversity and the remaining frequency parameters as well as complexity1 and complexity3 exhibited a weak signal ( blomberg\u2019s\nthe most convenient separator of pale - sak is song , the cricket - like trill of pale - legged being easily separable from the metallic whistle of sakhalin . as shanghai is not in the breeding range of either species , pale - sak songs are not often heard in earth\u2019s greatest city . i have heard sakhalin sing only once , on 5 may 2016 at shanghai\u2019s zhongshan park ( brelsford 2016 ) . the song of pale - legged i have heard at various locations in shanghai as well as on its breeding grounds in heilongjiang ( brelsford & du 2017 ) ."]}
{"id": 1340, "summary": [{"text": "the yellow-fronted canary ( crithagra mozambica ) , also called yellow-eyed canary , is a small passerine bird in the finch family .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is known elsewhere and in aviculture as the green singing finch .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "the yellow-fronted canary was formerly placed in the genus serinus but phylogenetic analysis using mitochondrial and nuclear dna sequences found that the genus was polyphyletic .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the genus was therefore split and a number of species including the yellow-fronted canary were moved to the resurrected genus crithagra swainson 1827 .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "this bird is a resident breeder in africa south of the sahara desert .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "its habitat is open woodland and cultivation .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it nests in trees , laying 3 \u2013 4 eggs in a compact cup nest .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the yellow-fronted canary is 11 \u2013 13 cm in length .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the adult male has a green back and brown wings and tail .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the underparts and rump are yellow , and the head is yellow with a grey crown and nape , and black malar stripe .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the female is similar , but with a weaker head pattern and duller underparts .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "juveniles are greyer than the female , especially on the head .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the yellow-fronted canary is a common , gregarious seedeater .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "its song is a warbled zee-zeree-chereeo . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "yellow - fronted canary", "paragraphs": ["the yellow - fronted canary was first described in 1776 by german zoologist phillip muller .\ncould it be a yellow - fronted canary ( crithagra mozambica ) ? the only bird that was visually identified in the vicinity was amakihi ( chlorodrepanis virens ) , but i don ' t think it ' s that .\nyellow - fronted canaries are important as seed predators and may act as prey for small raptors , snakes , and small , carnivorous mammals .\nyellow - fronted canaries forage alone or in small groups . however , flocks of up to 100 individuals have been reported and they may join other\nyellow - fronted canaries are a popular cagebird throughout the world . mozambique exports 10 , 000 birds annually . the population within this country has been estimated at over 2 million birds ( parker 1999 in fry and keith 2004 ) . yellow - fronted canaries may assist in controlling insect numbers around cultivated fields .\nnesting pairs of yellow - fronted canaries are moderately territorial , but two or even three nests have been sited in the same tree on several occasions . home range size varies .\nthe yellow - fronted canary has a large range , estimated globally at 9 , 500 , 000 square kilometers . it is primarily found in africa , though it has been introduced to the united states and puerto rico . this bird prefers savanna , shrubland , and grassland ecological systems , though it can reside in rural gardens or on pasture or arable land . the population of the bird has not been determined but the species is described as common in many areas despite being heavily traded . the yellow - fronted canary does not currently meet the criteria for the iucn red list and has an evaluation level of least concern .\nadult yellow - fronted canaries are agile and can outmaneuver most predators . nestlings and recently fledged birds sustain the highest rates of mortality . likely predators of adults are agile raptors , such as\ngrey head with two bright yellow streaks : one above the eyes (\neyebrow streak\n) and one below the eyes . bright yellow plumage covers the entire underside of the bird , extending from the chin down to the undertail . the rump is also yellow . the top of the neck , back , and wings are a greenish grey with yellow margins to the otherwise blackish wing and tail feathers . juveniles have a pale yellow face and breast with dull greenish - yellow rump and spots / streaks on the sides of the breast .\nyellow - fronted canary : towards the end of the 1960s , this species was introduced to the hawaiian islands of oahu , molokai , and hawaii , where they maintain resident colonies . they can be found in dry , open woodlands and also in cultivated areas . this species is native to africa in areas south of the sahara desert .\nfrequently feeds on cultivated grains . although abundant and widespread , yellow - fronted canaries generally forage in small groups and thus never threaten to wipe out a crop , but consistent feeding in farmlands may contribute to lower crop harvests .\nclement , p . ( 2018 ) . yellow - fronted canary ( crithagra mozambica ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\npopular cagebirds , yellow - fronted canaries have been released near human settlements around the globe , establishing populations where conditions permit . introduced birds have colonized parts of hawaii , puerto rico , sao tom\u00e9 , mafia island , mauritius , and r\u00e9union among other countries .\nadult yellow - fronted canaries ( older than 6 months ) experience annual mortality rates of about 65 % . many birds live 2 to 3 years , although one wild individual lived at least 8 . 5 years . captive birds frequently live beyond 10 years .\n) , and have been hybridized with canaries ( green singing cock \u00d7 border or roller canary hen ) to produce fertile offspring . green singing finches have reportedly also hybridized with : goldbreasted waxbill (\nnorth american fringillidae are generally plumaged in shades of red , yellow , brown and dull green - these colors being more vivid in the case of the hawaiian honeycreepers . male finches are more brightly colored than females , the yellow and black plumage of male goldfinches being especially striking .\nyellow - fronted canaries are common through much of sub - saharan africa , they are categorized as a species of least concern on the iucn red list and a cites appendix iii species . this classification is designed to\nprevent or restrict exploitation\nwhich , in this case , may result from excessive capture for the pet trade .\nyellow - fronted canaries are brightly colored and average 12 cm ( 4 . 75 inches ) in length . adult males have a golden - yellow face , belly , flank , rump , and tail coverts . they have brown to black malar stripes and eyestripes continuing through to the beak , both surrounded by the characteristic golden - yellow . their back , neck , and crown are brown to yellowish olive - green ( fry and keith , 2004 ) . they have sparse dark streaking on their backs , darker brown primaries and secondaries , dark to light brown tail feathers with lighter yellowish or greenish edges , and pale pinkish - brown bills . adult females are similar in plumage to males . they are distinguished by a ring of brown feathers crossing the bottom of the throat , resembling a pearl necklace . they are generally slightly more dull brown and paler yellow , with lighter eye and malar stripes . juveniles are similar to females , with heavy streaking . juvenile males molt out of their necklace markings at around 6 months of age .\nfringillidae are known for their seed - eating behavior and cheery songs ; characteristics that facilitated and popularized the domestication of the island canary . finches such as white - winged crossbills are also known for their\nirruptive\nmigrations in search of food sources that can make them locally common one winter and absent the next .\nyellow - fronted canaries are socially monogamous . a pair typically defends its territory from other members of the species , although on occasion several pairs may nest in the same tree . at the onset of the breeding season , members of mated pairs frequently chase one another in a slow , stilted , level flight from branch to branch . males feed their mates throughout the breeding season , and also sing loud , trilling songs while perched upright and swaying very slightly .\nhave been identified , each with subtle variations in plumage , size , wing length , and other body measurements . south african birds exhibit regional color variation , with a gradient from duller individuals in the west to the brightest yellow birds in the east .\nyellow - fronted canaries feed primarily on seeds and insects . sorghum and millet seeds are husked and eaten readily , often taken from cultivated fields . to reach seeds still attached to tip of plants , birds may land mid - stalk , pin the plant to the ground , and inch their way up until they reach the seeds . termites , aphids , grasshoppers , and other insects are especially important during the breeding season when chicks demand a relatively high - protein diet . other food items include leaves , fruit , petals , and nectar .\nthis species builds a cup - shaped nest and should be provided canary nest baskets / pans ( at least 2 at varying heights in the enclosure ) . some pairs will construct the nest within clumps of dried brush affixed to the aviary wall or suspended from the ceiling . ensure that any nest site provided is sheltered from rain and storms . provide coconut fiber , dry / soft grasses , rootlets , kapok , and soft feathers for nesting material .\nyellow - fronted canaries are native to much of sub - saharan africa . they are found in most countries below their northern limit of 17\u02da north latitude , including mauritania , guinea , liberia , mali , ivory coast , burkina faso , ghana , togo , benin , nigeria , cameroon , chad , central african republic , sudan , eritrea , ethiopia , congo , zaire , uganda , kenya , rwanda , burundi , tanzania , angola , zambia , malawi , mozambique , zimbabwe , and botswana ( fry and keith , 2004 ) . they are notably absent from the arid regions of south africa and the tropical rainforests of the congo basin .\nthe aptly named crossbills have curious curved bills with crossed tips . although it looks more like a bill deformity than a useful tool , this specialized bill shape is perfect for extracting seeds from pine cones . males of the house , cassin ' s , and purple finch species can sometimes develop yellow or orange rather than red plumage depending upon the amount of carotenoids present in their food sources .\nthis species has the potential to be housed in a communal aviary , however , green singing finches may show aggression toward other species with similar plumage to their own ( i . e . yellow coloration ) such as saffron finches and cuban melodious finches , and thus should not be housed with these species . additionally , because males can be aggressive toward one another , only one pair of green singers should be housed per enclosure . green singers can be housed in cages , flights , or aviaries ; if housing outdoors in temperate climates , be sure to provide adequate shelter from storms , winds , and cold weather ( below 50\u00b0f ) .\ngreen singing finches can become obese if fed too rich a diet year - round and / or not provided with adequate exercise . feeding an austerity diet when not breeding and offering a larger enclosure with perches spaced far apart will help reduce this risk . green singing finches can suffer from intestinal parasites ( including coccidia ) , overgrown nails , egg - binding ( if not fed an adequate diet or provided with natural sunlight ; more commonly seen in first - year and old hens ) , infected bug bites ( typically on nonfeathered skin ) , and a propensity to contort and injure their wings during handling ( so be especially cautious to secure the birds ' wings to the sides of the body during handling as this will prevent the birds from twisting their wings ) . this species may be infrequently affected by scaly leg mite and air sac mites . note that older birds and those with damaged feathers may develop atypical white or yellow markings which are not due to being pied nor having a genetic mutation .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nioc _ names _ file _ plus - 8 . 2g : 8 . 2\nprzevalski ' s finch , previously called pink - tailed rosefinch , is a relict member of an ancient separate lineage that is as old as , or older than other families of finches ; it belongs in its own monotypic family urocynchramidae , with a name change ( groth 2000 , p\u00e4ckert et al . 2016 )\nclassification of fringillidae revised for v3 . 3 ; see especially zuccon et al . 2012\neurope ( except british isles , sardinia ) to c asia , w , n turkey , c and e caucasus and nw iran .\nsplit gran canaria blue finch from [ tenerife ] blue chaffinch ( sangster et al . 2015 )\n( zuccon et al . 2012 , cf kirwan & gregory 2005 , bli , hbw )\n( tietze et al . 2013 , cf rasmussen & anderton 2005 , ioc 3 . 5 ) . restore english name to great rosefinch\nhas priority for species name . change english name to pink - rumped rosefinch ( hbw , clements , h & m 3 )\n( wu et al . 2011 , tietze et al . 2013 ; cf collar 2004 )\nhawaiian honeycreepers resequenced following pratt 2005 , lerner et al . 2011 ; see also nacc 2015 . needs review of oversplit genera .\nisland populations of the akepa are recognized as separate species ( nacc 2015 - b - 4c ) ; add island name ( hawaii ) to akepa .\nbased on lerner et al . ( 2011 ) phylogeny ; see also pratt 2005 .\n, is preoccupied by a subspecies of greater akialoa . that conflict no longer exists with placement of kauai amakihi in\n( arnaiz - villena et al . 1999 , nguembock et al . 2009 , zuccon et al . 2012 )\n( tschusi , 1901 ) as a synonym . permanently invalid . dickinson & christidis , 2014 .\n( arnaiz - villena et al . 1999 , nguembock et al . 2009 , zuccon et al . 2012 , nacc )\nrecognized by bou ( ottvall et al . 2002 , marthinsen et al . 2008 )\npending future analyses ( knox 2001 , ottvall et al . 2002 , marthinsen et al . 2008 , mason & taylor 2015 , bou , h & m4 , nacc 2017 - b - 7 )\nse siberia , ne china , korea , sakhalin and kuril is . and japan\n( weir and schluter 2004 , smith et al . 2005 ; nacc 2017 - c - 5 )\npreliminary genetics suggest that megaplaga and leucoptera are sisters and that bifasciata should be split to avoid paraphyly ( parchman et al . 2007 ) . see also elmberg 1993 re song differences\ntaczanowski , 1879 as a synonym . permanently invalid . dickinson & christidis , 2014 .\n( zuccon et al . 2012 , also arnaiz - villena et al . 1999 , nguembock et al . 2009 , ryan et al . 2004 )\nsa : n colombia to trinidad and the guianas , south to n argentina , se brazil , e paraguay .\nfrom thraupidae to a new monotypic family rhodinocichlidae , which follows calcariidae ( barker et al . 2013 , 2015 ; nacc 2017 - b - 6 ) . eng [ 8 . 1 ] = lower case ' tanager '\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\njosep del hoyo , juan sanabria , greg baker , pascal vagner , doug and denise norris , joe angseesing , pieter de groot boersma , dani\u00eal jimenez , peter van dam , bill wayman , yo\u00ebl jimenez , bob humphries and sally robinson .\nlars petersson , paul van giersbergen , \u00e9ric roualet , juan jos\u00e9 baz\u00e1n hiraldo , holger teichmann , marvinhyett , mattias hofstede , morten venas , robert erasmus , stan culley , buchert , manakincarmelo , david beadle , fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric pelsy , billonneau jean claude , laurent demongin , tim cockcroft birding , tomas grim , paul cools , ken simonite , georges olioso , ken havard .\nbirds on s\u00e3o tom\u00e9 , previously separated as race santhome , were introduced on that island in late 19th century and exhibit features within range of variation of mainland tando . ten subspecies recognized .\n( d\u2019orbigny , 1839 ) \u2013 extreme s mauritania , senegal and gambia s to n sierra leone and e to nigeria and n cameroon .\nheuglin , 1864 \u2013 s chad , central african republic , sw & s sudan and w & s south sudan s to e drcongo , uganda , sw kenya and nw & c tanzania .\n( w . l . sclater & mackworth - praed , 1931 ) \u2013 se sudan , e south sudan and w & sw ethiopia .\n( c . h . b . grant & mackworth - praed , 1945 ) \u2013 w eritrea and nw & c ethiopia .\n( w . l . sclater & mackworth - praed , 1918 ) \u2013 gabon , s congo , w & s drcongo and n & w angola ; also s\u00e3o tom\u00e9 , where probably introduced .\n( c . m . n . white , 1947 ) \u2013 se drcongo , ce angola , sw tanzania and ne zambia .\n( roberts , 1932 ) \u2013 se angola and ne namibia e to sw zambia .\n( statius m\u00fcller , 1776 ) \u2013 e kenya s to c & s mozambique , zimbabwe , e & se botswana and ne south africa ( limpopo and north west province s to free state ) .\n( clancey , 1957 ) \u2013 extreme s mozambique , e swaziland and e south africa ( mpumalanga and kwazulu - natal s to s eastern cape ) .\nintroduced ( nominate race ) to mafia i , mauritius , reunion , rodrigues , assumption i , hawaiian is ( oahu ) and puerto rico .\n11\u201313 cm ; 8\u00b75\u201316\u00b72 g . small , short - tailed finch with broad supercilium and prominent face pattern . male nominate race has lower forehead and supercilium bright . . .\nsong , often given in short bursts , a lively series of sweet , musical phrases e . g .\ntseeu - tseeu . . .\nmostly seeds , buds , flowers , leaves and some insects . seeds principally of grasses and weed species , including those of\nseason may\u2013nov in w africa , throughout year in e africa , nov\u2013apr ( mostly dec\u2013mar ) in zimbabwe , sept\u2013mar in . . .\nresident and partially nomadic . in non - breeding season large flocks wander in search of feeding . . .\nnot globally threatened . common , locally abundant and widespread ; absent from some areas of apparently suitable habitat . estimated population in s mozambique in excess of 2 , . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nforms three well - defined subfamilies # r , including euphoniinae , previously placed in thraupidae . also includes drepanidini , sometimes treated as a separate family ( as in hbw ) , but here considered merely a tribe of carduelinae . extensive phylogenetic data available , and comparatively few species remain wholly unscreened ; nonetheless , study of internal relationships has been confounded by recurring plumage patterns and use of similar feeding niches by taxa that prove to be far from closely related .\napparently monophyletic clade comprising mostly afrotropical and arabian species traditionally placed in serinus , together with a few that were sometimes included in carduelis # r # r ; two species of s africa , previously placed in pseudochloroptila , also imported herein , as is c . concolor , transferred from monospecific neospiza , based on molecular evidence # r # r . one analysis using mtdna indicates that further subdivision might be warranted , by recognizing dendrospiza ( for , e . g . , c . capistrata , c . hyposticta and c . citrinelloides ) , ochrospiza ( c . citrinipectus , c . mozambica and c . dorsostriata ) and poliospiza ( c . striatipectus , c . reichardi and c . mennelli ) # r , but more complete taxon sampling does not support this at present .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nand gray legs and feet . it feeds on seeds and insects . bounding flight , alternates flapping with gliding . sexes are similar , female is duller .\na group of canaries are collectively known as an\naria\nand an\nopera\nof canaries .\nalso known as perching birds , the order passeriformes ( pronounced pas - ser - i - for - meez ) is composed of one hundred and eighteen families of birds , among which are included the insectivorous warblers and the seed - eating finches .\nthe fringillidae ( pronounced frin - jihl - lih - dee ) is a widespread bird family found on most continents and includes two hundred and seven species of finches in thirty - nine genera .\neighty - nine species of fringillidae in twenty - nine genera have occurred in north america and hawaii . these include familiar feeder visitors such as goldfinches and siskins , the nomadic rosy - finches of the high mountains , and a group with several extinct species ; the hawaiian honeycreepers .\nfringillidae are primarily small birds with stout , short bills adapted to cracking open seeds and have short legs for a mostly arboreal lifestyle . most species also have slightly forked tails and long wings , both useful for the large amount of flying needed to find seeding plants . although some hawaiian honeycreepers share this general structure , others evolved a variety of bill shapes related to the habitat niches they occupy .\nfringillidae in north america occupy forest and non - forest habitats , coniferous forests being favored by most species while native hawaiian forests are necessary for the survival of the hawaiian honeycreepers . the non - forest niche is filled by goldfinches ( birds of weedy fields and desert ) , the house finch ( a desert species that has become adapted to urban environments ) and the rosy - finches of alpine snow fields and tundra .\nmost fringillidae are adapted to cold weather and only migrate when seed crops on their breeding grounds become scarce . rosy - finches practice\nvertical migration ,\nmoving to nearby lower elevations with better supplies of food during the winter .\nmembers of the fringillidae family are very social birds typically found in flocks outside of the breeding season . although the rosy - finches take much insect prey on the ground and some hawaiian honeycreepers eat nectar , most finches forage for seeds in trees and bushes .\nwhile fringillidae in the united states and canada are doing quite well , most hawaiian honeycreeper species are highly endangered with many having already gone extinct and others in decline because of their high susceptibility to introduced diseases such as avian malaria and changes to the native forests they inhabit .\n\u00a9 2002 - 2013 urltoken all rights reserved . mitch waite group . no part of this web site may be reproduced without written permission from mitch waite group . privacy policy\nalso called the supercilicum or superciliary it is the arch of feathers over each eye .\nalso called whisker , mustache or malar streak , it is the area below the eye and bill on the sides of the chin that stretches downwards .\nalso called the hindneck or collar , it is the back of the neck where the head joins the body .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is described as common to locally abundant ( clement 1999 , fry and keith 2004 ) , while the population in taiwan has been estimated at < c . 100 introduced breeding pairs ( brazil 2009 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be in decline as a result of the bird trade ( unep - wcmc cites trade database , january 2005 ) .\nsince 1985 , over 2 , 600 , 000 wild birds have been recorded in international trade ( unep - wcmc cites trade database , january 2005 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ncalls from a bird sitting up in a weedy field adjacent to dry forest .\nsong ? and calls from a bird perched up in weedy growth at the edge of secondary forest .\na male seen displaying for a female on a wire fence in some long grass on the roadside near the end of summer .\na small flock seen singing from a dead tree near long grass where they were eating grass seeds .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : crithagra mozambica . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhens are duller overall and some races have a line of grey feathers extending across the lower throat , resembling a grey necklace . only the ( adult ) cock sings , though hey may not sing year - round .\njuveniles are difficult to sex until they obtain adult plumage at about 9 months of age . both juvenile cocks and hens may practice singing until they reach full maturity , at which point only the cock sings .\ngreen singing finch hen - notice the grey spots across the lower throat forming a\nnecklace .\nopen woodland savanna and plains with occasional trees . sometimes feeds on edges of farmland , reedbeds , and gardens .\ntoward the breeding season , groups of males may alight in tree tops and sing in concert . they usually build nests in small shrubs , thickets , and trees , choosing a site near the end of a branch where it forks at heights varying from 3 - 20 feet ( most commonly 7 - 10 ft ) above ground . green singing finches only pair up for the breeding season , after which time they separate . during the non - breeding season , green singing finches gather in large flocks and roam together in search of food . they feed primarily on grass seeds , but may also eat weeds , tree flowers , and buds . they become insectivorous when breeding . green singing finches love to bathe , and should be provided with a shallow bird bath regularly . because they have a propensity to shred , ingest , and thus decimate plants , any plantings within their reach should be nontoxic and ideally hardy .\nthey tend to be long - lived ( a captive life span of 8 - 10 + years is not uncommon ) .\nis a species listed in the cites appendices , meaning that international trade of the green singing finch ( export , import ) is restricted . therefore if you obtain a pair , you should strongly consider breeding them to continue their availability in captivity .\nautumn / winter in southern hemisphere ; nesting tends to occur from august / september through january ; breeding season can be artificially induced by manipulating temperature , diet , etc .\nthese birds are best bred between 2 and 4 years of age . breeding can be accomplished in cages , flights , or aviaries . perches within the enclosure should be secured firmly to permit successful copulation . the breeding diet should be introduced about 1 month prior to anticipated breeding . green singing finches are monogamous with a strong pair bond , though some breeders have had success breeding the birds as trios ( 2 hens with 1 cock ) . only house one pair ( or trio ) per enclosure ; colony breeding multiple pairs does not tend to be successful , and housing more than 1 pair together requires a very spacious and well - planted enclosure . ideally pairs should not be kept within ear shot of each other to maximize productivity .\nthe courtship can be rough ; it often involves a chase prior to copulation , and occasionally the male may pluck some of the female ' s feathers . to limit aggression , before placing the pair in the breeding enclosure , the cock and hen can be introduced via a smaller cage with a central wire divider separating the cock from hen . this allows the birds to become accustomed to each other while limiting physical contact . after about a week , the pair can then be introduced into the breeding enclosure together . the cock feeding the hen is a sign of breeding readiness , and may take place up to a few weeks before nest building starts .\neggs are pale blue in color ( sometimes spotted ) and are incubated by the hen . the cock does not tend to incubate , but does feed the hen while she is sitting on the eggs . some breeders opt to remove each egg as it is laid , replacing it with a plastic dummy egg . then , once the clutch is complete , the breeder returns all of the eggs to the hen at the same time . this ensures that the eggs all hatch on the same day , giving each chick an equal chance at survival . once the chicks hatch , both parents feed them . after the young fledge , the cock continues to wean the babies as the hen starts her next brood . be sure to provide plenty of\nfor the pair to feed their young . if space restraints require , juveniles can be removed from the breeding enclosure once they are fully weaned - - about 4 weeks after they fledge the nest . breeding pairs typically raise 3 - 4 clutches per season , and may reuse the same nest after re - lining it .\n: as the creator of finchinfo . com , i take no responsibility for any mishaps which you may experience in following any advice given , nor in purchasing any products suggested . i will therefore not be liable for any consequences that arise from following any advice provided in these pages .\nexternal sites open in a new browser . urltoken does not endorse external sites . urltoken is a participant in the amazon services llc associates program , an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to amazon . com . proceeds will be used to help this site grow .\n. no part of this page ( including , but not limited to pictures , articles , advice , logo , or otherwise ) may be copied or retransmitted by any means without expressed written permission from the author / creator of this page .\nthis page is hosted by dreamhost . styles : former fic | art deco | spring | magazine\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\ncrithagra mozambica mozambica : coastal kenya and mafia i . ( tanzania ) south to zimbabwe , mozambique , eastern and southeastern botswana , and northeastern south africa ( north west and limpopo to free state )\ncrithagra mozambica vansoni : extreme se angola and adj . namibia to n botswana , sw zambia\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 295 , 546 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nprefers open woodlands and grasslands below 2300 m , but may also be found in a variety of other habitats including coastal scrub , mangroves , and sand dunes . they are rarely found in tropical rainforests or arid regions . they frequent cultivated lands where they take advantage of abundant sorghum , millet , and other grains .\nboth birds collect plant fibers ( mostly fine grasses ) and other suitable material with which the female constructs a small cup - shaped nest . nests are built 1 to 6 meters above ground in forked branches , twigs , or other supportive structures , usually shielded from view by dense foliage .\nbreeds through the rainy season when there are sufficient food supplies to rear young . because of the tremendous range of the species , the timing of this period varies widely depending on weather patterns . between two and five ( usually 3 ) eggs are laid , one per day until the clutch is complete . incubation by the female alone lasts 13 days and ( at least for captive birds ) typically commences after the last or second - to - last egg is laid . during this period the male feeds his mate regularly and sings from a nearby perch .\nbreeding interval related birds often raise one to three broods each year , depending on food availability and weather .\nbreeding season the breeding season varies throughout range but generally coincides with the wet season .\ninitially after hatching the young require nearly constant brooding by the mother . as the female is able to leave the nest for longer periods , the male joins in feeding the young . the young fledge at around 18 days . the family travels and feeds as a unit until or beyond the time when the young are functionally independent , usually at the age of 6 weeks .\nto form mixed - species flocks . small groups roost together in trees and bushes . posturing and vocal communication is common within the group . though generally considered a resident species ,\nmay migrate short distances to stay close to the best food sources and to avoid bad weather conditions . these seasonal wanderings are particularly pronounced in the northern limits of their range .\nposturing between individuals in a group is common . singing competitions are frequent , and males respond strongly to potential competitors with a loud , trilling song that is repeated throughout the day .\n. nestlings and hatchlings may be taken by nest predators such as snakes and other arboreal carnivores .\ntimothy lambert ( author ) , stanford university , terry root ( editor , instructor ) , stanford university .\nliving in sub - saharan africa ( south of 30 degrees north ) and madagascar .\nliving in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .\nliving in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .\nbody of water between the southern ocean ( above 60 degrees south latitude ) , australia , asia , and the western hemisphere . this is the world ' s largest ocean , covering about 28 % of the world ' s surface .\nyoung are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\nforest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .\nreferring to animal species that have been transported to and established populations in regions outside of their natural range , usually through human action .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nislands that are not part of continental shelf areas , they are not , and have never been , connected to a continental land mass , most typically these are volcanic islands .\nreproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .\nthe business of buying and selling animals for people to keep in their homes as pets .\nthe region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .\na terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .\na grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .\na terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5\u00b0 n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .\nfinchinfo . com . 2007 .\nthe green singing finch\n( on - line ) . finch info . accessed may 10 , 2007 at urltoken .\narnaiz - villena , a . , m . \u00e1lvarez - tejado , v . ru\u00edz - del - valle , c . garc\u00eda - de - la - torre , p . varela , m . recio , s . ferre , j . martinez - laso . 1999 . rapid radiation of canaries ( genus serinus ) .\nmoulton , m . 1993 . the all - or - none pattern in introduced hawaiian passeriforms : the role of competition sustained .\nto cite this page : lambert , t . 2007 .\nserinus mozambicus\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services ."]}
{"id": 1343, "summary": [{"text": "the dusky antbird or tyrannine antbird ( cercomacroides tyrannina ) is a passerine bird in the antbird family .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is a resident breeder in tropical central and south america from southeastern mexico southwards to western ecuador , and amazonian brazil .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "this is a common bird in the understory thickets of wet forest , especially at edges and clearings , and in adjacent tall second growth .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the female lays two reddish-brown-spotted white eggs , which are incubated by both sexes , in a small , deep , plant fibre and dead leaf cup nest , which is suspended from the fork of a thin branch or vine low in a tree .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the male and female parents both feed the chicks .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the dusky antbird is typically 14.5 cm long , and weighs 18 g .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the adult male is mainly blackish-grey above and paler grey below , with two white wing bars .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the female has brown upperparts and rufous-cinnamon underparts .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "young birds , especially males , are darker than the adults .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "exact plumage shades vary geographically , since there are a number of subspecies of this antbird .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this species has a whistled kick call , and the song is a duet , the male \u2019s ascending whistle pu pu pe pi pi answered by the female \u2019s softer , jerky juu-ut juu-ut juu-ut juu-ut juu-ut .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the dusky antbird is normally found as pairs throughout the year and does not join mixed-species feeding flocks .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "it feeds on insects and other arthropods taken from twigs and foliage in thickets or vine tangles .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is easier to hear than see in its dense habitat . ", "topic": 16}], "title": "dusky antbird", "paragraphs": [". mating system of the dusky antbird , a tropical passerine , as assessed by dna fingerprinting .\nmorton es , stutchbury bjm , in press . demography and reproductive success in the dusky antbird , a sedentary tropical passerine .\nthe relationship between years a dusky antbird territory was monitored and natural replacement rate of male and female occupants . bubble size indicates number of observations , ranging from 1 - 6 .\neugene s . morton , kim c . derrickson , bridget j . m . stutchbury ; territory switching behavior in a sedentary tropical passerine , the dusky antbird ( cercomacra tyrannina ) , behavioral ecology , volume 11 , issue 6 , 1 november 2000 , pages 648\u2013653 , urltoken\nin common with other cercomacra antbirds , the dusky antbird is predominantly gray in males with white wing markings and a white interscapular patch , whilst females are largely warm cinnamon below , with darker brown upperparts and pale rufous wing spotting . it is one of the most geographically widespread of the genus , being found across much of middle america , from southeast mexico southwards , thence across much of northern south america south as far as northern brazil . populations in northeast brazil and in central and eastern amazonia that were previously included within this species are now ascribed to the willis\u2019s antbird ( cercomacra laeta ) . throughout its range , the dusky antbird inhabits the understory of lowland and foothill forests below 1900 m , but rarely ventures far from edges .\nnew territories are established rarely , even in good dusky antbird habitat . the reason may be that territory establishment is constrained by predation ( lima , 1998 ) . dusky antbirds forage in dense habitat and do not have the predator - detection advantage gained by membership in interspecific flocks ( morse , 1977 ; munn and terborgh , 1979 ; powell , 1985 ; terborgh , 1990 ) . accordingly , birds switched territories only when a mate with experience on that territory was there , as evidenced by its special courtship songs .\nzimmer , k . , isler , m . l . & christie , d . a . ( 2018 ) . dusky antbird ( cercomacroides tyrannina ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nwe compared the territories birds abandoned and those moved to in several ways . because song output may be directly related to territory quality in many species ( e . g . , morton , 1986 ) , we counted the number of songs by males and females and the number of duet songs delivered during the dawn chorus on these territories during 10 mornings in february and march 1994 . dusky antbird dawnsinging lasted about 1 h , beginning about 0615 h and ending by 0730h .\nwe suspect that intensive study of banded populations will find that territory switching is common and that stable pairbonding in tropical species with year - round territoriality is more apparent than real . willis ( 1974 ) describes switching territories in the spotted antbird ( hylophylax naevioides ) , with females twice as likely to move as males . as with dusky antbirds , spotted antbirds moved to vacancies ; they did not defeat owners . checker - throated antwrens ( myrmotherula fulviventris ) also switch territories , with 37 % of adults , regardless of age and sex , moving to neighboring territories at least once in their lives ( greenberg and gradwohl , 1997 ) . more studies using removals are needed to document territory switching and mate replacement tactics in tropical birds .\nthis tropical mating system , termed \u201cpermanent monogamy\u201d by freed ( 1987 ) , is the most prevalent but least studied mating system among birds ( mock , 1985 ) . here we report an 8 - year study of this system in a tropical passerine bird , the dusky antbird ( cercomacra tyrannina ) . pairs appear to remain together and jointly defend territories year - round ( morton and derrickson , 1996 ) . with an annual survivorship of 0 . 82 , which does not differ between genders ( morton and stutchbury , in press ) , few vacancies due to deaths would be expected ( ashmole , 1963 ; ricklefs , 1980 ) . under these conditions , floaters are expected ( smith , 1978 ) and male and female vacancies should be filled equally rapidly .\nwe infer that floaters are uncommon in antbirds . forty - three percent of territories ( 12 out of 28 ) remained unoccupied when their occupants disappeared naturally or due to our removal experiments ( 43 % of vacancies ) . most replacements were birds that switched territories rather than previously non - territorial birds . furthermore , during the entire 8 year study , antbird pairs disappeared from 10 territories and were not replaced . the only new territories ( n = 4 ) were established by juveniles , in pairs .\nterritories were not enlarged nor did their occupants change their boundaries over our 8 year study . territorial boundaries remained the same on 36 territories that were occupied continuously during the study , even with turnover of individuals occupying them . the few territories that lost both occupants ( n = 4 ) were not annexed by pairs of antbirds in adjacent territories . thus , dusky antbirds apparently do not expand territories when the opportunity to do so exists .\nlongevity would be enhanced if birds switched to territories better for surviving periods of low food availability . our study took place during the dry season , when insect abundance is lowest ( janzen , 1973 ; janzen and schoener , 1968 ; wolda , 1978 ) . dusky antbirds may experience food stress during the dry season months and , as evidence of this , are missing from what appears to be excellent habitat on the drier parts of the pacific coast of panama only 15 km from our study site . territory switches clearly were related to food resources in lesser sheathbills ( chionis minor ) ( bried and jouventin , 1998 ) . the reasons for such switches are less obvious in dusky antbirds . perhaps birds are able to judge , through their own foraging success on their current territories , how much of a gamble it would be to switch to another territory when a vacancy arises ?\nwe captured , measured , and colorbanded dusky antbirds occupying from 14 , at the start of the project in 1991 , to 50 territories in 1996 . we captured pairs in a single mist net set up over a speaker playing back pair duets ( see morton and derrickson , 1996 ) . once one or both adults on a territory were banded , that territory was visited each year 10 - 30 times and replacement individuals captured and colorbanded . demographic data are presented elsewhere ( morton and stutchbury , 2000 ) .\nmales and females differ in plumage and song , produced in duets or separately ( morton and derrickson , 1996 ) . males weigh 16 . 0 g ( n = 18 ) and females 15 . 2 g ( n = 11 ) . males retain a female - like plumage ( brownish rusty - orange below , olive - brown above ) until one year of age , when they attain the dark grayish adult male coloration . during this juvenal plumage , males can be identified in the field by their use of the male song . eye color allows aging of both genders up to 3 years of age ( morton and stutchbury , 2000 ) . dusky antbirds neither join in mixed species flocks nor regularly pursue prey displaced by army ants ( willis , 1985 ) . they defend territories vigorously at all times of year ( morton and derrickson , 1996 ) . special gender - specific courtship songs function to attract a new mate ( morton , 1996 ) . dusky antbirds are socially and genetically monogamous ( fleischer et al . , 1997 ) .\nin a population of dusky antbirds ( cercomacra tyrannina ) , less aggressive responses to distance - degraded playbacks than to undegraded playbacks of pair duets show that this tropical suboscine passerine uses sound degradation to range distance from singing conspecifics . this is the first example of song - ranging in a species that does not learn songs , supporting the hypothesis that ranging preceded the song learning that occurs in more recently evolved passerine birds ( oscines ) . both sexes sing and are able to use song degradation to range distance from singers when their sex - specific song is played back .\ndusky antbirds are members of the suboscine passerine family thamnophilidae , a species - rich neotropical group ( sibley and monroe , 1990 ) . pairs defend territories year - round in brushy forest edge habitat where they forage 0 . 5 - 10 m up in vines , and vine - covered tree branches , shrubs , and grass . nests are small ( ca 23 cm long ) bags made of black rhizomorphs ( fungal \u201chorsehair\u201d ) , suspended 1 - 4 m above the ground from the end of vertical vines or bamboo shoots ( chusquea spp . ) , always well - shaded and isolated from surrounding vegetation ( and climbing predators ) by 1 - 2 m . these nest site requirements are not uncommon but are fulfilled only by shade produced by forest trees , and not the shrubs and grass used for foraging . dusky antbirds , therefore , are restricted to forest edge and gap habitat ( williams - linera , 1990 ) . birds glean invertebrates from bark and leaf surfaces , hopping along branches and making quick dashes or brief hovers , and also poke into , and tap with their beaks , curled leaves or dead leaves caught in vines .\nour study took place during 1991 - 1998 in central panama in the parque nacional soberania near gamboa along the pipeline road and in gamboa . the region is covered with mesic tropical forest and has abundant forest edge habitat used by dusky antbirds . there are distinct wet ( may\u2014december ) and dry ( january\u2014april ) seasons . we logged 16 . 7 dry season months and 4 . 8 wet season months in the field during these years . we studied breeding season behavior in the early rainy season , may\u2014july in 1994 and 1995 ( see fleischer et al . , 1997 ) . data presented here were obtained mostly in the dry season , when the birds do not breed .\nthese data suggest that dusky antbirds are not limited by availability of territories . the data do not support the ashmole / ricklefs hypothesis that low adult mortality could influence reproductive rate through a density - dependent effect on food supply ( ricklefs , 2000 ) . while population size may be stable ( greenberg and gradwohl , 1986 ) this does not necessarily mean recruitment opportunities are low because carrying capacity has been reached ( ashmole , 1963 ; cody , 1971 ; ricklefs , 1980 ; slagsvold , 1980 ) . adult survivorship was high ( 82 % ) but the likelihood that a pair raised young to independence averaged only 8 % per year in our population ( morton and stutchbury , in press ) . high quality territories , however , may be limited and most birds switch to get higher quality territories that enhance longevity .\nwe studied territory acquisition and the stability of pair bonds by conducting removal experiments and tracking a colorbanded population of dusky antbirds . we determined that territory and mate switching is common and examined a series of questions concerning the evolution of territory switching . do replacement mates come from a non - territorial floater population or do territory owners abandon current territories and mates to become replacement mates ? does one gender leave territories more than the other does ? what qualities of territories make them attractive or unattractive to potential replacement birds ? are territories limited ? do territory boundaries change when replacement or removal occurs , how long does it take for a removed bird to be replaced and are there gender difference in the likelihood of being replaced ? we discuss these questions in relation to the evolution of territory switching as a potentially widespread life history trait in tropical birds .\na tropical / temperate difference concerned the frequency of removed owners regaining their territories from replacements . temperate zone removals show that the probability that replacements will defeat the former resident increases with replacement time ( beletsky , 1996 ; krebs , 1982 ) . this is often a matter of only a day or two . these territories are used only for breeding . in contrast , dusky antbirds regained their yearlong territories regardless of replacement time up to 10 days , even though replacements fought longer after they occupied a territory more than 48 h ( figure 2 ) . perhaps released owners won because replacements could , and did , return to the territory they emigrated from and oust their replacements , if any . removed residents , in contrast , did not have such an alternative to move to . the released owners ' motivation to fight may have been higher than their replacements ' motivation due to this asymmetry .\ndemographic data from an 8 - year study of a marked population showed that switching territories and mates is common in both genders of dusky antbirds ( cercomacra tyrannina ) , a sedentary neotropical passerine with year - round territories and pairbonds . we conducted 22 experimental removals and followed six natural disappearances to examine territory switching . antbirds quickly abandoned territories and mates to move to openings created by experimental removals . pairing with the resident on a new territory was rapid . unmated birds attracted new mates by singing a gender - specific song that differed from songs given by mated birds . there were no gender differences in replacement time or rate . some vacancies , experimental and natural , were not filled , suggesting that floaters were rare . territory and mate switching were not related to immediate enhancement of reproductive success because the probability of reproducing successfully was equally poor on all territories . territory switching may be an overlooked but common tropical form of territoriality that increases individual survivorship during periods of low food abundance ( dry season ) . we suggest that switching is favored when low annual reproductive success enhances selection for a long lifespan as the primary means to increase reproductive success .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\npartners in flight ( a . panjabi in litt . 2008 ) trend justification : this species has the ability to persist in secondary habitats ( del hoyo et al . 2003 ) and its population is suspected to be stable .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\ntwo individuals heard at dawn chorus on forest edge of premontane forest . many backgorund species , the vocalization of this species is the frecuent\nju - ut jut - ut jut - ut jut - ut\n. cut was extracted of a longer cut of a dawn chorus on forest edge . recording distance was probably 10 meters .\nfemale singing and foraging about 3 m from me . recording was normalized to - 3 db .\na male and a female calling back and forth with another male . i was about 3 m from the pair and about 6 m from the individual male . these are the same males as in xc372769 . recording starts with churring from the pair , then the male singing his clicky , 2 - element song ( e . g . , 0 : 22 ) , joined by the female with her clear , 1 - element song ( e . g . , 0 : 24 ) .\ntwo males calling back and forth . i was about 3 m from one and about 6 m from the other .\nhormiguero no observado entre arbustos , borde de bosque tropical h\u00famedo en piedemonte amaz\u00f3nico de cordillera andina oriental colombiana . inicialmente una grabaci\u00f3n misteriosa identificada por diego calder\u00f3n .\non riverside trail . seen , but not especially well . flew out and calling in response to playback .\nhumid lowland rainforest . reference : jn4 . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .\nhumid lowland rainforest . reference : jn2 . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .\nhumid secondary forest . reference : jn1 . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nuntil recently treated as conspecific with c . laeta , and also included c . parkeri as a highland population . recent comprehensive molecular study # r indicates it is closest to c . serva . at least some of plumage differences on which races were based appear due to clinal variation ; analysis of other parameters required in order to define geographical populations more accurately , so ranges listed are provisional . vocal differences between populations of middle america plus magdalena valley ( colombia ) and other taxa / populations in south america merit investigation # r . proposed race rufiventris ( e panama ) included in nominate , based on study of plumage variation . four subspecies recognized .\n( bangs , 1901 ) \u2013 se mexico ( se veracruz , ne oaxaca and n chiapas e to s quintana roo ) , belize , guatemala and honduras ( caribbean slope ) s to w panama ( w & c chiriqu\u00ed , bocas del toro , nw veraguas ) .\n( p . l . sclater , 1855 ) \u2013 c & e panama ( e from e chiriqu\u00ed , w col\u00f3n and ne cocl\u00e9 ) , colombia ( pacific slope , lower cauca and magdalena valleys , and e of andes s to r caquet\u00e1 ) , w ecuador ( s to s guayas , one record in el oro ) , s venezuela ( nw bol\u00edvar , amazonas ) and extreme nw brazil ( n amazonas w of lower r negro , s to r japur\u00e1 ) .\n( todd , 1927 ) \u2013 nw venezuela ( s zulia s to t\u00e1chira , w andes n to m\u00e9rida and e andes n to r guanar\u00e9 , portuguesa ) and e slope of andes in n colombia ( casanare ) .\n( c . chubb , 1918 ) \u2013 venezuela ( s & e bol\u00edvar ) , the guianas and ne amazonian brazil ( roraima and from e of lower r negro e to amap\u00e1 ) .\n13\u00b75\u201314\u00b75 cm ; 15\u201319 g . male nominate race is slate - coloured above , wings and tail somewhat darker , interscapular patch white , wing - coverts and outer rectrices . . .\nmale loudsong typically a series of relatively short notes at even pitch and pace except for lower - . . .\nthick understorey of lowland and foothill evergreen forest at edges of clearings , stream edges , . . .\nfeeds on variety of insects , including beetles ( coleoptera ) , lepidopteran larvae , wasps ( hymenoptera ) , hemipterans , homopterans , . . .\nfeb\u2013oct in costa rica and panama and aug\u2013nov in amazonian brazil ; additional nest and egg descriptions from nicaragua and . . .\nnot globally threatened . fairly common to common throughout its extensive range . regions inhabited by this species encompass numerous protected parks and reserves . its . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nrecent phylogenetic studies # r # r # r have led to internal clarification of family and its division into two subfamilies , thamnophilinae and myrmornithinae ; subsequent work has erected a third , euchrepomidinae ( see below , euchrepomis ) .\nrecent phylogenetic studies # r # r # r have led to distribution of taxa included herein into five tribes , microrhopiini , formicivorini , thamnophilini , pithyini and pyriglenini .\nrecently split from cercomacra # r on basis of comprehensive molecular study # r . genus is feminine due to original usage by describers # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\ncombined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : cercomacroides tyrannina . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nmorton , e . & derrickson , k . behav ecol sociobiol ( 1996 ) 39 : 195 . urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\ncercomacra tyrannina [ tyrannina or rufiventris ] : cent . panama to e colombia , s venezuela and nw brazil\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 290 , 806 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\njavascript is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .\nstri staff publications [ 3666 ] a collection of scientific publications by stri staff .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\naddress correspondence to e . s . morton . e - mail : emorton @ urltoken .\nyear - round territoriality with permanent pairbonds is a common breeding system of tropical passerines but is nearly absent in temperate passerines . many insectivorous tropical birds , 65 % of passerine species in panama ( morton , 1980 ) , for example , have longstanding , nearly unchanging , territory boundaries and low turnover in adults . the stability ( greenberg and gradwohl , 1986 , 1997 ) that these characteristics provide to neighborhoods of conspecifics is unknown in temperate birds .\nfew studies have examined pair stability in tropical birds , where the constraints on mate choice and territory switching are vastly different than for long - distance migrants that breed in the temperate zone . freed ( 1987 ) documented long - term pairbonds , generally for life , in tropical house wrens ( troglodytes aedon ) . he showed that these long - term pairbonds result from constraints rather than any direct reproductive advantages . furthermore , removal experiments have rarely been done in tropical birds ( e . g . , levin , 1996 ; morton , 1977 ) . removals in temperate zone studies generally show that floaters ( previously non - territorial ) replace removed individuals ( e . g . , smith , 1987 ; zack and stutchbury , 1992 ) . often replacement birds are of younger age or lower quality ( hogstad , 1989 ; m\u00f6nkk\u00f6nen , 1990 ; sherry and holmes , 1989 ) . beletsky ( 1996 ) summarizes extensive removal experiments in redwinged blackbirds ( agelaius phoeniceus ) designed to study territorial acquisition and retention .\nfrom 1991 to 1995 we removed 12 male and 10 female antbirds from their territories . we always left one member of the pair on the territory from which a removal was made . also , we observed natural disappearances of two females and four males from their territories . birds were captured in mist nets and transported in paper bags to holding cages . they were provided with mealworms and water ad libitum and kept individually in small ( 46 \u00d7 46 \u00d7 46 cm ) hardware cloth cages covered with plastic camouflage mesh , to mimic a dense vine habitat , and kept in a room with ambient light and temperature for from 12 to 216 h . birds were weighed when captured and when released back on their territories . this procedure worked well for this species , which has never before been kept in captivity , and we lost no individuals .\nthe removal experiments provided us the opportunity to monitor replacement behavior . we monitored the territory for replacement birds for the first 2 h after a removal and thereafter every 2 to 4 h . the bird still on the territory began singing a distinctive \u201ccourtship\u201d song within 5 min of the removal ( morton , 1996 ) . we used the presence of this courtship song to determine whether a replacement mate had arrived . the occurrence of duets indicated a replacement was consorting with the bird remaining on the territory . we played back duet songs to draw birds within view to either confirm the absence of replacements or to check for colorbands on replacements ( morton and derrickson , 1996 ) . we called new birds on the territory \u201creplacements\u201d when they were the same gender as the removed bird and when they sang duets with , and remained close to , the mates of the removed birds .\nthe original territory owner was released on the territory after a replacement had settled . replacement time refers to the number of h between a replacement ' s arrival and the owner ' s release whereas \u201ctime to be replaced\u201d is the number of h between the owner ' s removal and the arrival of a replacement . after one observer had the replacement in view , birds held in captivity were released back on their territories at the point of capture . a second observer monitored the released bird and recorded observations on the movements and behavior of the birds until one bird left the territory .\nnatural disappearances were ascertained by the appearance of the courtship song and confirmed when only single , formerly paired birds , responded to duet playbacks . these territories were monitored 3 - 4 times per week for replacements .\nwe also measured territory area and estimated the amount of foraging substrate it contained . to measure territorial boundaries , we mapped the singing and foraging locations of pairs . we also used playbacks to elicit territorial defense movements , noting where pairs stopped advancing towards the playback speaker . foraging substrate volume for each territory was estimated as the number of m 3 of vines , shrubs , grass , and vine - covered tree branches from 0 . 5 to 10 m above the ground at the edge of the forest ( williams - linera , 1990 ) .\nmales and females were replaced with equal frequency and as rapidly . of 16 males ( 12 removed and four natural disappearances ) , nine were replaced and seven were never replaced . of 12 females ( 10 removed and two natural disappearances ) , five were replaced and seven were never replaced . this difference was not significant ( fisher ' s exact test , \u03c7 2 = 1 . 266 , p < . 44 ) . neither was there a gender difference in the time between removal of owners and arrival of replacements , comparing only owners that were replaced ( mann - whitney u test , u = 17 . 5 , p = . 71 ) . for nine males replacement took 9 . 6 \u00b1 2 . 90 ( se ) h and for five females replacement took 12 . 6 \u00b1 3 . 03 h ( figure 1 ) .\ncumulative frequency plot of time to be replaced for males ( n = 9 , circles ) and females ( n = 5 , squares ) experimentally removed from territories .\nmost replacements were colorbanded birds ( six of nine males and three of five female replacements ) that left territories and mates to replace removed birds . the unbanded replacement birds also may have been territory - holders , rather than floaters , because all were in adult plumage . furthermore , 43 % ( 12 of 28 ) of the vacancies created by this territory switching remained unfilled , suggesting that floaters were rare .\nowners won back their territories regardless of when we removed them or the tenure of their replacements , with one exception . one male , after 48 h off territory , was unable to regain his territory from a replacement , which had been on the territory for 47 h . instead , he moved to his replacement ' s former territory , which was adjacent to his original territory . he had lost 2 . 9 g in captivity , 18 % of his weight at capture . this weight loss , the greatest experienced by any removed bird , was caused by unusually stressful housing ( due to circumstances beyond our control ) .\nwhen birds were removed for 48 h or less , little fighting occurred between the released owner and the replacement . the released owner threatened the replacement by exposing a white backspot ( see morton and derrickson , 1996 ) , and replacements fled . some chases occurred , but no fights . after longer periods of residency , replacements confronted released owners and fought . birds grappled and fell , fighting , to the ground , where we could see and hear them flapping and pecking one another in the leaf litter . we never observed such fights to occur naturally . the duration of chasing and fighting between the released owner and the replacement depended on the tenure of the replacement birds on the territory ( figure 2 ; anova , f 1 , 11 = 4 . 315 , p = . 06 ) . one female / female confrontation lasted for 120 min despite a relatively short tenure by the replacement ( figure 2 ) . if this outlier is removed , the relationship between fight duration and tenure becomes highly significant ( f 1 , 10 = 30 . 253 , p = . 0003 ) .\nduration of fights between replacement and released owner in relation to time replacement was on territory during owner ' s absence . one male was omitted because he did not regain his territory from the replacement . males , circles ; females , squares .\nhow common is mate and territory switching under natural conditions on unmanipulated territories ? as our data are based on annual surveys and not continuous monitoring , they are minimum estimates of turnover rates . also , we can not differentiate between death and emigration of occupants in many cases . overall , we monitored 35 male changes on 32 territories for 143 territory - years ( 0 . 25 terr yr - 1 ) and 21 female changes on 24 territories for 93 territory - years ( 0 . 23 terr yr - 1 ) . the difference in sample sizes is due to the fact that we were unable to capture females on some territories , despite repeated attempts , because males respond to song playbacks more quickly than females , often hitting the mist net first ( morton and derrickson , 1996 ) .\na bird may disappear from a territory because it died or because it emigrated . we estimated the rate of disappearance due to emigration alone by comparing the number of occupant disappearances with number of birds that were known to have emigrated because they were found living on another territory . in 16 adjacent territories , where nearly all birds were banded , 34 birds disappeared during 8 years . sixteen of these birds ( 47 % ) were later found to be living on another territory . this ( 0 . 27 terr - 1 yr - 1 ) is a minimal estimate of disappearance due to emigration because birds that moved out of the study area would be missed . we conclude that territory switches , or emigration , occurs commonly under natural conditions .\nthe replacement rate varied greatly among territories ( figure 3 ) . some territories had no changes for many years whereas others approached one change in occupant per year . there was a significant correlation between male and female replacement rates on territories ( r s = 0 . 47 , p = . 04 , n = 13 ) monitored from 3 - 6 years . this suggests that males and females valued territories in the same way , and left or remained with equal likelihood when an opening occurred . pair - members moved independently of one another . on only one occasion did we document a pair of birds moving together to a new territory . this move was to an adjacent territory where both male and female owners had disappeared . when their replacements on their former territory were removed they remained on their new territory , suggesting that their move was voluntary .\nsome individuals lived on the same territory for many years , suggesting they valued these territories highly . did these territories increase longevity ? to examine this question , we looked at the age of the mates of birds that did not emigrate . our expectation was that , if the territory was of high quality ( in terms of survival ) , their mates should also remain on the territory and live longer than average . there is no gender difference in survival so we compared longevity in these mates with longevity in the general population . the mean lifespan of these mates was 5 . 9 years \u00b1 0 . 404 ( se ) ( n = 7 ) whereas the mean lifespan of the general population was 4 . 9 years\u00b1 0 . 259 ( n = 49 ) . although in the direction predicted , this difference was not significant ( mann - whitney u test , u = 111 . 5 , p = . 14 ) .\nterritories that were immigrated to tended to have more foraging substrate volume , but not necessarily more total area , than the territories from which the same birds emigrated ( table 1 ) . no birds voluntarily moved to territories with less area or foraging substrate than their prior territory .\nwe focused attention on song output at three sites containing favored ( removed birds replaced ) and not favored ( removed birds not replaced ) adjacent territories ( table 2 ) . there was no clear difference in song output on favored and unfavored territories ( wilcoxon , n = 6 , z = 0 . 52 , p = . 60 for males ; n = 6 , z = 0 . 11 , p = . 91 for females ) .\ntwo territories were abandoned by antbirds when they were reduced . on one , \u2248 30 % of the habitat was bulldozed , and on the other after underbrush was cleared . a pair of antbirds resettled in the first territory , which was vacant from january , 1992 , until march , 1993 , after the vegetation recovered ; the second was not reoccupied .\nour results describe a mating system in which the individuals are always paired but readily abandon a territory to move to a better one . on some territories , birds left at the rate of one per two years ( figure 3 ) . the territory switching system is characterized by gender equality , with both males and females capable of defending territories alone after mate desertion and attracting mates . males and females were equally likely to leave territories and mates and did so independently , not as pairs . thus mate abandonment is an important aspect of territory switching and , as a consequence , the evolution of cooperation between pair members is unlikely because the benefits of switching must be greater than those attained by maintaining long - term pairbonds . indeed , we found no evidence of pair cooperation in territorial defense ( morton and derrickson , 1996 ; see also freed , 1987 ) .\nbirds cannot leave their current territories to assess other territories by exploring them ( morton and derrickson , 1996 ) . nonetheless , birds appeared to switch to territories that had more foraging substrate though not always to larger ones ( table 1 ) . we found no support for the idea that song output during the dawn chorus might affect decisions to switch ( table 2 ) .\nfurther work on territory switching should focus on other factors . we do not know if the quality of a mate affects territory switching . some pairs remained together on the same territory for long periods of time , even when experimental removals provided opportunities to switch , whereas other pairs broke up often . reproductive success , however , was so low ( 8 % per year ) that no territory had more than one successful nest and many had no reproductive success during the 8 years of the study ( morton and stutchbury , in press ) . switching territories did not enhance annual reproductive success . territory switching may evolve when successful reproduction occurs rarely in an individual ' s lifetime . under this condition , selection favors a long reproductive lifespan as the primary means to achieve any reproductive success .\nwe thank ron ydenberg and two anonymous referees for helpful comments on the manuscript and the smithsonian tropical research institute for logistical support in panama . students from the ontario field course program helped gather song data . stan and pat rand graciously made us feel at home and provided transporation over the years in panama . research was conducted under permits issued by the instituto nacional recursos naturales renovables ( now unam ) . research was supported by grants from the smithsonian institution scholarly studies program , friends of the national zoo , and the natural sciences and engineering research council of canada .\n. territoriality , adult survival , and dispersal in the checker - throated antwren in panama .\n. sweep samples of tropical foliage insects : effects of season , vegetation types , elevation , time of day , and insularity .\n. differences in insect abundance diversity between wetter and drier sites during a tropical dry season .\n. stress and decision making under the risk of predation : recent developments from behavioral , reproductive , and ecological perspectives .\n. ornithological monograph 37 ( gowaty pa , mock dw , eds ) . washington , dc : american ornithologists ' union ;\n. removal of territory holders causes influx of small - sized intruders in passerine bird communities in northern finland .\n. the ecological background for the evolution of vocal sounds used in close range . in :\n( nohring r , ed . ) . berlin : deutsche ornithologen - gesellschaft ;\n. predictions from the ranging hypothesis for the evolution of long distance signals in birds .\n. a comparison of vocal behavior among tropical and temperate zone birds . in :\n( kroodsma de , miller eh , eds ) . ithaca : cornell university press ;\n. sociobiology and adaptive significance of interspecific foraging flocks in the neotropics . in :\n. ornithological monographs 36 ( buckley pa , foster ms , morton es , ridgely rs , buckley fg , eds ) . washington : american ornithologists ' union ;\n. geographical variation in clutch size among passerine birds : ashmole ' s hypothesis .\n. density dependence , evolutionary optimization , and the diversification of avian life histories .\n. mixed flocks and polyspecific associations : costs and benefits of mixed groups to birds and monkeys .\n. delayed breeding in avian social systems : the role of territory quality and \u201cfloater\u201d tactics .\noxford university press is a department of the university of oxford . it furthers the university ' s objective of excellence in research , scholarship , and education by publishing worldwide\nfor full access to this pdf , sign in to an existing account , or purchase an annual subscription ."]}
{"id": 1349, "summary": [{"text": "blastobasis millicentae is a moth in the family blastobasidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in south-eastern kenya and south africa .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of coastal lowlands .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is 4.1 \u2013 4.5 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are pale brown on the basal two-thirds and brown intermixed brown scales tipped with white and pale brown scales on the distal one-third .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are pale brown .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on hirtella zanzibarica . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "blastobasis millicentae", "paragraphs": ["blastobasis millicentae adamski , 2010 ; smithsonian contr . zool . 630 : 15 ; tl : verulam\nv i \u2022 s m i t h s o n i a n c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o z o o l o g y figures 28\u201330 . female genitalia of blastobasis acirfa , b . aynekiella , and b . determinata 53 figures 31\u201334 . female genitalia of blastobasis glauconotata , b . industria , holcocera irroratella , and b . byrsodepta 54 figures 35\u201337 . female genitalia of blastobasis catappaella , b . chuka , and b . mpala 55 figures 38\u201349 . adults of blastobasis millicentae , b . industria , b . eridryas , b . determinata , holcocera extensa , b . indigesta , b . chuka , b . egens , b . glauconotata , b . byrsodepta , h . irroratella , and b . elgonae 57 figures 50\u201358 . adults of blastobasis taricheuta , calosima arguta , b . trachilista , neoblastobasis ximeniaella , n . wangithiae , b . mpala , b . aynekiella , b . acirfa , and n . laikipiae 58 figures 59\u201362 . adults of blastobasis catappaella , b . kenya , b . fatigata , and neoblastobasis perisella 59\n1 6 \u2022 s m i t h s o n i a n c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o z o o l o g y map 5 . distribution of blastobasis millicentae . palpus white intermixed with brown , inner surface white . scape of antennae brownish gray intermixed with white , flagellum pale gray ; first flagellomere of male basally dilated laterally , forming a notchlike concavity . proboscis white . thorax : tegula and mesonotum with brown scales tipped with white . legs with brown scales tipped with white and a white band on apices of all segments and tarsomeres . forewing ( figure 38 ) length 4 . 1\u20134 . 5 mm ( n = 2 ) , pale brown on basal 2 / 3 intermixed with a few brown\nblastobasis anachasta meyrick , 1931 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 15 ) : 467\nblastobasis indigesta meyrick , 1931 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 6 ) : 177\nblastobasis roscidella magna amsel , 1952 ; fragm . ent . roma 1 : 130\nblastobasis sprotundalis park , 1984 ; korean j . plant prot . 23 : 57\nblastobasis ergastulella zeller , 1877 ; horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 440\nblastobasis pannonica ; sumpich & skyva , 2012 , nota lepid . 35 ( 2 ) : 166\nblastobasis eridryas meyrick , 1932 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 80 ( 1 ) : 114\nblastobasis parki sinev , 1986 ; trudy zool . inst . leningr . 145 : ( 53 - 71 )\nblastobasis commendata meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 17 ) : 539 ; tl : brazil , parintins\nblastobasis crypsimorpha meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 17 ) : 538 ; tl : punjab , murree\nblastobasis inderskella caradja , 1920 ; dt . ent . z . iris 34 ( 1 / 2 ) : 122\nblastobasis lavernella walsingham , 1894 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1894 : 547 ; tl : madeira\nblastobasis syrmatodes meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 17 ) : 538 ; tl : assam , shillong\nblastobasis taurusella adamski , 2004 ; holarctic lepid . 7 ( 2 ) : 51 ; tl : texas , brownsville\nblastobasis aequivoca meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 17 ) : 540 ; tl : british guiana , georgetown\nblastobasis bassii karsholt & sinev , 2004 ; beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 395 ; tl : madeira\nblastobasis crassifica meyrick , 1916 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 19 ) : 595 ; tl : ceylon , madulsima\nblastobasis fatigata meyrick , 1914 ; ann . transv . mus . 4 ( 4 ) : 195 ; tl : pretoria\nblastobasis industria meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 314 ; tl : barberton\nblastobasis laurisilvae karsholt & sinev , 2004 ; beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 424 ; tl : madeira\nblastobasis luteella karsholt & sinev , 2004 ; beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 401 ; tl : madeira\nblastobasis rebeli karsholt & sinev , 2004 ; beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 427 ; tl : madeira\nblastobasis rubiginosella rebel , 1896 ; ann . mus . wien 11 : 130 , pl . 3 , f . 12\nblastobasis serradaguae karsholt & sinev , 2004 ; beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 431 ; tl : madeira\nblastobasis splendens karsholt & sinev , 2004 ; beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 426 ; tl : madeira\nblastobasis subdivisus karsholt & sinev , 2004 ; beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 435 ; tl : madeira\nblastobasis virgatella karsholt & sinev , 2004 ; beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 420 ; tl : madeira\nblastobasis walsinghami karsholt & sinev , 2004 ; beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 414 ; tl : madeira\nblastobasis wolffi karsholt & sinev , 2004 ; beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 415 ; tl : madeira\nblastobasis wollastoni karsholt & sinev , 2004 ; beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 430 ; tl : madeira\nblastobasis adustella ; karsholt & sinev , 2004 , beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 421 ; [ fe ]\nblastobasis candidata meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 17 ) : 539 ; tl : peru , lima , 500ft\nblastobasis cophodes meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 5 ) : 158 ; tl : peru , lima , 500ft\nblastobasis insularis ; karsholt & sinev , 2004 , beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 438 ; [ fe ]\nblastobasis lutiflua meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 17 ) : 539 ; tl : punjab , murree , 7500ft\nblastobasis ochrobathra meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 15 ) : 463 ; tl : british guiana , golden grove\nblastobasis sardinica sumpich , 2012 ; ent . zs . 122 ( 5 ) : 229 ; tl : sardinia , t\u00e9mpio 1200m\nblastobasis spiniella park , 2000 ; korean j . biol . sci . 4 ( 3 ) : ( 245 - 250 )\nblastobasis transcripta meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 5 ) : 158 ; tl : kumaon , almora , 6000ft\nblastobasis mesomochla turner , 1947 ; proc . r . soc . qd 57 : 69 ; tl : south australia , adelaide\nblastobasis aphilodes meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 5 ) : 159 ; tl : colombia , la crumbre , 6600ft\nblastobasis determinata meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 116 ; tl : tranvaal , moorddrift\nblastobasis gracilis walsingham , 1897 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1897 : 93 ; tl : west indies , grenada\nblastobasis incuriosa meyrick , 1916 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 19 ) : 597 ; tl : new south wales , sydney\nblastobasis leucogona zeller , 1877 ; horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 434 , pl . 6 , f . 152\n= blastobasis marmosella ; karsholt & sinev , 2004 , beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 419 ; [ fe ]\nblastobasis pallescens turner , 1947 ; proc . r . soc . qd 57 : 68 ; tl : n . queensland , kuranda\nblastobasis pentasticta turner , 1947 ; proc . r . soc . qd 57 : 70 ; tl : new south wales , sydney\nblastobasis phaeopasta turner , 1947 ; proc . r . soc . qd 57 : 70 ; tl : n . queensland , mackay\nblastobasis scotia turner , 1947 ; proc . r . soc . qd 57 : 68 ; tl : n . queensland , townsville\nblastobasis semilutea meyrick , 1916 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 19 ) : 596 ; tl : s . india , coimbatore\nblastobasis trachelista meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 117 ; tl : rhodesia , umtali\nblastobasis albidella rebel , 1928 ; verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 78 ( s . b . ) : 85\nblastobasis anthoptera lower , 1907 ; trans . proc . r . soc . aust . 31 : 118 ; tl : townsville , queensland\nblastobasis byrsodepta meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 314 ; tl : waterval onder , barberton\nblastobasis lecaniella busck , 1913 ; ins . inscit . menstr . 1 ( 7 ) : 89 ; tl : nonpareil , british guiana\nblastobasis monozona lower , 1907 ; trans . proc . r . soc . aust . 31 : 118 ; tl : n . queensland\nblastobasis tanyptera turner , 1947 ; proc . r . soc . qd 57 : 68 ; tl : n . queensland , lake barrine\nblastobasis argillacea walsingham , 1897 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1897 : 91 ; tl : west indies , st . croix\nblastobasis dyssema turner , 1918 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 42 : 281 ; tl : lord howe i .\nblastobasis episema turner , 1918 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 42 : 281 ; tl : lord howe i .\nblastobasis grenadensis walsingham , 1897 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1897 : 92 ; tl : west indies , dominica ; grenada\nblastobasis legrandi adamski , 1995 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 97 ( 3 ) : 490 ; tl : seychelles , mah\u00e9\nblastobasis subolivacea walsingham , 1897 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1897 : 92 ; tl : west indies , st . thomas\nblastobasis triangularis walsingham , 1897 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1897 : 93 ; tl : west indies , st . thomas\nblastobasis celaenephes turner , 1947 ; proc . r . soc . qd 57 : 69 ; tl : queensland , mcpherson range ( 4000ft )\nblastobasis intrepida meyrick , 1911 ; trans . linn . soc . lond . ( 2 ) 14 : 287 ; tl : mah\u00e9 , cascade estate\nblastobasis taricheuta meyrick , 1909 ; ann . s . afr . mus . 5 ( 7 ) : 372 ; tl : cape colony , capetown\nblastobasis centralasiae sinev , 2007 ; ent . obozr . 86 ( 4 ) : ( 883 - 894 ) , 1068 ; tl : kirgizia , osh\nblastobasis confamulella ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; adamski & hodges , 1996 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 98 : 718\nblastobasis confectella ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; adamski & hodges , 1996 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 98 : 719\nblastobasis decolorella ; [ nhm card ] ; karsholt & sinev , 2004 , beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 400 ; [ fe ]\nblastobasis desertarum ; [ nhm card ] ; karsholt & sinev , 2004 , beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 392 ; [ fe ]\nblastobasis divisus ; [ nhm card ] ; karsholt & sinev , 2004 , beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 434 ; [ fe ]\nblastobasis floridella ; adamski & hodges , 1996 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 98 : 719 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nblastobasis glandulella ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; adamski & hodges , 1996 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 98 : 719\nblastobasis helleri rebel , 1910 ; ann . mus . wien . 24 ( 3 - 4 ) : 356 , pl . 12 , f . 5\nblastobasis lacticolella ; [ nhm card ] ; karsholt & sinev , 2004 , beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 404 ; [ fe ]\nblastobasis lavernella ; [ nhm card ] ; karsholt & sinev , 2004 , beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 398 ; [ fe ]\nblastobasis marmorosella ; [ nhm card ] ; karsholt & sinev , 2004 , beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 418 ; [ fe ]\nblastobasis maroccanella ; [ nhm card ] ; karsholt & sinev , 2004 , beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 411 ; [ fe ]\nblastobasis nephelias meyrick , 1902 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 26 : 170 ; tl : perth and albany , west australia\nblastobasis nigromaculata ; [ nhm card ] ; karsholt & sinev , 2004 , beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 428 ; [ fe ]\nblastobasis nothrotes ; adamski & hodges , 1996 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 98 : 720 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nblastobasis ochreopalpella ; [ nhm card ] ; karsholt & sinev , 2004 , beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 417 ; [ fe ]\nblastobasis pica ; [ nhm card ] ; karsholt & sinev , 2004 , beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 437 ; [ fe ]\nblastobasis pulchella ; adamski & hodges , 1996 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 98 : 720 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nblastobasis quaintancella ; adamski & hodges , 1996 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 98 : 720 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nblastobasis repartella ; adamski & hodges , 1996 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 98 : 721 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nblastobasis retectella ; adamski & hodges , 1996 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 98 : 721 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nblastobasis salebrosella ; [ nhm card ] ; karsholt & sinev , 2004 , beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 425 ; [ fe ]\nblastobasis vittata ; [ nhm card ] ; karsholt & sinev , 2004 , beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 408 ; [ fe ]\nblastobasis balucis adamski , 2013 ; zootaxa 3618 ( 1 ) : 27 ; tl : est la casona , 1520m , res . biol monteverde , costa rica\nblastobasis eridryas ; adamski , copeland , miller , hebert , darrow & luke , 2010 , smithsonian contr . zool . 630 : 33 ; [ afromoths ]\nblastobasis yuccaecolella dietz , 1910 ; trans . am . ent . soc . 36 : 7 , pl . 1 , f . 3 ; tl : texas\nholotype \u2642 , cotype no . 798 of blastobasis egens meyrick , genitalia slide adamski 4739 , tmsa ; paratype 1\u2642 , genitalia slide adamski 4910 , nmk .\nblastobasis acarta ; [ nhm card ] ; adamski , 1995 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 97 ( 3 ) : 493 ; [ afromoths ]\nblastobasis intrepida ; [ nhm card ] ; adamski , 1995 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 97 ( 3 ) : 497 ; [ afromoths ]\nblastobasis molinda meyrick , 1925 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 5 - 7 ) : 145 ; tl : india , u . p . , dehra dun\nblastobasis ochromorpha meyrick , 1925 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 5 - 7 ) : 145 ; tl : india , u . p . , dehra dun\nblastobasis phycidella ; [ nhm card ] ; sinev , 2007 , ent . obozr . 86 ( 4 ) : ( 883 - 894 ) ; [ fe ]\nblastobasis trachilista [ sic , recte trachelista ] ; adamski , copeland , miller , hebert , darrow & luke , 2010 , smithsonian contr . zool . 630 : 37\nblastobasis atmosema meyrick , 1930 ; ann . naturhist . mus . wien 44 : 230 , pl . 1 , f . 3 ; tl : taperinha , para , brazil\nblastobasis echus adamski , 2013 ; zootaxa 3618 ( 1 ) : 50 ; tl : fca cafrosa , est . las melliza , p n amistad , 1300m , costa rica\nblastobasis pacalis meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 17 ) : 539 ; tl : brazil , para ; peru , iquitos , jurimaguas ; british guiana , bartica\nblastobasis ponticella sinev , 2007 ; ent . obozr . 86 ( 4 ) : ( 883 - 894 ) , 1066 ; tl : georgia , lagodekshskii nat . res .\nblastobasis acirfa adamski , 2010 ; smithsonian contr . zool . 630 : 20 ; tl : kenya , kakamega forest , 0\u00b013 . 66 ' n , 34\u00b053 . 12 ' e\nblastobasis aynekiella adamski , 2010 ; smithsonian contr . zool . 630 : 23 ; tl : kenya , kakamega forest , 0\u00b014 . 16 ' n , 34\u00b051 . 82 ' e\nblastobasis chuka adamski , 2010 ; smithsonian contr . zool . 630 : 29 ; tl : chuka forest , 0\u00b021 . 06 ' s , 37\u00b035 . 80 ' e , 1600m\nblastobasis curta meyrick , 1916 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 19 ) : 596 ; tl : kanara , ganesh gudi and belke ; s . india , nilgiris , 3500ft\nblastobasis drymosa adamski & li , 2010 ; shilap revta . lepid . 38 ( 151 ) : 345 ; tl : beijing , heiden - chui , jiu - feng forest park\nblastobasis mpala adamski , 2010 ; smithsonian contr . zool . 630 : 34 ; tl : kenya , laikipia plateau , mpala research centre , 0 . 293\u00b0n , 36 . 899\u00b0e\nblastobasis sinica adamski & li , 2010 ; shilap revta . lepid . 38 ( 151 ) : 344 ; tl : beijing , heiden - chui , jiu - feng forest park\nblastobasis byrsodepta ; [ nhm card ] ; adamski , copeland , miller , hebert , darrow & luke , 2010 , smithsonian contr . zool . 630 : 38 ; [ afromoths ]\nblastobasis catappaella adamski , 2010 ; smithsonian contr . zool . 630 : 25 ; tl : kenya , laikipia plateau , mpala research centre , 0 . 293\u00b0n , 36 . 899\u00b0em 1650m\nblastobasis determinata ; [ nhm card ] ; adamski , copeland , miller , hebert , darrow & luke , 2010 , smithsonian contr . zool . 630 : 38 ; [ afromoths ]\nblastobasis egens ; [ nhm card ] ; adamski , copeland , miller , hebert , darrow & luke , 2010 , smithsonian contr . zool . 630 : 36 ; [ afromoths ]\nblastobasis fatigata ; [ nhm card ] ; adamski , copeland , miller , hebert , darrow & luke , 2010 , smithsonian contr . zool . 630 : 36 ; [ afromoths ]\nblastobasis indigesta ; [ nhm card ] ; adamski , copeland , miller , hebert , darrow & luke , 2010 , smithsonian contr . zool . 630 : 33 ; [ afromoths ]\nblastobasis industria ; [ nhm card ] ; adamski , copeland , miller , hebert , darrow & luke , 2010 , smithsonian contr . zool . 630 : 39 ; [ afromoths ]\nblastobasis taricheuta ; [ nhm card ] ; adamski , copeland , miller , hebert , darrow & luke , 2010 , smithsonian contr . zool . 630 : 37 ; [ afromoths ]\nblastobasis elgonae adamski , 2010 ; smithsonian contr . zool . 630 : 31 ; tl : kenya , mount elgon , 2450m , 1\u00b001 . 73 ' n , 34\u00b045 . 28 ' e\nblastobasis glauconotata adamski , 2010 ; smithsonian contr . zool . 630 : 25 ; tl : kenya , chuka forest , 0\u00b021 . 06 ' s , 37\u00b035 . 80 ' e , 1600m\nblastobasis tarda meyrick , 1902 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 26 : 170 ; tl : rosewood and brisbane , queensland ; newcastle and sydney , new south wales\nblastobasis kenya adamski , 2010 ; smithsonian contr . zool . 630 : 17 ; tl : kenya , karu / brooks , ca . 0\u00b08 . 87 ' s , 35\u00b015 . 77 ' e\nblastobasis leucotoxa meyrick , 1902 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 26 : 171 ; tl : sydney , new south wales ; launceston , tasmania ; geraldton , west australia\nblastobasis lygdi adamski , 2013 ; zootaxa 3618 ( 1 ) : 21 ; tl : est . cacao , 1000 - 1400 , lado so volcan cacao , p . n . , costa rica\nblastobasis egens meyrick , 1918 ; ann . transv . mus . 6 ( 2 ) : 37 ; tl : natal , sarnia ; umkomaas ; verulam ; new hanover ; zululand , nkwaleni ; eshowe\nblastobasis spermologa meyrick , 1916 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 19 ) : 597 ; tl : ceylon , maskeliya , madulsima , undugoda ; s . india , wainad , 2500ft ; china , hongkong\nblastobasis velutina walsingham , [ 1908 ] ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1907 : 952 , pl . 52 , f . 4 ; tl : tenerife , guimar ; tacaronte ; la laguna\nblastobasis graminea adamski , 1999 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 101 ( 1 ) : 165 ; tl : colombia , inst . colombiano agropecuario , exper . station\npalmira\n, cauca valley\nblastobasis sciota bradley , 1961 ; bull . brit . mus . ( n . h . ) ent . 10 ( 4 ) : 155 , pl . 7 , f . 7 ; tl : guadalcanal , tapenanje\nblastobasis acarta meyrick , 1911 ; trans . linn . soc . lond . ( 2 ) 14 : 286 ; tl : mah\u00e9 , morne blanc and cascade estate , 1000ft ; silhouette , mare aux cochons plateau , 1000ft\nblastobasis homadelpha meyrick , 1902 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 26 : 171 ; tl : duaringa and brisbane , queensland ; murrurundi and sydney , new south wales ; port lincoln , south australia\nblastobasis inana ; walsingham , 1907 , fauna hawaiiensis 1 ( 5 ) : 648 , pl . 25 , f . 3 ; zimmerman , 1978 , ins . hawaii 9 ( 2 ) : 992 ; [ nhm card ]\nblastobasis magna ; sinev , 2007 , ent . obozr . 86 ( 4 ) : ( 883 - 894 ) , 1065 ; sumpich , 2012 , ent . zs . 122 ( 5 ) : 231 ; [ fe ]\nblastobasis yuccaecolella ; [ nacl ] , # 1154 ; [ nhm card ] ; adamski & pellmyr , 2003 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 105 ( 2 ) : 390 ; adamski & hodges , 1996 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 98 : 721 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\njavascript is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .\nsmithsonian contributions to zoology , vi + 68 pages ; no . 630 : 62 figures , 13 maps , 2 tables . twenty - five species of african blastobasinae ( lepidoptera : coleophoridae ) are reviewed ; 12 species are redescribed , and 13 species are described as new . date of publication march 30 , 2010 .\n= ; [ nacl ] , 14 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ] ; [ richard brown ] ; adamski & hodges , 1996 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 98 : 718\n= ; [ nacl ] , 14 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ] ; adamski & hodges , 1996 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 98 : 718 ; [ richard brown ] ; [ afromoths ]\n= ; [ aucl ] ; adamski & hodges , 1996 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 98 : 718 ; [ afromoths ]\nlarva on manilkara butugi , mimusops bagshawei , olea welwitschii , o . woodiana ssp . disjuncta , prunus africana , synsepalum cerasiferum , tiliacora funifera adamski , copeland , miller , hebert , darrow & luke , 2010 , smithsonian contr . zool . 630 : 23\nlarva on chrysophyllum albidum , mimusops bagshawei , olea welwitschii , prunus africana , tiliacora funifera adamski , copeland , miller , hebert , darrow & luke , 2010 , smithsonian contr . zool . 630 : 25\n= ; karsholt & sinev , 2004 , beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 421\n= ; karsholt & sinev , 2004 , beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 421 ; [ fe ]\natmozona meyrick , 1939 ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 89 ( 4 ) : 58\nbilineatella lucas , 1956 ; bull . soc . sci . nat . maroc 35 : 257\nvalentina bromeliae walsingham , 1912 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 149 ; tl : mexico , vera cruz , cordova\nlarva on ( fruits ) terminalia catappa adamski , copeland , miller , hebert , darrow & luke , 2010 , smithsonian contr . zool . 630 : 25\nlarva on allophylus abyssinicus , chrysophyllum gorungosanum , dictyophleba lucida , diphasia sp . , drypetes gerrardii , flacourtia indica , garcinia volkensii , landolphia buchananii , passiflora mollisima , podocarpus latifolius , prunus africana , rawsonia lucida , vepris simplicifolia adamski , copeland , miller , hebert , darrow & luke , 2010 , smithsonian contr . zool . 630 : 31\ncineracella amsel , 1953 ; bull . inst . fr . ar . noire , 15 ( 4 ) : 1450\nauximobasis coffeaella busck , 1925 ; comm . est . debell . praga caf\u00e9eira : 13 ; tl : brazil , s\u00e3o paulo\nlarva on coffea arabica busck , 1925 , comm . est . debell . praga caf\u00e9eira : 13\nholcocera confamulella heinrich , 1921 ; j . agric . res . 20 : 818 , pl . 99 e ; tl : texas , browsville , smith point\nhypatima confectella zeller , 1873 ; verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 23 ( abh . ) : 303 ; tl : texas\nlarva on crotalaria juncea meyrick , 1916 , exot . microlep . 1 ( 19 ) : 595\nlaverna ( ? ) decolorella wollaston , 1858 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 3 ) 1 ( 2 ) : 122 ; tl : madeira\n= ; karsholt & sinev , 2004 , beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 392 ; [ fe ]\nepistetus divisus walsingham , 1894 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1894 : 552 ; tl : madeira\nlarva on ( fruits ) vepris nobilis adamski , copeland , miller , hebert , darrow & luke , 2010 , smithsonian contr . zool . 630 : 33\nprosthesis exclusa walsingham , [ 1908 ] ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1907 : 953 , pl . 52 , f . 5 ; tl : tenerife , puerto orotava\nvalentinia floridella dietz , 1910 ; trans . am . ent . soc . 36 : 17 , pl . 1 , f . 10 ; tl : florida\n= ; adamski & hodges , 1996 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 98 : 720\n= ; mcdunnough , 1961 , amer . mus . novit . 2045 : 11 ; [ nacl ] , # 1162 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; adamski & hodges , 1996 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 98 : 720\nlarva on afrocarpus falcatus , chaetacme aristata , cussonia spicata , drypetes gerrardii , eleaodendron buchananii , ekebergia capensis , mimusops kummel , prunus africana , rawsonia lucida , schrebera alata , solanum anguivi , stychnos mitis , toddalia asiatica , vepris nobilis , v . simplicifolia , v . richocarpa , warburgia ugandensis adamski , copeland , miller , hebert , darrow & luke , 2010 , smithsonian contr . zool . 630 : 29\ncolombia , venezuela , costa rica , mexico , louisiana . see [ maps ]\nhawaii , new britain , . . . , bengal . see [ maps ]\nlarva on dioscorea zimmerman , 1978 , ins . hawaii 9 ( 2 ) : 992\nindirecta meyrick , 1935 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 18 - 19 ) : 567\nasychna insularis wollaston , 1858 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 3 ) 1 ( 2 ) : 123 ; tl : madeira\ninvigorata ( meyrick , 1932 ) ( auximobasis ) ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 10 ) : 316\nlarva on adenia sp . , calophyllum inophyllum , chrysophyllum viridifolium , cola minor , deinbollia borbonica , diospyros kabuyeana , diphasia sp . , dovyalis macrocalyx , draceana mannii , flacourtia indica , hirtella zanzibarica ssp . zancibarica , inhambanella henriquezii , landolphia sp . , lecaniodiscus fraxinifolius ssp . scassellatii , lepisanthes senegalensis , ludia mauritiana , manilkara sansibarensis , mimusops aedificatoria , olea woodiana ssp . disjuncta , oxyanthus goetzei ssp . keniensis , rourea minor , saba comorensis , salacia elegans , strychnos madagascariensis , terminalia catappa , toddalia asiatica , trichilia emetica , trilepisium madagascariense , vepris nobilis , ximenia caffra , xylopia sp . adamski , copeland , miller , hebert , darrow & luke , 2010 , smithsonian contr . zool . 630 : 20\n= ; karsholt & sinev , 2004 , beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 419 ; [ fe ]\nlarva on hirtella zanzibarica adamski , copeland , miller , hebert , darrow & luke , 2010 , smithsonian contr . zool . 630 : 17\nexinotis neozona meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 5 ) : 159 ; tl : british guiana , bartica , mallali\nvalentinia neptes walsingham , 1912 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 149 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft\ngelechia nigromaculata wollaston , 1858 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 3 ) 1 ( 2 ) : 121 ; tl : madeira ; s . dezerta\nvalentinia nothrotes walsingham , 1907 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 33 ( 1567 ) : 202 ; tl : arizona\noecophora ochreopalpella wollaston , 1858 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 3 ) 1 ( 2 ) : 121 ; tl : madeira\nepistetus ( ? ) pica walsingham , 1894 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1894 : 553 ; tl : madeira\ndistrict of columbia , . . . , nova scotia . see [ maps ]\nvalentinia quaintancella dietz , 1910 ; trans . am . ent . soc . 36 : 15 , pl . 1 , f . 9 ; tl : -\nvalentinia repartella dietz , 1910 ; trans . am . ent . soc . 36 : 19 ; tl : colorado , denver\n= ; adamski & hodges , 1996 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 98 : 721\nopogona tabernatella legrand , 1966 ; m\u00e9m . mus . hist . nat . paris ( a ) 37 : 114\nvalentinia tarachodes walsingham , 1912 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 148 , pl . 5 , f . 16 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft\n= ; karsholt & sinev , 2004 , beitr . ent . 54 ( 2 ) : 407 ; [ fe ]\nlarva on yucca baccata dietz , 1910 , trans . am . ent . soc . 36 : 8\n[ afromoths ] de prins , j . & de prins , w . , 2013\nsangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nblastobasinae ( lepidoptera : gelechioidea : coleophoridae ) of thailand , part ii . four new species of\npyrales and microlepidoptera collected by mr . e . w . classey in madeira , 1957\nmicrolepidoptera from the solomon islands . additional records and descriptions of microlepidoptera collected in the solomon islands by the rennell island expedition 1953 - 54\nin gardiner , no . xii . tortricina and tineina . results of the percy sladen trust expedition to the indian ocean in 1905\nergebnisse einer zoologischen sammelreise nach brasilien , insbesonderer in das amazonasgebiet , ausgef\u00fchrt von dr . h . zerny . v . theil . micro - lepidoptera\nnotes on lepidoptera collected in madeira by t . v . wollaston , esq . ; with descriptions of some new species\nfurther notes on some moths from lord howe and norfolk island in the s . ausralian museum\nzimmerman , 1978 insects of hawaii . microlepidoptera . ( 1 ) : monotrysia , tineoidea , tortricoidea , gracillarioidea , yponomeutoidea , and alucitoidea , ( 2 ) : gelechioidea ins . hawaii 9 ( 1 ) : 1 - 396 , ( 1 ) : 397 - 882 , ( 2 ) : 883 - 1430 , ( 2 ) : 1431 - 1903\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\n[ south africa , kwazulu - natal ] , verulam , 28 . i . 1916 , leg . a . j . t . janse .\nadamski d . , copeland r . s . , miller s . e . , hebert p . d . n . , darrow k . & luke q . 2010 . a review of african blastobasidae ( lepidoptera : gelechioidea : coleophoridae ) , with new taxa reared from native fruits in kenya . - smithsonian contributions to zoology 630 : i\u2014vi , 1\u201468 .\ndavid adamski , robert s . copeland , scott e . miller - smithsonian . . .\npage 19 and 20 : n u m b e r 6 3 0 \u2022 1 3 map 3 . di\npage 21 and 22 : n u m b e r 6 3 0 \u2022 1 5 map 4 . di\npage 41 and 42 : n u m b e r 6 3 0 \u2022 3 5 map 13 . d\npage 47 and 48 : n u m b e r 6 3 0 \u2022 4 1 table 1 .\npage 49 and 50 : n u m b e r 6 3 0 \u2022 4 3 table 2 .\nyou have already flagged this document . thank you , for helping us keep this platform clean . the editors will have a look at it as soon as possible .\nmagazine : david adamski , robert s . copeland , scott e . miller - smithsonian . . .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nsorry , preview is currently unavailable . you can download the paper by clicking the button above .\nenter the email address you signed up with and we ' ll email you a reset link .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nn u m b e r 6 3 0 \u2022 4 5 figures 2\u201362 figures 2\u20134 . male genitalia of calosima and neoblastobasis . 2 , c . arguta , lectotype ( da slide 4628 ) . 3 , n . laikipiae , holotype ( da slide 4144 ) . 4 , n . wangithiae , holotype ( da slide 5044 ) .\npage 49 : n u m b e r 6 3 0 \u2022 4 3 table 2 .\npage 21 : n u m b e r 6 3 0 \u2022 1 5 map 4 . di"]}
{"id": 1351, "summary": [{"text": "epicopeia mencia is a moth in the epicopeiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by moore in 1875 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in china , vietnam , korea , the russian far east , japan and taiwan .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 60 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults can be distinguished from related species by two rows of red markings on the hindwings .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there are two forms in both sexes , a typical form and a white-banded form .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the typical form is thought to mimic byasa alcinous , while the latter form mimics pachliopta aristolochiae .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the larvae feed on ulmus species .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "there is one generation per year .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the species overwinters in the pupal stage . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "epicopeia mencia", "paragraphs": ["epicopeia mencia is a moth in the epicopeiidae family . it was described by moore in 1875 . it is found in china , vietnam , korea , the russian far east , japan and taiwan .\nepicopeia mencia moore , [ 1875 ] ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1874 ( 4 ) : 578 , pl . 67 , f . 8 ; tl : shanghai , n . china\nepicopeia polydora westwood , 1841 ; arcana entomologica , 1 : 19 , pl . 5 , f . 1 ; tl : assam\nepicopeia battaka dempona kishida & endo , 1999 ; trans . lepid . soc . japan 50 ( 1 ) : 48 ; tl : s . sumatra , mt dempo\nepicopeia battaka malayana kishida & endo , 1999 ; trans . lepid . soc . japan 50 ( 1 ) : 48 ; tl : malaysia , pahang , cameron highlands\nepicopeia simulans leech , [ 1889 ] ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1888 : 611 , pl . 31 , f . 1 ; tl : hakodate\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnb : the taxon name search is for single names only . for example , to locate dysodia vitrina flammata warren , 1904 you should enter flammata only .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\ncountry : korea wingspan : 60 . 0 ( mm ) photo by : paul jenkins\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\non the lepidoptera of japan and corea , pt ii . heterocera , sect . i\nwestwood , 1841 arcana entomologica , or illustrations of new , rare and interesting insects arcana entomologica , 1 : ( 1841 - 1843 ) [ iv ] , 192pp , pl . 1 - 48 ( in 12 parts )\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken"]}
{"id": 1364, "summary": [{"text": "the black howler ( alouatta caraya ) is a species of howler monkey , a large new world monkey , from northeastern argentina , eastern bolivia , eastern and southern brazil , and paraguay .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "together with the brown howler , it is the southernmost member of the alouatta genus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "only the adult male is black ; adult females and juveniles of both genders are overall whitish to yellowish-buff .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "however , variations occur even among the adult males ; some have patches of reddish-brown or buff fur .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they live in groups of three to 19 individuals ( usually seven to 9 ) .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the sex ratio is usually one to three males for every seven to nine females in a group .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "when mating , males and females within a single group pair off .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "named for their vocalizations , they may be heard most often around sunrise .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "this \" dawn chorus \" sounds much more like roaring than howling , and it announces the howlers ' position as a means to avoiding conflict with other groups .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "the call can be heard up to 5 km away .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "these monkeys commonly sleep or rest up to 70 % of the day , making it one of the least active monkeys in the new world .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "their habitat is forest , especially semideciduous and gallery .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "black howlers are folivorous , eating mostly leaves , and occasionally fruit , such as figs .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they generally prefer walking and climbing to running or leaping .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "the prehensile tail is very strong and acts as a fifth limb , allowing the monkeys greater versatility when climbing and allowing them greater safety in the occasional fall from a high branch .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "because their limb structure makes terrestrial movement awkward , they spend most of their time in the trees and only come down for water during dry spells .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "otherwise , the monkeys drink by wetting their hands on moist leaves , and then licking the water off their hands .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "their lifespans are up to 20 years , but more commonly 15 years in the wild .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "in argentina it is commonly kept as a pet due to its gentle nature . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "black howler", "paragraphs": ["black howler monkey , central american black howler , guatemalan black howler monkey , guatemalan howler , guatemalan howling monkey , mexican black howler monkey .\ndespite being called black howler monkeys , only the male is actually black - the female is blonde in colour .\nshoemaker , a . 1979 . reproduction and development of the black howler monkey .\npictures of belizean mammals . featuring pictures , photos of the black howler monkey .\nblack howler monkeys are not currently classed as endangered as most are found in protected areas .\ntogether with european zoos , bristol zoo is maintaining a population of black howler monkeys in human care .\nblack howler monkeys are one of the few primate species with different coat colors in males and females . males have a black coat , while females are blonde .\nyou find our black howler monkeys in the south american mixed species exhibit , which they share with our armadillos .\nthe black howler monkey is found from the dry forests of central brazil into the rainforests of paraguay , argentina , and bolivia .\nhowler monkeys are among the largest and noisiest of the \u2018new world\u2019 monkeys . although called black , it is only the adult males that are black . the females and infants are a pale grey / beige .\ncalegaro - marques , c . , j . bicca - marques . 1993 . allomaternal care in black howler monkey ( alouatta caraya ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - black howler monkey juvenile in tree\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - black howler monkey juvenile in tree\ntitle =\narkive photo - black howler monkey juvenile in tree\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nhowler monkeys have beards and long , thick hair which may be black , brown , or red . the red howler species is the most common , but it is often targeted by hunters eager for bushmeat . other species of howler monkey may be critically endangered over sections of their ranges .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - guatemalan black howler ( alouatta pigra )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - guatemalan black howler ( alouatta pigra )\ntitle =\narkive species - guatemalan black howler ( alouatta pigra )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nmonkey magic at the zoo for sixteen years , robin brockett lived in belize and pioneered howler monkey rehabilitation and release work . howler monkey . . .\nthe guatemalan black howler is classified as endangered ( en ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed under appendix i of cites ( 3 ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - black howler monkey juvenile female resting in tree branch\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - black howler monkey juvenile female resting in tree branch\ntitle =\narkive photo - black howler monkey juvenile female resting in tree branch\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nblack howler monkeys can be found in southern brazil , paraguay , eastern bolivia , and northern argentina . they live in primary , arid deciduous , and broadleaf forests .\nbeing imported to the u . s . for use as laboratory animals little else has been reported about their use . several black howler monkeys can be found in zoos .\nare also sexually dichromatic . males usually have black hair , which gives the species the common name of black howler monkey . females however have more yellow - brown or olive colored hair . infants are born with a golden coat , which changes as the animal matures .\nrodrigues , f . , j . marinho - filho . 1995 . feeding on a marsh - living herbaceous plant by black howler monkeys ( alouatta caraya ) in central brazil .\nwhilst black howler monkeys are not officially threatened with extinction - they are classified as a species of least concern - as with many other species in south america their habitat is being steadily destroyed .\nthe black howler monkey , known as the\nbaboon\nin belize , is the largest monkey in belize and one of the largest in the americas . throughout most of its range , the howler monkey is endangered from hunting and habitat destruction . fortunately , belize has a healthy population of these loudest of primates .\nhowler monkeys filmed in belize . various locations : pook ' s hlll lodge , caracol , baboon sanctuary\nthe guatemalan black howler is found in belize , northern guatemala , south - eastern mexico and possibly northern honduras ( 2 ) ( 6 ) . this species can often be observed in the vicinity of mayan archaeological sites ( 2 ) .\nblack howler monkeys are one of the few primate species with different coat colors in males and females\u2014a trait called sexual dimorphism , which is a broad term that includes differences in size , behavior , and other characteristics between males and females of the same species . males have a black coat , while females are blonde . black howler monkeys have a prehensile tail without hair on the bottom side , which they use for grasping during locomotion . the upper molars have sharp , shearing crests that are used in grinding leaves . they move slowly using a quadrupedal mode of locomotion and they have five - toed , grasping feet . the large hyoid bone ( adam ' s apple ) that allows for their loud call restricts arm movement , so howler monkeys rely heavily on their tail for locomotion .\nthe guatemalan black howler is known to occur in six protected areas : cockscomb basin wildlife sanctuary , guanacaste and monkey bay national parks ( belize ) ; rio dulce and tikal national parks ( guatemala ) ; and palenque national park ( mexico ) ( 2 ) .\nhowlers are among the largest monkeys in the americas , and the guatemalan black howler ( alouatta pigra ) is among the largest of the genus ( 4 ) . the guatemalan black howler has a notably long , silky , dense coat of black fur with traces of brown on the shoulders , cheeks and back ( 2 ) ( 5 ) . a slight crest exists on the crown , and males over the age of four months have a conspicuous white scrotum ( 2 ) . the arms and legs are long but stout , and the tail is prehensile , lacks hair on its underside , and is used like a fifth limb to grasp branches and anchor the body ( 5 ) ( 6 ) .\nfemales generally give birth every two years , resulting in one offspring after a 180 - day gestation period . both sexes are blond until age 2 . 5 , when males turn black . they reach sexual maturity around 18 months . tongue flicking is a ritualized display of sexual solicitation , with an easily visible pink tongue with black bordering .\nsilver , s . c . , ostro , l . e . t . , yeager , c . p . and horwich , r . ( 1998 ) feeding ecology of the black howler monkey ( alouatta pigra ) in northern belize . american journal of primatology , 45 : 263 - 279 . available at : urltoken\ntreves , a . and brandon , k . ( 2005 ) tourism impacts on the behavior of black howler monkeys ( alouatta pigra ) at lamanai , belize . in : paterson , j . d . ( ed ) commensalism and conflict : the primate - human interface . university of oklahoma , tulsa . available at : urltoken\nthese monkeys are hunted for food and used as bait in traps . they are also threatened due to habitat destruction . agricultural development , particularly for soy and cattle , are the primary drivers of habitat loss . hunting is for subsistence , and is not in great amounts . black howler monkeys occur in many protected areas throughout their range .\nth guatemalan black howler is found in primary and secondary lowland tropical rainforest and semi - deciduous forest ( 2 ) ( 6 ) . one survey suggested riverine and seasonally flooded areas are particularly attractive to this species ( 9 ) . although primarily arboreal , individuals living in mangrove swamps have occasionally been seen to swim from one small island to another ( 2 ) .\nperes , c . 1997 . effects of habitat quality and hunting pressure on arboreal folivore densities on neotropical forests : a case study of howler monkeys ( alouatta spp . ) .\nin their phylogenetic analysis using the cytochrome b gene , nascimento et al . ( 2005 ) showed that populations of alouatta caraya from santa cruz , bolivia ( chaco ) are differentiated from those in various localities in the state of mato grosso and ( one specimen ) goi\u00e1s further north . this indicates the possibility of two taxa of the black howler monkey , rather than just one .\nhowler monkeys are herbivores . in the zoo , they are given fresh leaves , mixed fruit and vegetables , granary bread , nuts , sunflower seeds and specially made primate dietary supplements .\nleaves and fruit form the bulk of the diet , although flowers and insects may also be eaten . like other members of its genus , the guatemalan black howler has large salivary glands that help to break down the tannins in the leaves they eat ( 6 ) . this monkey is mainly active in the morning and evening , but also remains busy throughout the day ( 5 ) .\nbicca - marques , j . , c . calegaro - marquez . 1998 . behavioral thermoregulation in a sexually and developmentally dichromatic neotropical primate , the black - and - gold howling monkey ( alouatta caraya ) .\nhowler monkeys are vegetarians , feeding on flowers , fruits and leaves . within belize , a special community based conservation organization has protected land along the belize river for the howler , ensuring that their food trees are not destroyed to make way for pasture . this\ncommunity baboon sanctuary\nhas supplied numerous animals for translocation throughout belize , most successfully within the cockscomb basin wildlife sanctuary .\nthe guatemalan black howler is threatened throughout most of its range from hunting and habitat destruction ( 10 ) . suitable forest habitat has rapidly been lost and fragmented through conversion to pasture and agricultural lands , and to logging operations ( 8 ) . if such patterns continue , the population size of this species is projected to decline by around 74 % over three generations ( 30 years ) ( 1 ) .\nmost howler monkeys live in large social groups generally made up of family members . these groups appear to be matrilineal where the males disperse to non - natal groups , though not always . in\nblack howler monkeys live in troops of between 4 and 8 members . each troop has its own territory in which it feeds and lives . the size of the territory depends on the size of the troop , ranging from 3 to 25 acres . baboons defend this territory from other troops through the use of their voices . the howling is one of the loudest animal sounds in the tropical forest of belize .\nthese south american monkeys are the loudest terrestrial animal in the western hemisphere , and are usually the largest and most abundant primate wherever they live . blond at birth , males turn black as they mature , while females stay blonde their entire lives .\nother conservation measures implemented by the sanctuary include creative initiatives like building bridges made of rope and sticks that allow the monkeys to pass between gaps in the forest , and relocating a number of individuals to the cockscomb basin wildlife sanctuary ( 8 ) . if similar efforts were made in mexico and guatemala , and ecotourism was promoted as a viable means of profiting from protected forest habitats , the guatemalan black howler would perhaps have a much higher chance of long - term survival .\nthe low and guttural sound of howler monkeys is one of the loudest calls produced by any land animal . under certain conditions , a howler ' s call can be heard from about 3 miles ( 4 . 8 kilometers ) away . the male ' s call is typically louder than the female ' s and is produced by drawing air through a cavity in an enlarged hyoid bone in the throat , which is larger in males than in females .\nblack howler monkeys are the largest monkeys in latin american rainforests . males are much larger than females . males measure 24 to 26 inches ( 60 to 65 centimeters ) long with a 24 to 26 inch tail ( 60 to 65 centimeters ) . females ' bodies are slightly shorter at about 20 inches ( 50 centimeters ) . females typically weigh around 16 pounds ( 7 . 3 kilograms ) , while males weigh around 32 . 5 pounds ( 14 . 8 kilograms ) .\nhave long , strong prehensile tails . these tails are hairless on the underside , which allows them to be sensitive to touch and act in identifying things , much like a 5th hand . the black face is mostly hairless as well , with slightly bushy eyebrows .\nhowlers have both natural and human - induced threats to their existence . the black howler monkey , known as the\nbaboon\nin belize , is endangered throughout much of its range due to hunting and habitat destruction . as forests are cleared , howlers , who need several acres of forest per troop to survive , are becoming increasingly rare . throughout the region in which they are found , howlers are hunted both for food and for sport . some experts believe that howlers could become extinct within the next 35 years .\nadditionally , a community - based conservation organization in belize called the community baboon sanctuary ( this species is called ' baboon ' in the local creole dialect ) has protected land along the belize river , ensuring that this howler\u2019s food trees are not destroyed to make way for pasture ( 10 ) . over 200 private landowners here in seven villages , stretching over 20 square miles , have voluntarily pledged to conserve their land for the protection of the guatemalan black howler , many of which will consequently benefit from ecotourism . indeed , one of the main aims of the community baboon sanctuary is to help address habitat destruction by promoting sustainable tourism as an attractive alternative to destructive land management practices . at the same time , the sanctuary conducts conservation research and educates the local community and visitors about the importance of biodiversity ( 8 ) .\nadaptations : their tale is a prehensile tail and can support their whole body weight . living mostly in the canopy it helps to have an extra \u201chand\u201d to hold on with . the underside of the tail is even hairless with a gripping pad . males and females look are very different in both size and color . males can weigh up to 18 pounds and are black , females are a little smaller with 12 pounds being a typical weigh . they are also gold in color , this is called dimorphic coloration . infants are born with the gold coloration and as they mature if it is a male will turn black .\nhowler monkeys are so called because of their amazing howling calls which can be heard by humans up to 5km away . they tend to howl at the beginning and end of the day . the calls are so loud due to a special voice box and pouch in the throat that amplifies the sound .\nhowler monkeys are among the largest primates in the neotropics . they can grow to be 22 to 36 inches tall when standing . and , their tails are about the same size in length as their bodies ! male howlers are black , while females are brown . they have prehensile tails that they can use to grab onto branches . they make loud vocalizations to mark their territory , thus earning their name . their howls , which resemble a strong wind blowing through a tunnel , have been heard over two miles away by researchers . while most individuals do not live for more than 15 years in the wild , it is possible for howlers to reach over 20 years in age .\nwhen two howler troops do meet , males expend much energy in howling , leaping , running and fighting , which detract from time that could be spent eating or resting . these monkeys howl to let the other groups know where they are , eliminating the energy expenditure needed to patrol territories constantly , or to fight with other troops .\nhowler monkeys are found only in the rainforests of the americas . they live in tall rainforest trees in groups of between 4 and 19 members . they travel from tree to tree in search of food\u2014walking from limb to limb , rather than jumping . while not particularly perky primates , they are most active during the day ( diurnal ) , sleeping high in rainforest trees at night .\nguatemalan black howlers live in stable troops composed of one or two adult males , a few breeding females , and their offspring , with an average group size of between four and six individuals ( 2 ) ( 6 ) . groups of bachelor males also exist , the members of which will fight resident males for possession of their troop and access to breeding females ( 6 ) . the territory of each troop ranges between 3 and 25 hectares , depending upon the size of the group ( 10 ) . single offspring are usual , born after a gestation period of 180 \u2013 194 days ( 2 ) .\nthese vocal primates are the biggest of all the new world monkeys . unlike old world monkeys , howlers and other new world species have wide , side - opening nostrils and no pads on their rumps . howlers also boast a prehensile tail . they can use this tail as an extra arm to grip or even hang from branches\u2014no old world monkeys have such a tail . a gripping tail is particularly helpful to howler monkeys because they rarely descend to the ground . they prefer to stay aloft , munching on the leaves that make up most of their diet .\nhere at the cmc zoo : we have a small troop of howler monkeys that call our zoo home . ghelfing is our oldest , and mother to our two other howlers in the troop . ghelfing was born on october 13 , 1994 and came from the pittsburgh zoo in 1998 . her two offspring are bert and dj . bert was born october 25 , 2008 and his sister dj as born on september 2 , 2009 . their primary keeper said her favorite part of caring for them is they include her in their grooming sessions and make her feel like she is part of the troop as it is a social bonding for them .\nthese tree - dwelling herbivores mainly consume tree and vine leaves , flowers and tropical forest fruits . mammals do not have the enzymes capable of digesting cellulose , the carbohydrate that composes the leaf cell wall . instead , with the help of bacteria contained in a sacculated stomach , all monkeys in the subfamily colobinae ( e . g . colobus monkeys ) receive energy rich gases from the bacteria triggered reaction ( fermentation ) . unlike colobines , howler monkeys do not have the sacculated stomach , but rather a simple acid stomach that also contains two enlarged sections in the cecum and colon in which fermentative bacteria are found . as with colobines , the gases serve as the energy source . howlers also eat flowers and fruit , which are far less abundant than leaves and require greater energy expenditure to forage .\nthey are aptly named for their cacophonous cries . when a number of howlers let loose their lungs in concert , often at dawn or dusk , the din can be heard up to three miles away . male monkeys have large throats and specialized , shell - like vocal chambers that help to turn up the volume on their distinctive call . the noise sends a clear message to other monkeys : this territory is already occupied by a troop .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nn argentina to mato grosso ( brazil ) , bolivia ( see anderson , 1997 ) .\na . caraya species group . for the inclusion of straminea in this species , not in a . seniculus , see rylands and brandon - jones ( 1988 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nfernandez - duque , e . , wallace , r . b . & rylands , a . b .\njustification : this species is listed as least concern considering its large range , presence in several national parks , and ability to adapt to modified habitats . at present , it is not likely that the species , while declining , warrants listing in a threatened category under criterion a . although its habitat is very fragmented , populations can live in relatively small areas and disturbed forest .\nalthough widespread , alouatta caraya is patchily distributed , and densities vary widely . in argentina , brown and zunino ( 1994 ) recorded high densities in a number of sites : chaco forest , formosa 111 individuals / km\u00b2 ; chaco forest , corrientes 90 individuals / km\u00b2 ; gallery forest , 63 individuals / km\u00b2 ; and inundated forest 283 individuals / km\u00b2 . arditi and placci ( 1990 ) carried out surveys in gallery forests of the chaco in argentina ( riacho pilag\u00e1 , estancia guaycolec ) and found lower numbers than those reported by brown and zunino ( 1994 ) resulting from surveys in 1980s : 11 . 7 individuals / km\u00b2 . dvoskin et al . ( 2004 ) repeated the surveys there in 2001 and found that numbers had increased to 26 individuals / km\u00b2 . the highest densities occur in flooded forests and there have been numerous surveys of alouatta caraya in this forest type ( pope 1968 ; thorington jr et al . 1994 ; rumiz 1990 ; zunino et al . 1996 , 2001 ) . codenotti et al . ( 2002 ; see also codenotti and silva 2004 ) conducted a state - wide survey of remnant a . caraya populations in rio grande do sul , brazil . populations were found to be small , isolated , mostly single groups , and densities were consistently low . of 13 localities , only three had densities above 2 individuals / km\u00b2 ( lageado do celso 6 . 5 individuals / km\u00b2 ; a location in the municipality of santiago 4 . 0 individuals / km\u00b2 ; and an urban park in the municipality of s\u00e3o francisco de assis 2 . 3 individuals / km\u00b2 ) .\nthis species is threatened by habitat loss due to agricultural development for soy and cattle ranching in the brazilian cerrado , soy in the bolivian chiquitano , and small - scale farms and cattle ranching in argentina . some subsistence hunting occurs across its range .\nalouatta caraya occurs in numerous protected areas : argentina iguaz\u00fa national park ( 55 , 000 ha ) ( brown and zunino 1994 ) pilcomayo national park ( 60 , 000 ha ) ( brown and zunino 1994 ) chaco national park ( 14 , 000 ha ) ( brown and zunino 1994 ) bolivia kaa - iya gran chaco national park ( 3 , 441 , 115 ha ) otuquis pantanal national park ( 903 , 350 ha ) otuquis natural area of integrated management ( 102 , 600 ha ) san mat\u00edas natural area of integrated management ( 2 , 918 , 500 ha ) noel kempff mercado national park ( 1 , 500 , 000 ha ) ( wallace et al . 1998 ) r\u00edos blanco y negro national reserve ( 1 , 423 , 900 ha ) ( wallace et al . 2000 ) brazil araguaia national park ( 557 , 726 ha ) ( in range ) bras\u00edlia national park ( 31 , 891 ha ) ( santini 1986 ) chapada dos veadeiros national park 965 , 034 ha ) ( in range ) grande sert\u00e3o veredas national park ( 241 , 000 ha ) ( in range ) chapada diamantina national park ( 152 , 105 ha ) ( in range ) pantanal matogrossense national park ( 136 , 046 ha ) taiam\u00e1 ecological station ( 914 , 300 ha ) ibirapuit\u00e3 state biological reserve ( 351 ha ) ( marques 2003 ) ibirapuit\u00e3 environmental protection area ( 318 , 000 ha ) ( marques 2003 ) ilha grande national park ( 108 , 166 ha ) ( aguiar et al . 2007 ) ilhas e v\u00e1rzeas do rio paran\u00e1 environmental protection area ( 1 , 003 , 059 ha ) ( aguiar et al . 2007 ) paraguay cerro cora national park ( 5 , 500 ha ) ( probably extinct , stallings 1985 ) ybicui national park ( 5 , 000 ha ) ( stallings 1985 ) tinfunque national park ( 280 , 000 ha ) ( the most important protected area in paraguay for this species ; stallings 1985 ) defensores del chaco national park ( 780 , 000 ha ) ( stallings 1985 ) caaguazu national park ( 6 , 000 ha ) ( stallings 1985 ) kuri y national reserve ( 2 , 000 ha ) ( stallings 1985 ) yakui protected forest ( 1 , 000 ha ) ( stallings 1985 ) nacunday protected forest ( 1 , 000 ha ) ( stallings 1985 ) . it is listed on appendix ii of cites .\nfernandez - duque , e . , wallace , r . b . & rylands , a . b . 2008 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nmammalogists for helping to forge the nomenclatural mesh that holds our science together . * journal of mammalogy * to refer to this work as a checklist undervalues it and does not give sufficient credit to the authors and editors for their meticulous efforts in its production . a valuable reference work and a vital tool , particularly for researchers . * journal of natural history * by far the most convenient source for finding the correct scientific name of any mammal and should be on the reference shelf of libraries striving to have useful science sections . * science books and films * the editors and authors are to be congratulated for undertaking such an outstanding and authoritative work , and it should serve as a standard reference for mammalian species taxonomy for many years to come . * journal of mammalian evolution * the third edition adds to its reputation as an outstanding and authorative work . * national museum of natural history weekly update & forecast * impressive and elegant work . - - g . r . seamons * reference reviews * a must - have text for any professional mammalogist , and a useful and authoritative reference for scientists and students in other disciplines . * southeastern naturalist * a magnificent work important to anyone seriously interested in mammals . this work is essential for academic or special libraries supporting zoology or conservation and for large public libraries . * american reference books annual * as were many of our colleagues , we were waiting for this revised edition since 2003 . . . we can say that the wait was worth it . - - sergio solari and robert j . baker * journal of mammalogy *\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\ntoday ' s hours : 8 a . m . to 7 p . m . last admittance 6 p . m .\nhead to freedom plaza for the fast & the fierce 5k and fun run . then , make your way to the zoo for an after - party on the great meadow !\nshow the animal lover in your life how big your heart is with the gift that supports animal care and conservation .\nsplash into fun with nature cubs summer preschool classes ! attend the beach buddies series starting july 10 , or pick a weekend class about elephants , monkeys , pandas and other zoo favorites .\nhowlers make up the highest percentage of the primates in the areas that they occupy .\nthey do not need to travel far to find leaves . for this reason , their total home size is about 77 acres ( 31 hectares ) for 15 to 20 animals , and they typically move about 1 , 300 feet ( 400 meters ) per day . in comparison , a spider monkey , which feeds primarily on fruit , has a home range of 1 , 000 acres ( 300 hectares ) .\nat the smithsonian ' s national zoo , they eat primate biscuits , browse , spinach , romaine lettuce , kale , other greens , broccoli , grapes , bananas , apples , melons , carrots , sweet potatoes and green beans .\nmale members of the troop awake each morning and give a dawn\nchorus\nthat is answered by other males . because howlers do not have an exclusive territory , sharing parts of their home range with others , the morning call and calls that occur when troops move to a new feeding site helps define , defend , and clarify the group ' s claim on feeding trees in their home range . weaker troops can identify the location of strong troops and avoid that area , where they would not be able to feed .\neven with fermentation , howlers can only extract limited calories from their food , so they must be cautious as to how much energy they expend . for this reason they will typically spend half of their waking day resting . males will settle disputes and defend the group from predators , allowing the females to spend more energy on reproduction and care of the young . as stated earlier , howling functions to help troops space themselves as efficiently as possible , allowing them to overcome the low - energy returns of leaf eating .\nin the wild , howlers live to be between 15 to 20 years old . in human care they often reach 20 years old .\nshare the story of this animal with others . simply raising awareness about this species can contribute to its overall protection .\nbeautiful and engaging , red pandas are classified as endangered on the iucn red list of threatened species . there may be fewer than 2 , 500 adult red pandas living in the wild today .\nsmithsonian\u2019s national zoo & conservation biology institute 3001 connecticut ave . , nw washington , dc 20008\nbreeding reach maturity : 4 years mating : non - seasonal gestation : ~ 180 days no . of young : 1 infant\nlifestyle habitat : lowland forests . highly social . food : fruit , leaves , flowers lifespan : 20 years\na summer of learning fun for all ! conservation camp : for the 24th year running , another super successful conservation camp was held in july at our tr . . .\nsummer reading camp meets junior buddy mrs . rebecca hernandez , a teacher based in orange walk , has a long history of performing educational magic for . . .\nzoo vet clinic in progress yes , for two years , efforts have been strongly focused upon the building of a state - of - the - art commissary and vet clinic . . .\nthere are many ways you can protect rainforests , fight climate change , and help people and wildlife thrive .\nthe rainforest alliance certified\u2122 seal is awarded to farms , forests , and businesses that meet rigorous environmental and social standards . learn more\ntheir howls , which resemble a strong wind blowing through a tunnel , have been heard over two miles away by researchers .\nforests are home to 80 percent of earth ' s terrestrial biodiversity ! we ' re preserving habitats for endangered species , conserving wildlife corridors , and saving breeding grounds . please join our alliance to keep forests standing :\nhowlers are strict vegetarians , eating only flowers , fruits and leaves . in belize , special community managed protected areas have been established to keep people from over - harvesting the fruit and flowers that the howlers need to survive .\njukofsky , diane . encyclopedia of rainforests . connecticut : oryx press , 2002 .\nhowlers earn their common name from the remarkably loud , rasping calls or howls that are characteristic of the genus ( alouatta ) , and emitted most elaborately and loudly by adult males ( 7 ) ( 8 ) . these calls can be heard over several kilometres and serve a range of functions , including territorial advertisement , mate attraction and intimidation of rivals or enemies ( 7 ) .\nauthenticated ( 19 / 06 / 2006 ) by matt richardson , independent primatologist and writer .\nrichardson , m . ( 2006 ) living primates of the world : an illustrated taxonomy . in press , unknown .\nanimals animals / earth scenes 17 railroad avenue chatham ny 12037 united states of america tel : + 01 ( 518 ) 3925500 fax : + 01 ( 518 ) 3925550 info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is affected by global climate change . to learn about climate change and the species that are affected , visit our climate change pages .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nin the wild , the monkeys use their loud howls to defend food in their territory . almost all of their time is spent high in the trees , feeding on various sorts of leaves .\nin the wild , these monkeys live at the top of trees in tropical rainforests or tropical dry forests across south america - argentina , bolivia , brazil , paraguay and uruguay .\nthe mix of different species is enriching to the animals . both species get on very well , they are acive at different times of the day and they share space as they would potentially in the wild .\nbristol zoological society ltd , clifton , bristol bs8 3ha . company registered in england reg . no . 5154176 . charity reg . no . 1104986\nare found in the rainforests of central south america ranging through eastern bolivia , southern brazil , paraguay , and northern argentina .\nrange varies from tropical semi - deciduous gallery forest where rains are nearly constant throughout the year , to tropical deciduous forest spotted with savanna like openings where there is a marked wet , warm season and a dry , cool season .\nrequire forests with diverse species of plant life to supply their dietary needs . much of their habitat is currently being diminished by destruction of these forest types . ( welker et al . 1990 , rodrigues and marinho - filho 1995 , kowalewski and zunino 1997 )\nare sexually dimorphic where males average 6 . 7 kg and females average 4 . 4 kg . male body size ranges from 1 . 7 to 2 . 2 ft with tails of similar length to their body . females ' bodies average 1 . 6 ft with tails slightly longer than their bodies .\nhave brown , medium sized eyes set in a frontal position . the muzzle is prominent and the nostrils close together . like other howlers they have enlarged hyoid and larynx housing the vocal apparatus where the distinctive howling originates .\n( welker et al . 1990 , walker et al . 1999 , bicca marquez and calegaro marquez 1998 )\nis 187 days . studies have shown that younger females have gestation length of 10 to 12 months where more mature mothers have gestation length of only 7 - 10 months . females give birth to one offspring per birth and care for infants for about one full year before mating again . infants are about 125 g at birth .\nfemales care for their young for about 12 months after they are born . female offspring remain in their natal group and therefore stay with their mother long after they are independent .\ngroups there are usually between 5 to 8 , though they have been observed in the wild in groups up to 19 individuals . the groups have roughly equal sex ratio but may tend to have more females than males .\npractice allomothering where other females will carry , groom and protect infants other than their own . adult males are also sometimes seen alloparenting . young males are not allowed to handle infants since they often mistreat or even kill them . overt conflict has rarely been observed in\nit does however arise between young males at the time in their life that some set out to join other troops .\nare territorial but seem to only defend the immediate area where they are at the time , and territories often overlap . all members of the group\nhowl\neach morning to notify neighboring groups of their position presumably to maintain distance between groups .\nhave also been observed defecating , sometimes forming huge dung piles , in the mornings and evenings , and rubbing themselves on branches . this behavior is thought to be a way of marking territory .\n( welker et al . 1990 , shoemaker 1979 , erwin and mitchell 1986 , calegaro marques and bicca marques , 1993 )\nare folivorous . they eat mostly leaves but do compliment their diet with fruits , buds and flowers .\nrarely come down from the trees since their food source is entirely in the canopy and their water needs are met by their food . however in especially dry times they will come down to drink water in lakes or supplement their diet with marsh - living herbaceous plants\n( erwin and mitchell 1986 , welker et al . 1990 , rodrigues and marinho - filho 1996 )\nare threatened by clear - cutting and selective logging since they are heavily reliant on the biodiversity of predominantly primary forests for their diet . some populations are more threatened than others . according to the priority primate conservation projects for the neotropical region from the revised global action plan for primate conservation ,\nin the argentine provinces of formosa , misiones , salta and corrientes are threatened and a high priority for conservation . hunting pressure on\nranges from moderate in locations such as san jose , bolivia to none in northern argentina .\n( welker et al . 1990 , mitchell and erwin 1986 , peres 1997 )\nalicia lavalle ( author ) , university of michigan - ann arbor , phil myers ( editor ) , museum of zoology , university of michigan - ann arbor .\nliving in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\nforest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nthe kind of polygamy in which a female pairs with several males , each of which also pairs with several different females .\nrainforests , both temperate and tropical , are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground . epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant . precipitation is typically not limiting , but may be somewhat seasonal .\na terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .\na grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .\na terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5\u00b0 n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .\nreproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .\nkowalewski , m . , g . zunino . 1997 . impact of deforestation on a population of alouatta caraya in northern argentina .\nmuckenhirn , n . 1976 . addendum to the non - human primate trade in colombia . pp . 99 - 100 in r thorington , p heltne , eds .\nwelker , c . , c . schafer - witt . 1990 . new world monkeys . pp . 122 - 177 in s parker , ed .\nto cite this page : lavalle , a . 2000 .\nalouatta caraya\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nflpa - images of nature pages green house wetheringsett stowmarket suffolk ip14 5qa united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 1728 861 113 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 1728 860 222 pictures @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nnature picture library 5a great george street bristol bs1 5rr united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 911 4675 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 911 4699 info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nprimate info net is maintained by the wisconsin primate research center ( wprc ) library at the university of wisconsin - madison . wprc programs are supported by grant numbers rr000167 and rr015311 , national primate centers program , national center for research resources , the national institutes of health .\ndisclaimer : the wisconsin primate research center provides primate info net as an informational service . we are not responsible for the content of linked sites , nor does inclusion of a link imply endorsement of the views expressed in that content .\nyes man ! call belize today ! one lick rates starting at 16 . 7 \u00a2 a minute ! ! !\nyes man ! call home today . one lick rates starting at 16 . 7\u00a2 a minute ! ! u know u no call u mumma long time , she di wait fu you call man ! call now !\nsearch & compare flights to belize online , vacation packages , find great deals & low airfares , airlines , belize travel , and belize travel sites .\n\u00a9 all rights reserved . you may download any of these files on this page for personal non - commercial use only . we would appreciate a link back to us . note : please download and save pictures to your server or web space . please do not let your pictures load directly from my server , since this uses a tremendous amount of bandwidth , and resources on my server .\nwe have experience of working with well over 50 different species . the following list is not exhaustive but lists the species with which we work most frequently . in this list are three near threatened species and eight threatened species .\n( photos of each species will be uploaded soon , please bear with us in the meantime . )\nfriends of inti wara yassi ( fiwy ) is our sister organization in the uk . they have been a major source of support since their founding in 2008 . find out more about fiwy here .\nquest overseas organizes gap year trips for british and international students . since 2001 , quest has worked with ciwy to bring much needed volunteers and funds . if you are interested in the programs they have with us , find out more here .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 comunidad inti wara yassi . all rights reserved . this website uses cookies and your use of it implies acceptance of their use . todos los derechos reservados . este sitio web utiliza cookies y su uso del mismo implica la aceptaci\u00f3n de su uso .\nsize : male - 60 - 65cm , female - 50cm weight : male - 5 . 0 - 8 . 9kg , female - 3 . 8 - 5 . 4kg\ntheir diet consists of mainly flowers and leaves , with fruit being eaten when available . their ability to exist on foliage alone gives them an advantage when fruit is in short supply .\nafter a pregnancy of around 6\u00bd months a single infant is born , which at first clings to its mother , later riding on her back until they are about 1 year old .\n\u00a92018 the zoological society of east anglia limited . registered in england - company number 08250951 . registered charity in england and wales no . 1150158 . registered office : the grove , kenninghall road , banham , norfolk , nr16 2he ."]}
{"id": 1372, "summary": [{"text": "the rose-ringed parakeet ( psittacula krameri ) , also known as the ring-necked parakeet , is a gregarious tropical afro-asian parakeet species that has an extremely large range .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the rose-ringed parakeet is sexually dimorphic .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the adult male sports a red or black neck ring and the hen and immature birds of both sexes either show no neck rings , or display shadow-like pale to dark grey neck rings .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "both sexes have a distinctive green colour .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "rose-ringed parakeets measure on average 40 cm ( 16 in ) in length , including the tail feathers , a large portion of their total length .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "their average single-wing length is about 15 \u2013 17.5 cm ( 5.9 \u2013 6.9 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "in the wild , this is a noisy species with an unmistakable squawking call .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is herbivorous and not migratory .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "one of the few parrot species that have successfully adapted to living in disturbed habitats , it has withstood the onslaught of urbanisation and deforestation .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "as a popular pet species , escaped birds have colonised a number of cities around the world , including northern and western europe , where they have been able to tolerate ambient temperatures far lower than those in their native range .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "since the population appears to be increasing , the species was evaluated as being of least concern by the iucn in 2012 , but its popularity as a pet and unpopularity with farmers have both reduced its numbers in some parts of its native range .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the genus name psittacula is a diminutive of latin psittacus , \" parrot \" , and the specific krameri commemorates the austrian naturalist wilhelm heinrich kramer . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "rose - ringed parakeet", "paragraphs": ["also known as : rose - ringed parakeet , green parakeet , long - tailed parakeet , senegal long - tailed parakeet , northern rose - ringed parakeet ( p . k . borealis )\nthe rose ringed parakeet with the scientific name of psittacula krameri is also known as the ring necked parakeet .\nthe indian rose - ringed parakeet measures approx . 42 centimeter or 16 . 5 inches\n1 . the rose ringed parakeet perform direct and fast flight than the other parakeets .\ngene in the echo parakeet isolates but no support for the results from the rose - ringed parakeet bfdv data .\n( indian rose - ringed parakeet ) is distributed in peninsular india and sri lanka . the subspecies\nthe rose - ringed parakeet is also known as the ringnecked parakeet . its scientific name commemorates the austrian naturalist wilhelm heinrich kramer .\nthe abyssinian rose - ringed parakeet measures approx . 40 centimeter or 15 . 7 inches in length .\ninches ) long including the tail feathers . its average single wing length is about 15\u201317 . 5 cm ( 6 - 7 inches ) . the tail accounts for a large portion of the length . the indian rose - ringed parakeet , african rose - ringed parakeet , abyssinian rose - ringed parakeet and neumann ' s rose - ringed parakeet measure 42 cm , 40 cm , 40 cm and 43 cm long , respectively .\n( abyssinian rose - ringed parakeet ) is distributed in sudan , ethiopia , eritrea and djibouti . the subspecies\n( african rose - ringed parakeet ) is distributed in mauritania , senegal , guinea , sudan and uganda .\n2 . the life span of the rose ringed parakeets are about 20 years . some of these rose ringed birds have lived up to 40 years and more .\nthe indian ringneck parakeet has been referred to as the\nnoble parakeet\n! the species , psittacula krameri , is also called the rose - ringed parakeet and contains four subspecies .\n\u201cwe\u2019re on the lookout for rose - ringed parakeet , which is about a 15 inch beautiful lime green parakeet , \u201dsays madi elsea with the group .\n7 . since , the rose ringed parakeet is one of the famous pet parrot , they are very affectionate in nature .\nthe rose - ringed parakeet is considered one of the best talking parakeets and can learn a vocabulary of up to 250 words .\nabyssinian rose - ringed parakeet ( p . krameri parvirostris ) : northwest somalia , west across northern ethiopia to sennar district , sudan .\nthis rose ringed parakeets are most commonly found in asia , especially found in the india subcontinent .\nspecies : scientific : psittacula krameri krameri aka palaeornis docilis . . . english : rose - ringed parakeet , african ring - necked parakeet . . . dutch : rose halsbandparkiet , afrikaanse halsbandparkiet . . . german : afrikanischer halsbandsittich . . . french : perruche \u00e0 bande rose\noriginally from india , the rose - ringed parakeet has been in britain for decades , although it is unclear how it was first introduced .\nthe rose - ringed parakeet has exquisite plumage with a graceful long tail that serves as an elegant balancing aid in trees and among crops .\nkirwan gm , 2000 . rose - ringed parakeet ( psittacula krameri ) recored in the west indies . el pitirre , 13 : 42 .\nthe nature of this rose ringed bird is monogamous . the flight taken by this rose ringed parakeet is direct and strong in nature . they spend their time for climbing the tree canopies . they use their bills for climbing and other supports .\nthe neumann ' s rose - ringed parakee t measures approx . 43 centimeter or 16 . 9 inches\ndescription : rose - ringed parakeet has yellow - green plumage , long , graduated tail and broad , rounded and hooked pinkish - red bill .\nflight : rose - ringed parakeet performs fast and direct flight , with rapid wing beats . in flight , the dark flight feathers are conspicuous .\nin the closed areas , the breeding season for these rose ringed parrots begins in december and in the outer areas , the breeding season for these rose ringed parrots begins in february . the female rose ringed parakeets lay 3 to 5 eggs at a time . the eggs of the parrots are white in colour .\n) . the coefficient of variation histograms indicated that for the echo parakeet isolates there is not sufficient evidence to reject the strict clock , but there is for the rose - ringed parakeet isolates .\n( boreal rose - ringed parakeet ) is distributed in afghanistan , pakistan , north india , nepal , bangladesh , myanmar and south china . the subspecies\n. isolates from rose - ringed parakeets are indicated by the suffix \u201c ( r ) \u201d . as in\nthe african rose - ringed parakeet measures about 40 centimeter or 15 . 7 inches in length . the tail accounts for a large portion of the length .\nprotection / threats / status : rose - ringed parakeet is relatively common , and now , it may be found in the large urban parks in the world .\nthe rose - ringed parakeet is bold and adaptable enough to profit from human activities . it flourishes in cities and has escaped from captivity to colonize new areas .\nbutler cj , 2003 . population biology of the introduced rose - ringed parakeet psittacula krameri in the uk . oxford , uk : university of oxford , unpaginated .\nsince , the rose ringed parakeet is famous as a pet , these species are commonly seen in the human dominated areas . these rose ringed parakeets are found in most of the zoos . in those zoos , they are trained to do some tricksas well to entertain the public .\nas we talked , small squadrons of rose - ringed parakeets began swooping and alighting in the treetops above our head .\nneumann ' s rose - ringed parakeet ( p . krameri borealis ) : east pakistan , northern india and nepal to central burma ; introduced populations worldwide in localities .\nintroduced and established populations are found worldwide . in some regions they are considered as pests or invasive species . there are four recognized subspecies of rose - ringed parakeet .\nthe iucn ( international union for conservation of nature ) has categorized and evaluated these rose - ringed parakeet species and has listed them as of\nleast concern\n.\nin the wild , rose - ringed parakeets usually feed on buds , fruits , vegetables , nuts , berries and seeds .\nsorry about late reply . they are rose - ringed parakeets . escaped from aviaries initially but now breeding in the wild .\nthose noisy green dandies are psittacula krameri manillensis , a parakeet that is native to southern india and sri lanka . its common name in english is the rose - ringed parakeet ; in japanese , it\u2019s called wakake honsei inko .\naviculturists the popularity of the breed began to increase greatly . now widely available in the pet trade , rose - ringed parakeets continue to gain popularity . hand - fed rose - ringed parakeets are regarded as excellent pets if provided with daily attention , though even parent - raised rose - ringed parakeets make good pets when provided with regular handling and attention . they are generally family birds and are less likely to bond to only one person . with adequate attention , handling , and love , a rose - ringed parakeet can quickly become a beloved companion .\nhand - fed , well socialized rose - ringed parakeets make excellent pets , provided they are given daily attention and good care .\nthe cages should be in a place out of direct sunlight and free of drafts . a pet or captive rose - ringed parakeet should be kept in a bird - safe environment .\nthe rose - ringed parakeet prefers lightly wooded country in the lowland plains of tropical asia and africa , but it occurs up to 6 , 600\u2032 in the himalayas and the ethiopian highlands . in rural india , the parakeet lives in areas of lush vegetation , breeding in deciduous forests . in much of its african range , however , the species is found in savannah woodland and arid , thorny scrub . the rose - ringed parakeet lives near human habitation , since farmland , parks and gardens provide it with easy pickings . a huge parakeet population lives in the cities of northern india and pakistan . a plains living typical parakeet habitat is open woodland in ethiopia . the rose - ringed parakeet is sometimes called the ring - necked parakeet . the naturalized rose - ringed parakeet in miami , florida , is one of only a few birds that nest in winter . the male and female pair up in late december . the rose - ringed parakeet is not a popular cagebird due to its raucous calls and tendency to bite , but captive birds have been bred with striking yellow , blue , white , gray and even black - and - white plumages .\nnebot jc , 1999 . first report of the rose - ringed parakeet ( psittacula krameri ) in venezuela and preliminary observations on its behavior . ornitologia neotropical , 10 : 115 - 117 .\nlever c , 2005 . rose - ringed parakeet ( ring - necked parakeet ) psittacula krameri . in : naturalized birds of the world [ ed . by lever c ] . london , uk : t and ad poyser , 124 - 130 .\nthe rose - ringed parakeet ( psittacula krameri ) belongs to the family of parakeets , psittaculidae . these parakeet species are naturally distributed in india , sri lanka , pakistan , nepal , bangladesh , myanmar , south china , northcentral africa and afghanistan .\n( echo parakeet or mauritius parakeet ) . the term ' krameri ' commemorates the austrian naturalist wilhelm heinrich kramer .\nthe rose ringed parakeet is commonly found in the cultivated areas , parks and gardens , trees in the countryside , dry and open forests as well as evergreen forests . we may find this species in semi desert areas and open jungles and low lands . this rose ringed parakeet is commonly seen in large urban parks . they used to travel in flocks . they communicate by twittering , squawking or shrieking .\nin north - west india , indian rose - ringed parakeets form pairs during september to december . during this cold season , they select and defend\nhi maggie , sorry about the late reply . yes \u2013 green long tailed birds can only be ther rose ringed parakeets . thanks for feedback .\nlamba bs , 1996 . nidification of some common indian birds : 10 . the rose - ringed parakeet , psittacula krameri scopoli . proceedings of the zoological society of london , 19 : 77 - 85 .\nthe rose - ringed parakeet , also called the ringnecked parakeet , is a tropical bird that is also a popular pet . these birds are permanent residents , and have adapted to surviving in disturbed habitats that have succumbed to deforestation and urban growth . the rose - ringed parakeet\u2019s diet consists largely of buds , fruits , vegetables , nuts , berries and seeds . food is found by foraging , and wild populations will find this food in farmlands and orchards , causing a wide variety of damage to the agriculture crops . this bird , unlike most southern asia birds , will also breed during the winter . the conservation rating for the rose - ringed parakeet is least concern .\ngene that we observed to be particularly polymorphic in the echo parakeet isolates ( codons 88 , 148 , 167 , 176 , and 234 ) appeared to be much less variable in the rose - ringed parakeet isolates . only codons 148 and 167 showed nonsynonymous polymorphism .\nhowever , in some parts of south asia - from where the rose - ringed parakeets originated , populations of these birds are decreasing due to trapping for the pet trade . despite some people ' s attempts to revive their population by freeing these birds from local markets , the rose - ringed parakeet ' s population has dropped drastically in many areas of the indian subcontinent .\nnumerous striking color mutations of rose - ringed parakeets have occurred in captivity , including white ( albinos ) , blue , grey and lutino ( yellow ) .\nphylogenetic relationships between bfdv isolates from the echo parakeet and rose - ringed parakeet inferred from bayesian analysis using beast ( the tree was automatically rooted using a relaxed clock model ) . nodes with a posterior probability of \u22650 . 9 are indicated with an asterisk and with a double dagger for\nkhan ha ; beg ma ; khan aa , 2004 . breeding habits of the rose - ringed parakeet psittacula krameri in the cultivations of central punjab . pakistan journal of zoology , 36 ( 2 ) : 133 - 138 .\nsheehey a ; mansfield b , 2009 . wild rose - ringed parakeets psittacula krameri . nature alley . weldon , california , usa : nature alley , unpaginated . urltoken\ncorrection : this story has been updated to reflect the fact that rose - ringed parakeets are native to the entire region from the himalayan foothills to sub - saharan africa .\nmabb kt , 1997 . nesting behavior of amazona parrots and rose - ringed parakeets in the san gabriel valley , california . western birds , 28 : 209 - 217 .\n\u201cthere were a lot of other birds that escaped , but it seemed like the rose - ringed parakeets were the only ones that successfully started breeding , \u201d sheehey says .\nthese gregarious tropical parakeets are popular in the pet industry , and their numbers are decreasing in some areas due to trapping for the pet trade . the rose - ringed parakeet ' s population has dropped dramatically in many areas of the indian subcontinent .\nbrooks je ; hussain i ; ahmad e , 1988 . a partial research bibliography of the rose - ringed parakeet ( psittacula krameri ) . islamabad , pakistan : national agricultural research centre , 16 pp . [ technical report no . 15 . ]\nthis rose ringed parakeet is one of the non migrating species among the parrot . they are successfully adapted to live in the disturbed habitats and human habitats . this species is one of the noisy species and it often makes an unmistakable squawking call .\nthese birds where first bred by the people of india at least 3 , 000 years ago , and colour mutations of rose - ringed parakeets were also bred . the royals prized them as pets and for their ability to speak . it was a popular status symbol in indian culture to have a rose - ringed parakeet . they were the first parrots brought to europe and the greeks were the first europeans to breed them .\n. . . on the basis of sequence homology of cytb gene , the pakistani wild rose - ringed parakeet can be classified as sub - species of p . k . manillensis but the deviation in cytb gene sequence of pakistani wild rose - ringed parakeets is pointing towards independent evolution of this species as an ecocline in pakistan . the geographical heterogeneity exerts evolutionary pressure to a specie to adopt the status of an ecocline to that extent which evolves it into sub - species ( groombridge et al . , 2004 ) . for example mandible size in the african rose - ringed parakeets ( p . . . .\nbehaviour : rose - ringed parakeet is a foolhardy and opportunistic bird . it has been introduced as cage - bird , but this species is able to adapt very well . it lives in more or less large groups in most of the big cities .\nthe rose - ringed parakeet is considered one of the best talking parakeets and can learn a vocabulary of up to 250 words . now these birds come in many mutations , including the common green , blue , grey and lutino among many other colors .\nrange : rose - ringed parakeet ranges from central africa to uganda , southern asia , india and sri lanka . it has been introduced in middle and far east , north america , england , the netherlands , belgium and germany . it is very cosmopolitan .\nto not correspond to the pbfd outbreak . this group includes rose - ringed parakeets sampled at the same time as the pbfd outbreak in the echo parakeet population . the second group ( highlighted by the gray box ) , comprising just three isolates , have the 14h34l\n) . in contrast , there is little difference between the estimated evolutionary rates from the rose - ringed parakeet isolates and their randomized results , suggesting that there is no temporal structure . taken together , these results suggest that the high evolutionary rate estimated from the bfdv\nthere are about 30 , 000 of the bright green rose - ringed parakeets in london , with more in surrey and kent , and their numbers could reach 50 , 000 by 2010 .\nmany rose ringed parakeets are in decline and several birds have become extinct . the major reason for the threats is habitat loss , hunting , degradation , wild bird trading and so on .\neditor ' s note : thanks to our eagle - eyed readers for spotting that in the above photo , the bird fourth from the left on the top wire is not a rose - ringed parakeet . a consultation with bird expert kenn kaufman confirms the suspicion that it is either a red - breasted parakeet or a hybrid involving that species .\nthe rose - ringed parakeet has established feral populations in india and a number of european cities . there are stable populations in florida and california , united states . small populations are also found in tehran , iran ( mostly concentrated in the northern parts of city ) .\nrose - ringed parakeets are generally hardy and require less interaction than most other parakeets of their size . however , they require at least half an hour of interaction a day to remain friendly .\nnone are listed as threatened . among the endangered psittacines are several species of interest to aviculturists : the paradise parakeet ( psephotus pulcherri mus ) , scarlet - chested parakeet ( neophema splendida ) , and turquoise parakeet ( n pulchella ) .\nnative to the indian subcontinent and sub - saharan africa , the rose - ringed parakeet is enjoying a population explosion in many london suburbs , turning a once - exotic bird into a notorious pest that awakens children , monopolizes garden bird feeders and might even threaten british crops .\nthey require a relatively tall cage because of their long tails . a rose - ringed parakeet who will be spending most of his / her day inside the cage needs a larger cage that can also accommodate lots of toys and perches . an appropriate cage would have . . .\ncage because of their long tails . a rose - ringed parakeet who will be spending most of his / her day inside the cage should be kept in a cage about 60 cm ( 24\n) wide x 45 cm ( 18\n) deep x 90 cm ( 36\n) high , though the larger the better , and the bar spacing should be between 1 . 25 cm ( 1 / 2 inch ) and 1 . 875 cm ( 3 / 4 inch ) . rose - ringed parakeets are avid chewers and climbers and should therefore be provided with chewing toys in their cages . the cages should be in a place out of direct sunlight and free of drafts . a pet or captive rose - ringed parakeet should be kept in a\nif your parakeet has become too noisy or disobedient or aggressive , our parakeet training course will teach you how to train it and stop it from screaming and biting .\nreproduction : the rose - ringed parakeet\u2019s nest is a hole in tree . but when they live in towns , they can nest in any available high cavity , such as a crevice in a wall , under a roof , an old magpie nest\u2026 the nest is lined with rotten wood .\nshows the rate estimated from the strict clock for the echo parakeet isolates and the relaxed clock ( uncorrelated lognormal ) for the rose - ringed isolates . the inferred rates do not differ substantially between the two genes or between the two host populations , although the 95 % hpd intervals for the\nthe rose - ringed parakeet lives in places where there\u2019s an abundance of nuts , seeds and fruity supplemented by other crops , such as wheat , maize , coffee , dates , figs and guavas . these foods ripen at different times , sustaining the parakeet throughout the year if food is scarce due to a failed crop , for example , the parakeet leaves its home range to eat whatever plant matter it finds . large flocks of the rose - ringed parakeet gather to feast on heavily laden fruit trees or spilled grain . the birds themselves have learned how to tear open sacks of grain or rice in farmyards and railway depots . get stuck in the hooked bill can rip tough - skinned fruit ( far right ) and open hard - shelled nuts .\nconsidering the proximity of the two parrot populations in mauritius and the recent common ancestry of the host species ( 22 ) , we expected to find good evidence for viral transmission . indeed , the phylogenetic analyses indicated the presence of bfdv allele sharing between the two populations . although the literature ( 28 ) and field reports indicate behavioral and ecological separation between the parrot populations in mauritius , the environmental stability of bfdv ( 62 ) means that the virus still can be indirectly transmitted . the most recent common ancestor for all echo parakeet isolates dates to around 1959 ( or 1949 when the rose - ringed isolates are included in the analysis ) , which approximately coincides with a period when the rose - ringed parakeet started expanding into native forest , coming into direct competition with the echo parakeet for nest sites ( 6 ) . interestingly , the oldest rose - ringed parakeet isolate was taken from a bird housed in aviaries that were central to the initial recovery of the echo parakeets . thus , the apparent transmission of bfdv actually may in some cases be attributable to human intervention . although the evidence for viral transmission between the two parrot populations appears to be clear , the evidence for the rose - ringed parakeets being the source of the pbfd outbreak is more equivocal . we only identified three rose - ringed parakeet isolates that possessed the 14h34l rep allele , and all of them were collected at least one season after the outbreak . one possibility is that the mutations responsible for the outbreak originated in the echo parakeet population with subsequent transmission to the rose - ringed population . indeed , one of the three rose - ringed isolates was collected from an individual that most likely became infected after indirect contact with the endemic population ( it was found in an echo parakeet nest in the 2006 / 07 season ) . nevertheless , given the considerable size and distribution of the invasive population , it undoubtedly remains the likeliest source of the pbfd outbreak in the echo parakeets . it may be that our sampling of this population prior to 2005 / 06 was not sufficient to identify the 14h34l mutations .\nalleles were present in the majority of echo parakeet isolates . from early 2005 a new\nfree online seminars on training your parakeet : join our training experts on one of our free online seminars and learn how to train and take care of your parakeet correctly .\nperez - riviera r , 2001 . comments on kirwan ' s first record of the rose - ringed parakeets ( psittacula krameri ) in the west - indies . el pitirre , 14 ( 1 ) : 9 .\nhi helen , it is almost certainly a lovebird . they were originally aviary escapees like the rose - ringed parakeet and are breeding in the wild . i went for a bird walk in delta park with geoff lockwood a couple of years ago and we saw a love - bird and a parakeet that had teamed up as a pair . geoff said that some species are even interbreeding . liz\n4 . parrots are usually bright colored birds . these rose ringed parakeets are yellow , blue , olive , cinnamon , lutino , white , blue - white , yellow - green , and white - yellow in colour .\nparau , l . , strubbe , d . , mori , e . , menchetti , m . , ancillotto , l . , van kleunen , a . et al . ( 2016 ) rose - ringed parakeet populations and numbers in europe : a complete overview . open journal of ornithology , 9 , 1\u201313\nthe rose - ringed parakeet , which includes the indian ringneck and the african ringneck subspecies , is the most widely scattered member of the race of parrots and is spread throughout asia and parts of africa . they are found in india , china , ceylon , africa , tibet , nepal and many adjacent islands .\nrose - ringed parakeet : most widespread parrot in the old world , found across africa , india , and southern asia . populations of escaped birds are established in florida , southern california , and parts of the caribbean . found in nearly all types of lowland habitat from forests to farms , marshes and grasslands .\nindian ring - necked parakeet personality , food & care | pet birds by lafeber co .\nthe echo parakeet is a conservation success story and has been upgraded to the endangered classification .\n1 . indian - ring necked ( aka irn ) parakeet with the scientific name p .\n\u2022 true parakeets are split into 4 genera . psittacula includes the rose - ringed parakeet and 1 other species ; bolborhynchus and brotogeris have 5 and 7 species , respectively ; the monk parakeet is sole member of myiopsitta . parakeets belong to the family psittacidae , with about 350 species , includ - | ing parrots , lovebirds and macaws . almost a third of | the species in psittacidae are currently endangered .\nalien species are one of the major causes contributing to biodiversity loss . in europe , over 340 alien bird species have been recorded in the wild , of which 74 are established . among 12 established alien parrot species in europe , the rose - ringed parakeet ( rrp ) psittacula krameri is the most abundant and widespread .\nthe rose - ringed parakeet or indian ringneck is classified as a smaller parrot known as the parakeet . they are green with undertones of blue , the male has a black ring around his neck . they grow to 40 cm ( 16 inches ) . its average single wing length is about 15\u201317 . 5 cm ( 6 - 7 inches ) . rose - ringed parakeet is sexually dimorphic which means differences in the physiology of the male and female of the species . both the male and female can mimicry , the abilility to mimic human speech . they are part of the true parrots family of which about 330 species of birds belonging to the psittacidae family . they originate from the southern indian subcontinent . but have spread far and wide .\ncaptive rose - ringed parakeets should be fed a nutritionally balanced diet of pellets and seeds , and the appreciated fruit , vegetable or nut treat should also be offered often . they should always have access to fresh water in their cages .\nshwartz a ; strubbe d ; butler cj ; matthysen e ; kark s , 2009 . the effect of enemy - release and climate conditions on invasive birds : a regional test using the rose - ringed parakeet ( psittacula krameri ) as a case study . diversity and distributions , 15 ( 2 ) : 310 - 318 . urltoken\nnew records of invasive parakeet hybrids in spain . a great opportunity to apply the rapid response mechanism\ni want ringneck parakeet ( blue ) . where will i get & what is its cost ?\nthe main food for the wild rose ringed parrot is seeds , fruits , nectar , pollen , vegetables , buds , arthropods and other animal prey . most of the parrots are seed predators and they are not seed dispersers . this rose ringed parakeet is one of the famous pet parrots in the world . so , the main food for the pet parrots is fruits and vegetables . variety of nutritious grains such as quinoa , oats , wheat , barley , pasta , cooked brown rice , cooked beans , lentils and peas are one of the excellent diets for this pet parrot .\nthere are four subspecies in rose ringed parrot . these four species are very similar in their size and not having much difference . among this four , two species are found in africa and two species are found in asia . that is ,\ndiet : the rose - ringed parakeet feeds on seeds , berries , flowers and nectar . after the breeding season , in some places , they arrive in groups and feed on grain , rice and maize in cultivated areas , but they also devastate orchards and coffee plantations . in california , they consume pecan nuts , buds and varied fruits .\nhardy jw , 1964 . ringed parakeets nesting in los angeles , california . the condor , 66 : 445 - 447 .\ncaptive rose - ringed parakeets should be fed a nutritionally balanced diet of pellets * and unfortified / organic seeds , and fresh fruits , vegetables and greenfood should be made available . they love nuts - but those should only be given as treats .\ni live in paulshof in the north of johannesburg . yesterday i spotted a green bird that looked like a parrot flying around my complex . i live close by to the rietfontein nature reserve but i doubt that it came from there . it did not have a long tail like the above rose - ringed parakeet . what else could it be ?\nthe rapid growth of the parakeet population may pose a threat to other birds , authorities have said .\ngene from echo parakeet isolates is well supported . there is marginal support for the rate estimated from the\nfar from being threatened , as is the case with many parrot species , the rose - ringed parakeet is itself a major pest for farmers as well as other wildlife in india , pakistan and elsewhere . the parakeet has a habit of taking just a few bites from each fruit before discarding it and plucking another one , so the species can seriously damage fruit crops . in europe , it often out - competes native birds for both food and nest sites . |\nthe department for environment food and rural affairs ( defra ) has commissioned a study into the parakeet threat .\n\u201cthis type of parakeet roosts together , presumably because there is safety in numbers , \u201d ikeda told me .\nkirkpatrick w ; marting g , 2005 . indian ringneck parakeet . pestnote , 3 : 1 - 2 .\njust fill in your details and take the first step to having a lovable , friendly parakeet . . .\nthe indian ringneck parakeet is a sub - species of the rose - ringed parakeet ( psittacula krameri ) and the many sub - species are scattered throughout africa and asia . the indian ringneck is an asiatic parrot and originally from ceylon though it ' s now found in many parts of asia , notably india and pakistan . they can also be found in western and southern areas of sudan and are quite popular in the middle east where they are bred and found in the wild .\nthe three members of this family found in the united states occur as small populations that escaped from captivity , and rely on non - native fruiting trees for survival . the rose - ringed parakeet has become established in hawaii and cities in california , the rosy - faced lovebird occurs in some towns and cities in arizona , and the budgerigar has nearly disappeared from southern florida .\nbedecked with emerald green feathers and a rose - red beak , the ring - neck parakeet brings a touch of tropical glamour to suburban gardens in london and the south east . there have also been sightings in the north west and in scotland .\nspecies is one of few parrot species that have successfully adapted to living in ' disturbed habitats ' , and in that way withstood the onslaught of urbanisation and deforestation . in the wild , this is a noisy species with an unmistakable squawking call . rose - ringed parakeets are\nspotted a parakeet in denton , a suburb of manchester . later someone spotted one in a garden in derbyshire .\nhi i have plum - headed parakeet for sale please contact me at sumeet _ kpoor8 @ yahoo . com .\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto the rose - ringed parakeet\u2019s typical call is a loud shrill , \u201ckii - a\u201d or \u201ckii - ak\u201d while flying , or when perched on a tree . other loud calls may be heard , such as \u201ckyik - kyik - kyik\u201d . in captivity , it is a very good imitator for home noises , and it is able to produce some words .\nit\u2019s unusual to see the rose - ringed parakeet alone or in a pair , except in the breeding season . for most of the year , the bird lives in flocks , which may be thousands - strong in parts of india . the parakeet squabbles frequently with its companions , but fights are rare , as they reserve their aggression for driving away predators , such as hawks . the parakeets all join in to mob their enemy , flapping their wings , pecking and screaming until it retreats . the agile parakeet uses its bill like a third foot when climbing . it stretches its neck out and takes a hold on a suitable branch with its bill , before following with its feet . the parakeet uses a similar method when walking on a narrow perch . a sitting pretty a long tail and opposing toes help the parakeet perch on thin branches .\nlooking like a giant rose - ringed parakeet , the alexandrine i parakeet ( psittacula eupatria ) is the largest member of its genus . both parakeets have the streamlined body shape shared by all parakeets , but the larger species is 23\u2033 long , weighs up to ii oz . and is equipped with a truly massive bill . it differs from its smaller relative in having a purple - red patch on the shoulders and a thicker , almost moustachelike collar it\u2019s possible to see the two species side by side in sri lanka and parts of southern india , but the alexandrine parakeet is relatively uncommon and less tolerant of human activities .\nthe parrots have very strong bills . so , they use this bill to climb trees . on an average , they live up to 25 to 30 years . parrots come under the category of zygodactylous . the zygodactylous bird has four toes . the first and fourth toes are directed towards back ward and the second and third toes are pointed towards forward . we may differentiate male and female parakeets by using sexual dimorphism . the male rose ringed parakeets have black ring neck and pink band in the nape . this unique ring is absent in the female rose ringed parakeets .\nthe rose - ringed parakeets ( psittacula krameri ) - also known as ring - necked parakeets - are endemic to northern and west africa in guinea , senegal and southern mauretania east to western uganda and southern sudan ; as well as southern asia ( depending on the sub - species ) .\nit is also one of the popular pet parrots . the quick classification of the ring necked parakeet is as below ,\nby the 1980s , there were feral parakeet populations established in tokyo , osaka and nagoya , as well as in niigata and kyushu . there are also feral rose - ringed parakeets in london , amsterdam and a number of other cities where the birds where introduced as pets . cold doesn\u2019t seem to be a problem ; their wild counterparts are found at elevations of up to 2 , 000 meters in the himalayas .\nnew records of invasive parakeet hybrids in spain . a great opportunity to apply the rapid response mechanism : european journal of ecology\nduring the breeding season , the groups disperse . some courtship displays show the female rolling the eyes while twittering , and drawing semi - circles with the head while she moves the wings . at the same time , the male struts . they touch their beaks , and the male performs courtship feeding to the female while it raises one leg . at this moment , both birds utter soft sounds . the rose - ringed parakeet is monogamous .\ngene analyses from rose - ringed isolates are very wide , suggesting that there may not be very much temporal structure . given the phylogenetic evidence for allele - sharing between the two host populations , we also estimated the rate based on the combined data where there was sufficient evidence to reject the strict molecular clock for the\nhabitat : rose - ringed parakeet is common in cultivated areas , urban parks and gardens , open countryside with trees , palm - trees thickets , dry and open forest . it also may be found in semi - desert areas and second grow open jungles , mainly in lowlands . it frequents semi - desert savannahs with short grass , open bushy areas , wooded valleys and evergreen forests . this species is now common in the large urban parks .\nthe rose - ringed parakeet is another of these new inhabitants . these beautiful green birds , with fabulous turquoise tail feathers get their names from the red neck - ring which the male has ( seen on the top bird on the above ) . they are noisy gregarious birds who announce their presence with loud squawks . we have heard them often here at liz at lancaster both flying over and sitting on the bare branches of the neighbour\u2019s tree .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive video - alexandrine parakeet feeding\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive video - alexandrine parakeet feeding\ntitle =\narkive video - alexandrine parakeet feeding\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nreunion ring - necked parakeet psittacula eques extinct c . 1800 lived on the reunion island of the mascarene islands in the western indian ocean\nthe rose - ringed parakeet is a small bird , measuring 35 to 45 cm in length and weighing 100 to 150 grams . the overall plumage is yellowish green . these birds are sexually dimorphic . the adult male has a rose and black neck ring and the female has a very pale gray ring . the upper mandible is curved , strong , red in color with black or pale yellow tip . the lower mandible is grayish . there is a black patch on the chin . the irises are yellowish - white . the feet are gray . numerous color mutations have occurred while breeding in captivity . their call is a squawking sound .\ncollar , n . , kirwan , g . m . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . rose - ringed parakeet ( psittacula krameri ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nevolutionary rate of the capsid and rep bfdv genes ( mean and 95 % hpd ) estimated from the true dates of sample isolation ( labeled as the \u201ct\u201d data point ) and from the shuffled dates of isolation . analyses using the shuffled dates were performed using a gtr + \u03b3 + i model of evolution and a relaxed ( uncorrelated lognormal ) molecular clock . ( a ) results from the echo parakeet data set indicate no overlap between the estimates from the true dates and from the shuffled dates , indicating good temporal signal . ( b ) results from the rose - ringed parakeet isolates indicate no clear temporal signal .\nso far british scientists have not documented either problem , said hannah peck , a graduate student with project parakeet , but they remain watchful .\non average , this parakeet can live between 25 and 30 years . instances of ringnecks living past the age of fifty have been authenticated .\nbritish officials are watching trends closely since the parakeets have proved major agricultural pests elsewhere , ravaging crops in places like india . so far , they have shown little predilection for leaving europe \u2019s cities and suburbs for agricultural areas . ( far smaller flocks of rose - ringed parakeets have also arrived in other european cities like brussels and amsterdam . )\nthe indian ring - necked parakeet , also called the rose - winged parakeet , has been kept as a pet for centuries and remains a favorite companion bird today . a devoted owner will do best with this temperamental bird that requires a great deal of attention to remain tame . however , the indian ring - necked will charm and delight the person who takes the time to appreciate its other qualities \u2014 a playful exuberance and a remarkable talking ability .\nparakeets of their size . this makes them ideal for a bird owner who cannot spend as much time with his / her bird as other species need . rose - ringed parakeets can cope with as little as half an hour of interaction a day . however , they can become untame if not provided with daily interaction , especially during their early months .\njust for interest sake , i spotted a pair of stunning light green long tailed birds ( probably the rose - ringed parakeets ) at willson / kings park in berario , northcliff last weekend . they were a very light green ? they flew about in the area where the fairlands spruit runs through berario \u2013 fairlands . beautiful sighting \u2013 made my day !\nprevention , early warning and rapid response are the most effective measures in preventing the impacts of invasive species . the rose - ringed parakeet psittacula krameri , is an invasive species widely spread across europe , including spain . the alexandrine parakeet psittacula eupatria is also an invasive species established in europe , but not in spain , although a species distribution model classified parts of spain as \u2018highly suitable\u2019 and an invasion risk assessment predicted a \u2018high risk of invasion\u2019 in europe . the first hybrids from these two species were recently detected in spain . based on these data , we suggest to capture the hybrids to prevent further invasion and possible interaction with other invasive parakeets in spain .\nthere is also concern that the wily parakeet will outcompete more restrained british birds like the nuthatch , since both species nest in holes in old trees .\nis also known as the ring necked parakeet and is one of the gregarious tropical asian parrot species which has been seen in an extremely large range .\nplum - headed parakeets are closely related to blossom - headed parakeets and slaty - headed parakeets and are capable of breeding . to avoid producing hybrid birds that damage the limited captive gene pool of each distinct species , these birds should not be housed together . hybrids between male rose - ringed parakeets ( indian ringneck ) and female plum - headed parakeets have also been reported .\nparrots and parakeets have long been favorites with exotic - bird fanciers . there are probably a few escapees somewhere of every species of parrot imported into the united states . rose - ringed , canary - winged , and monk parakeets , budgerigars , and several of the large amazona parrots ( especially the yellow - headed parrot ) each now exist in small , stable , feral populations .\npithon j , 1998 . the status and ecology of the ring - necked parakeet psittacula krameri in great britain . york , uk : university of york .\na ( data not shown ) . the estimated nucleotide diversity ( \u03c0 ) of bfdv in each echo parakeet breeding season from 2004 / 05 is shown in\nas its name suggests , the indian ring - necked parakeet originates from india , where it is still found wild in great quantities , even in urban areas .\n( in italics ) genes are indicated . to ease visualization , we include only 15 isolates from the echo parakeet population representing all of the major genotypes identified in\na greenhouse young birds lack collars , so they look more like the female than the male ( above ) . pairs of rose - ringed parakeets stay together for life , but the male and female renew their pair bond every year during the courtship display , the male approaches his mate while fanning his tail and repeatedly dilating , then contracting the pupils of his eyes . the male feeds the female beak to beak ; she rolls her eyes and rubs bills with her partner : the rose - ringed parakeet usually nests in an unlined tree hole about 10 - 33\u2032 above the ground . it often makes use of an old woodpecker hole , which the parakeet may first enlarge with its bill . in urban areas , breeding pairs sometimes nest in holes in walls and buildings , even in noisy areas , such as near a busy street market . the female incubates the eggs for more than three weeks , while she is fed and guarded by her mate . the naked chicks hatch and their eyes open ten days later : both parents feed the young for 7 - 8 weeks , regurgitating partly digested food into their bills .\nindividually , any of the rose - ringed parakeets could be the star of a dreamworks film , electric green with bright pink beaks and the voluble personalities that have long made the tropical species a popular household pet . but for people who frequent the park or live nearby , the visceral experience is more like \u201c the birds \u201d \u2014 albeit with more color and a much noisier soundtrack than the hitchcock film .\na estimates obtained by combining the data from the two host populations are also shown . for each data set , we only included results from the significant clock model , i . e . , the strict clock was rejected for the rose - ringed and combined datasets ( in favor of the relaxed uncorrelated lognormal clock [ uln ] , which had a higher marginal likelihood than the relaxed uncorrelated exponential clock ) .\nwe screened for bfdv using a pcr assay targeting a 717 - bp region of orf1 ( rep gene ) ( 65 ) . the reaction volume comprised 1 \u03bcl of dna extracted from parrot blood , 2 . 5 \u03bcl of nh 4 buffer ( 10\u00d7 ) , 0 . 75 \u03bcl of mgcl 2 ( 50 mm ) , 0 . 5 \u03bcl of each primer at 25 pmol / \u03bcl ( primers 2 and 4 [ 65 ] ) , and 0 . 2 \u03bcl of taq polymerase ( 5 u / \u03bcl ) made up to 25 \u03bcl with dna - grade water . reactions were run as follows : 92\u00b0c for 3 min , followed by 30 cycles of 92\u00b0c for 30 s , 57\u00b0c for 30 s and 72\u00b0c for 45 s , with a final 10 min at 72\u00b0c . we included the extraction blank and a negative control in all of the pcrs to check for contamination . of the 163 echo parakeet samples that tested positive , 74 were sequenced at orf1 by macrogen ( korea ) using bigdye terminator reactions . of the 46 rose - ringed parakeet samples that tested positive , 31 were sequenced at orf1 . we targeted a 765 - bp region comprising most of orf2 ( capsid gene ) ( 23 ) in samples that tested positive for the presence of bfdv . the reaction volumes and cycling conditions were identical to the orf1 pcr except for the annealing temperature , which was reduced to 54\u00b0c . we sequenced 47 echo parakeet and 31 rose - ringed parakeet bfdv isolates at orf2 .\n\u00e2 \u00e2 the indian ringneck parakeets have been held in admiration and esteem since ancient times . they are a large parakeet , sought after for the superiority in their form and beauty , their ability to speak , their intelligence and trainability , and because they are easy to breed . this parakeet , the indian ringneck parakeet , has been a long time favorite for bird lovers ! there are many color combinations that can be produced , which is a fun challenge and fascination for many breeders ! check out the\nthe indian ringneck parakeets have been held in admiration and esteem since ancient times . they are a large parakeet , sought after for the superiority in their form and beauty , their ability to speak , their intelligence and trainability , and because they are easy to breed . the indian ringneck parakeet has been a long time favorite for bird lovers !\nslaty - headed parakeet psittacula himalayana length 16\n- tail is half the length weight 100 grams range : afghanistan , northern india , nepal and assam exhibits altitudinal migration .\nhi is there no ringneck parakeet bird park where they can get their fruit and veggies and seeds free ? ? where they have freedom to fly away from human abuse\u2026\u2026 .\nblood samples were taken during each breeding season ( september to may ) from echo parakeets and feral rose - ringed parakeets between 1993 and 1998 and between 2003 and 2009 ( there was no sampling between 1999 and 2002 due to no obvious presence of disease ) . the field teams involved in sampling the birds followed strict anticontamination protocols , including soaking all field equipment in virkon for 48 h between visits to different host nest sites . since 2004 this sampling was carried out regardless of apparent disease status and represented between 22 and 41 % of the known population of echo parakeets each season . in total , 592 echo parakeets and 125 feral rose - ringed parakeets were sampled . dna was extracted from 50 to 100 \u03bcl of whole blood using a standard phenol - chloroform extraction protocol ( 54 ) . an extraction blank was included to check that there was no contamination .\nthe following habitats are found across the ring - necked parakeet distribution range . find out more about these environments , what it takes to live there and what else inhabits them .\nrodriquez ring - necked parakeet psittacula exsul also known as the newton ' s parrot extinct c . 1875 lived on the rodriquez island of the mascarene islands in the western indian ocean"]}
{"id": 1382, "summary": [{"text": "rupela sejuncta is a moth in the crambidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by heinrich in 1937 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from alabama , florida , oklahoma and texas .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 28 \u2013 33 mm for males and 25 \u2013 30 mm for females .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the wings are shining white .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults have been recorded on wing from march to july and from september to november . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "rupela sejuncta", "paragraphs": ["rupela sejuncta heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 373 , pl . 26 , f . 14 - 14c , pl . 32 , f . 39 ; tl : harris co . , texas\nrupela nivea walker , 1863 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 28 : 524\nrupela ( schoenobiinae ) ; heinrich , 1937 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 356 ; [ nacl ] , 75 ; [ globiz ]\nrupela adunca heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 374 , pl . 27 , f . 16 - 16c ; tl : bolivia\nrupela bendis heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 378 , pl . 29 , f . 21 ; tl : aroa , venezuela\nrupela faustina heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 380 , pl . 29 , f . 22 ; tl : cabima , panama\nrupela jana heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 381 , pl . 31 , f . 38 ; tl : chaco , argentina\nrupela lara heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 382 , pl . 32 , f . 40 ; tl : cabima , panama\nrupela herie heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 381 , pl . 30 , f . 27 ; tl : georgetown , british guiana\nrupela orbona heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 384 , pl . 31 , f . 35 ; tl : mackenzie , british guiana\nrupela liberta heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 364 , pl . 23 , f . 4 - 4c ; tl : durango , mexico\nrupela vexativa heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 371 , pl . 25 , f . 11 - 11c ; tl : quirigua , guatemala\nrupela scitula heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 374 , pl . 26 , f . 15 - 15c ; tl : tucuman , argentina\nrupela antonia heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 378 , pl . 30 , f . 31 ; tl : sixola river , costa rica\nrupela drusilla heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 379 , pl . 29 , f . 24 ; tl : castro , paran\u00e1 , brazil\nrupela edusa heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 379 , pl . 30 , f . 29 ; tl : castro , paran\u00e1 , brazil\nrupela gaia heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 380 , pl . 30 , f . 28 ; tl : castro , paran\u00e1 , brazil\nrupela procula heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 384 , pl . 32 , f . 41 ; tl : sta . catherina , brazil\nrupela lumaria heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 375 , pl . 27 , f . 17 - 17c ; tl : carillo , costa rica\nrupela canens heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 379 , pl . 29 , f . 23 ; tl : sao paulo de olivenca , brazil\nrupela labeosa heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 363 , pl . 22 , f . 3 - 3d ; tl : castro , paran\u00e1 , brazil\nrupela pallidula heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 365 , pl . 23 , f . 5 - 5d ; tl : castro , paran\u00e1 , brazil\nrupela saetigera heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 367 , pl . 24 , f . 8 - 8c ; tl : castro , paran\u00e1 , brazil\nrupela cornigera heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 371 , pl . 25 , f . 12 - 12b ; tl : castro , paran\u00e1 , brazil\nrupela imitativa heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 372 , pl . 26 , f . 13 - 13c ; tl : castro , paran\u00e1 , brazil\nrupela spinifera heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 377 , pl . 28 , f . 19 - 19c ; tl : castro , paran\u00e1 , brazil\nrupela monstrata heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 377 , pl . 28 , f . 20 - 20c ; tl : castro , paran\u00e1 , brazil\nrupela candace heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 382 , pl . 29 , f . 25 - 25a ; tl : castro , paran\u00e1 , brazil\nrupela nereis heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 383 , pl . 31 , f . 33 - 34 ; tl : castro , paran\u00e1 , brazil\nrupela albinella ; heinrich , 1937 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 362 , pl . 22 , f . 2 - 2d , pl . 29 , f . 26 - 26b\nrupela gibbera heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 367 , pl . 24 , f . 7 - 7d ; tl : moengo , boven , cortica river , surinam\nrupela maenas heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 383 , pl . 31 , f . 36 - 37 ; tl : ponte nova ( rio xingu ) , brazil\nrupela segrega heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 366 , pl . 23 , f . 6 - 6d , pl . 30 , f . 32 ; tl : south bay , lake okeechobee , florida\nrupela horridula heinrich , 1937 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 376 , pl . 27 , f . 18 - 18f , pl . 33 , f . 47 ; tl : campo bello , rio de janeiro , brazil\nrupela leucatea ; heinrich , 1937 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 360 , pl . 22 , f . 1 - 1d , pl . 30 , f . 30 , pl . 33 , f . 44 - 45 , 48\nrupela tinctella ; heinrich , 1937 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 368 , pl . 24 , f . 9 - 9c , pl . 32 , f . 42 - 43 , pl . 33 , f . 46 ; [ nacl ] , # 5311\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\n= scirpophaga ; hampson , 1896 , proc . zool . soc . lond . 1895 : 912\npuerto rico , jamaica , cuba , hispaniola , martinique , antiqua , mexico , guatemala , nicaragua , panama , honduras , trinidad , venezuela , guianas , brazil , argentina , paraguay , peru . see [ maps ]\nlarva on echinochloa polystachya heinrich , 1937 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 361\nmexico , british honduras , guatemala , honduras , costa rica , guianas , brazil , colombia , ecuador , peru . see [ maps ]\nalbinella ( stoll , [ 1781 ] ) ; in cramer , uitl . kapellen 4 ( 29 - 31 ) : pl . 372 , f . d ; tl : surinam\nflorida , mexico , cuba , guianas , trinidad , brazil ( paran\u00e1 ) , paraguay , n . argentina . see [ maps ]\npanama , brazil ( paran\u00e1 , par\u00e1 ) , argentina ( gran chaco , goya , villa ana ) . see [ maps ]\nruplea nivea ; heinrich , 1937 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 84 ( 3019 ) : 370 , pl . 25 , f . 10 - 10c\nbrazil ( rio de janeiro ) , guianas , trinidad . see [ maps ]\npanama , guianas , brazil , peru , paraguay , argentina ( chaco , goya , villa ana ) . see [ maps ]\nthis information is not automatically synchronized with globiz and can sometimes be lagging behind .\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nzeller , 1863 chilonidarum et crambidarum genera et species chil . cramb . gen . spec . : 56pp\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome ."]}
{"id": 1383, "summary": [{"text": "the stone loach ( barbatula barbatula ) is a species of fresh water ray-finned fish in the balitoridae family .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is one of seventeen species in the genus barbatula .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is found in baltic states , eastern europe , austria , belgium , bulgaria , czech republic , denmark , finland , france , germany , hungary , ireland , italy , liechtenstein , luxembourg , moldova , the netherlands , poland , romania , serbia and montenegro , slovakia , slovenia , spain , sweden , switzerland , and the united kingdom .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "stone loaches live amongst the gravel and stones of fast flowing water where they can search for food .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the most distinctive feature of this 14 cm fish is the presence of barbels around the bottom jaw , which they use to detect their invertebrate prey .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the body is a mixture of brown , green and yellow . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "stone loach", "paragraphs": ["the stone loach is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\ninformation on the stone loach ( barbatula barbatula ) is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\ndescriptive osteology of a newly described stone loach , oxynoemacheilus chomanicus ( kamangar et al . , 2014 ) ( cypriniformes , nemacheilidae )\nalong a stream , we investigated whether the abundance of stone loach ( barbatula barbatula , l . ) was related to the presence of brown trout ( salmo trutta , l . ) and instream habitat variables . first , a field survey was carried out where different habitat variables and the densities of both species were quantified and subjected to principal components analysis . then the abundance of stone loach was related to the scores of the retained axes ( eigenvalues > 1 ) . the abundance of stone loach was positively correlated to substrate particle size , amount of shade , temperature , discharge and current velocity , but negatively correlated to brown trout abundance . secondly , a month - long field enclosure experiment in a stream was performed to test for any negative effects of brown trout on stone loach growth . four treatments were used : intraspecific competition ( stone loach at double density ) , interspecific competition ( stone loach + small trout ) , predation ( stone loach + large trout ) and a control ( stone loach alone ) . the results showed that large trout tended to have negative effects on final stone loach biomass . the absence of a negative effect of large trout on resource density suggests that nonlethal effects rather than resource competition caused this trend .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - stone loach ( barbatula barbatula )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - stone loach ( barbatula barbatula )\ntitle =\narkive species - stone loach ( barbatula barbatula )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe effect of interaction between the stone loach noemacheilus barbatulus ( l . ) and the bullhead cottus gobio ( l . ) on prey and habitat selection\nthe effect of interaction between the stone loach noemacheilus barbatulus ( l . ) and the bullhead cottus gobio ( l . ) on prey and habitat selection | springerlink\ndo instream habitat variables and the abundance of brown trout salmo trutta ( l . ) affect the distribution and growth of stone loach , barbatula barbatula ( l . ) ?\n@ article { c7137605 - fdeb - 4889 - bf4e - 7097b2f95108 , abstract = { along a stream , we investigated whether the abundance of stone loach ( barbatula barbatula , l . ) was related to the presence of brown trout ( salmo trutta , l . ) and instream habitat variables . first , a field survey was carried out where different habitat variables and the densities of both species were quantified and subjected to principal components analysis . then the abundance of stone loach was related to the scores of the retained axes ( eigenvalues & gt ; 1 ) . the abundance of stone loach was positively correlated to substrate particle size , amount of shade , temperature , discharge and current velocity , but negatively correlated to brown trout abundance . secondly , a month - long field enclosure experiment in a stream was performed to test for any negative effects of brown trout on stone loach growth . four treatments were used : intraspecific competition ( stone loach at double density ) , interspecific competition ( stone loach + small trout ) , predation ( stone loach + large trout ) and a control ( stone loach alone ) . the results showed that large trout tended to have negative effects on final stone loach biomass . the absence of a negative effect of large trout on resource density suggests that nonlethal effects rather than resource competition caused this trend . } , author = { nilsson , erika and persson , anders } , issn = { 0906 - 6691 } , language = { eng } , number = { 1 } , pages = { 40 - - 49 } , publisher = { wiley - blackwell } , series = { ecology of freshwater fish } , title = { do instream habitat variables and the abundance of brown trout salmo trutta ( l . ) affect the distribution and growth of stone loach , barbatula barbatula ( l . ) ? } , url = urltoken volume = { 14 } , year = { 2005 } , }\nalong a stream , we investigated whether the abundance of stone loach ( barbatula barbatula , l . ) was related to the presence of brown trout ( salmo trutta , l . ) and instream habitat variables . first , a field survey was carried out where different habitat variables and the densities of both species were quantified and subjected to principal components analysis . then the abundance of stone loach was related to the scores of the retained axes ( eigenvalues > 1 ) . the abundance of stone loach was positively correlated to substrate particle size , amount of shade , temperature , discharge and current velocity , but negatively correlated to brown trout abundance . secondly , a month - long field enclosure experiment in a stream was performed to test for any . . .\np . mafakheri , s . eagderi , h . farahmand , and h . mousavi - sabet , \u201costeological structure of kiabi loach (\np . mafakheri , s . eagderi , h . farahmand , and h . mousavi - sabet , \u201cdescriptive osteology of persian loach (\nj . freyhof , f . erk ' akan , c . \u00f6zeren , and a . perdices , \u201can overview of the western palaearctic loach genus\nstone loach and bullhead were given a choice of chironomus and asellus prey in experiments using solitary fish and fish in company . solitary fish ate more than fish in company . the effect of light and substratum type on feeding was investigated . both species ate more prey items on gravel than silt when a significant difference was observed . bullhead ate more than loach in the light on both substrata . the only experiment in which loach ate more than bullhead was on a silt substratum in the dark . it is concluded that these two species utilise different components of the available food resources in chalk streams by adopting different habitats .\nb . b . kamangar , a . m . prokofiev , e . ghaderi , and t . t . nalbant , \u201cstone loaches of choman river system , kurdistan , iran ( teleostei :\nappearance : a small , elongate , bottom - dwelling fish with three pairs of mouth barbels 3 - 5 mm in length . small eyes located almost on top of the head . body shape more cylindrical , forebody somewhat fatter than the spined loach , in which the body is laterally more flattened . tips of dorsal and caudal fins rounded , posterior margins may be slightly notched . fins of spined loach are more rounded .\ntopmouth gudgeon ( pseudorasbora parva ) is one of the most invasive aquatic fish species in europe and causes adverse effects to ecosystem structure and functioning . knowledge and understanding of the species\u2019 interactions with the environment and with native fish are important to stop and prevent the further spread of the species . creating species distribution models is a useful technique to determine which factors influence the occurrence and abundance of a species . we applied three different modelling techniques : general additive models , random forests and fuzzy habitat suitability modelling ( fhsm ) to assess the habitat suitability of topmouth gudgeon . the former two techniques indicated that the abundance of native fish ( i . e . biotic variables ) was more important than environmental variables when determining the abundance of topmouth gudgeon in flanders ( belgium ) . bitterling ( rhodeus amarus ) , stone loach ( barbatula barbatula ) , three - spined stickleback ( gasterosteus aculeatus ) and predator abundance were selected as the most important biotic variables and implemented in the fhsm to investigate species interactions . depending on the preferred food source and spawning behaviour , either coexistence or interspecific competition can occur with bitterling , stone loach and three - spined stickleback . in contrast , the presence of predators clearly had a top down effect on topmouth gudgeon abundance . these findings could be applied as a biological control measure and implemented in conservation strategies in order to reduce the abundance of earlier established populations of topmouth gudgeon .\nusually found in flowing stretches of streams and medium - sized rivers with gravel to stone bottom , but also in a variety of other habitats , including sandy canals and lake shores . larvae are benthic . larvae and small juveniles prefer sand bottom and slow current , shifting to gravel bottom and fast current when growing . adults prey on relatively large benthic invertebrates such as gammarids , chironomids , insect larvae . they breed on gravel , sand or among aquatic vegetation . tolerate moderate organic pollution and stream canalization and very sensitive to pollution by heavy metals ( ref . 59043 ) . sensitive to pollution and low oxygen levels , therefore , its presence in a river can be taken as an indication of good water quality ( ref . 6111 ) .\nstone loaches , the family nemacheilidae , are small benthic fishes [ 1 ] found in fresh waters of asia and its islands , europe , and northeast africa [ 2 ] . this family have a great diversity in iranian inland waters [ 1 , 3 , 4 ] , with more than 40 reported species , including 24 endemic species [ 3 \u2013 9 ] . they are less known due to small size and low economic value [ 10 , 11 ] and their classification is still complicated ; therefore , ichthyologists are trying to reveal their phylogenetic status [ 12 ] . given that , the osteological characteristics can play an important role in this regard [ 13 ] , since osteology is a useful tool to study the taxonomy and phylogenetic relationships among fishes [ 14 , 15 ] .\ncolouring : generally yellowish brown with darker bands and mottling . indistinct dark line joining eye to snout .\ndistribution and habitat : a freshwater species found throughout finland as far north as the lower reaches of the river kemijoki . avoids brackish water because of its salinity and occurs in the sea only in freshwater estuaries and in the easternmost part of the gulf of finland close to finland\u2019s eastern border . inhabits stony bottoms in well - oxygenated water . uses its barbels to hunt for food , foraging under stones . unable to tolerate oxygen deficiency in eutrophic lakes but copes with eutrophication better in rivers because of the higher oxygen levels .\nfacebook | contact information | terms of use and privacy policy | all rights reserved . \u00a9 copyright luontoportti / naturegate 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\noften erroneously called nemacheilus barbatulus , cobitis barbatula or orthrias barbatula . several species are apparently confused under the name b . barbatula . recent molecular studies suggest that several species are lumped under this name and a taxonomic revision is needed to settle this problem .\njustification : a widespread species with no known major widespread threats . european union 27 = lc . rationale same as above .\neurope north of caucasus , pyr\u00e9n\u00e9es and alps , from loire and rh\u00f4ne drainages eastward ; british isles ( except northern scotland ) , southern sweden and finland ( northward to about 66\u00b0n ) ; danube and vardar drainages . several similar species in asia , as far as japan ( including\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nto receive news and publication updates for international journal of zoology , enter your email address in the box below .\ndepartment of fisheries , faculty of natural resources , university of tehran , p . o . box 4314 , karaj , iran\ncopyright \u00a9 2016 parvin mafakheri et al . this is an open access article distributed under the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original work is properly cited .\noxynoemacheilus chomanicus is a newly described species of the family nemacheilidae from the choman river drainage of the tigris basin . this study was conducted to provide the detailed osteological characteristics of this species and comparing them with those of other endemic species of the genus oxynoemacheilus from inland water basins of iran , namely , kiabii , o . persa , o . brandtii , o . kermanshahensis , and o . bergianus . for this purpose , nine specimens of o . chomanicus were collected , cleaned , and stained for osteological examination . then , a detailed description of their skeletal structure was provided . the results showed that o . chomanicus can be distinguished from other studied species of the genus oxynoemacheilus due to possessing an orbital shelf , number of the vertebrae , number of the hypurals , number of the unbranched rays in anal fin , features of the hemal and neural spines , and connection pattern of the parietal and frontal .\nthe genus oxynoemacheilus is a species rich genus of the family nemacheilidae known from albania eastwards to central iran [ 16 ] and has 11 reported species from iran of which three include o . chomanicus , o . kurdestanicus , and o . zagrodensesis recently described from the choman river drainage of the tigris basin [ 4 ] . the newly described species of o . chomanicus is found in the choman river drainage ( baneh , kurdistan province ) . identification of this species is based on the morphological features that show many similarities to other members of this genus [ 4 ] .\nregarding high diversity and morphological similarity of the members of the family nemacheilidae , using combined data , including osteological and molecular data , can help to better understand their taxonomical relationship . therefore , this study was conducted to provide detailed osteological characteristics of o . chomanicus and comparing them with those of other species of the genus oxynoemacheilus from the inland water basins of iran that their osteological data are available . the finding of this study can provide the osteological features of this species that can help to discrete this species from others and be used as a basis for further phylogenetic study of the members of this genus based on the osteological data .\nnine specimens of o . chomanicus with standard length of ( mean \u00b1 sd ) were collected using electrofishing device from the choman river ( kurdistan province , iran ) . then , specimens were anesthetized with 1 % clove solution and fixed in 4 % formaldehyde . for osteological examination , the specimens were cleared and stained using alcian blue and alizarin red based on taylor and van dyke [ 17 ] . pictures of the stained skeletal structures were obtained using an epson v600 scanner equipped with a glycerol bath . the skeletal structures of each sample were observed and studied by an ms5 leica stereomicroscope . the scanned images were illustrated by coreldraw x6 software . nomenclature and abbreviation of the skeletal elements follow prokofiev [ 12 , 18 ] . detailed descriptions of the osteological features of o . kiabii , o . bergianus , o . persa , o . brandtii , and o . kermanshahensis were provided by mafakheri et al . [ 19 ] , jalili and eagderi [ 20 ] , mafakheri et al . [ 21 ] , and mafakheri [ 22 ] , respectively .\nthe anterior part of the neurocranium is narrow with wider posterior part and its maximum width is about 60 % of its length . the ethmoid region consists of the paired lateral ethmoids and unpaired supraethmoid - ethmoid and prevomer . the elongated supraethmoid - ethmoid bone is vertically fused to the prevomer and posteriorly sutured with the frontal ( figures 1 ( a ) and 1 ( b ) ) . the anterior part of the prevomer is heart - shaped ( figure 1 ( b ) ) and is posteriorly connected to the orbitosphenoid ( figure 1 ( c ) ) . the lateral ethmoid is medially attached to the orbitosphenoid ( figure 1 ) . the anterior part of the lateral ethmoid is projected and its posterior part is convex in shape ( figure 1 ) .\nfigure 1 : ( a ) dorsal , ( b ) lateral , and ( c ) ventral views of the neurocranium of oxynoemacheilus chomanicus . pr - bo : basioccipital process ; bo : basioccipital ; epo : epiotic ; exo : exoccipital ; fon : fontanelle ; fr : frontal ; fr - exo : foramen exoccipital ; let : lateral ethmoid ; orb : orbitosphenoid ; pa : parietal ; pe : prevomer ; pro : prootic ; ps : parasphenoid ; pto : pterotic ; pts : pterosphenoid ; se : supraethmoid - ethmoid ; soc : supraoccipital ; spo : sphenotic .\nthe orbital region includes the paired frontal , pterosphenoid , and sclerotic , and the unpaired orbitosphenoid and parasphenoid . the frontal is the largest bony element of the neurocranium\u2019s roof . this bone is laterally connected to the orbitosphenoid , pterosphenoid , and sphenotic and posteriorly to the parietal ( figures 1 ( a ) and 1 ( b ) ) . the frontal is connected to the lateral ethmoid via the orbital shelf ( figure 1 ( a ) ) . the two frontals are connected medially but they are separated posteriorly and form the anterior part of the fontanelle ( figure 1 ( a ) ) . the orbitosphenoid is posteriorly connected to the heavy bone of the pterosphenoid . in the ventral plan , the parasphenoid is connected to the prevomer , orbitosphenoid , pterosphenoid , prootic , and basioccipital ( figure 1 ( c ) ) . the parasphenoid , orbitosphenoid , and pterosphenoid enclose the orbital foramen ( figure 1 ( b ) ) . the parasphenoid meets the prootic and pterosphenoid via its lateral wings and form a large foramen in ventral plan of the neurocranium ( figure 1 ( c ) ) . two small bones of the sclerotic enclose the orbits .\nthe otic region consists of the parietals , epiotics , pterotics , prootics , and sphenotics ( figure 1 ) . the parietal is located between the frontal and supraoccipital ( figure 1 ( a ) ) . this bone is anterolaterally connected to the sphenotic and posterolaterally to the epiotic ( figures 1 ( a ) and 1 ( b ) ) . the pterotic is almost triangle in shape that it locates between the sphenotic and epiotic dorsally , and the prootic and exoccipital ventrally ( figures 1 ( a ) and 1 ( c ) ) . connection of the epiotic and sphenotic avoids the relationship between the pterotic and parietal ( figure 1 ( b ) ) . the pterosphenoid , sphenotic , and prootic form the anterior articulatory facet for articulating the anterior condyle of the hyomandibular and the sphenotic and pterotic form the posterior articulatory facet for articulating the posterior condyle of the hyomandibular ( figures 2 ( b ) and 2 ( c ) ) .\nfigure 2 : ( a ) anterior part of the ethmoid region and ( b ) lateral plan of kinethmoid and autopalatine of oxynoemacheilus chomanicus . apl : autopalatine ; ke : kinethmoid ; mx : maxilla ; pe : prevomer ; peth ii : preethmoid ii ; pmx : premaxilla ; ppl : prepalatine ; ses : sesamoid .\nthe occipital region consists of both unpaired supraoccipital and basioccipital and the paired exoccipital ( figure 1 ) . the supraoccipital forms the posterior part of the fontanelle . this bone is connected to the sphenotic by its anterolateral wings and posteriorly to the exoccipitals ( figure 1 ( a ) ) . the exoccipital bears a large foramen and it is connected to the prootic anteroventrally ( figure 1 ( c ) ) . the basioccipital is posteriorly narrower having a ring - shaped process ( figure 1 ( c ) ) . this bone is situated between the exoccipitals and connected to the prootics anteriorly ( figure 1 ( c ) ) . the basioccipital is posteriorly articulated to the first centrum . in a ligamentous space anterior to the ethmoid region , the paired preethmoid ii , prepalatine , and sesamoid and unpaired kinethmoid are present ( figure 2 ) . the prepalatine is located between the autopalatine and maxilla . the prepalatine is medially connected to the preethmoid ii ( figure 2 ( a ) ) . the rod - shaped preethmoid ii is anteriorly connected to the maxilla and posteriorly to the prevomer . the cylindrically shaped kinethmoid is vertically located between jaws ( figure 2 ( a ) ) .\nthe upper jaw consists of the premaxilla and maxilla ( figure 3 ) . the premaxilla has two processes , that is , pr . ascenden and pr . alveolar . the premaxilla is ligamentously connected to the kinethmoid . the maxilla is a large laminar bone which has a small anteroventral process connecting to the preethmoid ii and prepalatine and an anteroventral process that is tilted downwardly reaching its counterpart ( figure 2 ( a ) ) . the lower jaw is composed of the dental , articular , retroarticular , and coronomeckelian . the large dental has two processes , including narrow ramus dentalis and wide coronoid processes . the articular is overlapped with the dental and posteriorly articulated to the quadrate . the small bone of the coronomeckelian is attached to the medial face of the articular . the small bone of the retroarticular is articulated to the posteroventral part of the articular .\nfigure 3 : ( a ) upper jaw and ( b ) medial view of lower jaw in oxynoemacheilus chomanicus art : articulare ; cm : coronomeckelian ; den : dental ; mx : maxilla ; pmx : premaxillary ; rar : retroarticular .\nthe branchial arch consists of the basibranchials , hypobranchials , ceratobranchials , epibranchials , and infrapharyngobranchials ( figure 4 ) . there are four basibranchials , which locate between the hypobranchials . the two first basibranchials are similar in shape . the hypobranchials are three pairs and almost square - shaped . in each side , there are five ceratobranchials of which the last one has different shape possessing pharyngeal teeth ( figure 4 ) . the four paired epibranchials situate between the rectangularly shaped ceratobranchials and the small infrapharyngobranchials . the infrapharingobranchials are horizontally arranged on the epibranchials .\nfigure 4 : branchial apparatus of oxynoemacheilus chomanicus . bbr : basibranchial ; cbr : ceratobranchial ( cbr5 : pharyngeal bones ) ; ebr : epibranchial ; hbr : hypobranchial ; pbr : infrapharyngobranchials .\nthe hyoid arch is composed of the basihyal , dorsal hypohyal , ventral hypohyal , ceratohyal , epihyal , interhyal , urohyal , extra urohyal , and branchiostegals ( figure 5 ) . the large cylindrical ceratohyal intervenes between the hypohyals and the epihyal ( figure 5 ) . the epihyal is triangular in shape . a small rod - shaped interhyal fits in a small groove on the posterodorsal part of the epihyal ventrally . the dorsal hypohyal and ventral hypohyal are connected firmly . two small rod - shaped extra urohyals are located between the hypohyals and ligamentously connected to the urohyal and basihyal . the laminar bone of the urohyal bears a depression anteriorly and wings anterolaterally ( figure 5 ) . the unpaired basihyal is t - shaped . there are three curved branchiostegals of which the first one is attached to the ceratohyal , the connection point of the second one is located between ceratohyal and epihyal , and the third one is connected to the epihyal .\nfigure 5 : hyoid arch of oxynoemacheilus chomanicus . bhy : basihyal ; br : branchiostegal ; chy : ceratohyal ; dhy and vhy : dorsal and ventral hypohyal ; ehy : epihyal ; ihy : interhyal ; uhy : urohyal ; uhye : extra urohyal .\nthe suspensorium consists of the autopalatine , endopterygoid , ectopterygoid , metapterygoid , hyomandibular , quadrate , and symplectic ( figure 6 ) . the autopalatine is a heavy bone articulating to the endopterygoid posteriorly ( figure 2 ( b ) ) . there is a strong ligamentous attachment between the endopterygoid , ectopterygoid , metapterygoid , and quadrate . the triangle - shaped bone of the symplectic is inserted into the depression of the quadrate . a condyle for articulation to the articular presents in the anteroventral part of the quadrat . the hyomandibular bears two articular heads dorsally for the craniohyomandibular articulations .\nfigure 6 : medial view of the suspensorium of oxynoemacheilus chomanicus . apl : autopalatine ; ect : ectopterygoid ; end : endopterygoid ; hm : hyomandibular ; io : interopercle ; mtp : metapterygoid ; op : opercle ; po : preopercle ; q : quadrate ; so : subopercle ; sym : symplectic .\nthis series consists of the opercle , subopercle , interopercle , and preopercle ( figure 6 ) . the opercle is the largest element of the opercular series and its dorsal margin is concaved . this bone has a large condyle , which is articulated to the hyomandibular . the opercle covers the paddle - shaped subopercle ventrally ( figure 7 ) . the narrow curved preopercle almost locates at the rear of the interopercle ( figure 6 ) . the interopercle is not completely ossified and connected to the subopercle posteriorly ( figure 6 ) .\nfigure 7 : medial views of the pectoral girdle of oxynoemacheilus chomanicus . cl : cleithrum ; cor : coracoid ; mcor : mesocoracoid ; ptt : posttemporal ; rad : ossified pectoral radial ; sc : scapula ; scl : supracleithrum ; stt : supratemporal .\nthe pectoral girdle includes the cleithrum , coracoid , scapula , mesocoracoid , supratemporal , posttemporal , supracleithrum , and radials ( figure 7 ) . the cleithrum is the largest bony elements of the pectoral girdle possessing the vertical and horizontal sections . its vertical section is connected to the supracleithrum , whereas the horizontal one is connected to the scapula and coracoid . the coracoid is narrow anteriorly . the scapula is located between the cleithrum and coracoid . there is a large foramen on its middle face . the mesocoracoid is a small rod - shaped bone , which is medially located between the cleithrum and coracoid . the mesocoracoid indirectly connects these two bones ( figure 7 ) . the supracleithrum bears a ridge on its lateral face . the elongated posttemporal is situated in the anterolateral depression of the supracleithrum . this bone is posterolaterally fused to the supratemporal . the supratemporal is a small tubular - shaped bone . there are four radials of which first two ones are narrow and elongated and the most medial one is the smallest and widest one .\nthe pelvic girdle consists of the paired pelvic bones and radials . the pelvic bones are horizontally located in belly area . the pelvic bones are firmly connected by a strong ligament medially . they have posterolateral processes , that is , pr . iliacus that along with the posterior process , that is , pr . ischiadicus , forms a depression for positioning the rays and radials . the pelvic bone is anteriorly narrow ( pubic process ) . there are three small radials . there are one unbranched ray , seven branched rays , and one small curved pelvic splint in the pelvic fin .\nthere are 37 centra of which first four centra form the weberian apparatus and bony capsule . the hemal and neural spines are narrow . the dorsal fin has 9 pterygiophores and one stay and the first pterygiophore is the largest reaching the 11th or 12th vertebra . there are five unbranched and 8 1 / 2 branched rays in dorsal fin ( figure 8 ( a ) ) . the number of the pterygiophores in anal fin is six with one stay in which first pterygiophore reaches the 24th centrum . the number of unbranched and branched rays in anal fin is 4 and 5 1 / 2 , respectively ( figure 8 ( b ) ) .\nfigure 8 : ( a ) dorsal fin and ( b ) anal fin of oxynoemacheilus chomanicus . dr : distal radial ; mr : medial radial ; pr : proximal radial ; sty : stay .\nthe caudal complex consists of the second preural centrum and its neural and hemal processes , first preural centrum , ural - 1 + ural - 2 , pleurostyle , hypurals , parhypural , epural , and principal caudal rays , and procurrent rays ( figure 9 ) . the hemal process of the second preural is articulated to its centrum and its neural process is fused to its centrum . the last centrum is formed by the fused ural - 1 , ural - 2 , and preural - 1 . the wide rectangularly shaped parhypural along with the hypural - 1 is articulated to the last centrum . the parhypural is dorsally connected to the hypural - 1 . there are six hypurals of which first two ones are large . the hypural - 2 is fused to the centrum and others are inserted into the groove of the pleurostyle . the last hypural is small . the small epural is located between the pleurostyle and neural rudimentary . the pleurostyle is elongated and fused to the centrum . the principal caudal rays are supported by the hypurals .\nfigure 9 : caudal skeleton of oxynoemacheilus chomanicus . epu : epural ; hp : hypural ; hpu2 : hemal process of the second preural centrum ; npu - 2 : neural process of the second preural centrum ; ph : parhypural ; ust : pleurostyle .\nthe members of the genus oxynoemacheilus , with 11 reported species , are distributed in the most of the inland waters basins of iran and their identification is difficult based on their external morphology . hence , the osteological features are suitable characteristics for their distinction [ 12 , 18 ] . in addition , the osteological data can be well interpreted in taxonomy and phylogenetic relationships of fish species even in higher level [ 23 ] . there are various works on the phylogenetic relationships of the superfamily cobitoidea using osteological characteristics containing important information [ 12 , 13 , 18 , 24 \u2013 27 ] . therefore , the present study provided detailed osteological characteristics of o . chomanicus for further taxonomical studies of these taxa .\nprokofiev [ 12 ] has pointed out that the coronomeckelian is located on the base and dorsal edge of the coronoid processes in the genus oxynoemacheilus , whereas it is attached to the articular in o . chomanicus as mentioned by sawada [ 13 ] . in addition , prokofiev [ 12 ] mentioned that the lateral ethmoid is stationarily jointed with the supraethmoid - ethmoid , while such a feature was not observed in o . chomanicus . in o . chomanicus , similar to other compared species of this genus , the prootic , pterosphenoid , and sphenotic form the anterior articulatory facet , and the pterotic and sphenotic form the posterior articulatory facet , whereas prokofiev [ 12 ] mentioned that , in the members of the genus oxynoemacheilus , the anterior articulatory facet is restricted by the sphenotic and prootic , and the posterior articulatory facet is restricted by the sphenotic , prootic , and pterotic .\nbased on the results , this species shows some osteological features that can be considered as its osteological identification key in comparison to o . kiabii [ 19 ] , o . persa [ 21 ] , o . brandtii , o . kermanshahensis [ 22 ] , and o . bergianus [ 20 ] . there is an orbital shelf of the frontal in o . chomanicus , whereas such shelf is not present in o . persa [ 21 ] . the posterior process of the orbitosphenoid in o . persa is well developed [ 21 ] unlike that of o . chomanicus .\nin o . kiabii , the supraethmoid - ethmoid is shorter and wider [ 19 ] than that of o . chomanicus . the connection pattern of the frontal and parietal in o . kiabii had a zigzag pattern [ 19 ] versus straight one of o . chomanicus . furthermore , there is a small bone between the frontal and parietal in o . persa [ 21 ] . the shape of the metapterygoid in o . chomanicus is rectangular , while it is square - shaped in o . kiabii [ 19 ] . furthermore , the hypohyals\u2019 processes of o . kiabii are well developed [ 19 ] unlike that of o . chomanicus . in o . brandtii and o . bergianus , the hemal and neural spines are wider and well developed [ 20 , 22 ] , while those of o . chomanicus are thin and narrow similar to o . kiabii , o . persa , and o . bergianus .\noxynoemacheilus chomanicus has six hypurals , whereas o . kiabii , o . brandtii , o . persa , and o . kermanshahensis have five hypurals . the number of the vertebrae in o . chomanicus is 37 , whereas o . persa and o . kermanshahensis have 34 - 35 and 39 - 40 vertebrae , respectively [ 21 , 22 ] . the dorsal margin of the maxilla in o . chomanicus is smooth , whereas it is convex - shaped in o . kermanshahensis [ 22 ] .\nin o . chomanicus , the number of unbranched rays in dorsal and anal fins is five and four , respectively , which is different from the original description of this species ( three and three ) by kamangar et al . [ 4 ] . these extra unbranched rays were visible only in cleared and stained specimens . the number of branched rays in dorsal and anal fins of o . chomanicus is 8 1 / 2 and 5 1 / 2 , respectively , corresponding to description of this species by kamangar et al . [ 4 ] . the branched rays of the dorsal fin in o . chomanicus are more than those of o . kermanshahensis [ 19 ] .\nsome species of the genus oxynoemacheilus were previously placed in other genera , including barbatula and triplophysa , but osteological investigations revealed their differences and ascribed them to related genera [ 12 , 13 ] . of the most important differences of the genus oxynoemacheilus with the members of the genera barbatula and triplophysa are lack of the preethmoid - i and the number and shape of the radials of the pectoral fin . in the examined species , including o . persa , o . bergianus , o . brandtii , o . kermanshahensis , o . kiabii , and o . chomanicus , the preethmoid - i is absent . the numbers of the radials in the pectoral fins of triplophysa is 3 and barbatula is 4 with different shape compared to the members of the genus oxynoemacheilus . the members of the genus oxynoemacheilus bear two small sesamoid bones , whereas this bone is absent in triplophysa and barbatula [ 12 , 13 ] . in oxynoemacheilus , the number of the branched rays of the anal fin is 5 , whereas this number can be higher in barbatula and triplophysa .\nbased on the results , the presence of the orbital shelf , number of the vertebrae , number of the hypurals , number of the unbranched rays in anal fin , features of the hemal and neural spines , and connection pattern of the parietal and frontal can be offered as identified keys for o . chomanicus from other examined species of the genus oxynoemacheilus from inland water of iran .\nthe authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper .\na . abdoli , k . golzarianpour , b . kiabi , m . naderi , and r . patimar , \u201cstatus of the endemic loaches of iran , \u201d\nh . r . esmaeili , b . w . coad , a . gholamifard , n . nazari , and a . teimory , \u201cannotated checklist of the freshwater fishes of iran , \u201d\nh . r . esmaeili , g . sayyadzadeh , m . \u00f6zulug , m . geiger , and j . freyhof , \u201cthree new species of\nj . freyhof , h . r . esmaeili , g . sayyadzadeh , and m . geiger , \u201creview of the crested loaches of the genus paracobitis from iran and iraq with the description of four new species ( teleostei : nemacheilidae ) , \u201d\nj . freyhof , g . sayyadzadeh , h . r . esmaeili , and m . geiger , \u201creview of the genus\nh . mousavi - sabet , g . sayyadzadeh , h . r . esmaeili , s . eagderi , r . patimar , and j . freyhof , \u201c\nm . nasri , y . keivany , and s . dorafshan , \u201ccomparative osteology of lotaks ,\np . jalili , s . eagderi , n . nikmehr , and y . keivany , \u201cdescriptive osteology of\nw . r . taylor and g . c . van dyke , \u201crevised procedures for staining and clearing small fishes and other vertebrates for bone and cartilage study , \u201d\nphylogenetic of iranian genus oxynoemacheilus ( nemacheilidae ) using morphological characters [ m . s . thesis ]\nl . s . ramaswami , \u201cskeleton of cyprinoid fishes in relation to phylogenetic studies . v . the skull and the gasbladder capsule of the cobitidae , \u201d\nn . c . bird and l . p . hernandez , \u201cmorphological variation in the weberian apparatus of cypriniformes , \u201d\nfreshwater ; demersal ; ph range : 7 . 0 - 7 . 7 ; dh range : 10 - 15 ; potamodromous ( ref . 51243 ) . temperate ; ? - 18\u00b0c ( ref . 13371 ) ; 67\u00b0n - 39\u00b0n , 6\u00b0w - 59\u00b0e\neurasia : europe north of caucasus , pyr\u00e9n\u00e9es and alps , from loire and rhone drainages eastward ; british isles ( except northern scotland ) , southern sweden and finland ( northward to about 66\u00b0n ) ; northeastern italy ; danube and vardar drainages ( ref . 59043 ) ; asia to china ( ref . 6111 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 21 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 1441 ) ; common length : 12 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5504 ) ; max . published weight : 200 . 00 g ( ref . 5504 ) ; max . reported age : 7 years ( ref . 6111 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 3 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 6 - 8 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 5 - 6 . distinguished from its congeners in europe by the following combination of characters : caudal fin usually slightly emarginate ( truncate in a few populations ) ; pelvic origin beneath dorsal origin or under branched dorsal rays 1 - 2 ; caudal peduncle depth 1 . 4 - 2 . 2 ( usually 1 . 6 - 2 . 0 ) times in its length , 1 . 2 - 1 . 8 times in body depth ; often lacking dark blotches along back between nape and dorsal ( ref . 59043 ) . body elongated , anteriorly somewhat depressed , posteriorly laterally compressed . three pairs of mouth barbels . no erectile spine below eye . posterior margin of caudal fin slightly notched . caudal fin with 15 - 17 rays ( ref . 2196 ) .\nspawns once a year for several years in low productivity streams , but exhibits multiple spawning within a season in high productivity environments ( ref . 40290 , 40756 ) . releases eggs in open open water , often close to surface . eggs drift and adhere to different substrates and are often covered by sand or detritus . individual females may spawn daily for a short period ( ref . 59043 ) .\nkottelat , m . and j . freyhof , 2007 . handbook of european freshwater fishes . publications kottelat , cornol and freyhof , berlin . 646 pp . ( ref . 59043 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01000 ( 0 . 00386 - 0 . 02592 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 82 - 3 . 26 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 \u00b10 . 0 se ; based on diet studies .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( tm = 2 - 3 ) .\nprior r = 0 . 69 , 2 sd range = 0 . 35 - 1 . 38 , log ( r ) = - 0 . 37 , sd log ( r ) = 0 . 34 , based on : 2 k , 8 tgen , 1 tmax , 1 fec records\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 37 of 100 ) .\nclick here to support naturespot by making a donation - small or large - your gift is very much appreciated . thank you .\nthe general appearance is of a slim , long bodied pale brown fish dappled with darker patches of brown . it has six barbels on the mouth .\nvery clean , unpolluted stony streams . it will not tolerate even mildly polluted waters .\nspawns once a year in low productivity streams , but exhibits multiple spawning within a season in high productivity environments . eggs are a dull white and laid among stones and water plants .\nwidespread and fairly frequent in all of britain except in the north of scotland .\nfairly common in leicestershire and rutland . widely distributed in smaller rivers and streams . including the swift , rothley brook , gaddesby brook , wreake , mease / gilwiskaw , eastern and western sence , soar , chater and charnwood streams .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nrobins , richard c . , reeve m . bailey , carl e . bond , james r . brooker , ernest a . lachner , et al .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nthis is a short preview of the document . your library or institution may give you access to the complete full text for this document in proquest .\nazimi , hoda ; mousavi - sabet , hamed ; eagderi , soheil ; vatandoust , saber .\ninternational journal of aquatic biology ; karaj vol . 3 , iss . 5 , ( oct 2015 ) : 290 - 300 .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\npieterjan verhelst is a recipient of a ph . d . grant financed by the agency for innovation by science and technology in flanders ( iwt ) and is affiliated with ghent university and the research institute for nature and forest ( inbo ) . pieter boets was supported by a postdoctoral fellowship from the research foundation flanders ( fwo - 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{"id": 1384, "summary": [{"text": "chlamydotis is a genus of large birds in the bustard family .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the genus name is from ancient greek khlamus , a horseman \u2019s cloak with weights sewn into the corners , and otis , bustard .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "members of this genus show very little sexual dimorphism in their plumage .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the clade consisting of two species , formerly considered to be conspecific forms a sister group within the clade that includes the genus otis .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "houbara bustard , chlamydotis undulata c. u. undulata in north africa c. u. fuertaventurae in the canary islands macqueen 's bustard , chlamydotis macqueenii of asia the genus was established by the french naturalist ren\u00e9 primev\u00e8re lesson in 1839 and included only one species which was formerly described in the genus otis .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the genus name of houbara was used by charles lucien bonaparte but this was dropped , being a nomen nudum , as not following the requirements for zoological names .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "macqueen 's was split on the basis of distinctive display , differences in feather colours and on the basis of well established genetic differences .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "the two species are thought to have separated during a period of extreme aridity around 0.9 million years ago .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "houbara bustard breeds in the canary islands and north africa .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "macqueen 's bustard occurs in southwestern asia and along the dry region between the caspian sea and the gobi desert .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the more northern populations have many birds migrating south in winter and macqueen 's has historically been known for its vagrancy and individuals have been found well outside their usual range .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "they breed in deserts and other arid sandy areas and are sensitive to human disturbance .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "populations of both these bustards have been greatly reduced by hunting , falconry and human-induced habitat changes . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "chlamydotis", "paragraphs": ["artificial insemination in houbara bustards ( chlamydotis undulata ) : influence of the number of spermatozoa and insemination frequency on fertility and ability to hatch .\nartificial insemination in houbara bustards ( chlamydotis undulata ) : influence of the number of spermatozoa and insemination frequency on fertility . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nchlamydotis undulata and c . macqueenii ( del hoyo and collar 2014 ) were previously lumped as c . undulata following sibley and monroe ( 1990 , 1993 ) .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : chlamydotis macqueenii . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nidaghdour , youssef ; broderick , damien ; korrida , amal ; chbel , faiza ( 2004 ) .\nmitochondrial control region diversity of the houbara bustard chlamydotis undulata complex and genetic structure along the atlantic seaboard of north africa\n. molecular ecology 13 ( 1 ) : 43\u201354 . doi : 10 . 1046 / j . 1365 - 294x . 2003 . 02039 . x .\naurelio martin ; juan antonio lorenzo ; miguel angel hernandez ; manuel nogales ; f\u00e9lix manuel medina ; juan domingo delgado ; jos\u00e9 juli\u00e1n naranjo ; vicente quilis and guillermo delgado ( 1997 ) .\ndistribution , status and conservation of the houbara bustard chlamydotis undulata fuertaventurae rothschild & hartert , 1894 , in the canary islands , november\u2013december 1994\n. ardeola 44 ( 1 ) : 61\u201369 .\ncollar , n . & garcia , e . f . j . ( 2018 ) . african houbara ( chlamydotis undulata ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe houbara bustard or north african houbara ( chlamydotis undulata ) is a large bird in the bustard family . this bustard is found in arid habitats spread across northern africa with a population on the canary islands . they are dull brown with black markings on the wings with a greyish neck and a black ruff along the side of the neck . males and females appear very similar but males are larger and heavier . this species formerly included macqueen ' s bustard , sometimes known as the asian houbara as a subspecies .\nthere are three subspecies of houbara bustard : chlamydotis undulata macqueenii is found in the deserts of russia and the middle east , c . u . undulata is found in north africa and c . u . fuertaventurae is found in the eastern canary islands . they differ slightly in their size and colouration , but are not consistent in their migratory tendencies ( 4 ) . north african and middle eastern birds are resident or partially migratory , moving short distances to find fresh vegetation , whereas other asian populations are fully migratory ( 5 ) .\nbetween 1989 and 1992 , artificial insemination was used in the reproduction of two subspecies of houbara bustard ( chlamydotis undulata macqueenii and chlamydotis undulata undulata ) at the national wildlife research center , taif . the laying period was between january and july and the mean annual egg production in c . undulata macqueenii was 10 . 2 and in c . undulata undulata was 7 . 6 . no differences were found in sperm production between the two subspecies : the mean volume of ejaculate was 0 . 08 ml ; the mean sperm concentration was 350 x 10 ( 6 ) spermatozoa ml - 1 ; and the mean number of spermatozoa per ejaculate was about 20 x 10 ( 6 ) . large intra - and inter - individual variation was found in sperm parameters . intra - individual variation in number of spermatozoa per ejaculate was due mainly to seasonal variation . the mean quantity of spermatozoa produced per week by fully sexually mature houbara bustards was 165 x 10 ( 6 ) . there was no significant difference in fertility or in ability to hatch between the two subspecies . overall , in 1992 , mean fertility was 69 . 3 % and 49 . 2 % of eggs hatched . females showed a median sperm storage duration of 10 days and a maximum sperm storage duration of 22 days . a positive correlation was found between fertility and quantity of spermatozoa inseminated ( r = 0 . 99 , p < 0 . 001 ) . sperm storage duration was related to the number of spermatozoa inseminated . the best results ( 85 % fertile eggs ) were obtained when more than 10 ( 6 ) spermatozoa were inseminated between 3 and 6 days before laying . analysis of hatching showed that embryo mortality increased when inseminations were performed more than 10 days before laying .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\nc . 65 - 75 cm . a striking pale sandy bustard with black - tipped white crest and black neck stripe , blue - grey foreneck and breast , and white underparts . in display the male erects the long feathers of the crest and neck and withdraws his head into his chest while performing a blind run in various directions . similar spp . the present species was previously included within c . undulata , which has a completely white crest and lacks any white in the ornamental neck plumes , and has the neck finely peppered black and white rather than smoothly blue - grey . voice . mostly silent , but the males display ends in a series of high - pitched notes .\nallinson , t , butchart , s . , collar , n . , derh\u00e9 , m . , gilroy , j . , khwaja , n . , martin , r , symes , a . , taylor , j . , ashpole , j , wheatley , h .\nthis newly split species is subject to considerable over - exploitation and declines have been estimated in a large proportion of its total population , thus globally it is estimated and projected to be in rapid population decline over three generations , starting in the past and continuing into the future . however , rates of population decline may be very rapid , and if hunting pressure is not reduced the species could soon warrant uplisting to a higher threat category . conversely , if on - going reintroduction and reinforcement strategies succeed in stabilising the population , future downlisting to a lower threat category may be justified .\n. in addition , there may still be limited or sporadic occurrence of the species in azerbaijan and armenia , and perhaps also in southern russia and turkey ( goriup 1997 ) . the population has recently been estimated at between 78 , 960 and 97 , 000 individuals globally ( o . combreau\n2014 ) . it must be emphasised , however , that accurately establishing the global population is extremely challenging , and this range of figures should be treated as a tentative best estimate . more generally , the population is expected to fall within the population band of 50 , 000 - 99 , 999 individuals . the breeding population in kazakhstan has been estimated at c . 49 , 000 individuals ( riou\nthe most robust population trend data come from extensive studies coordinated by the national avian research center ( narc ; now part of the international fund for houbara conservation , abu dhabi , u . a . e . ) . since 1998 , narc has undertaken biannual surveys across the five principal population centres in southern kazakhstan ( tourenq\n2011 ) . given that this country hosts a significant proportion ( > 50 % ) of the global population and is the source of most migrants to arabia , pakistan and iran , where hunting pressures are most intense , information from here provides an indication of the status of the global population . the initial published analysis of the first four years of data ( 1998 - 2002 ) suggested alarming declines across all five regions , most severely in the vicinity of the kyzylkum desert ( tourenq\n( 2011 ) confirmed on - going declines in some regions , but also suggested stabilising and even increasing populations in others . assessed collectively , the population in kazakhstan declined by 26 - 36 % between 2000 and 2009 ( riou\n. 2016a ) , with no sign of a prominent population decline within the last five years ( m . koshkin\n2016 ) . anecdotal evidence from iran suggests that between 2004 and 2012 the population there has declined , with apparently substantial declines noted in protected areas ( r . ay\u00e9\n. 2013 ) . in recent years the species has been heavily hunted in iraq , as the country has opened up to visits by hunters from other countries ( r . porter\n. 2013 ) . thousands of individuals of this species are hunted and trapped each year in pakistan ( s . khan\nthe population has recently been estimated at between 78 , 960 and 97 , 000 individuals globally ( o . combreau\n. 2014 , birdlife international 2014 ) . it must be emphasised , however , that accurately establishing the global population is extremely challenging , and this figure should be treated as a tentative best estimate . the population is therefore expected to fall within the population band for 50 , 000 - 99 , 999 individuals , which is assumed to equate to c . 33 , 000 - 67 , 000 mature individuals .\n2011 ) , which holds over 50 % of the global population . the initial published analysis of the first four years of data ( 1998 - 2002 ) suggested alarming declines across all regions surveyed ( tourenq\n( 2011 ) confirmed on - going declines in some regions , but also suggested stabilising and even increasing populations in others . overall , the population in kazakhstan is estimated to have declined by 26 - 36 % between 2000 and 2009 ( riou\n. 2011 ) . anecdotal evidence indicates that there have been recent declines in iran ( r . ay\u00e9\n. 2013 ) , and that hunting pressure has been very high in iraq ( r . porter\n. 2013 ) in recent years . based on these data and observations , the population is estimated and projected to be declining by 30 - 49 % over a three - generation ( 20 - year ) window , stretching from the past into the future .\n. 2003 ) . it favours scattered shrubby vegetation , typically comprising xerophytic or halophytic plants ( collar 1996 ) . those wintering in iran have been shown to prefer more densely vegetated bush - steppe to sparser shrub - steppe ; however , within those bush - steppe habitats they favour areas with reduced vegetation cover ( aghanajafizadeh\n2010 ) , more open , unvegetated areas are often favoured as night - time roosts in order to minimise the risk of ambush by nocturnal predators ( combreau and smith 1997 ) . on the breeding grounds , nesting females may also favour sites away from vegetation patches , which could provide cover for predators ( yang\nthe species feeds throughout the day , but is most active at dawn and dusk ( combreau and launay 1996 ) . it has an eclectic diet , mainly comprising plants and invertebrates ( especially ants formicidae and beetles tenebrionidae : tigar and osborne 2000 ) , but also including vertebrates such as rodents , lizards , small snakes and even young birds ( collar 1996 , tourenq et al . 2003 ) .\nmales attract their mates with an extravagant courtship display which they perform at the same site each year . the display begins with a period of strutting and culminates with the male retracting his head within an ornamental shield of erected neck feathers and then running at speed in either a straight or curved line . the display is often accompanied by a series of subsonic booming calls ( gaucher et al . 1996 ) . males play no part in rearing the young , and a brood may contain young sired by several different individuals ( lesobre et al . 2010 ) . females create a shallow scrape in the ground in which they typically lay 3 - 4 eggs , and occasionally up to six eggs in long - distance migrants ( collar 1996 , combreau et al . 2002 ) . the incubation period is typically 24 days , whilst fledging takes around 35 days .\n2009 ) . large numbers are also trapped , mainly in pakistan and iran , and shipped to arabia for use in the training of falcons ( combreau 2007 ) . in 2014 an illegal shipment of 240 birds was intercepted en route from pakistan to bahrain ( shafaeipour\n. 2015 ) . in parts of the region , fast - paced development related to the growth of the petroleum industry has reduced the availability of undisturbed habitats and further exacerbated the species ' s decline . oil exploration , road building , oil and water pipelines , mining and quarrying activities , powerlines and the general disturbance caused by four - wheel drive vehicles have all been identified as significant auxiliary threats . powerlines in particular may be a significant threat ( m . koshkin\nlivestock grazing is reported to have a negative impact on the species , both indirectly , by degrading the desert vegetation on which birds rely for food and concealment , and directly , through the trampling of nests and disturbance of nesting females ( lavee 1988 ) . recent research on the effects of pastoralism on this species in the kyzylkum desert in uzbekistan , however , has found that low intensity livestock grazing may not widely degrade rangelands at a landscape scale ( koshkin\n. 2010 ) . in saudi arabia , eggs and nests are predated by a range of mammalian predators ( m . zafar - ul islam\ncites appendix i . cms appendix ii . the species is considered critically endangered on the european red list of birds ( birdlife international 2015 ) . studies have been conducted into the status , ecology and migration of the species in various parts of its range , most notably kazakhstan ( combreau\n. 2014 , 2016a , b ) . through its network of breeding facilities in the u . a . e . , morocco and kazakhstan , the international fund for houbara conservation ( ifhc ) has a long - term goal to produce 35 , 000 asian houbaras each year for reintroduction into the wild ( ifhc 2014 ) . the first releases were made in mahazat as - sayd protected area in central saudi arabia in 1991 . this population is currently estimated to number 250\u2013300 individuals . further releases have taken place elsewhere in saudi arabia ( including at saja umm ar rimth with c . 50 individuals [ m . zafar - ul islam\n. 2016 ] ) and also in u . a . e . , qatar , kuwait , yemen , jordan , kazakhstan and uzbekistan . it is not yet clear what impact the releases of captive - reared birds have on the demographics and genetic integrity of the overall population , however according to burnside\n( 2016 ) , in order to compensate for the loss of wild adults to hunting , the number of released birds may need to be as much as 10 times higher than hunting quotas . at least three birds have been satellite tracked from saudi arabia to the breeding grounds in kazakhstan ( zafar - ul islam\nthe most urgently needed conservation measures are those that will reduce exploitation to a biologically sustainable level . this will require precautionary and scientifically determined limits on the number of birds that can be harvested legally and stricter enforcement of bans on illegal forms of trade and hunting ; it also requires in - depth studies of natural productivity in asian houbaras in relation to habitat selection and predator abundance . carry out further surveys to gain an improved estimate of the overall population size and trend ; continue research to determine the migration routes , schedules and strategies of all populations . survey the species throughout the wintering range ( m . zafar - ul islam\n. 2016 ) . produce a range - wide action and recovery plan , based on agreement under the convention on migratory species . develop and implement national and regional species action plans ( m . zafar - ul islam\n. 2016 ) . create managed protected areas . where they can be shown to be detrimental , reduce grazing and other farming pressures ( goriup 1997 , combreau\n2004 , f . launay pers . comm . 2004 ) . establish long - term , range - wide population monitoring studies . study the overall demographic and genetic consequences of releasing captive - reared birds .\nmap edited : removed wintering range in ne china , added resident areas and changed remainder of range to non - breeding . eoo updated .\n( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22733562a118585210 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nay\u00e9 , r . , collar , n . , combreau , o . , gonz\u00e1lez , c , , hingrat , y . , islam , z . , i\u00f1igo , a . , launay , f . , lewis , a . & lorenzo , j .\nallinson , t , ashpole , j , burfield , i . , butchart , s . , collar , n . , derh\u00e9 , m . , gilroy , j . , khwaja , n . , pople , r . , symes , a . , taylor , j . , westrip , j .\nthis recently split species is listed as vulnerable because it is suspected to be in rapid decline owing mainly to hunting pressure and habitat loss and degradation . releases of captive - bred birds may buffer the overall population against these threats ; however , further research is required into the demographic consequences of such releases , and surveys are needed to assess the population trend . if it can be demonstrated that these releases have bolstered the breeding population , without detrimental genetic effects , and slowed or halted declines , then the species may warrant downlisting in future .\n, where its population in the mid - 1990s was estimated at 527 birds , with 241 on fuerteventura , 268 on lanzarote and 18 on la graciosa . more recent estimates place the population at 108 - 252 birds on fuerteventura , 272 - 801 on lanzarote and 3 - 10 on la graciosa ( carrascal\nin the mid - 1990s was estimated to be at least 9 , 800 individuals , of which over 50 % were in algeria , 30 % in morocco and 10 % in libya ( goriup 1997 ) . in more recent discussions , however , a reliable estimate for the number of individuals in north africa has not been considered achievable ( without huge confidence limits ) .\nalthough this species showed a steady decline of c . 25 % in the 20 years preceding 2004 ( f . launay pers . comm . 2004 ) , this trend may since have been reversed by a captive breeding and release programme in eastern morocco and western algeria , and the overall population of\n2012 ) . however , research is required into the efficacy of such releases at improving the demographic trends of the entire population without compromising its genetic integrity . furthermore , the species has become extremely rare in tunisia , and declines are suspected in other range states ( r . ay\u00e9\n. 2013 ) . until further information is available , the global population is suspected to be in rapid decline owing to continued hunting and pressures on its habitats .\nalgeria ; egypt ; libya ; mauritania ; morocco ; spain ( canary is . ) ; sudan ; tunisia ; western sahara\nin the mid - 1990s , this species ' s population was estimated to number at least 9 , 800 individuals ( goriup 1997 ) . it had been roughly estimated that north africa held around 30 % of the total population of\nwhen lumped , which has been estimated at c . 106 , 000 - 110 , 000 individuals . on the basis of these estimates , the population of\n) is placed in the band for 20 , 000 - 49 , 999 individuals , assumed to equate to c . 13 , 000 - 33 , 000 mature individuals .\nthe species had been in decline prior to 2004 ( f . launay pers . comm . 2004 ) , but this rate may have now slowed or been reversed as a result of a captive breeding and release programme ( o . combreau\n2012 ) . the canary islands was reported to be fluctuating over the period 2001 - 2012 ( birdlife international 2015 ) . until evidence of the demographic impacts of these releases is available , the overall population is suspected to be in rapid decline owing to the on - going threats of hunting pressure and habitat loss and degradation .\n2012 ) . it feeds on invertebrates , small vertebrates and green shoots , and typically lays 2 - 4 eggs in a scrape on the ground . eggs and young are susceptible to ground predators . north african populations may be sedentary or partially migratory , moving relatively short distances to find recent plant growth ( snow and perrins 1998 ) .\nmales attract their mates with an extravagant courtship display which they perform at the same site each year . the display begins with a period of strutting and culminates with the male retracting his head within an ornamental shield of erected neck feathers and then running at speed in either a straight or curved line . the display is often accompanied by a series of subsonic booming calls ( gaucher\n. 2005 ) . eggs are susceptible to trampling by livestock and collection by humans . disturbance can be caused by oil exploration activities , along with disturbance associated with other threats . locust control programmes can lead to direct and indirect poisoning of birds and a reduction in food supply . floods and droughts cause additional pressures ( azafzaf\nis considered threatened by collisions with powerlines ( lowen 2007 , c . gonz\u00e1lez and j . a . lorenzo\n, as well as habitat degradation caused by tourist facilities , off - road vehicles , military exercises , overgrazing , sand extraction and road development , and possibly also nest predation by introduced mammals and illegal hunting ( mart\u00edn .\n1997 , mart\u00edn and lorenzo 2001 , mart\u00ed and del moral 2003 ) . recent evidence suggests that the impact of military exercises and hunting have reduced considerably in recent years , but mortality from powerlines may still be significant ( c . gonz\u00e1lez and j . a . lorenzo\ncites appendix i . eu birds directive annex i . bern convention appendix ii . national legislation protects the species or controls hunting in most range states ; however , hunters are often able to circumvent these laws ( azafzaf\n1997 , mart\u00edn and lorenzo 2001 , mart\u00ed and del moral 2003 ) . seo / birdlife purchased a 209 - ha reserve to protect the species on fuerteventura in 2005 . the nominate subspecies in north africa was the subject of an action plan ( azafzaf\n2012 ) , although the demographic consequences of this for the entire population have not yet been established . captive breeding is carried out by the international fund for houbara conservation ( ifhc ) at the emirates centre for wildlife propagation ( ecwp ) , at missour and enjil in morocco . the numbers bred and released each year have increased regularly , with 20 , 310 individuals bred in 2013 ( ifhc 2014 ) .\ncarry out comprehensive and coordinated surveys to establish the total population size and quantify the overall trend . establish robust , workable systems for the sustainability of hunting throughout range . create hunting preserves and other types of managed protected areas . reduce grazing and other farming pressures ( goriup 1997 , o . combreau and m . lawrence\n2004 , f . launay pers . comm . 2004 ) . study the impacts of releasing captive - reared birds on the demographics and genetic structure of the whole population .\n: designate new and expand existing special protected areas under european law . increase wardening of key areas . ensure safe powerline positions ; conduct a rigorous census every five years . undertake local awareness campaigns ( mart\u00edn\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 297 , 922 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nbritish ornithologists ' union checklist ( 7th edition , incl . jan 2009 suppl . ) :\navibase has been visited 263 , 297 , 846 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nnational wildlife research center ( national commission for wildlife conservation and developments ) , taif , saudi arabia .\na largely solitary bird , the houbara bustard feeds alone or in small groups on beetles , ants and plants . in the breeding season , males and females meet only to choose a mate and to breed . courtship takes place between december and march and involves a sophisticated display ( 4 ) . the male ruffles the feathers of his crest , neck and head and raises the wings . he walks steadily and calmly in a large circle or straight line , with the tail raised and fanned out , occasionally lowering the wings . abruptly , the male then begins to leap back and forth as he attempts to attract the attention of the female . once the female has made her choice and mated with a male , neither bird will mate again that season ( 2 ) . the female leaves the male after mating and both sexes remain solitary for the remainder of the breeding season . between february and april the female lays two or three eggs in a small scrape ( 4 ) . after hatching , the chicks follow the female for protection as she feeds , as they are vulnerable to predators , including eagles , falcons , foxes , wolves , monitor lizards , snakes and kestrels ( 5 ) .\na striking bird resembling a turkey in shape , the houbara bustard is at its most magnificent during the courtship display . it has a long neck and tail , narrow wings , and long black and white feathers drooping over the neck . the head is small with a short , black and white crest and large eyes . males are slightly larger and have ornate bristles on the head and neck . the body is brown with wavy , black barring on the back and white on the underside . juveniles resemble adult females ( 2 ) .\noccurs across a wide range in north africa . the nominate subspecies occurs in northernmost\n, where its population in the mid - 1990s was estimated at 527 birds , with 18 on la graciosa , 268 on lanzarote and 241 on fuerteventura . more recent estimates place the population at 108 - 252 birds on fuerteventura , 272 - 801 on lanzarote and 3 - 10 on la graciosa ( carrascal\n2012 ) . however , research is required into the efficacy of such releases at improving the demographic trends of the entire population without compromising its genetic integrity . furthermore , the species has become extremely rare in tunisia , and declines are suspected in other range states ( r . ay\nit inhabits sandy and stony semi - desert and is specialised to arid conditions where trees are absent and both shrub cover and herb layer are sparse ( collar 1979 , goriup 1997 , snow and perrins 1998 , mart and del moral 2003 ) . it feeds on invertebrates , small vertebrates and green shoots , and typically lays 2 - 4 eggs in a scrape on the ground . eggs and young are susceptible to ground predators . north african populations may be sedentary or partially migratory , moving relatively short distances to find recent plant growth ( snow and perrins 1998 ) .\nadapted to arid conditions with little vegetation , the houbara bustard is found in sandy and stony semi - desert regions ( 5 ) .\nthis newly split species is listed as vulnerable because it is suspected to be in rapid decline owing mainly to hunting pressure and habitat loss and degradation . releases of captive - bred birds may buffer the overall population against these threats ; however , further research is required into the demographic consequences of such releases , and surveys are needed to assess the population trend . if it can be demonstrated that these releases have bolstered the breeding population , without detrimental genetic effects , and slowed or halted declines , then the species may warrant downlisting in future .\nthe houbara bustard is classified as vulnerable ( vu a2bcd + 3bcd ) on the iucn red list 2004 ( 1 ) and is listed on appendix i of cites ( 3 ) . it is also listed on appendix ii of the berne convention on european wildlife and natural habitats ( 6 ) and on annex i of the ec birds directive ( 7 ) .\nis considered threatened by collisions with powerlines ( lowen 2007 , c . gonzlez and j . a . lorenzo\n, as well as habitat degradation caused by tourist facilities , off - road vehicles , military exercises , overgrazing , sand extraction and road development , and possibly also nest predation by introduced mammals and illegal hunting ( martn .\n1997 , martn and lorenzo 2001 , mart and del moral 2003 ) . recent evidence suggests that the impact of military exercises and hunting have reduced considerably in recent years , but mortality from powerlines may still be significant ( c . gonzlez and j . a . lorenzo\nthe traditional practice of hunting for houbara bustards by middle eastern falconers has reduced populations significantly , mainly on the wintering grounds . this over - hunting has been compounded by habitat loss and degradation . the subspecies c . u . fuertaventurae has been particularly affected by habitat degradation as a result of tourist activities and associated development , as well as by military exercises , over - grazing , sand - extraction , and road - development . further threats include collisions with power lines , and nest - predation by introduced mammals ( 5 ) .\n1997 , martn and lorenzo 2001 , mart and del moral 2003 ) . seo / birdlife purchased a 209 - ha reserve to protect the species on fuerteventura in 2005 . the nominate subspecies in north africa was the subject of an action plan ( azafzaf\ncarry out comprehensive and coordinated surveys to establish the total population size and quantify the overall trend . establish robust , workable systems for the sustainability of hunting throughout range . create hunting preserves and other types of managed protected areas . reduce grazing and other farming pressures ( goriup 1997 , o . combreau and m . lawrence\n: designate new and expand existing special protected areas under european law . increase wardening of key areas . ensure safe powerline positions ; conduct a rigorous census every five years . undertake local awareness campaigns ( martn\nc . u . fuertaventurae has benefited from improved protection from poaching and improved habitat management within protected areas . c . u . macqueenii has been the subject of several studies into its status , ecology and migration routes . it has also been involved in captive breeding programmes for restocking areas where it is heavily hunted . no conservation measures are known to have been put into action for c . u . undulata . a whole species action plan has yet to be produced although there is a european action plan for c . u . fuertaventurae . managed hunting preserves are crucial to the recovery of the houbara bustard ( 5 ) .\nthis article is about the north african species . for the asian houbara that was considered a subspecies , see macqueen ' s bustard .\nthe houbara bustard is a small to mid - sized bustard . it measures 55\u201365 cm ( 22\u201326 in ) in length and spans 135\u2013170 cm ( 53\u201367 in ) across the wings . it is brown above and white below , with a black stripe down the sides of its neck . in flight , the long wings show large areas of black and brown on the flight feathers . it is slightly smaller and darker than macqueen ' s bustard . the sexes are similar , but the female , at 66 cm ( 26 in ) tall , is rather smaller and greyer above than the male , at 73 cm ( 29 in ) tall .\nthe body mass is 1 . 15\u20132 . 4 kg ( 2 . 5\u20135 . 3 lb ) in males and 1\u20131 . 7 kg ( 2 . 2\u20133 . 7 lb ) in females .\n. based on the rates of divergence of mitochondrial dna sequences , the two subspecies are thought to have separated from a common ancestor around 20 to 25 thousand years ago . the separation from macqueen ' s bustard is older at 430 thousand years ago .\nthe committee responded to this scepticism , by explaining that there are differences in both courtship and pre - copulation displays .\nthe houbara bustard is found in north africa west of the nile mainly in the western part of the sahara desert region in mauritania , morocco , algeria , tunisia , libya and egypt . some old records exist from sudan . a small population is found in the canary islands . the asian houbara or macqueen ' s bustard which was earlier included in this species occurs east of the sinai peninsula . the north african species is sedentary unlike the northern populations of macqueen ' s bustards .\nlike other bustards , this species has a flamboyant display raising the white feathers of the head and neck and withdrawing the head . two to four eggs are laid on the ground . it hardly ever uses its voice .\nof the canary islands is highly restricted and endangered . a 1997 survey found a total population of about 500 birds .\nthe north african houbara bustard declined in populations in the two decades before 2004 , but unlike its near relative the asian houbara or macqueen ' s bustard , has been on the increase since . although hunted both by falconers and by hunters with guns , the extent is much less than that faced by macqueen ' s bustard in the middle east and west asia .\nthe international foundation for conservation and development of wildlife ( ifcdw ) is a major conservation and breeding project established with funds from prince sultan bin abdul aziz al saud and based near agadir , morocco . the centre releases captive bred populations to boost wild populations . similar projects breed macqueen ' s bustards using artificial insemination are also carried out in the united arab emirates .\nali , s . ( 1993 ) . the book of indian birds . bombay : bombay natural history society . isbn 0 - 19 - 563731 - 3 .\ncrc handbook of avian body masses by john b . dunning jr . ( editor ) . crc press ( 1992 ) , isbn 978 - 0 - 8493 - 4258 - 5 .\nstone , richard .\nthe houbara : headed for oblivion ?\nscience , vol . 321 , 12 september 2008 , p . 1441 .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nuntil recently considered conspecific with c . macqueenii but differs in its all - white vs black - tipped white crown with all - black vs white - based black ornamental neck plumes ( 3 ) ; finely peppered black - and - white vs pale blue - greyforeneck base and breast in mature male ( 2 ) ; position of crown feathers in display , sweeping up and back vs falling forward over bill # r ( 2 ) ; vocal differences in display ( sequence ends in one single note rather than a series of notes ) # r ( 2 ) . two subspecies recognized .\n( rothschild & e . j . o . hartert , 1894 ) \u2013 e canary is .\nmale 65\u201375 cm , 1800\u20133200 g ; female 55\u201365 cm , 1200\u20131700 g . upperparts pale sandy buff , mottled and lined with darker brown , clear and paler on folded . . .\nvirtually silent . displaying males may utter 3\u20135 low , deep , booming notes at 2 second intervals .\narid sandy semi - desert with tussock grass , flat bare stony plains dotted with xerophytic and . . .\nvariable and opportunistic , with no clearly discernible seasonal or geographical pattern . vegetable matter such as fruits , seeds , shoots , . . .\nthe mating system appears to fulfil the definition of an \u2018exploded - lek\u2019 , in which males form loose aggregations where they . . .\nvulnerable . cites i . status everywhere very difficult to gauge owing to birds ' highly cryptic coloration , elusive behaviour , and remote and inhospitable habitat . the . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nreported as apparently close to neotis in hbw , but molecular evidence suggests it is closest to otis # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities ."]}
{"id": 1394, "summary": [{"text": "chalcoela iphitalis , the sooty-winged chalcoela , is a member of the crambidae family that occurs throughout north america .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they are seen as far south as california and south carolina and as north as ontario .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "adults can be seen from may to august .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the head , body and front portion of the forewings are yellow-orange while the hindwing and back portion of the forewings are grey and silver .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the back edge of the hindwing has black spots .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae are parasitoid , feeding on the larvae of paper wasps , including species such as polistes dominulus .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "polistes exclamans , polistes metricus , and mischocyttarus flavitarsis .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "for example , m. flavitarsis nests are often invaded by these moths at night because the wasps can not see them .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the moths migrate among the cells , consuming wasp larvae and pupae .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they will then lay their larvae , which spin cocoons in empty cells .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "m. flavitarsis do not attempt to rid the nest of the parasite .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "instead , they will continue as a nest or abandon and renest elsewhere . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "chalcoela iphitalis", "paragraphs": ["species chalcoela iphitalis - sooty - winged chalcoela - hodges # 4895 - bugguide . net\nchalcoela iphitalis ; ypm ent 717490 ; north america ; usa ; connecticut ; new haven county ; bethany , 25 brookwood road ; douglas i . relyea ; 1999 - 08 - 26\nchalcoela iphitalis ; ypm ent 717489 ; north america ; usa ; connecticut ; new haven county ; bethany , 25 brookwood road ; douglas i . relyea ; 1999 - 07 - 14\nchalcoela iphitalis ; ypm ent 717474 ; north america ; usa ; connecticut ; new haven county ; bethany , 25 brookwood road ; douglas i . relyea ; 2005 - 08 - 21\nchalcoela iphitalis ; ypm ent 717475 ; north america ; usa ; connecticut ; new haven county ; bethany , 25 brookwood road ; douglas i . relyea ; 2007 - 08 - 24\nchalcoela iphitalis ; ypm ent 717492 ; north america ; usa ; connecticut ; new haven county ; bethany , 25 brookwood road ; douglas i . relyea ; 2002 - 07 - 08\nchalcoela iphitalis ; ypm ent 721026 ; north america ; usa ; connecticut ; new haven county ; bethany , 25 brookwood road ; douglas i . relyea ; 2002 - 08 - 24\nzeller , p . c . 1872 . beitr\u00e4ge zur kentniss der nordamericanischen nachtfalter besonders der microlepidopteren . verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 22 : 529 , pl . 2 , f . 2 ( chalcoela aurifera }\nthis research was supported by a tufts institute of the environment fellowship from tufts university to a . a . m . and a usa national science foundation - reu site award to tufts university ( dbi - 0649190 ) . the authors would like to thank codman farms for allowing for the collection of their nests ; j . soriano for his assistance with observations ; m . a . metz ( usda ) for his assistance in identifying c . iphitalis ; and two anonymous reviewers for valuable comments on an earlier version of this manuscript . the recent data capture efforts of j . a . lewis facilitated in the relocation of specimens in alcohol .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nadult - head and body yellowish - orange ; large silvery - gray patch covers almost the distal half of the forewing and hindwing ; hindwing rear edge has several black spots .\ncalifornia , arizona , texas to south carolina , north to michigan and ontario .\n. larvae make visable webs on the nest and early instars often can be seen on the web . they overwinter as pupae in the wasp nest pupal chambers .\npowell , j . a . & p . a . opler 2009 . moths of western north america . university of california press . pl . 22 . 12m , p . 172\nrau , p . 1941 . observations on certain lepidopterous and hymenopterous parasites of polistes wasps . ann . ent . soc . america 34 ( 2 ) : 355 - 366\nfirst detailed report of brood parasitoidism in the invasive population of the paper wasp polistes dominulus . . . a . a . madden , m . m . davis , p . t . sparks . 2010 . insectes sociaux 57 : 257 - 260 .\ncontributed by robin mcleod on 27 august , 2005 - 3 : 59am additional contributions by cotinis , chuck entz , maury heiman , marcie oconnor , randy hardy , robert h . biagi last updated 24 april , 2017 - 12 : 43pm\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\npowell , j . a . & p . a . opler , moths of western north america , pl . 22 . 12m ; p . 172 . book review and ordering\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthe european paper wasp polistes dominulus ( christ ) is a model system in the fields of behavioral ecology , ecological immunology , and invasion biology . since its introduction to the us in 1978 , its invasion success has been attributed , in part , to a lack of parasites or parasitoids infecting this population . this is despite the number of parasites which infest the native population and the generalist polistine parasites and parasitoids documented in sympatric north american species . multiple studies have cited low parasite pressure as evidence that the invasive population of p . dominulus is benefiting from a post - invasion release from enemies . here , we present the first well documented case of parasitoidism of the invasive population of p . dominulus in north america .\n( hymenoptera , vespidae ) invading north america : some hypotheses for its rapid spread .\ngamboa g . j . , noble m . a . , thom m . c . , togal j . l . , srinivasan r . and murphy b . d . 2004 . the comparative biology of two sympatric paper wasps in michigan , the native\ngiovanetti m . , cervo r . and turillazzi s . 1996 . comb reutilization in\n( le moli f . , mori a . and grasso d . , eds )\nhughes d . p . , beani l . , turillazzi s . and kathirithamby j . 2003 . prevalence of the parasite\nliebert a . e . , gamboa g . j . , stamp n . e . , curtis t . r . , monnet k . m . , turillazzi s . and starks p . t . 2006 . genetics , behavior and ecology of a paper wasp invasion :\nnannoni a . , cervo r . and turillazzi s . 2001 . foraging activity in european\nqueller d . c . and strassmann j . e . 1988 . reproductive success and group nesting in the paper wasp ,\n( clutton - brock t . h . , ed ) , university of chicago press , chicago usa . 76 - 96 pp\nriley c . v . 1893 . annual address of the president : parasitism in insects .\n( christ ) ( hymenoptera , vespidae , polistinae ) to the host distribution .\nsambaraju k . r . and phillips t . w . 2008 . responses of adult\n( hubner ) ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) to light and combinations of attractants and light .\n( fia fsp project no . y073001 ) . british columbia : ministry of forests and range publication . retrieved from\n( hymenoptera : vespidae ) and possible limitation of multiple foundress associations by parasitoids .\nwhiteman , n . k . and landwer b . h . p . 2000 . parasitoids reared from\n( turillazzi s . and m . j . west - eberhard , eds ) , oxford university press , new york usa . 75 - 97 pp\nbc ministry of environment : bc species and ecosystems explorer - - the authoritative source for conservation information in british columbia .\nrecommended citation : author , date . page title . in klinkenberg , brian . ( editor ) 2017 .\n[ efauna . bc . ca ] . lab for advanced spatial analysis , department of geography , university of british columbia , vancouver . [ accessed :\ndisclaimer : the information contained in an e - fauna bc atlas pages is derived from expert sources as cited ( with permission ) in each section . this information is scientifically based . e - fauna bc also acts as a portal to other sites via deep links . as always , users should refer to the original sources for complete information . e - fauna bc is not responsible for the accuracy or completeness of the original information .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\ncopyright \u00a9 2016 yale university . all rights reserved . privacy policy its , campus community technologies , web technologies"]}
{"id": 1405, "summary": [{"text": "ischnodemus variegatus is a species of insect in the order of true bugs known by the common name myakka bug .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is native to central and south america .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it is also known as an introduced species in florida in the united states .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this bug is elongated in shape with an m-shaped mark at the wing-cover bases .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the female is about 7 millimeters long and the male is about 6 millimeters .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the adult can fly , but each flight is just a jump of a few meters at most , and the gravid female tends not to fly .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the adult and juvenile produce a noxious scent when disturbed .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the female lays masses of up to 38 eggs each , with an average of 12 .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the egg is about 3 millimeters long and white when freshly laid , turning red in time .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the egg mass is usually deposited near the attachment of the leaf sheath to the stem of a plant .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the eggs hatch in about 12 days .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the newly emerged nymph is about 1.5 millimeters long .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "there are five instars .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the new nymphs remain in a group near their eggs , and later hide under the leaf sheaths .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "there they suck sap from the plant tissues .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "by the fifth instar stage , many nymphs have dispersed and become solitary .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "the fifth-instar nymph is about 5.5 millimeters long .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "nymphal development takes about 29 days .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the main host plant for the bug is west indian marsh grass ( hymenachne amplexicaulis ) .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the bug is occasionally able to complete its life cycle on other plants , including water paspalum ( paspalum repens ) , beaked panicgrass ( panicum anceps ) , and fire flag ( thalia geniculata ) , but this is rare .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "west indian marsh grass is a semiaquatic perennial grass that forms dense stands by spreading via stolons .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is native to tropical central and south america , where it is utilized for forage on flood-prone land .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it has occasionally been introduced to other regions as a pasture grass , such as queensland .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it was noted as an introduced species in florida by the 1970s and it is still a notorious noxious weed of wetland habitats , where its thick stands displace native flora .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "in 2000 , i. variegatus was discovered feeding voraciously on the weed in myakka river state park in sarasota county , florida .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "damage by the bug causes a red discoloration of the leaves , followed by browning and the death of the plant .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the bug reduces photosynthesis , growth , and biomass .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "because it is efficient and host-specific , the bug has been suggested as a potential agent of biological pest control for the weed .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "among the natural enemies of the bug are a scelionid wasp of the genus eumicrosoma , which is an egg parasitoid , and the entomopathogenic fungus beauveria bassiana .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "this species was formerly treated as synonymous with ischnodemus oblongus . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "ischnodemus variegatus", "paragraphs": ["as mentioned above , both ischnodemus variegatus and hymenachne amplexicaulis now occur in florida .\nthe taxonomic status of this species was reviewed by slater ( 1987 ) who raised ischnodemus variegatus ( signoret ) from synonymy with ischnodemus oblongus fabricius .\nfigure 1 . adult female myakka bug , ischnodemus variegatus ( signoret ) . photograph by rodrigo diaz , university of florida .\nfigure 2 . scent gland of an adult myakka bug , ischnodemus variegatus ( signoret ) . photograph by rodrigo diaz , university of florida .\nslater ja . 1987 . the taxonomic status of ischnodemus oblongus ( fabricius ) and ischnodemus variegatus ( signoret ) ( hemiptera : lygaeidae : blissinae ) . journal of the new york entomological society 95 : 294 - 297 .\nthe native distribution of ischnodemus variegatus includes central and south america . collection records indicate hymenachne amplexicaulis may be the only host ( baranowski 1979 , slater 1987 ) .\nbrambila j , santana f . 2004 . first records for ischnodemus variegatus ( hemiptera : blissidae ) in north america . florida entomologist 87 : 585 - 586 .\npopulation outbreaks of ischnodemus variegatus during the summer produce a major stress on west indian marsh grass plants growing in poor conditions ( shallow canals ) . however , plants growing in resource rich environments ( deep floodplains , high nutrients runoff ) can sustain some damage by ischnodemus variegatus without impact on the plant ' s reproductive output ( diaz 2008 ) .\nbrambila j , santana f . 2004 . first records for ischnodemus variegatus ( hemiptera : blissidae ) in north america . florida entomologist 87 : 585 - 586 ( full text )\ndue to economic and ecological importance of grasses , scientists at the university of florida studied the host range of ischnodemus variegatus . they found that hymenachne amplexicaulis is the preferred host of ischnodemus variegatus in laboratory and field conditions . in laboratory conditions , developmental host range of ischnodemus variegatus was examined on 57 plant species across seven plant families . complete development was obtained from hymenachne amplexicaulis ( 23 . 4 % ) , compared to water paspalum , paspalum repens ( 0 . 4 % ) ; beaked panicgrass , panicum anceps ( 2 . 2 % ) ; and fire flag , thalia geniculata ( 0 . 3 % ) . in field experiments , hymenachne amplexicaulis had higher densities of ischnodemus variegatus than other species ( diaz et al . 2009 ) .\nfigure 10 . geographical information system map showing the predicted number of generations of the myakka bug , ischnodemus variegatus ( signoret ) , in florida . illustration by rodrigo diaz , university of florida .\ndiaz r . 2008 . biology , host specificity and impact of ischnodemus variegatus , a herbivore of hymenachne amplexicaulis . ph . d . thesis , university of florida , gainesville , fl . 187 pp .\ndamaged leaves turn dark red , due to the accumulation of anthocyanins ( a type of pigment in the host plant ) . persistent infestations eventually result in leaves turning brown and dying . feeding effects of ischnodemus variegatus diminish carbon dioxide assimilation , growth rate , photosynthetic capacity and biomass of hymenachne amplexicaulis ( overholt et al . 2004 ) . greenhouse experiments demonstrated that ischnodemus variegatus feeding damage negatively affected growth of hymenachne amplexicaulis seedlings ( diaz 2008 ) .\ndiaz r , overholt wa , cuda jp , pratt pd , fox a . 2009 . host specificity of ischnodemus variegatus , a herbivore of west indian marsh grass ( hymenachne amplexicaulis ) . biocontrol 54 : 307 - 321 .\nfigure 5 . first instar nymph of the myakka bug , ischnodemus variegatus ( signoret ) . average length is 1 . 45 mm ( \u00b1 0 . 28 , n = 23 ) . photograph by rodrigo diaz , university of florida .\nfigure 6 . second instar nymph of the myakka bug , ischnodemus variegatus ( signoret ) . average length is 2 . 70 mm ( \u00b1 0 . 39 , n = 47 ) . photograph by rodrigo diaz , university of florida .\nfigure 7 . third instar nymph of the myakka bug , ischnodemus variegatus ( signoret ) . average length is 3 . 06 mm ( \u00b1 0 . 31 , n = 42 ) . photograph by rodrigo diaz , university of florida .\nfigure 8 . fourth instar nymph of the myakka bug , ischnodemus variegatus ( signoret ) . average length is 3 . 95 mm ( \u00b1 0 . 32 , n = 53 ) . photograph by rodrigo diaz , university of florida .\nfigure 9 . fifth instar nymph of the myakka bug , ischnodemus variegatus ( signoret ) . average length is 5 . 45 mm ( \u00b1 0 . 43 , n = 46 ) . photograph by rodrigo diaz , university of florida .\nfigure 3 . differences between the ventral sclerites at the tip of the abdomen of adult myakka bugs , ischnodemus variegatus ( signoret ) . female sclerites ( top ) ; male sclerites ( bottom ) . photographs by rodrigo diaz , university of florida .\nfigure 13 . west indian marsh grass , hymenachne amplexicaulis ( rudge ) nees ( poaceae ) , exhibiting signs of stress induced by feeding damage from the myakka bug , ischnodemus variegatus ( signoret ) . photograph by rodrigo diaz , university of florida .\noverholt wa , ewe s , diaz r , morgan ec , moeri oe . 2004 . feeding effects of ischnodemus variegatus ( hemiptera : blissidae ) on photosynthesis and growth of hymenachne amplexicaulis ( poaceae ) . florida entomologist 87 : 312 - 316 .\nscientists developed a temperature - dependent development model to predict the number of generations that ischnodemus variegates could complete per year at different locations in florida . in north florida , the model predicts that ischnodemus variegatus can complete two to three generations per year . in south florida , the predicted number of generations increases to four to five per year ( diaz et al . 2008 ) .\ndevelopmental time and survival of eggs as well as immature stages are affected by temperature . when ischnodemus variegatus is exposed to low temperatures from 8\u00b0c ( 46 . 4\u00b0f ) to 18\u00b0c ( 64 . 4\u00b0f ) and to a high temperature of 38\u00b0c ( 100 . 4\u00b0\u00b0f ) , low survivorship occurs . nymphs died within a few days at higher temperatures of 38\u00b0c ( 100 . 4\u00b0f ) and after weeks at lower extreme temperatures , suggesting that ischnodemus variegatus has a broader lower temperature threshold compared to the upper threshold .\nischnodemus variegatus has two natural enemies in florida : the egg parasitoid eumicrosoma sp . ( hymenoptera : scelionidae ) and the entomopathogen beauveria bassiana ( balsamo ) vuillemin ( deuteromycotina : hyphomycetes ) . the egg parasitoid was identified as a potentially accidentally introduced , non - native species for north america ( t . nuhn 2005 , personal communication ) . it attacks young and old eggs , and parasitized eggs turn black . field sampling in florida demonstrated that the impact of these natural enemies is minimal to ischnodemus variegatus populations .\nnymphs : ischnodemus variegatus has five nymphal instars . instars initially remain aggregated near the site of oviposition , or egg laying . later nymphal instars migrate to tightly appressed spaces between leaves and stems . fourth and 5th instars are darker in color than early instars .\nthe optimal temperature range for development and survival is between 28\u00b0c ( 82 . 4\u00b0f ) and 33\u00b0c ( 91 . 4\u00b0f ) . these ideal conditions for ischnodemus variegatus development match with the weather conditions in central florida from april to october ( diaz et al . 2008 ) .\nin 2000 , the\nmyakka bug ,\nischnodemus variegatus ( signoret ) ( hemiptera : blissidae ) , was first reported causing severe damage to hymenachne amplexicaulis at myakka river state park , sarasota county , florida ( brambila and santana 2004 ) . ischnodemus variegatus was identified as a new record for the continental united states by the florida department of agriculture and consumer services ( fdacs ) ( halbert 2000 ) . research was conducted by university of florida scientists on the biology , host specificity , and potential impact for this newly introduced , exotic insect species .\nfigure 4 . egg mass of the myakka bug , ischnodemus variegatus ( signoret ) , on culm of the west indian marsh grrass hymenachne amplexicaulis . the eggs are 2 . 97 mm in length ( \u00b1 0 . 13 , n = 25 ) . photograph by rodrigo diaz , university of florida .\ndiaz r , overholt wa , cuda jp , pratt pd , fox a . 2008 . temperature - dependent development , survival , and potential distribution of ischnodemus variegatus ( hemiptera : blissidae ) , a herbivore of west indian marsh grass . annals of the entomological society of america 101 : 604 - 612 .\nthe influence of ischnodemus variegatus feeding on photosynthesis and growth of the invasive semi - aquatic grass , hymenachne amplexicaulis , was investigated in field and greenhouse environments . in the field , carbon dioxide assimilation of infested plants was approximately 35 % less than that of non - infested plants , and the rate of assimilation was related to i . variegatus density . the relative growth rate of infested plants in the greenhouse was 77 % of that of non - infested plants , and biomass of infested plants was significantly less than for non - infested plants 79 days after infestation . the value of i . variegatus as a fortuitous biological control agent of h . amplexicaulis is discussed . view this article in bioone\nwest indian marsh grass , hymenachne amplexicaulis rudge ( nees ) ( poaceae ) , is an emergent wetland plant that is native to south and central america as well as portions of the caribbean , but is considered invasive in florida usa . the neotropical bug , ischnodemus variegatus ( signoret ) ( hemiptera : lygaeoidea : blissidae ) was observed feeding on h . amplexicaulis in florida in 2000 . to assess whether this insect could be considered as a specialist biological control agent or potential threat to native and cultivated grasses , the host specificity of i . variegatus was studied under laboratory and field conditions . developmental host range was examined on 57 plant species across seven plant families . complete development was obtained on h . amplexicaulis ( 23 . 4 % survivorship ) , paspalum repens ( 0 . 4 % ) , panicum anceps ( 2 . 2 % ) and thalia geniculata ( 0 . 3 % ) . adults survived 1 . 6 times longer and laid 6 . 6 times more eggs on h . amplexicaulis than the other species . oviposition on suboptimal host species was positively related to i . variegatus density under multiple choice conditions . results from field experiments indicated that h . amplexicaulis had higher densities of i . variegatus than other species . spill - over to suboptimal hosts occurred in an area where h . amplexicaulis was growing in poor conditions and there was a high density of i . variegatus . thus , laboratory and field studies demonstrate that i . variegatus had higher performance on h . amplexicaulis compared to any other host , and that suboptimal hosts could be colonized temporarily .\nslater ja , wilcox db . 1969 . a revision of the genus ischnodemus in the neotropical region ( hemiptera : lygaeidae : blissinae ) . miscellaneous publications of the entomological society of america 6 : 199 - 238 .\nbaranowski rm . 1979 . notes on the biology of ischnodemus oblongus and i . fulvipes with descriptions of the immature stages ( hemiptera : lygaeidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america 72 : 655 - 658 .\nmembers of the genus ischnodemus are characterized by elongate , parallel sided bodies , closed fore coxal cavities , terete ( cylindrical ) antennae , a straight apical ( tip ) margin , and a forewing membrane with a distinctive morphological texture ( i . e . the clause and corium are well differentiated ) ( slater and wilcox 1969 ) . slater ( 1976 ) classified this genus as a ' type i ' body shape which includes species with elongate , slender body shape that is usually slightly flattened . the ' type i ' body shape is advantageous for insects living on the stems of grasses .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nwest indian marsh grass , hymenachne amplexicaulis ( rudge ) nees ( poaceae ) , is a robust , stoloniferous , semiaquatic , perennial grass native to the neotropics ( tropical central and south america ) . this perennial grass is considered valuable forage in its native range ( tejos 1978 , enriquez - quiroz et al . 2006 ) . it reproduces from stolons or seeds in areas with fluctuating water levels and can survive long periods of flooding , but only persists along the edges of permanent deep water ( tejos 1980 ) . west indian marsh grass is especially adapted to low lying fresh water wetlands and flood plains containing high nutrient and sediment influx ( csurches et al . 1999 ) .\nin the 1970s and 1980s , hymenachne amplexicaulis began invading wetlands in florida ( langeland and craddock - burks 1998 ) . although the introduction pathway of this grass into florida is uncertain , intentional introduction into florida is possible due to its high forage value ( antel et al . 1998 , diaz et al . 2009 , kibbler and bahnisch 1999 ) . hymenachne amplexicaulis , a florida exotic pest plant council category i invasive plant , competitively displaces native vegetation in wetland areas due to its aggressive growth patterns during the rainy season ( diaz et al . 2009 , fleppc 2009 ) .\nin 1988 , hymenachne amplexicaulis was released in queensland for use as\nponded pasture\n( csurhes 1999 ) .\nlaboratory and field observations indicate the 1st through 4th instars are typically found in aggregations while 5th instars and adults are often observed exploring as individuals . if nymphs or adults are disturbed , they secrete a strong odor from the scent glands located in the thorax and abdomen ( diaz et al . 2008 ) .\nadults : females ( 7 . 23 mm in length , \u00b1 0 . 56 , n = 28 ) are larger than males ( 6 . 05 mm in length , \u00b1 0 . 22 , n = 49 ) and both genders have a distinctive\nm\npattern at the base of the hemelytra . female sclerites ( hardened plates ) at the ventral , or top side , tip of the abdomen are triangular in shape . the last sclerites of males are more rounded .\nadult flying is restricted to short hops of a few meters or less . gravid females mostly walk , possibly due the large size of their abdomens ( diaz et al . 2008 ) .\neggs : the egg length is approximately 3 mm ( 0 . 1 inches ) . eggs are laid in masses ( averaging 12 eggs per mass , with a range of 1 to 38 ) between the leaf sheath and the culm ( or stem of the plant ) , preferentially near the node . newly deposited eggs are white and older eggs turn bright red ( diaz et al . 2008 ) .\naverage total development time from egg to adult is 40 days . eggs take an average of 12 days to hatch at 30 . 5\u00b0 c ( 86 . 9\u00b0f ) . the nymphal stage reaches adulthood in an average of 29 days at 30 . 5\u00b0 c ( 86 . 9\u00b0f ) . the preoviposition period is about seven days at 28\u00b0c ( 82 . 4\u00b0f ) ( diaz et al . 2008 ) . females lay their eggs in tight spaces between the leaf sheath and the stem . when the eggs hatch , the 1st instar nymph remains together near the site of emergence ( diaz et al . 2008 ) .\nfigure 11 . monoculture of west indian marsh grass , hymenachne amplexicaulis ( rudge ) nees ( poaceae ) , at myakka river state park , sarasota county , florida . august 2003 . photograph by rodrigo diaz , university of florida .\nthe seasonal cycle of hymenachne amplexicaulis in florida begins in spring during seed germination and new shoot growth . increases in the water level as well as favorable day - length and temperature in the summer allow the grass to grow aggressively . maximum biomass for hymenachne amplexicaulis is reached by late summer . later in the fall , short days trigger flower production ( tropical weeds research centre 2006 ) . during winter , some parts of the grass die , but the stolons and seeds remain dormant underwater until spring . based on herbarium specimens collected in the native range , a predictive model of the potential distribution of hymenachne amplexicaulis in florida was created suggests that its northern limit in florida will be alachua county .\nfigure 12 . model prediction of climate suitability for west indian marsh grass , hymenachne amplexicaulis ( rudge ) nees ( poaceae ) , in florida , using herbarium specimens from new york and missouri botanical gardens . illustration by rodrigo diaz , university of florida\nantel npr , werger mja , medina e . 1998 . nitrogen distribution and leaf area indices in relation to photosynthetic nitrogen efficiency in savanna grasses . plant ecology 138 : 63 - 75 .\ncsurhes sm , mackey ap , fitzsimmons l . ( june 1999 ) . hymenache ( hymenachne amplexicaulis ) in queensland . queensland department of employment , economic development and innovation . ( 6 february 2013 ) .\nenriquez - quiroz jf , quero - carrillo ar , hernandez - garay a , garcia - moya e . 2006 . azuche , hymenachne amplexicaulis ( rudge ) nees , forage genetic resources for floodplains in tropical mexico . genetic resources and crop evolution 53 : 1405 - 1412 .\nfleppc . ( fall 2009 ) . florida exotic pest plant council 2009 list of invasive species . florida exotic pest plant council . ( 6 february 2013 ) .\nhalbert se . ( october 2000 ) . entomology section . trilogy 39 ( 5 ) . fdcas - division of plant industry .\nkibbler h , bahnish lm . 1999 . physiological adaptations of hymenachne amplexicaulis to flooding . australian journal of experimental agriculture 39 : 429 - 435 .\nlangeland ka , craddock - burks k . 1998 . identification and biology of non - native plants in florida ' s natural areas . university press of florida , gainesville . 165 pp .\nnuhn t . 2005 . personal communication . usda agricultural research service . museum specialist . systematic entomology laboratory . washington , dc .\nslater ja . 1976 . monocots and chinch bugs : a study of host plant relationships in the lygaeid subfamily blissinae ( hempitera : lygaeidae ) . biotropica 8 : 143 - 165 .\ntejos mr 1978 . effect of age on the productivity of paja de agua grass ( hymenachne amplexicaulis ( rudge ) nees ) in a controlled flooding savannah . agronomia tropical 28 : 613 - 626 .\ntejos mr . 1980 . production of water straw grass ( hymenachne amplexicaulis ( rudge ) nees ) during a savanna period . congreso venezolano zootecnia guanare ( venezuela ) p . 24 .\ntropical weeds research centre . ( august 2006 ) control methods and cases studies , hymenachne amplexicaulis . queensland department of natural resources , minas and water . urltoken ( 6 february 2013 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nfirst collected in the us in sarasota co . , fl on 9 / 21 / 2000\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nwe express our gratitude to dennis giardina and mike barry , florida panther preserve , for collection and identification of grasses . diana cordeau , jackie markle , brittany evans , yordana valenzuela , brianne schobert , freddy soza , douglas gonzalez , veronica manrique , fabian diaz and larry markle provided great support during the data collection . paul benshoff and diane donaghy from myakka river state park provided support during the development of this project . several grasses were identified by mark a . garland at fdacs , dpi - gainesville . two anonymous reviewers provided useful comments . the university of florida - institute of food and agricultural sciences , florida department of environmental protection and the charlotte harbor national estuary program provided financial support for the project .\nwith descriptions of the immature stages ( hemiptera : lygaeidae ) . ann entomol soc am 72 : 655\u2013658\nbaranowski rm , slater ja ( 2005 ) the lygaiedae of the west indies . agricultural experimental station , institute of food and agricultural sciences , university of florida , gainesville , fl , 402 pp\nbernays ea , chapman rf ( 1994 ) host plant selection by phytophagous insects . chapman & hall , new york , 312 pp\nbernays e , graham m ( 1988 ) on the evolution of host specificity in phytophagous arthropods . ecology 69 : 886\u2013892\n( rudge ) nees , forage genetic resources for floodplains in tropical mexico . genet resour crop ev 53 : 1405\u20131412\nspecies of america north of mexico ( hemiptera : lygaeidae : blissinae ) . occ pap univ conn biol sci ser . 2 6 : 47\u201356\nheard ta ( 2000 ) concepts in host selection behavior and their application to host specificity testing . in : van driesche rg , heard ta , mcclay a , reardon r ( eds ) host - specificity testing of exotic arthropod biological control agents : the biological basis for improvement in safety . usda forest health technology enterprise team , fhtet - 99 - 1 , morgantown , usa , pp 1\u201310\n: effects on plant , macroinvertebrate and fish biodiversity in the fitzroy river , central queensland , australia . mar freshwater res 53 : 1235\u20131244\nsas institute ( 1999 ) sas / stat user\u2019s guide . sas institute , cary , nc\nschoonhoven lm , van loon jja , dicke m ( 2005 ) insect - plant biology . oxford university press , oxford , uk\nslater ja ( 1976 ) monocots and chinch bugs : a study of host plant relationships in the lygaeid subfamily blissinae ( hemiptera : lygaeidae ) . biotropica 8 : 143\u2013165\n( signoret ) ( hemiptera : lygaeidae : blissinae ) . j new york entomol soc 95 : 294\u2013297\nslater ja , baranowski rm ( 1990 ) lygaeidae of florida ( hemiptera : heteroptera ) , vol 14 . arthropods of florida and neighboring land areas . florida department of agriculture and consumer services , gainesville , florida 211 pp\nin the neotropical region ( hemiptera : lygaeidae : blissinae ) . misc publ entomol soc am 6 : 199\u2013238\nslater ja , wilcox db ( 1973 ) the chinch bugs or blissinae of south africa ( hemiptera : lygaeidae ) . mem entomol soc s afr 12 : 1\u2013135\nsoreng rj , davidse g , peterson pm , zuloaga fo , judziewicz ej , filgueiras ts , morrone o ( 2007 ) catalog of new world grasses .\n( rudge ) nees ) in a controlled flooding savannah . agronomia tropical 28 : 613\u2013626\nunited states department of agriculture ( usda ) , animal and plant inspection service ( aphis ) , plant protection and quarantine ( ppq ) ( 2000 ) reviewer\u2019s manual for the technical advisory group of biological control agents of weeds : guidelines for evaluating the safety of candidate biological control agents . 224 pp\nvan klinken rd ( 2000 ) host specificity testing : why we do it and how can we do it better ? in : r . van driesche , t . heard , a . mcclay , & r . reardon ( eds . ) , proceedings : host specificity testing of exotic arthropod biological control agents : the biological basis for improvement in safety . forest service , morgantown , west virginia , pp 54\u201368\nwapshere aj ( 1989 ) a testing sequence for reducing rejection of potential biological control agents for weeds . ann appl biol 114 : 515\u2013526\nwunderlin rp , hansen bf ( 2004 ) atlas of florida vascular plants . [ s . m . landry and k . n . campbell ( application development ) , florida center for community design and research . ] institute for systematic botany , university of south florida , tampa . available via .\nwilliam a . overholt , sharon m . l . ewe , rodrigo diaz , eric c . morgan , onour e . moeri\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nthis translation tool is powered by google . fao is not responsible for the accuracy of translations ."]}
{"id": 1410, "summary": [{"text": "uperoleia is a genus of frogs in the family myobatrachidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they are native to northern and eastern australia and southern lowlands of new guinea .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "these are small squat frogs , more commonly known as \" toadlets \" .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "they have glandular skin , often with a pair of raised glands behind each eye , or on the flanks .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they have bumpy , rough skin giving them the appearance of a small toad , hence the name \" toadlet \" , although they are often called \" gungans \" in queensland .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "there are two distinct types of calls \u2014 uperoleia species make either a \" click \" or a \" squelch \" .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "generally , the \" clicking \" uperoleia have long thin inguinal glands that run along the dorsal surface , while the \" squelching \" uperoleia have round inguinal glands restricted to the posterior half of the dorsal surface .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is unusual to find more than one species of \" clickers \" or \" squelchers \" in the same location , although finding one of each is quite frequent in northern australia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the species in this genus show great similarities in body shape and colouration making them difficult to tell apart .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "call analysis is often required to confirm identification .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "this genus is the largest of any in the myobatrachidae family .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "clicking uperoleia include u. glandulosa , u. aspera , u. minima , u. trachyderma , u. lithomoda , u. littlejohni , u. altissima , u. mimula , and u. rugosa .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "the squelching uperoleia include u. russelli , u. saxatilis , u. talpa , u. borealis , u. crassa , and u. inundata .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the eastern species u. laevigata , u. fusca , u. tyleri , and u. martini are also squelchers , but are distantly related .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the species u. mjobergi , u. micromeles , u. micra , and u. daviesae are distinct from these other groups . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "uperoleia", "paragraphs": ["amphibia , anura , cryptic species , toadlet , uperoleia mahonyi sp . nov .\nuperoleia gray , 1841 , ann . mag . nat . hist . , ser . 1 , 7 : 90 . type species : uperoleia marmorata gray , 1841 , by monotypy .\nin the 2004 frogwatch census uperoleia laevigata was detected in 27 % of all sites monitored .\na new species of australian frog ( myobatrachidae : uperoleia ) from the new south wales mid - north coast sandplains .\nuperoliidae g\u00fcnther , 1858 , proc . zool . soc . london , 1858 : 346 . type genus : uperoleia gray , 1841 .\na new species of australian frog ( myobatrachidae : uperoleia ) from the new south wales mid - north coast sandplains . - pubmed - ncbi\nclemann , n . ( 2015 ) action statement no . 265 , martin\u2019s toadlet ( uperoleia martini ) , department of environment , land , water , and planning , victoria , australia . available from : urltoken 321818 / martins - toadlet - uperoleia - martini . pdf ( accessed 2 nov . 2016 )\nspecies description : doughty p , roberts jd 2008 a new species of uperoleia ( anura : myobatrachidae ) from the northwest kimberley , western australia . zootaxa 1939 : 10 - 18 .\nthis was the first uperoleia species discovered in australia , in 1841 . despite numerous sightings at the time , it has not been recorded since and is now known only from the original specimen .\ndoughty , p . & roberts , j . d . ( 2008 ) a new species of uperoleia ( anura : myobatrachidae ) from the northwest kimberley , western australia . zootaxa , 1939 , 10 - \u201318 .\ntyler , m . j . & davies , m . ( 1984 ) uperoleia gray ( anura : leptodactylidae ) in new guinea . transactions of the royal society of south australia , 108 , 123 - \u2013125 .\ntyler , m . j . , davies , m . & martin , a . a . ( 1981a ) australian frogs of the leptodactylid genus uperoleia gray . australian journal of zoology , 79 , 1\u2013 - 64 .\ndavies , m . & mcdonald , k . r . ( 1985 ) a redefinition of uperoleia rugosa ( andersson ) ( anura : leptodactylidae ) . transactions of the royal society of south australia , 109 , 37\u2013 - 42 .\nspecies description : clulow s , anstis m , keogh js , catullo ra 2016 a new species of australian frog ( myobatrachidae : uperoleia ) from the new south wales mid - north coast sandplains . zootaxa 4184 : 285 - 315 .\ndavies , m . & littlejohn , m . j . ( 1986 ) frogs of the genus uperoleia gray ( anura : leptodactylidae ) in south - eastern australia . transactions of the royal society of south australia , 110 , 111\u2013 - 143 .\ndavies , m . , mcdonald , k . r . & corben , c . ( 1986 ) the genus uperoleia gray ( anura : leptodactylidae ) in queensland , australia . proceedings of the royal society of victoria , 98 , 147 - \u2013188 .\ncatullo , r . a . & keogh , j . s . ( 2014 ) aridification drove repeated episodes of diversification between australian biomes : evidence from a multi - locus phylogeny of australian toadlets ( uperoleia : myobatrachidae ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution , 79 , 106\u2013 - 117 .\nyoung , j . e . , tyler , m . j . & kent , s . a . ( 2005 ) diminuitive new species of uperoleia gray ( anura : myobatrachidae ) from the vicinity of darwin , northern territory , australia . journal of herpetology , 39 , 603\u2013 - 609 .\ncatullo , r . a . , doughty , p . & keogh , j . s . ( 2014a ) a new frog species ( myobatrachidae : uperoleia ) from the northern deserts region of australia , with a redescription of u . trachyderma . zootaxa , 3753 ( 3 ) , 251\u2013 - 262 . urltoken\ndavies , m . , mahony , m . & roberts , j . d . ( 1985 ) a new species of uperoleia ( anura : leptodactylidae ) from the pilbara region , western australia . transactions of the royal society of south australia . transactions of the royal society of south australia , 109 , 103 - \u2013108 .\ncatullo , r . a . , lanfear , r . , doughty , p . & keogh , j . s . ( 2014b ) the biogeographical boundaries of northern australia : evidence from ecological niche models and a multi - locus phylogeny of uperoleia toadlets ( anura : myobatrachidae ) . journal of biogeography , 41 , 659 - \u2013672 .\ncatullo , r . a . , doughty , p . , roberts , j . d . & keogh , j . s . ( 2011 ) multi - locus phylogeny and taxonomic revision of uperoleia toadlets ( anura : myobatrachidae ) from the western arid zone of australia , with a description of a new species . zootaxa , 2902 , 1 - \u201343 .\nthe systematics and biology of some australian species were reviewed by tyler , davies , and martin , 1981 , aust . j . zool . , suppl . ser . , 29 ( 79 ) : 1 - 64 ; davies and littlejohn , 1986 , trans . r . soc . s . aust . , 110 : 111 - 143 ; and davies , mcdonald , and corben , 1986 , proc . r . soc . victoria , 98 : 147 - 188 . see barker , grigg , and tyler , 1995 , field guide aust . frogs . , ed . 2 , for keys and accounts . see comment under spicospina . catullo , doughty , roberts , and keogh , 2011 , zootaxa , 2902 : 1 - 43 , provided a molecular phylogeny , morphological identification key , and accounts of the species . catullo , doughty , and keogh , 2014 , zootaxa , 3753 : 251 - 262 , reported on molecular phylogenetics . catullo and keogh , 2014 , mol . phylogenet . evol . , 79 : 106\u2013117 , provided a multi - locus phylogeny of the species and inferred a biogeography driven by cycles of aridification . these authors noted cases where populations of one species contained the mtdna ( e . g . , some individuals of uperoleia inundata ) of others and other cases where nudna did not recover some species as natural groups ( e . g . , uperoleia borealis , uperoleia lithomoda ) . catullo , lanfear , doughty , and keogh , 2014 , j . biogeograph . , 41 : 659\u2013672 , provided a multilocus phylogeny and biogeography of uperoleia , as well as presenting data on calls and morphology , with special attention to the species of northern australia .\nhosmeria wells and wellington , 1985 , aust . j . herpetol . , suppl . ser . , 1 : 2 . type species : uperoleia marmorata laevigata keferstein , 1867 , by original designation . synonymy by catullo , doughty , roberts , and keogh , 2011 , zootaxa , 2902 : 15 . see also tyler , 1985 , herpetol . rev . , 16 : 69 ; australian society of herpetologists , 1987 , bull . zool . nomencl . , 44 : 116 - 121 ; tyler , 1988 , bull . zool . nomencl . , 45 : 152 ; holthius , 1988 , bull . zool . nomencl . , 45 and decision by iczn ( anonymous , 1991 , bull . zool . nomencl . , 48 : 337 - 338 ) .\namphibian research centre . ( 2005 ) . available online : urltoken s , taustralian frogs database ( 2005 . ) . uperoleia laevigata . available online : urltoken s , tdepartment of environment and heritage , ( 2004 ) . chytridiomycosis factsheet urltoken s , tenvironment act . ( 2004 ) . summary of results . available online : urltoken p , s , tenvironment act . ( 2004 ) . uperleia laevigata ; smooth teoadlet . available online : urltoken s , tzoological parks and gardens board . frog pond checklist . available online : urltoken p , s , tspeare , r et al ( 1998 ) . how to reduce the risks of you transmitting an infectious agent between frogs and between sites . available online : urltoken s , tzoological parks board n > s > w . ( 2005 . ) . asx frog focus . available online : urltoken p , s ( school activity program )\nthe discovery of new vertebrate species in developed countries is still occurring at surprising rates for some taxonomic groups , especially the amphibians and reptiles . while this most often occurs in under - explored areas , it occasionally still happens in well - inhabited regions . we report such a case with the discovery and description of u . mahonyi sp . nov . , a new species of frog from a highly populated region of new south wales , australia . we provide details of its morphology , calls , embryos and tadpoles , and phylogenetic relationships to other species of eastern uperoleia . we also provide the results of targeted surveys to establish its distribution and provide observations of its habitat associations . as a consequence of these surveys , we comment on the likely restricted nature of the species\u2019 distribution and habitat , and place this in the context of a preliminary assessment of its putative conservation status , which should be assessed for listing under the iucn\u2019s red list . we note this species , which is morphologically distinct , has gone unnoticed for many decades despite numerous ecological surveys for local development applications .\nthe discovery of new vertebrate species in developed countries is still occurring at surprising rates for some taxonomic groups , especially the amphibians and reptiles . while this most often occurs in under - explored areas , it occasionally still happens in well - inhabited regions . we report such a case with the discovery and description of u . mahonyi sp . nov . , a new species of frog from a highly populated region of new south wales , australia . we provide details of its morphology , calls , embryos and tadpoles , and phylogenetic relationships to other species of eastern uperoleia . we also provide the results of targeted surveys to establish its distribution and provide observations of its habitat associations . as a consequence of these surveys , we comment on the likely restricted nature of the species ' distribution and habitat , and place this in the context of a preliminary assessment of its putative conservation status , which should be assessed for listing under the iucn ' s red list . we note this species , which is morphologically distinct , has gone unnoticed for many decades despite numerous ecological surveys for local development applications .\n* will not find nomina inquirenda ; use basic search ( above ) for that purpose .\nwill find all uses of\nhyl . . .\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hylarana , hyla , hylidae , hylinae , hylaedactyla .\nwill find all uses of\n. . . hyla\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hyla , hylidae , plectrohyla , ptychadena hylaea , adenomera hylaedactyla\nwill find all records that contain stand - alone uses of hyla : e . g . , hyla , hyla arenicolor\ninterprets this as\nlithobates or pipiens\nso will find the union of all records that contain either\nlithobates\nor\npipiens\n: e . g . , lithobates omiltemanus , hylorana pipiens\ninterprets this as\nlithobates and pipiens\nso will return all records that have the character string\nlithobates pipiens\nanywhere within a record : e . g . , all members of the lithobates pipiens complex .\nmyobatrachinae schlegel in gray , 1850 , proc . zool . soc . london , 1850 : 10 . type genus : myobatrachus schlegel , 1850 .\nmyiobatrachidae bonaparte , 1850 , conspect . syst . herpetol . amph . : 1 p . type genus : myiobatrachus bonaparte , 1850 .\nmyiobatrachina \u2014 bonaparte , 1850 , conspect . syst . herpetol . amph . : 1 p . incorrect subsequent spelling .\ncriniae cope , 1866 , j . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia , ser . 2 , 6 : 89 . type genus : crinia tschudi , 1838 .\nuperoleiidae \u2014 keferstein , 1867 , nachr . ges . wiss . g\u00f6ttingen , 18 : 349 .\nuperoliina \u2014 mivart , 1869 , proc . zool . soc . london , 1869 : 291 .\nmyobatrachinae \u2014 parker , 1940 , novit . zool . , 42 : 6 ; laurent , 1980\n1979\n, bull . soc . zool . france , 104 : 417 .\nmyobatrachidae \u2014 lynch , 1973 , in vial ( ed . ) , evol . biol . anurans : 170 ; heyer and liem , 1976 , smithson . contrib . zool . , 233 : 1 ; laurent , 1980\n1979\n, bull . soc . zool . france , 104 : 417 ; davies , 2003 , in duellman ( ed . ) , grzimek ' s animal life enclop . , 6 ( amph . ) : 147 .\nrheobatrachinae heyer and liem , 1976 , smithson . contrib . zool . , 233 : 11 . type genus : rheobatrachus liem , 1973 . synonymy by implication of ford and cannatella , 1993 , herpetol . monogr . , 7 : 105 ; frost , grant , faivovich , bain , haas , haddad , de s\u00e1 , channing , wilkinson , donnellan , raxworthy , campbell , blotto , moler , drewes , nussbaum , lynch , green , and wheeler , 2006 , bull . am . mus . nat . hist . , 297 : 195 .\nrheobatrachidae \u2014 laurent , 1980\n1979\n, bull . soc . zool . france , 104 : 401 ; laurent , 1986 , in grass\u00e9 and delsol ( eds . ) , traite de zool . , 14 : 674 .\nmyobatrachoidea \u2014 irisarri , san mauro , abascal , ohler , vences , and zardoya , 2012 , bmc genomics , 13 ( 626 ) : 5 . formal superfamily to contain myobatrachidae and limnodynastidae .\naustralian water frogs ( halliday and adler , 2002 , new encyclop . rept . amph . : 84 ) .\naustralian toadlets ( halliday and adler , 2002 , new encyclop . rept . amph . : 84 ) .\naustralian froglets ( frank and ramus , 1995 , compl . guide scient . common names amph . rept . world : 93 ) .\nground frogs ( wells and wellington , 1989 , aust . herpetologist , 506 : 3 ) .\nparental - care frogs ( ingram , nattrass , and czechura , 1993 , mem . queensland mus . , 33 : 222 ) .\nspicospina roberts , horwitz , wardell - johnson , maxson , and mahony , 1997 ( 1 sp . )\nplease note : these links will take you to external websites not affiliated with the american museum of natural history . we are not responsible for their content .\ncopyright \u00a9 1998 - 2018 , darrel frost and the american museum of natural history . all rights reserved .\nhyperolia agassiz , 1846 , nomencl . zool . , fasc . 12 : 384 . unjustified emendation .\nglauertia loveridge , 1933 , occas . pap . boston soc . nat . hist . , 8 : 89 . type species : glauertia russelli loveridge , 1933 , by monotypy . synonymy by tyler , davies , and martin , 1981 , aust . j . zool . , suppl . ser . , 29 ( 79 ) : 9 .\nprohartia wells and wellington , 1985 , aust . j . herpetol . , suppl . ser . , 1 : 3 . type species : pseudophryne fimbrianus parker , 1926 , by original designation . synonymy by catullo , doughty , roberts , and keogh , 2011 , zootaxa , 2902 : 15 . see tyler , 1985 , herpetol . rev . , 16 : 69 ; australian society of herpetologists , 1987 , bull . zool . nomencl . , 44 : 116 - 121 ; tyler , 1988 , bull . zool . nomencl . , 45 : 152 ; holthius , 1988 , bull . zool . nomencl . , 45 and decision by iczn ( anonymous , 1991 , bull . zool . nomencl . , 48 : 337 - 338 ) .\naustralian toadlets ( frank and ramus , 1995 , compl . guide scient . common names amph . rept . world : 95 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , tolerance of a broad range of habitats , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthis australian endemic is known from coastal and inland areas of southeastern queensland , northeastern and central new south wales ( west of the great dividing range ) . the extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 963 , 500km2 .\nthe species is found in dry sclerophyll forest and open woodland and grasslands . it shelters underground emerging after heavy spring and summer rains to breed in flooded grassland or in billabongs and slow - flowing streams . it can tolerate disturbances such as grazing and selective clearing . it breeds in spring and summer in temporary pools . males call from the water\u2019s edge whilst hidden beneath ground debris or in cavities at the base of grass tussocks . in disturbed areas it may call from depressions left in the mud by the hooves of livestock . eggs and larvae are unknown .\nhabitat loss / degradation associated with human settlement and agro - industry farming are major threats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\njustification : listed as data deficient in view of continuing uncertainty as to its taxonomic status as well as absence of recent information on its extent of occurrence , status and ecological requirements .\nthis species is known only from the original collection site , south of the mouth of prince regent river in the kimberley zone of western australia , australia . the exact locality is not known , so when its range is mapped a large area is covered , within which the exact locality is assumed to be .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthis australian endemic is currently known from a large area of land stretching across central northern territory , around the region of elliott , and in northwestern queensland , and into a small area of northeastern western australia . the extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 241 , 000km2 .\nthe species is found amongst grassland on blacksoils and grey self - mulching cracking clays . the areas flood during the wet season . breeding biology and tadpoles are unknown .\nthere are no known threats to the species and it occurs in a remote region with little human disturbance .\njean - marc hero , dale roberts , paul horner , richard retallick . 2004 .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nkeferstein , w . 1867 ,\nueber einige neue oder seltene batrachier aus australien und dem tropischen amerika\n, nachrichten von der gesellschaft der wissenschaften zu g\u00f6ttingen , vol . 18 , pp . 341 - 361\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 7417cc38 - befd - 4af6 - b9ba - 95224091deb7\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 777cb78c - 685e - 49ae - bcfe - 95618a1bf28a\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 973a668d - 8a07 - 4e9d - b84e - 207d862882d5\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : e25fbc28 - d3f5 - 4fe0 - 8e8a - e6f17c1ebbfa\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : d47e5f3b - 54e1 - 4fcb - 907c - bec914b48a29\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 371961\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 5dbd42d9 - 1bec - 4e34 - bc36 - 9460e5408872\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 98c38a62 - ac77 - 45c4 - a155 - b3acd8682369\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : b1ab1cd2 - 3a02 - 47a9 - a716 - 592e5c43c7c8\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : e3a91b0f - 660e - 485d - ad35 - db213a664aa6\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : ae9d1ea3 - 894a - 4b21 - 8c7c - c0e1de2904fa\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 320116\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nsimon clulow , marion anstis , j . scott keogh , renee a . catullo\nanstis , m . ( 2013 ) tadpoles and frogs of australia . sydney : new holland publishers .\nbouckaert , r . , heled , j . , k\u00fchnert , d . , vaughan , t . , wu , c . - h . , xie , d . , suchard , m . a . , rambaut , a & drummond , a . j . ( 2014 ) beast 2 : a software platform for bayesian evolutionary analysis . plos comput biol , 10 , e1003537 .\nbyrne , m . , steane , d . a . , joseph , l . , yeates , d . k . , jordan , g . j . , crayn , d . , aplin , a . , cantrill , d . j . , cook , l . g . , crisp , m . d . , keogh , j . s . , melville , j . , moritz , c . , porch , n . , sniderman , j . m . , k . , sunnucks , p . & weston , p . h . ( 2011 ) decline of a biome : evolution , contraction , fragmentation , extinction and invasion of the australian mesic zone biota . journal of biogeography , 38 , 1635 - - - \u20131656 .\nchapple , d . g . , hoskin , c . j . , chapple , s . n . & thompson , m . b . ( 2011 ) phylogeographic divergence in the widespread delicate skink ( lampropholis delicata ) corresponds to dry habitat barriers in eastern australia . bmc evolutionary biology , 11 , 191 .\ncogger , h . g . ( 2014 ) reptiles and amphibians of australia ( 6th ed . ) . reed new holland , sydney .\ndepartment of primary industries ( 2012 ) guidelines for riparian corridors on waterfront land sydney : nsw office of water . available from : urltoken licensing _ approvals _ controlled _ activit ies _ riparian _ corridors . pdf ( accessed 2 nov . 2016 )\ndepartment of sustainability and environment , victoria , australia ( 2013 ) advisory list of threatened vertebrate fauna in victoria , 2013 . available from : urltoken threatened - vertebrate - fauna _ final - 2013 . pdf ( accessed 2 nov . 2016 )\ndoughty , p . , maryan , b . , donnellan , s . & hutchinson , m . ( 2007a ) a new species of taipan ( elapidae : oxyuranus ) from central australia . zootaxa , 1422 , 45\u2013 - 58 .\ndoughty , p . , maryan , b . , melville , j . & austin , j . ( 2007b ) a new species of ctenophorus ( lacertilia : agamidae ) from lake disappointment , western australia . herpetologica , 63 , 72 - \u201386 .\ndoughty , p . & oliver , p . ( 2013 ) systematics of diplodactylus ( squamata : diplodactylidae ) from the south - western australian biodiversity hotspot : redefinition of d . polyophthalmus and the description of two new species . records of the western australia museum , 28 , 044\u2013 - 065 .\ngosner , k . l . ( 1960 ) a simplified table for staging anuran embryos and larvae with notes on identification . herpetologica , 16 , 183\u2013 - 190 .\nhoskin , c . j . & couper , p . j . ( 2013 ) a spectacular new leaf - tailed gecko ( carphodactylidae : saltuarius ) from the melville range , north - east australia . zootaxa , 3717 ( 4 ) , 543\u2013 - 558 .\nhutchinson , m . , sistrom , m . , donnellan , s . & hutchinson , r . g . ( 2014 ) taxonomic revision of the australian arid zone lizards gehyra variegata and g . montium ( squamata , gekkonidae ) with description of three new species . zootaxa , 3814 ( 2 ) , 221\u2013 - 241 .\niucn ( 2001 ) iucn red list categories and criteria : version 3 . 1 ( 2nd ed . ) . available from : urltoken technical - documents / categories - and - criteria / 2001 - categories - criteria ( accessed 2 nov . 2016 )\nkatoh , k . , misawa , k . , kuma , k . & miyata , t . ( 2002 ) mafft : a novel method for rapid multiple sequence alignment based on fast fourier transform . nucleic acids research , 30 , 3059\u20133066 .\nlanfear , r . , calcott , b . , ho , s . y . w . & guindon , s . ( 2012 ) partitionfinder : combined selection of partitioning schemes and substitution models for phylogenetic analyses . molecular biology and evolution , 29 , 1695\u2013 - 1701 .\nmeyer , e . , hero , j . - m . , shoo , l . & lewis , b . ( 2006 ) national recovery plan for the wallum sedgefrog and other wallum - dependent frog species . report to department of the environment and water resources , canberra . queensland parks and wildlife service . urltoken\nminh , b . q . , nguyen , m . a . t . & haeseler , a . v . ( 2013 ) ultrafast approximation for phylogenetic bootstrap . molecular biology and evolution , 30 , 1188 - \u20131195 .\nnylander , j . a . a . , wilgenbusch , j . c . , warren , d . l . & swofford , d . l . ( 2008 ) awty ( are we there yet ? ) : a system for graphical exploration of mcmc convergence in bayesian phylogenetics . bioinformatics , 24 , 581 - \u2013583 .\noliver , p . , couper , p . j . & pepper , m . ( 2014a ) independent transitions between monsoonal and arid biomes revealed by systematic revison of a complex of australian geckos ( diplodactylus ; diplodactylidae ) . plos one , 9 , e111895 .\noliver , p . , laver , r . j . , melville , j . & doughty , p . ( 2014b ) a new species of velvet gecko ( oedura : diplodactylidae ) from the limestone ranges of the southern kimberley , western australia . zootaxa , 3873 ( 1 ) , 49\u2013 - 61 .\noliver , p . & parkin , t . ( 2014 ) a new phasmid gecko ( squamata : diplodactylidae : strophurus ) from the arnhem plateau : more new diversity in rare vertebrates from northern australia . zootaxa , 3878 ( 1 ) , 37\u2013 - 48 .\npepper , m . , barquero , m . d . , whiting , m . j . & keogh , j . s . ( 2014 ) a multi - locus molecular phylogeny for australia\u2019s iconic jacky dragon ( agamidae : amphibolurus muricatus ) : phylogeographic structure along the great dividing range of south - eastern australia . molecular phylogenetics and evolution , 71 , 149\u2013 - 156 .\npepper , m . , doughty , p . , fujita , m . k . , moritz , c . & keogh , j . s . ( 2013 ) speciation on the rocks : integrated systematics of the heteronotia spelea species complex ( gekkota ; reptilia ) from western and central australia . plos one , 8 ( 11 ) , e78110 .\ntyler , m . j . ( 1962 ) on the preservation of anuran tadpoles . australian journal of science , 25 , 222\ntyler , m . j . , davies , m . & martin , a . a . ( 1981b ) frog fauna of the northern territory : new distributional records and the description of a new species . transactions of the royal society of south australia , 105 , 149\u2013 - 154 .\ntyler , m . j . , davies , m . & martin , a . a . ( 1981c ) new and rediscovered species of frogs from the derby - broome area of western australia . records of the western australia museum , 9 , 147\u2013172 .\nwestgate , m . j . , driscoll , d . a . & lindenmayer , d . b . ( 2012 ) limited influence of stream networks on the terrestrial movements of three wetland - dependent frog species . biological conservation , 153 , 169\u2013 - 176 .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nclulow s 1 , anstis m 2 , keogh js 3 , catullo ra 4 .\nschool of environmental and life sciences , university of newcastle , nsw 2308 australia ; email : simon . clulow @ newcastle . edu . au .\nschool of environmental and life sciences , university of newcastle , nsw 2308 australia ; email : unknown .\nevolution , ecology & genetics , research school of biology , the australian national university , act 0200 , australia ; email : unknown .\nevolution , ecology & genetics , research school of biology , the australian national university , act 0200 , australia biological sciences , macquarie university , nsw 2109 australia school of science & health , western sydney university , nsw 2751 australia ; email : unknown .\nthis australian endemic occurs in eastern australia , from southeastern queensland , through new south wales to eastern victoria . the extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 442 , 200km2 .\nthe species is found in seasonally dry areas ; associated with grassland and woodland habitats . it breeds in shallow , ephemeral waters . larvae are free - swimming . it is often found in partly disturbed habitat and occasionally artificial habitat including artificial ponds and roadside ditches / drainage ditches .\nbroad - scale threats include habitat loss and modification , due to processes such as urbanisation and the introduction of alien plants . livestock over - grazing and resulting damage to native habitats is also thought to have a negative impact on the species . although u . laevigata may currently be common within the act region the introduction of diseases could be fatal to the species . care should be taken at all times when entering frog habitats due to the risk of spreading disease , including the chytrid fungus ( chytridiomycosis ) . to prevent the spread of the chytrid fungus it is important to wash your shoes before entering and after leaving frog habitats . for more information on the chytrid fungus - link to fact sheet urltoken\nyou can encourage frogs into your own backyard by including habitat features in your garden . the ginninderra catchment group , australian national university and environment act have developed a guideline to help you encourage frogs into your backyard called creating a frog friendly habitat in the act community .\nyou can also get involved in monitoring local frog populations . frogwatch is an annual program run to monitor the presence and abundance of frogs within the act region . the frogwatch program provides training for community volunteers each october , with monitoring then being undertaken by volunteers over a two week period .\nadults range from 2 . 5 - 3cm in length . \ufffdsmooth\ufffd is a misnomer , as the back of this species indeed has a warty appearance , though the belly is smooth . the back colour ranges from brown to orange brown and is often a mottled mix of the two . orange patches usually stand out both behind and in front of each thigh . the call of the species is monotonous and low pitched , described as a \ufffdwwhhrrkkkkk\ufffd .\nthe call of u . laevigata and crinea parinsignifera ( plains froglet ) are often confused . the call of u . laevigata is slightly lower and longer , however , it may take some practice to tell the two apart . also look at the surrounding habitat . the smooth toadlet typically prefers dryer locations to those preferred by the plains froglet .\nvery common in the canberra region , particularly in hilly areas . the species extends from south - east qld , along the eastern edge of nsw and just crossing the border into victoria .\nthe most common technique for monitoring frog populations is based on call identification , with each frog species having a unique call . frogs should not be handled without the use of sterile gloves , as their skin is very sensitive to chemicals , including sunscreen and soap .\ncalls from september through to november , with breeding occurring from october though november .\nmales often call from hidden positions ( amongst vegetation or fallen timber ) as far as 10 metres away from water bodies .\nmay include native birds , such as the white - faced heron ( egretta novaehollandiae ) and intermediate egret , and fish , including the introduced carp , goldfish and trout . introduced species such as cats ( felis catus ) and foxes may also predate on frogs .\nbarker , j . , grigg , g . , tyler , m . ( 1995 ) . a field guide to australian frogs . surry beatty & sons . nsw , australia . s , tlintermans , m . & osborne , w . ( 2002 ) . wet & wild : a field guide to the freshwater animals of the southern tablelands and high country of the act and nsw . environment act . canberra , australia . s , trobinson , m . ( 1993 ) . a field guide to frogs of australia . australian museum / reed books . nsw , australia . s , tturner , j . ( 2004 ) . frogs of australia . pensoft . bulgaria . p , styler , j . ( 1994 ) . australian frogs : a natural history . reed new holland . australia . s , tswan , g . ( 2001 ) . green guide : frogs of australia . new holland publishers . sydney , australia . p , s\ndiagnosis : the following combination of characters distinguish this species from congeners : small body size , dark brown dorsum with small darker spotting , loreal and lateral regions with bluish - white spotting , femoral patches of pale orange - red , slightly tuberculate dorsum and upper limbs , speckled and somewhat granular venter , toes with basal webbing , outer metatarsal tubercle usually spatulate and oriented perpendicular to foot , maxillary teeth present , frontoparietal fontanelle broadly exposed , presence of moderately developed parotoid and inguinal glands and less developed coccygeal glands , and a high - pitched rasping advertisement call ( doughty and roberts 2008 ) .\ndescription : adult males measure 18 . 0 - 21 . 5 mm svl . one adult female measured 20 . 5 mm svl . small rotund body with short limbs . small head with an oval tongue . eyes protrude slightly and the anterior corner of the eye is covered by a flap of skin . pupil is rhomboidal in shape . lacks vomerine teeth , but has maxillary teeth . rounded canthus rostralis and moderately steep , slightly concave loreal region . infralabial glands ( one to three ) present beneath jaw angle . the tympanum is covered by the skin and parotoid glands . unwebbed fingers with moderately developed tubercles ( one each on fingers i and ii ; two each on fingers iii and iv ) . finger i shorter than finger ii . short legs . toes are basally webbed , have weakly developed flanges along their length , and moderately developed tubercles underneath ( one on toes i , ii ; two on toes iii and v ; three on toe iv ) . inner metatarsal tubercle weakly developed . outer metatarsal tubercle generally spatulate in shape ( sometimes round ) and protruding perpendicularly from the foot . usually has parotoid , dorsolateral , and coccygeal glands . cloacal flap is present . scattered low tubercles on the skin of the dorsum , head and limbs . ventral surfaces are moderately granular . males have a nuptial pad on the inner part of finger i , from halfway down the finger to the base of the wrist and barely onto the palm ( doughty and roberts 2008 ) .\nin life , specimens from the mainland had a slightly different coloration than those from katers island . in mainland specimens , the dorsum ranged from a charcoal black to dark brown with random smaller dark blotches and faint bars on the limbs . slight orange - red tint on dorsum , and orange - red blotches on the parotoid glands , snout tip , submandibular glands , vertebral area , and upper arms . pale bluish - white specks are found on the tip of the snout , through the loreal region , along the sides and on the undersurfaces of the limbs . pale white ventral surfaces speckled with dark spots , except for abdomen which is uniformly pale ( neither white nor speckled ) . chin margin is slightly more pigmented . iris is chestnut brown with a green tint . creamy white fingers and toes ( doughty and roberts 2008 ) .\nspecimens from katers island had slightly lighter coloration and orange - red inguinal glands ( doughty and roberts 2008 ) .\nin preservative , the body is almost completely black with a tint of orange and red visible in some areas ( doughty and roberts 2008 ) .\nendemic to australia . only found in high rainfall areas ( over 1000 mm / year ) such as the northwest kimberley , western australia , the prince regent river nature reserve south to walcott inlet , western australia and on katers island , western australia . the type locality is near bachsten creek , in the southwest portion of the prince regent river nature reserve . habitat consists of generally moist areas such as creeks and rocks near water ( doughty and roberts 2008 ) .\nmales called from moist crevices in sandstone rocks on a high ridge or from crevices and cracks in rock faces with vegetation and seepages . others were found calling on hard - capped sandstone surfaces with small pools of slow flowing water among clumps of\nvegetation . long high - pitched call with a dominant frequency of 3347 hz ; there is some modulation as frequency rises later in the call . reproduction is aquatic . eggs are small and pigmented , hatching into free - swimming larvae ( doughty and roberts 2008 ) .\nwhich alludes to the species ' small size ( doughty and roberts 2008 ) .\ndoughty , p . and roberts , j . d . ( 2008 ) . ' ' a new species of\n( anura : myobatrachidae ) from the northwest kimberley , western australia . ' '\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 ."]}
{"id": 1418, "summary": [{"text": "eupithecia silenicolata is a moth in the family geometridae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found from southern europe ( southern france , central italy and the balkan peninsula ) and morocco to western asia ( turkey , russia and the caucasus ) , iran and pakistan .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "in the north , the range extends to southern switzerland , austria and northern italy .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 22 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on wing from may to june and again from july to august in two generations per year .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on silene species which are related to silene nutans , especially silene paradoxa .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the species overwinters in the pupal stage . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "eupithecia silenicolata", "paragraphs": ["eupithecia silenicolata zengoensis ssp . nova ( lepidoptera : geometridae ) . linneana belgica , 711 : 406 - 410 , 1979\nhabitat : eupithecia silenicolata inhabits light open and partly grazed forests ( quercus ) with embedded grasslands and loamy embankments with open ground where the larval host plant finds optimal growing conditions .\nremarks : eupithecia silenicolata ioccurs in southern europe ( southern france . central italy , the balkans ) and the western asia ( e . g . turkey , russia , the caucasus ) . there are also records from morocco . in the north eupithecia silenicolata is distributed in the southern and parts of the central alps ( southern switzerland , austria , northern italy ) .\nnew eupithecia species from south america lepidoptera geometridae nouveaux eupithecia damerique du sud lepidoptera geometridae . miscellanea entomologica , 512 : 55 - 65 , 1987\neupithecia inturbata new for the netherlands lepidoptera geometridae eupithecia inturbata nieuw voor nederland lepidoptera geometridae . entomologische berichten ( amsterdam ) . september ; 619 : 130 - 131 , 2001\nadditional information on the first estonian record of eupithecia distinctaria lepidoptera , geometridae lisateavet liivatee - pisivaksiku eupithecia distinctaria esmasleiu kohta lepidoptera , geometridae . lepinfo . juuni ; 13 : 7 , 2002\nthe expansionist eupithecia sinuosaria eversm has now reached north ticino lepidoptera geometridae der arealerweiterer eupithecia sinuosaria eversm hat nun auch den nordtessin erreicht lepidoptera geometridae . entomologische berichte luzern . september ; 49 : 155 - 156 , 2003\non the characteristics of some new or already known eupithecia males from south america lepidoptera geometridae sur les particularites propres aux males de quelques eupithecia damerique du sud nouveaux ou deja connus lepidoptera geometridae . miscellanea entomologica , 512 : 41 - 54 , 1987\nobservations on geometrid moths 10 lepidoptera , geometridae a new subspecies of eupithecia impurata hubner , 1813 blutenspanner - beobachtungen 10 lepidoptera , geometridae eine neue unterart von eupithecia impurata hubner , 1813 . dortmunder beitraege zur landeskunde , 23 : 39 - 46 , 1989\nlife cycle : the pupa hibernates . i found larvae in mid - july 2007 ( and also in 2011 and 2012 ) in northern greece in about 1000m above sea level . according to literature , eupithecia silenicolata has two generations with moths from may to june and july to august . probably there is only a partial second generation due to the phenology of the larval host plant .\neupithecia pernotata enictata new subspecies from southern finland lepidoptera geometridae larentiinae . notulae entomologicae 64 ( 2 ) : 54 - 56 , 1984\nnew eupithecia species and subspecies from asia and north africa lepidoptera geometridae . acta zoologica academiae scientiarum hungaricae 23 ( 1 - 2 ) : 227 - 236 , 1977\nnew species and subspecies of geometrid moths of the genus eupithecia curt . ( lepidoptera , geometridae ) from caucasus and transcaucasia . trudy zoologicheskogo instituta , 291 : 101 - 110 , 2001\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhost plants : the larvae feed on silene species that are related to silene nutans . apparently the species is particularly found at silene paradoxa , where i found it in northern greece together with caterpillars of hadena adriana .\nif is associated with an alamy account you ' ll receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password .\nenter your log in email address and we\u0092ll send you a link to reset your password .\nif you want to use this image commercially and we ' ve indicated * that alamy doesn ' t have a release , you might need additional permission from the model , artist , owner , estate , trademark or brand . more information .\nsorry , this image isn ' t available for this licence . please refer to the license restrictions for more information .\non the alamy prints site ( powered by art . com ) choose your frame , the size and finish of your photo .\nenter your log in email address and we ' ll send you a link to reset your password .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwebsite \u00a9 jim wheeler 2016 - 2018 . nola - x database system \u00a9 jim wheeler 2018 . - sponsored by urltoken & urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nsubscription or article purchase required to access item . to verify subscription , access previous purchase , or purchase article , log in to journal .\ne . s . zengoensis ssp . nov . , a geometrid moth from southern hungary ( mt . mecsek area ) , is described . morphological , phenological , ecological and zoogeogrpahical considerations are included .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\naustria , bulgaria , hungary , greece , italy , corsica , romania , slovakia , france , yugoslavia .\nrf regions : west caucasus , middle - volzhsky , sredneobskaya , south ural .\naustria , bulgaria , hungary , greece ( mainland ) , italy ( mainland ) , corsica , macedonia , romania , russia , slovakia , france ( mainland ) , yugoslavia .\n[ 10 ] de jong , y . s . d . m . ( ed . ) ( 2011 ) fauna europaea version 2 . 4 ( faunaeur . org )\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\nthere are no photos of this species on the website yet . you can offer your photo by logging into your account\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more"]}
{"id": 1421, "summary": [{"text": "synodontis is the largest genus of mochokid catfishes .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is the biggest genus within the 10 genera and 190 different species in the mochokidae family .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "synodontis has over 131 different species within the genera .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "synodontis are also known as squeakers , due to their ability to make stridulatory sounds through their pectoral fin spines when handled or disturbed .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "synodontis make a sound that sounds like squeaking by rubbing their spines together .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "they do this when they have been frightened or when they become angry .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "\" synodontis \" may also squeak when they are taken out of the water .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "these catfish are small - to medium-sized fish with many species exhibiting attractive spotted markings .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "some species are also known for naturally swimming belly-up , earning the name upside-down catfish .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "some of these species are synodontis contractus and synodontis nigriventris .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "while some of these species are known to swim upside down , another species , synodontis multipunctatus , is a brood parasitic cuckoo catfish . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "synodontis", "paragraphs": ["lateral view of synodontis ornatipinnis , illustrating the striking patterns seen in some species of synodontis ; cu 91403 . \u00a9\nsynodontis schall surface shore bottom habitats araoye , p . a . spatio - temporal distribution of the fish synodontis schall ( teleostei : mochokidae ) in asa lake , ilorin , nigeria\nsynodontis ocellifer was , at one time , a fairly rare fish in the hobby . what was once a fish shipped accidentally with other synodontis is now imported separately in fairly decent numbers .\nspine anatomy reveals the diversity of catfish through time : a case study of synodontis ( siluriformes ) .\nsynodontis schoutedeni is known from pool malebo ( stanley pool ) and from the central congo river basin .\na synonym of brachysynodontis barensoda ( r\u00fcppel , 1932 ) . see the species synodontis batensoda r\u00fcppel , 1932 .\ni think i may be experiencing auditory hallucinations . i am convinced i have heard my synodontis squeaking at me .\nsynodontis schall is able to adapt to many different kinds of food and habitats , increasing the chances of survival .\nsynodontis soloni is a benthopelagic species . it is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding ( breder and rosen 1966 ) .\nsynodontis pleurops is a benthopelagic species . it is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding ( breder and rosen 1966 ) .\nspine anatomy reveals the diversity of catfish through time : a case study of synodontis ( siluriformes ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nbi tree of synodontis catfish . voucher and field numbers ( see the electronic supplementary material ) are used to distinguish multiple specimens . lm , lake malawi ; lv , lake victoria ; rm , river malagrasi ; sa , south africa . photographs top to bottom : s . nigromaculatus , s . njassae , s . granulosus , s . multipunctatus , s . victoriae , synodontis cf . tanganaicae , s . af . petricola , synodontis dhonti , synodontis polli and s . cf . petricola .\nif you really want to know , this article from planet catfish is an excellent in depth guide to identifying hybrid synodontis .\nsynodontis species vary greatly in adult size , from 5 cm total length ( tl ) in the recently described s . acanthoperca ( friel & vigliotta , 2006 ) up to 80 cm in other species . larger synodontis are important food fishes in many parts of africa . species in other mochokid genera are even smaller as adults ( e . g . , microsynodontis and chiloglanis ) , but none are larger than the largest synodontis . synodontis angelicus may reach about 25 cm tl ( poll , 1971 ) .\nwhether you care if your synodontis is a hybrid or not will depend on whether you intend to attempt breeding ( a very noble goal indeed , given the difficulty of breeding synodontis , ) or whether you are paying a premium for a ' pure ' fish .\nif you are keeping several synodontis in the same tank , ensure that you provide plenty of hiding places and have a spacious aquarium .\nalso look out for synodontis sp . ' golden eye ' , which is a bit like synodontis multipunctatus . it ' s being bred in the uk and some specialist stores are stocking the very attractive juveniles . look out in this mag next month for more details .\na large - scale phylogeny of synodontis ( mochokidae , siluriformes ) reveals the influence of geological events on continental diversity during the cenozoic .\nfroese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2011 ) .\nsynodontis schall\nin fishbase . december 2011 version .\nthere are many species of synodontis , and there are many hybrids and crossbreeds between the species which pop up as well , quite often in pet shops . synodontis appear to be quite happily and readily crossbred to the chagrin of purists who do not approve of such abominations .\nmusschoot , t . , and p . lal\u00e8y\u00e8 . 2008 . designation of a neotype for synodontis schall ( bloch and schneider , 1801 ) and description of two new species of synodontis ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) . journal of natural history 42 ( 17 - 18 ) : 1303\u00961331 .\nfossil mochokids ( almost exclusively synodontis ) are widespread in africa and date as far back as the early miocene ( stewart , 2001 ) . interestingly , fragments of synodontis pectoral spines dating from the early oligocene have been found in oman , an area where mochokids do not exist today .\nsynodontis : from the greek syn , meaning together , and odontos , meaning tooth ; in reference to the closely - spaced lower jaw teeth .\nevaluation of the fossil fish - specific diversity in a chadian continental assemblage : exploration of morphological continuous variation in synodontis ( ostariophysi , siluriformes ) .\nfossil mochokids , of the genus synodontis , have been found in deposits from eastern and northern africa dating to at least the early miocene ( at least 20 mya ) ( stewart , 2001 ) . interestingly , fragments of pectoral spines of synodontis dating from the early oligocene have been found in oman , an area where mochokids do not exist today ( otero & gayet , 2001 ) . fossil mochokids outside of the genus synodontis are presently unknown .\nthe true upside - down catfish , synodontis nigriventris , is adapted for feeding from the surface on insects and other items that fall into the water .\nsynodontis multipunctatus is native to lake tanganyika and therefore also a suitable inhabitant for rift lake cichlid fish aquariums . s . multipunctatus is one of the most popular of the synodontis catfishes . this popularity started with those aquarists who kept cichlids from lakes tanganyika and malawi and has spread widely from that base .\nsynodontis is a genus of upside - down catfishes . they are members of the african catfish family mochokidae which contains about 150 different species in 10 genera .\nfavours fast - flowing rocky habitats and is the only synodontis species found in rapids , where it lives in crevices ( tweddle et al . 2004 ) .\nsynodontis pleurops is known from the lower congo , pool malebo ( stanley pool ) and the congo river basin , with exception of the luapula - mweru system .\n6a . eyes with free orbital margin ; 17 principal caudal - fin rays ( only 13 in synodontis contracta ) ; tail forked ; 6 to 10 pectoral - fin rays ( usually 8 or 9 ) ; lateral mandibular barbels with single , gracile branches at each point along length or doubly branched ( fig . 27a\u2013b ) \u2026 synodontis\ndon ' t worry . synodontis do sometimes make noises that are audible outside the aquarium . this has earned them the name ' squeakers ' in parts of africa .\na large - scale phylogeny of synodontis ( mochokidae , siluriformes ) reveals the influence of geological events on continental diversity during the cen . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nto cite this page : mr . thomas vigliotta , 2006 ,\nsynodontis angelicus\n( on - line ) , digital morphology . accessed july 9 , 2018 at urltoken\nsynodontis schall has a shield on its body and has strong bony spines on the pectoral and dorsal fins . some areas of new evolutionary forces have allowed for the synodontis schall to have different phenotypes . recent studies have found evidence for an increase number of teeth and gill rakers which could possibly point to a change from them being herbivores to carnivores .\none in particular \u2014 a small , \u201ccommon\u201d synodontis \u2014 can be considered the standard bearer for the genus . the upside - down catfish ( synodontis nigriventris ) is without doubt the most popular and widespread ( in aquariums ) of the synodontis catfishes . this popularity is certainly not as a result of its color . the base color is generally brown , with small darker spots scattered on the body and head . two broad bands of lighter color may be seen on the body to the front and rear of the adipose fin .\nday , j . j . , and m . wilkinson . 2006 . on the origin of the synodontis catfish species flock from lake tanganyika . biology letters 2 : 548\u0096552 .\n. . . the consumption of fish scales by synodontis species has been observed by several authors ( e . g . lauzanne , 1988 ; ofori - danson , 1992 ) . however , whether or not the synodontis , especially s . koensis actively searches for scales or ingest them at random is a question that remains to be investigated . . . .\na much deeper - bodied synodontis , the synodontis eruptus is also known as the featherfin squeaker because off its beautiful feathered dorsal fin and the fact that it can produce a high pitched squeaking with it . these fish grow up to 20 centimeters , though 15 to 17 is more common , and have been reported as being more aggressive than other catfish .\nfor the concatenated data set , a total of 7 partitions were identified using partitionfinder ( table 1 ) . based on the concatenated data set and individual gene trees , the genus synodontis is monophyletic ( fig . 1 ; supplementary fig . s1a\u2013d , doi : 10 . 5061 / dryad . b6225 ) . synodontis forms a clade with its successive sister taxa microsynodontis , mochokus , and mochokiella , which itself is sister to a clade , including chiloglanis , atopochilus , and euchilichthys . brachysynodontis batensoda and hemisynodontis membranaceus , 2 previously monotypic genera ( poll 1971 ) , nest within synodontis supporting morphological data ( vigliotta 2008 ) . based on our results and previous morphological findings , we therefore place these genera in the synonymy of synodontis .\nbishai h . m . and y . b . abu gideiri . 1968 . studies on the biology of genus synodontis at khartoum . iii . reproduction . hydrobiologia 31 : 193\u0096202 .\nsanyanga , r . a . 1998 . food composition and selectivity of synodontis zambezensis ( pisces : mochokidae ) in lake kariba , and the ecological implications . hydrobiologia 361 : 89\u009699 .\ngastrointestinal helminth parasites of the fish synodontis clarias ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) from lekki lagoon , lagos , nigeria por : akinsanya , bamidele , et al . publicado : ( 2007 )\nthere is also evidence of other recent dispersal events between the biogeographic clades . this is apparent within the ea clade , with dispersal into the cb ( 95 % hpd : 0 . 8\u20132 . 9 ma ) as the distinctive congolese taxon synodontis acanthomias is sister to the southern african synodontis nigromaculatus . in the reverse direction , the ea taxon synodontis afrofischeri ( lakes victoria / albert ) nests within the cb clade ( 95 % hpd : 4 . 0\u20138 . 6 ma ) . the single taxon ( synodontis aff . laessoei ) described from the cuanza ( angola ) ichthyo - province is also identified as having originated within the cb , but diverged much earlier from its congolese ancestor 11 . 9\u201321 . 3 ( 95 % hpd ) ma .\nlal\u00e8y\u00e8 , p . , chikou , a . , gnohossou , p . , vandewalle , p . , philippart , j c . & teugels , g .\nstudies on the biology of two species of catfish synodontis schall and synodontis nigrita ( ostariophysi : mochokidae ) from the ou\u00e9m\u00e9 river , b\u00e9nin\n. belgian journal of zoology 136 ( 2 ) : 193\u2013201 .\nsynodontis generally mix well with other fishes and are easy to keep . larger ones could eat very small fishes , and they are often quite territorial towards other catfishes , especially other synos .\nbishai h . m . and y . b . abu gideiri . 1965a . studies on the biology of genus synodontis at khartoum . i . age and growth . hydrobiologia 26 : 85\u009697 .\nsanyanga , r . a . 1998 . food composition and selectivity of synodontis zambezensis ( pisces : mochokidae ) in lake kariba , and the ecological implications . hydrobiologia 361 : 89 - 99 .\nthey are also known as the cuckoo synodontis as they have a habit of eating the eggs of other fish and depositing their own in place for the other fish to tend as they grow .\nbishai h . m . and y . b . abu gideiri . 1965b . studies on the biology of genus synodontis at khartoum . ii . food and feeding habits . hydrobiologia 26 : 98\u0096113 .\nif you are trying to identify whether or not a synodontis is pure , pay special attention to fin shape , size and coloration , to the nature of the barbs around the mouth , to the overall body shape of the fish and to its markings . if your synodontis seems to have the characteristics of more than one species , there is a fairly decent chance that it is a hybrid .\na peaceful synodontis species , these do not grow much over 12 centimeters . unlike other species of synodontis , these have been bred in captivity relatively easily , but prefer to live and spawn in groups , so a pair may not spawn alone . these are easily confused with multipunctatus , however they sport a white trim which is not present in the multipuncatus . they tend to be quite expensive .\nthe mochokid fossil record is represented largely by synodontis , predominately isolated robust fin spines ( pinton et al . 2006 ) . there are good diagnostic characters for fin spines of african catfish genera developed through extensive comparative material ( gayet and van neer 1990 ; pinton et al . 2006 ) , although extant synodontis are currently defined by 2 synapomorphies based only on soft tissue characters ( see vigliotta 2008 ) .\npoll , m . 1971 . r\u00e9vision des synodontis africains ( famille mochocidae ) . annales de mus\u00e9e royale de l ' afrique centrale ( ser . 8 ) , sciences zoologiques 191 : 1 - 497 .\nsynodontis decorus is one of the most magnificent of the synodontis species ! it is hard to find a more stunning sight than that of an adult s . decorus swimming in an aquarium with its long , black dorsal fin trailer flowing behind . when seeing this species at the smaller sizes they are usually imported at , they are quite attractive , but this is merely a hint of the beauty to come .\nsynodontis schoutedeni is a benthopelagic species . its electric organ is located dorsally and consists of modified striated muscle ( m\u00f8ller 1995 ) . it is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding ( breder and rosen 1966 ) .\nlt cichlids are both polyphyletic , implying independent colonizations of the lake , and paraphyletic , demonstrating that radiations within the lake have subsequently become a source for secondary seeding of rivers and younger lakes ( salzburger et al . 2002 ) . in contrast , platytelphusidae crabs ( marijnissen et al . 2006 ) and cleopatra gastropods ( west & michel 2000 ) are monophyletic , consistent with single origins and no dispersal out of tanganyika . a current phylogeny is lacking for east african synodontis and thus it is not known whether the lt species flock is a single radiation . molecular markers have undermined the traditional taxonomies of some other lt groups ( e . g . r\u00fcber et al . 1999 ) , but have not yet been applied to synodontis , so that the extent of phylogenetic diversity of the lt flock is unclear . here , mtdna data are used to test current species concepts and to infer a dated phylogeny for lacustrine and fluviatile species of primarily east african synodontis . the phylogeny is used to test alternative hypotheses of the evolutionary history of synodontis in east africa , and in particular , whether the lt synodontis constitute a single radiation . synodontis catfish provide a parallel system that can be compared to other lake faunas to test the extent to which there are common patterns and processes of diversification in lt .\nbishai , h . m . and y . b . abu gideiri . 1965 . studies on the biology of the genus synodontis at khartoum . i . age and growth . hydrobiologia 26 : 85 - 97 .\nwright , j . j . and l . m . page . 2006 . taxonomic revision of the lake tanganyikan synodontis ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) . the bulletin of the florida museum of natural history 46 : 99\u0096154 .\nsynodontis schall is a benthopelagic , potamodromous species . it is found both in deep , open water and in quite shallow water , but it is never close to the shore ( worthington , 1929 ) . this species is an omnivore and feeds on insect nymph , larvae , eggs and detritus ( willoughby 1974 ) . it also feeds on fish , bivalves in the sudd and snails in gezira irrigation canals . synodontis schall is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding ( breder and rosen 1966 ) . breeding occurs during the flood season ( bailey 1994 ) in comparatively shallow and sheltered waters ( worthington and ricardo 1936 ) . synodontis schall is utilized for human consumption .\nin another article , i presented a brief overview of some of the basic principles for maintaining synodontis catfishes in the aquarium . now i would like to introduce a few of the various species that are available to hobbyists .\nthe genus synodontis is by far the largest and most well known in the family , and dozens of species are available in the hobby , ranging in size from just a few cm to well over 30cm / 12\n.\nwright , j . j . and l . m . page . 2008 . a new species of synodontis ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) from tributaries of the kasai river in northern angola . copeia 2008 ( 2 ) : 294\u0096300 .\nin the wild the synodontis live in lagoons and other slow - flowing waters , often forming good sized groups . they are fish of the twilight and darkness and spend much of the day hidden under submerged tree trunks or riverbanks .\nsynodontis nummifer is known from throughout the congo river basin . it has not been found in centre of the democratic republic of the congo and in the southern tributaries of the congo river . records from the lower congo require confirmation .\nsynodontis soloni is known from the pool malebo ( stanley pool ) rapids and from libenge . it is also widely distributed in the lower congo ( roberts and stewart 1976 ) and from the ubangui river at zongo ( gosse 1968 ) .\naraoye , p . a . ( 2000 ) .\npectoral spine size in synodontis schall ( teleostei : mochokidae ) from asa lake , ilorin , nigeria\n. revista de biolog\u00eda tropical 48 ( 2 - 3 ) : 509\u201310 .\nsynodontis eupterus is , to my mind , one of the most outstanding of the synodontis catfishes . although it is not especially notable for its coloration ( a base gray - yellow to gray violet with darker markings in the form of winding lines in the young and small spots in the adult ) , the finnage , especially the dorsal , is what catches the eye . this fish well deserves its common name : feather fin synodontis . the dorsal fin , even in many juveniles , shows a distinct feathering . as the fish grows , this is additionally accentuated by increased prolongations of the soft rays , along with the accompanying membrane . the dorsal spine also shows similar extension with the growth of the fish .\nmonsters , these synodontis can grow over two feet in length . not at all recommended unless you have a very , very large fish tank , even 100 gallons won ' t cut it with one of these fish when they reach maturity .\nsynodontis nummifer is a demersal species . it is oviparous with distinct pairing during breeding ( breder and rosen 1966 ) . stomach contents contained sand , mud , plant debris , herbs and insect larvae ( mainly chironomids ) ( matthes 1964 ) .\nkoblm\u00fcller , s . , c . sturmbauer , e . verheyen , a . meyer , and w . salzburger . 2006 . mitochondrial phylogeny and phylogeography of east african squeaker catfishes ( siluriformes : synodontis ) . bmc evolutionary biology 6 : 49 .\n. . . gy of synodontis in lake kanji ( nigeria ) described s . schall as omnivorous feeding on insect nymph and larvae , fish eggs , and detritus . hickley and bailey ( 1987 ) studying s . schall in the sudd swamps of the river nile ( sudan ) have pointed out the importance of detritus , benthic algae , macrophytes , benthic crustaceans , insects and fish in its diets . ofori - danson ( 1992 ) working on the ecology of some synodontis species in kpong headpond ( ghana ) indicated the dominant food items of s . schall as detritus , insects , oligochaeta , nematoda and hirudinea . sanyanga ( 1998 ) studied the food composition and selectivity of synodontis zambezensis in lake kariba and reported molluscivorous feeding habits . the specie . . .\nsynodontis ( mochokidae , siluriformes ) is a freshwater catfish endemic to africa . the 118 extant species are present in almost all hydrographic basins . some species are restricted to a single stream , whereas others have a vast distribution . synodontis is known in the fossil record since the miocene , and its history depends on the connections among african basins through time . the identification of species in the fossil record is essential to reconstruct this historical pattern . catfish pectoral and dorsal spines are robust , they preserve well and they form most of the fossil remains for the genus synodontis . unfortunately , the criteria for the identification of extant synodontis species are not applicable to fossil specimens . here , we define 11 original morphological characters that permit to discriminate four extant species from the chad - chari hydrographic system . six of these characters are defined on pectoral spines and five on dorsal spines . we then show that these characters can be used successfully for identifying fossil specimens . in particular , we present a case study in which we identify synodontis cf . schall and brachysynodontis cf . batensoda in the hominid - bearing sector toros - menalla ( late miocene , northern chad ) . we show that spine anatomy can be a powerful tool to recognise catfish species through time and thus to identify historical diversity pattern .\nbeyond diet , there isn\u2019t a great deal known about the ecology of synodontis or other mochokids . synodontis stomach contents have included insects , nematodes , crustaceans , mollusks , annelids , seeds , algae , fish scales and incidentally sand ( bishai & abu gideiri , 1965 ; sanyanga , 1998 ; winemiller & winemiller , 1996 ) . the diets of the three sucker - mouthed genera ( see above ) may contain a higher proportion of plant matter , but it seems likely that all members of the family are omnivorous .\nfriel , j . p . , and j . p . sullivan . 2008 . synodontis woleuensis ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) , a new species of catfish from gabon and equatorial guinea , africa . proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia 157 : 3\u009612 .\nfriel , j . p . and t . r . vigliotta . 2006 . synodontis acanthoperca , a new species from the og\u00f4ou\u00e9 river system , gabon with comments on spiny ornamentation and sexual dimorphism in mochokid catfishes ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) . zootaxa 1125 : 45\u009656 .\nde weirdt , d . , e . vreven , and y . fermon . 2008 . synodontis ngouniensis , a new species ( siluriformes : mochikidae ) from ngouni\u00e9 and nyanga basins , gabon and republic of congo . ichthyological exploration of freshwaters 19 ( 2 ) : 121\u0096128 .\nmost fish have a cryptic colour pattern called countershading and their backs are darker than their bellies , making them more difficult for predators to see . but because synodontis swim the wrong way up , they use reverse - countershading so that their bellies are darker than their backs .\nbayesian phylogenetic hypothesis of synodontis catfish reconstructed from the concatenated data set . outgroups ( gray branches ) , bpps are given in full below nodes , bs values are given above nodes : black square > 95 % , gray square 94\u201390 % , and gray star 89\u201385 % .\nabu - gideiri , y . b . & nasr , d . h . ( december 1973 ) .\nsound production by synodontis schall ( bloch - schneider )\n. hydrobiologia 43 ( 3 - 4 ) : 415\u2013428 . doi : 10 . 1007 / bf00015360 .\nfriel , j . p . and t . r . vigliotta . 2006 . synodontis acanthoperca , a new species from the og\u00f4ou\u00e9 river system , gabon with comments on spiny ornamentation and sexual dimorphism in mochokid catfishes ( siluriformes : mochokidae ) . zootaxa 1125 : 45 - 56 .\nsynodontis is by far the largest genus in the family mochokidae and , indeed , one of the largest among all catfishes ( about 120 species , a close second to corydoras , about 150 species ) . and so , synodontis is often the stand - in when people think about mochokid catfishes . but , in fact , the family ( 10 genera , ~ 190 species ) is much more morphologically diverse when you consider some of the other recognized genera . euchilichthys , atopochilus and chiloglanis are particularly notable for their ventrally - directed sucker - shaped mouths . others like mochokus and acanthocleithron are very poorly known , but exhibit unique morphologies of their own . synodontis angelicus , like many mochokids , is typified by branched mandibular barbels , well - developed nuchal plates , a large cleithral process and s - shaped mandibular teeth set in a deep cavity / cup of the dentary .\nthe earliest synodontis is 21 . 8\u201316 . 6 myr old ( burdigalian ) , but younger fossils cannot be reliably assigned to extant species ( pinton et al . 2006 ) . molecular divergence time estimates were calculated using a pruned tree ( eliminating intraspecific data ) , assuming either 21 . 8 or 16 . 6 myr as the age of synodontis , and using the optimal smoothing parameter value , determined through cross - validation in penalized likelihood as implemented in r8s ( sanderson 2003 ) . confidence limits on age estimates were based on two mcmc chains sampling 500 generations and enforcing topological constraint .\nnine genera and approximately 200 valid species are currently recognized . some fossilized pectoral spines have been attributed to synodontis , but none of them are described as new . phylogenetic relationships among the mochokid genera were investigated by vigliotta ( 2008 ) who found that chiloglanis is possibly a paraphyletic assemblage , that synodontis must include s . membranaceous and s . batensoda ( formerly placed in hemisynodontis and brachysynodontis respectively ) and that the reciprocal monophyly of atopochilus and euchilichthys are questionable at best ; all remaining genera are recovered as valid and monophyletic . the general relationships between mochokid genera are illustrated in the phylogeny below .\nlt radiations leading to secondary colonization of rivers are rare in lt cichlid tribes ( salzburger et al . 2002 ) . the occurrence of a non - endemic synodontis within the lt species flock might be similarly explained if the flock were monophyletic . the phylogeny does not support this , but it and the time - scale are consistent with s . victoriae having originated in this way . thus , synodontis may provide a second example of recolonization . it is tempting to suggest that the ability to recolonize rivers is correlated with mobility , and that synodontis are more similar to cichlids than to benthic invertebrates , for which there is no evidence of recolonization ( e . g . marijnissen et al . 2006 ) , in this respect . unfortunately , the placement of s . victoriae is not compelling . we cannot reject the alternative hypothesis that the lt endemics are a single monophyletic radiation , which has not seeded any other rivers or lakes . east\u2013west african faunal divisions , consistent with continental - scale vicariance , are reported for many terrestrial ( e . g . matthee et al . 2004 ) , but few aquatic groups . synodontis phylogeny reveals an initial east\u2013west split and subsequent dispersal between the regional faunas .\nmy synodontis was 2\nlong in 1986 ! no typo . . . 1986 ! i know because in 11 / ' 86 we took our appaloosa stallion to the world champ show 100 ' s of miles away , for a week . had so many fish i got an amateur to feed while i was gone but worried what syno would eat . never let an amateur feed pellets ! the fish lucked out as the amateur quit the job after 1 day ( went deer hunting ) . this synodontis is still going as of 10 / 6 / 2013 . . . 27 yrs later !\njulia j . day , claire r . peart , katherine j . brown , john p . friel , roger bills , timo moritz ; continental diversification of an african catfish radiation ( mochokidae : synodontis ) , systematic biology , volume 62 , issue 3 , 1 may 2013 , pages 351\u2013365 , urltoken\nsynodontis catfishes span the entire geographic range of mochokids ; they inhabit a large proportion of african freshwaters including most of sub - saharan africa and the nile river basin and can be found in large rivers , smaller fast - flowing streams and the massive african rift lakes . some species are known to swim in mid - water and some will shoal ; others are primarily benthic and relatively solitary . synodontis angelicus is distributed throughout the congo river drainage ( poll , 1971 ) . anecdotal reports tell of angel squeakers using holes in submerged logs for shelter ; this practice is probably more widespread in the family .\nin african freshwater , curved teeth are typical of mochokid fish . within the family , this shape is observed in synodontis , microsynodontis , mochokus and chiloglanis members ( pinton , otero , pers . obs . ) . this kind of tooth is usually attributed to synodontis in the fossil record because living species of microsynodontis are very small and because chiloglanis is a genus that inhabits fast moving waters , whereas synodontis are large - bodied and widespread , living in a variety of habitats . however , the description of giant fossil fish in another minute mochokid genus in the late miocene of chad , i . e . , mochokus [ 32 ] , suggest that one should not rely on size features to assign fossil remains to a given genus , notably in the case of mochokids . finally , the identification of mochokids at dur at - talah based on a single minute tooth is rather fragile and needs further confirmation .\nltt plots for the original synodontis data set ( dark gray ) and including missing species added at random ( light gray ) , estimated from sampling 100 bayesian trees generated from the concatenated data set . the solid line indicates the expected number of lineages under a constant rate model of diversification with no extinction .\nunless you have a very common species , it may be difficult to tell if what you have is a hybrid or not . there are currently well over 100 different identifies species of synodontis , and more than one syno has been misidentified as a hybrid when it was , in fact a new species .\nsynodontis notatus is not one of the most attractive of the synodontis , but because of its general availability it deserves note here . this species has a gray - brown body color , with the ventral region being white . on the sides there are varying numbers of round , black spots along the midline . there may be as few as one spot per side \u2014 usually there are less than five \u2014 but on occasion there are more . the numbers of spots on each side of the body do not necessarily match . very rarely , an individual without spots on one side or the other may be seen .\na native of lake malawi , synodontis njassae is a pretty catfish with lovely coloration which can vary widely from fish to fish . some specimens may have many spots covering their body , others have but a few . some keepers break these into large and small spotted varieties . they grow to around 20 centimeters .\none species of synodontis is known for an interesting bit of its ecology ; s . multipunctatus is a brood parasite of mouth brooding cichlids such as haplochromis ( sato , 1986 ; wisenden , 1999 ) . adults of this species will \u2018dump\u2019 their own fertilized eggs into the mix while cichlids are breeding and the catfish eggs are taken into the mouth of a cichlid . the synodontis eggs hatch first and will eat the host eggs before they leave the host mouth . visit this link to see video of s . multipunctatus spawning with cichlids , and this link to see pictures of s . multipunctatus fry emerging from a cichlid mouth .\neven more peculiar is the habit of some species of synodontis that are known to swim upside - down . this habit seems to be correlated with feeding while upside - down at the water\u2019s surface ( bishai & abu gideiri , 1965b ) , but upside - down catfishes will rest and swim in the inverted position on a regular basis . chapman et al . ( 1994 ) showed that an upside - down posture near the surface also facilitates respiration in poorly oxygenated water . while the genus synodontis presents the most well - known species with their fascinating behaviors and natural histories , the family is actually much more interesting when taken as a whole .\nthe oldest reported fossil synodontis comes from the earliest lower oligocene , sultanate of oman at thaytiniti dated to 34 ma ( roger et al . 1993 ; otero and gayet 2001 ) and is represented by fin spines . these fossils possess a number of characters that in combination are used to diagnose synodontis from other african catfish ( gayet and van neer 1990 ) . these include : strong denticulation on the posterior border , round tubercles on the anterior border , a cleithral surface developed ventrally , a dorso - lateral process developed both anteriorly and laterally , and a well - developed auxiliary process ( gayet and van neer 1990 ; otero and gayet 2001 ) .\nsince the publication of the most recent taxonomic review of synodontis ( poll 1971 ) , a further 13 species have been described . the inclusion of multiple samples for species that have broad distributions within our study reveal reasonably distinct genetic divergences within taxa with large ranges , particularly across the n - s biogeographic region . k2p distances based on cyt b and coi range between 0 . 7 % and 2 . 1 % and may imply at least some cryptic speciation within the following taxa ( k2p distances for cyt b and coi given in parenthesis ) : synodontis sorex ( 2 % , 1 . 6 % ) , synodontis schall ( 2 % , 2 . 1 % ) , synodontis nigrita ( 1 . 6 % , 1 . 2 % ) , synodontis obesus ( 1 . 8 % , 1 % ) , synodontis clarias ( 1 % , 0 . 8 % ) , and the congo species synodontis angelica ( 1 . 2 % , 0 . 7 % ) . although not all these distances are > 2 % , often indicative of distinct species ( see april et al . 2011 ) , they are much greater than mean within species divergence ( 0 . 39 % based on coi ) reported in various marine fish species , for example ( ward et al . 2005 ) . the minimum timing of divergences within those taxa whose distances are < 2 % is 0 . 7\u20135 ma based on our multi gene data set . this pliocene\u2013pleistocene timeframe was when the subtropical african climate periodically fluctuated between distinctly wetter and drier conditions , with evidence for increases in aridity at 2 . 8 , 1 . 7 , and 1 . 0 ma ( demenocal 2004 ) . these oscillations would have led to expansion and contractions of waterways potentially leading to isolation of populations . however , more extensive sampling of populations is needed to fully test the hypothesis for cryptic speciation in these taxa . additional new species from the cb that are highly cryptic in nature are also identified in this study ( fig . 1 , s . sp . nov . 2\u20134 ) . as such , our study highlights the need for further biodiversity surveys of african rivers , particularly the comparatively unexplored congo basin that will undoubtedly yield further species new to science and enhance the opportunity to test hypotheses of diversification scenarios .\nsynodontis schall was caught throughout the year , but highest catches were recorded in january and february , while total catch decreased from september to november when the lake became flooded as a result of increased water levels ( monthly mean range = 12 . 20 to 12 . 80 cm ) due to the rains that commenced in april (\nall synodontis catfishes originate from africa . there are three areas of that continent where the majority of synodontis seen in the hobby come from : west africa ( mainly nigeria ) , zaire ( the \u201ccongo\u201d ) and the rift lakes . i will discuss briefly , by geographical origin , some of the more than 100 species in this genus . although there is only space to deal with a small number of these fish , i hope you will have at least a better understanding about some of these fascinating catfishes . ( note : all sizes given are in total length [ tl ] , which is the full length of the fish including the tail fin . )\nin the wild , this species is known to feed heavily on algae , so the addition of this or other vegetable fish foods to its diet is strongly recommended . with its small adult size and other similarities to s . nigriventris , this species offers good potential for someone wishing to try their hand at spawning a synodontis species .\nlagrange recovered both dispersal and extinction rates of synodontis to be 0 . 003 per million years , respectively . figure 2 shows the most likely scenario of ancestral area reconstructions for nodes of interest summarized on the dated species - tree of the study group . three distinct biogeographical groupings are identified for synodontis based on the analysis combining wa regions . these comprise wa ( that includes the combined ichthyo - provinces : n - s , lgf , ugf ) ea and the cb , with wa rendered polyphyletic . in this scenario , the genus synodontis is inferred to have originated in the broad region of wa with subsequent dispersal within this region ( relative probability [ rp ] 0 . 99 ) . the picture is , however , less clear when these regions are coded separately , with the best likelihood reconstruction inferred for the origin of this genus as n - s with subsequent dispersal within this region , although this finding is equivocal ( likelihood scores were not significantly different between multiple reconstructions , rp 0 . 44 ) .\nday , j . j . , peart , c . r . , brown , k . j . , friel , j . p . , bills , r . and moritz , t . 2013 . continental diversification of an african catfish radiation ( mochokidae : synodontis ) . syst biol 62 ( 3 ) : 351 - 365 .\nthe mochokidae are a family of catfishes ( order siluriformes ) that are known as the squeakers and upside - down catfish . there are 10 genera and about 188 species of mochokids here i will just deal with the most popular genera , the synodontis catfish . they are becoming more popular as availability increases , the synodontis are an interesting addition to any aquaria . their native ranges are the rivers and lakes of africa south of the sahara desert . all the family members are found only in africa . in the home they are most commonly seen in african cichlid tanks fulfilling the role of scavengers . to view some statistics on many individual fish , just click on any picture .\nvisual inspection of the ltt plot for synodontis indicates a near constant rate of diversification with no strong indication of a slowing down , irrespective of missing species added ( fig . 3 ) . net diversification rate for synodontis is 0 . 12 per ma assuming no extinction ( \u03f5 = 0 ) , decreasing to 0 . 07 per ma when assuming a high relative rate of extinction ( \u03f5 = 0 . 9 ) . our data , however , are better explained by low - extinction rates , that is , a pure - birth model ( \u03f5 = 0 ) , as opposed to a birth\u2013death model ( \u03f5 = 0 . 9 ) , based on likelihood ratio tests generated in laser ( rabosky 2006a ) .\nthese are synodontis with shark - like fins which have made them very popular indeed . they can command quite high prices both in pet stores and out of them . these synos grow to around 12 centimeters , so they are not terribly large , and if you have the funds , you can quite happily keep several of them in a 90 gallon tank .\nsynodontis contractus is a small species ( 4 inches [ 10 centimeters ] ) and one of my personal favorites . it is somewhat similar in appearance to s . nigriventris but has a generally more thickset body and \u201cchunky\u201d build . like s . nigriventris , it will spend a good amount of its time in the inverted position and is also a schooling species .\nbeyond information gleaned from captive breeding of certain species of synodontis , very little is known about reproduction in mochokids . the best studied mochokids in this regard are most likely nile river synodontis ( including s . membranacea and s . batensoda , previously placed in other genera ) . still , details are limited ; the studies indicate that spawning occurs from july to october , which coincides with the flooding season , and that pairs swim in unison during spawning bouts ( bishai & abu gideiri , 1968 ) . the most interesting and detailed information on mochokid reproduction relates to a species from lake tanganyika , synodontis multipunctatus , which is a brood parasite of mouth brooding cichlids such as simochromis and haplochromis ( sato , 1986 ; wisenden , 1999 ) . adults of this species spawn in the midst of spawning cichlids and the fertilized catfish eggs are taken into the mouth of a cichlid . the catfish eggs hatch first and will eat the host eggs before they leave the host mouth . most amazingly , this species has been able to parasitize mouth brooding cichlids from south america in captivity ( loiselle , 1998 ) .\nsynodontis gambiensis is one of the more recognizable species that is seen regularly mixed in with shipments of catfish from the group above . it is easily spotted among such imports because it is a solid gray - colored fish . the ventral region is whitish . other identifying characteristics include whitish barbels and a somewhat indistinct dark band on each lobe of the caudal ( tail ) fin .\nspace considerations dictate that this article must come to a close . i have barely scratched the surface in regards to this interesting group of catfishes . i do hope that i\u2019ve provided at least some useful information on synodontis and strongly suggest that if you haven\u2019t kept them before , consider doing so now . i think you will receive as much enjoyment from them as i have .\nbased largely on coloration and pattern some scientists and aquarists have recognized \u2018species flocks\u2019 of synodontis . the largest and most visually impressive of these is the lake tanganyika synodontis species flock . the flock consists of at least six species , all endemic to the lake , that show amazingly similar coloration and patterning . recent work suggests that this \u2018flock\u2019 is not monophyletic and that the biogeographic scenario is more complicated than a simple radiation after lake formation ( day & wilkinson , 2006 ; koblmuller et al . , 2006 ) . regardless , in this group of species , the nearly constant color pattern consists of a light brown base color and darker brown polka - dots . it is made more impressive by the fins , which have dark brown membranes basally and stark white trailing edges . the cryptic nature of lake tanganyika synodontis has led to an underestimate of the actual number of species present ( wright & page , 2006 ) ; three new species were described and two others were resurrected in that work . there are several other smaller flocks with their own unique patterns and pigmentation outside of the lake , and cryptic species probably exist for these as well .\nspatio , temporal distribution of synodontis scha ! l in asa lake was studied for 24 months ( march 1991 to february 1993 ) . distribution of individual was : 28 . 40 % ( surface ) , 35 . 60 % ( shore ) , and 36 . 0 % ( bottom ) . catches wilhin lhe habitat were nol significantly differen ! . similarly catches within lhe ha . . .\nkoblm\u00fcller , s . , sturmbauer , c . , verheyen , e . , meyer , a . , & salzburger , w . ( 2006 ) .\nmitochondrial phylogeny and phylogeography of east african squeaker catfishes ( siluriformes : synodontis )\n. bmc evolutionary biology 6 : 49 . doi : 10 . 1186 / 1471 - 2148 - 6 - 49 . pmc 1543664 . pmid 16784525 .\nquite common , these synos reach just four inches in length , which makes them the perfect catfish for a smaller aquarium . they are known widely as the ' upside down catfish ' . they reach around 10 centimeters , or four inches and are very pretty and entertaining to watch as they defy gravity . it is best to keep this type of synodontis in groups of three or more .\ndorsal view of heads illustrating sexual dimorphism of the opercular spine in synodontis acanthoperca : a . cu 89005 , male holotype , 44 . 1 mm sl ; b . cu 89006 , female paratype , 40 . 4 mm sl . the pectoral spines in both specimens have been removed from the images to make the margins of the head more distinct against the background . scale bar equals 1 mm . \u00a9\nchronogram , where synodontis are dated at either 21 . 8 ma ( blue ) or 16 . 6 ma ( green ) , with confidence limits calculated as 95 % credible intervals conditional on the tree topology . inset with ages ( and confidence limits in parenthesis ) for nodes a\u2013g . 1 , age of lt ; 2 , onset of deep water conditions in lt ; 3 , age of lm .\nthe surprise is baby s . multipunctatus ! this species is by far the most commonly spawned ( in captivity ) synodontis . what makes them unique is that they will spawn in conjunction with the cichlid fish and that the female cichlids will then incubate the catfish eggs along with their own . there is not enough room here to go into detail , but do be aware that it can and does happen .\nlittle is known about the ecology of most mochokids . what is known pertains mostly to diet and is biased towards species of synodontis . stomach contents from synodontis have included insects , nematodes , crustaceans , mollusks , annelids , seeds , algae , diatoms , fish scales and , incidentally , sand ( bishai & abu gideiri , 1965a ; bishai & abu gideiri , 1965b ; winemiller & kelso - winemiller , 1996 ; sanyanga , 1998 ) . from observations of stomach contents , the diet of most mochokids is probably very similar ; that is , they are omnivores . for some of the larger sucker - mouthed species ( i . e . , atopochilus and euchilichthys ) the stomach contents contain a high proportion of silt , algae and detritus . for these taxa it seems likely that scraping or grazing is the predominant method of feeding .\nwithin synodontis 2 principal clades are identified ( a and b ) , which are further subdivided into the 4 main subclades ( a1 , a2 and b1 , b2 , fig . 1 ) . support for a monophyletic synodontis and main subclades based on bpps is excellent , with all major nodes except clade a ( 0 . 55 bpp ) receiving > 98 % support , with bs values slightly lower ( fig . 1 ) . support for internal nodes within the main clades is generally good , although some relationships forming the base of clade a1 are less well supported by bpp and receive no bs support . support for clade a is considerably improved ( > 0 . 95 bpp ) by the removal of the unstable sister taxa synodontis albolineatus and synodontis batesii that are sister to clade a2 ( 0 . 53 bpp ) . the position of these taxa is contentious , as while they are also placed as sister to clade a2 in the cyt b gene tree ( supplementary fig . s1b ) and mtdna tree , they are alternately sister to all other synodontis taxa in the rag2 gene tree ( supplementary fig . s1d ) . their placement in the co1 gene tree is unresolved ( supplementary fig . s1a ) , but these taxa are not resolved as sister to clade a2 as found in the cyt b tree . unfortunately , these taxa did not amplify for s7 ( supplementary fig . s1c ) . the disparity in placement of these taxa may represent insufficient data or real conflict , for example , homoplasy or cyto - nuclear discordance . however , to test between these hypotheses additional nuclear genes and samples of these taxa would need to be sequenced . support for the position of synodontis ocellifer as sister to clade b2 is weak ( 0 . 70 bpp , 57 % bs ) with this taxon also indicated as unstable using leaf stability metrics . individual gene trees for cyt b + trna - pro , coi , and s7 reveal reasonably good support for the majority of relationships identified when these data are concatenated and although there is no support for clades a1 , b1 in the co1 or s7 gene trees , there is no support for alternative hypotheses ( supplementary fig . s1b and c ) . conversely , rag 2 ( supplementary fig . s1d ) does not perform as well and yields only partial support for these clades . comparison of the concatenated tree ( p = 0 . 577 ) to the mtdna ( p = 0 . 414 ) and ncdna ( p = 0 . 000 ) trees based on au tests rejects the latter tree as a significantly worse fit to the data .\nas noted above , these catfish are suitable inhabitants of malawi cichlid fish aquariums . the water conditions maintained for the cichlids are also excellent for the catfish . s . njassae is generally active enough to stay out of the way of the often aggressive cichlid fish . this synodontis appears to prefer the company of its own kind , so it would be a good idea to try to keep at least two together in an aquarium ."]}
{"id": 1439, "summary": [{"text": "eupanacra automedon is a moth of the family sphingidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is known from north-eastern india , nepal , myanmar , thailand , peninsular malaysia , sumatra , nias , java and borneo .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is very similar to eupanacra malayana but distinguishable by the forewing outer margin having a single sharp point at the apex and no darker brown longitudinal shadow .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the forewing upperside has postmedian lines closer together and more longitudinal than in eupanacra malayana , almost parallel to the costa .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae have been recorded on lasia spinosa .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the ground colour of the body is jade-green without distinct markings .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "it has a pale beige horn .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the body ground colour of the last instar is uniform brown with an unmistakable pair of anterior ocelli located at its first abdominal segment and a tail horn that is shorter and back-curved", "topic": 23}], "title": "eupanacra automedon", "paragraphs": ["have a fact about eupanacra automedon ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for eupanacra automedon ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhow can i put and write and define eupanacra automedon in a sentence and how is the word eupanacra automedon used in a sentence and examples ? \u7528eupanacra automedon\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528eupanacra automedon\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528eupanacra automedon\u9020\u53e5 , eupanacra automedon meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .\neupanacra automedon ( walker , 1856 ) = panacra automedon walker , 1856 = truncata ( walker , 1856 ) = niasana ( clark , 1923 ) = kualalumpuri ( clark , 1935 ) .\nin the male genitalia , uncus similar to eupanacra regularis regularis but a little broader . gnathos similar to eupanacra regularis regularis . valve with many stridulatory scales . harpe slender , similar to eupanacra automedon , not distinctly spatulate . aedeagus apical process with right lobe projecting , as in eupanacra regularis regularis , but broader apically and more heavily dentate , scarcely longer than broad ; left lobe similar to eupanacra malayana but broader .\nit is similar to\neupanacra automedon\nbut distinguishable by the forewing outer margin having a blunt double point and generally a darker brown longitudinal shadow present .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nne . himalayas - borneo , sumatra , sulawesi , hong kong . see [ maps ]\npanacra busiris walker , 1856 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 8 : 158\npanacra busiris atima rothschild & jordan , 1915 ; novit . zool . 22 ( 2 ) : 292 ; tl : karwar , south india\npanacra busiris marina rothschild & jordan , 1915 ; novit . zool . 22 ( 2 ) : 287 ; tl : andaman is .\npanacra mydon elegantulus f . brunnea closs , 1916 ; lepidoptera niepeltiana ( 2 ) : 3 , pl . 16 , f . 8 ; tl : java\noriental tropics - philippines , sundaland , sulawesi , sumba , hong kong . see [ maps ]\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nwalker , 1856 list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 8 : 1 - 271 ( 1856 )\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\nthere are no photos of this species on the website yet . you can offer your photo by logging into your account\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\npanacra mydon walker , 1856 , list specimens lepid . insects colln br . mus . 8 : 155 . type locality : [ bangladesh , ] silhet [ sylhet ] .\nchina : iii - ix ( hong kong ) ; vi ( sichuan ) ; vi ( guangdong ) ; 20 . vii ( yunnan ) ; 3 . x ( tengchong ) .\nkendrick ( 2002 ) states that this common moth is multivoltine in hong kong , occurring from march until late july and again in late september , with peaks in march and may .\novum : yellowish - green , the bright orange of the young larva showing through before hatching ( bell & scott , 1937 ) .\nlarva : full - fed 95mm . , width 8mm . , horn 5mm . according to bell & scott ( 1937 ) , in the first instar the body is long and thin ; the horn straight , of medium length . head and body orange , horn greyish - black . in the second instar , the body surface is smooth and shiny , with the head and body being translucent pale green , the horn black .\nin the third and fourth instar the body stays long and thin , but segment six becomes tumid . the horn is now long and straight . the surface of the head and body is smooth and dull and pale yellowish - green in colour . there is an oval , longitudinal , black eye - spot on segment six . the horn is black above , but pale green laterally and centrally .\nin the fifth instar the shape is as in others of the genus . the horn is thick at its base , tapering sharply to a blunt point ; basal half at right angles to dorsum of larva , distal half bent sharply downwards . body smooth and dull , excepting the eye - spot and the band above it , which are shiny as though enamelled , and the horn , which is shiny and covered with small tubercles .\nin colour , head bright green , body pale yellowish - green . segments 4 and 6 bright green on dorsum , marked with longitudinal white dashes . a dark green , narrow , dorsal stripe runs from segments 2 to 5 , with a pinkish stripe on each side of it on 5 . there is an oval , longitudinal eye - spot on segment 6 . this is black above , reddish - brown below , the reddish - brown portion being outlined by a narrow pale band , the whole edged by a narrow blackish line . above the eye - spot , and touching it , there is a broad white band with a bright red quadrate spot in the centre of it . a broad , brown subdorsal stripe starts from the front margin of 2 , runs across 3 and 4 , then below the eye - spot on 5 , then turns up to the dorsum along the hind edge of 5 , this stripe being edged below by a narrow pale stripe . a brown spiracular stripe runs from the spiracle on segment 6 to the hind margin of 11 . this stripe narrows at the spiracles , but widens between them . segment 13 and anal flap brown , with a broad , green , dorsal stripe from base of horn to tip of flap . segments 6 to 12 are sometimes immaculate except for the spiracular band , or marked with irregular brown patches . when reared in the dark the brown colour may spread over the whole of these segments . horn orange ; true legs pink , prolegs green . spiracles black edged broadly with white .\nwhen alarmed , the larva retracts the head and anterior segments into segment 5 , and expands that segment to show the eye - spots , which are not visible in the resting position ( bell & scott , 1937 ) .\npupa : 50mm . , width 10mm . very similar to that of e . busiris . cremaster broadly triangular , dorsal surface rounded , ventral surface deeply , longitudinally concave , ending in a stout shaft which branches near base , each branch ending in two hooks . there are two shorter shafts , each with a single hook , on each side of base of central shaft ( bell & scott , 1937 ) .\nlarval hostplants . alocasia odora ( araceae ) in hong kong ( tennent , 1992 ) . colocasia , caladium , arisaema and amorphophallus ( araceae ) elsewhere ( inoue , kennett & kitching , [ 1996 ] 1997 ) .\nin laos and thailand , recorded from scindapsus pictus , syngonium podophyllum and syngonium vellozianum ( eitschberger & ihle , 2008 ) .\nchina : sichuan ( zhongjiang ) ; chongqing ; yunnan ( cangyuan ; menglun ; tengchong , 1800m ; simao / pu ' er ) ; guangdong ( guangzhou ; e . nan ling ; ? ? wai - tzi - san ) ; hong kong ( north point ; shau kei wan ) ; guangxi ( miao ling ; maoer shan , 1800m ) ; hainan ( jianfeng ) .\nnepal , northeastern india ( subhasish arandhara , 2016 ) , bangladesh , burma / myanmar , southern china , thailand , laos , vietnam , peninsular malaysia .\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation ."]}
{"id": 1450, "summary": [{"text": "bell 's sparrow ( artemisiospiza belli ) is a medium-sized sparrow of the western united states and northwestern mexico .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it used to be placed in the genus amphispiza , but recent evidence suggested it be placed in its own genus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "four populations are resident to the west : subspecies canescens breeds in south-central california , the dark nominate subspecies belli in the california coast ranges and part of the western slope of the sierra nevada south to about 29 \u00b0 n in baja california , the equally dark subspecies clementeae limited to san clemente island , and subspecies cinerea in western baja california from 29 \u00b0 n to 26 \u00b0 45 \u2032 n .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the aou now considers bell 's sparrow a separate species , formerly grouped with the sagebrush sparrow , and together previously known as the sage sparrow .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "bell 's sparrow is difficult to separate in the field from the sagebrush sparrow .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "both species measure about 6 in ( 15 cm ) long and weigh approximately 16.5 g ( 0.58 oz ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "in general , with bell \u2019s sparrow the malar is darker than the head while on the sagebrush it is about the same shade of darkish gray .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "bell \u2019s sparrow also has a thicker malar strip than sagebrush .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "the amount a streaking on the back as well as the shade of the mantle may also be used to separate the two , but this is affected by wear on the feathers .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "bell 's also has little or no white in the tail , but this field mark alone may not be diagnostic .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "bell 's sparrows are indeed often tied to sagebrush habitats , although they can also be found in brushy stands of saltbush , chamise , and other low shrubs of the arid west .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the subspecies a. b. clementeae has been listed as threatened since 1977 .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the species ' common name and binomial ( belli ) refer to john graham bell . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "bell ' s sparrow", "paragraphs": ["taxonomy can be confusing , even for the experts . in the nineteenth century all the \u201csage\u201d sparrows from the rocky mountains west to the pacific coast were known as bell\u2019s sparrow , although ornithologists noted there were several regional forms . by 1910 they had split bell\u2019s sparrow into the two distinct species we know today , but a revision in 1957 lumped them together as the sage sparrow . in 2013 they were split back into two species , now known as the sagebrush sparrow and bell\u2019s sparrow .\nthe oldest known bell\u2019s sparrow was at least 9 years , 3 months old when it was recaptured and re - released at a california banding station .\ncontrast between the head and the malar stripe , along with the strength of the malar seems to be one of the most reliable fields marks . on bell\u2019s sparrow the malar is darker than the head while on sagebrush it is about the same shade . bell\u2019s sparrow also has a thicker malar strip than sagebrush .\nnina , both of those would be sagebrush sparrow . bell\u2019s in winter hasn\u2019t been recorded east of phoenix and sagebrush is the only one that breeds in az .\nbell\u2019s sparrow is more local in arizona than in california and the reverse is true of sagebrush sparrow . bell\u2019s sparrow does not breed in arizona , but sagebrush sparrow does breed in the great basin portion of california . both species winter in the salton sink , but like the the lcrv the status of each has yet to be worked out . the status of sagbrush sparrow as a migrant ( and possibly in winter ) in the mojave desert is largely unknown . within the arizona portion of the mohave desert at places such as the sacramento valley it appears to be largely sagebrush sparrow ( again see comments on id below ) . bell\u2019s sparrow has been found east to phoenix in arizona , but how regular is it east of the lcrv ?\nsong ' s and calls from a group of three bell ' s sparrows . the birds were chasing each other through the saltbush and sagebrush . call quality a , song quality c .\nthe bell\u2019s sparrow is a neat , gray - headed sparrow emblematic of california\u2019s coastal sage and chaparral . they also occur in baja california , the mojave desert , and on san clemente island , california ( a federally threatened subspecies ) . like the very similar sagebrush sparrow , these birds spend much of their time foraging for insects and seeds on the ground underneath shrubs . in spring males sing a fast mix of trills and chips from the tallest perches they can find .\npair of bell ' s sparrow , one singing , the other one non - vocal . this pair was visiting saltbush ( atriplex sp . ) and sagebrush ( artimesia sp . ) , inspecting the bush , and then moving on .\n\u2013 interior sc california ( s san joaquin valley , inyo region , and s & w edges of mojave desert ) and adjacent w nevada ; non - breeding also w to sw california , e to s nevada and w arizona , and s to ne baja california .\nbell\u2019s sparrow at quail hollow in parker strip ca on 19 jan 2013 . note the thin back streaking that is hard to see and the thick dark malar stripe . same individual as the next photo . copyright ( c ) 2013 david vander pluym\namount of white in the tail has been cited as a field mark for sagebrush vs nominate bell\u2019s . though it is variable the amount of white ( sagebrush ) vs buffy ( bell\u2019s ) in the outermost rectrices may be of some use . another field mark that if useful would likely be difficult to use in the field .\ncaution is warranted as we learn about identification of the two species , and for the time being it may be best to leave most birds on the winter grounds as \u201csage\u201d sparrow or use the modifier presumed / probably . that being said with practice i think most individuals are identifiable in the field . check out this photo of a bell\u2019s sparrow and this one of a sagebursh sparrow posted online . notice the head color in both individuals and despite the photo of the sagebrush sparrow looking like it has a darker head , the contrast between the head and the malar is minimal . the bell\u2019s sparrow shows a strong contrast between the malar and the head . notice also the amount of streaking on the back of each individual ; this characteristic , though , needs further evaluation and should be used possibly only as a supporting characteristic . robert royse\u2019s webpage has a nice selection of both species ( along with nominate bell\u2019s sparrow ) , though more location data would be useful to assure yourself that they couldn\u2019t have been a different taxa than that listed . i also recommend checking out this urltoken post on the identification by song . finally birding is fun has a nice review of the split .\n\u2013 california on w slopes of c sierra nevada ( s to mariposa county ) and coastal ranges ( from trinity county and shasta county ) s to extreme nw mexico ( nw baja california s to c . 29\u00b0 n ) .\ngiven that sagebrush and bell\u2019s were once considered to be one species , differences between habitat preferences on their wintering grounds are not well - studied . regional conservation plans that might consider conservation strategies for sage sparrows\u2019 wintering habitat were likely written before the taxonomic split , and just as many listers found themselves with only an unsatisfying sagebrush / bell\u2019s sparrow on their lists after the split , the species themselves are left with a similarly unsatisfying , generic conservation strategy .\ninitial impressions suggest that bell\u2019s sparrow winters farther east than was generally expected . in absence of detailed field study of multiple markings mentioned by pyle above , we encourage observers to report their observations of wintering individuals as bell\u2019s / sagebrush sparrow ( sage sparrow ) from pima , pinal , and maricopa counties in arizona , as well as in counties in western arizona and southeastern california . careful scope viewing is highly recommended , and one\u2019s impressions of important field markings are definitely impacted by lighting conditions in the field . we have found that it may take me an hour to achieve good looks at only a small fraction of the many wintering artemisiospiza one might find at a location . further , we suggest observers photograph these whenever possible throughout the species\u2019 ranges , and it is always useful to describe the vegetation where you find birds .\nbirders of the arid southwest have been experiencing headaches this winter , and it is not just dehydration . the recent aou split ( here ) of sage sparrow into two distinct species , bell\u2019s sparrow ( artemisiospiza belli ) and sagebrush sparrow ( a . nevadensis ) , has led to an outbreak of head - shaking and hand - wringing on blogs , listservs , identification discussion groups , and even reviewer discussion groups in the region . chris mccreedy of point blue conservation science provides us with an overview of the challenges and the field work being done to supply some answers .\nsong described as \u201ctweesitity - slip tweesitity - slip swer\u201d . call a short , bell - like . . .\npresumed bell\u2019s sparrow at quail hollow in parker strip ca on 19 jan 2013 . another look at the same individual where you can better see the thick dark malar extending up to the bill , strongly contrasting with the rest of the head . note also again the thin back streaking that is hard to see . copyright ( c ) 2013 david vander pluym\nbell ' s sparrow pair reported between mile markers 7 . 1 and 7 . 2 on blue ridge road in mix canyon . the habitat was chamise and manzanita chaparral mixed with oak woodland . male sparrow immediately perched high and visible in shrub when playback was called and began singing . female hid in shrub nearby . all bird species were singing in the early morning chorus ( wrentits , spotted towhees and california thrashers most prominent ) . weather was sunny , clear with a light breeze .\ni haven\u2019t explored the blythe area south enough in winter to give good sites there but check urltoken for good locations there . the parker strip is likely your best bet for sage sparrows in california , as along the river there are still nice patches of suaeda . good spots to check include the brush areas around quail hollow day use area and the crossroads campground . i\u2019ve had birds matching bell\u2019s sparrow at both spots ( but see below on problems of identification ) . on the arizona side your best bets are probably pintail slough on the havasu nwr where i\u2019ve also had birds matching bell\u2019s . i\u2019ve had them once in the parker valley and it is likely still worth checking , but that area has lost a lot of habitat to agriculture which is typically unsuitable for sage sparrow . kohen ranch in the bill williams river nwr is another site i have had the species and is worth the hike in winter to check out . interestingly these areas all have a lot of atriplex ( saltbush ) which bell\u2019s sparrow breeds in , perhaps there is some ecological partitioning on the wintering grounds ?\nsage sparrow is a terrestrial inhabitant of arid lands including desert with sagebrush and saltbush , open slopes with juniper and pinyon , and chaparral with sagebrush , greasewood , baccharis , and cactus . it inhabits elevations from sea level to about 2000 m . adults have a gray head and white eye ring , a white dot over the lores , black and white malar and sub - malar ( moustache ) stripes , white underparts with a dark breast spot . resemble immature black - throated sparrow ( amphispiza bilineata ) but lack that species\u2019 white supercilium . sage sparrow is widespread in the western u . s . ( races nevadensis and canescens ) , nesting as far north as washington , eastward to wyoming and colorado , and west to california . birds of the western u . s . ( except coastal california ) migrate southward as far south as sonora and chihuahua , mexico . the distinctive race belli of western california ( bell\u2019s sparrow ) nests southward into baja california norte . it is slightly smaller ( length 14 . 5 cm ) and has a smaller bill . it has a darker gray head , a broader black moustache stripe , and is richer brown on the mantle , wings , flanks , and tail . in the central portion of the baja peninsula , bell ' s sparrow is replaced by the similar but paler race cinerea .\nby now i am sure that most everyone has heard about the split of sage sparrow into ( at present ) two species : bell\u2019s sparrow ( artemisiospiza belli ) and sagebrush sparrow ( a . nevadensis ) , two names i think are appropriate or at least i can\u2019t think of anything else better . bell\u2019s has multiple subspecies within it and for the purposes of this blog post , all mention of bell\u2019s sparrow refers to a . b . canescens . it is interesting to note that this split is not without its detractors and it is well worth reading the proposal , as well as the literature cited . especially worth reading is patten and unitt 2002 ( claims that canescens is not a valid taxa and should be lumped with nevadensis ) and cicero and johnson 2006 ( which is a rebuttal to the prior paper\u2019s claims ) . really it is a good idea to read over all proposals you have an interest in , as well as any of the publications you can get your hands on ( important parts of which can be left out of the proposals ) . read it and decide for yourself if you agree with the committee decision ! i know i don\u2019t always agree with the decisions , but after reading the material present and committee comments , i can at least usually understand the rationale behind it . anyway i\u2019m getting way off the topic of sage sparrows .\ntell congress and the department of the interior to uphold the country ' s most important bird protection law .\n( c . h . townsend , 1890 ) \u2013 c baja california ( s to 26\u00b0 n ) .\nrising , j . ( 2018 ) . bell ' s sparrow ( artemisiospiza belli ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nprominence of a supercilium has been cited , but this seems to be variable as well , a complete lack of any pale area in the supercilium may be only found in bell\u2019s , but this could be nearly impossible to tell without a bird in the hand .\nsame individual as xc382447 and xc382448 . the bird was making this call and hopping between sagebrush ( artemesia sp . ) in a rectangular pattern . it was unclear whether the bird was agitated with my presence , or the presence of other nearby bell ' s sparrows .\n13\u00b77\u201315\u00b77 cm ; 12\u00b77\u201316\u00b78 g . a medium - sized sparrow , with long tail often held cocked . nominate race has head and nape brownish - grey , . . .\nthe reason ? it is quite difficult to tell the two species apart in the field ( read here for an excellent summary by peter pyle of some apparent differences in plumage ) . many contend that it is currently impossible to separate the two taxa in the field for a majority of individuals \u2013 and perhaps all of them . despair deepens due to the inclusion of the \u2018mojave\u2019 subspecies of sage sparrow ( a . b . canescens ) within bell\u2019s sparrow and not with sagebrush . \u2018mojave\u2019 canescens are intermediate in appearance . plus , the canescens wintering distribution appears to overlap heavily with sagebrush in southeastern california , southern arizona , and northwest mexico .\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nas with many inconspicuous sparrows , the best way to find bell\u2019s sparrows is to look for them in the early morning during the breeding season , when males perch out in the open on tall shrubs and sing for your attention . at other times they may be considerably harder to find . just be aware that in the right habitat\u2014particularly in coastal sagebrush in southern california\u2014these sparrows are fairly numerous . they tend to forage on the ground and scurry rather than fly between patches of shrub cover . patient watching and listening either for the sounds of foraging or for this bird\u2019s bell - like tink call will help you find them .\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\nthe main reason for this post is that the lcrv is one of the few places were both species can occur . this can present a great opportunity to study each species , as well as for listing with the lcrv being one of the best places for bell\u2019s sparrow in arizona , as well as sagebrush in california . within the lcrv , though , both taxa are reported to occur , but it is not known the exact status of each species . we have not seen many \u201csage\u201d sparrows in the lcrv , but rosenberg et al 1991 reports that they have a preference for inkweed / iodine weed ( suaeda torreyana ) which is found in alkaline soils and is a localized habitat we do not visit very often . i know this winter though i will be spending more time in it !\nthis entry was posted in birding locations , havasu nwr , high desert , identification , imperial county , la paz county , lcrv , mohave county , san bernardino county , species profiles , uncategorized and tagged arizona , california , lcrv , mojave desert , sage sparrow , salton sink . bookmark the permalink .\nformerly considered part of the same species as the sagebrush sparrow , this bird is locally common in sage scrub habitat near the california coast and locally in open habitats of the interior . it is often seen running about on the ground , with its longish tail cocked up above the level of its back ; when perched up on a shrub , it twitches its tail in a down - up motion like a phoebe .\nwe hope to have analysis of this month\u2019s work completed by the summer of 2014 , and if additional proposals are successful , we are looking forward to adding more sites in arizona and along an east - west transect across southern california during the winter of 2014 - 2015 . if you are interested in volunteering in the field next season , we need you ! our volunteers enable us to increase capture rates and have made our project a success in arizona . please contact chris mccreedy .\ngiven how new this split is and given the wide range of opinions as to how identifiable in the field the two taxa are , the following paragraph on identification should be considered tentative and in need of further evaluation . the papers used to split the two have cited morphological differences in the form of size , but little on plumage . one thing that is known is that both species molt before they reach the wintering grounds , so once present in the lcrv they should be at their freshest . below i will review some of the field marks i have seen mentioned . currently measurements are considered to be the most reliable way to identify the two species , i think however that the two are identifiable in the field though identification may be difficult especially when the two are worn in summer . the head / malar contrast of birds in the lcrv do seem to differ from those just east of there and some unscientific looking at photos online i am able to identify the majority of birds correctly . at this point i should note that of the field marks discussed below , patten and unitt 2002 only used measurements ( which they did find largely differed ) , mantle shade , and presence of back streaking . things like malar / head contrast were not evaluated . i should also mention that though hybridization appears to be rare ( hence why they were split ) my understanding is that it does occur .\nhead coloration may be useful , but i think how dark the head is can be difficult to judge and it is better to use the contrast between the head and the malar . i\u2019ve also seen mention of the darkness of the auriculars , but this seems to be variable .\nback streaking and mantle shade : both the amount and the boldness of streaking on the back may be useful , but there appears to be overlap , possibly only extremes may be identified using this field mark , or it may be useful in conjunction with other field marks . it may also be more useful when they are fresh as photos online of birds on the wintering grounds seem to have a more noticeable difference than photos from the breeding grounds . some fresh birds do seem to differ in mantle shade , but again it seems to be wear related and a lot of overlap .\nprimary projection maybe be useful as well , as the wing length measurements differ between the two . however this can be difficult to use in the field and needs further examination .\nunderpart streaking and coloration has been cited as a field mark , but this seems to be variable and i haven\u2019t noticed any real difference looking at photos .\nit may take a while to fully figure out the field marks of these two species , but i think we will come to a better understanding of identification . remember how impossible other splits were thought to be ( like cackling goose ) ? i don\u2019t think this is going to be a \u201cwestern\u201d flycatcher type split , but one that with time we will come to better understand . course i could always be wrong only time will tell !\nliterature cited : rosenberg , k . v . , et al . 1991 . birds of the lower colorado river valley . the university of arizona press , tuscon , az .\nbirder biologists currently living and working in the lower colorado river valley . when not out in the field i spend a lot of my time reading and writing about birds . i have always been drawn to areas under birded and species that we know little about .\ndavid , thank you for a detailed post concerning this split . this will be a challenge at first , but as you pointed out , i think it will become easier to discern the differences over time , especially if a person gets out there and observes them as frequent as possible . thanks again !\nall content and photographs \u00a9 lauren harter and david vander pluym . no commercial use is allowed without permission .\nwestern arizona ebird bar charts : click here . western arizona birding locations : click here . lcrv rarities map : click here .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nas with various other species along california coast , may be vulnerable to loss of habitat . the endemic race on san clemente island , california , is endangered .\ncoastal sage scrub , chaparral ; in winter , also deserts . found year - round in unique sage scrub habitat on the california coastal slope and foothills . in the interior , also breeds in saltbush , chamise , and other low shrubs of arid flats . in winter some spread eastward into open flats and deserts with scattered brush .\nforages mostly on the ground , picking up items from the soil or from plant stems , sometimes scratching with its feet . also does some feeding up in low bushes . when not nesting , may forage in small flocks .\n3 - 4 , sometimes 2 - 5 . bluish white to pale blue , variably spotted or blotched with brown , gray , and black . incubation lasts about 13 - 16 days .\nprobably both parents feed the nestlings . young leave the nest about 9 - 11 days after hatching . often 2 broods per year , sometimes 3 .\nmostly seeds and insects . feeds on many insects , especially in summer , including grasshoppers , beetles , true bugs , and others , also spiders . also eats many seeds of weeds , grasses , and shrubs . young are fed mostly insects .\nmale returns to same nesting territory each year , defends it by singing from a raised perch . nest site is usually in low shrub , less than 4 ' above the ground . sometimes placed on the ground under a shrub . nest is a bulky open cup , made of twigs , sticks , lined with fine dry grass , weeds , sometimes animal hair .\npopulations west of the sierra in california are mostly permanent residents . those from the interior are more migratory , with some spreading eastward into arizona in winter .\naudio \u00a9 lang elliott , bob mcguire , kevin colver , martyn stewart and others .\nvisit your local audubon center , join a chapter , or help save birds with your state program .\ntell congress to oppose a harmful rider that threatens sage - grouse and other wildlife .\nfrom a broader perspective , each of these species winter in a part of the continent that is projected to be much hotter and drier in the future due to climate change . they winter in arid scrub habitats that respond dramatically to rainfall \u2013 and to lack thereof . diminishing seed crops on their wintering grounds due to drought may decrease survival rates and individuals\u2019 condition upon return to their breeding grounds .\ngiven a lack of resolution in the species\u2019 field identification , how can we survey birds to inform land managers and owners on how best to conserve these taxa ? point blue conservation science ( formerly prbo ) is currently in the field in southwestern arizona , hoping to shed as much light as possible on these identification , distribution , and habitat questions . with support from arizona field ornithologists and a cadre of amazing volunteers , we captured individuals at sites near phoenix , yuma , and lake havasu city during the first half of february 2014 . we took measurements on as many of the previously - noted potential differences in field marks and morphology as we could find in the literature and online , have added a few of our own , assessed the appearance of some of these features in different lighting conditions , at different distances and with different optics , and explored apparent differences in habitat preferences between the two species . dr . adrienne kovach ( university of new hampshire ) has offered her assistance to help us ground our captures\u2019 field identification with confirmation of individuals\u2019 sex and species via dna analysis .\npreviously considered conspecific with a . nevadensis . race canescens , very similar in appearance to a . nevadensis and possibly hybridizing with it where ranges meet , has been thought perhaps to represent a separate species ; alternatively , canescens may simply reunite present species and a . nevadensis ; research needed . race cinerea intergrades with nominate in nc baja california . race clementeae should perhaps be subsumed into nominate . four subspecies provisionally recognized .\ngenerally in dry chaparral and coastal sage scrub , inland valleys , and lower foothills . . . .\nvariety of animal and plant items . generally seeds and other vegetable matter . young fed with insects . forages principally on or near . . .\n) , or mid - apr to mid - may through early jun ( nominate ) . probably monogamous . singing and territory . . .\nfar n populations of nominate race migratory ; insular populations resident . some nominate birds . . .\nnot globally threatened . classified as \u201cdeclining\u201d in the usa ( yellow watchlist priority species for conservation ) . san clemente race\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nformerly included in a broader emberizidae . recent phylogeny # r has recovered evidence of eight major clades within this newly recognized grouping : ( i ) melospiza and allies ; ( ii and iii ) melozone , atlapetes , pipilo and allies , which form two sister - clades ; ( iv ) zonotrichia , junco and allies ; and ( v\u2013viii ) all other species , which form a polytomy at base of tree , but can be split into ( a ) arremon , ( b ) spizella , amphispiza , chondestes and calamospiza , ( c ) peucaea , arremonops , ammodramus and rhynchospiza , and finally ( d ) two genera that have often been placed in thraupidae , oreothraupis and chlorospingus .\nuntil recently included in amphispiza , but molecular work indicates that these species are members of a well - resolved clade of \u201cgrassland\u201d sparrows that includes pooecetes , oriturus , passerculus , melospiza and xenospiza , as well as several species formerly treated in ammodramus .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nfrontal , lateral , and dorsal views of an adult perched on sage singing with others singing near by .\nupper big tujunga canyon road mile 2 . 5 , san gabriel mountains , los angeles county , california\nrecorded at a range of about 10 meters in chaparral dominated by chamise . this area burned extensively during the station fire in 2009 .\nequipment : sony pcm - m10 recorder , sennheiser me62 microphone , and a telinga 22 inch parabola . edits : trimmed and normalized to - 3 db . minor handling noise and a distant car are also audible .\nrecorded at a range of about 15 meters in chaparral dominated by chamise . this area burned extensively during the station fire in 2009 .\nequipment : sony pcm - m10 recorder , sennheiser me62 microphone , and a telinga 22 inch parabola . edits : trimmed and normalized to - 3 db .\nrecorded in an area of extensive chamise bushes that are regenerating after the station fire from 2009 .\nequipment : sony pcm - m10 recorder and a sennheiser me67 microphone . edits : trimmed and normalized to - 3 db .\nblue ridge road between mile markers 7 . 1 and 7 . 2 , solano county , california\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nfour scenes of adults perched on sage singing . april 2009 , lockwood valley , ventura county , california , usa .\nif you come here often , you should tell us ( and the whole world , really ) about yourself in the bio section of your profile ."]}
{"id": 1455, "summary": [{"text": "chikilidae is a family of indian caecilians , the 10th and most recent ( 2012 ) family of caecilians ( legless amphibians ) to be identified , although the type species , chikila fulleri ( formerly herpele fulleri ) was first described in 1904 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the discovery that this was a separate lineage resulted from genetic analyses of specimens collected during about 250 soil-digging expeditions over five years that covered every northeast indian state .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "a team of biologists led by university of delhi herpetologist sathyabhama das biju described the family as representing as many as seven species apparently endemic to the region .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "in september 2012 , some of these species were also found in lawachara national park in the sylhet region of northeastern bangladesh .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the family 's lineage is believed to have originated in africa , where their closest living relatives are found .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "chikilids grow to about 4 in ( 10 cm ) in length .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "they have very limited eyesight and skulls adapted for burrowing .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "their eggs hatch into adult caecilians , with no larval stage in between .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "the mothers stay wrapped around their developing eggs for two to three months , apparently not eating at all during this period .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "until this discovery , only nine families of caecilians were known from across the wet tropical regions of southeast asia , india , sri lanka , parts of east and west africa , the seychelles , central america and northern and eastern parts of south america .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "from morphological and dna analyses , the researchers concluded the new family had evolved independently of other caecilians since the time of the dinosaurs . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "chikilidae", "paragraphs": ["dana campbell selected\nchikilidae\nto show in overview on\nchikilidae\n.\nan adult chikilidae with eggs and hatchlings . ( sathyabhama das biju / ap )\nthe name chikilidae was chosen because it mirrors what the locals call it in their garo language .\nthe chikilidae is a caecilian , the most primitive of three amphibian groups that also include frogs and salamanders .\nhis first effort in conserving the chikilidae was to give it a scientific name mirroring what the locals use in their garo language . the chikilidae is a caecilian , the most primitive of three amphibian groups that also include frogs and salamanders .\nbiju ' s team worked best during monsoon season , when the digging is easier and chikilidae lay eggs in waterlogged soils .\ndr . biju and his colleagues named the new family chikilidae and describe it in the proceedings of the royal society b .\nthe chikilidae stems from the caecilians family and is the most primitive of three amphibian groups that also include frogs and salamanders .\naccording to relaxed molecular clock analyses , the lineage of chikilidae diverged in the early cretaceous , about 140 million years ago .\ndelhi professor sathyabhama das biju displays an adult chikilidae in his laboratory in new delhi , india . ( mustafa quraishi / ap )\nhis first effort in conserving the chikilidae was to give it a scientific name mirroring what the locals use in their garo language .\nsystematics of the caecilian family chikilidae ( amphibia : gymnophiona ) with the description of three new species of chikila from northeast india .\nan egg of a chikilidae , which researchers found digging through mud in north - eastern india . ( sathyabhama das biju / getty images )\nwithin the chikilidae family , the team has already identified three species , and is on its way to classing three more , he said .\nan adult chikilidae , a new species of legless amphibian known as a caecilian , with eggs and hatchlings . ( sathyabhama das biju / ap )\nsystematics of the caecilian family chikilidae ( amphibia : gymnophiona ) with the description of three new species of chikila from northeast india . - pubmed - ncbi\na possibly superfluous set of eyes is shielded under a layer of skin , and may help the chikilidae gauge light from dark as in other caecilian species .\nan indo - european team of scientists has discovered a new family of legless amphibians called chikilidae , adding a major branch to the amphibian tree of life .\nover five years of digging through forest beds in the rain , the team has identified an entirely new family of amphibians - called chikilidae - endemic to the region but with ancient links to africa .\nin fact , the chikilidae is harmless , and may even be the farmer ' s best friend \u2014 feasting on worms and insects that might harm crops , and churning the soil as it moves underground .\nthe chikilidae ' s discovery , made along with co - researchers from london ' s natural history museum and vrije university in brussels , brings the number of known caecilian families in the world to 10 .\nin fact , the chikilidae is harmless , and may even be the farmer ' s best friend - feasting on worms and insects that might harm crops , and churning the soil as it moves underground .\nchikilidae is the latin version of the word chikilid , which originates from the garo language , kamei said . the garo language is used in the indian state of meghalaya , as well as in neighboring bangladesh .\nasianscientist ( mar . 5 , 2012 ) \u2013 an indo - european team of scientists has discovered a new family of legless amphibians which they called chikilidae , adding a major branch to the amphibian tree of life .\nunexpected to many , molecular phylogenetic analyses of dna ( mitochondrial and nuclear ) and comparative cranial anatomy showed a sister - group relationship with the herpelidae , african relatives found more than 7 , 000 miles away from the chikilidae .\nthe chikilidae ' s home in long - ignored tropical forests now faces drastic change under programs to cut trees , plant rice paddy , build roads and generate industry as india ' s economic growth fuels a breakneck drive in development .\nso far , biju ' s team has determined that an adult chikilidae will remain with its eggs until they hatch , forgoing food for some 50 days . when the eggs hatch , the young emerge as tiny adults and squirm away .\ncommonly known as tailless - burrowing caecelians , the chikilidae is a legless , snake - like caecilian , the most primitive of three amphibian groups that also include salamanders and frogs . all 180 species of caecelians are restricted to the wet tropics of the world .\ndna testing suggests the chikilidae ' s closest relative is in africa \u2014 with the two evolutionary paths splitting some 140 million years ago when dinosaurs roamed what was then a southern supercontinent called gondwana , since separated into today ' s continents of africa , antarctica , australia , south america and the indian subcontinent .\ndna testing suggests the chikilidae ' s closest relative is in africa - with the two evolutionary paths splitting some 140 million years ago when dinosaurs roamed what was then a southern supercontinent called gondwana , since separated into today ' s continents of africa , antarctica , australia , south america and the indian subcontinent .\n\u201cfor the last four or five years , we have extensively studied all kinds of habitats . we have received tremendous support from the local people . we found a group of animals ; we gave them a new family status , and we named it chikilidae , \u201d said lead author rachunliu g . kamei .\nbiju ' s team worked best during monsoon season , when the digging is easier and chikilidae lay eggs in waterlogged soils . gripping garden spades with blistered hands , the researchers along with locals they hired spent about 2 , 600 man hours digging for the elusive squigglers , usually found about 16 inches ( 40 centimeters ) deep .\nbut this legless amphibian ' s time in obscurity has ended , thanks to an intrepid team of biologists led by university of delhi professor sathyabhama das biju . over five years of digging through forest beds in the rain , the team has identified an entirely new family of amphibians \u2014 called chikilidae \u2014 endemic to the region but with ancient links to africa .\nfamily chikilidae jurassic ( 200\u2013145 . 5 million years ago ) to present ; perforate stapes ; septomaxillae and prefrontals absent ; lower jaws possess two rows of teeth ; 1 genus , 7 species ; northeastern india . family dermophiidae cretaceous ( 145 . 5\u201365 . 5 million years ago ) to present ; secondary annuli and annular scales present ; viviparous ; 4 genera , \u2026\nthe chikilidae ' s discovery , made along with co - researchers from london ' s natural history museum and vrije university in brussels , brings the number of known caecilian families in the world to 10 . three are in india and others are spread across the tropics in southeast asia , africa and south america . there is debate about the classifications , however , and some scientists count even fewer caecilian families .\nthe chikilidae ' s home in long - ignored tropical forests now faces drastic change under programs to cut trees , plant rice paddy , build roads and generate industry as india ' s economic growth fuels a breakneck drive in development . more industrial pollutants , more pesticides and more people occupying more land may mean a world of trouble for a creature that can be traced to the earliest vertebrates to creep across land .\na taxonomic review of the monogeneric northeast indian caecilian family chikilidae is presented based on 64 specimens . chikila fuilleri ( alcock , 1904 ) , known previously only from a single specimen collected more than 100 years ago , is rediagnosed and characterised based on recent collections . we describe three additional species new to science , chikila alcocki sp . nov . , chikila darlong sp . nov . , and chikila gaiduwani sp . nov . this species - level taxonomy is consistent with mitochondrial dna sequence data . a key to the species of chikila is presented .\na team of scientists led by dr . sd biju of university of delhi ( urltoken ) has discovered an entirely new family of legless amphibians from india and named it chikilidae . their closest relatives are found around 7 , 000 miles away in africa highlighting ancient biogeographical links between india and africa . chikilids live exclusively under the soil and hence the common name tailless burrowing caecilians . this rare find is a result of over 2000 person hours of digging in more than 250 localities in northeast india . chikilids show interesting parental care : mother lays transparent eggs and she guards her egg clutch constantly without feeding for up to 70 days .\nthis family was recently described in 2012 ( kamei et al ) after extensive survey efforts in the northeast india . a total of 1177 person hours were dedicated in the discovery of the caecilian chikila fulleri , the first described species in the new family chikilidae . from molecular phylogenetic analyses ( both mitogenomic and nuclear dna ) and comparative cranial anatomy , they determined chikilids were more closely related to the african family herpelidae than indotyphlidae , diverging about 140 \u00b1 ca 20 ma . further , they propose this family represents an ancient radiation in wet tropical forests and thus evidence for the persistence of cretaceous period habitat in the northeastern india region .\nnew delhi \u2014 since before the age of dinosaurs it has burrowed unbothered beneath the monsoon - soaked soils of remote northeast india \u2014 unknown to science and mistaken by villagers as a deadly , miniature snake .\ntheir discovery , published wednesday in a journal of the royal society of london , gives yet more evidence that india is a hotbed of amphibian life with habitats worth protecting against the country ' s industry - heavy development agenda .\nit also gives exciting new evidence in the study of prehistoric species migration , as well as evolutionary paths influenced by continental shift .\nthis is a major hotspot of biological diversity , but one of the least explored ,\nbiju said in an interview with the associated press .\nwe hope this new family will show the importance of funding research in the area . we need to know what we have , so we can know what to save .\nan egg clutch of the new species . ( sathyabhama das biju / ap )\nwe hope when the locals see the name , and their language , being used across the world , they will understand this animal ' s importance and join in trying to save it ,\nbiju said .\nindia ' s biodiversity is fast depleting . we are destroying these habitats without mercy .\nbiju \u2014 a botanist - turned - herpetologist now celebrated as india ' s\nfrogman\n\u2014 has made it his life work to find and catalog new species . there are too many cases of\nnameless extinction ,\nwith animals disappearing before they are ever known , he said .\nwe don ' t even know what we ' re losing .\namphibians are particularly vulnerable , and have drastically declined in recent decades . the same sensitivity to climate and water quality that makes them perfect environmental barometers also puts them at the greatest risk when ecological systems go awry .\nbiju , however , is working the reverse trend . since 2001 , he has discovered 76 new species of plants , caecilians and frogs \u2014 vastly more than any other scientist in india \u2014 and estimates 30 - 40 percent of the country ' s amphibians are yet to be found .\nbecause they live hidden underground , and race off at the slightest vibration , much less is known about them than their more famous \u2014 and vocal \u2014 amphibious cousins , the frogs . only 186 of the world ' s known amphibious species are caecilians , compared with more than 6 , 000 frog species \u2014 a third of which are considered endangered or threatened .\neven people living in northeast indians misunderstand the caecilians , and rare sightings can inspire terror and revulsion , with farmers and villagers chopping them in half out of the mistaken belief that they are poisonous snakes .\nmuch remains to be discovered in further study , biju said , as many questions remain about how the creatures live .\nthey grow to about 4 inches ( 10 centimeters ) , and can ram their hard skulls through some of the region ' s tougher soils , shooting off quickly at the slightest vibration .\nit ' s like a rocket ,\nbiju said .\nif you miss it the first try , you ' ll never catch it again .\nit was backbreaking work ,\nsaid research fellow rachunliu kamei , who even passed out in the forest once , and some days found not even one specimen .\nbut there is motivation in knowing this is an uncharted frontier ,\nsaid kamei , lead researcher and main author of the study paper .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : biology letters publisher : london : royal soc . , 2003 - isbn / issn : 0962 - 8452 oclc : 265429584\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\n/ / urltoken\nsince before the age of dinosaurs it has burrowed unbothered beneath the monsoon - soaked soils of remote northeast india - unknown to science and mistaken by villagers as a deadly , miniature snake .\nbut this legless amphibian ' s time in obscurity has ended , thanks to an intrepid team of biologists led by university of delhi professor sathyabhama das biju .\ntheir discovery , published today in a journal of the royal society of london , gives yet more evidence that india is a hotbed of amphibian life with habitats worth protecting against the country ' s industry - heavy development agenda .\n' this is a major hotspot of biological diversity , but one of the least explored , ' biju said .\n' we hope this new family will show the importance of funding research in the area . we need to know what we have , so we can know what to save . '\n' we hope when the locals see the name , and their language , being used across the world , they will understand this animal ' s importance and join in trying to save it , ' biju said .\n' india ' s biodiversity is fast depleting . we are destroying these habitats without mercy . '\nmore industrial pollutants , more pesticides and more people occupying more land may mean a world of trouble for a creature that can be traced to the earliest vertebrates to creep across land .\nbiju - a botanist - turned - herpetologist now celebrated as india ' s ' frogman ' - has made it his life work to find and catalog new species .\nthere are too many cases of ' nameless extinction , ' with animals disappearing before they are ever known , he said . ' we don ' t even know what we ' re losing . '\nthe same sensitivity to climate and water quality that makes them perfect environmental barometers also puts them at the greatest risk when ecological systems go awry .\nbiju , however , is working the reverse trend . since 2001 , he has discovered 76 new species of plants , caecilians and frogs - vastly more than any other scientist in india - and estimates 30 - 40 percent of the country ' s amphibians are yet to be found .\nthree are in india and others are spread across the tropics in southeast asia , africa and south america .\nthere is debate about the classifications , however , and some scientists count even fewer caecilian families .\nbecause they live hidden underground , and race off at the slightest vibration , much less is known about them than their more famous - and vocal - amphibious cousins , the frogs .\nonly 186 of the world ' s known amphibious species are caecilians , compared with more than 6 , 000 frog species - a third of which are considered endangered or threatened .\nthey grow to about 4 inches , and can ram their hard skulls through some of the region ' s tougher soils , shooting off quickly at the slightest vibration . ' it ' s like a rocket , ' biju said . ' if you miss it the first try , you ' ll never catch it again . '\ngripping garden spades with blistered hands , the researchers along with locals they hired spent about 2 , 600 man hours digging for the elusive squigglers , usually found about 16 inches deep .\n' it was backbreaking work , ' said research fellow rachunliu kamei , who even passed out in the forest once , and some days found not even one specimen .\n' but there is motivation in knowing this is an uncharted frontier , ' said kamei , lead researcher and main author of the study paper .\npolice find the body of a missing four - month - old boy near . . .\nbet you wish you bought here ! australia ' s top suburb for . . .\nbottleneck of 700 , 000 migrants wait in libya to cross the . . .\n' we know where you live ' : angry protesters confront mitch . . .\n' had to post this to show he is still alive ' : horrified . . .\n' i ' m alone ' : harrowing first words in hospital of mother . . .\n' they just didn ' t get it , but they do now ! ' trump shares . . .\npictured : british rugby - playing student , 19 , who drowned . . .\n' prostitutes , orgies , group sex - all of it ' : ex - wife of . . .\nstep inside the tomb of queen nefertari : immersive vr experience reveals the 3 , 000 - year - old artwork of . . .\nworld ' s first floating nation begins selling its own ' vayron ' cryptocurrency ahead of 2022 launch in the . . .\nbeing rich and successful really is in your dna : being dealt the right genes determines whether you get on . . .\nsnapchat is developing a ' visual image search ' that lets you point your camera at an item to see it on . . .\n' we ' re reminded what it ' s like to deal with the force of nature ' : from collecting molten lava in buckets to . . .\na new way to tackle climate change ? heat from underground rivers in london could help cut the capital ' s . . .\namazon is still selling nazi - branded merchandise , despite researchers first warning it about the products . . .\nhas kepler found its last alien world ? nasa reveals its planet hunting space telescope is about to run out . . .\n' like a symphony orchestra turned into light ' : iss astronaut captures lighting and auroras lighting up . . .\npeople who see themselves as albert einstein suddenly think they are smarter : being in the body of someone . . .\nsamsung opens the world ' s largest phone plant in india : 1 . 5 million square foot factory will produce 120 . . .\nhailey baldwin and justin bieber passionately kiss in the bahamas . . . as news of engagement spreads\nkylie jenner flashes underboob and her derriere in sheer orange ensemble . . . one day after revealing she took her lip filler out\nselena gomez is seen with same mystery man she was with in may . . . after news her ex justin bieber is engaged to hailey baldwin\nkhloe kardashian reveals she stopped breast - feeding daughter true . . . three months after giving birth\ngiuliana rancic takes a hike with bill . . . as the couple vacation with friends ahead of her return to e ! news\nkhloe kardashian shows off neon sign in true ' s nursery . . . as she reveals it ' s kris jenner ' s handwriting\nciara and husband russell wilson dance as they head to south africa for their honeymoon . . . two years after wedding\nrapper del the funky homosapian falls off stage during gorillaz set . . . but he reassures fans he ' s ' alright ' as he recovers in hospital\nmakeup artist joyce bonelli reaches out to the kardashian clan on instagram . . . after the famous family ' fire ' and unfollow her on social media\ndaddy daycare ! jared kushner takes kids back to d . c . after weekend in new jersey - as ivanka dons a short dress for visit to a nyc asphalt company\nsofia richie , 19 poses in a bikini top just after scott disick ' s ex kourtney kardashian , 39 , did the same . . . and fans call her out for it\nnaomi campbell wows in flamboyant feathered gown . . . while ashley graham sizzles in plunging lace dress as they walk in dolce & gabbana show in italy\nnaya rivera sells her five - bedroom la home for a cool $ 3 . 55 million after finalizing her divorce from ryan dorsey\nmel b ' is unable to pay her back taxes amid ongoing divorce battle with stephen belafonte . . . as it ' s estimated the pair owe up to $ 650k ' to the irs\nkylie jenner rocks curve - clinging attire as she shows off body . . . and considers going back to blonde\ndakota johnson dons striped wrap dress in la . . . after calling co - star chris hemsworth ' spectacular '\ncardi b hits back at troll who mocked her baby shower . . . as she shows off naked baby bump for photoshoot\nbuy your own celebrity hideaway ! castle adored by michael douglas and jack nicholson goes on sale for $ 5 . 2m ( and even comes with treehouse )\nant - man and the wasp soars to $ 76 million on opening weekend . . . beating its prequel by $ 19 million\nliam payne and cheryl split : carefree 1d star returns to stage for first time since break - up . . . as he poses happily with his backing dancers in france\ntristan thompson goes house hunting alone as he checks out $ 2m property in la with its own basketball court . . . just minutes from khloe ' s mansion\nchris hemsworth kicks off filming for the star - studded men in black spin - off as he cuts a sharp figure in london . . . 21 years after the first film hit screens\njill zarin admits she ' s ready to date again after being spotted with handsome businessman . . . following beloved husband bobby ' s death\ndj khaled cancels wireless performance due to ' travel issues ' just hours before his slot . . . as fans rage over his ' vacation ' snap\n13 reasons why villain justin prentice says he ' s not bothered by social media trolls . . . and that getting attacked online means he ' s doing his job as an actor\nfarm heroes saga , the # 4 game on itunes . play it now !\nit ' s eye - wateringly expensive at $ 2 , 999 , but naim ' s uniti atom is a revelation , an integrated amplifier than makes it easy to stream music at a quality you ' ve probably never heard before .\nafter a day with the iphone x , while face id isn ' t perfect , and the ' notch ' is an annoyance , the iphone x is a glimpse into the future of phones and the best handset of the market by a long way .\nthey aren ' t cheap , but shinola ' s $ 595 foray into headphones are the perfect accessory for design obsessives looking to upgrade their listening habits .\nwith the pixel xl , google has created a handset that is not only the best android device out there , but arguably matches the iphone 8 in terms of design and feel .\napple ' s watch will free you from your phone - while making sure you don ' t suffer the fear of missing out . it ' s a huge step forward , and a compelling reason for the average user to buy a smartwatch .\nwhile the iphone x may have stolen the headlines , in fact the iphone 8 could be the sleeper hit of apple ' s new range , offering the same power as the x but with features and a design users trust .\nwhile the design is impressive and easy to use , the game line up is disappointing .\nnaim ' s incredible mu - so qb takes you back to the good old days - where the music captivates and enthralls , rather that simply being something in the background .\nit might not be a name familiar to the us market , but naim is a legendary british brand hoping to make a splash with the american launch of its $ 1499 mu : so speaker .\npeloton ' s hi - tech bike lets you stream live and on demand rides to your home - and it ' s one of the best examples of fitness technology out there - at a price .\ncatching the craziest of critters : nature , travel , herping , fishing , 4k .\nfamily named for chikila , a northeastern ( meghalaya state ) indian tribal name for the included caecilians .\nkamei , r . g . , d . san mauro , d . j . gower , i . van bocxlaer , e . sherratt , a . thomas , s . babu , f . bossuyt , m . wilkinson , and s . d . biju . 2012 . discovery of a new family of amphibians from northeast india with ancient links to africa . proceedings of the royal society of london . series b , biological sciences 279 : 2396\u20132401 .\nurltoken no longer supports internet explorer 9 or earlier . please upgrade your browser .\na new family of limbless , tail - less amphibians has been discovered in northeastern india .\nover the course of five years , researchers identified five species belonging to the family in 250 locations throughout the vast region .\n\u201cthe complete life cycle , everything , is happening under the soil , \u201d said s . d . biju , an environmental scientist at the university of delhi who led the research . \u201cso far we don\u2019t have much information about feeding ; we think they eat earthworms . \u201d\nthe amphibians look like earthworms themselves , or small snakes , though they are not poisonous . unlike worms , they also have strong backbones .\nthe researchers suspect that the amphibians\u2019 reach extends into myanmar , bhutan and nepal , dr . biju said ; they also appear to be related to another family of limbless amphibians in africa that diverged from the indian family 140 million years ago .\ndr . biju said the discovery underscored the need for amphibian conservation in india , where larger , charismatic species like the tiger and the elephant get far more attention .\n\u201cthe northeast india region is having a great habitat destruction simply because of human indifference , \u201d he said . \u201cthis area is a major biodiversity hot spot . \u201d\nwe\u2019re interested in your feedback on this page . tell us what you think .\naccessibility concerns ? email us at accessibility @ urltoken . we would love to hear from you .\nsmarter homes are better for the planet . here ' s how to get on board\na new family of legless amphibians has been found burrowing in the earth of a remote northeastern village in india .\nthe worm - like creatures evolved separately from other caecilian species more than 140 million years ago and are endemic to the region , although with ancient links to africa .\nthe find is significant in the study of prehistoric species migration , as well as evolutionary paths influenced by continental shift , cbs news said .\nthe discovery , published this week in a journal of the royal society of london , was made by a team of biologists , led by professor sathyabhama das biju , of the university of delhi .\nprofessor biju told ap : \u201cthis is a major hotspot of biological diversity , but one of the least explored . \u201d\nhe added : \u201cwe hope when the locals see the name , and their language , being used across the world , they will understand this animal\u2019s importance and join in trying to save it .\n\u201cindia\u2019s biodiversity is fast depleting . we are destroying these habitats without mercy . \u201d\nget top stories and blog posts emailed to me each day . newsletters may offer personalized content or advertisements . learn more\nthank you for signing up ! you should receive an email to confirm your subscription shortly .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nsystematics lab , department of environmental studies , university of delhi , delhi , 110 007 , india .\nthis is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .\ndescribed the family as representing as many as seven species apparently endemic to the region .\n, with no larval stage in between . the mothers stay wrapped around their developing eggs for two to three months , apparently not eating at all during this period .\nkamei , r . g . ; san mauro , d . ; gower , d . j . ; van bocxlaer , i . ; sherratt , e . ; thomas , a . ; babu , s . ; bossuyt , f . ; wilkinson , m . ; biju , s . d . ( 2012 - 02 - 22 ) .\ndiscovery of a new family of amphibians from northeast india with ancient links to africa\n. proceedings of the royal society b : biological sciences 279 ( 1737 ) : 2396\u20132401 . doi : 10 . 1098 / rspb . 2012 . 0150 . issn 0962 - 8452 . pmc 3350690 . pmid 22357266 .\nnew amphibian family find for india\n. bbc news . february 22 , 2012 .\nnew family of legless amphibians found in india\n. boston globe . february 21 , 2012 .\nfrost , darrel r . 2011 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 5 . 5 ( 31 january 2011 ) url = urltoken\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nled by dr . s . d . biju of the university of delhi \u2013 also fondly known as india\u2019s frogman \u2013 the team explored more than 250 locations in northeast india , leading to the discovery of the new amphibians described in the journal , proceedings of the royal society b , london .\nthis surprising ancient geographical link to africa adds to growing evidence of how continental movements have affected the geographical distribution of floral and fauna , the authors say in the youtube video .\nan interesting factoid about chikilids : in a wonderful show of parental care , the chikilid mother lays transparent eggs and guards her egg clutch constantly without feeding for up to 70 days .\nthe article can be found at : kamei rg et al . ( 2012 ) discovery of a new family of amphibians from northeast india with ancient links to africa .\nsource : systematics lab , university of delhi . disclaimer : this article does not necessarily reflect the views of asianscientist or its staff .\njuliana is the founder and editor - in - chief of asian scientist magazine , and a young global leader of the world economic forum . she received a phd in biology from mit and a ma , ba ( first class hons . ) in natural sciences from cambridge university , uk . juliana regularly moderates scientific panel discussions and gives talks on science communications .\nseven new night frogs discovered in india seven new species of night frog\u2014including four miniature - sized species\u2014have been discovered in india ' s western ghats region , a frog hot spot .\ndrowning in university degrees a decision to allow indian students to pursue dual degrees has drawn flak by critics , writes prof . pushkar .\nindia to host african delegates at ministerial conference in new delhi under the framework of the s & t ; initiatives for africa , india is hosting an india - africa s & t ; ministers conference & tech expo in new delhi from march 1 - 2 this week .\nsand - burrowing tadpole discovered in india part of the indian dancing frog family , these odd fossorial tadpoles ingest sand , possess ribs and have skin - covered eyes .\nfunding boost for australia india research institute the australia india institute will receive a us $ 2 . 78 million fund injection from the australian government .\naustralia & india establish joint education council during the annual india - australia ministerial dialogue on education cooperation , india and australia announced the launching of the india - australia education council to strengthen bilateral ties .\nyou may have read about some amazing immunotherapy cures , but for every anecdotal success there have been many more experimental failures .\nscientists in south korea have found that insufficient or excess sleep is associated with metabolic syndrome and poor health .\nasian scientist magazine caught up with our first - ever intern , mr . alan aw , on his recent scientific publications and his aspirations for the future .\nscientists have developed an inexpensive detector that works like velcro to capture prostate cancer cells on frosted glass slides , allowing for easy diagnosis .\ndeciding you don\u2019t want to be an academic scientist doesn\u2019t mean you\u2019ve failed\u2014other pastures abound beyond the walls of your lab ."]}
{"id": 1468, "summary": [{"text": "kryptopterus is a genus of catfishes belonging to the family siluridae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they are found in freshwater throughout southeast asia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the scientific name comes from ancient greek krypt\u00f3s ( \u03ba\u03c1\u03c5\u03c0\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2 , \" hidden \" ) + pt\u00e9ryx ( \u03c0\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03c5\u03be , \" fin \" ) .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it refers to the reduced or even entirely absent dorsal fin of these catfishes .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "these small - to medium-sized catfishes have opaque , transparent or translucent bodies , hence their common name asian glass catfishes .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "despite this name , only three described species have clearly transparent bodies : k. minor , k. piperatus and k. vitreolus .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "most significant among these is the ghost catfish ( k. vitreolus ) , which is the \" glass catfish \" most often seen in the aquarium fish trade .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "this species was initially confused with the larger glass catfish ( k. bicirrhis ; infrequent in aquarium trade ) and subsequently with k. minor ( essentially absent from aquarium trade ) .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "this matter was only fully resolved in 2013 . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "kryptopterus", "paragraphs": ["kryptopterus minor is not the glass catfish commonly found in the trade . the species we see in the trade is kryptopterus vitreolus . unless you collected the fish yourself in borneo , you almost certainly have that species .\nkryptopterus : from the greek kryptos , meaning hidden and pteryx , meaning fin ; in reference to the reduced or absent dorsal fin of this group of fishes .\nkryptopterus : from the greek kryptos , meaning \u2018hidden\u2019 , and pter\u00fdgio , meaning \u2018fin\u2019 , in reference to the reduced or absent dorsal - fin in members of this genus .\nkryptopterus species are found only in southeast asia and the genus has been considered polyphyletic since bornbusch ( 1995 ) with some former species already moved to the genera phalacronotus and micronema .\nasia : malay peninsula , java , sumatra and borneo . reports of this species from mekong , mae khlong , bang pakong and chao phraya river drainages in mainland southeast asia are misidentifications of kryptopterus geminus .\nng , h . h . , s . wirjoatmodjo and r . k . hadiaty , 2004 - ichthyological exploration of freshwaters 15 ( 1 ) : 91 - 95 kryptopterus piperatus , a new species of silurid catfish ( teleostei : siluridae ) from northern sumatra .\nkryptopterus : from the greek kryptos , meaning hidden and pteryx , meaning fin ; in reference to the reduced or absent dorsal fin of this group of fishes . from the greek cryptos , meaning hidden and pterygion , meaning fin . in reference to the rudimentary dorsal fin .\nfor years this fish was known in the hobby as kryptopterus bicirrhis , a very similar but larger species , but it has now been correctly identified as k . minor . this is a large genus , and other species , along with species in the similar genera , may be impor\nkryptopterus geminus , a new species of silurid catfish is described from the bang pakong , mekong , mae khlong and chao phraya river drainages in mainland southeast asia . kryptopterus geminus , together with k . cryptopterus , can be distinguished from congeners by the dorsal profile lacking a nuchal concavity and short maxillary barbels extending to the base of the pectoral fin . kryptopterus geminus can be further distinguished from k . cryptopterus in having a narrower head ( 9 . 5\u2013 12 . 0 % sl vs . 12 . 2\u201314 . 2 ) , longer anal fin ( 62 . 2\u201372 . 7 % sl vs . 57 . 2\u201362 . 9 ) and snout ( 39 . 5\u201345 . 3 % hl vs . 35 . 1\u201339 . 8 ) , and more laterally - placed eyes ( only ventral half , vs . ventral two - thirds , of the orbital margin visible when the head is viewed ventrally ) .\namong other kryptopterus spp . only k . minor and k . piperatus also possess a transparent body in life with the remaining species translucent or opaque , and these three are hypothesised to form a sub - clade within the k . bicirrhis species group ( ng & kottelat , 2013 ; see below for definition of this species group ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nk . vitreolus is one of three species in the genus to possess a transparent body in life . . .\n. . . although it does sometimes appear less so depending on the angle of light .\nvitreolus : from the diminutive form of the latin adjective vitreus , meaning \u2018of glass\u2019 , in reference to this species\u2019 transparent appearance in life .\nknown only from a series of coastal river basins of peninsular thailand draining into the gulf of thailand south of the isthmus of kra , plus a handful of rivers draining the cardamom ( khao banthat ) mountains in southeastern thailand .\nng and kottelat ( 2013 ) state that its status in the wild requires investigation since it\u2019s collected intensively for the aquarium trade , has a relatively restricted range and appears never to have been bred on a commercial basis .\ndisplays a preference for slow - moving or standing habitats and has been collected from turbid brownish water as well as acidic blackwater .\nbest kept in a well - decorated set - up with some surface or floating vegetation since it appears to prefer relatively dim conditions .\nthe addition of dried leaf litter and / or alder cones would further emphasise the natural feel while the tannins and other chemicals released by these as they decompose are considered beneficial for fishes from blackwater environments .\ndo not add this fish to a biologically immature aquarium as it can be susceptible to swings in water chemistry .\nin the aquarium it will accept dried foods of a suitable size but should also be offered daily meals of small live and frozen fare such as artemia nauplii , moina , grindal worm , etc .\ngenerally peaceful though it may predate on eggs or fry and is somewhat timid so does not compete well with much larger , robust or otherwise boisterous fishes .\nsmall , peaceful species make the best tankmates with examples from thailand including trigonostigma heteromorpha , t . espei , brevibora dorsiocellata , acanthocobitis zonalternans , lepidocephalichthys , acanthopsoides and pangio spp .\nmany species from other countries are of course also suitable but be sure to research your choices thoroughly prior to purchase .\nk . vitreolus is highly gregarious and tends to form quite tight schools meaning a group of 6 or more specimens is the minimum recommended .\nthis species has been available in the trade for decades during which time it\u2019s been widely misidentified as the congeners k . bicirrhis or , more recently , k . minor .\nits identity was not resolved until early 2013 at which point it was described as a new species by ng and kottelat , meaning you will see it under one of these two names in the majority of literature published prior to that date .\nunusually , the authors were required to publish a short communication just after the description since the words \u2018new species\u2019 did not feature in the first paper meaning that technically the name k . vitreolus remained unavailable as per art . 16 . 1 of the iczn code .\nalternative trade names include \u2018asian glass catfish\u2019 , \u2018ghost catfish\u2019 and \u2018phantom catfish\u2019 , while it\u2019s sometimes confused with the \u2018african glass catfish\u2019 , parailia pellucida .\nk . vitreolus can be told apart from k . minor , k . piperatus and all other k . bicirrhis group members by the following combination of characters : snout length 29\u201335 % hl ; eye diameter 28\u201334 % hl ; body depth at anus 16\u201320 % sl ; depth of caudal peduncle 4\u20137 % sl ; maxillary barbels extending beyond base of first anal - fin ray ; dorsal profile with pronounced nuchal concavity ; 14\u201318 rakers on the first gill arch ; 48\u201355 anal - fin rays .\nk . bicirrhis group : k . bicirrhis , k . lais , k . palembangensis , k . macrocephalus , k . minor , k . piperatus , k . vitreolus k . cryptopterus group : k . cryptopterus , k . geminus k . limpok group : k . limpok , k . mononema , k . dissitus , k . baramensis , k . hesperius k . schilbeides group : k . schilbeides , k . paraschilbeides\nbombusch ( 1995 ) identified the k . bicirrhis group as a distinct clade although he didn\u2019t propose any synapomorphy to diagnose it .\nng and kottelat ( 2013 ) later noted that members normally have fewer anal - fin rays ( 46\u201367 vs . 64\u201385 ) than other congeners and placed k . piperatus and k . vitreolus within the group based on this character .\nng , h - h . and m . kottelat , 2013 - zootaxa 3630 : 308 - 316 after eighty years of misidentification , a name for the glass catfish ( teleostei : siluridae ) .\nbornbusch , a . h . , 1995 - zoological journal of the linnean society 115 : 1 - 46 phylogenetic relationships within the eurasian catfish family siluridae ( pisces : siluriformes ) , with comments on generic validities and biogeography .\nng , h - h . and m . kottelat , 2013 - zootaxa 3640 ( 2 ) : 299 - 300 a name for the glass catfish ( teleostei : siluridae ) revisited .\n, select family and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the family .\n, select country and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the country .\n, select ecosystem and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the ecosystem .\ncfm script by eagbayani , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by cmilitante , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by cmilitante , 14 / 03 / 2013\nmainstream of sungai pinoh at nanga saian , 45 kilometers south of nangapinoh , borneo , indonesia .\n68mm or 2 . 7\nsl . find near , nearer or same sized spp .\nmemoirs of the california academy of sciences no . 14 , pp149 , fig . 115 .\n( 1 ) glasscats ( k : 3 ) . click on a username above to see all that persons registered catfish species . you can also view all\nmy cats\ndata for this species .\nget or print a qr code for this species profile , or try our beta label creator .\nhas this page been useful ? please donate to our monthly hosting costs and keep us free for everyone to enjoy ! explore our youtube channel , facebook page or follow us on twitter .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 urltoken , part of the aquatic republic network group of websites . all rights reserved . cite this website . by accessing this site you agree to our terms and conditions of use . our privacy policy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndistribution : europe and asia . dorsal fin rays usually less than 7 , when present . no spine before dorsal fin . no adipose fin . pelvic fins small or absent . anal fin base very long with 41 - 110 rays . nasal barbel absent , one or two pairs of barbels on lower jaw , and maxillary barbels usually elongate . maximum length of 5 m reached in silurus glanis , with 330 kg . this european species may enter brackish waters .\nlatin , silurus = a kind of fish . 1555 ( ref . 45335 ) .\nthe list below must not be used as an authority reference synonymy list like those found in scientific published revisions , which must be the source to be used and cited eventually when they exist .\nrather , it reflects the current content of fishbase , and the progress with respect to synchronization with the catalog of fishes . however , we think it can be useful for users to assess the quality of information in fishbase , to start new work on the family , or to cross - check with other lists .\nbut we appreciate to be cited in publications when this list has been of any working value . in particular , for published scientific , we suggest then to cite it in the material and method section as a useful tool to conduct the research , but again , not as a taxonomic or nomenclatural authority reference .\nunless it is explicitly precised , the list is not complete , please search all original names published for the family in the catalog of fishes ( genera , species ) , including those with uncertain or unknown status , that are not included in fishbase when they are not attached to a valid species .\nthis list uses some data from catalog of fishes ( not shown but used to sort names ) .\nin the column coff , the digit indicates the status of synchronization with coff : 0 : not checked ; 1 : same status ; 2 : different status ; 3 : other combination ; 4 : synonym in coff ; 5 : species / subspecies issue ; 6 : synonym of another species in coff ; 7 : not in coff ; 8 : should not be in coff . the coff version currently used is the one published on 23 - 07 - 2014 ( ref . 97102 ) .\nwhen subfamilies are recognized , nominotypical subfamily first then other subfamilies by alphabetical order .\ntype genus of the family first ( or of subfamily when subfamilies are recognized ) then other genera by chronological order of description ( and alphabetical order ) .\ntype species of the genus first by chronological order ( and alphabetical order ) , with last listed misapplied names in a light gray font .\ngreek , kryptos = hidden + greek , pteron = wing . fin ( ref . 45335 )\nfreshwater ; benthopelagic ; ph range : 6 . 5 - 7 . 4 ; dh range : 10 - 20 . tropical ; 22\u00b0c - 26\u00b0c ( ref . 2060 )\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 9 . 7 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 7050 )\nrestricted to peat habitats ( ref . 57235 ) . occurs in shady spots in running waters . omnivorous , although larger individuals may prey on smaller fishes ( ref . 6868 ) . uncommon in aquarium trade ( ref . 57235 ) .\nkottelat , m . , a . j . whitten , s . n . kartikasari and s . wirjoatmodjo , 1993 . freshwater fishes of western indonesia and sulawesi . periplus editions , hong kong . 221 p . ( ref . 7050 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00575 ( 0 . 00278 - 0 . 01190 ) , b = 2 . 99 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 17 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 2 \u00b10 . 73 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 20 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nkottelat , m . 2013 . the fishes of the inland waters of southeast asia : a catalogue and core bibiography of the fishes known to occur in freshwaters , mangroves and estuaries . raffles bulletin of zoology supplement no . 27 : 1 - 663 .\n, particularly in the aquarium literature . there is a possibility that the populations from sundaic southeast asia are not conspecific with those from mainland southeast asia .\njustification : this species is recorded from the malay peninsula from southern thailand and southeastern thailand to kalimantan , and southeast thailand to western cambodia . it is heavily utilised in the aquarium trade , although a high proportion of the species in trade come from farmed sources . data are not available on population trends , however the species is assessed as near threatened due to inferred population declines arising from the impact of harvesting for the ornamental fish trade and the loss and degradation of suitable habitat , especially peatland and lowland forest covered streams .\nrecorded from the malay peninsula from southern thailand and southeastern thailand to kalimantan , and southeast thailand to western cambodia . the species is possibly present in viet nam in the lower dong nai river basin .\nit is thought that the population might have suffered some decline from collection for the aquarium trade .\ninhabits small streams and swamps , especially peatland and lowland forest covered streams , as well as from larger turbid rivers .\npopular in the aquarium trade , traded in very large volumes . most of the individuals in trade are thought to be from farmed sources , with a small percentage from the wild .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nand from malaysia ( peninsula , sabah and sarawak ) , and indonesia ( sumatra and kalimantan ) . although a commercially fished species , it is assessed as least concern at present .\n) , thailand and cambodia , and from malaysia ( peninsula , sabah and sarawak ) , and indonesia ( sumatra and kalimantan ) .\ninhabits large rivers with turbid waters but reportedly prefers fast flowing water , but also enters flooded fields ( kottelat 1998 ) . a diurnal , active pelagic species .\noccurs in commercial and subsistence fisheries . highly commercial . used to make fermented foods or fish sauce . regularly seen in the aquarium trade .\nlikely to be impacted locally in parts of its range by pollution and overfishing .\nfreshwater ; benthopelagic ; ph range : 6 . 8 - 7 . 8 ; dh range : ? - 18 ; potamodromous ( ref . 51243 ) . tropical ; 22\u00b0c - 25\u00b0c ( ref . 2060 )\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 14 . 6 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 2091 )\nroberts , t . r . , 1989 . the freshwater fishes of western borneo ( kalimantan barat , indonesia ) . mem . calif . acad . sci . 14 : 210 p . ( ref . 2091 )\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 9 \u00b10 . 6 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 27 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n200mm or 7 . 9\nsl . find near , nearer or same sized spp .\nrudimentary dorsal fin ; the maxillary barbels reaching to the base of the pectoral fin ; 64 - 78 anal rays . nearly straight dorsal profile with no nuchal concavity ; pectoral - fin length greater than head length .\nmales are more slender and have strong serrations on the posterior edge of the pectoral spine ( females lack these serrations ) .\nreadily feeds on live / frozen foods and other prepared foods such as pellets .\nthis fish is fairly active and needs open spaces to swim in . provide plenty of vegetation for it to hide in during the day .\na schooling species that should be kept in groups of three or more . a relatively peaceful fish compatible with most other species . ideal tankmates include larger barbs and rasboras , and other mid - sized bottom - dwelling asian catfishes ( e . g . mystus ) .\nin the mekong , this species spawns during the early part of the rainy season ( june - july ) . the young move toward the seasonally flooded habitats and are first seen in august . not reported in aquaria .\n( 1 ) silentskream , who also notes :\none of many called\nglass catfish\nbut this is one of the less common varieties . we got ours as a donation , and have been very happy with him !\n, ( 2 ) miles44 ( k : 2 ) , ( 3 ) straitjacketstar ( k : 2 ) , ( 4 ) in _ the _ seance ( k : 2 ) . click on a username above to see all that persons registered catfish species . you can also view all\nmy cats\ndata for this species .\nspecial publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nfreshwater ; benthopelagic ; ph range : 6 . 0 - 8 . 0 ; dh range : 5 - 19 . tropical ; 24\u00b0c - 28\u00b0c ( ref . 30491 )\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 6 . 8 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 7050 )\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 6 \u00b10 . 6 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 13 of 100 ) .\ninhabits lakes and main rivers ( ref . 56749 ) . feeds on small fishes and prawns ( ref . 56749 ) . usually processes as smoked or salted fish ( ref . 56749 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthis species was described from the mekong river in stung treng province , cambodia ( ng 2003 ) . prior to its recognition as a distinct species , it has been misidentified as k . cryptopterus .\njustification : even though there is no information regarding the population size and trends for this species , survey data indicates that it is still abundant throughout much of its range . it is therefore assessed as least concern .\nthe species is known from the mekong ( from the mouth upriver to vientiane , lao pdr ) , mae khlong ( the mouth to at least kanchanaburi ) , bang pakong ( from the mouth to at least prachinburi ) and chao phraya ( the mouth upriver to at least ayutthaya ) river drainages in mainland southeast asia ( ng 2003 ) .\nthere is no information available on the population size and trends for this species , but survey data indicates that it is still abundant throughout much of its range .\ndominany presence at khone falls during dry season , exhibits peak in beginning of rainy season . ( baran\nthis species is utilized as a food fish in artisanal fisheries . it is also sporadically collected and exported as an ornamental fish .\nthe threats to this species are unknown , since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats ( especially those of an anthropogenic nature ) remains unknown .\nthere is insufficient information on the distribution , biology and potential threats for this species .\nsmallest 68mm , largest 350mm , average 181mm , most commonly 80mm . all sl .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nindividual collected in the rajang river system , sarawak state , malaysia ( borneo ) .\nmacrocephalus : from the greek makros , meaning \u2018long\u2019 , and kephalos , meaning \u2018head\u2019 .\nknown from southern ( peninsular ) thailand , peninsular malaysia , singapore and the greater sunda islands of sumatra , borneo and java .\ntype locality is usually given as \u2018padang , sumatra\u2019 although habitats in that area are said to be unsuitable for this species and it\u2019s never been recorded there post - description .\nthis species is a stenotypic inhabitant of peat swamp forests and associated blackwater streams .\nmany such habitats have suffered large - scale degradation of some kind but in unaltered cases the dense canopy of branches above means very little light penetrates the surface of such environments , and riparian vegetation also tends to grow thickly .\nsubstrates are usually littered with fallen leaves , branches and submerged tree roots though in some places aquatic plants from genera such as cryptocoryne or barcalaya can be found .\nthe water is typically stained darkly with humic acids and other chemicals released by decaying organic materials , the dissolved mineral content generally negligible and ph as low as 3 . 0 or 4 . 0 .\nfor example in sarawak state , malaysia ( borneo ) it\u2019s been collected from a blackwater river known as the sungai kepayan which flows through remnant and intact peat swamp forest .\nin 1998 ph was measured at 4 . 1 and depth ranged from 20 cm to 2 metres or more .\nsyntopic fish species included osteochilus spilurus , \u2018 puntius \u2018 rhomboocellatus , brevibora dorsiocellata , trigonopoma gracile , t . pauciperforatum , sundadanio cf . axelrodi , kottelatlimia pristes , neohomaloptera johorensis , nanobagrus fuscus , ompok weberi , silurichthys phaiosoma , hemirhamphodon phaiosoma , betta edithae , b . midas , nandus nebulosus , belontia hasseltii , luciocephalus pulcher , parosphromenus anjunganensis , p . ornaticauda , and sphaerichthys osphromenoides .\nprobably a predator feeding on crustaceans , invertebrates and smaller fishes in nature , although there should be no need to use such live foods in captivity .\noffer a varied diet comprising sinking dried foods , live and frozen bloodworm , tubifex , etc . , and perhaps the occasional small earthworm .\ngenerally peaceful though it may predate on smaller fishes and is somewhat timid so does not compete well with much larger , robust or otherwise boisterous species .\npeaceful , comparably - sized cyprinids , loaches and other catfishes perhaps constitute the best options but be sure to research your choices thoroughly prior to purchase .\nk . macrocephalus is gregarious and tends to form schools so ideally four or more specimens should be purchased .\nadult males are noticeably slimmer than females and the posterior edge of the pectoral - fin spine is serrated ( vs . smooth in females ) .\nthis species is also referred to as \u2018false glass catfish\u2019 , \u2018mottled glass catfish\u2019 or \u2018tawny glass catfish\u2019 .\nroberts ( 1989 ) discusses the existence of striped and mottled colour forms but investigation is apparently required to establish whether these are conspecific or not .\nthe congener k . piperatus is very similar but has a colour pattern comprising a pale brown body with scattered dark spots vs . prominent dark brown spots or stripes in k . macrocephalus .\nferraris , c . j . , jr . , 2007 - zootaxa 1418 : 1 - 628 checklist of catfishes , recent and fossil ( osteichthyes : siluriformes ) , and catalogue of siluriform primary types .\nparenti , l . r . and k . k . p . lim , 2005 - raffles bulletin of zoology supplement 13 : 175 - 208 fishes of the rajang basin , sarawak , malaysia .\nroberts , t . r . , 1989 - memoirs of the california academy of sciences no . 14 : i - xii + 1 - 210 the freshwater fishes of western borneo ( kalimantan barat , indonesia ) .\ntan , h . h . and h . h . ng , 2000 - journal of natural history 34 ( 2 ) : 267 - 303 the catfishes ( teleostei : siluriformes ) of central sumatra .\nasia : mekong and chao phraya basins ; malay peninsula , sumatra and borneo .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 15 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 27732 )\nanal soft rays : 55 - 68 . rudimentary dorsal fin ; the maxillary barbels reaching to the anal fin ; 55 - 68 anal rays ( ref . 27732 ) . dorsal profile arched with a nuchal concavity ; pectoral - fin length greater than head length ( ref . 12693 ) .\ninhabits large rivers with turbid waters ( ref . 27732 ) . reported to prefer fast flowing water and usually occurs along the shores ( ref . 56749 ) . enters flooded fields ( ref . 12975 ) . found in lowland streams to peat adjacent in large school up to 100 fish ( ref . 57235 ) . diurnal . feeds mostly on pelagic hemipterans and some small fishes ( ref . 12693 ) , also on worms , crustaceans and insects ( ref . 7020 ) . the clearest body of world ' s fish ( ref . 57235 ) . used to make prahoc or fish sauce and regularly seen in the aquarium trade ( ref . 12693 ) . aquarium keeping : at least 10 individuals ; minimum aquarium size 100 cm ( ref . 51539 , 57235 ) .\nkottelat , m . , 1998 . fishes of the nam theun and xe bangfai basins , laos , with diagnoses of twenty - two new species ( teleostei : cyprinidae , balitoridae , cobitidae , coiidae and odontobutidae ) . ichthyol . explor . freshwat . 9 ( 1 ) : 1 - 128 . ( ref . 27732 )\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 9 \u00b10 . 63 se ; based on food items .\nthough not suitable for beginners , this unusual and delicate catfish can be cared for by hobbyists with basic fishkeeping skills . especially important are high water quality and adequate diet . lots of water changes and live or frozen foods will help ensur\na heavily planted tank with peaceful tankmates that are much smaller than the catfish is ideal . glass catfish are unable to deal with aggression , and they cannot compete well for food . small tetras and rasboras are perfect tankmates . the more cover ( plant\nfrequent feedings of small live invertebrates are the best diet for these fish . they will also take frozen foods and will learn to accept high - quality flakes and tiny pellets . although they have tiny mouths and require food in very small pieces , they are\ntruly a transparent fish , this animal\u2019s bones and internal organs are all visible\u2014even its beating heart ! when light hits at the right angle , the fish displays an iridescence .\nthis is a most unusual catfish . it is a diurnal , shy , transparent fish that dwells in midwater and is an obligate schooler . a heavily planted tank with some open space will bring out the best of these animals . they may hide for several days when first introduced , and they are quick to dive into the thickets when disturbed . they can become quite bold , however , at feeding time . it is very common to find the entire school identically aligned , heading into currents , shimmying to stay in place . often purchased as a novelty , this fascinating fish holds your interest with its interesting behaviors ."]}
{"id": 1480, "summary": [{"text": "tusoteuthis is a genus of cretaceous cephalopod molluscs .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "one species , t. longa , has been identified so far , and examination of gladius remains has yielded an estimated mantle length close to or equal to that of the modern giant squid .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "recent studies suggest a closer relationship to the vampire squid than the modern-day giant squid .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "tusoteuthis is assumed to have preyed on other cephalopods , fish , and possibly even small marine reptiles .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "despite its size , which was around 20 to 35 feet ( 6 to 11 metres ) long with tentacles fully outstretched , tusoteuthis was still preyed on by other animals , especially the many , various predatory fish of the western interior seaway .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "a fossil of the predatory aulopiform , cimolichthys nepaholica , was found with the gladius of t. longa in its gullet .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the back portion of the gladius was in the stomach region , while the mouth of c. nepaholica had remained opened , suggesting that the fish had died in the middle of swallowing the squid , tail first .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "researchers strongly suspect that as the fish was swallowing tusoteuthis , the head and/or tentacles remained outside the mouth , thus blocking the gills of the fish , and suffocating it as it swallowed its prey . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "tusoteuthis", "paragraphs": ["admincheat spawndino\nblueprint ' / game / primalearth / dinos / tusoteuthis / tusoteuthis _ character _ bp . tusoteuthis _ character _ bp '\n500 0 0 35\nsimilar to mosasaurus , the tusoteuthis dislikes shallow water and will de - aggro .\nunlike other passive tames , taming affinity is not reset when the tusoteuthis takes damage .\nark insight ! - = - which is better ? mosasaurus v . s tusoteuthis !\nthe tusoteuthis is a massive , aggressive squid found in the depths of the oceans . in battle , the tusoteuthis can grab its prey and knock it unconcious , siphoning its blood to gain health . once tamed , the ink from a tusoteuthis can be used as a constant oil source . some survivors choose to hunt the tusoteuthis for its oil .\nusing the ( pc ) , ( ps4 ) , ( xbox one ) , the tusoteuthis can pick up another creature with its tentacles . while holding a non - friendly target , the tusoteuthis will constantly inflict torpor until the target is unconscious . note that the tusoteuthis cannot hold an unconscious target .\nthe tusoteuthis ' s taming method differs from most creatures . please ignore its interval and time calculations .\nthe tusoteuthis ( too - so - too thiss ) is an aquatic creature in ark : survival evolved .\none of the major benefits of taming tusoteuthis is harvesting its ink . unlike normal ink , tusoteuthis ' ink is very oily , and can even be refined into fuels such as gasoline . between that and tusoteuthis ' distinctive capability to grab & carry large creatures underwater , it makes for an excellent aquatic tame , despite its slower speed .\nthe tusoteuthis\ndoes not want to be tamed right now\nunless it has a creature within its clutches .\ntusoteuthis attack can reach far onto the shore and decimate penguin populations in seconds . gathering large amounts of polymer .\ntusoteuthis cannot sprint while holding another creature , keep this in mind when using it to transport other friendly tames .\nleft : a painting of tusoteuthis in a diorama at the sternberg museum of natural history in hays , kansas .\nthis section displays the tusoteuthis ' s natural colors and regions . for demonstration , the regions below are colored red over an albino tusoteuthis . the colored squares shown underneath each region ' s description are the colors that the tusoteuthis will randomly spawn with to provide an overall range of its natural color scheme . hover your cursor over a color to display its name and id .\nwith a high armor saddle . stimulants may also be required for taming higher level tusoteuthis , as an unconscious carbonemys is of no interest to the tusoteuthis . the lower the durability of the carbonemys and the higher the dps of the tusoteuthis : the more carbonemys that may be required or sacrificed . other high durability tames also work , but anything that requires oxygen is not recommended .\nhowever , tusoteuthis will now eat regular meat and raw fish meat . it does not require black pearls for food when domesticated .\nusing the ( pc ) , ( ps4 ) , ( xbox one ) , the tusoteuthis swipes its massive tentacles at the target .\ntusoteuthis vampyrus is a very aggressive water predator . approximately 30 feet long , tusoteuthis is a terror of the deep . once it grabs its prey , it slowly crushes it into submission while using the talons on its tentacles to siphon and drink the victim ' s blood !\n* rank of the base stat of the tusoteuthis vs . all other creatures . ( rank # 1 in health = highest health creature . )\na monstrous relative of the vampire squid , tusoteuthis bears a closer resemblance to giant squids , but is much more terrifying than its timid kin . tusoteuthis has powerful tentacles with hooked suckers , capable of drawing blood and keeping even a megalodon from escaping a horrible fate . a parrot - like beak hides in the center of the writhing mass , ripping flesh , shell , and bone into easy - to - swallow bits . tusoteuthis also possesses the ability to spray an oily ink if it is in danger . fearing only the mosasaurus , tusoteuthis is a true terror of the deep .\nwhen possible , try to steer the tusoteuthis away from terrain - it is currently possible for its grab to release creatures / players under the ground .\non the center , tusoteuthis can rarely spawn in the pool at the bottom of the waterfall under the land bridge connecting redwoods to the snowy grasslands .\nthe tusoteuthis on release was originally supposed to be much smaller , but on a last minute change was changed to be the size it is today .\nwhile holding a target , the tusoteuthis will constantly inflict torpor , until the target is unconscious , making it the most efficient knock - out aquatic taming mount . note that the tusoteuthis cannot hold an unconscious target , so the mount will let go of the tame as soon as it ' s tranquilized .\nsimilar to polymer farming , the tusoteuthis ' reach and aoe allows it to harvest cnidaria with impunity , making it a good bulk harvester of bio toxin .\nusing c ( pc ) , ( ps4 ) , ( xbox one ) , the tusoteuthis releases a large ink cloud to completely obscure vision for a limited time .\ntusoteuthis is found only in very deep water , where it swims about at a slow pace . if it spots the player or a tamed creature , it will begin to move itself towards the player or said creature and attack it . because of the unique body plan of cephalopods , a tusoteuthis must turn itself around to strike with its tentacles .\nwhile carrying a creature with its tentacles and using the ( pc ) , ( ps4 ) , ( xbox one ) , the tusoteuthis will crush the target for considerable damage .\nright : a field shot of a partial squid pen of tusoteuthis longa that i collected in may , 2010 . a fragment of a inoceramid shell was laying across the gladius .\nthis section describes how to fight against the tusoteuthis . generally the squid is a very strong enemy , a confrontation should be avoided if you ' re not sure you can win .\ntusoteuthis is a terrifying opponent for several reasons . firstly , its grab slowly renders its victim unconscious , so death isn ' t the only concern . secondly , its vampiric blood drain instantly revitalizes it , even during combat . finally , if tusoteuthis is losing the fight , it sprays a cloud of ink into the surrounding water , blinding its attackers to cover a sneaky escape .\nyou can also use another tusoteuthis to fight it . focus mainly on melee damage , with a little health . swim up to the tusoteuthis and start attacking it . it will try to grab you , but it is not able to . keep attacking it until it tries to flee . because the tusoteuthis has a wide turning radius , you can keep hitting it as it tries to turn . if it is a lower level , you should be able to kill it before it gets away . if it gets away , follow it . tamed tusoteuthis have double the movement speed of wild ones , so you should be able to catch it . as long as the wild squid is near the ground , it will probably run into rocks , where you can kill it .\nserver admins can use this region information in the console command\ncheat settargetdinocolor < colorregion > < colorid >\n. for example ,\ncheat settargetdinocolor 0 6\nwould color the tusoteuthis ' s\nbody highlights\nmagenta .\nin ark : survival evolved , the tusoteuthis eats 50 black pearls , 30 cooked prime meat , 20 raw meat , 30 cooked prime fish meat , 30 cooked meat , 20 raw fish meat , and 30 cooked fish meat .\ntusoteuthis was a cretaceous relative of the modern vampire squid - which is likely the inspiration for its blood - sucking tendencies described in the dossier ( although it ' s worth noting that vampire squids don ' t actually drink blood . )\ntusoteuthis was native to the western interior seaway , an ocean that split north america in half during the late cretaceous . despite being comparable in size to modern giant squid , it was still far from the top of the local food chain .\nfast forward to 2012 . . . . trish and dan came back to kansas to see if we could repeat our earlier success . . . first day , no luck but by noon of the second day , we had another nice specimen of tusoteuthis longa .\nright : an artist ' s reconstruction showing the location of the squid pen within the body of the squid , and an artist ' s conception of what the late cretaceous squid , tusoteuthis longa logan may have looked like ( exhibits - sternberg museum of natural history ) .\nnicholls , e . l . and isaak , h . 1987 . stratigraphic and taxonomic significance of tusoteuthis longa logan ( coleoidea , teuthida ) from the pembina member , pierre shale ( campanian ) , of manitoba . journal of paleontology 61 ( 4 ) : 727 - 737 , 5 figs .\nthe evidence of bite marks in some squid pens shows that squid were eaten by many predators including fish and mosasaurs ( stewart and carpenter 1990 ) . click here for a picture of a very large tusoteuthis longa fossil from the pierre shale in the museum of natural history at the university of kansas .\nleft : a specimen of large ( 1 . 5 m ) cimolichthys nepaholica ( ucm 29556 ) from the redbird shale of wyoming that died trying to swallow a tusoteuthis longa squid . the rachis of the squid is plainly visible inside the ribs of the fish . photo copyright \u00a9 2012 by trish weaver . scale = 30 cm .\nleft : tusoteuthis , a ' giant ' squid that lived in the western interior sea , may have been as long as 25 ft . ( 7 . 5 m ) , although there is little or no proof of their size because so little of their body is preserved . in any case , it probably wasn ' t nearly as large as shown in this dramatic painting in the university of kansas museum of natural history .\nwhile riderless , the tusoteuthis will not wait long to let go of your creature - making a team of two the safest option , as the distraction ' s rider can remain mounted until the creature is fed and then dismount themselves and swim up . if you do attempt to solo tame , flippers are recommended for speedy getaways . make sure your tame is on passive and set to follow , and if it survives the feeding it will swim up to safety the moment the squid lets go .\nname : tusoteuthis . phonetic : too - so - te - ew - fiss . named by : logan\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202c1898 . classification : mollusca , \u202d \u202ccephalopoda , \u202d \u202ccephalopoda , \u202d \u202ccoleoidea , \u202d \u202cvampyromorphida\u202d ? species : t . \u202d \u202clonga\u202d ( \u202ctype\u202d ) \u202c . diet : carnivore . size : estimates vary and range from about\u202d \u202c6\u202d \u202cto\u202d \u202c11\u202d \u202cmeters long\u202d ( based upon giant squid and \u202cif measured from the mantle to the tips of the tentacles\u202d ) \u202c . known locations : canada , \u202d \u202cmanitoba\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202cpierre shale formation . time period : campanian of the cretaceous . fossil representation : several specimens of the gladius\u202d ( \u202cshell inside of the mantle\u202d ) \u202c .\nfurther reading - \u202d \u202cstatigraphic and taxonomic significance of tusoteuthis longa logan\u202d ( \u202ccoleoida , \u202d \u202cteuthida\u202d ) \u202cfrom the pembina member , \u202d \u202cpierre shale\u202d ( \u202ccampanian\u202d ) \u202c , \u202d \u202cof manitoba . \u202d \u202cjournal of palaeontology , \u202d \u202c61\u202d ( \u202c4\u202d ) \u202c727 - 737\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202ce . \u202d \u202cl . \u202d \u202cnicholls\u202d & \u202ch . \u202d \u202cisaak\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202c1987 . - \u202d \u202ccretaceous fish predation on a large squid . \u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202cevolutionary paleobiology of behaviour and coevolution , \u202d \u202c195 - 197 . \u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202ce . \u202d \u202cg . \u202d \u202ckaufman\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202c1990 . - \u202d \u202cexamples of vertebrate predation on cephalopods in the late cretaceous of the western interior . \u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202cevolutionary paleobiology of behaviour and coevolution , \u202d \u202c203 - 207 . \u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202cj . \u202d \u202cd . \u202d \u202cstewart\u202d & \u202ck . \u202d \u202ccarpenter\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202c1990 .\nkeeping cephalopods in captivity ceph care equipment list before you get an octopus as a pet . . . octopus basics - keeping an octopus as a pet keeping an octopus octopus bimaculoides care sheet ceph care , past and future ink ' s story ( o . bimaculoides ) before you buy a cuttlefish . . . . cuttlefish basics - keeping a cuttlefish as a pet keeping and breeding dwarf cuttlefish sepia bandensis : husbandry and breeding tankmates : it works until it doesn ' t o . chierchiae babies ( lpso ) packing and shipping cephalopods diy skimmer\nwelcome to tonmo , the premier cephalopod enthusiast community . we have tons of searchable content and host a biennial conference . to join in on the fun , become a member for free , and become a supporter for just $ 50 / year to see less ads and enjoy other perks . follow us on facebook and twitter for more cephy goodness .\njavascript is disabled . for a better experience , please enable javascript in your browser before proceeding .\nby phil eyden - 2003 note : phil welcomes discussion on this article in the cephalopod fossils forum . introduction\n, the giant and colossal squid , are enigmatic and awe inspiring animals . very little is known about the lifestyle of these spectacular animals , despite the examination of numerous corpses of\n, much of what we know about the animals ' behaviour and lifestyle boils down to educated speculation . what is not so well known is that these modern squid were not the first giant squid in the earths\n, giant turtles and plesiosaurs about 80 million years ago during the late cretaceous period . imagine the difficulties of reconstructing these ancient animals when all we have to go on are fragmentary fossilised remains of the pens , or\nproviding strengthening and support for the mantle , the main body of the squid .\nalopods ; soft bodied parts , in those rare cases of exceptional preservation , are not generally diagnostic or much use in determining species interrelationships . unfortunately the\nalopods to imagine how much we have lost and will never be able to reconstruct with these ancient animals .\nis the most common specimen and this is known from just 25 examples ( 1987 figure ) . prehistoric giant squid remains are known purely from the shallow western interior seaway , which was a vast sea that bisected\nthe early cretaceous following a period of rapid global warming , sea floor spreading and rise .\nthis seaway is thought to have been very shallow , generally less than 600 feet deep , with a flat muddy bottom .\neach of these species was described on the basis of a single specimen . all these animals are known from remains of the\nalone , the stiffening rod running the length of the mantle , the different species were known from variations in the size and form of this cuttlebone until recent revisions grouped all these animals together under one genus .\nmember of the pierre shale that lies immediately above the chalk at a date of 79 million years old .\nwas described by h . w . miller in 1957 on the basis of three specimens found in the late thirties in the\n1977 by r . g . green on the basis of one very badly crushed specimen .\nand lacked a prominent keel . however , it may be misleading to identify these large squid as separate animals ; a 1987 paper by\nthe differences in morphology noted above could be explained as artifacts of preservation , deformations caused by crushing during the process of fossilization and misinterpretation of dorsal and ventral surfaces . the sole specimen of the\nto be so badly broken and crushed that any attempt at reconstruction would be largely hypothetical . this theory has now achieved general acceptance ; all recorded examples of\ngiant prehistoric squid are also known from other parts of the world . at richmond , in queensland , australia a 100 million year old 1 . 3 metre\nin her honour . this is currently on display at the richmond marine fossil museum . students in queensland located a contemporary second gladius in 1998 that measured over a meter in length and possibly shows evidence of predation by\ntaxonomy is still being compiled . the evolutionary history of the orders of squid and other non -\n, or pen , and even that is very rarely preserved due to its delicate nature . much of what is currently understood about evolutionary relationships of these animals has not been agreed upon ; there are two or three differing models of the\ntree , each new discovery may call for the models to be reworked . the only really well preserved\n, and a handful of other lesser known localities . these represent snapshots of biodiversity ; what happened in between them is tantamount to educated guesswork with rare and isolated specimens providing evolutionary clues . most collections in museums are labelled simply as\nfossil\na little of the evolutionary history has been determined , even if it is somewhat speculative . it is currently thought that these ancient giant squid were members of the\n, the vampire squid . this is in common with many of the jurassic\ngroup that failed to survive the mass extinction at the end of the cretaceous . these palaeololiginidae are well documented in\nand was working from a description ; nichols and isaac revised the family to the kelaenidae in 1987 . ( miller had also assigned\nlived in the devonian period , possibly over 380 million years ago . as these giants are not believed to be ancestral to\n' immediate ancestors makes it impossible to determine when the recent giants arose . the difference between\nof preservation and the animals may , in fact be one and the same . the radically different shape of the\nmay indicate that these western interior seaway squid had a differing external appearance in the shape of the mantle , perhaps broader at posterior end of the animal .\nof the six manitoba specimens measures at just over 1 . 2m in length but the sixth and most recently recovered specimen is larger but incomplete , and would have belonged to an animal which was a third larger again ; it is unknown what the maximum size adult animal would have been . if one assumes a consistent growth rate maintaining the same proportions and ratios , then this sixth\nwould have been approximately in the order of 1 . 8m if complete , and there is no evidence to suggest that this was fully grown . at the time of writing ( may 2004 ) , another\nmeasuring six foot ( 1 . 8m ) is being prepared for display at the north dakota heritage centre at\ncan be taken to be 2 . 15m ( one specimen had a mantle length of 2 . 25m and the\nwas of comparable size , if a little shorter . with so few specimens to work from we cannot be sure what was the maximum size attained by\n, but the standard length ( tip of arms to tip of mantle ) may have been of a similar size . we may be looking at an adult\nhave this feature . arm hooks are likely , but suckers do not fossilise and their presence cannot be determined .\nand the ancient giants is that of lifestyle as they lived in very different environments .\nas it lived in shallower conditions with more available light . there is some indirect evidence that these\n, an important marine predator in the seaway , and not likely to have been a deep diving animal .\nprobably would have constituted a major dietary component for fish and marine reptiles throughout the western interior seaway . the evidence for this comes from coprolites ( fossilised faeces ) , damaged\na total of five specimens of coprolites have been collected from separate locations ( 1987 figure ) . two of these coprolites were collected from a\n, one of which also contains fish teeth and vertebrae . from the coprolites alone it is difficult to determine what animal was eating\nbut from the small size of these coprolites researchers have concluded that this was probably some form of large predatory fish ( largest is 4 . 78cm x 3 . 82cm ) .\n, it is believed that this is probably the stomach contents of a large carnivore of indeterminate origin . this specimen measures 26 . 7cm x 16 . 5cm x 4 . 4cm is currently held at\n, the predators are identifiable . a spectacular discovery of a partial specimen of the predatory fish\nthat had been swallowed whole , and was so large it had probably choked the fish to death .\nprobably related to the salmon and resembling a barracuda in form with conical and widely spaced teeth suitable for puncturing flesh . it is believed to have been an open water predator adapted for sustained swimming and rapid bursts of speed and was a long - ranging and common species in the western interior seaway . this particular specimen of the fish is incomplete , the preserved section measures 152cm in length but it contains a nearly complete 66cm\nstuck in the ribcage in the area of the shoulder of the fish . the\nprojects towards the mouth where it appears to be broken below the left gill cover . it seems likely that\nripping through the skin of the squid and causing interior gill damage or the size of the body of the squid forcing the gullet to remain open . this amazing specimen is currently held at the university\nis composed to splay apart and cause some severe twisting to the structure . the punctures are widely spaced , the distance of 31cm between two of the punctures has been interpreted as an oblique angle of attack by the\nand mantle to sink to the sea floor . this specimen was collected from the sharon springs member of the pierre shale , and it is thought that the predator was probably\npotentially the largest fossil coleoid to be discovered to date was published in january 2006 by kazaushiga tanabe , yoshinori hikida and yasuhiro iba . it consisted of one half of an enormous set of jaws discovered in late cretaceous campanian ( 83 - 71 mya ) sediments at wakkaweenbetsu creek , nakagawa town , hokkaido , japan . the fossil was composed of a black phosphatic material and was contained inside a calcareous nodule . included with the specimen were numerous bivalves and specimens of the heteromorphic ammonite\n. the fossil came from the upper yezo group of mudstones , ' yezo ' being an old name for hokkaido . the fossil is an upper jaw that measures 97mm in length and is 22 . 5mm wide at its maximum point . it has a very sharply pointed rostrum that is angled acutely , and both the inner and outer lamellae are present .\n. as a result of this and from a physical comparison of the shape of the rostrum and wings , the authors determined that the specimen is closest to the sub - order oegopsina . the authors then attempted to estimate a total size for the animal , by examining the ratio of the maximum length of the upper jaw ( luj ) to total mantle length ( ml ) in eight extant coleoid species . applying these derived ratios to the fossil jaw and plotting it along with these other specimens , it was concluded that the mantle length was probably akin to\nnot only in overall size , but in shape , and structure . it differs in that the crest margin is more convex in shape and has more prominent growth lines on the inner lamella .\n, that would have been present in late cretaceous northwest pacific along with many small ammonoid and nautiloid shelled cephalopods . the jaw is currently housed at the nakagawa museum of natural history .\nwas probably a major component of the ecosystem of the western interior seaway and a favoured prey item of assorted marine predators . it probably lived in shallow depths and would have been a fast moving muscular squid as demonstrated by its robust\n, it would have thrived in a very different and extremely biologically active environment .\n2 ) north dakota heritage centre at bismarck ( expected late 2004 ? ) .\n3 ) natural history museum of los angeles county , california as part of the\nsavage ancient seas\nexhibit .\nfuchs , d . , keupp , h . , and engeser , t . , new records of soft parts of\nkauffman , e . g . , cretaceous fish predation on a large squid .\ntanabe , k . , hikida , y . , and iba , y . , two coleoid jaws from the upper cretaceous of hokkaido , japan . journal of paleontology 80 ( 1 ) 138 - 145 , 2006 .\nthe cephalopod page urltoken hanlon lab at mbl , woods hole , ma california academy of sciences monterey bay aquarium mote marine labratory pharyngula octonation danna staaf , author ( web , twitter , facebook ) dr . rotman ( drpussea ) ( web , twitter ) te papa museum reef central northwestern pacific tree octopus ( heh ) follow us on facebook follow us on twitter\nthis site uses cookies to help personalise content , tailor your experience and to keep you logged in if you register . by continuing to use this site , you are consenting to our use of cookies .\nthese values may differ with what you see in - game or written elsewhere . but that is what the dossier says .\nthis dossier section is intended to be an exact copy of what the survivor helena , the author of the dossiers has written . there may be some discrepancies between this text and the in - game creatures .\n1 percentages are based on the value of the stat the moment the creature was tamed ( after taming effectiveness ) 2 the absolute base damage is shown here instead of the percentage . 3 wild creatures do not level up movement speed 4 torpidity increases every level on wild creatures , but can not be increased once they are tamed .\nfor a comparison of the stats of all creatures , see base creature statistics .\nfor an explanation of exactly how the levelup calculation works , see creature stats calculation .\ntype in values of a wild creature to see on which stats it ' s emphasized . green values on a high - level creature are very good for breeding . if you have already tamed your creature you can try to recover the breeding - stats with an external tool . [ 1 ]\nnote that after the creature is tamed it gets bonuses on some stats depending on the taming effectiveness . this makes it hard to retrieve the levels on a tamed creature , so this tool is only for wild ones , but gives a first impression , how well the stats are distributed .\nit will eat up to 50 of an individual food item in a single consumption . taming effectiveness is lost per consumption not per item , and is at a reduced rate compared to other tames in any case .\nit can eat at 90 % of its maximum food , regardless of how much food what it ' s being fed will restore ( factoring the above ) .\nthe taming affinity ( progress ) gained for food types other than black pearls is only 10 % of the value derived by other tames ( e . g . 15 from prime meat instead of 150 ) , and so at least 10 should be fed at a time to have a comparable taming time to other creatures . due to the exceptionally low affinity from individual items , they have been omitted from the table below , which consequently omits raw prime meat and raw prime fish meat entirely .\nplease ignore the feeding interval and taming time data ( below ) . due to being able to eat when at 90 % of its maximum food , the minimum feeding interval is 177 . 5 seconds [ 2 ] plus 14 seconds per food level . [ 3 ]\nremember that a passive tame ' s first feeding interval is always slightly longer than this value .\nthis cannot be known until after taming , but adding 14 % of the creature ' s level would produce average results .\nnote that the values are for optimal cases , always bring extra supplies ! for a level - dependent count of resources needed , try an external taming calculator .\nnote that 50 black pearls will still restore up to 1500 food regardless of the creature ' s current food when fed , and so starve taming will actually take longer as the full 1500 food will need to deplete per required consumption ( compared to allowing 10 % to deplete each time ) .\ndismount then approach the creature ' s beak with 50 black pearls within your last inventory slot . be aware of the weight of black pearls .\nswim directly up and out of the deep - water zone . you are not able to re - mount while the squid has your creature held .\nafter taming , its diet remains the same ( black pearls , meat and fish ) .\na low - level tuso is no match for a mid - to - strong tamed plesio or mosa . a high level one will need a very strong mount with a good saddle or a group of powerful sea dinos to be defeated . remember that a ridden tame cannot retaliate when within tuso ' s tentacles . if you ' re going for a pack attack , let the squid grab the dino you ' re riding , as you will be able to watch out for the health and the torpor of your mount and you ' ll have one more source of damage . when it will spray the ink and try to run away get out of the ink cloud , wait for the blinding effect to end and then easily chase your prey .\nanother method to kill a tuso is luring it into underwater canyon and shoot it from above using crossbow , it will try to attack you but his large hitbox doesn ' t allow it to turn effectively and it will start to turn around randomly , unable to hit you .\nranged weapons can work if used while riding a high - level dino . due to the fast rising of tuso ' s health pool , it ' s advised to use this tactic only on low - level ones .\nits high health , good dps , life - draining attacks and grab mechanics make the tuso a deadly enemy . living only in the deepest seas , other animals can join the fight and turn the battle into carnage . try to stay away from the bottom of the sea as the tuso may drop its prey under the ground , thus killing it .\nthe tuso is vulnerable to packs of dinos due to its aoe , that resembles a long cylinder . this means that it can ' t attack many enemies at once .\nusing , , , it is usable as an aquatic carrier ( like the megalosaurus and kapro ) for anything up to the size of a rex and mosa , use left click to munch the captured dino or player to death . it cannot grab birds . ( it can grab pelagornis , but it can ' t pull them under the water , not tested with other fliers . )\nitalics denote creatures that have not yet been released ! see also gallery of dino dossiers .\nthis page was last edited on 24 june 2018 , at 15 : 36 .\ncontent is available under cc by - nc - sa 3 . 0 unless otherwise noted . game content and materials are trademarks and copyrights of their respective publisher and its licensors . all rights reserved . this site is a part of curse , inc . and is not affiliated with the game publisher .\nmake sure when encountering this creature , to make sure you ' re tribe member is japanese . he or she would gladly volunteer to be grabbed by the tentacles .\nplease tell me why it says non - violent . . . because when it grabs u and eats u alive it ' s not very non - violent . . .\nthey are easier to find while riding a raft , having a monkey on your shoulder , and having a beard . it is recommended to have a big raft that looks like a pirate ship . the ship must have cannons .\njust tamed a 150 on an official server . building a trap high off the ocean floor works great just trap it and rotate out 150 tamed turtles hp pumped . took about 2 hours with pearls for the tame . took 50 pearls every 5 - 10 min . happy taming !\nbasilosaurus ( whale dino ) is immune to the squids grabs . its also immune to jellyfish stings . : )\nok so for those of you actually looking for tips . 1 : it can eat 50 at a time so take 50 with you each time . 2 : it hold mounts only for a little bit so if you can , just hop back on the turtle quickly and swim away till the next feeding 3 : once you tame it beware manta s and anglers as the tuso cannot hit them while they glitch into the head of the squid . it ' s not that hard if you prepare to lose everything and keep trying . it ' s worth it once you do but you will need escorts to help with mantis and anglers such as megaladons .\ndododex is an ark taming calculator app for ark : survival evolved ( pc , xbox , ps4 ) . a project by dan leveille .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\ncontent copyright www . prehistoric - wildlife . com . the information here is completely free for your own study and research purposes , but please dont copy the articles word for word and claim them as your own work . the world of prehistory is constantly changing with the advent of new discoveries , as such it is best if you use this information as a jumping off point for your own research . privacy & cookies policy\ngiant squid found ! ( 50 - foot - long , washed - up on beach , punakaiki , new zealand , march 1st 2015 . )\nsquid ( teuthids ) : squid are soft bodied invertebrates ( cephalopods ) that probably occurred in great abundance in the warm oceans during the mesozoic . occasionally , the internal structure ( gladius or pen ) of the squid is preserved . the fossil remains of squid are characterized by long , straight fibers or strands that often appear to be iridescent . squid remains are sometimes mistaken for an unusual fish bone . click here for more information\nwilliston ( 1897 , p . 242 ) was puzzled by fragments found occasionally in the chalk that were of a\nglistening fibrous nature .\na specimen collected by h . t . martin ( below ) solved the mystery when it became apparent that the fragments represented a\nlarge cuttlefish , apparently different from any described species . the specimen was about 6 inches wide and a foot long , and preserved a small\nsepia bag\n( ink sac ) below it .\nlogan 1898 ( ku 4208 / 113463 ; plate cx , figure 2 ) . note that the species name was corrected for gender to\nfrom the hesperornis beds of the niobrara cretaceous on the smoky hill river by mr . martin .\nlogan , w . n . 1898 . the invertebrates of the benton , niobrara and fort pierre groups . the university geological survey of kansas , part viii , 4 : 432 - 518 , pl . lxxxvi - cxx .\nmiller , h . w . , jr . 1968 . invertebrate fauna and environment of deposition of the niobrara ( cretaceous ) of kansas . fort hays studies , science series no . 8 , i - vi , 90 pp .\n( fhsm ip - 710 ) in the exhibit at the sternberg museum of natural history . this specimen was collected by marion bonner in logan county . squid pens ( rachis ) are made up of chitin , not bone or cartilage . it is also considered to be the type specimen of\nright : the gladius of the type specimen of\nenchoteuthis melanae\n( fhsm ip - 13049 ) discovered by and named for melanie bonner . this specimen appears to preserve much of the original chitin .\nsquid pen collected by scott garrett from trego county in 2009 . note that the missing pieces looks suspiciously like the bite marks left by a small shark .\nleft : four views of a squid pen ( rachis ) that was bitten through by an unknown predator .\nearly in 2011 , i was contacted by trish weaver , the collections manager of the north carolina museum of natural sciences . she was doing research on fossil squid trying to determine what fossil squid pens were composed of ( chitin , chitinous or what ? ) and was looking for a sample to test . she also wanted to spend some time in the smoky hill chalk , so we made arrangements to spend a day in the chalk and search for a specimen that she could use in her research . neither of us really expected to find a specimen\non demand\nbut i thought there was a good chance of finding at least a fragment at the site where i had collected a specimen in may , 2011 ( above ) . with that realistic goal in mind , we drove out to the locality early in the morning on july 8 . the weather was actually unseasonably cool and cloudy for kansas in july . . . . a great day to be in the field .\nour group included dan lawver , a montana state graduate student , who was also from north carolina . neither of them had ever worked in the smoky hill chalk , so i expected we would spend quite a lot of time just getting used to the chalk and all the inoceramid shell fragments at this locality . about half an hour into our search , dan called me over and said he had found something . as i got closer , he said it was probably a root , but i was still hopeful . as it turned out , he ' d nailed some squid remains almost as soon as he started looking . . .\nleft : this is the view from where i parked the van on the edge of the exposure . . . . we were in southeastern gove county , about a half mile south of the smoky hill river . the place where the squid remains were found is shown at the upper right of the photograph . the canyon is about half a mile wide at this point and is mostly between hattin ' s marker units 2 and 3 stratigraphically ( late coniacian in age ) .\nright : here is what dan saw coming out of the side of a gully . . . not much to look at but definitely part of the rachis of a squid . i noted that it appeared to be expanded where it had been broken ( bitten ? ) off and assumed that the expanded portion ( gladius ) was already gone . i ' d soon find out otherwise .\nleft : i loaned dan my big estwing gp100 pick and let him take the matrix off the the fossil . the chalk was fractured and this part of the job didn ' t take long . . . .\nright : once we had most of the overburden off , i got down for a closer look ( actually blowing chalk off the specimen in this photo ) . . . . then i got up on top the exposure and started removing the remaining layers of chalk over the fossil .\nleft : the first layer came off easily and cleanly . . . i was well off to the side when i started to remove the next layer . . . . and then\noops !\n. . . . a big chunk came off with parts of the specimen in it . . . that was when i realized that the fossil was sitting in fractured chalk on a layer of bentonite / volcanic ash . . . bad mistake , but on the good side , it revealed that the gladius was still there , apparently folded over in some way , and it showed us where to dig and not to dig . after kicking myself for a while , i went back to work . . . .\nright : here ' s the chunk that came up . . . . the area inside the white oval shows where the remains broke off the main specimen . . . . clean breaks . . . no major damage . i applied some preservative to hold everything in place . . . the other material under the ruler is the pile of bentonite / volcanic ash that created the problem .\nleft : once we knew where the fossil was in the chalk , we began to cut the size of the block down to reduce the weight . that was when we noticed that the block was fractured and that the squid pen was supported by two different layers of chalk . . . both of which were loose .\nright : we decided that the jacket would have to include both layers in order to keep from fracturing the rachis . . . in this photo the exposed portion of the specimen is under the pink cloth . . . note the shattered condition of the chalk at the top of the picture . the blocks holding the specimen were only slightly more solid .\nleft : once the block was cut down to a minimal size ( using a hand saw ) , it was necessary to clean everything up to prepare it for jacketing .\nleft : well , maybe one more picture to include dan , the proud discoverer of this specimen . . .\nright : after packing the specimen with dampened paper towels for cushioning , trish and dan applied several layers of tin foil to help hold things together . . . .\nleft : then we proceeded to\nget plastered\nin the hot afternoon kansas sun . in this case , we used plaster bandages to build up the jacket around the specimen . once the plaster had dried , we slipped a piece of plywood under the jacket . i did not want to turn the jacket over in the field because the chalk around it was unpredictable and the squid pen was really fragile . . .\nright : here dan ( right ) and i carry the jacket up the hill to the van .\nthe specimen will not be prepared for a while , but i will post new photos when they become available . i expect that this specimen would rate with some of the better specimens collected from the chalk in the last 120 years . . . there just aren ' t that many of them around .\nright : not much to see while still contained in the matrix . . . just a bit of the gladius .\nleft : fortunately , we were able to park on the prairie just about the dig site . minimal distance to carry the block of chalk up the hill .\nright : the chalk block containing the squid remains , just prior to removal . although we jacketed our specimen in 2011 , the chalk was solid around this one , and did not require the extra effort .\nthe project has proceeded to the point of submitting an abstract for the 2012 meeting of the geological society of america .\neverhart , m . j . 2005 . oceans of kansas - a natural history of the western interior sea . indiana university press , 322 pp .\ngreen , r . g . 1977 . niobrarateuthis walkeri , a new species of teuthid from the upper cretaceous niobrara formation of kansas . journal of paleontology 51 ( 5 ) : 992 - 995 .\nhoganson , w . 2006 . dinosaurs , sharks , and woolly mammoths : glimpses of life in north dakota ' s prehistoric past . journal of the northern plains 73 ( 1 - 2 ) : 60 pp .\nlarson , n . l . 2010 . fossil coleoids from the late cretaceous ( campanian and maastrichtian ) of the western interior . ferrantia 59 : 78 - 113 .\nmiller , h . w . , jr . 1957 . niobrarateuthis bonneri , a new genus and species of squid from the niobrara formation of kansas . journal paleontology 31 ( 5 ) : 809 - 811 .\nmiller , h . w . , jr . 1968 . invertebrate fauna and environment of deposition of the niobrara ( cretaceous ) of kansas . fort hays studies , n . s . , science series no . 8 , i - vi , 90 pp .\nstewart , j . d . 1976 . teuthids of the north american late cretaceous . kansas academy of science , transactions 79 ( 3 - 4 ) : 74 ( abstract ) .\nwilliston , s . w . 1897 . niobrara cretaceous . the university geological survey of kansas 2 : 237 - 246 .\nstewart , j . d . and carpenter , k . 1990 . examples of vertebrate predation on cephalopods in the late cretaceous of the western interior . pp . 203 - 208 in boucout , a . j . ( ed . ) , evolutionary paleobiology of behavior and coevolution . elsevier , new york .\nwilliston , s . w . 1897 . the kansas niobrara cretaceous , the university geological survey of kansas , 2 : 237 - 246 ."]}
{"id": 1503, "summary": [{"text": "the tritheledontidae or tritheledontids , also known as ictidosaurs , were small to medium-sized ( about 10 or 20 cm long ) cynodonts .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "they were extremely mammal-like , highly specialized cynodonts , although they still retained a very few reptilian anatomical traits .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "tritheledontids were mainly carnivorous or insectivorous , though some species may have developed omnivorous traits .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "their skeletons show that they had a close relationship to mammals .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "tritheledontids or their closest relatives may have given rise to primitive mammals .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the tritheledontids were one of the longest lived non-mammalian therapsid lineages , living from late triassic to the jurassic period .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "tritheledontids became extinct in the jurassic period , possibly due to competition with prehistoric mammals such as the triconodonts .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "they are known from finds in south america and south africa , indicating that they may have lived only on the supercontinent of gondwana .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the family tritheledontidae was named by south african paleontologist robert broom in 1912 .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the family is often misspelled \" trithelodontidae \" .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is possible that tritheledontidae had vibrissae , according to the pbs documentary , your inner fish .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "a common ancestor of all therian mammals did so .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is possible that the development of the whisker sensory system played an important role in mammalian development , more generally . ", "topic": 19}], "title": "tritheledontidae", "paragraphs": ["the dentitions of the tritheledontidae ( therapsida : cynodontia ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nzu den tritheledontidae , welche basal der chalimininae und pachygenelinae stehen . unter den vorher unbekannten merkmale von\ngow , c . e . 1980 . the dentitions of the tritheledontidae ( therapsida : cynodontia ) .\nlinks : tritheledont tooth ; jurassic cynodonts ; tritylodontidae and tritheledontidae , an internet directory ; universidad caece - cursos y seminarios .\n( eucynodontia , tritheledontidae ) from the caturita formation , upper triassic of southern brazil : anatomical study and phylogenetic implications . in\nlinks : parrs . htm ; tritheledont tooth ; jurassic cynodonts ; tritylodontidae and tritheledontidae , an internet directory ; universidad caece - cursos y seminarios .\nlinks : lecture 12 - early jurassic ; therapsd . htm ; ciencia hoy 32 - art\u00edculo ; traces ; jawtransition ; jurassic cynodonts ; tritylodontidae and tritheledontidae , an internet directory . wikipedia\n( cynodontia , tritheledontidae ) do tri\u00e1ssico superior do rio grande do sul , brasil : an\u00e1lise osteol\u00f3gica e implica\u00e7\u00f5es filogen\u00e9ticas . unpublished ph . d . thesis , universidade federal do rio grande do sul , 347 .\nhas alternatively been referred to dromatheriidae . another possibility is at least in part affinities with tritheledontidae . this is a matter which will require further finds and study . the south american critters were mousey or ratty - sized , whilst meurthodon was even smaller .\n- like members of tritheledontidae , ( also known as trithelodontidae ) . these were small insectivores of up to 20cm in length , and their lifestyle was presumably extremely similar to that of the first mammals . this may well explain their disappearance . remains are known from the upper\n. this is incorrect , as already demonstrated by members of tritheledontidae , ( those insectivores mentioned above ) . tritylodonts were their plant - eating counterparts . they were generally larger , ( up to about 50cm in length ) and survived for longer ; until at least the lower\nalthough previously separated from other theriodonts as a distinct infraorder , the ictidosauria , study of the type and only specimen of the genus the trithelodon has determined its close affinities with the typical ictidosaurs pachygenelus and\ndiarthrognathus\n. for this reason , hopson & kitching ( 1972 ) suggested using the family name tritheledontidae broom 1912 for all of the forms called\nictidosaurs\n, and included all these groups under the cynodontia .\nictidosaurian genera are allocated to two families , tritheledontidae and therioherpetidae . this paper provides a diagnosis for ictidosauria . the previously named family brasilodontidae is shown to be a junior synonym of a family , therioherpetidae . it is concluded that ictidosauria originated from late permian procynosuchid non - mammalian cynodonts rather than from middle triassic probainognathid non - mammalian cynodonts . the structure of the skull and jaws of a derived traversodontid ischignathus sudamericanus from the early late triassic of argentina supports an earlier view that tritylodontids are more closely related to traversodontid than probainognathid non - mammalian cynodonts . tritylodontids should not be included in ictidosauria , nor should they considered to be a sister group to mammaliaforms .\nthree previously described monospecific genera of ictidosaurians ( tritheledontidae ) are recognized on the basis of their postcanine dentitions . the least specialized is pachygenelus monus , watson ( 1913 ) , the complete dentition of which is described for the first time : five specimens are described and referred to this species . the postcanine teeth of diarthrognathus broomi , crompton ( 1958 ) are described for the first time ; they are derivable from those of pachygenelus though considerably more specialized . tritheledon riconoi , broom ( 1912 ) , from which the family derives its name , consists of a single specimen containing upper postcanines only ; these are not closely comparable with the uppers of the other two genera but bear a strong resemblance to the lower postcanines of diarthrognathus . the family is closely implicated in the origin of mammals and the possibility of polyphyly in the origin of mammals is raised .\nthree previously described monospecific genera of ictidosaurians ( tritheledontidae ) are recognized on the basis of their postcanine dentitions . the least specialized is pachygenelus monus , watson ( 1913 ) , the complete dentition of which is described for the first time : five specimens are described and referred to this species . the postcanine teeth of diarthrognathus broomi , crompton ( 1958 ) are described for the first time ; they are derivable from those of pachygenelus though considerably more specialized . tritheledon riconoi , broom ( 1912 ) , from which the family derives its name , consists of a single specimen containing upper post - canines only ; these are not closely comparable with the uppers of the other two genera but bear a strong resemblance to the lower postcanines of diarthrognathus . the family is closely implicated in the origin of mammals and the possibility of polyphyly in the origin of mammals is raised .\nin this contribution , new specimens of the tritheledontid eucynodont irajatherium hernandezi , from the late triassic ( caturrita formation ) of southern brazil , are analyzed . the new material provides significant information about incisor count , canine size and shape , basicranial morphology , and other previously unknown aspects of skull and dentition . a cladistic analysis with inclusion of the new data supports the assignment of irajatherium to tritheledontidae , basal to chalimininae and pachygenelinae . previously unknown characters of irajatherium revealed by the new material include : the presence of three lower incisors ; the first lower incisor is enlarged ; the presence of large upper and lower canines with deep paracanine fossa on the maxilla ; almost complete upper and lower postcanine tooth row with a pattern similar to that of other tritheledontids ( e . g . pachygenelus and chaliminia ) ; there is a conspicuous crest on the inner surface of the maxilla for the attachment of the inferred maxillary turbinates ; partially confluent jugular foramen and fenestra rotunda within the jugular fossa , separated by a finger - like projection of the posterolateral wall of the opisthotic ; and hypoglossal foramina located outside the jugular fossa . irajatherium is a key taxon for understanding the early evolution of ictidosaurs , a group of cynodonts closely related to mammaliaforms , during the cynodont\u2013mammal transition from the late triassic to early jurassic .\nhave you ever wondered why our bodies look the way they do ? paleobiologist neil shubin sets out in this three - part series to find the answers in a surprising place : the ancient animal ancestors that shaped our anatomy .\nin the first episode ,\nyour inner fish ,\nhe journeys back to a time , some 375 million years ago , when the first fish crawled up onto land . shubin ' s quest for the fossil record of this primeval predecessor takes viewers from highway cuts in rural pennsylvania to the remote arctic . after years of searching , he and his colleagues finally found a fossilized fish , known as tiktaalik , that had enough strength in its front fins to do pushups and heave itself out of the water . remarkably , we can trace the ancestry of our own hands and arms all the way back to these fins . viewers also meet the scientists who discovered the dna recipe for constructing the human hand \u2014 an essential set of instructions passed down from fish like tiktaalik and shared today with a surprising number of other animals , from chickens to chimpanzees . along the way , shubin makes it clear that we can also thank our fishy past for many of our body ' s quirks , such as hernias . we are , every one of us , just a jury - rigged fish .\nin the second episode ,\nyour inner reptile ,\nshubin exposes our reptilian roots . he searches for our ancient ancestors at fossil sites in the karoo desert of south africa and on the tidal flats of nova scotia . he also reveals modern - day links to the past through visits to a fertility clinic in chicago and a biology lab in london . along the way , he explains how major transitions in the history of life paved the way for our ancestors ' evolution into mammals . shubin identifies some amazing connections : the amniotic sac was an innovation to keep our reptile ancestors ' eggs from drying out ; our complex teeth can be traced to ferocious beasts that lived millions of years before dinosaurs ; and our hair is linked to the whiskers of reptile - like mammals that lived much of their lives in the dark . our reptilian ancestors \u2014 from fearsome predators to creatures as small as a paper clip \u2014 are responsible for more than a few features of modern humans .\nin the final episode of the series ,\nyour inner monkey ,\nshubin delves into our primate past . he travels from the badlands of ethiopia , where the famous hominid skeletons\nlucy\nand\nardi\nwere found , to a forest canopy in florida , home to modern primates . en route , he explains how many aspects of our form and function evolved . we learn that a genetic mutation in our primate ancestors conferred humans ' ability to see in color \u2014 but it was an advantage that led to a decline in our sense of smell . the shape of our hands came from tree - dwelling ancestors for whom long fingers made it easier to reach fruit at the tips of fine branches . shubin concludes by tracing the evolution of the human brain \u2014 from a tiny swelling on the nerve cord of a wormlike creature , to the three - part architecture of a shark ' s brain and the complex brain of primates . as shubin observes ,\ninside every organ , gene and cell in our body lie deep connections with the rest of life on our planet .\n\u00a9 copyright 2014 tangled bank studios . all rights reserved . pbs privacy policy | terms of use | contact us\ntangled bank studios is a production company established and funded by the howard hughes medical institute .\npbs is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) not - for - profit organization .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nauthor ' s note : these pages were written some years ago . i am not planning to update them . for a more current coverage , see the palaeos website ( to which many links on these pages point to anyway . more info here\nthe trithelodontids , also and better known ( especuially in earlier literature ) as the ictidosaurs , were tiny latest triassic and early jurassic cynodonts that neatly bridge the gap between advanced theriodonts and the primitive mammals .\nalthough previously separated from other theriodonts as a distinct infraorder , the ictidosauria , study of the type and only specimen of the genus the trithelodon has determined its close affinities with the typical ictidosaurs pachygenelus and\ndiarthrognathus\n. for this reason , hopson and kitching suggested using the family name trithelodontidae broom 1912 for all of the forms called\nictidosaurs\n, and included all these groups under the cynodontia .\nthe trithelodonts ( ictidosaurs ) are thus very advanced , probably insectivorous , cynodonts of small size in which some incisors and in some species the upper and probably postcanines have a transversely - oriented cutting edge , in others the uppers have an oblique and the lowers a longitudinal cutting edge . these are features connected , as in the tritylodonts , with the more efficient chewing of food . as in the chiniquodontidae the secondary palate is long ( so the animal could eat and breathe at the same time , a mammalian feature ) and the postorbital bar ( the bar of bone behind the eyes ) is absent , another feature found also in tritylodonts and primitive mammals .\nbut what makes these animals unique is the new mammalian joint between the squamosal and dentary had come into functional being . thus , the ictidosaur pachygenelius ( formerly known as diarthrognathus ) possesses both the reptilian quadrate - articular jaw joint and a newly developed mammalian squamosal - dentary jaw joint . because of this simpson ( 1959 ) suggested that it might better be classified as a mammal , but hopson and crompton retain it in the therapsida . although certain primitive features in the skull suggest a derivation from scaloposaurid bauriamorphs , indicating the posisbility that the mammalian condition may have evolved twoice ( once from advanced therocephalians via the ictidosaurs and once from cyndonts via tritylodonts ) but both the structure of the dentary and the braincase structure have independently confirm a cynodont ancestry , and the polyphyly of mammals is no longer considered a valid hypothesis .\npachygenelius stands truly at the dividing line between reptile and mammal in so far as this important diagnostic feature of jaw articulation is concerned . this is the only reason why the ictidosaurs are classified as reptiles rather than mammals . in the mammals , the quadrate and articular bones have migrated from the articular region of the jaw to the middle ear where they have been transformed into two of the bones concerned with the transmission of vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear . because , in the ictidosaurs , the tta formation of the quadrate and articular bones had not taken place , these animals can be placed arbitrarily within the reptiles .\nhorizon : upper triassic ? , lower jurassic : stormberg series ( red beds and cave sandstone ) of south africa and lesotho ; los colorados formation of argentina . age : rhaetian / hettangian to sinemurian / early pliensbachian distribution : probably had a worldwide ( pangea ) distribution ecological community : anchisaur - plateosaur empire ecological niche / guild : small terrestrial insectivore modern equivalents : shrew , insectvore generally preferred food : mostly invertebrates , very small vertebrates length : about 10 or 20 cm long metabolism : endothermic potential predators : small theropod dinosaurs ( mostly coelophysidae ) , large sphenosuchid\nlizards\n, and protosuchid crodylomorphs ancestor : chiniquodontidae replaced : small chiniquodontidae replaced by : small mesozoic mammals descendents : class mammalia ( ancestral forms : sinoconodontidae , morganucodontidae , megazostrodontidae ) taxonomic status - valid family\nred beds and cave sandstone ( middle and upper elliot formation ) , orange free state , south africa and lesotho .\nfrom the early jurassic of nova scotia . but while it is not unlikely that this jaw might belong to\nor a distinct but closely related species , probably a descendent . although a specific distinction may prove to be valid , it is doubtful that generic differences exist .\ncomments : the only known triassic trithelodont , and part of a highly endemic fauna , which makes it difficult to correlate . however although the los colorados formation is usually considered latest triassic ( late norian / rhaetian ) , jose bonparte says somewhere ( i can ' t find the exact passage . . . ) that the fauna may not be isochronous . so it is possible that the upper part of the los colorados may be hettangian ( earliest jurassic ) . that would fit in chaliminia with the other trithelodonts .\ncarroll , r . l . vertebrate paleontology and evolution . - w . h . freeman and company , new york , 1988\njames a . hopson and herbert r . barghusen ,\nan analysis of therapsid relationships\n, in the ecology and biology of mammal - like reptiles ed . by nocholas hotton iii , paul d . maclean , jan j . roth and e . carol roth , smithsonian institute press , washington and london , 1986 , pp . 83 - 106\njames a . hopson and james w . kitching , 1972 ,\na revised classification of the cynodonts ( reptilia ; therapsida ) , paleontologica africa , 14 . 17 - 85\ntrithelodont jaw - a fine photo of a partial jaw ( nova scotia museum ) . earliest jurassic ( early hettangian ) age .\n' la importancia turistica de ischigualasto ' , preparado por dr william sill . a fossil inventory in spanish - at the bottom it lists chaliminia musteloides ( under\ncynodont\nunless otherwise attributed or quoted , all text is licensed under the creative commons license 1 . 0 and a 2 . 0 . this licence does not cover quoted material , and images , which are copyright their respective owners .\npage by m . alan kazlev i am indebted to trevor dykes for helpful corrections and references . page uploaded 8 october 1999 . reposted and last modified 1 september 2005\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nfull reference : r . broom . 1912 . on a new type of cynodont from the stormberg . annals of the south african museum 7 : 334 - 336\nsee also carroll 1988 , kemp 1982 , martinelli and rougier 2007 and martinez et al . 1996\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nproc r soc lond b biol sci . 1980 jul 17 ; 208 ( 1173 ) : 461 - 81 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nthe tritheledontids , also and better known ( especuially in earlier literature ) as the ictidosaurs , were tiny latest triassic to early jurassic cynodonts that neatly bridge the gap between advanced theriodonts and the primitive mammaliforms .\nthe tritheledonts ( ictidosaurs ) are thus very advanced , probably insectivorous , cynodonts of small size in which some incisors and in some species the upper and probably postcanines have a transversely - oriented cutting edge , in others the uppers have an oblique and the lowers a longitudinal cutting edge . these are features connected , as in the tritylodonts , with the more efficient chewing of food . as in the chiniquodontidae the secondary palate is long ( so the animal could eat and breathe at the same time , a mammalian feature ) and the postorbital bar ( the bar of bone behind the eyes ) is absent , another feature found also in tritylodonts and primitive mammals .\nbut what makes these animals unique is the new mammalian joint between the squamosal and dentary had come into functional being . thus , the ictidosaur pachygenelius formerly known as diarthrognathus ) possesses both the reptilian quadrate - articular jaw joint and a newly developed mammalian squamosal - dentary jaw joint . because of this simpson ( 1959 ) suggested that it might better be classified as a mammal , but hopson and crompton retain it in the therapsida . although certain primitive features in the skull suggest a derivation from scaloposaurid bauriamorphs , indicating the posisbility that the mammalian condition may have evolved twoice ( once from advanced therocephalians via the ictidosaurs and once from cyndonts via tritylodonts ) but both the structure of the dentary and the braincase structure have independently confirm a cynodont ancestry , and the polyphyly of mammals is no longer considered a valid hypothesis .\npachygenelius stands truly at the dividing line between cynodont and mammaliform in so far as this important diagnostic feature of jaw articulation is concerned . this is the only reason why the ictidosaurs are classified outside the mammaliformes . in the mammaliforms , the quadrate and articular bones have migrated from the articular region of the jaw to the middle ear where they have been transformed into two of the bones concerned with the transmission of vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear . because , in the ictidosaurs , this transformation of the quadrate and articular bones had not taken place , these animals are placed outside the mammaliformes . mak010421 .\ncharacters : $ lack of pineal foramen [ rs01 ] ; $ posteriorly elongated secondary palate [ rs01 ] ; $ ribs ( laterally ? ) expanded [ rs01 ] .\nlinks : eucynodontia ; synapsida - - the dinosauricon ; therapsida all treating probainognathia as a more inclusive clade ) .\nsmall ( 3 - 6cm skulls ) carnivorous proto - mammals . cheek teeth broad , with prismatic enamel as in mammals ; teeth may have been double - rooted ; some teeth have transverse cutting edge , others the uppers have an oblique and the lowers a longitudinal cutting edge ; probably squamosal - dentary jaw joint and quadrate - articular joint both functional , with masseter and opposing muscles holding jaw in\nsling\n; postorbital and prefrontal absent ; frontal & palatine in contact ; temporal opening confluent with orbit ; postcranial skeleton said to be fully mammalian .\nnotes : [ 1 ] according to [ l + 02 ] the characters that support tritylodonts as the sister of mammaliforms are strongly localized to the orbital wall and sphenoid region . characters of the jaw joint , mandible and palate point to tritheledonts . atw020223 .\nrange : early jurassic of south africa , possibly north america . p . monus : red beds and cave sandstone ( middle and upper elliot formation ) , orange free state , red beds and cave sandstone ( middle and upper elliot formation ) , orange free state and lesotho , south africa , of hettangian to sinemurian age . p . broomi : clarens formation , orange free state , south africa , of sinemurian / early pliensbachian age .\nimage : pachygenelius jaw ( ~ 2 cm ) , parrsboro , nova scotia . from the nova scotia museum fossils of nova scotia website . \u00a9 1998 nova scotia museum and used by permission .\nnotes : [ 1 ] pachygenelius ? monus has also been reported from the early jurassic of nova scotia . but while it is not unlikely that this jaw might belong to pachygenelius ( or a similiar form ) , a species attribution , or even an unambigious genus attribution , is very unlikely . [ 2 ] diarthrognathus broomi is based on two juvenile specimens which are possibly , though not certainly , referable to p . monus . this then is either a synonym of the earlier p . monus or a distinct but closely related species , probably a descendent . although a specific distinction may prove to be valid , it is doubtful that generic differences exist . mak010421 . atw020601 .\nrange : late triassic to early jurassic of south america , los colorados formation , argentina , of late norian to hettangian age .\nnotes : the only known triassic tritheledont , and part of a highly endemic fauna , which makes it difficult to correlate . however although the los colorados formation is usually considered latest triassic ( late norian / rhaetian ) , jose bonparte says somewhere ( i can ' t find the exact passage . . . ) that the fauna may not be isochronous . so it is possible that the upper part of the los colorados may be hettangian ( earliest jurassic ) . that would fit in chaliminia with the other tritheledonts . mak010421 . atw020601 .\nthis text was harvested from a scanned image of the original document using optical character recognition ( ocr ) software . as such , it may contain errors . please contact the royal society if you find an error you would like to see corrected . mathematical notations produced through infty ocr .\nenter your proceedings of the royal society of london b : biological sciences username .\nyou may be able to gain access using your login credentials for your institution . contact your library if you do not have a username and password .\npay per article - you may access this article or this issue ( from the computer you are currently using ) for 30 days .\nregain access - you can regain access to a recent pay per article or pay per issue purchase if your access period has not yet expired .\nthank you for your interest in spreading the word on proceedings of the royal society of london b : biological sciences .\nnote : we only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it , and that it is not junk mail . we do not capture any email address .\nmessage body ( your name ) thought you would like to see the proceedings of the royal society of london b : biological sciences web site .\nuniversidade federal do rio grande do sul , porto alegre , brazil , paleovertebrate collection .\naus der sp\u00e4ten trias ( caturrita formation ) vorgestellt . das neue material enth\u00fcllt wichtige informationen zur anzahl der incisiven , der gr\u00f6sse und form der canini , der morphologie des basicraniums und anderen aspekte von sch\u00e4del und bezahnung . eine cladistische analyse mit ber\u00fccksichtigung der neuen daten best\u00e4tigt die zuordnung von\nsind drei untere incisiven mit einem vergr\u00f6\u00dferten ersten incisivus , untere und obere canini mit einer tiefen paracaninus - fossa am maxillare ; eine fast komplette obere und untere postcanine zahnreihe mit einem bezahnungsmuster vergleichbar mit dem anderer tritheledontiden ( z . b .\nin der jugular - fossa , welche durch einen fingerartigen vorsprung der posterolateralen wandung des opistothicums voneinander getrennt werden ; sowie au\u00dferhalb der jugular - fossa liegene hypoglossale foramina .\nist ein schl\u00fcsseltaxon zum verst\u00e4ndnis der fr\u00fchen evolution der ictidosauriden , eine mit den mammaliformen nahe verwandte cynodontier - gruppe aus der oberen trias und dem unteren jura .\nwe thank luiz fl\u00e1vio lopes for the photographs of several specimens and cnpq for financial support ( tvo ) . the suggestions of the reviewers fernando abdala and zhe - xi luo and the editor oliver rauhut improved the quality of this paper .\ncharacter 2 . lower incisor number : from ? to 1 ( three incisors ) .\ncharacter 3 . some incisor enlarged : from ? to 1 ( present ) .\ncharacter 24 . sectorial postcanines with the major axis anteromedial - posterolaterally oriented , passing the distal portion of an anterior tooth medial to the mesial portion of the next tooth : from 0 to 1 ( present ) .\ncharacter 36 . postdentary bones : from ? to 1 ( reduced to narrow rod lying in postdentary trough ) .\ncharacter 68 . trigeminal nerve ( v 2 and v 3 ) exit : from ? to 1 ( foramen located entirely on the prootic , or on the anterior lamina of the petrosal ) .\ncharacter 69 . prootic and ophistotic : from ? to 0 ( unfused ) .\ncharacter 71 . fenestra ovalis : from ? to 0 ( with thickened ring ) .\ncharacter 74 . perilymphatic foramen separation from jugular foramen : from ? to 1 ( partially separated by finger - like projection from postero - lateral wall of jugular foramen ) .\ncharacter 76 . hypoglossal foramen : from ? to 1 ( separated from the jugular fossa ) .\n; some clades are not diagnosed here ) . an asterisk ( * ) indicates ambiguous character - states\n) : presence of some enlarged incisors ( ch . 3 ) , upper incisor 2 large and the others small ( ch . 4 ) , lower incisor 1 large and the other small ( ch . 5 ) , premaxilla forming the posterior border of incisive foramen ( ch . 39 ) * , length of palatine longer relative to maxilla in secondary palate ( ch . 47 ) .\n) : dominant central bulbous main cusp on upper postcanines ( ch . 11 ) , upper posterior postcanines with cusp b and c buccally displaced and bulbous , prominent cusp a ( ch . 12 ) , lower middle and posterior postcanines with four cusps aligned decreasing in size posteriorly ( ch . 19 ) , posterior portion of secondary palate almost at the level of the tip of upper postcanine teeth , forming a deep groove between hard palate and tooth row ( ch . 48 ) .\nunnamed clade . pachygenelinae ( clade 6 ) plus chalimininae ( clade 7 ) : single roots of postcanines ( ch . 25 ) , tooth row parallel to sub - parallel from the axial plane of the cranium ( ch . 30 ) , maxillary buccal shelf overhanging tooth row ( ch . 43 ) .\n) : upper postcanines with buccal cingulum ( ch . 9 ) * , narrow upper postcanines with lingual cingulum ( ch . 10 ) * .\n) : more than 11 upper postcanine teeth in adult ( ch . 8 ) * , absence of imbrincated sectorial postcanines ( ch . 24 ) * .\ntritheledon plus diarthrognathus : absence of upper posterior postcanines with cusp b and c buccally displaced and bulbous , prominent cusp a ( ch . 12 ) * .\nabdala , f . , and a . m . ribeiro . 2003 . a new traversodontid cynodont from the santa maria formation ( ladinian - carnian ) of southern brazil , with a phylogenetic analysis of gondwanan traversodontids .\nabdala , f . , and a . m . ribeiro . 2010 . distribution and diversity patterns of triassic cynodonts ( therapsida , cynodontia ) in gondwana .\narantes , b . a . , m . b . soares , and c . l . schultz . 2009 .\n( lepidosauria , sphenodontia ) do tri\u00e1ssico superior do rio grande do sul : anatomia p\u00f3s - craniana e rela\u00e7\u00f5es filogen\u00e9ticas .\nbonaparte , j . f . , and m . c . barberena . 2001 . on two advanced carnivorous cynodonts from the late triassic of southern brazil .\n( lepidosauria : rhynchocephalia ) from the upper triassic of rio grande do sul , brazil .\nbonaparte , j . f . , j . ferigolo , and a . m . ribeiro . 1999 . a new early late triassic saurischian dinosaur from the rio grande do sul state , brazil .\nbonaparte , j . f . , j . ferigolo , and a . m . ribeiro . 2001 . a primitive late triassic \u2018ictidosaur\u2019 from rio grande do sul , brazil .\nbonaparte , j . f . , a . g . martinelli , and c . l . schultz . 2005 . new information on\nbonaparte , j . f . , g . brea , c . l . schultz , and a . g . martinelli . 2007 . a new specimen of\nbonaparte , j . f . , a . g . martinelli , c . l . schultz , and r . rubert . 2003 . the sister - group of mammals : small cynodonts from the late triassic of southern brazil .\nbonaparte , j . f . , c . l . schultz , m . b . soares , and a . g . martinelli . 2008 . faxinal do soturno local fauna of the late triassic of rio grande do sul , brazil .\nbroom , r . 1912 . on a new type of cynodont from the stormberg .\nn . g . n . sp . , a procolophonid reptile from the upper triassic of southern brazil .\ncrompton , a . w . 1958 . the cranial morphology of a new genus and species of ictidosaurian .\ncrompton , a . w . , and z . - x . luo . 1993 . relationships of the liassic mammals sinoconodon , morganucodon oehleri , and dinnetherium . in\n, ed . f . s . szalay , m . j . novacek , and m . c . mckenna , 30\u201344 . new york : springer .\ndias - da - silva , s . , e . v . dias , and c . l . schultz . 2009 . first record of stereospondyls ( tetrapoda , temnospondyli ) in the upper triassic of southern brazil .\nfurin , s . , n . preto , m . rigo , g . roghi , p . gianolla , j . l . crowley , and s . a . bowring . 2006 . high - precision u - pb zircon age from the triassic of italy : implications for the triassic time scale and the carnian origin of calcareous nannoplankton and dinosaurs .\ngoloboff , p . a . 1993 . \u201cnona\u201d , version 2 . 0 . program and documentation .\ngradstein , f . m . , and j . c . ogg . 2004 . geologic time scale 2004\u2013why , how and where next .\nhillenius , w . j . 1992 . the evolution of nasal turbinates and mammalian endothermy .\nhillenius , w . j . 1994 . turbinates in therapsids : evidence for late permian origins of mammalian endothermy .\nhopson , j . a . , and h . barghusen . 1986 . an analysis of therapsid relationships . in\n, ed . n . hotton iii , p . d . maclean , j . j . roth , and e . c . roth , 83\u2013106 . washington dc : smithsonian institution press .\nhopson , j . a . , and j . w . kitching . 2001 . a probainognathian cynodont from south africa and the phylogeny of nonmammalian cynodonts .\nkermack , k . a . , f . mussett , and h . w . rigney . 1981 . the skull of\nkischlat , e . - e . , and s . g . lucas . 2003 . a phytosaur from the upper triassic of brazil .\nknoll , f . 2004 . review of the tetrapod fauna of the \u201clower stormberg group\u201d of the main karoo basin ( southern africa ) : implications for the age of the lower elliot formation .\nknoll , f . , and b . battail . 2001 . new ornithischian remains from the upper elliot formation ( lower jurassic ) of lesotho and stratigraphical distribution of southern african fabrosaurids .\nlehrmann , d . j . , j . ramezani , s . a . bowring , m . w . martin , p . montgomery , p . enos , j . l . payne , m . j . orchard , w . hongmei , and w . jiayong . 2006 . timing of recovering from the end - permian extinction : geochronology and biostratigraphic constraints from south china .\n( docodonta ; mammalia ) from the late jurassic of portugal and its implications to the evolution of mammalian characters .\nliu , j . , and p . olsen . 2010 . the phylogenetic relationships of eucynodontia ( amniota : synapsida ) .\nluo , z . - x . 1994 . sister - group relationships of mammals and transformations of diagnostic mammalian characters . in\n, ed . n . c . fraser , and h . - d . sues , 98\u2013128 . cambridge : cambridge university press .\nluo , z . - x . 2007 . transformation and diversification in early mammal evolution .\nluo , z . - x . , and a . w . crompton . 1994 . transformation of the quadrate ( incus ) through the transition from non - mammalian cynodonts to mammals .\nluo , z . - x . , a . w . crompton , and s . g . lucas . 1995 . evolutionary origins of the mammalian promontorium and cochlea .\nluo , z\u2013 . x . , z . kielan - jaworowska , and r . l . cifelli . 2002 . in quest for a phylogeny of mesozoic mammals .\nluo , z\u2013 . x . , z . kielan - jaworowska , and r . l . cifelli . 2004 . evolution of dental replacement in mammals .\nmartinelli , a . g . , j . f . bonaparte , c . l . schultz , and r . rubert . 2005 . a new tritheledontid ( therapsida , eucynodontia ) from the late triassic of rio grande do sul ( brazil ) and its phylogenetic relationships among carnivorous non - mammalian eucynodonts .\nmartinez , r . n . , c . l . may , and c . a . forster . 1996 . a new carnivorous cynodont from the ischigualasto formation ( late triassic , argentina ) , with comments on eucynodont phylogeny .\nmuttoni , g . , d . v . kent , p . e . olsen , p . di stefano , w . lowrie , s . m . bernasconi , and f . m . hern\u00e1ndez . 2004 . tethyan magnetostratigraphy from pizzo mondello ( sicily ) and correlation to the late triassic newark astrochronological polarity time scale .\nbonaparte & barberena , 1975 ( probainognathia , therioherpetidae ) from the upper triassic of brazil .\ncabrera 1943 en una secci\u00f3n tri\u00e1sica de brasil y su probable correlaci\u00f3n con el mismo evento en la porci\u00f3n mediana superior de la formaci\u00f3n ischigualasto ( tri\u00e1sico de argentina ) .\noliveira , t . v . , m . b . soares and a . g . martinelli . 2008 . new data on the late brazilian triassic tritheledontid cynodont\novtcharova , m . , h . bucher , u . schaltegger , t . galfetti , a . brayard , and j . guex . 2006 . new early to middle triassic u - pb ages from south china : calibration with ammonoid biochronozones and implications for the timing of triassic biotic recovery .\nrodrigues , p . g . 2005 . endotermia em cinodontes n\u00e3o - mamalianos : a busca por evid\u00eancias osteol\u00f3gicas . unpublished m . sc . thesis , universidade federal do rio grande do sul , 133 .\nrogers , r . r . , c . c . swisher iii , p . c . sereno , a . m . monetta , c . a . forster , and r . n . mart\u00ednez . 1993 . the ischigualasto tetrapod assemblage ( late triassic , argentina ) and\nrougier , g . w . , j . r . wible , and j . a . hopson . 1992 . reconstruction of cranial vessels in the early cretaceous mammal\nrowe , t . 1988 . definition , diagnosis , and origin of mammalia .\nschultz , c . l . , and m . b . soares . 2006 . proposta de nova denomina\u00e7\u00e3o para a cenozona de ictidosauria , do tri\u00e1ssico superior ( forma\u00e7\u00e3o caturrita ) do rio grande do sul . in\nshubin , n . h . , a . w . crompton , h\u2013 . d . sues , and p . e . olsen . 1991 . new fossil evidence on the sister - group of mammals and early mesozoic faunal distributions .\n, a new tritheledontid from the lower elliot formation ( upper triassic ) of south africa .\nsoares , m . b . , j . f . bonaparte , and c . l . schultz . 2005 . new material of\nsoares , m . b . , and j . e . f . dornelles . 2009 . cinodontes , a chave para a origem dos mam\u00edferos . in\n, ed . a . a . s . da - rosa . santa maria : pallotti .\nwatson , d . m . s . 1913 . on a new cynodont from the stormberg .\nwible , j . r . 1991 . origin of mammalia : the craniodental evidence reexamined .\nwible , j . r . , and j . a . hopson . 1993 . basicranial evidence for early mammal phylogeny . in\n, ed . f . s . szalay , m . j . novacek , and m . c . mckenna , 45\u201362 . new york : springer .\nwu , x . - c . 1994 . late triassic - early jurassic sphenodontians from china and the phylogeny of the sphenodontia . in\n, ed . n . c . fraser , and h\u2013 . d . sues , 38\u201369 . cambridge : cambridge university press .\nzerfass , h . , e . l . lavina , c . l . schultz , a . j . v . garcia , u . f . faccini , and f . chemale jr . 2003 . sequence stratigraphy of continental triassic strata of southernmost brazil : a contribution to southwestern gondwana palaeogeography and palaeoclimate .\nde oliveira , t . v . , martinelli , a . g . & soares , m . b . pal\u00e4ontol z ( 2011 ) 85 : 67 . urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\nnon - mammalian cynodonts . the structure of the skull and jaws of a derived traversodon\nshould not be included in ictidosauria , nor should they considered to be a sister group to mammaliaforms .\nspecimen pvl2564 in right lateral and palatine skull views , and a medial view of the left lower jaw .\n) . length of skull : 60\ue01fcm . the signi\ufb01cant features of this specimen include\nalso extended to c . schultz and m . bento soares ( ufrgs ) for\ncynodontia ) . proc r soc lond b biol sci . 208 : 461\u2013481 .\nstratigraphic and paleontological data . j south am earth sci . 55 : 123\u2013132 .\nit deals with the description of new probainognathian cynodonts , closely related to mammals , discovered in candel\u00e1ria and faxinal do soturno , rio grande do sul , brazil .\ntwo new cynodonts ( therapsida ) from the middle - early late triassic of brazil and comments on south a . . .\nwe describe two new cynodonts from the early late triassic of southern brazil . one taxon , bonacynodon schultzi gen . et sp . nov . , comes from the lower carnian dinodontosaurus az , being correlated with the faunal association at the upper half of the lower member of the cha\u00f1ares formation ( ischigualasto - villa uni\u00f3n basin , argentina ) . phylogenetically , bonacynodon is a closer relative to . . . [ show full abstract ]\nin this paper , the hypothesis of miniaturisation to explain the origin of mammals ( rowe 1993 , mammals phylogeny : mesozoic differentiation , multituberculates , monotremes , early therians , and marsupials . new york : springer - verlag , p . 129\u2013145 ) is discussed , based on three lines of evidence resulting from new discoveries of eucynodonts in the late triassic of southern brazil ( bonaparte et al . . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe genera of the brasilodontidae , protheriodon , brasilodon , brasilitherium , minicynodon and the indian panchetocynodon , are briefly summarised and the more significant evolutionary information from them is discussed . brasilodon and brasilitherium are possibly related to the origin of kuehneotheridae and morganucodontidae , respectively . a systematic rearrangement is proposed for the . . . [ show full abstract ]\na new cynodont from the santa maria formation , south brazil , improves late triassic probainognathian . . .\nthe fossil record of non - mammaliaform probainognathian cynodonts is outstanding in the late triassic rocks of brazil and argentina . approximately 15 genera are known , providing unique insights in the study of the major skeletal transformations prior to the mammalian condition . globally , the diversity of probainognathians is possibly under - represented , as the discovery of small - to . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe discovery of a new upper triassic mammal ( erythrotherium parringtoni , gen . et sp . n . ) from the upper red beds of the stormborg series in basutoland is reported . the remains consist of an apparently complete , but crushed skull . no posteranial remains were found in association with the skull . a preliminary description of the internal view of the lower jaw and the outer view of one upper . . . [ show full abstract ]\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\na relative of cynognathus , massetognathus was a plant - eating cynodont belonging to the traversodontid family . this cynodont lived in what is now south america , in brazil ( paleorrota ) and argentina ( los cha\u00f1ares formation ) during the middle triassic period ( 220 million years ago ) .\nwas about 50 centimetres ( 1 . 6 ft ) long . it had cheek teeth specially adapted to chewing on vegetation . it still had the distinctive long snout of its\ninstead they were flat - topped and were covered with a number of low ridges , which made them good for grinding any stems , roots and other plant materials .\npalmer , d . , ed ( 1999 ) . the marshall illustrated encyclopedia of dinosaurs and prehistoric animals . london : marshall editions . p . 193 . isbn 1 - 84028 - 152 - 9 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\n. its membership was and is made up of both meat - eaters and plant - eaters . the chronological range extends from at least the lower\nuntil the present day . this overview is concentrated on the proto - mammals , which are known from the lower triassic until the lower\n. this was a wolf - sized predator , which had pretty much a worldwide distribution . about 90 % of its lower jaw was accounted for by a single , tooth - bearing bone called the\nwere differentiated , which enabled them to perform several functions ; tearing and chewing . a\ntears at its prey , but it can\u2019t chew . it\u2019s an effective hunter , but a wasteful and messy eater . the ear of\nby a joint called the articular - quadrate . the significance of these features and what happened next , is illustrated in a bit more detail below , ( see below : transitional fossils ) .\nis the only known representative of a family called cynognathidae . however , various further derived relatives are also known .\nfurther non - mammalian eucynodonts are known , though the structure followed here is probably in need of review . the main lineage of meat - eaters is the superfamily of chiniquodontoidea . i have this divided into two families , a further pair of possible families and some odd bits and pieces .\nof south america . some more enigmatic material , ( mainly teeth ) , has been recovered from mid \u2013 upper triassic european strata . a middle triassic genus from africa ,\n, has also been referred to this family , though this is seen as questionable by others . they ranged in size from tiny\ndromatheriidae is a possible family based mainly on teeny teeth from the upper triassic of europe and north america , ( and perhaps india ) . although remains are sparse , these fossils are very mammal - like . a hypothesized ancestor of mammals could convincingly have been equipped with choppers like this , and some of this material may or may not represent our ancestors . it would require better\nto test the validity of that possibility . it could be an informal grade rather than a natural\n) . the status of this family has been differently interpreted by various researchers .\ntraditionally , the herbivoreous counterparts of the chiniquodontoids were grouped together under the term gomphodonts , ( \u2018peg teeth\u2019 ) . their chronological range extended from the lower\n, and remains have been found on every continent in the world , with the exception of australasia . they\u2019re also referred to as tritylodontoidea . it\u2019s very likely that this arrangement is more a matter of convenience than systematics . however , as it is a convenient structure , let ' s take follow it .\nthe most basal representatives are found within a family called diademodontidae . most fossils come from the lower triassic of south africa . other reports stem from asia and perhaps antarctica .\nsomewhat more derived are the trirachodontids of africa , asia , russia and possibly north america . some were contemporaries of the diademodontids and the lineage seems to have survived until the middle triassic .\nlived communally in warrens . this is known from several fossilized burrows preserved in south africa , along with their inhabitants .\nthe most diverse of the triassic gomphodonts are the members of traversodontidae . this family emerged during the lower triassic and continued until the end of that age . the original representatives were small , though later types reached lengths of 50cm or so . the most recent known remains come from near the end of the european\n. these are teeth from shrew - sized animals . fossils have been found in all continents , ( excepting for australasia and antarctica ) , though the best remains are from the lower upper triassic strata of argentina and brazil , which seems to have been the heyday of the traversodonts .\npossibly descended from the traversodonts is a family known as tritylodontidae . it\u2019s fairly often assumed that non - mammalian\n. where preserved , the anatomy suggests burrowing animals , and suitably sized fossilized burrows have been found at one location in colorado , along with tracks and anatomical remains . a post - cretaceous representative has some limited support , (\n) , but this is more generally seen as some kind of mammal or other . tritylodonts were mammal - like in the extreme , and were usually classed as such until the 1920s . however , their anatomy maintained significant \u2018reptilian\u2019 features , especially in the\n, when this family had a more or less worldwide distribution . ( one genus ,\n, has been found in europe , china and north america . fragmentary tritylodont remains have also been recovered from antarctica . ) the most recent undisputed material comes from siberia and japan . the demise of the tritylodonts may be connected with the rise of\n. there are a few genera dealt with here as mammals , which should possibly or probably be labelled as non - mammals . this is certainly the case for\n. its dental replacement and growth habits weren\u2019t mammalian . it probably also applies for\nrock , ( carnian ) . it could also be the case for the members of haramiyida . however , other than for one exception , haramiyids are presently known only from tiny teeth . until more substantial remains turn up , the affinities of haramiyids is a matter beyond resolution .\nand , when equipped with gnashers , have only one kind of tooth . however , as with\n) ; the jaw joint is the articular - quadrate , ( it\u2019s at least overwhelmingly dominant amongst the basal representatives ) .\nbecame progressively more mammal - like , and the anatomical distinctions between the more derived forms and the earliest mammals , are best described as matters of degree .\ngrew in complexity and efficiency . the mammalian jaw - cranium joint ( dentary - squamosal ) grew up alongside of , and eventually , ( in\nstill worked with only one small bone , other important structural changes were underway ; eg . the cochlear canal appeared ( eg .\n( this information has been derived from [ 1 ] mesozoic eucynodonts ; an internet directory . as that ' s my webpage , there are no issues of copyright . trevor dykes )\nthis article is from wikipedia . all text is available under the terms of the gnu free documentation license ."]}
{"id": 1509, "summary": [{"text": "perissodus microlepis is a species of cichlid endemic to lake tanganyika .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "this species reaches a length of 11 centimetres ( 4.3 in ) tl .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "this species can also be found in the aquarium trade .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it is a scale-eating ' parasite ' on other fish species .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it occurs in two distinct morphological forms .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "one morph has mouth parts twisted to the left , enabling it to eat scales off its victim \u2019s right flank .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "in contrast , the other morph , whose mouth is twisted to the right , eats scales off its victim \u2019s left flank .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the relative abundance of the two morphs in populations is regulated by frequency-dependent selection . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "perissodus microlepis", "paragraphs": ["un jeune perissodus microlepis attaque un jeune lepidiolamprologus elongatus , pour lui pr\u00e9lever quelques \u00e9cailles .\none parent was experimentally removed from brooding pairs of perissodus microlepis in the field . the removal elicited drastic behavioural changes in the remaining parent and young . the remaining parent sometimes showed a sequence of peculiar behaviours which were not observed when guarding the young with its mate . some left the brooding site with young in their mouths and then put the young under the care of another pair of brooding parents .\nfifty - four breeding pairs of perissodus microlepis were collected in april 2010 by diving with hand nets at toby veal ' s lodge ( s08\u00b037 . 4\u2032 e031\u00b012\u2032 ) near mpulungu ( zambia ) on the southern tip of lake tanganyika to assess the mating pattern ( kusche , lee , meyer , in revision ) . twenty - one out of these 54 pairs were used for foraging experiments on adult p . microlepis under semi - natural conditions . mouth laterality of each of the pairs was judged by eye in the field by two independent researchers ( h . k . and a . m . ) ( see figure 1 ) .\nunknown , but large schools of thousands of juvenile p . microlepis are often seen at sites not far from brooding pairs . this species is very common throughout its habitat , but is never abundant .\nthirteen outdoor pools ( 1000 l ) at the shore of lake tanganyika were stocked with one breeding pair of p . microlepis each ( 7 rl , 5 rr and 1 ll pairs ) . also two large community tanks of 4000 l volume ( with 6 l - morphs and 10 r - morphs of p . microlepis , respectively ) were used in these foraging experiments . the cichlid species tropheus moorii ( pair tanks : n = 3\u20136 ; community tanks : n = 18 and 25 ) was used as prey since it is a preferred natural prey species of p . microlepis [ 22 ] . after 72 hours , all t . moorii were removed from the pools and presence / absence of scars and missing scales and the numbers of bites on both flanks of the prey fish were recorded .\nthe handedness of the foraging behavior and the associated asymmetry in mouth / head morphology have made the scale - eating cichlid fish , perissodus microlepis , a textbook example [ 16 ] of both , the astonishing degree of ecological specialization and negative frequency - dependent selection [ 8 ] . however , how and when lateralized foraging behavior manifests itself during ontogeny , and whether its association with mouth asymmetry is already apparent in juvenile individual fish had remained untested . here , we report on the strength and individual variation of lateralized foraging behavior as well as its relationship with mouth asymmetry in p . microlepis during its juvenile as well as adult life stages . we find that handed foraging behavior is already prominent at an early age ( e . g . at two - months ) , although the initial morphological asymmetry is less evident , which hints that handed behavior might play a role in bringing about pronounced morphological laterality , considering the potential influences of phenotypic plasticity on mouth asymmetry [ 18 ] .\nin this study , we examine the strength and individual variation of lateralized behavior and its interaction with mouth laterality in perissodus microlepis . in semi - natural conditions , we conducted feeding experiments on adult wild - caught scale - eaters with their natural prey to test whether pronounced morphological laterality predicts foraging preferences . we further tested whether laboratory - reared juvenile scale - eaters , which had never encountered prey fish before , displayed lateralized scale - feeding behavior in reference to mouth asymmetry . here we demonstrate relatively strong handedness in foraging behavior in juvenile fish that showed much less mouth asymmetry ( compared to wild - caught adult fish ) and we then discuss the potential role of lateralized foraging behavior in shaping the head asymmetry of this species .\nmar\u00e9chal , c . and m . poll , 1991 . perissodus . p . 367 - 368 . in j . daget , j . - p . gosse , g . g . teugels and d . f . e . thys van den audenaerde ( eds . ) check - list of the freshwater fishes of africa ( cloffa ) . isnb , brussels ; mrac , tervuren ; and orstom , paris . vol . 4 . ( ref . 5678 )\nscale - eating cichlid fish , perissodus microlepis , from lake tanganyika display handed ( lateralized ) foraging behavior , where an asymmetric \u2018left\u2019 mouth morph preferentially feeds on the scales of the right side of its victim fish and a \u2018right\u2019 morph bites the scales of the left side . this species has therefore become a textbook example of the astonishing degree of ecological specialization and negative frequency - dependent selection . we investigated the strength of handedness of foraging behavior as well as its interaction with morphological mouth laterality in p . microlepis . in wild - caught adult fish we found that mouth laterality is , as expected , a strong predictor of their preferred attack orientation . also laboratory - reared juvenile fish exhibited a strong laterality in behavioral preference to feed on scales , even at an early age , although the initial level of mouth asymmetry appeared to be small . this suggests that pronounced mouth asymmetry is not a prerequisite for handed foraging behavior in juvenile scale - eating cichlid fish and might suggest that behavioral preference to attack a particular side of the prey plays a role in facilitating morphological asymmetry of this species .\nthe frequency of l and r morphs in natural populations of p . microlepis is suggested to be maintained by negative frequency - dependent selection [ 8 ] . over time , the proportion of l and r morphs within populations oscillates around a 50\u223650 ratio [ 8 ] , [ 17 ] . the resulting lateralized foraging behavior of p . microlepis is expected to make prey fish more alert to being attacked from the preferred side of the more abundant morph . thus , increased prey vigilance would reduce the predation success of the more abundant morph , and negative frequency - dependent selection would thereby favor the rarer morph in each generation . consequently , the frequency of both morphs is maintained in approximately equal abundances [ 8 ] .\nsixty - one more juveniles from three different broods ( 3 young of rl , 6 of ll and 52 of rr parental - pairs ) were obtained by breeding wild - caught fish in the laboratory . lab - reared p . microlepis fish reached sexual maturity at about six to nine months of age . these 61 juveniles , the f 1 fish of wild - caught stock , were used for foraging experiments that examined behavioral handedness and its interaction with mouth asymmetry .\nnonetheless , the observed lack of correlation between mouth asymmetry and lateralized foraging behavior in juvenile p . microlepis might also result from the measurement technique used for the quantification of mouth asymmetry ( i . e . mouth bending angle ) not fully capturing the existing true laterality ( i . e . asymmetric skeletal features ) in the mouth / head apparatus of this fish . further tests with cleared and double - stained juvenile fish samples of known behavioral laterality are required to check this possibility .\nto statistically analyze if juvenile p . microlepis fish show a bimodal or unimodal distribution in their foraging behavior ( e . g . foraging score , behavioral foraging preference ) , the dip statistic [ 23 ] and a mixture analysis with a parametric bootstrap test ( 1000 iterations ) using the mixtools package [ 24 ] were performed in r [ 25 ] . an anscombe - glynn test [ 26 ] for platykurtosis was further performed for the seven - month old fish only ( see below ) .\nmouth asymmetry ( mouth bending angle ) is not significantly correlated with foraging handedness in juvenile p . microlepis . ( a ) two month ( r = 0 . 148 ; p = 0 . 255 ) ; ( b ) three month ( r = \u22120 . 229 ; p = 0 . 154 ) ; ( c ) seven month old fish ( r = 0 . 069 ; p = 0 . 749 ) . note that 11 fish were tested at two different ontogenetic stages ( i . e . at three and seven months of age ) .\nseveral important questions about this fish , including the bases of its behavioral and morphological laterality remain unanswered [ 20 ] . mouth laterality of p . microlepis has been suggested to be genetically determined by a single mendelian locus with two alleles : the \u2018r\u2019 - allele was suggested to be dominant over the \u2018l\u2019 - allele and \u2018r\u2019 was suggested to be homozygous lethal [ 8 ] , [ 14 ] , [ 21 ] . but a recent review [ 20 ] noted that the data reported so far ( of mouth - morph ratios in the offspring of parents of known laterality ) actually are inconsistent with a single locus mendelian model . this model was further questioned because the distribution of mouth asymmetry was found to be unimodal rather than bimodal [ 18 ] , [ 21 ] ( kusche , lee , meyer , in revision ) . phenotypic plasticity may therefore play a role in shaping mouth asymmetry [ 18 ] and hence , head asymmetry may be governed by both genetic and environmental factors [ 18 ] ( lee et al . , unpublished data ) . the genetic and / or environmental basis of behavioral handedness in p . microlepis , however , remains largely unexplored .\nthis species belongs to the deep benthic community . it feed upon the scales of a variety of benthic species , chiefly cichlids . they are probably solitary except during periodsof reproduction . young p . microlepis have been only been seen close to the shore . its diet shifts from a variety of micro - organisms and algae when young to an adult diet of mainly fish scales . little is known about its reproduction although it is known to reproduce inshore among rocks and is remarkable for showing features both of mouth - brooding and substrate - guarding , the two major patterns of parental shown in cichlids\nthe foraging experiments with juvenile fish in the laboratory show that mouth asymmetry does not predict handedness in foraging behavior , possibly due to the small degree of mouth asymmetry . surprisingly , young and still quite small scale - eaters preyed on scales of prey fish and exhibited pronounced handed behavior ( figure 3 ) . even the two - month old fish readily fed on scales of similar - or even slightly larger - sized goldfish . however , the degree of mouth asymmetry in juvenile scale - eaters was rather small [ on average only 2 . 67\u00b0 ( for two - month : sd = 1 . 92\u00b0 ) , 2 . 01\u00b0 ( three - month : sd = 1 . 73\u00b0 ) and 2 . 12\u00b0 ( seven - month : sd = 1 . 61\u00b0 ) ] and the relationship between behavioral bias and morphological asymmetry was always non - significant ( figure 5 ) . note that the degree of mouth asymmetry in those laboratory - reared scale - eaters is indeed substantially lower than in wild - caught adult p . microlepis ( the average = 5 . 07\u00b0 ; n = 238 ; sd = 3 . 51\u00b0 ; kusche , lee , meyer , in revision ) . this too supports the hypothesis that handed behavior might play a significant role in shaping the asymmetry of mouths in p . microlepis .\nfurthermore , whether foraging handedness is expressed earlier during development and induces and thereby facilitates mouth asymmetry via phenotypic plasticity [ 15 ] , [ 18 ] or the reverse \u2013 remains unclear . hori [ 8 ] originally suggested that mouth laterality in p . microlepis is a functional \u2018prerequisite\u2019 for efficient lepidophagy . he further proposed that mouth asymmetry ( controlled by a single mendelian locus ) precedes and invokes and directs lateralized foraging behavior through natural selection . but , several lepidophagous cichlid species in lake tanganyika lack a pronounced laterality in their heads [ 21 ] and behavioral preferences have not been tested in these species . moreover , handed foraging behavior might actually precede , and even induce mouth asymmetry , given the purported role of phenotypic plasticity in mouth laterality [ 18 ] .\nthe same clear pattern was found in the 13 pools with one pair of p . microlepis each as predators ( figure 2 c , d ) : seven rl pairs fed from both flanks with similar frequencies ( ratio of attacked left flanks : 40\u201360 % ; average : 52 % ; median : 50 % ) and produced similar amount of damage onto both flanks ( range of foraging scores on left flanks : 25\u201367 % ; average : 48 % ; median : 50 % ) . five rr pairs strongly preferred to feed from the left flank ( range : 67\u2013100 % ; average : 88 % ; median : 100 % ) , which caused more bites on that flank ( range : 83\u2013100 % ; average : 94 % ; median : 100 % ) . a single ll pair exclusively fed from the right flanks of their prey fish . differences in foraging patterns such as foraging preference and foraging score among morph pair combinations were both highly statistically significant ( wilcoxon - rank - sum - test with continuity correction : proportion of left flanks affected : w = 35 , p < 0 . 01 ; proportion of foraging scores at the left flank : w = 35 , p < 0 . 01 ) .\njuvenile p . microlepis of about two [ n = 61 ; mean standard length ( sl ) = 3 . 2 cm ; sd = 0 . 28 cm ] , three [ n = 47 ; total length ( tl ) = 3\u20134 cm ] and seven [ n = 24 ; mean total length ( tl ) = 7 . 7 cm ; sd = 0 . 58 cm ] months of age , that had not had an opportunity to eat scales from prey fish before , were tested for lateralized foraging behavior . the older test cohorts ( that were tested at three and seven months ) were caught as 1 - 2 week old fry in the field , whereas the fish tested at two months were bred in the laboratory ( the f 1 fish of the older cohorts ; see above ) . eleven of the three - month old fish were re - tested at seven months , but those individuals could not be traced due to logistical reasons . the scale - eaters were placed individually with a single prey fish ( platy fish , xiphophorus maculatus , for three - month old fish and goldfish , carassius auratus auratus , for two - and seven - month old fish ) in the trial tanks .\nneither of the juvenile cohorts showed a significant correlation between mouth asymmetry and lateralized foraging behavior ( two - month old fish : r = 0 . 148 ; p = 0 . 255 ; three - month : r = \u22120 . 229 ; p = 0 . 154 ; seven - month : r = 0 . 069 ; p = 0 . 749 ; figure 5 ) . unexpectedly , some fish that were morphologically scored as ( slightly ) r - morphs ( with negative values of mouth bending angle of \u03b1 l \u2212 \u03b2 r ) occasionally even attacked the right side more frequently than the left side , and vice versa ( figure 5 ) . this lack of correspondence suggests that mouth laterality is not a prerequisite for handed foraging behavior for juvenile p . microlepis . also , the level of mouth asymmetry ( i . e . absolute values of mouth bending angles ) of the laboratory - reared juvenile fish did not significantly increase with body size in either two - ( n = 61 , y = 0 . 831 x + 0 . 04 , r 2 = 0 . 015 , p = 0 . 35 ) or seven - ( n = 24 , y = \u22120 . 496 x + 5 . 394 , r 2 = 0 . 032 , p = 0 . 4 ) month old fish .\nthrough phenotypic effects of \u201cuse and disuse\u201d , handed behavior has been shown to drive morphological laterality in different animal groups ( e . g . lobsters [ 37 ] ; snakes [ 4 ] , [ 5 ] ; humans [ 38 ] ) ( reviewed in [ 15 ] ) . lobsters provide a clear example of how claw asymmetry is shaped during development as a function of handed behavior [ 37 ] . laboratory experiments demonstrated that differential use of claws during early juvenile stage induces and facilitates development of a crusher claw [ 37 ] . as such , in p . microlepis lateralized behavior might conceivably lead to an asymmetric remodeling of the structural elements ( e . g . bones ) involved in defining mouth shape [ 39 ] , given that lateralized behavior in fish sometimes has a strong additive genetic component [ 40 ] , [ 41 ] , e . g . , the estimated heritability of laterality of eye preference in the poeciliid fish , girardinus falcatus is 0 . 5 to 0 . 6 ) [ 40 ] . although we are uncertain whether handed scale - eating behavior is genetically programmed ( innate ) , rather than environmentally plastic ( learning ) or both [ 42 ] , the bimodal trait distribution in very young fish ( figure 3 ) speaks for a major genetic locus determining handedness in scale - eating behavior ( [ 18 ] ) .\nto more precisely quantify \u2018behavioral\u2019 foraging preference in juvenile p . microlepis , a second series of experiments for the seven - and later two - month old scale - eaters was carried out . for each seven - month old individual , its foraging behavior was monitored ( in 3\u20134 replicates during 1\u20132 weeks ) by counting the number of attacks to the left and / or right flanks on a single goldfish , until a total of maximally 20 attacks per individual within up to 30 minutes were reached . the scale - eaters showed reported natural foraging behavior , i . e . , they attacked prey from behind [ 8 ] . in only a few cases they attacked from the front , but those attacks were not counted . behavioral foraging preference ( i . e . probability of left attack ) was again found to be consistent among the 3\u20134 trials ( repeated - measure anova ; f 3 , 45 = 0 . 363 , p = 0 . 78 ) as observed in the three - month old fish . therefore , the handedness scores ( e . g . number of left and right attacks ) were pooled over the trials to calculate behavioral foraging preference for each scale - eater . the total number of attacks observed per fish ranged from 39 to 80 ( mean = 64 ) . for the two - month old scale - eaters , we employed the same procedure as for the seven - month old fish , except that we conducted only one experimental trial per individual . the average number of attacks observed per fish in this test cohort was 19 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsnoeks , j . ( freshwater fish red list authority ) & darwall , w . ( freshwater biodiversity assessment programme )\njustification : widely distributed throughout lake tanganyika , with no known major widespread threats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\ncitation : lee hj , kusche h , meyer a ( 2012 ) handed foraging behavior in scale - eating cichlid fish : its potential role in shaping morphological asymmetry . plos one 7 ( 9 ) : e44670 . urltoken\ncopyright : \u00a9 lee et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nfunding : financial support was provided through a travel grant from the international max planck research school ( imprs ) for organismal biology to hk , through the zukunftskolleg postdoctoral fellowship to hl , through grants of the deutsche forschungsgemeinschaft ( dfg ) to hl ( le2848 / 1 - 1 ) and am , the young scholar fund ( ysf ) to hl ( fp 411 / 12 ) and the university of konstanz to am . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\ncompeting interests : axel meyer is a plos one academic editor . this does not alter the authors ' adherence to all the plos one policies on sharing data and materials .\nhanded behavior has also been frequently reported in fish , e . g . , with respect to eye usage preference ( i . e . visual lateralization ) in a poeciliid fish [ 9 ] , [ 10 ] , swimming - turns in zebra - and goldfish [ 11 ] and foraging in a freshwater goby [ 12 ] and in some african cichlid fishes [ 13 ] , [ 14 ] . lateralized behavior in fish is often correlated with morphological asymmetries . in the herbivorous cichlid telmatochromis temporalis , for example , the right mouth morph uses the right side of the jaw more frequently and the left morph the left side [ 13 ] . a significant correlation between lateralization in swimming and the anatomical bias of the prevalence of different muscle types was found in zebrafish [ 11 ] . however , relatively little effort has been directed towards the exploration of the potential role of handed behavior in facilitating morphological laterality [ 15 ] .\nfive broods from different parents of determined mouth - laterality ( 3 rl and 2 rr pairs ) were transported to the animal care facility at the university of konstanz . in total , 65 young were raised brood - wise in separate 40 l and later 200 l aquaria with artemia nauplii and flake food . these fish were used for laboratory feeding experiments on juveniles as well as for quantitative measures of mouth asymmetry ( kusche , lee , meyer , in revision ) .\nfield research was conducted under the study permit ( g . r . no : 2077761 ) granted by the government of the republic of zambia ( immigration department , ministry of home affairs , republic of zambia ) according to their immigration and deportation act . cap123 , section 16 . animal care of the fish and all foraging experiments in the laboratory were approved by the regional board of animal welfare in germany ( regierungspr\u00e4sidium freiburg , abteilung landwirtschaft , l\u00e4ndlicher raum , veterin\u00e4r - und lebensmittelwesen ) ( permit number : 35 / 9185 . 81 / g - 10 / 96 ) .\npercentages of pooled attacked left ( and right ) flanks of prey fish were calculated for each tank . we considered these estimates as foraging preference for a particular side , given that the scale - eaters had in principle an equal opportunity to attack both flanks . foraging preference was further assessed by taking into account foraging scores reflecting different levels of injury ( i . e . the amount of damage done by the scale - eaters ; 0 bites = 0 scores ; 1\u20133 bites = 1 score ; 4\u20136 bites = 2 scores ; > 6 bites = 3 scores ) . the proportion of these scores for the prey fishes ' pooled left ( and right ) flanks was calculated for each tank .\ntwo - tailed fisher ' s exact probability tests were performed to examine whether in both community tanks the left or right side of the prey fish were preferentially attacked and whether the morphs differed in their foraging scores . a mann - whitney - test was performed to test for differences in ratios of affected left flanks of the prey as well as in the amount of foraging scores between rl and rr pairs .\ntwo different methods were used to analyze foraging behavior . for the three - month old fish , one prey fish was added to a 40 l aquarium and after 12 hours , the prey fish was examined for scars and missing scales by two different researchers ( h . l . and h . k . ) . this procedure was replicated ( 2\u20135 times ) for each individual scale - eater to investigate whether its foraging behavior was consistent across a series of 2\u20135 experimental trials during a period of 1\u20132 weeks . because it was impossible to enumerate number of scars and missing scales on the prey fish ( x . maculatus ) , foraging preference was assessed for each scale - eater based on observed presence / absence of scars and missing scales . a foraging score of + 1 was given for fish that attacked only the right side of prey fish in a particular trial , a score of 0 meant that both sides were attacked , and a score of \u22121 was given for fish that attacked only the left side . the trials where no scars and no missing scales were observed on the prey fish , or where the prey fish died during the experiments were excluded from the analysis . since the estimated foraging score of each individual was found to be constant over the trials ( e . g . 2 trials : wilcoxon - signed - ranks - test , n = 17 , z = \u22120 . 333 , p = 1 . 0 ; 3 trials : friedman - test , n = 12 , chi - square statistic = 4 . 333 , p = 0 . 189 ) , the mean foraging score was calculated and used in further analyses . note that the foraging score of 34 scale - eaters was calculated from the 2\u20135 trials , while that of 10 individuals was obtained from a single trial only . only three of the 47 scale - eaters ( 6 % ) tested at three months never fed on scales .\nto investigate whether behavioral foraging preference is translated into foraging score ( e . g . number of scales bitten by the scale - eaters ) , surface areas of attacked left and right flanks of prey ( i . e . surface areas of scars and missing scales ) were calculated for a sub - sample ( n = 15 ) of the two - month old fish . because individual fish that exclusively attacked one side of the prey only left scars / missing scales at that flank ( 100 % ) , the 15 fish were selected from individuals that did not forage exclusively from one side ( e . g . 0 . 1 < probability of left attack < 0 . 9 ) . the attacked areas of the prey fish were estimated in imagej 1 . 45r ( urltoken ) from standardized photographs in a lateral view with an implemented scale . a ratio of the attacked areas ( left to right flanks ) on the prey fish was calculated for each scale - eater and linear regression analysis was then conducted using probability of left attack as an independent variable ( predictor ) and the estimated ratio as a dependent ( response ) variable .\nthe mouth bending angle , \u2018\u03b1 l \u2212 \u03b2 r\u2019 in \u00b0 following [ 14 ] was measured to test for a relationship between mouth / head asymmetry and handed foraging behavior in juvenile fish . for this test , each live test fish was photographed from a dorsal view in a standardized upright position using a zeiss axiophot digital microscope ( zeiss , germany ) . the mouth bending angles were then measured in imagej 1 . 45r : on each image , a triangle connecting the most anterior points of the eye sockets and the tip of the snout was drawn to estimate angles ( \u00b0 ) , \u03b1 l ( angle of the vertex by the left eye ) and \u03b2 r ( angle of the vertex by the right eye ) ( kusche , lee , meyer , in revision ) .\nto evaluate the accuracy of the measurements , repeatability of \u03b1 l \u2212 \u03b2 r was estimated from repeated and blind measurements that were done from two replicate photographs of the same individuals from sub - samples ( n = 20 , 15 and 15 for the two - , three - and seven - month old fish , respectively ) . repeatability , referred to as the proportion of the total variation that is due to variation among individuals , was calculated from one - way anova ( individual = factor ) following [ 27 ] .\ncorrelation analyses were performed between mouth bending angles and foraging score ( for our test cohort of the three - month old fish ) and behavioral foraging preference ( probability of left attack for the two - and seven - month old fish ) to test for the significant relationship between mouth asymmetry and behavioral handedness . linear regression analyses were also carried out to test whether mouth asymmetry amplifies as body size increases in the two - and seven - month old fish . for those analyses , sl ( standard length ) and tl ( total length ) were used as size measures for the two - and seven - month old fish , respectively .\nmouth laterality strongly predicted the preferred attack side as well as foraging scores on either side of the prey fish ( figure 2 ; table s1 ) . both l - and r - mouth morphs from the community tanks clearly exhibited opposed foraging preferences ( fisher ' s exact probability test : n = 41 ; p < 0 . 001 ) and yielded more scars / missing scales in foraging from their preferred flanks ( fisher ' s exact probability test : n = 63 ; p < 0 . 0001 ) ( figure 2 a , b ) . r - morphs preferentially attacked left flanks of the prey fish ( 80 % of affected flanks ; 82 % of foraging scores ) . l - morphs preferred to feed from right flanks ( 75 % of affected flanks ; 80 % of foraging scores ) .\nmouth asymmetry strongly predicts foraging preferences and foraging scores in community tanks ( a and b ) and pair tanks ( c and d ) of different laterality combinations .\nfeeding experiments with laboratory - raised juveniles showed that nearly all test fish preyed immediately on scales . scale - eating behavior is already expressed at an early ontogenetic stage ( two - month old : 100 % ; three - month old : 94 % ; seven - month old : 100 % ) . most individuals showed a clear bias to attack only a particular side of their prey and the frequency distribution of the foraging score and behavioral foraging preference clearly exhibited a bimodal distribution ( except in the seven - month old fish ) ( figure 3 ) . foraging behavior of the younger test cohorts ( of two and three months of age ) showed a significant departure from a unimodal distribution ( two - month old : dip statistic = 0 . 114 , p < 0 . 001 ; three - month old : dip statistic = 0 . 136 , p < 0 . 001 ) , whereas the oldest cohort of seven months of age did not ( dip statistic = 0 . 057 , p > 0 . 5 ) . the mixture analyses with the parametric bootstrap tests further showed that two - component normal distributions best fitted foraging behavior data of the two - ( p < 0 . 001 ) and three - month old fish ( p < 0 . 001 ) , while one - component normal distribution statistically best fitted the data of the seven - month old fish with marginal significance ( p = 0 . 057 ) . however , the graphical inspection of the mixture analysis ( figure 3 c ) and a marginal significance of platykurtosis ( p = 0 . 092 ) rather support a weak bimodal distribution [ 28 ] .\nfrequency distribution of behavioral foraging preference ( for two - and seven - month old fish ) and foraging score ( for three - month old fish ) shows a bimodal distribution . ( a ) two month ; ( b ) three month ; ( c ) seven month old fish . in ( c ) , the graphical inspection of the mixture analysis ( fitting two single - component normal distributions to the data ) is shown , indicating that the distribution better fits to bimodality than to unimodality , despite a marginal statistical significance of one single - component normal distribution ( p = 0 . 057 ) .\nthere was considerable \u2018inter - individual\u2019 variation in the intensity ( strength ) of lateralized foraging behavior ( figure 3 ) . many fish strongly preferred or even exclusively attacked the left or the right sides [ e . g . 7 of 61 ( 12 % ) and 15 of 61 ( 25 % ) of the two - month old fish foraged exclusively from the left and the right sides , respectively ] , while other fish displayed a less pronounced bias in foraging behavior ( figure 3 ) .\nas predicted , a highly significant positive correlation was found between behavioral foraging preference and foraging score in the subset ( n = 15 ) of the two - month old juveniles ( y = 1 . 787 x + 0 . 176 , r 2 = 0 . 759 , p < 0 . 001 ; figure 4 ) , suggesting that foraging score is an outcome of behavioral attack preference . this result further indicates that our field data on foraging preference and foraging score of wild - caught adult fish could indeed reflect \u2018behavioral\u2019 foraging preference .\nlateralized foraging behavior and foraging score ( e . g . number of scales eaten by the scale - eaters ) are highly significantly correlated ( in a sub - sample [ n = 15 ] of the two - month old fish [ y = 1 . 787 x + 0 . 176 , r 2 = 0 . 759 , p < 0 . 001 ] ) .\nour measurements of mouth bending angles appeared to be fairly repeatable : estimated repeatability of the mouth bending angles was 0 . 80 , 0 . 77 and 0 . 87 for the two - , three - and seven - month old fish , respectively . those estimates of the repeatability imply that 77 to 87 % of the total observed variation is attributed to underlying \u2018true\u2019 variation in the mouth bending angles among individuals and the remaining 13 to 23 % variation is due to measurement error .\nthe observed strong lateralization in foraging behavior in young scale - eaters ( e . g . bimodal distribution ) that was not accompanied by notable morphological asymmetry ( see also kusche , lee , meyer , in revision ) and the obvious correspondence between mouth orientation and foraging behavior in adult fish might suggest that handed behavior is probably expressed earlier during development . and , it may actually induce and facilitate morphological asymmetry [ 18 ] , if phenotypic plasticity plays a relatively larger role than the genetic determination of this trait ( lee et al . , unpublished data ) . an alternative hypothesis is that both handed behavior and morphological laterality are genetically governed , but expressed at different ontogenetic stages . however , this hypothesis would seem to be rather unlikely given our observation that laboratory - reared fish of now about two - year of age still have a relatively symmetrical mouth ( hl , personal observation ) .\nhowever , we observed a rather more pronounced laterality in foraging behavior among the younger juvenile fish ( e . g . at two and three months ) , compared to the fish at seven months . the observed dwindling laterality in foraging behavior in the older fish might imply that feeding preference is expressed at an early age ( e . g . at two months ) , but the initial level of laterality would diminish over time ( under laboratory conditions ) unless the fish were constantly to feed on scales . yet , whether this trend means the strength of handed behavior truly decreases with age awaits future experiments on \u201ctracked\u201d individuals over a series of ontogenetic stages during their life time .\nwe here argue that the hypothesis \u2013 \u2018handed behavior preceding and driving mouth asymmetry\u2019 [ 15 ] , [ 18 ] \u2013 seems more strongly supported by evidence than the original hypothesis [ 8 ] that mouth asymmetry precedes and directs lateralized foraging behavior through natural selection acting on a single gene . different lines of evidence support this hypothesis . in a parallel study , we observed a large amount of variation in mouth asymmetry in 238 wild - caught adult specimens and found a continuous and unimodal ( and not bimodal ) trait distribution ( kusche , lee , meyer , in revision ) . if plasticity rather than genetics plays a comparatively larger role ( lee et al . , unpublished data ) , then this unimodal distribution of laterality might simply be the outcome of different levels of lateralization in foraging behavior . this hypothesis is supported by the findings from the foraging experiments of juvenile fish : juvenile fish did not show complete lateralization of foraging preference and even some individuals attacked equally often at both flanks . whether symmetrically attacking fish might have a potential selective advantage over left or right preferentially attacking fish needs to be tested .\na significant role of phenotypic plasticity in the evolutionary origin of novel morphologies has been suggested repeatedly during the last several decades [ 15 ] , [ 29 ] \u2013 [ 32 ] . phenotypic plasticity clearly contributes to shaping the morphology of the jaw and the mouth apparatus in teleost fishes , particularly in cichlids [ 33 ] , [ 34 ] . even different food types or diet hardness can induce changes in the external shape of the head during the ontogeny of some cichlids [ 33 ] , [ 35 ] . the teleost skeleton can quickly adapt to changing external factors , so called \u2018mechanical adaptation\u2019 , and skeletal phenotypic plasticity in teleosts seems to be rather pronounced and taxonomically widespread [ 36 ] .\nwe thank christian sturmbauer for support in the field . thanks to frederico henning for statistical advice and julia c . jones , tom j . m . van dooren and richard a . palmer for helpful comments on an earlier version of the manuscript . we thank mr . zyambo , mr . chiti , mr . chansa , mr . musosa and particularly gabriele legant for their superb technical assistance in the field .\nconceived and designed the experiments : hl hk am . performed the experiments : hl hk am . analyzed the data : hl hk . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : hl hk am . wrote the paper : hl hk am .\nvuoksimaa e , koskenvuo m , rose rj , kaprio j ( 2009 ) origins of handedness : a nationwide study of 30 161 adults . neuropsychologia 47 : 1294\u20131301 .\nbrown c , magat m ( 2011 ) cerebral lateralization determines hand preferences in australian parrots . biology letters 7 : 496\u2013498 .\nhoso m , asami t , hori m ( 2007 ) right - 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( 2010 ) genetic support for random mating between left and right - mouth morphs in the dimorphic scale - eating cichlid fish\nvan dooren t , van goor h , van putten m ( 2010 ) handedness and asymmetry in scale - eating cichlids : antisymmetries of different strength . evolution 64 : 2159\u20132165 .\ntakeuchi y , hori m , oda y ( 2012 ) lateralized kinematics of predation behavior in a lake tanganyika scale - eating cichlid fish . plos one 7 ( 1 ) : e29272 .\npalmer ar ( 2010 ) scale - eating cichlids : from hand ( ed ) to mouth . journal of biology 9 : 11 .\nstewart t , albertson r ( 2010 ) evolution of a unique predatory feeding apparatus : functional anatomy , development and a genetic locus for jaw laterality in lake tanganyika scale - eating cichlids . bmc biology 8 : 8 .\n( cichlidae ) and change of its food habits with growth . japanese journal of ichthyology 32 : 66\u201373 .\nhartigan ja , hartigan pm ( 1985 ) the dip test of unimodality . annals of statistics 13 : 70\u201384 .\nbenaglia t , chauveau d , hunter d , young d ( 2009 ) mixtools : an r package for analyzing finite mixture models . journal of statistical software 32 : 1\u201329 .\nihaka r , gentleman r ( 1996 ) r : a language for data analysis and graphics . journal of computational and graphical statistics 5 : 299\u2013314 .\nanscombe f , glynn wj ( 1983 ) distribution of kurtosis statistic for normal statistics . biometrika 70 : 227\u2013234 .\nsokal rr , rohlf fj ( 1995 ) biometry : the principles and practice of statistics in biological research . w . h . freeman , new york . 776 p .\npalmer ar , strobeck c ( 1992 ) fluctuating asymmetry as a measure of developmental stability : implications of non - normal distributions and power of statistical tests . acta zoologica fennica 191 : 57\u201372 .\nand their taxonomic implications . proceedings of the linnean society of london 176 : 1\u201310 .\nwimberger ph ( 1994 ) trophic polymorphisms , plasticity , and speciation in vertebrates . in : theory and application of fish feeding ecology stouder dj , fresh kl , feller rj , eds . university of south carolina press , columbia , sc . pp 19\u201343 .\nwcislo wt ( 1989 ) behavioral environments and evolutionary change . annual review of ecology and systematics 20 : 137\u2013169 .\nmoczek ap , sultan s , foster s , ledon - rettig c , dworkin i , et al . ( 2011 ) the role of developmental plasticity in evolutionary innovation . proceedings of the royal society b 278 : 2705\u20132713 .\n( pisces , cichlidae ) and their implications for speciation in cichlid fishes . evolution 41 : 1357\u20131369 .\nmuschick m , barluenga m , salzburger w , meyer a ( 2011 ) adaptive phenotypic plasticity in the midas cichlid fish pharyngeal jaw and its relevance in adaptive radiation . bmc evolutionary biology 11 : 116 .\nwitten pe , huysseune a ( 2009 ) a comparative view on mechanisms and functions of skeletal remodelling in teleost fish , with special emphasis on osteoclasts and their function . biological reviews 84 : 315\u2013346 .\ngovind ck , pearce j ( 1986 ) differential reflex activity determines claw and closer muscle asymmetry in developing losters . science 233 : 354\u2013356 .\npearson om , lieberman de ( 2004 ) the aging of wolff ' s\nlaw\n: ontogeny and responses to mechanical loading in cortical bone . yearbook of physical anthropology 47 : 63\u201399 .\nruff c , holt b , trinkaus e ( 2006 ) who ' s afraid of the big bad wolff ? :\nwolff ' s law\nand bone functional adaptation . american journal of physical anthropology 129 : 484\u2013498 .\nbisazza a , facchin l , vallortigara g ( 2000 ) heritability of lateralization in fish : concordance of right - left asymmetry between parents and offspring . neuropsychologia 38 : 907\u2013912 .\nbrown c , western j , braithwaite va ( 2007 ) the influence of early experience on , and inheritance of , cerebral lateralization . animal behaviour 74 : 231\u2013238 .\ntierney aj ( 1986 ) the evolution of learned and innate behavior : contributions from genetics and neurobiology to a theory of behavioral evolution . animal learning and behavior 14 : 339\u2013348 .\nwest - eberhard mj ( 2003 ) developmental plasticity and evolution . oxford university press , new york . 794 p .\nwest - eberhard mj ( 2005 ) phenotypic accomodation : adaptive innovation due to developmental plasticity . journal of experimental zoology part b : molecular and developmental evolution 304b : 610\u2013618 .\nbertossa rc ( 2011 ) morphology and behaviour : functional links in development and evolution . philosophical transactions of the royal society b 366 : 2056\u20132068 .\nbaldwin jm ( 1896 ) a new factor in evolution . the american naturalist 30 : 536\u2013553 .\nwaddington ch ( 1953 ) genetic assimilation of an aquired character . evolution 7 : 118\u2013126 .\ndo these subject areas make sense for this article ? click the target next to the incorrect subject area and let us know . thanks for your help !\nscience 09 apr 1993 : vol . 260 , issue 5105 , pp . 216 - 219 doi : 10 . 1126 / science . 260 . 5105 . 216\nnote : we only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it , and that it is not junk mail . we do not capture any email address .\nmessage body ( your name ) thought you would like to see this page from the science web site .\n\u00a9 2018 american association for the advancement of science . all rights reserved . aaas is a partner of hinari , agora , oare , chorus , clockss , crossref and counter . science issn 1095 - 9203 .\ngreek , perissos = uneven + greek , odous = teeth ( ref . 45335 )\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 11 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5678 )\nscale - eating . prefers fish that feed from the algal layer or fish which are inattentive , the usual prey being tropheus and pseudosimochromis ( ref . 7343 ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 7500 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01514 ( 0 . 00700 - 0 . 03275 ) , b = 2 . 97 ( 2 . 80 - 3 . 14 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 2 \u00b10 . 86 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 13 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\npronunciation : refer to our pronunciation key for an explanation of the phonetic symbols .\nhabitat : this is the primary location where the cichlid is found and is a generalization . this does not mean a fish cannot be found in other habitats .\ndiet : many cichlids specialize in eating one type of food ; notwithstanding , some of these specialized feeders are flexible and can be opportunistic feeders .\ntemperament : this describes the overall demeanor of a cichlid toward other tankmates that are of a different species . consider that there is variability in temperament due to various factors , including aquarium size , tankmates of similar appearance , stocking levels , and order of introduction . there may even be some variability among individual specimens .\nconspecific temperament : this describes the overall demeanor of a cichlid toward other tank - mates of the same species . consider that there is variability in temperament due to such factors as aquarium size , stocking levels and order of introduction . there may even be some variability among individual specimens .\nmaximum size : this is in regards to total length ( including the tail ) of typical aquarium specimens . wild specimens may not attain this size , or may in fact grow larger than aquarium raised individuals due to various factors . also consider that this is the typical maximum size and there are exceptional individuals that will exceed it .\ndifficulty : this measure is a relative value , comparing a single species against all other cichlids . this only accounts for maintanence in the aquarium and not breeding considerations . 1 = easy and forgiving , 5 = extremely challenging .\nmany people know organisms only by the common names , or\nvernacular\nnames . unlike scientific names , common names are almost always different for speakers of different languages . they may also vary regionally within a language . this tab shows all the common names provided to eol for this organism from a variety of providers , including eol curators . currently we can only set one preferred common name per language on a given eol page , but all the names should be searchable .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nbaerends , g . p . & j . m . baerends - van roon . 1950 . an introduction to the study of the ethology of cichlid fishes . behaviour suppl . 1 : 1\u2013242 .\nbarlow , g . w . 1974 . contrasts in social behavior between central american cichlid fishes and coral - reef surgeon fishes . amer . zool . 14 : 9\u201334 .\nbrichard , p . 1978 . fishes of lake tanganyika . t . f . h . publications , neptune city . 448 pp .\ndavies , n . b . 1978 . ecological questions about territorial behaviour . pp . 317\u2013350 .\nj . r . krebs & n . b . davies ( ed . ) behavioural ecology , and evolutionary approach , blackwell , oxford .\nfryer , g . & t . d . iles . 1972 . the cichlid fishes of the great lakes of africa . oliver and boyd , edinburgh . 641 pp .\nkeenleyside m . h . a . 1978 . parental care behavior in fishes and birds . pp . 3\u201329 .\ne . s . reese & f . j . lighter ( ed . ) contrasts in bahavior , wiley and sons , new york .\nkeenleyside , m . h . a . 1979 . diversity and adaptation in fish behaviour . springer - verlag , new york . 208 pp .\nkrebs , j . r . & n . b . davies . 1981 . an introduction to behavioural ecology . blackwell , oxford . 292 pp .\nlewis , d . s . c . 1980 . mixed species broods in lake malawi cichlids : an alternative to the cuckoo theory . copeia 1980 : 874\u2013875 .\nliem , k . f . & d . j . stewart . 1976 . evolution of the scale - eating cichlid fishes of lake tanganyika : a generic revision with a description of a new species . bull . mus . comp . zool . 147 : 319\u2013350 ."]}
{"id": 1511, "summary": [{"text": "the mauritius fody ( foudia rubra ) is a rare species of bird in the weaver family .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it is endemic to the island of mauritius .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is classified by birdlife international as being endangered .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is also on the united states ' endangered species list with an endangered status .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "this bird is 14 centimeters long .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "breeding males are olive brown with a red head , breast and rump patch and black lores .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "while females , non-breeding males and juveniles are olive brown with white wing bars and a brown bill .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the bird lives in several types of forest , including degraded areas , as well as plantations .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "stands of japanese cedar ( cryptomeria japonica ) have replaced native vegetation and now provide protection against predators .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "it feeds on insects like grasshoppers , beetle larvae , caterpillars , and also spiders .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "berries are eaten regularly by some individuals .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it feeds on nectar regularly , using its specialised brush-tipped tongue .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the bird is a weaver , the male and female cooperating to weave each nest , from material like grass , moss and small twigs .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the mauritius fody is threatened by the loss of its habitat and predation from introduced predators .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "beginning in the 1970s much of its habitat was lost when the land was cleared for plantations .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "by 2001 there were perhaps no more than about 100 breeding pairs .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "nests are raided by predators , especially the black rat ( rattus rattus ) and the crab-eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis ) .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "this is currently the main cause of the bird 's decline .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "some areas of intact habitat have high nest predation , but areas of low nest predation may be poor habitat .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the common myna has also been observed preying on nests .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "nest failure may occur when it is infested with tropical nest fly .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the larvae of the fly attack the chicks , latching on and feeding on their blood , causing dehydration and anemia in the chicks .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "conservation efforts include the control of rats and macaques .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "a captive breeding program carried out by the mauritan wildlife foundation has produced many chicks .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "eggs are removed from nests in the wild and hatched in captivity as the wild pairs produce and rear another clutch simultaneously .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "nests are treated for tropical nest fly .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "supplemental food and water are given .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the population has increased recently due to conservation programs establishing sub-populations on offshore islands .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "due to these conservation efforts the species was downlisted from critically endangered to endangered in 2009 .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "\u00eele aux aigrettes , an islet off the main island of mauritius , is now home to a number of mauritius fodies and other threatened species that have been translocated there . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "mauritius fody", "paragraphs": ["insula franciae = mauritius . the historic distribution of the mauritius fody ranged over much of mauritius , so the type could have been collected anywhere on the island .\nthe endemic fody bears a close resemblance to the exotic madagascar fody which is very common in mauritius . . the male madagascar fody , however , has completely bright red plumage during breeding season .\nthe mauritius fody is classified as endangered ( en ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthe population of the mauritius fody suffered a rapid decline in the 1970s due to nest predation and habitat loss .\noften mistaken : the madagascar fody ( foudia madagascarensis ) is very common in mauritius . photo \u00a9 g . gerra & s . sommazzi\nthe mauritius fody is found only on the island of mauritius . the male mauritius fody boasts a brilliant red head , neck and breast , while females have drabber olive - brown plumage . adults are approximately 14 centimetres long . this solitary songbird prefers native scrub and forest habitat and feeds mainly on insects , supplemented by fruit and nectar .\nsafford , rj . the annual cycle and breeding behaviour of the mauritius fody , foudia rubra . ostrich , 68 , 58 - 67 .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive video - mauritius fody captive breeding program\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive video - mauritius fody captive breeding program\ntitle =\narkive video - mauritius fody captive breeding program\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - mauritius fody ( foudia rubra )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - mauritius fody ( foudia rubra )\ntitle =\narkive species - mauritius fody ( foudia rubra )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nclearing mauritius\u2019s forests has been catastrophic to the fody , while predators such as black rats and crab - eating macaques that have been brought to the island have caused almost total breeding failure in most areas . the native fodies may also face competition from the madagascar fody , which has been introduced to mauritius .\nthe mauritius fody inhabits remaining native forest but also survives in degraded forest that has been invaded by exotics , as well as forests of exotics such as pines .\nsafford rj . nesting success of the mauritius fody foudia rubra in relation to its use of exotic trees as nest sites . ibis , 139 , 555 - 559 .\nsafford , r . j . ( 1997 ) the annual cycle and breeding behaviour of the mauritius fody foudia rubra . ostrich , 68 ( 2 ) : 58 - 67 .\nthe diet of the mauritius fody is comprised primarily of invertebrates , but nectar , fruit , seeds and the eggs of birds and geckos are also consumed ( 5 ) . some females have even been seen feeding on the eggs of other mauritius fodies ( 3 ) .\nthe mauritius fody has suffered a constant and severe decline in range and numbers since 1975 , and is now found only in southwest mauritius ( 2 ) , and on the small , offshore island of ile aux aigrettes , where captive - bred fodies were released in 2003 ( 3 ) .\npeter brown was the first to illustrate , the mauritius fody . he called it the red - headed finch and gave a description of the bird . brown notes that the bird was in the collection of\nsafford , rj . the destruction of source and sink habitats in the decline of the mauritius fody , foudia rubra , an island - endemic bird . biodiversity and conservation , 6 , 513 - 527 .\nthe mauritius fody is restricted to south - west mauritius ( see red polygon on map ) where there are 3 small sub - populations . in 2005 , hand reared chicks were released onto the offshore islet ile aux aigrettes where the species apparently occurred historically ( red arrow on map , see also\non january 12 , 1995 , the mauritius fody was designated as endangered in the entire range . within the area covered by this listing , this species is known to occur in : mauritius . the u . s . fish & wildlife service ( null ) is the lead region for this entity .\nsafford , r . j . ( 1997 ) nesting success of the mauritius fody foudia rubra in relation to its use of exotic trees as nest sites . ibis , 139 ( 3 ) : 555 - 559 .\nthe mauritius fodies ( foudia rubra ) - also known as mascarene fodies - are only found on the island of mauritius off the southeast coast of africa , where they inhabit forests and plantations .\n, an english ornithologist and collector . the fody would have been brought by ship from mauritius to england , where it would have been purchased by tunstall . tunstall kept it in captivity for several years ( fox 1827 ) .\nmauritius fodies mostly feed on insects ; but they will also take fruit , nectar , seeds , geckos and - on occasion - the eggs of other birds ( including those of other mauritius fodies ) .\n. the illustration in daubenton 1783 is of a male , and the first female to be painted , but buffon does not appear to have written about it . gmelin noted the locality for the mauritius fody as\ninsula franciae\n.\n, an english naturalist and illustrator . gmelin did not realise that the same species was involved , due to the slight differences in the artwork . the latin name he provided here was invalid . gmelin noted the locality for this mauritius fody specimen as\ninsula mauritii\n.\ngmelin 1789 syst . nat . , 1 ( 2 ) , p . 877 isle de france [ = mauritius ] .\nsafford , rj . distribution studies on the forest - living native passerines of mauritius . biological conservation , 80 , 189 - 198 .\nsimilar spp . non - breeding male , female and juvenile separated from madagascar red fody f . madagascariensis by darker , less streaked plumage , plumper body and relatively shorter tail .\ninhabits all types of forest , even degraded forest invaded by introduced plant species ( 2 ) . on the mainland , the highest densities of this bird are found in small plantations of exotic trees surrounded by degraded native forest . on ile aux aigrettes , the mauritius fody inhabits lowland ebony forest and coastal scrub ( 3 ) .\nendangered . restricted range species : present in mauritius eba . formerly listed as critically endangered , but downgraded to endangered because population , albeit extremely . . .\nalthough threatened by the clearance of upland forest , the mauritius fody has also been suddenly lost from areas of intact habitat ( 2 ) . it is thought that these regions have been affected by particularly high levels of egg predation by both the black rat ( rattus rattus ) and the crab - eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis ) ( 6 ) .\ngarrett , l . j . h . , jones , c . g . , cristinacce , a . and bell , d . j . ( 2007 ) competition or co - existence of reintroduced , critically endangered mauritius fodies and invasive madagascar fodies in lowland mauritius ? . biological conservation , 140 : 19 - 28 .\nsafford , rj . a survey of the occurrence of native vegetation remnants on mauritius in 1993 . biological conservation , 80 , 181 - 188 and 84 , 197 .\nthese brightly colored birds are now only found in southwest mauritius and on the small , offshore island of ile aux aigrettes , where captive - bred birds were released in 2003 .\nmauritius fodies generally form monogamous pair bonds ; although males have on occasion been observed with more than one female . pairs maintain a breeding territory that they defend throughout the year .\ncraig , a . ( 2018 ) . mauritius fody ( foudia rubra ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe mauritius fody is mainly insectivorous , and feeds on grasshoppers , beetle larvae , caterpillars , and also spiders . berries are eaten regularly by some individuals . it feeds on nectar regularly , using its specialised brush - tipped tongue . it forages in dead leaves , and probes bark and epiphytes , and gleans from leaves , for invertebrates . it is usually found singly , in pairs or in family groups .\nsafford , r . j . and jones , c . g . ( 1998 ) strategies for land - bird conservation on mauritius . conservation biology , 12 : 169 - 176 .\nchinese : ? ? ? ? ? ? . . . czech : snovatec mauricijsk\u00fd . . . danish : mauritiusv\u00e6ver . . . dutch : mauritiuswever . . . finnish : mauritiuksenkutoja . . . french : cardinal de maurice , foudi de l ' ile maurice , foudi de maurice . . . german : mauritius weber , mauritiusweber . . . italian : fody di mauritius , tessitore di mauritius . . . japanese : benihataori , moarishasubeninojiko . . . norwegian : mauritiusvever . . . polish : wiklacz maurytyjski , wik ? acz maurytyjski . . . russian : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? . . . slovak : fodia maur\u00edcijsk\u00e1 . . . spanish : fodi de mauricio , fodi de mauritana . . . swedish : mauritiusfody\n. however , since 1993 , the population has been stable due to conservation action , the population being about 140 - 170 adults and an estimated 108 pairs in 2012 . it can co - exist with the introduced madagascar red fody .\nhistorically , fodies inhabited the upland areas of southwest mauritius . today , this critically endangered bird is found in just three areas of the island : bassin blanc , macchabee forest road and ile aux aigrettes .\nat present , it would be impossible to eliminate all rats and macaques from the whole of mauritius , and therefore conservation efforts have focussed on establishing populations on offshore , predator - free islands ( 3 ) . the release of captive - bred individuals onto the predator\u2013free island of ile aux aigrettes in 2003 has proved successful , with the population , which is provided with supplementary food , increasing to 151 individuals by july 2008 ( 3 ) . other conservation measures in place to help protect the mauritius fody include restoring native forests and establishing plantations of non - invasive , exotic trees such as japanese red cedar ( cryptomeria japonica ) which mammalian predators appear to avoid ( 7 ) .\nmy thanks go to mr . vikash tatayah of the mauritius wildlife foundation for letting me have access to the conservation area where i was able to take photographs of the endemic birds held at the black river aviaries .\nunusually for weaver birds , species of foudia are often monogamous . the mauritius fody generally holds territories of over one hectare exclusively with just one mate ( 4 ) , although some male mauritius fodies have been observed with more than one female ( 3 ) . breeding between late june and early april ( 3 ) ( 4 ) , both sexes help to build the nest , which is then lined by the female only . between two and four eggs are laid and incubated by the female , with the male helping to feed the chicks after hatching for two weeks , before they fledge and leave the nest to disperse . at the end of the breeding season , the adults undergo a complete moult . pairs defend the territory all year , and do not make seasonal migrations ( 4 ) .\nin 2003 , the mauritius wildlife fund started a program of captive breeding at the black river aviaries . 14 birds were released in the \u00eele aux aigrettes nature reserve . but in early 2004 only 9 survived . no trace was found of the other 5 . for the next release , the implant of chips is planned to follow their movements .\nthe mauritius fody is monogamous and territorial . birds may have long - term pair bonds and remain on their territories year - round . the nest is domed , with a side entrance and often with a porch . nests are built by both sexes using grass with moss , lichens or small twigs . nest material is gathered within 100 m of the nest . the female adds lining , mainly feathers , before egg - laying and up to 8 days into incubation . nests may be strong , able to withstand gale force winds , but others have less secure attachments leading to active nests falling to the ground . nests are built in trees , usually hidden in foliage . many tree species have been recorded as nest sites , but with exotics being used increasingly since the 1970s .\nis found only on mauritius island and is listed as endangered since it has an extremely small population . the male in breeding plumage has the head red or orange - red , with a black mask through the eye ; the lower rump and uppertail - coverts are orange - red , and the rest of the body is olive - grey . the female and non - breeding male are dull olive - green , with a yellowish wash below . the juvenile resembles the female , except for a paler brown bill , which may be retained for its first year . the non - breeding male , female and juvenile may be separated from the\nin 1993 , roger safford completed an intensive four - year phd study on all of the mauritian passerine species . since 1993 some work has been done on a volunteer basis since we have not yet been able to secure funding to help save our passerines . volunteers and students have been conducting population surveys on all the critically endangered species to gain knowledge of the ecology of each species for future conservation . conservation efforts to help passerines will be more difficult than for the larger , more resilient birds mwf is working with . only one other research station in the world , hawaii , is attempting to restore highly endangered passerine populations through captive breeding . hawaii\u2019s passerine program is still in the preliminary stages and much remains to be learned to develop strategies that will best help conserve these tiny birds . interestingly , the methods used by conservationists in hawaii have been adapted from mwf\u2019s work on pink pigeons . the story will come full circle if we can learn from them on how to care for our passerine species . in 1999 , 21 new territories of olive white - eyes , 8 new pairs of paradise flycatchers and 3 new pairs of mauritius fody were found near newest mwf field station at combo . in addition to many hours of observation resulting in previously unknown nesting behaviour ( male olive white - eyes were seen to share in the care of eggs and nestlings ) , 3 nests of olive white - eyes were found and monitored . previous to this only 2 nests had ever been recorded for this species . unfortunately , all 3 nests were predated by ship\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nchoose different species from drop - down list and press ' go ' button . see\n, a german naturalist . gmelin described many new bird species in a book in 1789 in the style of linnaeus ' publications , giving a brief description in latin and a synonomy , including a reference to the coloured engraving by francois - nicolas martinet in the book edited by\nbrown ' s painting appeared before that of daubenton , but these paintings were probably based on different specimens , so all that can be said about the collection details is that the type specimen was taken before 1783 by an unknown collector . this is the last weaver described by gmelin .\ntype specimen no longer exists ; the illustration of daubenton 1783 serves as a type .\nthe above is based on weaver wednesday 2 , a weekly series about the discovery of each weaver species .\nby their darker , less streaked plumage , plumper body , relatively shorter tail , and different calls .\nsome pairs habitually desert their nests , while others rarely do so . the clutch is 2 - 3 pale blue eggs . incubation is by the female . initially the female feeds the young , and later chicks are fed by both sexes . breeding success is low , with predation being the major cause of nest loss .\nthe above is based on weaver wednesday , a weekly series about weaver species .\npair bond monogamous breeding season oct - feb nest site placed 2 - 9 m above ground in tree nest building division of work unclear , as both sexes seen to carry material , but in some cases female did most building colony size no information clutch size 2 - 3 eggs egg colour pale blue egg size average size of ten eggs 19 . 2 x 13 . 9 mm incubation incubation apparently by female only , period reported as 14 days chicks and nestling period chicks fed by both sexes , nestling period recorded as 18 days\nphown ( photos of weaver nests ) provides valuable info on breeding distribution and colony sizes of weavers . you can contribute by registering and submitting photos at virtual museum webpage .\nthe above is based on weaver wednesday 3 , a weekly series about range changes in south african weaver species .\ndurrell wildlife conservation trust is a member of the association of jersey charities , membership number 69 . patron : hrh the princess royal . founder : gerald durrell , obe , lhd . durrell wildlife conservation trust - uk is registered in england and wales . a charitable company limited by guarantee . registered charity number : 1121989 . registered company number : 6448493 . registered office : c / o elian corporate services ( uk ) limited , 35 great st . helen ' s , london ec3a 6ap\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\n14 cm . medium - sized , brown forest weaver . vermilion - red head , neck and breast with black loral area . dark brown back , wings and tail streaked with buff . reddish rump and uppertail - coverts .\nthis species is classified as endangered because it has an extremely small population . the population has been stable since the early 1990s but then increased following an island translocation , and if it remains stable or increasing with over 250 mature individuals it may warrant downlisting to vulnerable in the future .\n, suffered rapid population declines since 1975 , descending from 247 - 260 pairs to c . 108 - 122 pairs in late 2001 ( nichols 2002 )\n; no doubt following long - term historic population declines owing to heavy predation by invasive mammals . between 1975 and 1993 , a 55 % decline in both population size and area of occupancy occurred ( safford 1997c )\n, and the number of locations fell from six in 1975 to three ( r . nichols\n, and an increase in range has been recorded in the main breeding subpopulation ( c . jones\n. the long term viability of these small subpopulations is in doubt ( r . nichols\nin 2005 , 45 hand reared chicks were released onto ile aux aigrettes ( where the species apparently occurred historically , v . tatayah\n2010 ) , where two pairs from previous releases have raised chicks ( anon . 2005 )\n. following that success , in 2006 , c . 40 young fledged on ile aux aigrettes and the total population on the island stood at 140 individuals in 2008 ( l . garrett\n2012 ) . the most recent population estimate is 180 - 200 individuals in 2011 - 2014 ( v . tatayah , c . jones and n . zuel\n. 2015 ) . it is hoped that the population will increase further in the coming years as it expands on ile aux aigrettes . a second translocation to round island began in 2010 ( v . tatayah\nhowever of 32 birds released here between october 2010 and january 2011 all had died by early 2012 , most or all having been predated by round island boas ( v . tatayah\nthe mainland population was estimated at 216 - 244 individuals in 2002 , with a minimum of 108 breeding pairs , and the population was estimated to have remained at 108 pairs in 2012 ( v . tatayah\n2012 ) . this is roughly equivalent to 140 - 170 mature individuals . the latest population estimate for the mainland population in 2011 - 2014 is 240 - 330 individuals ( v . tatayah , c . jones and n . zuel\n. 2015 ) , equivalent to 160 - 220 mature individuals . it has since increased following the release of birds on ile aux aigrettes in 2006 with a total of 110 adults there in 2012 and an estimated 180 - 200 individuals in 2011 - 2014 ( v . tatayah , c . jones and n . zuel\n. 2015 ) . the pre - release population estimate will be retained until the population is confirmed to have sustained itself above 250 mature individuals for five years .\nthe population declined rapidly until the early 1990s since which time it has been stable or possibly increasing on the mainland ( cristinacce 2007 , v . tatayah\n2011 ) . following translocations to ile aux aigrettes it increased but has since dropped and then stabilised ; translocations to round island have so far been unsuccessful .\nit holds territories in all types of native forest , including degraded forest , and it shows an increasing reliance on non - native plantations that afford some protection from nest predators ( c . jones\n2010 ) , c . 2 months earlier than the mainland population ( safford , 2013 ) . breeding may be terminated if there is a prolonged period of rain ( > 1 month ) , but dry conditions will not cause an interruption ( safford , 2013 )\nhistorically , clearance of upland forest , particularly for plantations in the 1970s , catastrophically affected this species . introduced predators , notably black rat\nand nest predation is regarded as the major cause of present - day decline in this species ( r . switzer\n. released birds on round island in 2010 suffered predation by round island boas , with none surviving by early 2012 ( v . tatayah\nrats and macaques were controlled as part of a programme to rehabilitate plots of native vegetation ( safford and jones 1998 ) , however macaque control has since dropped to nearly nil ( v . tatayah\n. a captive - rearing programme implemented by the mauritian wildlife foundation , the gerald durrell endemic wildlife santuary and the national parks and conservation service is proving highly effective and in 2005 produced 47 individuals from captive parents ( 25 ) and hand reared wild born chicks ( 22 ) ( anon . 2005 )\n. protocols for captive husbandry and artificial propagation were developed to facilitate the translocation objectives ( r . switzer\n2010 ) . the black river national park partly covers its range , and the habitat around bassin blanc , not originally included within the boundary , is a priority for compulsory government purchase in the future ( jones and hartley 1995 , r . safford\n, but this had not happened by 2012 . research into the species ' s ecology is ongoing , and prospective surveys to assess the suitability of round island for translocation were conducted ; initial releases on the island began in 2010 ( l . garrett\nand native forest . develop a conservation management area at combo , stocked with favoured nectar - producing plants and with predator controls . increase breeding productivity by supplemental feeding , double clutching and captive - rearing of harvested wild clutches ( c . jones\n. identify possible native habitat refuges on both the mainland and offshore islands ( safford 2013 ) . continue releases on offshore islands , including flat island when management allows , and monitor the population on ile aux aigrettes . advocate for the compulsory purchase of land separating bassin blanc from the black river national park and ensure that the national park boundary is extended and appropriate management activities implemented .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\na 1999\u20132001 survey revealed that the number of fodies in the wild had shrunk substantially since 1975 , from 247\u2013260 pairs to just over 100 . thanks to intensive management , including hand - rearing and translocations to offshore islands , the population has stabilized and is increasing . according to the most recent population estimates , there are 160\u2013220 individuals on the mainland , with an additional 180\u2013200 individuals on offshore island ile aux aigrettes . in 2009 , the species was downlisted from critically endangered to endangered .\nwildlife preservation canada saves animals on the brink of extinction . since 1985 , we\u2019ve been saving critically endangered species \u2013 species whose numbers in the wild are so low that a great deal more than habitat protection is required to recover them .\nhas been thought to include \u2020 f . delloni as a race . monotypic .\n14 cm ; 16\u201320 g . male breeding has forehead , crown , nape , chin , throat , cheek , ear - coverts and breast red or orange - red , black mask through eye ; mantle and back greyish - . . .\nsong of male an extended series of disyllabic notes , generally terminating in buzzy sound ; female . . .\nremaining native forest ; also degraded forest invaded by exotics , as well as forests of exotic . . .\nprimarily insectivorous ; seen to take grasshoppers ( orthoptera ) , beetle larvae ( coleoptera ) , caterpillars ( lepidoptera ) , also spiders ( . . .\nseason oct\u2013feb . monogamous . occupies permanent territory 4\u20135 ha in size in sparsely populated areas , or down to as small as 0 . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nbreeding males of this medium - sized forest weaver bird are highly distinctive , with a bright red head , neck and breast , and dark olive - brown back , wings and tail streaked with pale brown ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . the rump is also reddish ( 2 ) , and two white bars pattern the wings ( 3 ) . in the non - breeding season , males lose their vivid red colouration and resemble females . the slightly hooked beak of males is black , while that of females and juveniles is horn - coloured ( 3 ) .\ninvertebrates animals with no backbone . monogamous having only one mate during a breeding season , or throughout the breeding life of a pair . territory area occupied and defended by an animal , a pair of animals or a colony .\nnhpa / photoshot holdings ltd 29 - 31 saffron hill london ec1n 8sw united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 20 7421 6003 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 20 7421 6006 sales @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is affected by global climate change . to learn about climate change and the species that are affected , visit our climate change pages .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nmaster tracks 33 west park clifton bristol avon bs8 2lx united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 973 6833 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 923 7090 neil @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nby clicking the links above , you agree to continue to use this material in accordance with the below terms of use .\narkive videos are protected by copyright and usage is restricted . details of the copyright owners are given at the end of each video . please carefully read the following before downloading this video .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : foudia rubra . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nfoudia rubra male at the black river aviaries of the mauritian wildlife foundation . photos \u00a9 peter m . c . werner 2 - 2004\nfoudia rubra female . photo \u00a9 peter m . c . werner 2 - 2004\nthe sexes are different , the female being rust - brown , the male basically grey .\nthe preferred habitat includes native scrub vegetation with a few scattered taller trees , but the species also inhabits low native scrub and native forest .\nits diet is comprised primarily of insects , but also fruit and nectar . occasionally robs nests of other birds , such as the pink pigeon , sucking the eggs\nclearance of upland forest has catastrophically affected this species . introduced predators , notably black rat rattus rattus and crab - eating macaque macaca fascicularis and mongoose , have caused almost total breeding failure in most areas . introduced f . madagascariensis may compete and restrict its range .\nit has unexpectedly disappeared from areas of apparently intact habitat , possibly regions of severe nest - predation , previously sustained by relatively predator - free areas which have now been degraded and can no longer supply new recruits .\nit was already becoming fairly rare at the turn of the twentieth century , although it was still not considered uncommon as late as the 1950s .\nbetween 1971 to 1974 , the clearing of an upland forest at les mares on plaine champagne had a devastating effect on the species , decreasing its population by more than 50 % . since then , its habitat has been better protected , as remaining native forest habitat received almost complete protection with the creation of the macabe / bel ombre nature reserve in 1974 .\nfoudia rubra has suffered rapid population declines since 1975 , descending from 247 - 260 pairs to c . 105 - 125 pairs in late 1999 . from 1975 to 1993 , a 55 % decline in both population and area of occupancy occurred . however , since 1993 , the decline rate has slowed , and an increase in range has been recorded in the main breeding subpopulation .\nthe tiny mare aux vacoas subpopulation has remained stable ( four pairs ) , but numbers and range have continued to decline in the bel ombre subpopulation ( seven pairs ) . research indicates that there is no population fragmentation during winter .\ntwo or three pale - green spotted eggs laid in a rough , cup - shaped nest of thin plant parts bound by cobwebs and placed high in trees . both parents sit on the eggs . nest predated by rats .\nan attempt was made to introduce the species to the island of reunion , but it was unsuccessful it is uncertain whether further attempts will be made . the introduction and establishment of two species of nectar - producing shrubs on the high plateau has been suggested .\nthe main goal should be to eliminate the introduced rats and mice that plague the species .\nillustrated on a 10 cent stamp and a calendar published by the state commercial bank .\nsafford rj and jones cg . did organochlorine pesticide use cause declines in mauritian forest birds ? biodiversity and conservation , 6 , 1445 - 1451 .\ni thank particularly mrs . fr\u00e9d\u00e9rique koenig , aviararies manager , who was a helpful , friendly and competent guide .\nthis small island is a great place to see this rare species , introduced here where there are no land predators , though i did regrettably see a house crow fly over .\ni don ' t know which species makes the high pitched call ( for exemple : 00 : 18 ) . there was a female - like bird next to the male foudia rubra , so maybe a ( female ? ) call of that species as well .\ni don ' t know which species makes the high pitched call ( for exemple : 00 : 10 ) . there was a female - like bird next to the male foudia rubra , so maybe a ( female ? ) call of that species as well .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\noverview , distribution , range and status . . . alternate ( global ) names\nthese rare weavers are in danger of becoming extinct . in 2011 , less than 170 individuals were believed to still have survived in the wild .\nas part of conservation efforts , the mauritian wildlife foundation removed eggs from active nests prompting the parents to get started on a new clutch . those eggs that were taken were artificially incubated and the resulting chicks were handraised ; hence doubling the number of offspring per pair . thirty - two of these hand - raised birds were then released back into the wild between october 2010 and january 2011 . unfortunately , most or even all of them are believed to have perished .\ntheir sharp declines are attributed to habitat loss and predation by introduced mammals ( black rats and macaque monkeys ) and the native round island boa ( snake ) .\nbreeding males : plumage olive - brown , except black lores ( area between the beak and the eyes ) ; red head , chest and rump patch ; two white wingbars ; and pale - brown streaked wings and tail . after the breeding season , the male molts into the plainer\nwinter plumage\n( described below ) .\nmost breeding occurs from late june to early april . both parents weave the nest ; but only the female lines it . the average clutch consists of 2 - 4 eggs which are incubated by the female for about two weeks to hatching . the male feeds the female and the young .\nfor updates please follow beautyofbirds on google + ( google . com / + avianweb )\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\nconservationists believe that between 1975 and 1993 the foudia ruba suffered a loss of 55 percent both in terms of population size and area of occupancy .\nin 1994 its status on the iucn red list was categorised as critically endangered .\nnow due to massive conservation efforts its population is stable and its status downlisted to endangered .\na captive - rearing programme is implemented by the mauritian wildlife foundation , the gerald durrell endemic wildlife sanctuary and the national parks and conservation service ."]}
{"id": 1522, "summary": [{"text": "peppers pride ( foaled march 24 , 2003 , in new mexico ) is a retired , undefeated , multiple stakes winning american thoroughbred race horse .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "she is by desert god , by fappiano .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "desert god 's dam , blush with pride , was also the dam of better than honour , a broodmare that sold for $ 14 million at fasig-tipton in early november 2008 .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "peppers pride 's dam is the chili pepper pie mare lady pepper that placed in the 1990 bluebonnet stakes .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "peppers pride was her last foal .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "joe allen purchased desert god from the university of arizona . ", "topic": 4}], "title": "peppers pride", "paragraphs": ["peppers pride at richland hills farm near midway , ky . anne m . eberhardt\npeppers pride wins new mexico state racing commission handicap . eugene o ' neill / coady photo\npeppers pride cruises to win number 16 in the russell & helen foutz distaff handicap . coady photography\nnot much has changed about peppers pride from her racing days to her current career as a broodmare .\npeppers pride won her 15th consecutive race march 23 , capturing the $ 100 , 000 sydney valentini handicap at sunland park . coady photography\nindeed , the memories of peppers pride\u2019s remarkable streak have not faded , for her fans and for those most closely associated with the mare .\npeppers pride , on the verge of tying the record of 16 consecutive victories , is set to make her next start april 26 at sunray .\ncarlos madeira rode peppers pride in each of her 19 victories , which included wins in the new mexico classic cup juvenile fillies . peppers pride proved time and again that she was capable of meeting and defeating the best fillies and mares in new mexico , but no one will ever know how she would have done against those on other circuits . pepper\u2019s pride was retired after her 19\njoe allen\u2019s peppers pride has entered a six - furlong allowance race at zia park on saturday afternoon in her attempt to set the record for consecutive wins .\nattempting to explain the mare\u2019s success , marr also noted that consistency in the barn\u2019s routine and attention to detail may have helped peppers pride reach her full potential .\nspectacular bid , secretariat , nijinsky ii , pepper ' s pride - oct . 4th\nhere is record breaking filly peppers pride at her home in kentucky , working as a brood mare after her amazing racetrack career of 19 wins from 19 starts . this is from may 2009 .\ntaylor made farm announced friday afternoon that the undefeated new mexico - bred mare peppers pride has been confirmed in foal to triple crown champion american pharoah . the announcement was made via the farm ' s\npeppers pride , who won all 19 of her starts and earned $ 1 . 07 million , has produced three foals , including two by distorted humor , and is in foal to hard spun .\n\u201cshe has a few of the mental characteristics that [ peppers pride ] had , \u201d marr said of funny pepper . \u201cshe\u2019s not stubborn , but she\u2019s very determined , i guess i would say . \u201d\nalthough these days she lives a quiet life outside of the public eye \u2013 and her win streak was never afforded mass media attention outside of the racing industry \u2013 fans have not forgotten about peppers pride .\nin each of the past two years , marr used an allowance race as a prep race for peppers pride before the new mexico cup program . that is the same strategy he is using this year .\npeppers pride\u2019s owner , joe allen , took the criticism in stride . he stated that he was well aware that peppers pride was not a horse that could be compared to cigar or citation , and said that he was simply glad to have her . there is a refreshing aspect to this that some horseracing fans miss . allen and trainer joel marr did an excellent job of managing the mare\u2019s career , placing her in races where she had the best chance to win .\njust as peppers pride\u2019s mental attributes and personality made her an ideal racehorse , that disposition has endeared the mare to her caretakers at taylor made farm , where she is boarded for allen and michael stinson , who now co - owns her .\npeppers pride was foaled in new mexico on march 24 , 2003 . her sire was desert god , a horse of moderate success on the racetrack . her dam , lady pepper , placed in the 1990 bluebonnet stakes , but her career was otherwise unspectacular . peppers pride is an example of how breeding does not always serve to precisely indicate how well a horse will perform on the racetrack . while the mare certainly had successful horses in her lineage , there was little on paper that would have inspired bloodstock agents to take note .\nmarr said peppers pride is back in foal to hard spun . as on the racetrack , the mare has settled comfortably into a routine at taylor made . during foaling season , expecting mares spend the night in the barn and are turned out during the day . once a foal is at a mare\u2019s side , however , the routine becomes the opposite . now , peppers pride and her 4 - month - old colt come to the barn in the morning to be looked over and attended to before being turned out in a group for the rest of the afternoon and night .\nall of peppers pride\u2019s races came in her native new mexico , where she dominated her division for four seasons . she captured the new mexico cup juvenile fillies stakes as a 2 - year - old , the new mexico cup championship fillies stakes during her sophomore season , and won back - to - back editions of the event\u2019s fillies and mares stakes in 2007 and 2008 . her list of stakes triumphs included two editions each of the new mexico state racing commission handicap and the sydney valentini handicap . peppers pride carried weights as high as 127 pounds , an impost she won under three times .\npeppers pride is an example of brilliant management by the team of owner and trainer . they only raced in events they thought they could win , and as a result the mare broke the record for consecutive wins in north america . camarero , a horse that raced in puerto rico , won an amazing 56 in a row !\npeppers pride ( usa ) dkb / br . m , 2003 { 2 - h } dp = 7 - 7 - 8 - 0 - 0 ( 22 ) di = 4 . 50 cd = 0 . 95 - 19 starts , 19 wins , 0 places , 0 shows career earnings : $ 1 , 066 , 085\nthe joel marr - trained peppers pride has won each of her 16 career wins and shares the record for consecutive wins with triple crown winner citation , two - time horse of the year cigar , santa anita derby winner mister frisky and the louisiana - bred sprinter hallowed dreams . \u201cshe\u2019s doing well , \u201d said marr . \u201cshe hasn\u2019t raced since april , but has had two works . \u201d the daughter of desert god won the foutz distaff handicap at sunray park on april 26 . she has remained in training since that win in marr\u2019s stable . peppers pride was scheduled to make her record attempt on two occasions this summer at ruidoso downs . she was slated to run in the lincoln handicap on july 27 but that racing card was cancelled after the remnants of hurricane dolly damaged ruidoso downs . the lincoln handicap was rescheduled for august 31 , peppers pride was entered and then marr elected to scratch her due to an off track . she has only raced on fast racing surfaces . this means that marr has twice prepared to race and then the 5 - year - old mare has not competed , not the optimal training regimen for a racehorse . \u201cit probably has had an effect and we\u2019ll find out saturday , \u201d marr said . \u201cbut , she has been training well . \u201d peppers pride has raced at zia park each of the last three years and is five - for - five over the hobbs oval . as a 2 - year - old in 2005 , peppers pride impressed when she made a four - wide rally on the turn to win the new mexico classic cup juvenile fillies , the premier race for two - year - old females during new mexico cup day .\nbegan their careers training quarterhorses in the state . the thoroughbred competition in new mexico , however , is typically considered to be among the weakest in the united states . this would become a source of controversy after peppers pride set the record for consecutive wins . many pointed out that cigar and others with long win streaks had accomplished their wins against much tougher competition .\npeppers pride did everything right during her racing career , too . from july 16 , 2005 , to dec . 14 , 2008 , the mare answered the call to the post 19 times and emerged victorious on each occasion , the longest undefeated career by a modern north american thoroughbred . the streak included 14 stakes wins , and she earned $ 1 , 066 , 085 .\npeppers pride produced her third foal , a colt by malibu moon , on feb . 22 . her first two foals are by distorted humor \u2013 a filly foaled in 2011 and a yearling colt . the filly , named funny pepper , is at a training center in new mexico , preparing to join marr\u2019s string to see if she can follow in her mother\u2019s large hoofprints .\nnow boarded at kentucky ' s taylor made farm , peppers pride has settled into her life as a broodmare . \u201cshe ' s doing great ; she ' s having nice foals , \u201d taylor made vice president frank taylor told the daily racing form in 2013 . \u201cshe ' s just really easy to get along with and never causes any problems . she fits right in . \u201d\nlesson that should be learned from the career of peppers pride is the factor owners and trainers play in a horse\u2019s career . many times when a horse performs poorly it is because they have been entered in races that are too difficult . horse betting requires a handicapper to look at a horse\u2019s past performances to determine whether or not they belong in the race they are in today .\n\u201ci think peppers pride is putting plenty of bone on [ her foals ] , and they\u2019re athletic - looking , \u201d taylor said . \u201ci really love the distorted humor yearling she\u2019s got this year . he\u2019s just a really big , strong , good - looking horse . he\u2019s got a lot of class to him , i think . i think people will really like him a lot . \u201d\nthis entry was posted in bloodstock and tagged american pharoah , frank taylor , joel marr , new mexico , pepper ' s pride , taylor made farm by paulick report staff . bookmark the permalink .\nin 2006 , peppers pride was nearly defeated when she won her prep allowance race by a nose with a late run . she then won the new mexico cup championship for fillies by a length as the 11 - 10 favorite . last year , when the winning streak was gaining national attention , she won her 12th straight race with a seven - length allowance win at six furlongs and then captured the new mexico cup championship for fillies and mares with a late rally to win by one - and - a - half lengths . peppers pride will point to the new mexico cup championship for fillies and mares after saturday\u2019s allowance race , providing she comes out of the allowance race in good order . new mexico cup day is november 9 and the $ 2 million in purses makes that program the richest day for any state - bred racing program .\nany thoroughbred trainer will tell you that winning just one race is hard . there are so many things that can go wrong in the running of a race . to win , a horse must be talented but also possess racing luck . peppers pride , a filly that raced solely on the new mexico racing circuit , had both , and she broke the legendary cigar\u2019s record for consecutive wins when she captured her 19 th straight victory on december 14 , 2008 .\n\u201cshe was a tremendous athlete , not only physically , but mentally , \u201d said joel marr , who trained peppers pride for owner and breeder joe allen . \u201cyou don\u2019t do that by just getting lucky 19 times in a row , obviously , or it would be done all the time . she had that sense that most horses probably don\u2019t have \u2013 she knew how to win . she had that ability and that sense and that determination . she knew exactly what she was doing .\nowned by michael stinson and her breeder joe allen , the 13 - year old mare holds a record of 19 wins from 19 starts , including 14 stakes wins . the daughter of desert god earned over $ 1 million in her three - year career for trainer joel marr , and retried with her perfect record intact at the end of 2008 . peppers pride held the north american record for the longest undefeated streak in history , alongside champion zenyatta , until rapid redux took over that title in 2012 with 22 wins .\ndatabase error : unable to connect to your database . your database appears to be turned off or the database connection settings in your config file are not correct . please contact your hosting provider if the problem persists .\n2 - year - old gelding broke his maiden july 8 at gulfstream park .\nblame filly has now won a pair of graded stakes for new trainer bob baffert .\nnew to the paulick report ? click here to sign up for our daily email newsletter to keep up on this and other stories happening in the thoroughbred industry . copyright \u00a9 2018 paulick report .\npublisher ray paulick ( 859 312 . 2102 ) director of advertising emily alberti ( 859 913 . 9633 ) editor - in - chief scott jagow features editor natalie voss bloodstock editor joe nevills racing news editor chelsea hackbarth contributing writers sarah e . coleman frank mitchell tom pedulla jen roytz denise steffanus photography equisport photos ( matt and wendy wooley ) eric kalet business manager carol paulick\nurltoken is published by blenheim publishing llc , 3070 lakecrest circle , suite 400 - 292 , lexington , ky 40513 . copyright blenheim publishing llc .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nas a sports fan , i love winning streaks , and i es . . .\nas the end of the 2011 year draws near i decided t . . .\nwinx ' s staying power as one of the world ' s top rac . . .\njason servis is on the best run of his career , wi . . .\nt . j . comerford , assistant trainer for aidan o ' brie . . .\n\u201cshe\u2019s really a classy mare to be around , \u201d said frank taylor , vice president of boarding operations at his family\u2019s taylor made farm , the nicholasville , ky . , facility where the 10 - year - old daughter of desert god resides . \u201cshe just does everything right . \u201d\n\u201cwe trained her to be fit and to do the best job she could , but she ultimately won the races , \u201d marr added . \u201cit was just something that she had . i can\u2019t explain it . just the ability she had within her and . . . it was just something that she possessed way before we touched her . \u201d\n\u201cshe was just one in a million , \u201d marr said . \u201cand a lot of it was mental . obviously , she was physically a superb athlete and had tremendous abilities . and people will say , \u2018well , you ran her in new mexico . \u2019 well , we did , and [ a new mexico - bred is ] what she was . but it really doesn\u2019t matter . \u201d\n\u201call the people around her \u2013 i was her only trainer , \u201d marr said . \u201c [ carlos madeira ] was her only rider . she had the same farrier , the same vet , the same groom . she stayed in the same barn at every racetrack , the same stall . she went to post with the same pony every time . just a lot of things like that . horses are creatures of habit . they need to be fed at the same time ; they need to be exercised at the same time . they need a routine , and she had that for the four , almost five years that we had her . she went to the track at the same time every morning , with the same person on her back .\n\u201cjoe allen was the breeder and the owner and the partial stallion owner . it was really special . it wasn\u2019t something we went out and bought . she was raised there . it made it a lot more special just to be around her . \u201d\n\u201cshe\u2019s doing great ; she\u2019s having nice foals , \u201d taylor said . \u201cshe\u2019s just really easy to get along with and never causes any problems . she fits right in . \u201d\nthe yearling colt is expected to be offered at this year\u2019s keeneland september sale , where he could be among the featured horses in the catalog .\n\u201cwe get some regular calls from people wanting to come visit and come see her , \u201d taylor said . \u201cwe probably get [ a few ] a month , fans wanting to know how she\u2019s doing or wanting to come see her . \u201d\n\u201ci wouldn\u2019t trade it for anything , \u201d marr said . \u201cit was tremendous to be a part of it . and you look back and you can say that you were part of something like her [ winning streak ] . not very many people get to say that . you knew there was something special about her , just the way she held herself , the way she looked , the look in her eye . i was just lucky to be a part of it . \u201d\nwon new mexico cup juv . fillies s . ( zia , 6 . 5f ) , rio grande senorita futurity ( rui , 6 . 5f )\nwon new mexico cup championship fillies s . ( zia , 6 . 5f ) , la senora h . ( sun , 6f ) , la coneja h . ( sun , 5 . 5f )\nat 4 : won sydney valentini h . ( sun , 8f ) , new mexico cup f & m ; championship , new mexico racing commission h . ( zia , 6f )\nwon sydney valentini h . ( sun , 8f ) , russell & hellen foutz distaff h . ( srp , 6 . 5f ) , new mexico cup fillies & mares s . ( zia , 8f ) , new mexico racing commission h . ( zia , 6f )\napril 26 , 2008 : equaled north american record for 16 consecutive wins , a record shared by cigar , citation , hallowed dreams , and mister frisky .\nbroke the consecutive win record on october 4 , 2008 , in a six furlong allowance race at zia park .\njoel marr was retained by the mare\u2019s owners to train her for racing in her home state of new mexico . with several notable tracks , new mexico is perhaps more known for quarterhorse racing . many famous trainers such as\nwhy would a trainer enter a horse in a race they cannot win ? there are several reasons . first , the trainer may be pressured by the owner to enter a specific race . this does not happen as much at the highest levels with trainers like steve asmussen or todd pletcher . those trainers are likely to refuse an owner\u2019s request . at the smaller tracks , however , this happens all the time . the trainer must often give in to the owner\u2019s request or lose the horse to another trainer that will .\nsometimes , a horse is entered in a race to prepare or \u201cprep\u201d for another , more important race . in this case , winning may not be the goal . the trainer may simply want the horse to have a good showing and increase its fitness level . finally , a horse may simply have no other place to compete and need to race .\nare used to the activity of a race , and many of them need regular racing in order to keep sharp . unfortunately , especially on the smaller circuits , there may not always be a suitable race for a horse\u2019s class level . in that case , the horse is often entered in a race that is beyond their skill level just to give them an opportunity to run .\n? you can take advantage of great bonuses and get access to a full menu of betting options at the most popular tracks .\nbloodstock agent tom mcgreevy , who likes to work exclusively for one client , has signed on to buy yearlings and 2 - year - old at sales for texas owner mike stinson .\nthe auction offers horseshoes worn by afleet alex and first samurai , a vip three chimneys tour , and autographed race photos . all proceeds help with the mission of racehorse retirement and rescue .\nas california chrome prepares for a shot at redemption in this year ' s dubai world cup ( uae - i ) , interest in the horse as a stallion prospect continues to grow , much to the satisfaction of taylor made farm .\nnew mexico - based trainer joel marr tallied his 1 , 000th career thoroughbred victory by winning the 11th race nov . 11 at zia park in hobbs , n . m . , with sweet diamond .\nthe keeneland september sale ' s second book 1 session sept . 10 proved as bullish as the previous day ' s opener as far as $ 1 million horses were concerned , with four seven - figure horses exiting the ring again .\nundefeated mare to stay in new mexico for mark - tying 16th straight victory attempt .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nsky sports news takes you through all of the day ' s racing news , plus alex hammond ' s tip of the day .\nfollow the latest from the written press with the best gossip and speculation from the papers .\nsky has launched a pub finder for eager fans wanting to find a venue to watch sky sports .\nget a sports star to visit your old secondary school as part of our free schools initiative ."]}
{"id": 1528, "summary": [{"text": "the pygmy three-toed sloth ( bradypus pygmaeus ) , also known as the monk sloth or dwarf sloth , is a sloth endemic to isla escudo de veraguas , a small island off the coast of panama .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "the species was first described by robert p. anderson of the university of kansas and charles o. handley jr. , of the smithsonian institution in 2001 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the pygmy three-toed sloth is significantly smaller than the other three members of its genus , but otherwise resembles the brown-throated three-toed sloth .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "according to anderson and handley jr. , the head-and-body length is between 48 and 53 centimetres ( 19 and 21 in ) , and the body mass ranges from 2.5 to 3.5 kg ( 5.5 to 7.7 lb ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "this sloth , like other sloths , is arboreal ( tree-living ) and feeds on leaves .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is symbiotically associated with green algae , that can provide it with a camouflage .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "details of mating behavior and reproduction have not been documented .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the pygmy three-toed sloth is found exclusively in the red mangroves of isla escudos de veraguas , restricted to an area of 4.3 square kilometres ( 1.7 sq mi ) .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "a 2012 census of pygmy three-toed sloths estimated the total population at 79 .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the iucn lists the pygmy three-toed sloth as critically endangered and they are listed on the world 's 100 most threatened species . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "pygmy three - toed sloth", "paragraphs": ["the pygmy three - toed sloth was recognised as a distinct species in 2001 .\npygmy three - toed sloths on the edge of existence ( edgeofexistence . org )\na 2011 study found only 79 pygmy three - toed sloths on escudo de veraguas .\nthe pygmy three - toed sloth is classified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nof those , the pygmy sloth is critically endangered and the maned sloth is vulnerable .\nbrown - throated three - toed sloth dallas world aquarium and zoo , dallas , tx .\npygmy three - toed sloths have been found living only in coastal , red mangroves at sea level .\npygmy three - toed sloths have home ranges that are small , on average 1 . 6 ha .\nthe pygmy three - toed sloth is found in a tiny area of red mangrove forests on isla escudo de veraguas , panama .\npygmy three - toed sloths are 15 % smaller in total length , and 40 % smaller in their mass .\nthe pygmy three - toed sloth has rapidly evolved a much smaller body size in its short 8 , 900 years of isolation from mainland species .\nthe pygmy three - toed sloth is known exclusively in red mangrove forests surrounding the island at near sea level ( 1 ) ( 3 ) .\nfemale pygmy three - toed sloths invest heavily in young through gestation and lactation , as do females in other sloth species . details of parental care are not reported for pygmy three - toed sloths , but related species care for their young for up to 6 months .\nmain characteristics pygmy three - toed sloths have a body length between 44 and 47 cms ( 17 - 18 . 5 inches ) , a tail length between 4 and 6 cms ( 1 . 5 - 2 . 4 inches ) and they weigh between 2 . 5 and 3 . 5 kgs ( 5 . 5 - 7 . 7 lbs ) . they have long , coarse fur that is pale grey / brown in colour and they have a tan coloured face with a dark band across their forehead . they have three long , hook - clawed toes on each of their front feet . habitat pygmy three - toed sloths are found in the mangrove forests of the island of isla escudo de verguas off the coast of panama . they are arboreal and solitary . diet pygmy three - toed sloths feed on variety of leaves , buds and soft twigs . breeding little is known about reproduction in the pygmy three - toed sloth . it is assumed that it is similar to that of the other species of three - toed sloth . predators humans and habitat loss are the main threats to the pygmy three - toed sloth . subspecies there are no subspecies of the pygmy three - toed sloth . interesting facts pygmy three - toed sloths are also known as : monk sloth dwarf sloth similar animals linnaeus ' s two - toed sloth hoffmann ' s two - toed sloth maned three - toed sloth pale - throated sloth brown - throated sloth\nthe pygmy three - toed sloth is known only from isla escudo de veraguas in the archipelago of bocas del toro , panama ( 1 ) ( 3 ) .\npygmy three - toed sloths are arboreal folivores . they eat leaves from many different kinds of trees and have low metabolic rates .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - pygmy three - toed sloth ( bradypus pygmaeus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - pygmy three - toed sloth ( bradypus pygmaeus )\ntitle =\narkive species - pygmy three - toed sloth ( bradypus pygmaeus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe behavior of pygmy three - toed sloths has not been reported , but can be inferred from the behavior of its close relative , the brown - throated sloth .\nthree - toed sloths may have quite small or absent canine - like upper teeth .\nthree - toed sloths ( bradypus ) do not survive out of their natural habitat .\nthe following habitats are found across the pygmy three - toed sloth distribution range . find out more about these environments , what it takes to live there and what else inhabits them .\nsloth distribution . black box represents approximate range of hoffmann ' s two - toed sloth ; red box represents linnaeus ' two - toed sloth . adapted from urltoken according to iucn fact sheets for hoffman ' s two - toed and linnaeus ' two - toed sloths . see iucn fact sheets for detailed distributions .\ndo you know of or are you a part of an organisation that work to conserve the pygmy three - toed sloth , then please contact us to have it featured on our endangered world .\nsloths are identified by the number of long , prominent claws that they have on each front foot . there are both two - toed and three - toed sloths .\n. like other sloths , pygmy three - toed sloths are likely to have relatively poor eyesight . they may use vocalizations and are likely to use chemical cues in communication .\ntwo - toed sloths are generally faster moving than three - toed sloths . both types tend to occupy the same forests : in most areas , one species of three - toed sloth and one species of the larger two - toed type will jointly predominate . they are arboreal and sleep , eat , and travel among the trees , moving very slowly and generally hanging upside down .\nthe pygmy three - toed sloth was only described scientifically in 2001 and is critically endangered . a team of conservationists from zsl are surveying them to build the first picture of how these little - known animals are faring .\ncitation : kaviar s , shockey j , sundberg p ( 2012 ) observations on the endemic pygmy three - toed sloth , bradypus pygmaeus of isla escudo de veraguas , panam\u00e1 . plos one 7 ( 11 ) : e49854 . urltoken\nbezerra , b . 2008 . observation of brown - throated three toed sloths , mating behavior and simultaneous nurturing of two young .\nthe pygmy sloth is listed on cites appendix ii ( notification to the parties 2013 / 052 , 20 november 2013 ) .\nhistorically there has been little conservation attention or support for the pygmy sloth and the island habitat it depends on . this project seeks to address the threats facing the pygmy sloth , while helping to ensure the sustainable livelihoods of the ngobe bugle people .\nanderson , r . , c . handley . 2001 . a new species of three - toed sloth ( mammalia : xenarthra ) from panama , with a review of the genus bradypus .\nthe living sloths are placed in one of two families , known as the megalonychidae (\ntwo - toed\nsloths ) and the bradypodidae ( three - toed sloths ) , with the former limited to the genus choloepus and the later to the genus bradypus . all living sloths have in fact three toes , that is three toes on the hindfeet . however , the\ntwo - toed\nsloths have only two fingers , versus three for the three - toed sloths . the living sloths are characterized by short , flat heads , big eyes , a short snout , long legs , and tiny ears .\n, commonly called monk , dwarf , or pygmy three - toed sloth , is found only on the isla escudo de veraguas of bocas del toro , which is located off the coast of panama . this island is small , only about 5 square kilometers in area .\na three - toed sloth can rotate its head nearly 90 degrees or more , and its mouth is shaped in a way that makes the animal appear as if it ' s always smiling .\nnice ' n ' slow : a three - toed sloth climbs a liana to the forest canopy . lianas provide critical connections among trees to allow arboreal animals to move from tree to tree .\nisla escudo de veraguas is protected as a wildlife refuge and is contained within the comarca indigenous reserve . however , law enforcement within this protected area is currently inadequate , and needs to be improved , in order to benefit the pygmy three - toed sloth ( 1 ) .\nthe pygmy three - toed slothis on the iucn species survival commission ' s top 100 list of most threatened species . these tiny sloths can only be found on escudo island , which is found off the coast of panama .\nsloths mate and give birth while hanging in the trees . three - toed sloth babies are often seen clinging to their mothers\u2014they travel by hanging on to them for the first nine months of their lives .\nthe three - toed sloth emits a long , high - pitched call that echoes through the forests as \u201cahh - eeee . \u201d because of this cry these sloths are sometimes called ais ( pronounced \u201ceyes\u201d ) .\npredators of pygmy three - toed sloths have not been reported . however , like other sloths , they are very slow - moving animals with long , hair that often grows algae , allowing them to blend in well in their leafy habitats . other sloth species are preyed on by harpy eagles (\nbecause pygmy three - toed sloths are a recently described species , little is known about their ecosystem roles . they are hosts to various parasites , may influence vegetation through their browsing , and act as prey for larger , arboreal predators .\nour long term aim is to establish and implement a participatory management plan that engages all stakeholders in the conservation of escudo and the pygmy sloth .\nshockey , who has now graduated , considers himself lucky to have seen and studied the rare pygmy three - toed sloths .\nduring my time on escudo , i witnessed their daily routine of long afternoon naps , casual eating and climbing into the sunny branches to dry off after a downpour . ultimately , i hope our work will help maintain that reality for the pygmy sloth .\ntwo - toed and three - toed sloths were formerly placed in the same family but the two genera have profound behavioral and anatomical differences and are believed to come from two different fossil lineages . they are now placed in separate families .\nthree - toed sloths also have an advantage that few other mammals possess : they have extra neck vertebrae that allows them to turn their heads some 270 degrees .\nthere are two categories of sloths . the two - toed sloth is slightly bigger than the three - toed sloth , though they share many of the same features . they are about the size of a medium - sized dog at around 23 to 27 inches ( 58 to 68 cm ) and 17 . 5 to 18 . 75 pounds ( about 8 kilograms ) .\nwe found evidence for three different patterns of algae that occur in the hair of five sloth species : 1 ) the green alga in the fur of the brown - throated sloth , bradypus variegatus , and the pygmy three - toed sloth , b . pygmaeus , is a unique species and no other green algal species were found in their fur . microscopy of the alga on the hair revealed characteristic features to the description of trichophilus ( weber - van bosse 1887 ) , which has indeed been described from the hair of bradypus . 2 ) the maned three - toed sloth bradypus torquatus was shown in our study to host a variety of algae belonging to genera known to be terrestrial , e . g . trentepholia and myrmecia . 3 ) the hoffmann ' s two - toed sloth choloepus hoffmanni and the pale - throated sloth bradypus tridactylus , showed both patterns ; they hosted terrestrial green algae from their surroundings , as well as the unique genus trichophilus .\nlocation : separated from the panamanian coast by 17 kilometres of ocean , the island of escudo de veraguas is the only home of the pygmy three - toed sloth . the sloths live only in red mangroves found in a narrow band along the seaside , which are estimated to cover just 1 . 5 square kilometres .\nthe sloth\u2019s fur is grey , though the face is tan with chocolate stripes , and the male has an orange patch on the back divided lengthwise by a black stripe . there is long hair on this sloth\u2019s head , hanging down and giving the appearance of a hood , inspiring the alternative name of \u201cmonk sloth\u201d . a unique species of symbiotic algae grows in the fur of the pygmy three - toed sloth , giving their fur a greenish tint that acts as excellent camouflage when combined with their slow movements .\nmontgomery gg , sunquist me : habitat selection and use by two - toed and three - toed sloths . the ecology of arboreal folivores . edited by : montgomery g . 1978 , washington , dc : smithsonian institution press , 329 - 359 .\n] . it is a popular assumption that the association between the three - toed sloth and the alga embedded in its hairs is a symbiotic relationship with the alga obtaining shelter in the cracks of the hair while providing green camouflage for the sloth . it also has been proposed that the alga offers no benefit to the sloth , but is able to survive in the hair because the sloth does not prevent the alga growing [\nwith only a small population confined to a single tiny island off the coast of panama , the pygmy three - toed sloth is the most endangered of all xenarthra . as its name suggests , this recently discovered species is a dwarf compared with its mainland relatives ( 4 ) . in addition to its small size , the pygmy three - toed sloth is characterised by usually blotchy , pale grey - brown fur and a tan - coloured face with a distinctive dark band across the forehead , from which long , shaggy hair hangs over the face , giving a hooded appearance . sloths have an unusual means of camouflage to avoid predation ; their outer fur is often coated in algae , giving the pelage a greenish tint that helps hide them in their forest habitat . three - toed sloths ( bradypus ) can be distinguished from their distant relatives , the two - toed sloths ( choloepus ) , by the three digits on their forelimbs , blunter muzzle , and simpler , peg - like teeth ( 3 ) .\ngreen , h . ( 1989 ) .\nagonistic behavior by three - toed sloths , bradypus variegatus\n. biotropica 21 ( 4 ) : 369\u2013372 . jstor 2388289 .\n\u2014 1985a . use of hands and feet of three - toed sloths ( bradypus variegatus ) during climbing and terrestrial locomotion . journal of mammalogy 66 : 359 - 366 .\nwith only a small population confined to a single tiny island off the coast of panama , the pygmy three - toed sloth ( bradypus pygmaeus ) is the most endangered of all xenarthra . as its name suggests , this recently discovered species is a dwarf compared with its mainland relatives ( 4 ) . in addition to its small size , the pygmy three - toed sloth is characterised by usually blotchy , pale grey - brown fur and a tan - coloured face with a distinctive dark band across the forehead , from which long , shaggy hair hangs over the face , giving a hooded appearance . sloths have an unusual means of camouflage to avoid predation ; their outer fur is often coated in algae , giving the pelage a greenish tint that helps hide them in their forest habitat . three - toed sloths ( bradypus ) can be distinguished from their distant relatives , the two - toed sloths ( choloepus ) , by the three digits on their forelimbs , blunter muzzle , and simpler , peg - like teeth ( 3 ) .\nvery little is known about the biology of the pygmy three - toed sloth , although much can be inferred from what is known about three - toed sloths generally . three - toed sloths are arboreal folivores that eat the leaves of a variety of trees . this is an energy - poor diet , and these animals have a very low metabolic rate ( 3 ) . their main defences are camouflage , stealth and stillness , whereby they avoid predation largely by avoiding detection ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . however , should they be attacked , sloths also have a remarkable capacity to survive due to their tough hides , tenacious grips and extraordinary ability to heal from grievous wounds ( 5 ) .\nvery little is known about the biology of the pygmy three - toed sloth , although much can be inferred from what is known about three - toed sloths generally . three - toed sloths are arboreal folivores that eat the leaves of a variety of trees . this is an energy - poor diet , and these animals have a very low metabolic rate ( 3 ) . their main defences are camouflage , stealth and stillness , whereby they avoid predation largely by avoiding detection ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . however , should they be attacked , sloths also have a remarkable capacity to survive due to their tough hides , tenacious grips and extraordinary ability to heal from grievous wounds ( 5 ) .\nthe evolutionary history of the three - toed sloths is not at all well - known . no particularly close relatives , ground - dwelling or not , have yet been identified .\nalmost all mammals have seven cervical vertebrae or\nneck bones\n( including those with very short necks , such as elephants or whales , and those with very long necks , such as giraffes ) . the two - toed sloths and the three - toed sloths are among the few exceptions . the two - tailed sloths and manatees have only six cervical vertebrae , and three - toed sloths had nine cervical vertebrae ( narita and kuratani 2005 ) .\npygmy three - toed sloths have a tan face with a dark brown band across the brow and orange eye patches . the back can exhibit either uniform or blotchy color distribution , but is usually dark brown with an obvious dorsal stripe . pygmy sloths are unique in that they have long hairs on the crown and the sides of the head , giving the distinct impression of a hood .\nthe pygmy three - toed sloth has an extremely restricted range on one very small island . although the island is uninhabited , fishermen , farmers , lobster divers and local people are all seasonal visitors , and are thought to hunt the sloths illegally . the growing tourism industry is also a potential threat to the species , by degrading its habitat ( 1 ) .\nthe pygmy three - toed sloth has an extremely restricted range on one very small island . although the island is uninhabited , fishermen , farmers , lobster divers and local people are all seasonal visitors , and are thought to hunt the sloths illegally . the growing tourism industry is also a potential threat to the species , by degrading its habitat ( 1 ) .\nwujek de , cocuzza jm : morphology of hair of two - and three - toed sloths ( edentata : bradypodidae ) . rev biol trop . 1986 , 34 : 243 - 246 .\npygmy three - toed sloths are mainly arboreal , although they can walk on the ground and also swim . like other sloths , they can be active at any time of the day and spend much of their time sleeping or sedentary . they are generally solitary and do not tend to travel far .\nlimited to central and south america . the 2 species are partially sympatric ( overlap ) in the andean regions and western amazonia . both overlap with the 3 - toed sloth .\ntwo - toed sloths live 10 to 15 years in the wild and over 30 years in zoos .\nbezerra , b . 2008 . observation of brown - throated three toed sloths , mating behavior and simultaneous nurturing of two young . journal of ethology , 26 / 1 :\n175 - 178\n.\nafter around nine hours of sleep , the sloth still doesn ' t make an attempt at getting friendly with others . they live solo lives . the closest a sloth gets to social time is sleeping in the same tree with another sloth .\nin may 2011 , after months of preparation , jakob shockey and two fellow biology students from evergreen state college in washington state found themselves on a tiny panamanian island staring at one of the rarest mammals in the world : the pygmy three - toed sloth ( bradypus pygmaeus ) .\ni felt humbled to finally stand knee - deep in the mud of a mangrove thicket on isla escudo de veraguas and watch this sloth move so comfortably through its world , entirely unconcerned by my presence or anticipation ,\nhe says .\nthe species is not utilized . although it was previously thought that locals would eat pygmy sloths , this was recently disproven .\nthe living sloths are omnivores . they may eat insects , small lizards , and carrion , but their diet consists mostly of buds , tender shoots , and leaves . the three - toed sloths in particular feed almost exclusively on leaves . the two - toed sloths eat fruits , nuts , berries , bark , and occasionally small rodents .\nthe u . s . fish and wildlife service ( fws ) last week announced that the world ' s rarest and smallest sloth could deserve protection under the endangered species act ( pdf ) . the pygmy three - toed sloth ( bradypus pygmaeus ) lives only on the tiny isla escudo de veraguas off the coast of panama and is probably one of the rarest mammals in the world . when i last wrote about the species back in 2012 , surveys had only managed to locate 79 of these critically endangered tree - dwellers .\nanderson , r . p . and handley jr . , c . o . ( 2001 ) a new species of three - toed sloth ( mammalia : xenarthra ) from panama , with a review of the genus bradypus . proceedings of the biological society of washington , 114 ( 1 ) : 1 - 33 .\nanderson , r . , c . handley . 2001 . a new species of three - toed sloth ( mammalia : xenarthra ) from panama , with a review of the genus bradypus . proceedings of the biological society of washington , 114 :\n1 - 33\n. accessed july 27 , 2009 at urltoken .\nin response to this incident , a nonprofit called the animal welfare institute filed an emergency petition with the fws this past november seeking to add the pygmy sloth to the endangered species list . this protection , if granted , would require any person or organization seeking to import a pygmy sloth into the u . s . to first receive a permit from the fws , the same process that is required for any other foreign endangered species .\na newly discovered , rare species of sloth looks like a teddy bear and can swim .\nhabitat : pygmy three - toed sloths spend most of their lives in trees , though they must descend to the ground to urinate and defecate . they can only crawl while on the ground , though they are good swimmers . in the trees , they hook themselves securely to branches with the three large claws on each of their feet . they often hang upside down from branches while in the trees . their sole food is the leaves of the red mangrove trees where they live .\nthe two - toed sloths are somewhat larger and generally faster moving than the three - toed sloths , but all are noted for their very slow , graceful movements . they also are noted for their almost exclusively arboreal existence , descending to the ground only rarely to urinate and defecate and generally hanging upside - down from branches with their long , curved claws .\nmammalian species include the collared - peccary , who may be found in mainland bocas del toro lowland moist forest or grasslands . also found here is the critically endangered pygmy three - toed sloth , bradypus pygmaeus , whose extant population of no more than a few hundred animals is restricted to the tiny ( 3 . 4 km 2 ) island of isla escudo de veraguas . there are also central american red brocket , mazama temama , a species of forest deer widespead in mesoamerica .\ncompared to the related brown - throated three - toed sloth , the pygmy species is , on average 40 % smaller in body mass , weighing 2 . 5 to 3 . 5 kilograms ( 5 . 5 to 7 . 7 lb ) , and 15 % smaller in body length . adults measure 48 to 53 centimetres ( 19 to 21 in ) , with a 4 . 5 to 6 . 0 centimetres ( 1 . 8 to 2 . 4 in ) tail .\nwhen frightened , young sloth ' s hair\npuffs out\n, almost doubling its size .\na rare pygmy sloth that looks like a teddy bear and can swim , an insect as long as your arm and a fish from the deep with a face like a headlight . just some of the extraordinary and weird new species chosen by\npygmy three - toed sloths are an excellent example of insular dwarfism , which occurs when a population is confined to an island and must adapt to the limited resources of space and food . these sloths look compact and are approximately 40 % smaller than the mainland sloths they are descended from . weight is just 2 . 5 to 3 . 5 kilograms , while length ranges from 48 to 53 centimetres .\na typical case of island dwarfism , the pygmy sloths are about 40 percent smaller than brown - throated sloths ( b . variegatus ) , which can be found across the water on the panama isthmus as well as throughout the southern half of central america and the northern half of south america . other than size , pygmy sloths look almost exactly like their mainland cousins\u2014so much so , in fact , that the pygmies were only identified as a separate species in 2001 . at that time scientists estimated the pygmy sloth population at about 300 to 500 animals , enough to consider them critically endangered , the only sloth species with that designation .\nadditional file 1 : sloth sample collection details . collection details of the sloth samples which sequence data was used in the study and the number of clones sequenced from each sample . ( pdf 30 kb )\nsloth is the common name for any of the slow - moving , new world arboreal mammals comprising the families megalonychidae ( two - toed sloths ) and bradypodidae ( three - toed sloths ) of the order pilosa . there are six extant species . the four living species of bradypodidae are about the size of a small dog and are characterized by three - clawed digits on their forelimbs and a short tail . the two living species of megalonychidae are characterized by only two digits on their forefeet , the absence of a tail , and a more prominent snout , and longer fur . sloths are found in central and south america .\nthe pygmy three - toed sloth , bradypus pygmaeus , was first described as a species in 2001 [ 1 ] . bradypus pygmaeus is morphologically distinct from bradypus variegatus , most obviously in their reduced body size , although genetic differentiation has not been shown [ 2 ] . bradypus pygmaeus are found only on the 4 . 3 km 2 island of isla escudo de veraguas ( = isla escudo ) , 17 . 6 km off the caribbean coast of panama [ 1 ] . to date , researchers have only observed pygmy sloths in the red mangroves ( rhizophora mangle ) of isla escudo\u2019s tidal areas , leading to the working hypothesis of obligate red mangrove dietary specialization within the species [ 1 ] .\nthreats : since they are confined to one island surrounded by oceanic waters , every hectare of habitat is vitally important to pygmy three - toed sloths . unfortunately , vigorous cutting of mangrove trees is occurring on escudo de veraguas . if unchecked , this could lead to the outright extinction of these intriguing , dwarf mammals . surreptitious hunting by fishermen operating near the island may also be occurring , since the sloths are an easy source of meat .\nsloth fur exhibits specialized functions . the outer hairs grow in a direction opposite from that of other mammals . in most mammals , hairs grow toward the extremities , but because sloths spend so much time with their legs above their bodies , their hairs grow away from the extremities in order to provide protection from the elements while the sloth hangs upside down . sloth fur is also host to algae ; this algae colors the coat green and acts as camouflage ( butler 2007 ; kissell 2008 ) . because of this algae , sloth fur is a small ecosystem of its own , hosting many species of non - parasitic insects ; one sloth was found to host about 950 beetles ( butler 2007 ) . one species of moth is dependent on the sloth for its life cycle , traveling with the sloth to the ground when the sloth defecates and laying its eggs at that time ( butler 2007 ) .\n, a new species of bluegreen alga from sloth hair . brenesia . 1988 , 29 : 1 - 6 .\nthe sloth ' s scientific name is bradypus tridactylus . here is its taxonomy according to the national history museum :\nthree - toed sloths are about the size of a small dog , with the head and body having a combined length of around 60 centimeters , and the animal having a weight of 3 . 5 to 4 . 5 kilograms ( or between 7 and 10 pounds ) . unlike the two - toed sloths , they also have a short ( 6 - 7 centimeters ) tail , and they have three clawed toes on all four of their limbs . the generally larger two - toed sloths have a body length of between 58 and 70 centimeters , and weigh between 4 and 8 kilograms . other distinguishing features of the two - tailed sloths include a more prominent snout , longer fur , and the absence of a tail .\n) . the first two pco axes explained 40 . 6 % of the variability . however , the canonical analysis of the three species of sloths that had been sampled from several locations showed a separation of the different sloth species with squared canonical correlations of \u03b4\nthe members of the two families of living sloths , megalonychidae and bradypodidae , have similar adaptations , but the actual relationships of the living sloth genera are more distant from each other than their outward similarity suggests . the two - toed sloths of today are far more closely related to one particular group of ground sloths than to the living three - toed sloths . whether these ground - dwelling megalonychidae were descended from tree - climbing ancestors or whether the two - toed sloths are really miniature ground sloths converted ( or reverted ) to arboreal life cannot presently be determined to satisfaction . the latter possibility seems slightly more likely , given the fact that the small ground sloths acratocnus and synocnus , which were also able to climb , are among the closer relatives of the two - toed sloths , and that these together were related to the huge ground sloths megalonyx and megalocnus .\nlike many other mammals , sloths only have one baby at a time . baby sloths have a gestation of five to six months for some types sloths and as much as 11 . 5 months for others , such as the hoffman ' s two - toed sloth .\n) . similarly , ciliates were different on the three compared species . this can be due to differing hair structure and possibly chemistry as well as differing ecology of the species . it may also reflect the divergence of the two sloth genera about 20 million years ago [\n2 - toed is larger , faster , and nocturnal . diet is more varied - eats leaves and fruit . 6 or 7 neck vertebrae and vestigial tail\nshockey had originally planned to travel to panama to study the local manatee population , but contacts with a local nongovernmental organization told him they were hearing reports of\nimminent risk\nto the pygmy sloths .\nlittle was known by the scientific community about the actual conditions on the island , and it was hard to separate fact and rumor , but the pygmy sloth seemed to be in trouble ,\nshockey says . they decided to study the sloths instead .\npygmy three - toed sloths are pretty laid back even as sloths go , but there ' s serious trouble in the caribbean paradise where these highly specialised mangrove dwellers hang out . they were only recognised as a species in 2001 , and with their population perhaps already numbering less than 1 , 000 , time is rapidly running out . these diminutive sloths are fairly decent swimmers , can turn their heads 360 degrees and have a unique green algae that grows in their fur and provides camouflage .\n. additional clones originated from sloth hairs and tree bark which were positioned within the ulvophyceae in the phylogenetic analyses of fig .\n) . this systematic visual survey was conducted throughout all mangrove thickets . when we encountered a sloth an identity number was assigned , and the sloth ' s location recorded with a gps . date , time , and notes on the physical appearance and dorsal coloration of each sloth were recorded . this strictly observational study was conducted under permit # sea4311 , titled\nstatus de\nwas found . the clade was subdivided into three subclades that received moderate to high internal node support . two clades , a and c in ( fig .\nmating , gestation , birth and post - birth dynamics have not been observed for pygmy sloths , but these features may be inferred from studies of other species in the genus .\nhere we investigate the genetic diversity of the eukaryotic community present in fur of all six extant species of sloth . analysis of 71 sloth hair samples yielding 426 partial 18s rrna gene sequences demonstrates a diverse eukaryotic microbial assemblage . phylogenetic analysis reveals that sloth fur hosts a number of green algal species and suggests that acquisition of these organisms from the surrounding rainforest plays an important role in the discoloration of sloth fur . however , an alga corresponding to the morphological description of trichophilus welckeri was found to be frequent and abundant on sloth fur . phylogenetic analysis demonstrated the retention of this alga on the fur of sloths independent of geographic location .\nhair samples were examined from 71 sloth individuals , which originated from french guiana , panama , costa rica and brazil ( fig .\nthis article mainly deals with the living tree - dwelling sloths . until geologically recent times , large ground sloths such as megatherium ( bbc 2008 ) lived in south america and parts of north america . ground sloths disappeared soon after humans arrived , suggesting that humans drove ground sloths to extinction ( mason 2005 ) . of the six living species , only one , the maned three - toed sloth ( bradypus torquatus ) , has a classification of\nendangered\nat present . the ongoing destruction of south america ' s forests , however , may soon prove a threat to other sloth species .\nthe young researchers also learned how little of the island constituted suitable habitat for the animals .\nwe had expected to find pygmy sloths using the interior forests of the isla escudo , but it seems they are completely reliant on mangroves for food and primary habitat ,\nshockey says .\nwe found the intertidal mangrove thickets on only 0 . 024 percent of the already small island , and these were fragmented by upland forest and logging . this is a sobering reality for the pygmy sloth .\nthis project aims to improve our understanding of the pygmy sloth population and the threats to the species . to ensure the conservation of the species , it also carries out educational programmes and workshops to increase local awareness , enhance support for conservation , establish sustainable resource management , and support local authorities in enforcing legal regulations .\n\u2014 1981a . use of hands and feet of two - toed sloths ( choloepus hoffmanni ) during climbing and terrestrial locomotion . journal of mammalogy 62 : 413 - 421 .\nfrom manuel antonio , costa rica ( three sequences ) have been excluded from this analysis . ( a ) the principal coordinate analysis ( b ) the canonical analysis of\nthe critically endangered pygmy sloth is only found on escudo de veraguas , a tiny island off the east coast of mainland panama . the island is the only land mass in the 41 , 596 ha escudo de veraguas - dego protected sanctuary and is a part of the natural heritage of the local ngobe - bugle people .\nsloth hair grows in the opposite direction to most animals , so water runs away from the skin when the animal is upside down .\nmartins bezerra , b . , a . da silva souto , et al . ( 2008 ) ,\nobservation of brown - throated three - toed sloths : mating behaviour and the simultaneous nurturing of two young\n, journal of ethology 26 ( 1 ) : 175\u2013178 , doi : 10 . 1007 / s10164 - 007 - 0038 - z\n( porphyridiales , phragmonemataceae ) , a new red alga from sloth hair . brenesia . 1986 , 25 - 26 : 163 - 68 .\nweignberg , i . 1999 . speed of a sloth . in g . elert , the physics factbook . retrieved october 15 , 2008 .\n\u2014 1981b . the hand of two - toed sloths : its anatomy and potential uses relative to size of support . journal of morphology 169 ( 1 ) : 1 - 19 .\nat least three genera of giant ground sloths lived in southern california during the pleistocene . a shasta ' s ground sloth skeleton was recently excavated in carlsbad ( thought to be about 2 . 1 m ( 7 ft ) long and weighing about 136 - 181 kg ( 300 - 400 lbs ) \u2014 bear sized .\nbut smaller . pygmy three - toed sloths have buff - colored faces with dark circles that surround the eye and go outwards to their temples . clay - orange fur covers the face , starting underneath the dark eye circles . the hair on the head and shoulders is long and bushy , distinctive against the shorter facial hair and making it look as if these sloths have a hood . the throat is brown - gray and the dorsum is speckled and has a dark mid - sagittal stripe . males differ in that they have a dorsal ginger speculum with fuzzy hair following the margin . pygmy three - toed sloths have in total 18 teeth , 10 from the upper jaw which consists of 2 anterior chisel - shaped teeth and 8 molariform teeth . on the bottom jaw there are 8 teeth ; 2 anterior chisel - shaped , and 6 molariform teeth . the skull is small in comparison to other closely related species , lacks foramina in the anterodorsal nasopharynx , and doesn ' t have pterygoid sinuses that are inflated . the zygomatic arch is incomplete with slim roots , and the process of the jugal descends long and thin .\ndiorene smith successfully completed her edge fellowship in 2015 . in 2016 , diorene was awarded the disney conservation hero award for her impressive dedication and hard work towards the conservation of this species . diorene has joined the iucn xenarthan specialist group and has helped to establish a collaborative \u2018committee for the protection of the pygmy sloth\u2019 overseeing conservation and research activities .\nmendel , f . c . 1979 . the wrist joint of two - toed sloths : its relevance to brachiating adaptations in the hominoidea . journal of morphology 162 : 413 - 424 .\nmake a symbolic sloth adoption to help save some of the world ' s most endangered animals from extinction and support wwf ' s conservation efforts .\nthere ' s still a long way to go in the process to get the pygmy sloth protected in the u . s . the fws will now spend the next 12 months officially conducting a status review of the species , which will gather scientific data about the sloth ' s population , ecology and threats . once that step is done , fws will then declare if protection is warranted , which could kick off another 15 - month process ( at minimum ) before any legal protections can be enacted .\nthe pygmy sloth ' s fates have been up and down over the past 18 months . newer surveys this past april found\na bunch of very healthy babies ,\naccording to the friends of the pygmy sloth facebook page . but seven months before that a u . s . zoo called the dallas world aquarium almost set off an international incident by trying to export six sloths from panama to the u . s . , something it had permits from the panamanian government to do but which set off protests at the airport . the animals , plus two more that were bound for a zoo in panama , were all returned to isla escudo but one of the sloths reportedly died in october following the stressful experience .\nbeall , l . 2009 .\nanimal facts : sloth\n( on - line ) . helium . accessed august 17 , 2009 at urltoken .\na sloth only has its claws for defense against predators . however , its very low level of movement and the camouflage make it difficult to notice .\n] found uv - absorbing mycosporine - like amino acid ( 324 nm - maa ) from a green alga found in sloth hair . reduced exposure to uv - light could also be seen as beneficial to the sloth over the long run . however , there is no clear evidence supporting any hypothesis at present .\nbriggs , h . 2008 . sloth ' s lazy image\na myth .\nbbc news may 13 , 2008 . retrieved october 15 , 2008 .\n3 - toed is smaller , slower and both diurnal and nocturnal . highly specialized browsers - eat only leaves . 8 or 9 neck vertebrae . stout tail is 68 mm ( 2 . 7 in ) long\nhere we collected 71 sloth hair samples from all six extant sloth species as well as 12 environmental samples from tree trunks to survey the diversity of eukaryotic organisms present there . we found evidence for the acquisition of green algae from the environment as well as retention of green algae in the hair independent of the sloths geographic location .\nbritton sw : form and function in the sloth . q rev biol . 1941 , 16 : 13 - 34 . 10 . 1086 / 394620 . 190 - 207\nis endemic to a single island of panama , which is protected as a wildlife refuge and is contained within the ng\u00e4be bugle comarca . there is a need to improve the enforcement of this protected area . a comprehensive conservation plan is underway , bringing together the local community , wildlife authorities in panama , and the national and international scientific community to protect the island , using the pygmy sloth as a flagship species .\nis endemic to a single island of panama , which is protected as a wildlife refuge and is contained within the ngbe bugle comarca . there is a need to improve the enforcement of this protected area . a comprehensive conservation plan is underway , bringing together the local community , wildlife authorities in panama , and the national and international scientific community to protect the island , using the pygmy sloth as a flagship species .\ncompared to most mammals , a sloth moves very slowly . sloths can climb only 6 to 8 feet ( 1 . 8 to 2 . 4 meters ) per minute .\n] . the algae growing on sloth hair may also produce exopolymeric substances that may give the hair a desired texture or allow beneficial bacteria to grow . karsten et al . [\nsloths are an integral part of tropical rain forest ecosystems . among the most common mid - sized mammals in central and south american rain forests is the brown - throated sloth .\nthe u . s . fish and wildlife service ( fws ) last week announced that the world\u2019s rarest and smallest sloth could deserve protection under the endangered species act ( pdf ) .\n] but has not yet been isolated into pure culture and sequenced before . it is likely not to occur in any other environment besides sloth hair given that tropical terrestrial green algal species like\nthe ensuing decade has not been kind to the sloths . families of indigenous fishermen from the ng\u00f6be\u2013bugl\u00e9 comarca ( a semiautonomous region roughly equivalent to a native american reservation ) began moving to the island around 1995 and quickly started cutting down mangrove trees for firewood and lumber . unfortunately , pygmy sloths depend on those mangroves for their food and habitat . as the trees disappeared , so did the sloths . shockey and fellow researchers sam kaviar and peter sundberg spent three days counting the animals and found that just 79 remained .\nwe were all surprised to find such a low population ,\nhe says . a paper detailing their census of the sloth population was published november 21 in plos one .\nsimilarly , intriguing questions about the origins of life and why our planet is blessed with such a variety of life forms could remain unanswered . fascinating discoveries about our world , such as the dinosaur - tree wollemi pine , the glow - in - the - dark cockroach and a pygmy sloth living on its own caribbean island don\u2019t contribute majorly to gdp . one could argue that humans would survive , albeit with diminished lives , if that\u2019s all taxonomists did .\nthe field team , led by former edge fellow diorene , visit escudo twice a year to monitor the pygmy sloth population . transects are walked through the mangroves and forest , where the team record the number of sloths and other important data on their activity and habitat use . we have also put radio collars and gps backpacks on the sloths to help us find out how large an area each individual needs and which parts of the island they use in different seasons .\nsome reports suggest that female sloths give birth to a single offspring , but observations of a female brown - throated sloth in the wild with two infants suggest that they are capable of producing twins .\nthe tough leaves in a sloth ' s diet are difficult to digest . sloths have a four - part stomach that slowly digests the leaves with bacteria . it can take up to a month for a sloth to digest one meal . their leafy diet isn ' t very nutritious though , so they don ' t get much energy from it . this may be why sloths are so slow .\nour objective was to ascertain the population status of the pygmy three - toed sloth , bradypus pygmaeus , an iucn critically endangered species , on isla escudo de veraguas , panama . bradypus pygmaeus are thought to be folivorous mangrove specialists ; therefore we conducted a visual systematic survey of all 10 mangrove thickets on the island . the total mangrove habitat area was measured to be 1 . 67 ha , comprising 0 . 024 % of the total island area . the population survey found low numbers of b . pygmaeus in the mangrove thickets and far lower numbers outside of them . the connectivity of subpopulations between these thickets on the island is not established , as b . pygmaeus movement data is still lacking . we found 79 individuals of b . pygmaeus ; 70 were found in mangroves and 9 were observed just beyond the periphery of the mangroves in non - mangrove tree species . low population number , habitat fragmentation and habitat loss could lead to inbreeding , a loss of genetic diversity , and extinction of b . pygmaeus .\n. green algae were neither found in microscopic examinations of these two samples . an average of 27 % of the sloth samples for which 18s rrna gene clone libraries were constructed contained green algae ( fig .\n. a small tuft of sloth hair was sampled from a greenish patch , if the animal was visibly green or a darker patch if no greenish coloring was observed . the hair was removed with scissors and preserved in a plastic vial containing silica gel . samples were stored in silica gel at ambient temperature until further processing , which usually varied from one to three months . all hair samples were studied with a light microscope . if green algae were visibly present they were photographed for further comparison and preserved samples were kept in silica gel for herbarium material . in addition to the sloth hair samples we collected environmental samples from 12 locations on barro colorado island ( additional file\nalthough the island is uninhabited , there are seasonal visitors ( fishermen , campesinos , lobster divers , tourists , and local people ) who harvest timber to maintain wooden houses on the island . preliminary studies suggest a reduced level of genetic diversity for pygmy sloths compared to its putative population of origin , the common sloth population from mainland panama . this is expected , considering the history of species diversification and isolation on the island . however , signs of a more recent population bottleneck were also detected ( silva\nits scientific name , bradypus , is greek for\nslow feet ,\nwhich makes sense since it is the world ' s slowest animal . it is so slow , in fact , that algae grows on its fur , according to national geographic . the algae works to the sloth ' s advantage , though . the green of the algae helps the sloth blend into the trees , hiding it from predators .\nfor the most part , a sloth ' s life revolves around sleeping and eating in their tree homes . the only times these mammals leave their tree is to use the bathroom and to take a swim ."]}
{"id": 1537, "summary": [{"text": "texella cokendolpheri is a rare species of arachnid known by the common name cokendolpher cave harvestman .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it may also be called the robber baron cave harvestman .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "it is endemic to texas in the united states , where it is only known from a single cave in bexar county .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it is a federally listed endangered species of the united states .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "this is \" a small eyeless or essentially eyeless \" harvestman .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "it is pale orange in color .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is a troglobite that lives its whole life in a subterranean karst cave .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it is known only from robber baron cave in bexar county , a cave which runs underneath a heavily urbanized area .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the cave is owned by the texas cave management association .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "this cave is also the only home for the robber baron cave meshweaver ( cicurina baronia ) , a spider .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the worst threat to this and other rare local troglobites is the outright loss of their cave habitat , which is destroyed as the land is consumed for urban development , or during quarrying operations .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "caves are also altered and polluted so that they can not support this and other species . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "texella cokendolpheri", "paragraphs": ["beetles : rhadine exilis / rhadine infernalis / batrisodes venyivi harvestman : texella cokendolpheri spiders : cicurina baronia / c . madla / c . venii / c . vespera / neoleptoneta microps\ntexella mulaiki c . j . goodnight and m . l . goodnight , 1942\ntexella reddelli c . j . goodnight and m . l . goodnight , 1967 \u2013 bee creek cave harvestman\nthe harvestman family phalangodidae . 5 . new records and species of texella goodnight and goodnight ( opiliones : laniatores )\nubick , d . and t . s . briggs . 1992 . the harvestman family phalangodidae . 3 . revision of texella goodnight and goodnight ( opiliones : laniatores ) . texas mem . mus . , speleol . monogr . 3 : 155 - 240 .\nubick , d . and t . s . briggs . 2004 . the harvestman family phalangodidae . 5 . new records and species of texella goodnight and goodnight ( opiliones : laniatores ) . texas memorial museum . speleological monographs , 6 : 101 - 141 .\nrhadine exilis and rhadine infernalis were first collected in 1959 and described by barr and lawrence ( 1960 ) as agonum exile and agonum infernale , respectively . barr ( 1974 ) assigned the species to the genus rhadine . batrisodes venyivi was first collected in 1984 and described by chandler ( 1992 ) . texella cokendolpheri was first collected in 1982 and described in ubick and briggs ( 1992 ) . cicurina baronia , cicurina madla , cicurina venii , and cicurina vespera were first collected in 1969 , 1963 , 1980 , and 1965 , respectively . in 1992 , gertsch described these species . neoleptoneta microps was first collected in 1965 and described by gertsch ( 1974 ) as leptoneta microps . the species was reassigned to neoleptoneta following brignoli ( 1977 ) and platnick ( 1986 ) .\nsummary : we , the u . s . fish and wildlife service ( service ) , determine nine cave - dwelling invertebrates from bexar county , texas , to be endangered species under the authority of the endangered species act of 1973 , as amended ( act ) . rhadine exilis ( no common name ) and rhadine infernalis ( no common name ) are small , essentially eyeless ground beetles . batrisodes venyivi ( helotes mold beetle ) is a small , eyeless beetle . texella cokendolpheri ( robber baron cave harvestman ) is a small , eyeless harvestman ( daddy - longlegs ) . cicurina baronia ( robber baron cave spider ) , cicurina madla ( madla ' s cave spider ) , cicurina venii ( no common name ) , cicurina vespera ( vesper cave spider ) , and neoleptoneta microps ( government canyon cave spider ) are all small , eyeless or essentially eyeless spiders .\nknown from a single locality , robber baron cave in bexar county , texas . although the cave entrance is protected as a preserve by the texas cave management association ( tcma ) , this cave is relatively large , and the land that overlies the cave is heavily urbanized . the cave has also been historically subject to extensive commercial and recreational use ( veni 1988 ) . in addition , the current gate on the cave is blocking organic material from entering and may be severely limiting food input and impacting the cave fauna ( veni and reddell , pers . comm . 2001 in cockendolpher and reddell , 2004 ) . while no regular biomonitoring occurs in robber baron cave , there are no records of specimens of t . cokendolpheri collected since october 1993 ( usfws 2008 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthis species has been referred to by two common names , the robber baron cave harvestman ( usfws 2000 ) and the cokendolpher cave harvestman ( breene et al . 2003 ) . the latter name has been accepted as the official common name ( breene et al . 2003 , usfws 2003 ) .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\nthere are nine bexar county , texas invertebrates that were listed as endangered on december 26 , 2000 . the recovery priority number for all bexar county karst invertebrates is 2c , which means that these species face a high degree of threat with a high potential for recovery and there may be conflict between species recovery and economic development .\nknown only from robber baron cave in the alamo heights karst region , bexar county , texas .\npopulation estimates are unavailable for any of the nine troglobites listed as endangered in bexar county ( usfws , 2000 ) due to lack of adequate techniques , their cryptic behavior , and inaccessibility of habitat ( usfws , 2008 ) . culver et al . ( 2000 ) states that while some troglobites are known from a few specimens , detailed studies suggest that\nas a rule\nmost troglobites\nare not numerically rare and thus are not susceptible to the problems of small populations .\nhowever , considering the lack of population estimates and limited study of these species , data are insufficient to indicate whether bexar county karst invertebrates are numerous enough to rule out small population concerns ( usfws , 2008 ) .\nbased on usfws ( 2008 ) , reduce threats to the species by securing an adequate quantity and quality of caves , including selecting caves or cave clusters that represent the range of the species and potential genetic diversity , then preserving these caves , including their drainage basins and surface communities upon which they rely . maintenance of these cave preserves involves keeping them free from contamination , excessive human visitation , and non - native fire ants by regularly tracking progress and implementing adaptive management to control these and any new threats when necessary . monitoring the population status and threats are also components of recovery . because many aspects of the population dynamics and habitat requirements of the species are poorly understood , recovery is also dependant on incorporating research findings into adaptive management actions .\n( < 100 square km ( less than about 40 square miles ) ) known only from robber baron cave in the alamo heights karst region , bexar county , texas .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nculver , d . c . , l . l . master , m . c . christman , and h . h . hobbs iii . 2000 . obligate cave fauna of the 48 contiguous united states . conservation biology 14 ( 2 ) : 386 - 401 .\nelliott , w . r . 2000 . conservation of the north american cave and karst biota . pages 665 - 689 in wilkens , h . , d . c . culver , and w . f . humphreys ( editors ) . subterranean ecosystems . ecosystems of the world , 30 . elsevier , amsterdam . xiv + 791 pp . corrected version online . available : urltoken\nlongacre , c . 2000 . endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; final rule to list nine bexar county , texas invertebrate species as endangered . u . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) . federal register 65 ( 248 ) .\nrappaport , c . j . 1998 . department of interior fish and wildlife service 50 cfr part 17 , rin 1018 - af33 , endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; proposal to list nine bexar county , texas invertebrate species as endangered . federal register , 63 ( 250 ) : 71855 - 71867 .\nstanford , r . , and a . shull . 1993 . department of interior fish and wildlife service 50 cfr part 17 ; 90 - day finding on a petition to list nine bexar county , tx , invertebrates . federal register , 58 ( 229 ) : 63328 - 63329 .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) . 1994 . endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; animal candidate review for listing as endangered or threatened species . federal register 59 ( 219 ) : 58982 - 59028 .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) . 2003 . endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; designation of critical habitat for seven bexar county , texas , invertebrate species ; final rule . federal register 68 ( 67 ) : 17156 - 17231 .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) . 2008 . draft bexar county karst invertebrate recovery plan . 125 pp .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\ndesignation of critical habitat for nine bexar county , tx , invertebrates final rule . and a 12 - month finding on a petition to revise critical habitat designation by removing unit 13 from designation under the act - not warranted .\ndesignation of critical habitat for nine bexar county invertebrates : proposed rule ; reopening of comment period .\n- - natureserve explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50 , 000 plants , animals and ecological communtities of the u . s and canada . natureserve explorer provides in - depth information on rare and endangered species , but includes common plants and animals too . natureserve explorer is a product of natureserve in collaboration with the natural heritage network .\nfws digital media library - - the u . s . fish and wildlife service ' s national digital library is a searchable collection of selected images , historical artifacts , audio clips , publications , and video .\ndata and apps idaho fish and wildlife information system bringing information to bear on the management and conservation of fish , wildlife , and plants in idaho .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\naction : final rule . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -\nthese species ( referred to in this final rule as the nine invertebrates ) are known from karst topography ( limestone formations containing caves , sinks , fractures and fissures ) in north and northwest bexar county . threats to the species and their habitat include destruction and / or deterioration of habitat by construction ; filling of caves and karst features and loss of permeable cover ; contamination from septic effluent , sewer leaks , run - off , pesticides , and other sources ; predation by and competition with nonnative fire ants ; and vandalism . this action will implement federal protection provided by the act for these species . we based our decision on the best available information , including that received during public comment on the proposal to list these species .\neffective date : the effective date of this rule is december 26 , 2000 .\naddresses : the complete file for this rule is available for inspection , by appointment , during normal business hours at the austin ecological services field office , 10711 burnet road , suite 200 , austin , texas 78758 .\nfor further information contact : alisa shull , supervisory fish and wildlife biologist , austin ecological services field office ( telephone 512 / 490 - 0057 ; facsimile 512 / 490 - 0974 ) .\nthese nine invertebrates are obligate ( capable of surviving in only one environment ) karst or cave - dwelling species ( troglobites ) of local distribution in karst terrain in bexar county , texas . ` ` karst ' ' is a type of terrain in which the rock is dissolved by water so that much of the drainage occurs into the subsurface rather than as runoff . the subsurface drainage leads to passages or other openings within the underground rock formations . some of the features that develop in karst areas include cave openings , holes in rocks , cracks , fissures , and sinkholes .\nhabitat required by the nine karst invertebrate species consists of underground , honeycomb limestone that maintains high humidity and stable temperatures . the surface environment of karst areas is also an integral part of the habitat needed by the animals inhabiting the underground areas . openings to the surface allow energy and nutrients , in the form of leaf litter , surface insects , other animals , and animal droppings to enter the underground ecosystem . mammal feces provide a medium for the growth of fungi and , subsequently , localized population blooms of several species of tiny , hopping insects . these insects reproduce rapidly on rich food sources and may become prey for some predatory cave invertebrates ( service 1994 ) . while the life habits of the nine invertebrates are not well known , the species probably prey on the eggs , larvae , or adults of other cave invertebrates .\nwe funded a status survey ( veni 1994a ; reddell 1993 ) of all nine species through a grant to the texas parks and wildlife department ( tpwd ) under section 6 of the act . researchers obtained landowner permission to study and assess threats to 41 caves in north and northwest bexar county , texas . landowners denied permission to access an additional 36 caves that biologists believed likely to contain species of concern . researchers described all 77 caves , to some extent , before the status survey was conducted and some were already known to contain at least one of the nine invertebrates .\nduring the status survey , the researchers made a collection of the invertebrate fauna at each cave studied , assessed the condition of the cave environment and threats to the species , and collected geological data . they used this information to prepare two reports . one report discusses the overall karst geography in the san antonio region and the potential geologic and geographic barriers to karst invertebrate migration ( on an evolutionary time scale ) and limits to their distribution ( veni 1994a ) . the other report ( reddell 1993 ) details the fauna of each cave visited during the study and presents information obtained from invertebrate collections .\nveni ' s ( 1994a ) report delineates six karst areas ( hereafter referred to as karst regions ) within bexar county . the karst regions he discusses are stone oak , utsa ( university of texas at san antonio ) , helotes , government canyon , culebra anticline , and alamo heights . the boundaries of these karst regions are geological or geographical features that may represent obstructions to troglobite movement ( on a geologic time scale ) which has resulted in the present - day distribution of endemic ( restricted in distribution ) karst invertebrates in the san antonio region .\nbatrisodes venyivi , the helotes mold beetle , is known from only three caves in the vicinity of helotes , texas , northwest of san antonio . two of these caves are located in the helotes karst region on private property . we do not have reliable information on the collection from the third cave . the collector of the specimen declined to give us a specific site collection record , but we believe it is located on private property .\nrhadine exilis is known from 35 caves in north and northwest bexar county . twenty - one are located on department of defense ( dod ) land in the stone oak karst region . the remainder are distributed among the helotes , utsa , and stone oak karst regions , while one location lies in the government canyon region . one of the non - dod sites is located in a county road right - of - way , one is located in a state - owned natural area , and the remainder are located on private property . ongoing efforts by the dod to locate and inventory karst features on camp bullis and to document the karst fauna communities in caves on camp bullis resulted in discovery of 18 of the 35 caves mentioned above ( veni 1994b ; james reddell , pers . comm . 1997 ) .\nrhadine infernalis is known from 25 caves . this species occurs in five of the six karst regions - - helotes , utsa , stone oak , culebra anticline , and government canyon . scientists have delineated three subspecies ( rhadine infernalis ewersi , rhadine infernalis infernalis , rhadine infernalis ssp . ) , and described and named two of these in scientific literature ( barr 1960 , barr and lawrence 1960 ) . in a recent report , scientists characterized the third subspecies as distinct , but not named ( reddell 1998 ) . only three caves , all on dod land , contain the subspecies rhadine infernalis ewersi . sixteen caves contain the subspecies rhadine infernalis infernalis and lie in the government canyon , helotes , utsa , and stone oak regions . six caves in the culebra anticline region contain the unnamed subspecies .\ncicurina venii is known from only one cave , which is located on private property in the culebra anticline karst region . the species was collected in 1980 and 1983 , but the cave itself was not initially described until 1988 ( reddell 1993 ) . the cave entrance was filled during construction of a home in 1990 . without excavation , it is difficult to determine what effect this incident had on the species ; however , there may still be some nutrient input , from a reported small side passage .\ncicurina baronia , the robber baron cave spider , is known only from robber baron cave in the alamo heights karst region . although the cave entrance is owned and operated by the texas cave management association , it is located in a heavily urbanized area .\ncicurina madla , madla ' s cave spider , is known from six caves . one cave is within the government canyon karst region in government canyon state natural area , one is on dod land , three are located in the helotes karst region on private property , and one is located on private property in the utsa karst region .\nbiologists have found cicurina vespera , the vesper cave spider , in two caves . one cave is government canyon bat cave in the government canyon state natural area , and the other is a cave 5 miles northeast of helotes . the location and name of this latter cave have not been revealed to us , but we believe it is located on private property .\nneoleptoneta microps is known only from the government canyon karst region , from two caves within government canyon state natural area .\nin the course of conducting the 1993 status survey , veni contacted landowners and requested access to as many caves as possible that were believed to be potential habitat for the nine invertebrates . it is possible that these species occur in some of the caves that could not be visited and that new locations of the nine invertebrates will be discovered in the future . although these new discoveries may increase the number of locations where the species are found , they are expected to fall within the same general range and are expected to face the same threats as the known occurrences of these species . the listing of these species is not based on a demonstrable decline in the number of individuals or the number of known locations of each species , but rather on reliable evidence that each species is subject to threats to its continued existence throughout all or a significant portion of its range ."]}
{"id": 1542, "summary": [{"text": "platynota flavedana , the black-shaded platynota moth , is a species of moth of the tortricidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in the united states from minnesota to maine , south to north carolina and west to arizona .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is 5-6.5 mm for males and 6-8.5 mm for females .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are sexually dimorphic .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the forewings of the males are dark purplish brown basally and yellowish to orangish brown apically .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "females have brown to orangish brown forewings with dark brown to purplish-brown markings .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings of both sexes are brown to orangish brown .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing from may to june and again from july to september .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "there are usually two generations per year , but a partial third generation may occur in the southern part of the range .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the larvae feed on various plants and have been recorded on acer , eupatorium , helianthus , dianthus caryophyllus , helianthemum , hypericum perforatum , rhododendron , trifolium , sassafras , gossypium hirsutum , gossypium thurberi , fragaria , prunus persica , rosa and citrus species .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they feed from within a shelter constructed of tied or folded leaves .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "feeding may cause damage to blossoms or fruit .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "full-grown larvae reach a length of 13 \u2013 21 mm .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "they have a green to pale green body and brownish-yellow head .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the species overwinters as a mid-instar larva .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "pupation takes place in webbed leaves . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "platynota flavedana", "paragraphs": ["species platynota flavedana - black - shaded platynota moth - hodges # 3732 - bugguide . net\nplatynota flavedana is widely distributed in the eastern united states . records from the western u . s . are questionable .\nwilde , g . & m . semel 1966 . the life history of platynota flavedana , a leaf roller of strawberry . journal of economic entomology 59 : 1037 - 1041\nplatynota flavedana completes two annual generations over much of its range ; a partial third generation may be present in the south . adults are present may - june and july - september .\nwilde , g . and m . semel . 1966 . the life history of platynota flavedana , a leaf roller of strawberry . journal of economic entomology . 59 : 1037 - 1041 .\nlarvae of p . flavedana have been reported as pests of strawberry , peach , and rose . other important hosts include cotton and citrus .\ndavid , p . j . , r . l . horsburgh & g . i . holtzman 1989 . development of platynota flavedana and p . idaeusalis ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) at constant temperatures in the laboratory . environ . entomol . 18 : 15 - 18\nplatynota flavedana is sexually dimorphic . the male forewing is dark purplish brown basally and yellowish to orangish brown apically . the female forewing is brown to orangish brown with dark - brown to purplish - brown markings . hindwings of both sexes are brown to orangish brown ; males tend to exhibit more orange than females . males have a long forewing costal fold that extends to mid - costa .\nadults may appear similar to other species of platynota , but can be separated from most other species by their orangish appearance .\na female black - shaded platynota moth in howard co . , maryland ( 2003 ) . photo by larry line . ( mbp list )\nblack - shaded platynota moth in worcester co . , maryland ( 7 / 19 / 2013 ) . photo by scott housten . ( mbp list )\na black - shaded platynota moth on assateague island , maryland ( 5 / 24 / 2013 ) . photo by scott housten . ( mbp list )\nblack - shaded platynota moth in calvert co . , maryland ( 7 / 17 / 2006 ) . photo by arlene ripley . ( mbp list )\nblack - shaded platynota moth in howard co . , maryland ( 7 / 29 / 2014 ) . photo by nancy magnusson . ( mbp list )\na black - shaded platynota moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 5 / 31 / 2017 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na black - shaded platynota moth in baltimore co . , maryland ( 7 / 30 / 2014 ) . photo by emily stanley . ( mbp list )\na black - shaded platynota moth in wicomico co . , maryland ( 7 / 12 / 2014 ) . photo by mike burchett . ( mbp list )\na black - shaded platynota moth in howard co . , maryland ( 7 / 23 / 2016 ) . photo by kurt schwarz . ( mbp list )\na black - shaded platynota moth in dorchester co . , maryland ( 5 / 16 / 2015 ) . photo by jonathan willey . ( mbp list )\na black - shaded platynota moth in worcester co . , maryland ( 7 / 10 / 2013 ) . photo by scott housten . ( mbp list )\na black - shaded platynota moth in baltimore co . , maryland ( 8 / 20 / 2014 ) . photo by emily stanley . ( mbp list )\na black - shaded platynota moth in worcester co . , maryland ( 7 / 29 / 2013 ) . photo by mike burchett . ( mbp list )\na black - shaded platynota moth in washington co . , maryland ( 7 / 18 / 2017 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\nadults may appear similar to other species of platynota , but can be separated from most other species by their orangish appearance . a genitalic dissection can be used to confirm identity .\na female black - shaded platynota moth in prince george ' s co . , maryland ( 5 / 26 / 2004 ) . photo by bob patterson . ( mbp list )\na male black - shaded platynota moth in prince george ' s co . , maryland ( 8 / 26 / 2010 ) . photo by bob patterson . ( mbp list )\na black - shaded platynota moth in dorchester co . , maryland ( 6 / 2 / 2016 ) . determined by roger downer / bamona . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na black - shaded platynota moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 9 / 8 / 2016 ) . verified by roger downer / bamona . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na black - shaded platynota moth in harford co . , maryland ( 7 / 18 / 2014 ) . verified by roger downer / bamona . photo by dave webb . ( mbp list )\na black - shaded platynota moth in baltimore city , maryland ( 5 / 23 / 2008 ) . determined by jason j . dombroskie / bugguide . photo by thomas wilson . ( mbp list )\na male black - shaded platynota moth in prince george ' s co . , maryland ( 7 / 19 / 2004 ) . specimen provided by bob patterson . photo by larry line . ( mbp list )\na male black - shaded platynota moth in prince george ' s co . , maryland ( 7 / 19 / 2004 ) . specimen supplied by bob patterson . photo by larry line . ( mbp list )\nlarvae appear similar to those of sparganothis sulfureana , and the two species are often found in similar habitats in the eastern united states . mackay ( 1962 ) stated that larvae of platynota could be separated from similar species of sparganothis by the small dorsal pinacula on a1 - 8 , which are slightly elongate and cream colored in living individuals .\nlate instar larvae are approximately 13 - 21 mm in length with a green to pale green abdomen . the head and prothoracic shield are brownish yellow . an anal comb is present with 5 - 8 teeth .\nfemales lay eggs in masses that contain approximately 50 individual eggs on the upper surface of leaves . larvae feed within a shelter constructed of tied or folded leaves . larvae may cause economic damage by feeding on blossoms or fruit , and will often web leaves together with blossoms and immature fruit . mid - instar larvae of the last generation overwinter and resume feeding the following spring . pupation occurs in webbed leaves .\ncitrus x sinensis ( l . ) osbeck ( pro sp . ) [ maxima x reticulata ]\nchapman , p . j . and s . e . lienk . 1971 . tortricid fauna of apple in new york ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) ; including an account of apple ' s occurrence in the state , especially as a naturalized plant . spec . publ . geneva , ny : new york state agricultural experiment station . 122 pp .\nmackay , m . r . 1962 . larvae of the north american tortricinae ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) . the canadian entomologist supplement 28 : 1 - 182 .\nsandberg , s . and s . passoa . 1989 . new host records and morphological notes on four tortricines ( tortricidae ) . journal of research on the lepidoptera . 27 : 104 - 108 .\ntortricids of agricultural importance by todd m . gilligan and marc e . epstein interactive keys developed in lucid 3 . 5 . last updated august 2014 .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\npowell , j . a . & j . w . brown , 2012 . the moths of north america , fascicle 8 . 1 : p . 130 ; pl . e . 45 - 50 . order\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nadult - sexually dimorphic ; males dark brown with a golden band on the apical quarter of the wings . females have several brown or reddish - brown bands ( hull et al . , 1995 ) .\nlarva - early instars are yellowish with a black head . older larvae are green with a light brown or amber head ( hull et al . , 1995 ) .\nminnesota east to maine , south to north carolina , and west to arizona . more common in the southern part of its range at lower elevations ( hull et al . , 1995 ) .\ngeneralist feeder of strawberry , apple , azalea , blackberry , clover , cotton , helianthus sp . , maple , peach , raspberry , rose , sassafras , narrowleaf plantain , smartweed , dandelion , dock and others ( hull et al . , 1995 ) .\nseven known parasites , goniozus platynotae ( hymenoptera ) the most common ( wilde et al . , 1966 ) .\nclemens , b . , 1860 . contributions to american lepidopterology - no . 6 .\nhull , l . a . , d . g . pfeiffer , d . j . biddinger 1995 . mid - atlantic orchard monitoring guide . nraes - 75 : 1 - 361\npowell , j . a . & j . w . brown , 2012 . the moths of north america , fascicle 8 . 1 : p . 130 ; pl . e . 45 - 50\ncontributions to american lepidopterology - no . 6 . brackenridge clemens . 1860 . proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia 12 : 345 - 362 .\nlbam id - tools for diagnosing light brown apple moth and related western u . s . leafrollers - epiphyas postvittana ( walker ) .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nuse of images featured on maryland biodiversity project is only permitted with express permission of the photographer .\nfor pests currently absent from the uk , risk of introduction is assessed . for pests already present in the uk risk of spread to maximum extent is assessed . some other scenarios exist .\nthe specific pathway ( s ) that were considered when rating entry of a pest to the uk . these were the pathways considered to present the highest risk of entry .\nthis section is currently being developed as part of the next phase of the risk register .\nwhat risks would be without any co - ordinated action . ratings do take into account how normal grower practises ( such as pesticide treatments ) would affect risks .\nfor\npest is introduced\nthe lowest value of entry or establishment , as both are required for a successful introduction . for\npest spreads to maximum extent\nthis is an expert judgement on the likelihood of this occurrence .\nthe likelihood of movement of the pest into the uk on a pathway and transfer of that pest to a suitable host .\nthe likelihood of the pest surviving and perpetuating in the uk for the foreseeable future after it has entered .\nthe rate at which a pest can expand , by natural dispersal only , within an area .\nthe predicted economic impacts of the pest in the uk . this includes direct effects on yield , quality and possible indirect effects such as trade implications .\nthe proportion of the environmental value of the plant which is likely to be lost through the introduction of the pest .\nthe predicted social impacts of a pest in the uk , including effects on tourism , amenities and animal and human health .\nthe value of the hosts or industries at risk from this pest in the uk .\nthe likelihood multiplied by the impact , which shows the risk to the sector .\nrisks rated to take into account the effects of co - ordinated actions that are in place such as eu regulation or industry accreditation schemes .\nthe hosts or industries in the uk that were considered when rating the pest as being at risk .\npolyphagous pest which could be potentially damaging to a range of crops if introduced to the uk . no imminent threat has been identified but the situation will be kept under review . the industry may wish to be aware .\nif you provide us with your email address we will only use it to contact you about the risk register .\nyour browser doesn ' t support javascript or you have disabled javascript . please enable javascript , then refresh this page . javascript is required on this site .\n* lam wh , rota j , brown jw ( 2011 ) a preliminary list of the leaf - roller moths ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) of virginia . banisteria 37 , 3 - 37 . * review of agricultural entomology , 89 ( 7 ) , p 60 ( 6303 ) .\neuropean union funding : for a one - year period ( 2017 - 12 - 16 to 2018 - 12 - 15 ) , eppo has been awarded an eu grant for the further development of the eppo code system ( agreement nb : sante / 2017 / gs / eppo / s12 . 768842 ) . the eu commission is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information from this project subsequently included in the eppo global database ."]}
{"id": 1545, "summary": [{"text": "scrobipalpopsis petasitis is a moth in the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by pfaffenzeller in 1867 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in northern europe , the alps and on the taimyr peninsula .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 15 \u2013 20 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the larvae feed on petasites albus , petasites paradoxus and petasites frigidus .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "they mine the leaves of their host plant .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the mine has the form of a large , full depth , inflated , brownish blotch , expanding from the leaf margin .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "a single mine generally contains three to ten larvae .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the species overwinters in the larval stage , either in the mine or between spun parts of the leaf . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "scrobipalpopsis petasitis", "paragraphs": ["this species has some similarities to scrobipalpopsis petasitis ( present in north america and europe ) and s . tetradymiella ( present in the united states ) . two similar species that are found in potato include phthorimaea operculella and symmetrischema tangolias . both larvae and adults of these species are smaller than those of t . solanivora .\nscrobipalpopsis interposita powell & povoln\u00fd , 2001 ; holarctic lepidoptera 8 ( suppl . 1 ) : 22 ; tl : california , contra costa co . , briones reservroi\nscrobipalpopsis madiae powell & povoln\u00fd , 2001 ; holarctic lepidoptera 8 ( suppl . 1 ) : 23 ; tl : california , monterey co . , big creek reserve\nenter the name or part of a name you wish to search for . the asterisk character * can be used as wildcard . e . g . ' papilio * ' . keep in mind that the search is only based on the full taxon name .\nwe are still having problems with the search feature . unfortunately we cannot give a timeline when the advanced search will be fixed .\nthe id resolving service for stable taxon ids is currently under maintenance . meanwhile , please use the name search in order to find the taxon page .\nmuseum f\u00fcr naturkunde leibniz - institut f\u00fcr evolutions - und biodiversit\u00e4tsforschung invalidenstr . 43 10115 berlin germany e - mail : fauna - eu ( at ) mfn - berlin . de website : urltoken\n= tecia ; hodges & becker , 1990 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 92 ( 1 ) : 82\ngnorimoschema arnicella clarke , 1942 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 92 ( 3149 ) : 268 ; tl : washington , whitman co . , kamiack butte , 3000 '\nlarva on artemisia californica powell & povoln\u00fd , 2001 , holarctic lepidoptera 8 ( suppl . 1 ) : 23\nlarva on madia powell & povoln\u00fd , 2001 , holarctic lepidoptera 8 ( suppl . 1 ) : 23\nlarva on petasites niveus pfaffenzeller , 1867 , stettin ent . ztg 28 : 79 , petasites paradoxus , p . frigidus [ me6 ] , 56\ngnorimoschema petrella busck , 1915 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 17 ( 2 ) : 83 ; tl : hampton , new hampshire\ngnorimoschema tetradymiella busck , 1903 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 25 ( 1304 ) : 834 ; tl : los angeles , california\nlarva on tetradymia canescens busck , 1903 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 25 ( 1304 ) : 834\nsangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\ndie schmetterlinge deutschlands und der schweiz . 2 . abteilung , kleinschmetterlinge . 2 . die motten und federmotten\nstaudinger , 1867 gelechia petasitella und phyllobrostis hartmanni stettin ent . ztg 28 : 210 - 212\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\npotato * this list includes important economic or environmental hosts but does not represent all major hosts of the pest . check cphst pest datasheet for complete list of hosts .\ntrap spacing : when trapping for more than one species of moth , separate traps for different moth species by at least 20 meters ( 65 feet ) .\nlure placement : do not include lures for other target species in the trap when trapping for this target .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence ."]}
{"id": 1547, "summary": [{"text": "epiphthora melanombra is a moth of the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by meyrick in 1888 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in new zealand .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 10 \u2013 11 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are whitish densely irrorated with black , appearing grey .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is a suffused blackish spot in the disc before the middle , another on the anal angle , and a third less apparent towards the apex .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are grey .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae mine blotches in the leaves of olearia avicenniaefolia . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "epiphthora melanombra", "paragraphs": ["epiphthora acrocola turner , 1927 ; pap . proc . r . soc . tasm . 1926 : 136\nepiphthora hyperaenicta turner , 1927 ; pap . proc . r . soc . tasm . 1926 : 137\nepiphthora delochorda lower , 1918 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 42 : 237 ; tl : pinnaroo , south ausralia\nepiphthora poliopasta turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 110 ; tl : queensland , maroochydore near caloundra\nepiphthora acropasta turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 110 ; tl : queensland , stradbroke i .\nepiphthora leptoconia turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 110 ; tl : new south wales , mt kosciusko\nepiphthora microtima meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 267 ; tl : brisbane , queensland\nepiphthora cryolopha meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 265 ; tl : cooktown , queensland\nepiphthora thyellias meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 262 ; tl : melbourne , victoria\nepiphthora niphaula meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 263 ; tl : launceston , tasmania\nepiphthora autoleuca meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 264 ; tl : gisborne , victoria\nepiphthora megalornis meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 261 ; tl : perth , west australia\nepiphthora belonodes meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 261 ; tl : geraldton , west australia\nepiphthora coniombra meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 267 ; tl : bathurst , new south wales\nepiphthora drosias meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 262 ; tl : port lincoln , south ausralia\nepiphthora isonira meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 264 ; tl : blackheath , new south wales\nepiphthora achnias meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 266 ; tl : picton , new south wales\nepiphthora phantasta meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 255 ; tl : sydney , new south wales\nepiphthora lemurella meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 262 ; tl : blackheath , new south wales\nepiphthora psychrodes meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 263 ; tl : sydney , new south wales\nepiphthora harpastis meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 267 ; tl : perth and albany , west australia\nepiphthora leucomichla meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 265 ; tl : sydney , new south wales ; deloraine , tasmania\nepiphthora spectrella meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 266 ; tl : lilydale , victoria ; deloraine , tasmania ; adelaide , south australia\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n[ read before the philosophical institute of canterbury , 6 th october , 1887 . ]\nhead smooth ; ocelli present ; tongue well - developed . antenn\u00e6 \u2158 , in male serrate , simple , basal joint elongate , with strong pecten . labial palpi moderate , arched , ascending , second joint with appressed scales , slightly rough beneath , dilated towards apex , terminal joint short , half as long as second , slightly thickened with scales , pointed , not acute . maxillary palpi obsolete . posterior tibi\u00e6 clothed with long hairs above and beneath . forewings with vein 1 furcate , 2 from \u2154 of cell , 4\u20137 approximated from narrow end of cell , 7 to costa , 8 absent ( coincident with 7 ) , 11 from about middle of cell . hindwings \u00be , elongate - oblong , narrow , hindmargin rectangularly emarginate beneath very strongly produced apex , cilia 4 ; veins 2\u20134 moderately remote , transverse vein absent , 5 and 6 absent , 7 to apex , 8 short , consisting almost wholly of a furcation towards base , of which the lower fork runs into 7 .\nmale , female . \u201410\u201311 mm . head , palpi , antenn\u00e6 , thorax , abdomen and legs whitish , densely irrorated with black , appearing grey . forewings elongate , pointed , apex subcaudate ; whitish densely irrorated with black , appearing grey ; a suffused blackish spot in disc before middle , another on anal angle , and a third less apparent towards apex : cilia grey , round apex whitish irrorated with black . hindwings and cilia grey .\nchristchurch ; bred commonly by mr . r . w . fereday , in december , from larv\u00e6 mining blotches in the leaves of olearia avicenni\u0153folia ( an evergreen shrub belonging to the composit\u0153 ) in november . i am indebted to his kindness for specimens .\nhead loosely haired ; no ocelli ; tongue well - developed . antenn\u00e6 \u215a , in male filiform , simple , basal joint moderately elongate , without pecten . labial palpi long , recurved , second joint thickened with appressed scales , terminal joint as long as second , slender , acute . maxillary palpi short , drooping . abdomen tolerably flattened , in male strongly margined . posterior\ntibi\u00e6 clothed with long hairs above . forewings with vein 1 furcate , 2 from \u2158 of cell , 7 and 8 stalked , 7 to costa , 11 from middle of cell . hindwings as broad as forewings , trapezoidalovate , apex and hindmargin rounded , cilia \u2154 ; veins 3 and 4 from a point , 6 and 7 tolerably parallel .\nmale , female . \u201416\u201318 mm . head yellow - ochreous , crown mixed with dark fuscous . palpi yellow - ochreous , terminal joint and a subapical band of second dark fuscous . antenn\u00e6 dark fuscous , in female annulated with whitish - ochreous . thorax in male dark fuscous , in female yellow - ochreous , with shoulders and a dorsal streak dark fuscous . abdomen grey . legs dark fuscous , ringed with whitish - ochreous . forewings elongate , rather narrow , costa gently arched , apex obtuse , hindmargin very obliquely rounded ; rather dark fuscous , strewn with yellow - ochreous scales , in female suffused with yellow - ochreous towards inner margin ; a longitudinal yellow - ochreous streak in disc from \u00bc to \u00be , in female extended to base ; a cloudy dark fuscous dot on this streak at \u2153 , a second beyond middle , and a third on fold obliquely beyond first ; a yellow - ochreous transverse line , in male ill - defined , from \u2158 of costa to anal angle , sharply angulated in middle , indented beneath costa ; an irregular yellow - ochreous hindmarginal line : cilia pale yellow - ochreous , with a rather dark fuscous basal line , in male also with a fuscous median line . hindwings and cilia grey .\nwhangarei and nelson , in december and january ; two specimens , amongst forest . the differences indicated between these two specimens may be either sexual or merely individual .\nantenn\u00e6 in male with long fine ciliations ( 3 ) , basal joint with pecten . palpi long , second joint exceeding base of antenn\u00e6 , smoothly scaled , terminal joint shorter than second , slender . thorax smooth . forewings with vein 2 from very near angle of cell , 7 to hindmargin . hindwings almost as broad as forewings , elongate - ovate , cilia \u2157 ; neuration normal .\nat present represented by about twenty australian and one european species ; the following species seems truly referable here , and is presumably a straggler .\nmale . \u201422\u201325 mm . head , palpi , antenn\u00e6 , thorax , and abdomen pale whitish - ochreous , sometimes brownish - tinged . legs fuscous , posterior pair whitish - ochreous . forewings elongate ,\ncosta moderately arched , slightly sinuate in middle , apex round - pointed , hindmargin very obliquely rounded ; whitish - ochreous , sometimes with scattered fuscous scales , especially on costal half anteriorly ; sometimes a dark fuscous suffusion towards base of costa ; two fuscous dots , somewhat obliquely placed , faintly indicated in disc before middle ; a conspicuous round dark fuscous dot in disk beyond middle ; sometimes a posterior transverse line indicated with dark fuscous scales , angulated in middle , indented above middle : cilia whitish - ochreous . hindwings whitish - ochreous , greyish - tinged , more or less suffused with light fuscous - grey , except towards base ; cilia pale whitish - ochreous .\narthur ' s pass ( 4 , 700 feet ) , and mount arthur ( 4 , 000 feet ) , in january ; three specimens . probably nearer the tasmanian p . cataxera than any other described species .\ndiffers from s . peroneanella only as follows : usually larger ; thorax with the two dorsal black marks united in front to form an irregular bar ; forewings with the black postmedian discal mark connected with the mark beneath middle of disc by a bar , and not touching costal spot above it ( in s . peroneanella it is connected with spot above it , and not with mark beneath middle of disc ) ; hindwings more whitish , the grey colour forming a discal spot and subterminal band ( in s . peroneanella the grey is generally diffused posteriorly ) .\nin my description of s . peroneanella this is included as a geographical ( south island ) form of that species ; as i now prefer to separate it as a distinct species , the said description should be corrected accordingly . the synonymy is correct as quoted .\ns . peroneanella occurs at auckland , hamilton , napier , and wellington ; s . mystis at nelson , christchurch , and dunedin ; both in december and january . i have seen a fair number of specimens , and the two forms appear constant .\nmale , female . \u201421\u201326 mm . head whitish , lower margin of face and maxillary palpi dark fuscous . palpi white , second joint with lower half and a subapical ring fuscous , terminal joint with a blackish median band . antenn\u00e6 dark fuscous . thorax whitish , with a few fuscous scales . abdomen grey - whitish . legs dark fuscous , posterior pair whitish . forewings elongate , costa slightly arched , apex obtuse , hindmargin nearly straight , rather oblique ; white , irregularly irrorated with light greyish - fuscous ; a small fuscous spot at base of costa , and a dot near base in middle ; a slender dark fuscous streak from \u00bc of costa to disc\nbefore middle , its extremity furcate ; a small fuscous spot beneath costa near beyond this ; a fuscous - grey suffused patch towards middle third of inner margin , and a similar roundish patch above anal angle ; an angulated dark fuscous mark in disc beyond middle ; a short oblique irregular cloudy fuscous streak from apex ; a hindmarginal row of cloudy fuscous dots : cilia whitish , irrorated with light greyish - fuscous . hindwings grey - whitish , faintly ochreous - tinged ; a faint darker discal dot ; a slight greyish suffusion towards apex ; cilia grey - whitish .\nwellington ; three specimens received from messrs . a . purdie and g . v . hudson .\nwellington ; several specimens taken by mr . g . v . hudson , to whose kindness i am indebted for a type .\nmale . \u201419\u201323 mm . head , palpi , and thorax light ochreous - yellow ; terminal joint of palpi white , anterior edge blackish . antenn\u00e6 dark fuscous , annulated with white . abdomen whitish - ochreous . legs rather dark fuscous , posterior tibi\u00e6 whitish - ochreous . forewings elongate , posteriorly dilated , costa moderately arched , apex acute , produced , hindmargin concave , very oblique ; light ochreous - yellow ; a light fuscous dot in disc at \u2153 , a second somewhat larger beyond middle , and a third obliquely beyond first on fold ; a narrow suffused light fuscous hindmarginal fascia , darkest posteriorly , becoming obsolete towards apex : cilia pale ochreous - yellow , beneath anal angle\nlight fuscous . hindwings ochreous - whitish , towards apex tinged with pale fuscous ; cilia ochreous - whitish , round apex fuscous - tinged .\nmale , female . \u201412\u201314 mm . head , palpi , and thorax dark fuscous mixed with pale whitish - ochreous , face whitish - ochreous . antenn\u00e6 dark fuscous , obscurely spotted with ochreous - whitish . abdomen dark fuscous , segmental margins sharply whitish . legs dark fuscous , ringed with whitish . forewings elongate , costa slightly arched , apex round - pointed , hindmargin sinuate , oblique ; rather dark fuscous , with greenish reflections , irregularly irrorated with ochreous - whitish , and with some scattered yellowish scales ; a small round dark fuscous spot in disc before middle , and a second on fold obliquely beyond it , sometimes confluent , both sometimes margined posteriorly with whitish ; a whitish dot on costa before middle ; a subtriangular dark fuscous spot , mixed with yellowish and margined with blackish , in disc beyond middle , connected with costa by a dark fuscous suffusion ; an irregular whitish line from \u00be of costa to anal angle , slightly bent above middle , preceded on inner margin by a small blackish spot : cilia grey - whitish , beneath anal angle grey , with a grey post - median line , basal third ochreous - yellowish margined by a black line and tending to be spotted with blackish . hindwings dark fuscous , lighter on basal half , with an indistinct darker discal spot ; cilia fuscous - grey , with a blackish basal line .\nfemale . \u201417 mm . head and thorax whitish - ochreous . palpi whitish - ochreous , externally with a few dark fuscous scales . antenn\u00e6 whitish - ochreous , spotted with fuscous . abdomen grey - whitish . legs whitish - ochreous , anterior pair suffused with dark fuscous . forewings elongate , not dilated , costa gently arched , apex pointed , hindmargin very obliquely rounded ; whitish - ochreous ; a brownish - ochreous streak , its lower margin irregularly mixed with blackish - fuscous , along fold from a base to anal angle ; a dark fuscous dot in disc before middle , a second at \u2154 , and a third on submedian streak obliquely before first ; an irregular line of dark fuscous scales from \u00be of costa to anal angle , sharply angulated in middle , indented above middle : cilia whitish - ochreous . hindwings and cilia ochreous - grey - whitish .\nwellington ; a specimen received from mr . g . v . hudson , who has taken others . probably nearest to \u0153 . griseata .\nmount arthur ( 4 , 500 feet ) , in january ; abundant on the flowers of aciphylla , within a limited locality .\nhead smooth ; ocelli present ; tongue well - developed . antenn\u00e6 \u2158 , in male biciliated with fascicles ( 2\u20133 ) , basal joint moderate , without pecten . labial palpi moderately long , recurved , second joint exceeding base of antenn\u00e6 , thickened with appressed scales , terminal joint somewhat shorter than second , acute . maxillary palpi rudimentary . posterior tibi\u00e6 roughly haired above and beneath on basal half . forewings with vein 1 long - furcate , 2 from about \u00be , 3\u20135 approximated at base , 7 and 8 stalked , 7 to about apex . hindwings broader than forewings , oblong - ovate , cilia \u2155\u2013\u00bd ; veins 3 and 4 from a point , 6 and 7 tolerably parallel , 1b pectinated .\nthe position of this genus ( referred here by zeller ) must be regarded at present as doubtful ; it appears to be a synthetic or undeveloped type , certainly having affinities with this family , but perhaps rather to be considered as an early unspecialised form of the gelechiad\u0153 . besides the two following , there is only one peruvian species known .\nhel . illita , feld . ( atychia illita , feld . , p1 . oxl , 32 . )\nvar . a . thorax and forewings almost wholly suffused with bright ferruginous , all markings absent .\nnelson and dunedin , in january ; flies actively in the sunshine over the tops of high leptospermum bushes ; seems local , but common where it occurs .\n( tachyptilia atychioides , butl . , proc . zool . soc . lond . , 1877 , 405 , pl . xliii . , 14 . )\nfemale ) , rarely with very obscure cloudy fuscous - whitish longitudinal streaks on basal half above and below median vein ; cilia light fuscous or whitish , rarely clear white , with dark fuscous basal line .\nwhangarei , hamilton , wellington , and christchurch ; common in december and january , frequenting . leptospermum , principally on coast sandhills .\nthe three additional mountain species here given are superficially very similar , but are easily separated by comparison of the markings of hindwings , and the metallic markings of forewings . i have an underscribed tasmanian species , which also approaches them nearly .\nmount arthur ( 3 , 900 feet ) , arthur ' s pass ( 3 , 000 feet ) , and castle hill ( 3 , 000 feet ) , in january ; common amongst rank herbage .\nlake wakatipu ( 2 , 200 feet ) , in december ; one specimen .\narthur ' s pass ( 3 , 000 to 3 , 500 feet ) , in january ; rather common .\nwhangarei , in december ; seven specimens , amongst forest ; a very handsome species .\nmale , female . \u201410\u201311 mm . head and thorax deep greyish - bronze , thorax with a small posterior white spot . palpi white , second joint with four black bands , terminal joint black in front . antenn\u00e6 and abdomen dark fuscous . legs dark fuscous , ringed with whitish . forewings elongate , costa gently arched , apex round - pointed , hindmargin sinuate , oblique ; rather deep greyish - bronze , posterior half mixed with light bronzy - ochreous ; an ochreous - white oblique streak from costa at \u2153 , broadest in middle , apex acute , reaching half across wing ; a slender white slightly curved fascia from middle of costa to inner margin beyond middle , sometimes indistinct in disc , forming a small spot on inner margin ; a silvery - blue - metallic slightly curved\nslender fascia from \u2154 , of costa to \u00be , of inner margin , becoming white at extremities ; three short silvery - blue - metallic streaks from costa between this and apex , forming white dots on costa , last margining a round black apical spot ; a subtriangular black anal patch , containing four round violet - golden - metallic spots : cilia grey , with a blackish line near base , interrupted by a triangular white indentation above middle . hindwings dark grey ; cilia grey .\nmount arthur ( 4 , 000 feet ) , in january ; two specimens .\nmale , female . \u20148\u201311 mm . head and thorax dark bronzy - grey . palpi white , with four black bands , apex black in front . antenn\u00e6 and abdomen dark fuscous . legs dark fuscous , ringed with whitish . forewings elongate , costa gently arched , apex round - pointed , hindmargin sinuate , oblique ; rather dark bronzy - fuscous or bronzy - grey , more or less densely irrorated with ochreous - whitish ; in pale specimens a small dark spot in disc towards base , and a fine angulated dark transverse line about \u2154 , beyond which is a whitish dot on inner margin ; about eight short wedge - shaped ochreous - whitish strigul\u00e6 from costa between \u2153 , and apex , first four often very obscure , fifth giving rise to a slender angulated pale golden - metallic fascia , which forms a very small whitish spot on inner margin , last three more distinct ,\nbecoming pale golden - metallic at apex ; a pale golden - metallic dot on hindmargin above middle ; a small round dark fuscous apical spot : cilia with basal half bronzy - grey limited by a strong black line triangularly indented above middle , terminal half white , tips grey , with a black apical hook . hindwings rather dark fuscous - grey ; cilia fuscous - grey .\nchristchurch , in february and march ; common on grassy volcanic hills . allied to g . acrothecta , but broader - winged , and differing in numerous details .\nmale , female . \u201415\u201320 mm . head , palpi , antenn\u00e6 , thorax , abdomen , and legs whitish - ochreous ; second joint of palpi with indications of fuscous bands ; anterior legs infuscated . fore - wings elongate , narrow , costa gently arched , apex in male round - pointed , in female very acute , hindmargin extremely obliquely rounded ; whitish - ochreous ; a few dark fuscous scales tending to form lines on veins : cilia whitish - ochreous . hind - wings pale whitish - grey , ochreous - tinged ; cilia whitish - ochreous .\nmount arthur ( 4 , 600 feet ) , in january ; six specimens .\nhead smooth ; ocelli present ; tongue short . antenn\u00e6 \u00be , in male filiform , shortly ciliated ( \u00bd ) , basal joint moderate , simple . labial palpi moderate , curved , porrected or subascending , loosely rough - scaled beneath throughout , terminal joint shorter than second , pointed . maxillary palpi obsolete . abdomen elongate . posterior tibi\u00e6 with appressed scales . forewings with vein 1 furcate , 2 from near angle , 7 and 8 separate , 7 to hindmargin , 11 from before middle , secondary cell well - defined , hindwings \u00be , lanceolate , cilia 1 \u00bd ; veins 3 and 4 from a point , 6 and 7 rather approximated towards base .\nmale , female . \u201411\u201315 mm . head , thorax , and abdomen pale whitish - ochreous . palpi whitish . antenn\u00e6 grey . legs fuscous , posterior pair suffused with ochreous - whitish . forewings elongate - lanceolate , apex in female acuminate ; ochreous - whitish ; a moderate straight bronzy subcostal stripe from base to apex ; a cloudy ochreous streak along submedian fold , more or less obsolete posteriorly : cilia ochreous - whitish . hindwings in male grey , in female grey - whitish ; cilia ochreous - whitish .\nmale , female . \u201410\u201312 mm . head and thorax dark bronzy - fuscous . palpi dark fuscous , towards base whitish . antenn\u00e6 and abdomen dark fuscous . legs dark grey , apex of joints obscurely whitish . forewings lanceolate ; rather dark greyish - bronze : cilia light grey , costal cilia white . hindwings grey ; cilia light grey , on costa grey - whitish .\narthur ' s pass ( 3 , 000 to 4 , 000 feet ) , in january ; five specimens .\nhead smooth ; ocelli present ; tongue short . antenn\u00e6 almost 1 , in male serrulate , shortly ciliated ( \u2154 ) , basal joint moderate , simple . labial palpi moderate , filiform , curved , rather drooping , terminal joint as long as second , acute . maxillary palpi absolete . abdomen elongate . posterior tibi\u00e6 with appressed scales . forewings with vein 1 furcate , 2 almost from angle , 7 and 8 stalked , 7 to hindmargin , 11 from before middle . hindwings \u2154 , lanceolate , cilia 1 \u00bd , ; veins 3 and 4 in male separate at origin , in female from a point , 6 and 7 tolerably parallel .\nin one specimen examined vein 5 of the hindwings was absent , but this would appear to be an accidental deformity .\nmale , female . \u201411\u201314 mm . head and thorax dark bronzy - fuscous , collar paler . palpi bronzy - fuscous , lighter towards base . antenn\u00e6 , abdomen , and legs dark fuscous . forewings elongate - lanceolate ; deep bronze , more or less irrorated with light bronzy - ochreous : cilia bronzy . hindwings and cilia dark fuscous .\nmakatoku ( hawke ' s bay ) , in march ; common , frequenting rushes ( juncus ) on the skirts of the forest .\nhead smooth ; ocelli present ; tongue well - developed . antenn\u00e6 1 , in male pubescent - ciliated ( \u00bd ) , joints closely set , basal joint elongate , without pecten . labial palpi very long , smooth , recurved , second joint somewhat thickened , terminal joint longer than second , slender , acute . maxillary palpi very short , appressed to tongue . posterior tibi\u00e6 somewhat rough - haired above on basal half . forewings with vein 1 furcate , 2 from near angle , 7 and 8 stalked , 7 to costa , 11 from middle . hindwings 1 , elongate - oblong , apex and hindmargin rounded , cilia almost 1 ; veins 3 and 4 from a point , 6 and 7 parallel .\ncomps . bifaciella , walk . ( gelechia bifaciella , walk . , 657 . )\nwhangarei , auckland , and wellington , in december and january ; common amongst forest .\nthe four additional species here recorded are exceedingly interesting , and the two species of pal\u00e6omicra extremely handsome . all are most difficult to see on the wing , in fact almost invisible ; much more difficult than the european species of micropteryx .\nin the two following species the tongue is well - developed , and vein 6 of the forewings is separate ; in all other respects the structure is identical with that of m . paracosma . the antenn\u00e6 in all the species are clothed with loose hair - scales , arranged in whorls at the joints ; the spurs of the middle tib\u00e6 are well - developed .\nmale , female . \u201411\u201312 mm . head white . palpi dark fuscous , apex broadly white . antenn\u00e6 whitish - ochreous , annulated with fuscous . thorax white . patagia dark fuscous . abdomen dark fuscous . legs dark fuscous , apex of joints ochreous - whitish . forewings lanceolate ; white , more or less partially suffused with pale whitish - yellowish ; a dark fuscous blotch occupying costal half of wing from base to \u00be , its posterior edge inwardly oblique ; a dark fuscous streak along inner margin from base , gradually narrowed , terminating in an outwardly oblique triangular dark fuscous spot , the apex of which touches lower posterior angle of\ncostal blotch ; apical third of wing pale brownish - ochreous , mixed with dark fuscous and a few white scales : cilia brownish - ochreous , with small white apical and median spots , above apex and towards anal angle dark fuscous . hindwings dark purple - fuscous ; cilia rather dark fuscous .\nnelson ( 1 , 500 to 3 , 500 feet ) , in january , amongst forest ; four specimens .\nin p . doroxena veins 7 and 8 of both wings are separate ; the point is probably not of much importance in this group , as it only implies a small shifting of one of the variable transverse bars , and the generic definition should be widened to include this case . the genus remains distinct from micropteryxa by the presence of the additional branch of vein 11 of forewings .\nmale , female . - 7\u20138 mm . head ferruginous or pale ochreous . palpi whitish - ochreous . antenn\u00e6 pale ochreous , with three more or less perceptible blackish bands . thorax whitish - yellowish . abdomen dark grey . anterior and middle legs whitish - ochreous , apex of joints black ; posterior legs dark grey , apex of joints whitish - ochreous . forewings oblong , costa abruptly bent near base , thence gently arched , apex acute , hind - margin straight , very oblique ; neuration quite as in p . chalco - phanes ; dark fuscous - purple , with bronzy reflections ; extreme base whitish - yellowish ; a moderately broad straight whitish - yellowish fascia before middle , generally narrowest above ; a\nwhitish - yellowish dot or small spot on costa about \u00be , variable in size , sometimes absent : cilia dark grey , with a rather large pale whitish - yellowish apical spot . hindwings dark purple - grey ; cilia dark grey .\nauckland ( waitakere ranges ) , in december ; common in a very restricted locality amongst sedge in the kauri forest .\nauckland ( waitakere ranges ) , in december ; one specimen amongst the kauri forest . this species is very interesting from the strong tendency of the markings to approach those of glyphipteryx .\nthis genus differs from the others of the family by the stalking of veins 6 and 7 of the forewings ; it is hitherto recorded only from australia , where there are several species .\nfemale . \u201412 mm . head white , crown ochreous - tinged . palpi white , beneath with some black scales . antenn\u00e6 white , with a black scale - streak at base . thorax ochreous - white , with a lateral brownish - ochreous stripe . abdomen grey . anterior legs blackish ; middle and posterior legs ochreous - white . forewings elongate - lanceolate ; greyish - ochreous , suffused with\nrather dark fuscous towards inner margin ; markings white , faintly ochreous - tinged ; a very fine longitudinal median line from base to \u2154 , seven wedge - shaped strigul\u00e6 from costa , first two very oblique , reaching half across wing , first connected with base by a slender costal streak , five latter shorter and less oblique ; a subtriangular spot on inner margin at \u2153 , and a sub - oval one at \u2154 , a small black apical spot : cilia light greyish - ochreous , with a blackish - grey median line on upper half , some white scales at base towards middle of hindmargin , and two diverging blackish hooks at apex . hindwings and cilia light grey ; costal cilia whitish .\nwhangarei , in december ; one specimen . superficially this species has considerable resemblance with the australian como - dica tetracercella , especially in the possession of the double apical hook in the cilia .\nmale , female . \u2013only differs from e . charadroa in having the face and forehead wholly blackish .\nwhangarei and auckland , in december ; two specimens . i think this is truly distinct from e . charadrota ; i have taken a considerable number of the latter species at auckland , tara - naki , wellington , and christchurch , from december to february , without finding any which vary in the direction of e . melanotricha .\nhead densely rough - haired ( rarely face smooth ) . antenn\u00e6 with joints closely set , transverse . maxillary palpi generally well - developed . forewings with vein 11 from or before middle of cell . hindwings with veins 3 and 4 separate .\nrepresented in new zealand by a few casual species , several of which are introduced .\nhead densely rough - haired ; ocelli present ; tongue obsolete . antenn\u00e6 \u215a , in male simple , joints closely set , basal joint moderate , with pecten . labial palpi moderate , slender , some what arched , porrected , second joint with appressed scales , slightly rough beneath , with a few long bristles , terminal joint rather shorter than second , tolerably pointed . maxillary palpi long , curved , drooping , filiform . posterior tib\u00e6 clothed with long fine hairs . forewings with vein 1 simple , 2 from angle , 4 absent , 7 to costa , 11 from \u2153 . hindwings \u2154\u2013\u00be , narrow - lanceolate , cilia 2\u20133 ; veins 5 and 6 sometimes stalked , 7 more or less approximated to 6 at base .\nfemale . \u201413\u201314 mm . head and antenn\u00e6 whitish - ochreous . palpi blackish . thorax whitish - ochreous , anterior margin narrowly black . abdomen light grey . legs black , ringed with whitish - ochreous , posterior pair whitish - ochreous . forewings elongate - lanceolate ; whitish - ochreous ; a small elongate black spot on costa towards base , continued as a costal line to base ; a smaller narrow black spot on costa before middle , beneath which are some irregular fuscous - reddish scales ; a black dot on costa at \u2154 , beneath which is a small fuscous - reddish spot ; apical fourth of wing suffused with reddish - fuscous ; some black scales at apex : cilia ochreous - grey - whitish , with a cloudy blackish median line , becoming obsolete on lower half of hindmargin . hindwings with veins 5 and 6 stalked ; light grey ; cilia ochreous - grey - whitish .\nwhangarei , palmerston , and christchurch , from december to march ; eight specimens .\nmale , female . - 10\u201314 mm . head ochreous - whitish . palpi blackish , apex white . antenn\u00e6 fuscous . thorax whitish - ochreous , anterior margin blackish . abdomen whitish - ochreous . legs dark fuscous ringed with ochreous - whitish , posterior tib\u00e6 whitish - ochreous . forewings elongate - lanceolete ; light brownish -\nochreous , irregularly suffused with ochreous - whitish ; two small black spots on costa towards base ; a blackish longitudinal mark in disc near base ; a straight rather oblique thick blackish bar from costa at \u2156 , reaching more than half across wing , followed by an ochreous - whitish bar ; space between these blackish markings suffused with fuscous ; posterior half of costa blackish - fuscous spotted with ochreous - whitish ; a small black spot in disc at \u2154 , more or less distinctly bisected by a projection from an ochreous - whitish . spot beneath it : cilia pale whitish - ochreons with a median row of blackish points . hindwings with veins 5 and 6 separate ; whitish - grey ; cilia pale whitish - ochreons .\nauckland and christchurch , in december ; two specimens . nearly allied to e . pharotoma , but distinctly less narrow - winged ; the best distinctive markings appear to be the well - defined thick black bar from costa , and the obsolescence of marking in the cilia .\nmale . \u20149 mm . head ochreous - whitish . palpi blackish , apex white . antenn\u00e6 grey . thorax greyish - ochreous , anterior margin dark fuscous . abdomen grey . legs blackish , ringed with white , posterior pair grey . forewings elongate - lanceolate , narrow ; fuscous ; a slender ferruginous streak along submedian fold , suffusedly margined beneath with whitish - ochreous , and above by three cloudy blackish dots ; two small black spots on costa towards base ; a black wedge - shaped spot from costa before middle , reaching half across wing , followed by an ochreous - white similar spot ; posterior half of costa narrowly black , with five small clear ochreous - white spots a short longitudinal ferruginous streak in disc beyond middle ; an irregular , small , white spot in disc at \u00be , partially margined above with black ; apex and hindmargin suffusedly irrorated with blackish : cilia ochreous - greyish , somewhat mixed with blackish , with a whitish basal dot above middle . hindwings with veins 5 and 6 separate ; dark grey ; cilia grey .\nwellington , in january ; one specimen . closely allied to the two preceding , but immediately separable by the dark - grey hindwings .\nhead shortly rough - haired ; ocelli present ; tongue short . antenn\u00e6 \u00be , in male rather thick , filiform , simple , joints closely set , basal joint moderate , without pecten . labial palpi moderate , rather ascending , second joint with rather rough projecting scales , beneath with a few long bristles , terminal joint somewhat shorter than second , tolerably pointed . maxillary palpi moderate , tolerably filiform , drooping . posterior tibi\u00e6 clothed with long dense hairs , forewings with vein 1\nsimple , 2 from near angle , 7 to costa , 11 from \u2153 , hindwings 1 , oblong - ovate , cilia 1 ; vein 4 absent , 6 and 7 tolerably parallel .\nmale , female . \u20148\u201313 mm . head white . palpi blackish , terminal joint and apex of second white . antenn\u00e6 white , terminal third black except two subapical rings . thorax white , anterior margin blackish . abdomen grey - whitish . legs blackish , ringed with whitish , posterior tibi\u00e6 whitish . fore - wings elongate , costa gently arched , apex round pointed , hind - margin extremely obliquely rounded ; ochreous - white ; dorsal half suffusedly streaked with whitish - ochreous ; a thick , gradually - dilated , blackish streak along costa from base to \u00be , apex pointed , lower margin with a slight projection before middle ; sometimes an irregular blackish line below middle from near base parallel to inner and hind - margins to apex , and a similar almost marginal line along inner margin to anal angle , thence as a hindmarginal streak to apex , where it is confluent with the first ; sometimes a defined narrow blackish streak along inner margin , and a moderate blackish hindmarginal fascia attenuated at extremities : cilia whitish - ochreous , base within a black line ochreous - white , sometimes wholly suffused with grey . hindwings grey or whitish - grey , rarely rather dark grey ; cilia whitish - grey .\ntaranaki , makatoku , wellington , nelson , otira gorge , christchurch , dunedin , and lake wakatipu ; in august , september , december , january , and march ; common , frequenting forest . the species varies considerably in the presence or absence of black dorsal and hindmarginal streaks , but the varieties run into one another .\nhead densely rough - haired ; ocelli absent ; tongue short . antenn\u00e6 \u215a , in male pubescent - ciliated , with joints closely set , basal joint moderate , with small pecten . labial palpi moderate , porrected , with tolerably appressed scales , second joint with several long bristles above and beneath at apex , terminal joint shorter than second , tolerably pointed . maxillary palpi long , tolerably filiform , folded . posterior tibi\u00e6 clothed with hairs . forewings with vein 1 furcate , 2 from about angle , 3 and 4 stalked , sometimes 6 and 7 or 7 and 8 stalked , 7 to costa , 11 from near middle ; a naked ( usually transparent ) depression in disc beneath . hindwings 1 , elongate - ovate , cilia \u00be ; sometimes 5 and 6 stalked ( not in new zealand species ) .\na small cosmopolitan genus , of which some species are domestic and widely introduced .\n( tinea ethelella , newm . , trans . ent . soc . lond . , iii . ( n . s . ) , 288 ; t . rectella , walk . , 482 ; blabophanes namuella , feld . , pl . oxl . , 44 . )\nmale , female . \u201416\u201320 mm . head pale whitish - ochreous . palpi dark fuscous , apex ochreous - whitish . antenn\u00e6 fuscous . thorax dark fuscous , with a broad pale whitish - ochreous dorsal stripe . abdomen whitish - grey . legs dark fuscous , apex of joints whitish - yellowish , posterior pair pale ochreous - yellowish . fore - wings elongate , costa moderately arched , apex obtuse , hindmargin very obliquely rounded ; veins 6 and 7 stalked ; dark fuscous ; some obscure whitish - ochreous dots towards costa ; a moderate clear whitish - ochreous streak along inner margin from base to anal angle , upper edge rather irregular ; a well - defined transparent ochreous - whitish discal spot : cilia pale whitish - ochreous , obscurely spotted with dark fuscous , on costa more ochreous - yellowish . hindwings rather light grey ; cilia whitish - grey , becoming pale whitish - ochreous towards anal angle .\nauckland , palmerston , nelson ( to 4 , 000 feet ) , christchurch , and dunedin ; from october to may , generally common , often at light . occurs also commonly in south - east australia and tasmania .\nmale . \u201411 mm . much smaller than b . ethelella ; head ferruginous - tinged ; forewings with veins 6 and 7 separate , towards costa obscurely strigulated with whitish - ochreous , discal spot larger relatively , cilia pale whitish - ochreous , on costa barred with dark grey : hindwings whitish - grey , more whitish towards anal angle , cilia whitish : otherwise similar .\ntaranaki , napier , wellington , nelson ( to 4 , 000 feet ) , and christchurch ; rather common , more or less all the year round . introduced from europe by civilization ; now occurring also in north america and australia .\nmale . \u201410\u201311 mm . head light fuscous . palpi dark fuscous , internally whitish . antenn\u00e6 , thorax , abdomen , and legs dark fuscous . forewings elongate , costa gently arched , apex round - pointed , hindmargin extremely obliquely rounded ; veins 6 and 7 stalked ; rather dark fuscous , somewhat irrorated with paler ; an obscure , cloudy , very irregular - edged whitish - ochreous streak near inner margin from base nearly to anal angle ; discal spot only indicated on lower surface , not transparent : cilia rather dark fuscous . hindwings rather dark fuscous ; cilia fuscous .\nchristchurch ; bred from bird - nests by mr . r . w . fereday , to whom i am indebted for types .\nhead densely rough - haired ; ocelli absent ; tongue short . antenn\u00e6 \u215a , in male with joints closely set , pubescent - ciliated or simple , basal joint moderate , with or without small pecten . labial palpi moderate , porrected , second joint shortly rough - scaled , with a few long bristles above and beneath , terminal joint shorter than second , tolerably pointed . maxillary palpi moderate or long , tolerably filiform , more or less folded . posterior tibi\u00e6 clothed with loose hairs . forewings with vein 1 furcate , 2 from near angle , 7 to costa , 11 from before middle . hindwings 1 , elongate - ovate , cilia \u2154\u20131 ; sometimes 5 and 6 stalked .\nalso a cosmopolitan genus , of which several species are domestic , and now widely distributed .\n( tinea tapetiella ( tapetzella ) , l . ; t . palcestrica , butl . , proc . zool . soc . lond . , 1887 , 404 . )\nmale , female . \u201413\u201321 mm . head white . thorax dark fuscous . forewings elongate , round - pointed ; ochreous - white ; basal \u2156 blackish - fuscous ; a grey spot in disc at \u2154 , and some irregularly scattered small grey spots posteriorly , especially towards anal angle ; a black dot on inner margin at \u2154 , and two before apex : cilia ochreous - white , round apex dark grey . hind - wings with veins 5 and 6 separate ; grey ; cilia ochreous - grey - whitish .\nwellington and nelson , in january ; several specimens ; the larva feeds principally in furs and skins . introduced from europe ; occurs also in australia and north america .\nmale . \u201416\u201317 mm . head whitish - ochreous , brownish - tinged . palpi rather long , whitish - ochreous , with a fine blackish lateral line . antenn\u00e6 whitish - ochreous , with a black scale - streak at base , ciliations \u00be , thorax ochreous - brown mixed with\nwhitish - ochreous . abdomen grey . legs fuscous , anterior tarsi dark fuscous with a longitudinal whitish - ochreous line , posterior pair whitish - ochreous . forewings elongate - lanceolate ; fuscous sprinkled with whitish - ochreous , and obscurely streaked with ferruginous ; a darker longitudinal streak , partially suffused with ferruginous , below middle from base to apex , becoming dark fuscous at \u2154 , and apex , margined above by a suffused whitish - ochreous streak , and beneath by a whitish - ochreous dorsal space streaked with ferruginous ; a dark fuscous dot above the whitish - ochreous streak at \u2154 ; a fine dark fuscous hindmarginal line : cilia ochreous - whitish , mixed with light ochreous , towards anal angle suffused with ochreous . hindwings with veins 5 and 6 separate ; dark grey , purple - shining , towards base lighter and thinly scaled ; cilia grey , towards anal angle grey - whitish .\nnelson , in january ; two specimens in a forest ravine . the appearance of this species is quite unlike any other of the genus , and recalls some of the new zealand species of gelechia .\nmale . \u201413 mm . head whitish - fuscous . palpi fuscous , base and apex ochreous - whitish . antenn\u00e6 , thorax , and abdomen fuscous ; antennal ciliations 3 . legs dark fuscous , apex of joints ochreous - whitish . forewings elongate , moderate , costa gently arched , apex round - pointed , hindmargin straight , very oblique ; rather dark fuscous ; a tolerably well - defined ochreous - whitish streak along fold from base to anal angle , upper margin with a slight projection before and a stronger one beyond middle , between which is a small dark fuscous spot : cilia rather dark fuscous , purple - shining , tips beneath apex and a small spot beneath anal angle ochreous - whitish . hindwings with veins 5 and 6 separate ; rather dark fuscous , purple - shining , lighter and thinly scaled towards base ; cilia fuscous .\npalmerston ( north island ) , in march ; one specimen amongst forest . nearly allied to the two following , but distinctly broader - winged than either , and distinguished by the absence of discal spots , clearer pale streak , and different cilia .\nmale , female . \u201412\u201316 mm . head , palpi , antenn\u00e6 , thorax , and abdomen dark fuscous mixed with ochreous - whitish ; antennal ciliations 2 ; thorax sometimes suffused with whitish . legs dark fuscous , apex of joints ochreous - whitish . forewings elongate , costa gently arched , apex round - pointed , hindmargin straight , very oblique ; rather dark fuscous , more or less irrorated with whitish - ochreous and black ; sometimes a cloudy blackish dot on fold at \u00bc ; a cloudy blackish dot in middle of disc , a second obliquely before it on fold , and a third in disc at\n\u00be , all variable in size and ill - defined ; a very indistinct suffused short whitish - ochreous streak along fold , not reaching base ; sometimes in female dorsal and hindmarginal areas broadly suffused with whitish : cilia fuscous , mixed with whitish - ochreous and dark fuscous . hindwings with veins 5 and 6 separate ; dark fuscous , purple - shining , lighter towards base , in female lighter ; cilia fuscous .\nwellington and invercargill , in january and february ; not uncommon amongst forest . i should expect the larva to feed in rotten wood .\nmale . \u201410\u201313 mm . head , palpi , antenn\u00e6 , thorax , and abdomen fuscous ; antennal ciliations 1 \u00bd . legs dark fuscous , apex of joints ochreous - whitish . forewings elongate , costa gently arched , apex round - pointed , hindmargin straight , very oblique ; fuscous , with a few scattered grey - whitish and black scales ; a cloudy black streak from submedian fold before middle to beneath middle of costa ; a cloudy black dot in disc at \u00be , connected with costa at \u00be by a cloudy whitish streak : cilia fuscous , terminal half ochreous - whitish except at apex and anal angle . hindwings with veins 5 and 6 separate ; rather dark fuscous , purple - shining , lighter towards base ; cilia whitish - fuscous .\nchristchurch and lake wakatipu , in december and january ; five specimens . narrower - winged than either of the two preceding , and recognisable by the oblique antemedian bar in disc , and whitish terminal half of cilia .\nmale , female . \u201411\u201316 mm . head light fuscous . forewings elongate , round - pointed ; pale greyish - ochreous , irregularly suffusedly spotted with fuscous ; a dark fuscous dot in disc at \u2153 , a second obliquely beyond it on fold , and a third , larger and more conspicuous , in disc at \u2154 : cilia whitish - ochreous , basal half obscurely barred with fuscous . hindwings with veins 5 and 6 separate ; pale grey , yellowish - shining ; cilia whitish - grey .\nwhangarei , palmerston , wellington , nelson , and dunedin , from october to march ; common , probably everywhere . introduced from europe ; common in australia and north america . the larva feeds on dry refuse .\n( scardia terranea , butl . , cist . ent . ii . , 510 . )\nmale , female . \u201417\u201327 mm . head brownish - ochreous . palpi ochreous , irrorated with dark fuscous , second joint with numerous bristles beneath throughout . antenn\u00e6 fuscous , in male quite simple . thorax and abdomen greyish - ochreous , more or less suffused with fuscous . legs dark fuscous , apex\nof joints pale greyish - ochreous . forewings elongate , costa moderately arched , apex round - pointed , hindmargin extremely obliquely rounded ; light greyish - ochreous , irregularly reticulated with fuscous ; markings rather dark fuscous ; an irregular narrow fascia from \u2155 of costa to \u2156 of inner margin ; a similar somewhat broader fascia from \u2156 of costa to \u2157 of inner margin ; an irregular oblique streak from costa beyond middle , not reaching anal angle ; a short irregular streak from costa at \u215a , sometimes connected beneath with previous streak ; two small spots on costa before this , and one before apex ; a hindmarginal row of cloudy fuscous spots : cilia whitish - ochreous , barred with fuscous . hindwings with veins 5 and 6 stalked ; grey , yellowish - shining ; cilia light grey , tips grey - whitish .\nwellington , christchurch , castle hill ( 2 , 500 feet ) , dunedin , and lake wakatipu , from december to february ; common . the larva feeds in moss on rocks ; pupa in a very dense rough cocoon amongst the moss . this species is in some respects an extreme form of the genus , but it does not seem necessary to separate it .\nonly differs from tinea by the maxillary palpi , which are very short , simple ; these are stated by heinemann and others to be absent , but i find them quite distinct . the tongue appears to be absent .\nmale , female . \u201411\u201313 mm . head light yellow - ochreous . forewings elongate , round - pointed ; whitish - ochreous , uni - colorous . hindwings whitish .\nchristchurch and lake wakatipu , from december to february ; probably common in houses . the larva feeds especially in the lining of chairs and sofas .\nhead with loosely - appressed hairs ; no tongue . maxillary palpi absent . forewings with vein 11 from before middle of cell . hindwings with veins 3 and 4 separate .\nfounded by heinemann on the single european genus lypusa , which differs from the two following by the absence of labial palpi , but is otherwise nearly related . i conjecture that in both the following genera the female is probably apterous .\nhead with loosely - appressed hairs , side - tufts rather rough ; ocelli present ; no tongue . antenn\u00e6 \u00be , in male with joints rather closely set , whorled with scales , simple , basal joint stout , simple . labial palpi moderate , porrected , loosely - scaled , second joint somewhat rough , with long bristles at apex above and\nbeneath , terminal joint shorter than second , tolerably pointed . maxillary palpi obsolete . posterior tibi\u00e6 with tolerably - appressed scales . forewings with vein 1 furcate , 2 from before angle , 7 to costa , 11 from before middle , secondary cell defined . hindwings rather narrower than forewings , elongate - ovate , cilia 1 ; veins 6 and 7 parallel .\nmale . \u201410 mm . head , palpi , antenn\u00e6 , thorax , and abdomen fuscous . legs dark fuscous , apex of joints ochreous - whitish , posterior tibi\u00e6 ochreous - whitish . forewings elongate , costa gently arched , apex rounded , hindmargin very obliquely rounded ; fuscous , irrorated with blackish ; some scattered white scales , tending to form irregular transverse strigu\u00e6 ; the absence of these appears to form darker median and subterminal fasi\u00e6 ; a distinct white double spot on inner margin before middle , and a very small one before anal angle ; a hindmarginal row of cloudy white dots : cilia fuscous , mixed with grey - whitish , with a cloudy dark fuscous line near base . hindwings fuscous - grey ; cilia whitish - grey , with a fuscous basal line .\nwellington , in january ; seven specimens on fences . the larva doubtless feeds on lichens , and is probably a case - bearer ; i saw some small empty subcylindric cases , which i conjectured to belong to this species .\nhead with loosely - appressed hairs ; no ocelli ; no tongue . antenn\u00e6 \u00be , in male with joints elongate , strongly biciliated with fascicles ( 2 \u00bd - 4 ) , basal joint stout , loosely scaled , with small pecten . labial palpi moderate or short , drooping , second joint loosely rough - scaled , with two or three apical bristles , terminal joint tolerably pointed . maxillary palpi obsolete . posterior tibi\u00e6 with tolerably - appressed scales . forewings with vein 1 furcate , 2 from near angle , 6 sometimes absent ( microphanes ) , 7 and 8 stalked , 7 to hindmargin , 11 from before middle , secondary cell tolerably defined . hindwings somewhat narrower than forewings , elongate - ovate : cilia \u2154 - 1 \u00bd ; veins 6 and 7 parallel , 6 sometimes absent ( microphanes ) .\nit is not impossible that the absence of vein 6 in both wings of the single specimen of m . microphanes may prove to be an individual abnormality ; but even if constant , it certainly does not call here for generic separation . the species frequent shady forest .\nmale . \u201413\u201314 mm . head , palpi , antenn\u00e6 , thorax , and abdomen dark fuscous ; palpi short ; antennal ciliations 3 . legs dark fuscous , ringed with whitish - ochreous . forewings elongate , moderate , costa gently arched , apex rounded , hindmargin\nrounded , rather strongly oblique ; dark fuscous , obscurely irrorated with small greyish - ochreous spots ; several on posterior half of costa more distinct ; a small whitish - ochreous subquad - rate spot on inner margin at \u2154 , and another at \u2154 : cilia dark fuscous . hindwings and cilia dark fuscous ; cilia \u2154 .\nmount arthur ( 4 , 000 feet ) , in january ; locally common .\nmale . \u201412\u201313 mm . head , palpi , antenn\u00e6 , and thorax pale greyish - ochreous ; palpi short ; antennal ciliations 4 . abdomen grey . legs dark fuscous , ringed with whitish - ochreous , posterior tibi\u00e6 suffused with whitish - ochreous . forewings elongate , slightly dilated posteriorly , costa gently arched , apex round - pointed , hindmargin very oblique , slightly rounded ; pale greyish - ochreous , sometimes brownish - tinged ; numerous small scattered irregular dark fuscous strigul\u00e6 ; a very obscure ochreous - whitish streak along inner margin from \u2153 to near anal angle , interrupted by a small dark fuscous spot in middle ; a straight narrow dark fuscous fascia from middle of costa to inner margin before anal angle , more or less distinctly interrupted in disc ; three very small dark fuscous spots on posterior half of costa : cilia pale greyish - ochreous , fuscous - tinged . hindwings fuscous - grey ; cilia \u2158 , light fuscous - grey .\nmale . \u20149 mm . head , palpi , and antenn\u00e6 light fuscous ; palpi moderate ; antennal ciliations 2 \u00bd , thorax fuscous . abdomen grey . legs grey - whitish . forewings elongate , costa slightly arched , apex rounded , hindmargin extremely obliquely rounded ; rather dark fuscous , irrorated with very obscure grey - whitish spots ; costa with four more distinct small white spots on posterior , half : cilia whitish - fuscous , basal half except towards anal angle fuscous obscurely spotted with whitish . hindwings light grey ; cilia 1 \u00bd , grey - whitish .\nthis family , closely allied to the tinei\u00e6 , appears to be usually recognisable by the peculiar palpi of the male , of which the terminal joint is very long , stout , recurved , and appressed to the crown and thorax . i will not attempt to give complete family characters , since lord walsingham , who has recently published a paper on the group from considerable material , has unfortunately given no full generic characters nor definition of the group , but only short diagnoses of the genera . in consequence of this i am unable to say whether the following genus is really referable to the family , as i have only seen the one sex , or"]}
{"id": 1552, "summary": [{"text": "exoglossum maxillingua ( cutlips minnow ) is an olive-green medium-sized minnow ( average 6 inches ) of north america with a distinguishing lower jaw .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "isolated from all other minnows by its three-lobed lower jaw with the middle lobe sticking out like a tongue .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the range of this species is from the st. lawrence and lake ontario south into virginia .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is listed as \" threatened \" in the canadian province of ontario , but may never have been common there as this is the most northerly of its range .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is found in running streams and seems to prefer clear , stony pools but not rapids .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the distinctive mouth of the cutlips lets it feed on minuscule shellfish which it scrapes from rocks .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "although molluscs appear to be its primary food , it also eats insect larvae and diatoms .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "an interesting feeding behavior of this species is \" eye-picking \" when food is scarce or competition is high .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the cutlips will pluck out the eyes of conspecifics or other species as a supplement to its regular diet .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "a nest builder , the cutlips male constructs a nest of stone , some of which are up to 18 inches across .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "spawning happens late in spring when the male attempts to crowd females over its nest .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the cutlips is not a popular bait species due to its softened coloration but it takes a hook without much difficulty and is favored in some areas as a choice panfish . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "exoglossum maxillingua", "paragraphs": ["van duzer , e . m . 1939 . observations on the breeding habits of the cutlips minnow , exoglossum maxillingua . copeia ( 2 ) : 65 - 75 .\ncosewic assessment and status report on the cutlip minnow exoglossum maxillingua in canada\n( 2014 - 10 - 15 ) ( pdf format , 1 , 330 . 72 kb )\ncosewic . 2013 . cosewic assessment and status report on the cutlip minnow exoglossum maxillingua in canada . committee on the status of endangered wildlife in canada . ottawa . x + 35 pp .\ncrossman , e . j . , and e . holm . 1996 . the status of the cutlips minnow , exoglossum maxillingua , in canada . canadian field - naturalist 110 : 470 - 477 .\ncrossman , e . j . and e . holm . 1996 . the status of the cutlips minnow , exoglossum maxillingua , in canada . can . field - nat . 110 ( 3 ) : 470 - 477 .\ncrossman , e . j . and e . holm . 1993 . the status of the cutlips minnow , exoglossum maxillingua , in canada . report to the committee on the status of endangered wildlife in canada , ottawa . 35 pp .\nhaase , r . and b . l . haase . 1975 . feeding ecology of the cutlips minnow , exoglossum maxillingua , in the delaware river at bushkill , pennsylvania . proceedings of the pennsylvania academy of sciences 49 : 67 - 72 .\nthe cutlip minnow , exoglossum maxillingua , is a stout - bodied minnow that reaches a maximum length of 160 mm . it has silvery sides with a greenish purple sheen , and is distinguished from all other members of the family cyprinidae in north america by its unique tri - lobed lower jaw .\nsutherland , d . a . 1997 . cossaro candidate v , t , e species evaluation form for cutlips minnow ( exoglossum maxillingua ) . unpublished report prepared by natural heritage information centre for committee on the status of species at risk in ontario ( cossaro ) , ontario ministry of natural resources . 4 pp .\nexoglossum maxillingua resembles tonguetied minnow , e . laurae , but can be distinguished by the presence of much larger fleshy lobe on each side of lower jaw , well separated from central bony plate and followed by another fleshy lobe on underside of head , and by absence of barbel near corner of mouth ( ref . 86798 ) .\nmaurakis , e . g . , w . s . woolcott , and m . h . sabaj . 1991 . reproductive behavior of exoglossum species . bulletin of the alabama museum of natural history 10 : 11 - 16 .\nurltoken needs javascript to function properly and provide you with a fast , stable experience . please enable javascript or check your browser ' s settings .\nle site urltoken exige javascript pour fonctionner comme il faut , avec rapidit\u00e9 et stabilit\u00e9 . veuillez activer javascript ou v\u00e9rifier les param\u00e8tres de votre navigateur .\nyou are using an outdated browser that is no longer supported by ontario . ca . outdated browsers lack safety features that keep your information secure , and they can also be slow . learn about the browsers we support .\nvous utilisez un navigateur d\u00e9suet qui n\u2019est plus accept\u00e9 par ontario . ca . les navigateurs d\u00e9suets ne disposent pas de caract\u00e9ristiques s\u00e9curitaires permettant d\u2019assurer la s\u00e9curit\u00e9 de vos renseignements . en savoir plus sur les navigateurs que nous supportons .\ngreek , exos = outside + greek , glossa = tongue ( ref . 45335 )\nnorth america : atlantic slope from st . lawrence river drainage in quebec , canada to upper roanoke river in north carolina , usa ( absent in most of new england ; present in connecticut river , vermont based on single record ) ; lake ontario drainage in ontario , canada and new york , usa . also present in upper new river drainage in west virginia and virginia , usa where may be based on introduction .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 16 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 86798 ) ; common length : 10 . 8 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 12193 ) ; max . reported age : 2 years ( ref . 12193 )\ninhabits rocky pools and runs of creeks and small to medium rivers . usually found in quiet water near boulders . males construct large circular or rectangular nests by piling pebbles carried in the mouth ( ref . 5723 , 86798 ) . feeds on insects and mollusks ( ref . 54729 ) .\npage , l . m . and b . m . burr , 2011 . a field guide to freshwater fishes of north america north of mexico . boston : houghton mifflin harcourt , 663p . ( ref . 86798 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 7500 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00813 ( 0 . 00393 - 0 . 01681 ) , b = 3 . 12 ( 2 . 95 - 3 . 29 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 0 \u00b10 . 33 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( tmax = 2 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 27 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nthe cutlip minnow is a small freshwater fish in the cyprinidea family ( minnows ) . it can reach a length of about 160 mm . it can be distinguished from other fish species by its stout body , its silvery sides with a greenish purple sheen and its tri - lobed lower lip .\nin canada , the cutlip minnow is found in the st . lawrence river watershed , from ivy lea , ontario to saint - pascal , quebec . in ontario , the species is now found in only three of the seven waterbodies where it was historically present . the species is more widespread in quebec but , since 2002 , the species has been collected in only 79 of 206 waterbodies where it was historically present . it is difficult to determine if this is the result of a decline in the species , a lack of sampling in more recent times , or a combination thereof .\nthe cutlip minnow is found primarily in clear rivers and streams with slow currents and channel substrate composed of cobbles , gravel , sand , mud and aquatic vegetation . it is a bottom feeder , consuming a variety of aquatic invertebrates .\nduring a survey , this fish was captured and then released unharmed back into the water . photo credit : nate tessler\nlittle is known about threats that are specific to the cutlip minnow . the species may be intolerant of persistent turbidity and excessive siltation , both potential consequences of certain agricultural and urban activities . the round goby and the tench , two invasive species known to negatively impact native fishes , may also have adverse effects on the cutlip minnow .\nthe cutlip minnow was assessed by the committee on the status of endangered wildlife in canada ( cosewic ) as a species of special concern . public consultations regarding the addition of this population to the list of wildlife species at risk were held from november 17 , 2014 to february 27 , 2015 . the governor - in - council ' s listing recommendation will published in the canada gazette part i ( government of canada newspaper where laws and regulations are published ) and on the species at risk public registry .\nthe cutlip minnow possesses several characteristics that make it unique . for example , it is the only north american minnow to have a tri - lobed lower lip , and one of the few minnows that demonstrate post - hatching care of fry . it is also known to attack and consume the eyes of other species of fish , which is the source of its common name ,\neye picker .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nresearch curator of fishes , north carolina state museum of natural sciences , research laboratory , 4301 reedy creek rd . , raleigh , nc , 27607 , usa\nbanks , r . c . , r . w . mcdiarmid , a . l . gardner , and w . c . starnes\nchecklist of vertebrates of the united states , the u . s . territories , and canada\nspecial publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3\nnelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , et al . , eds .\nfull author list : nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h\u00e9ctor espinosa - p\u00e9rez , lloyd t . findley , carter r . gilbert , robert n . lea , and james d . williams\nrobins , richard c . , reeve m . bailey , carl e . bond , james r . brooker , ernest a . lachner , et al .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nbarbour , m . t . , j . gerritsen , b . d . snyder , and j . b . stribling . 1999 . tolerance and trophic guilds of selected fish species . appendix c in rapid bioassessment protocols for use in streams and wadeable rivers : periphyton , benthic macroinvertebrates and fish , second edition . epa 841 - b - 99 - 002 . u . s . environmental protection agency ; office of water . washington , dc .\nbernatchez , l . and m . giroux . 2000 . les poissons d\u2019eau douce du qu\u00e9bec et leur r\u00e9partition dans l\u2019est du canada . broquet inc . saint - constant , qc . 350 pp .\ncarlander , k . d . 1969 . handbook of freshwater fishery biology . volume one . life history data on freshwater fishes of the united states and canada , exclusive of the perciformes . iowa state university press . ames , ia . vi + 752 pp .\ncoad , b . w . with h . waszczuk and i . labignan . 1995 . encyclopedia of canadian fishes . museum of nature and canadian sportfishing productions . ottawa and waterdown , on . viii + 928 pp .\ncoker , g . a . , c . b . portt , and c . k . minns . 2001 . morphological and ecological characteristics of canadian freshwater fishes . can . ms rpt . fish . aquat . sci . 2554 : iv + 89p .\ncooper , e . l . 1983 . fishes of pennsylvania and the northeastern united states . pennsylvania state university press . university park and london . vii + 243 pp .\ncosewic . 2017 . canadian wildlife species at risk . october 2017 . committee on the status of endangered wildlife in canada . gatineau , qc . iv + 119 pp .\ncudmore , b . and n . e . mandrak . 2011 . the baitfish primer : a guide to identifying and protecting ontario\u2019s baitfishes . fisheries and oceans canada , bait association of ontario , ontario ministry of natural resources and ontario federation of anglers and hunters . 40 pp .\ndesroches , j - f . and i . picard . 2013 . poissons d\u2019eau douce du qu\u00e9bec et des maritimes . \u00e9ditions michel quintin . waterloo , qc . 471 pp .\nditz , k and m . croft - white . 2013 . ontario ministry of natural resources fish species codes & common names . ichthyology and herpetology , royal ontario museum . may 1994 . reformatted and revised by m . croft - white , 2013 .\ngoldstein , r . m . and t . p . simon . 1999 . toward a united definition of guild structure for feeding ecology of north american freshwater fishes . pages 123 - 202 in t . p . simon [ ed ] . assessing the sustainability and biological integrity of water resources using fish communities . crc press . boca raton , fl . xx + 671 pp .\nhalliwell , d . b . , r . w . langdon , r . a . daniels , j . p . kurtenbach , and r . a . jacobson . 1999 . classification of freshwater fishes of the northeastern united states for use in the development of indices of biological integrity . pages 301 - 337 in t . p . simon [ ed ] . assessing the sustainability and biological integrity of water resources using fish communities . crc press . boca raton , fl . xx + 671 pp .\nholm , e . , n . mandrak , and m . burridge . 2009 . the rom field guide to freshwater fishes of ontario . royal ontario museum science publication . toronto , on . 462 pp .\nhubbs , c . l . and k . f . lagler . 1964 . fishes of the great lakes region . university of michigan press . ann arbor , mi . xv + 213 pp .\nhubbs , c . l . , k . f . lagler , and g . r . smith . 2004 . fishes of the great lakes region , revised edition . university of michigan press . ann arbor , mi . xvii + 276 pp .\nintegrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . 2014 . on - line database . ( urltoken ) , accessed 07 june 2014 .\njenkins , r . e . and n . m . burkhead . 1993 . freshwater fishes of virginia . american fisheries society . bethesda , md . xxiii + 1079 pp .\nlane , p . a . , c . b . portt , and c . k . minns . 1996 . nursery habitat characteristics of great lakes fishes . can . ms rpt . fish . aquat . sci . 2338 : v + 42p .\nlane , p . a . , c . b . portt , and c . k . minns . 1996 . adult habitat characteristics of great lakes fishes . can . ms rpt . fish . aquat . sci . 2358 : v + 43p .\nlane , p . a . , c . b . portt , and c . k . minns . 1996 . spawning habitat characteristics of great lakes fishes . can . ms rpt . fish . aquat . sci . 2368 : v + 48p .\nlee , d . s . , c . r . gilbert , c . h . hocutt , r . e . jenkins , d . e . mcallister , and j . r . stauffer , jr . 1980 . atlas of north american freshwater fishes . north carolina state museum of natural history publication 1980 - 12 . raleigh , nc . x + 867 pp .\nmandrak , n . e . and e . j . crossman . 1992 . a checklist of ontario freshwater fishes annotated with distribution maps . royal ontario museum life sciences miscellaneous publication . toronto , on . v + 176 pp .\nnatureserve . 2016 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve . arlington , virginia . ( urltoken ) , accessed 11 june 2016 .\nontario ministry of natural resources and forestry ( omnrf ) . 2015 . species at risk in ontario ( saro ) list . ( urltoken ) , updated october 1 , 2015 .\npage , l . m . and b . m . burr . 2011 . peterson field guide to freshwater fishes of north america north of mexico , second edition . houghton mifflin harcourt . boston , ma . xix + 663 pp .\npage , l . m . , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , r . n . lea , n . e . mandrak , r . l . mayden , and j . s . nelson . 2013 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico . 7th edition . american fisheries society , spec . publ . 34 . bethesda , md . 243 pp .\nportt , c . b . , g . coker , and c . k . minns . 1999 . riverine habitat characteristics of fishes of the great lakes watershed . can . ms rpt . fish . aquat . sci . 2481 : vi + 62p .\nscott , w . b . 1967 . freshwater fishes of eastern canada , second edition . university of toronto press . toronto , on . xii + 137 pp .\nscott , w . b . and e . j . crossman . 1973 . freshwater fishes of canada . bull . fish . res . board can . 184 . [ 1998 reprint ] galt house publications ltd . oakville , on . xx + 966 pp .\nscharpf , c . 2005 . annotated checklist of north american freshwater fishes , including subspecies and undescribed forms . part i : petromyzontidae through cyprinidae . american currents 31 ( 4 ) : 1 - 44 .\nsmith , c . l . 1985 . the inland fishes of new york state . new york state department of environmental conservation . albany , ny . xi + 522 pp .\nstauffer , jr . , j . r . , j . m . boltz and l . r . white . 1995 . the fishes of west virginia . reprinted from the proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia 146 : 1 - 389 . pennsylvania state university . 389 pp .\nstauffer , jr . , j . r . , r . w . criswell and d . p . fischer . 2016 . the fishes of pennsylvania . cichlid press . el paso , tx . 556 pp .\nwerner , r . g . 2004 . freshwater fishes of the northeastern united states : a field guide . syracuse university press . syracuse , ny . xiv + 335 pp .\nwinterton , g . [ ed ] . 2005 . the comprehensive bait guide for eastern canada , the great lakes region and northeastern united states : identifying , harvesting and culture of baitfishes , crayfishes , frogs and leeches . university of toronto press . toronto , on . iv + 437 pp .\nwismer , d . a . and a . e . christie . 1987 . temperature relationships of great lakes fishes : a data compilation . great lakes fish . comm . spec . pub . 87 - 3 . 195 pp .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nrobins , c . r . , r . m . bailey , c . e . bond , j . r . brooker , e . a . lachner , r . n . lea , and w . b . scott . 1991 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states and canada . american fisheries society , special publication 20 . 183 pp .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\nthis small - bodied freshwater fish occurs across a relatively small area in eastern ontario and qu\u00e9bec where it has been lost from two watersheds over the last 10 years . much of the current range of this species is subject to threats from widespread habitat degradation and multiple invasive species . designated not at risk in april 1994 . status re - examined and designated special concern in november 2013 .\nrange includes north american atlantic slope from the st . lawrence river , quebec , to the upper roanoke river , north carolina ( but absent from most of new england ) ; lake ontario drainage , ontario and new york ; and upper new river drainage , west virginia and virginia , where apparently introduced ( page and burr 2011 ) .\ntotal adult population size is unknown but apparently quite large . this species is common ( page and burr 2011 ) .\nrange - wide , no major threats are known . in canada , threats include habitat degradation , competition with increasing populations of common shiners ( related to habitat changes ) , and use as a bait fish ( crossman and holm 1996 ) .\ntrend over the past 10 years or three generations is uncertain but likely relatively stable . apparently declining in ontario , canada ( a very small portion of the global range ) ( crossman and holm 1996 ) .\n( 200 , 000 - 2 , 500 , 000 square km ( about 80 , 000 - 1 , 000 , 000 square miles ) ) range includes north american atlantic slope from the st . lawrence river , quebec , to the upper roanoke river , north carolina ( but absent from most of new england ) ; lake ontario drainage , ontario and new york ; and upper new river drainage , west virginia and virginia , where apparently introduced ( page and burr 2011 ) .\nupper genesee ( 04130002 ) , lower genesee ( 04130003 ) , irondequoit - ninemile ( 04140101 ) , salmon - sandy ( 04140102 ) , seneca ( 04140201 ) , oneida ( 04140202 ) , black ( 04150101 ) , upper st . lawrence ( 04150301 ) , oswegatchie ( 04150302 ) , grass ( 04150304 ) , raquette ( 04150305 ) , st . regis ( 04150306 ) , english - salmon ( 04150307 )\nhabitat includes clear creeks and small to medium rivers with gravel , rubble , and boulder bottom relatively free of rooted plants ; usually under or near boulders in quiet pools and runs ( lee et al . 1980 , page and burr 2011 ) . spawning occurs over upstream slopes of pebble mounds made by males under or near cover in areas with current . eggs become lodged and buried in nest mounds . young emerge from nests about a week after hatching .\neats mostly aquatic insect larvae , snails , fingernail clams ; also vegetation and debris ( cooper 1983 , scott and crossman 1973 , lee et al . 1980 ) . plucks out the eyes of other fishes ( page and burr 1991 ) .\noccurrences are based on evidence of historical presence , or current and likely recurring presence , at a given location . such evidence minimally includes collection or reliable observation and documentation of one or more individuals ( including eggs and larvae ) in appropriate habitat .\ndata on dispersal and other movements generally are not available . in some species , individuals may migrate variable distances between spawning areas and nonspawning habitats . separation distances ( in aquatic kilometers ) for cyprinids are arbitrary but reflect the presumption that movements and appropriate separation distances generally should increase with fish size . hence small , medium , and large cyprinids , respectively , have increasingly large separation distances . separation distance reflects the likely low probability that two occupied locations separated by less than many kilometers of aquatic habitat would represent truly independent populations over the long term . because of the difficulty in defining suitable versus unsuitable habitat , especially with respect to dispersal , and to simplify the delineation of occurrences , a single separation distance is used regardless of habitat quality . occupied locations that are separated by a gap of 15 km or more of any aquatic habitat that is not known to be occupied represent different occurrences . however , it is important to evaluate seasonal changes in habitat to ensure that an occupied habitat occurrence for a particular population does not artificially separate spawning areas and nonspawning areas as different occurrences simply because there have been no collections / observations in an intervening area that may exceed the separation distance .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\naquin , p . 1999 . \u00e9valuation de la situation des groupes taxonomiques des poissons du qu\u00e9bec . minist\u00e8re de l ' environnement et de la faune . 9 pages .\nlegendre , v . et j . f . bergeron . 1977 . liste des poissons d ' eau douce du qu\u00e9bec . mlcp , service am\u00e9nage . expl . faune . rap . dact . 6\nnelson , j . s . , e . j . crossman , h . espinosa - perez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , r . n . lea , and j . d . williams . 2004 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico . american fisheries society , special publication 29 , bethesda , maryland . 386 pp .\npage , l . m . , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , r . n . lea , n . e . mandrak , r . l . mayden , and j . s . nelson . 2013 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico . seventh edition . american fisheries society , special publication 34 , bethesda , maryland .\npage , l . m . , and b . m . burr . 1991 . a field guide to freshwater fishes : north america north of mexico . houghton mifflin company , boston , massachusetts . 432 pp .\npage , l . m . , and b . m . burr . 2011 . peterson field guide to freshwater fishes of north america north of mexico . second edition . houghton mifflin harcourt , boston . xix + 663 pp .\nscott , w . b . , and e . j . crossman . 1973 . freshwater fishes of canada . fisheries research board of canada , bulletin 184 . 966 pp .\ncooper , e . l . 1983 . fishes of pennsylvania and the northeastern united states . pennsylvania state university press , university park . 243 pp .\njenkins , r . e . , and n . m . burkhead . 1994 . freshwater fishes of virginia . american fisheries society , bethesda , maryland . xxiii + 1079 pp .\nlee , d . s . , c . r . gilbert , c . h . hocutt , r . e . jenkins , d . e . mcallister , and j . r . stauffer , jr . 1980 . atlas of north american freshwater fishes . north carolina state museum of natural history , raleigh , north carolina . i - x + 854 pp .\nmenhinick , e . f . 1991 . the freshwater fishes of north carolina . north carolina wildlife resources commission . 227 pp .\nsmith , c . l . 1983 . fishes of new york ( maps and printout of a draft section on scarce fishes of new york ) . unpublished draft .\nsmith , c . l . 1985 . the inland fishes of new york state . new york state department of environmental conservation . albany , new york , xi + 522 pp .\nstauffer , j . r . , jr . , j . m . boltz , and l . r . white . 1995 . the fishes of west virginia . proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia 146 : 1 - 389 .\nwhitworth , w . r . , p . l . berrien , and w . t . keller . 1976 . freshwater fishes of connecticut . bulletin of the connecticut geological and natural history survey 101 . vi + 134 pp .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\nall documents and related graphics provided by this server and any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server are provided\nas is\nwithout warranty as to the currentness , completeness , or accuracy of any specific data . natureserve hereby disclaims all warranties and conditions with regard to any documents provided by this server or any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , including but not limited to all implied warranties and conditions of merchantibility , fitness for a particular purpose , and non - infringement . natureserve makes no representations about the suitability of the information delivered from this server or any other documents that are referenced to or linked to this server . in no event shall natureserve be liable for any special , indirect , incidental , consequential damages , or for damages of any kind arising out of or in connection with the use or performance of information contained in any documents provided by this server or in any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , under any theory of liability used . natureserve may update or make changes to the documents provided by this server at any time without notice ; however , natureserve makes no commitment to update the information contained herein . since the data in the central databases are continually being updated , it is advisable to refresh data retrieved at least once a year after its receipt . the data provided is for planning , assessment , and informational purposes . site specific projects or activities should be reviewed for potential environmental impacts with appropriate regulatory agencies . if ground - disturbing activities are proposed on a site , the appropriate state natural heritage program ( s ) or conservation data center can be contacted for a site - specific review of the project area ( see visit local programs ) .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\ninhabits rocky pools and runs of creeks and small to medium rivers . usually found in quiet water near boulders . breeding males build large circular or rectangular nests by piling pebbles carried in the mouth ( ref . 5723 ) . feeds on insects and molluscs ( ref . 54729 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services ."]}
{"id": 1555, "summary": [{"text": "opostega spatulella is a moth of the opostegidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is known from france , the iberian peninsula , italy , austria , the czech republic , slovakia , hungary , romania , bulgaria , macedonia , greece and bosnia and herzegovina .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is thought to be extinct in great britain .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is also found in the eastern part of the palearctic ecozone ( including turkmenistan and uzbekistan ) and the near east .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 9 \u2013 11 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on wing from august to june and hibernate from october to april .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "there is one generation per year .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the larvae are known to feed on ulmus and salix species .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they mine the bark of their host plant . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "opostega spatulella", "paragraphs": ["lectotype designation for opostega heringella mariani , a synonym of opostega spatulella herrich - schaffer ( lepidoptera : opostegidae ) .\nlectotype designation for opostega heringella mariani , a synonym of opostega spatulella herrich - schaffer ( lepidoptera : opostegidae ) .\nlectotype designation for opostega heringella mariani , a synonym of opostega spatulella herrich - schaffer ( lepidoptera : opostegidae ) . [ 1991 ]\nty - jour ti - lectotype designation for opostega heringella mariani , a synonym of opostega spatulella herrich - sch\u00e4ffer ( lepidoptera : opostegidae ) t2 - proceedings of the entomological society of washington . vl - 93 ur - urltoken pb - entomological society of washington cy - washington , etc . : py - 1991 sp - 206 ep - 207 sn - 0013 - 8797 au - davis , d r er -\n@ article { bhlpart55500 , title = { lectotype designation for opostega heringella mariani , a synonym of opostega spatulella herrich - sch\u00e4ffer ( lepidoptera : opostegidae ) } , journal = { proceedings of the entomological society of washington . } , volume = { 93 } , copyright = { in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder . } , url = urltoken publisher = { washington , etc . : entomological society of washington } , author = { davis , d r } , year = { 1991 } , pages = { 206 - - 207 } , }\n< mods xmlns : xlink =\nurltoken\nversion =\n3 . 0\nxmlns : xsi =\nurltoken\nxmlns =\nurltoken\nxsi : schemalocation =\nurltoken urltoken\n> < titleinfo > < title > lectotype designation for opostega heringella mariani , a synonym of opostega spatulella herrich - sch & # 228 ; ffer ( lepidoptera : opostegidae ) < / title > < / titleinfo > < name > < namepart > davis , d r < / namepart > < / name > < typeofresource > text < / typeofresource > < genre authority =\nmarcgt\n> < / genre > < note type =\ncontent\n> 93 < / note > < relateditem type =\nhost\n> < titleinfo > < title > proceedings of the entomological society of washington . < / title > < / titleinfo > < origininfo > < place > < placeterm type =\ntext\n> washington , etc . : < / placeterm > < / place > < publisher > entomological society of washington < / publisher > < / origininfo > < part > < detail type =\nvolume\n> < number > 93 < / number > < / detail > < extent unit =\npages\n> < start > 206 < / start > < end > 207 < / end > < / extent > < date > 1991 < / date > < / part > < / relateditem > < identifier type =\nuri\n> urltoken < / identifier > < accesscondition type =\nuseandreproduction\n> in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder . < / accesscondition > < / mods >\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nnotes : extinct in the british isles , formerly known only from southend and witham in essex , and from north curry in somerset , but not seen in numbers since 1877 . unlikely to be recorded in hampshire or on the isle of wight . wingspan 9 - 11 mm .\nif you have any good quality photographs and would like to contribute , please contact me by email at ian @ ukmoths . co . uk .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 07 - 06 06 : 38 : 38 page render time : 0 . 5558s total w / procache : 0 . 6128s\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthere are 0 county records of individuals from 0 different sites . first recorded in .\nbiodivlibrary july is # nationalblueberrymonth ! the w . a . cox nursery co . of mississippi ' s 1920s catalog proclaimed # blueberries to\u2026 urltoken\nbiodivlibrary @ jzed _ trees @ kew _ laa awesome ! we ' re so honored to have this treasure in # bhlib . thanks @ kew _ laa ! now we can enjoy p\u2026 urltoken\nthis translation tool is powered by google . fao is not responsible for the accuracy of translations ."]}
{"id": 1576, "summary": [{"text": "ethmia pseudozygospila is a moth in the depressariidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in china and taiwan .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 14 \u2013 16 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are overlaid with black markings on a whitish grey background .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are whitish grey .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on ehretia dicksoni .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they skeletonise the leaves of their host plant . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "ethmia pseudozygospila", "paragraphs": ["this is the place for pseudozygospila definition . you find here pseudozygospila meaning , synonyms of pseudozygospila and images for pseudozygospila copyright 2017 \u00a9 urltoken\nhere you will find one or more explanations in english for the word pseudozygospila . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word pseudozygospila and , of course , pseudozygospila synonyms and on the right images related to the word pseudozygospila .\nethmia pseudozygospila kun & szab\u00f3ky , 2000 ; acta zool acad . sci . hung . 46 ( 1 ) : ( 53 - 78 )\nzeller ' s ethmia moth ( ethmia zelleriella ) is a moth in the ethmiidae family .\nthe ladder - backed ethmia moth ( ethmia delliella ) is a moth in the ethmiidae family .\nethmia tyranthes meyrick , 1934 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 15 ) : 459\nethmia clytodoxa turner , 1917 ; proc . r . soc . qd 29 : 89\nethmia falkovitshi ; nupponen , 2015 , shilap revta lepid . 43 ( 169 ) : 127\nethmia vidua flavilaterella ; shovkoon , 2010 , nota lepid . 33 ( 1 ) : 140\nethmia atriflorella viette , 1958 ; bull . soc . zool . fr . 83 : 57\nethmia oberthurella viette , 1958 ; bull . soc . zool . fr . 83 : 58\nethmia saalmullerella viette , 1958 ; bull . soc . zool . fr . 83 : 54\nethmia shensicola amsel , 1969 ; beitr . naturk . forsch . s\u00fcdwdtl . 28 : 75\nethmia palawana schultze , 1925 ; philippine j . sci . 28 : 574 ; tl : palawan\nethmia befasiella viette , 1958 ; rev . franc . ent . 25 ( 2 ) : 122\nethmia decui capuse , 1981 ; res . exp . biosp . cubano roum cuba 3 : 132\nethmia melanocrates meyrick , 1923 ; bull . mus . hist . nat . paris 29 : 565\nethmia paneliusella viette , 1958 ; commentat . biol . 17 : 5 ; tl : cap verde islands\nethmia lecmima sattler , 1967 ; [ mp2 ] , 60 ; tl : e . afghanistan , sarobi\ni have just assumed that the ethmia funerella funerella in [ mp2 ] is simply replaced by ethmia quadrillella quadrillella , and that all other ssp ' s are not affectedother than by name . - - msa\nethmia candidella delicatella de lattin , 1963 ; beitr . naturk . forsch . s\u00fcdwdtl . 22 : 53\nethmia pagiopa meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 6 ) : 189 ; tl : kashmir\nethmia octanoma meyrick , 1914 ; suppl . ent . 3 : 55 ; tl : formosa , kosempo\nethmia clarissa busck , 1914 ; insec . ins . menstr . 2 : 56 ; tl : cuba\nethmia submissa busck , 1914 ; insec . ins . menstr . 2 : 57 ; tl : cuba\nethmia sporadica turner , 1942 ; proc . r . soc . qd 53 ( 4 ) : 94\nethmia pseustis turner , 1942 ; proc . r . soc . qd 53 ( 4 ) : 94\nethmia austronamibiensis mey , 2011 ; esperiana mem . 6 : 190 , pl . 31 , f . 2\nethmia bradleyi viette , 1952 ; m\u00e9m . inst . sci . madag . ( e ) 1 : 162\nethmia iphicrates meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 15 ) : 473 ; tl : kenia colony\nethmia kabulica amsel , 1969 ; beitr . naturk . forsch . s\u00fcdwdtl . 28 ( 2 ) : 119\nethmia namella mey , 2011 ; esperiana mem . 6 : 189 , pl . 31 , f . 1\nethmia vulcanica kun , 2004 ; esperiana mem . 1 : 104 , pl . 7 , f . 8\nnew moths of the genus ethmia hb . ( lepidoptera , ethmiidae ) from the ussr [ in russian ]\nethmia zygospila meyrick , 1934 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 15 ) : 459 ; tl : formosa , alikang\nethmia mansita busck , 1914 ; insec . ins . menstr . 2 : 55 ; tl : tehuacan , mexico\nethmia sibirica zagulajev , 1975 ; nasekomye mongol . 3 : 347 ; tl : buryatiya , tunkinskie belki , 2000m\n= ethmia abraxasella abraxasella ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 217 ( list )\nethmia hiramella busck , 1914 ; insec . ins . menstr . 2 : 56 ; tl : santiago , cuba\nethmia gigantea busck , 1914 ; insec . ins . menstr . 2 : 54 ; tl : zacualpan , mexico\nethmia similatella busck , 1920 ; insec . inscit . mentr . 8 : 84 ; tl : cayuga , guatemala\nethmia linda busck , 1914 ; insec . ins . menstr . 2 : 55 ; tl : caracas , venezuela\nethmia andranella viette , 1976 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 45 ( 7 ) : 244\nethmia baronella viette , 1976 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 45 ( 7 ) : 240\nethmia elimatella ; [ nhm card ] ; shovkoon , 2010 , nota lepid . 33 ( 1 ) : 144\nethmia linosella viette , 1976 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 45 ( 7 ) : 239\nethmia novoryella viette , 1976 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 45 ( 7 ) : 242\nethmia soljanikovi danilevski & zagulajev , 1975 ; nasekomye mongol . 3 : 343 ; tl : mongolia , dzabhansky aimak\nethmia sotsaella viette , 1976 ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 45 ( 7 ) : 243\nethmia thoraea meyrick , 1910 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1910 : 461 ; tl : queensland\nethmia crocosoma meyrick , 1914 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 6 ) : 173 ; tl : sikkim , darjeeling\nethmia phoenicura meyrick , 1932 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 11 ) : 346 ; tl : mexico , lower california\nethmia longimaculella longimaculella ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 177 , 218 ( list )\nethmia elimatella danilevski , 1975 ; ent . obozr . 54 ( 3 ) : 615 ; tl : azerbaijan , ordubad\nethmia epiloxa meyrick , 1915 ; bull . mus . hist . nat . paris 20 : 121 ; tl : simba\nethmia oculimarginata diakonoff , 1948 ; m\u00e9m . ins . sci . madagascar ( a ) 1 ( 1 ) : 30\nethmia penyagolosella domingo & baixeras , 2003 ; nachr . ent . ver . apollo nf 24 ( 4 ) : 184\nethmia pylonotella viette , 1956 ; bull . soc . zool . fr . 81 ( 2 - 3 ) : 98\nethmia pylorella viette , 1956 ; bull . soc . zool . fr . 81 ( 2 - 3 ) : 96\nethmia semitenebrella dyar , 1902 ; j . n . y . ent . soc . 10 : 204 ; tl : arizona\nethmia subsidiaris meyrick , 1935 ; mat . microlep . fauna chin . prov . : 90 ; tl : china , nanking\nethmia afghana sattler , 1967 ; [ mp2 ] , 104 ; tl : afghanistan , 10km nw v . kabul , 1900m\nethmia galactarcha ; [ nhm card ] ; kun , 2004 , acta zool . hung . 50 ( 4 ) : 347\nethmia cellicoma meyrick , 1931 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 2 - 4 ) : 89 ; tl : paraguay , chaco\nethmia transversella busck , 1914 ; insec . ins . menstr . 2 : 53 ; tl : juan vinas , costa rica\nethmia argomicta meyrick , 1920 ; in alluaud & jeannel , voyage afr . orientale , ins . l\u00e9p . 2 : 90\nethmia cirrhosoma meyrick , 1920 ; in alluaud & jeannel , voyage afr . orientale , ins . l\u00e9p . 2 : 88\nethmia glabra meyrick , 1920 ; in alluaud & jeannel , voyage afr . orientale , ins . l\u00e9p . 2 : 89\nethmia hemicosma meyrick , 1920 ; in alluaud & jeannel , voyage afr . orientale , ins . l\u00e9p . 2 : 89\nethmia spyrathodes meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 18 ) : 552 ; tl : spanish guinea , san thome\nethmia taxiacta meyrick , 1920 ; in alluaud & jeannel , voyage afr . orientale , ins . l\u00e9p . 2 : 90\nethmia bipunctella iranella zerny , 1940 ; zs . wiener entver . 25 ( schlu\u00df ) : 43 ; tl : iran , elburs\nethmia wursteri amsel , 1956 ; beitr . naturk . forsch . s\u00fcdwdtl . 15 : 61 ; tl : jordan valley , zerqa\nethmia dehiscens meyrick , 1924 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 4 ) : 120 ; tl :\nkwanshien , china\nethmia dentata diakonoff & sattler , 1966 ; ent . ber . , amst . 26 : 189 ; tl : formosa , takow\nethmia subsimilis walsingham , 1897 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1897 : 89 ; tl : west indies , jamaica\nethmia mnesicosma meyrick , 1924 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 4 ) : 119 ; tl : costa rica , san jos\u00e9\nethmia striatella busck , 1913 ; ins . inscit . menstr . 1 ( 11 ) : 141 ; tl : tehuacan , mexico\nethmia subnigritaenia powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 173 , 217 ( list ) ; tl : mexico\nethmia catapeltica meyrick , 1924 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 4 ) : 119 ; tl : costa rica , san jos\u00e9\nethmia glandifera meyrick , 1918 ; ann . transv . mus . 6 ( 2 ) : 37 ; tl : transvaal , pretoria\nethmia judicialis meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 119 ; tl : rhodesia , umvuma\nethmia candidella farinatella de lattin , 1963 ; beitr . naturk . forsch . s\u00fcdwdtl . 22 : 54 ; tl : turkestan , usgent\nethmia autoschista meyrick , 1932 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 11 ) : 347 ; tl : china , szechwan , mt . omei\nethmia octanoma ; [ nhm card ] ; kun , 2002 , ann . hist . mus . nat . hung . 94 : 176\nethmia stojanovitsi kun , 2002 ; ann . hist . mus . nat . hung . 94 : 170 ; tl : indonesia , seram\nethmia reposita ; [ nhm card ] ; kun , 2002 , ann . hist . mus . nat . hung . 94 : 177\nethmia nobilis ; [ nhm card ] ; kun , 2002 , ann . hist . mus . nat . hung . 94 : 178\nethmia argopa meyrick , 1910 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1910 : 461 ; tl : malay states , padang rengas\nethmia dactylia meyrick , 1911 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 1 ) : 76 ; tl : roiiplaat , pretoria district\nethmia leucocirrha meyrick , 1926 ; ann . s . afr . mus . 23 : 339 ; tl : sw . africa , otjituo\nethmia mariannae karsholt & kun , 2003 ; nota lepid . 25 ( 4 ) : 208 ; tl : rhodos , kolombia , 40m\nethmia pullata meyrick , 1910 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1910 : 461 ; tl : guadalcanar , solomon is .\ndie afghanischen ethmia - arten ( lepidoptera : ethmiidae ) ergebnisse der 1 . und 2 . deutschen afghanistan expeditions der landessammlungen f\u00fcr naturkunde karlsruhe\nethmia angarensis caradja , 1939 ; dt . ent . z . iris 53 : 13 ; tl : china , shanis , mien - shan\nethmia candidella ; [ nhm card ] ; nupponen , 2015 , shilap revta lepid . 43 ( 169 ) : 127 ; [ fe ]\nethmia monachella busck , 1910 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 12 ( 1 ) : 53 ; tl : boulder , colorado\nethmia albitogata walsingham , 1907 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 33 ( 1567 ) : 199 ; tl : california\nethmia aurifluella ; [ nhm card ] ; nupponen , 2015 , shilap revta lepid . 43 ( 169 ) : 127 ; [ fe ]\nethmia discrepitella ; [ nhm card ] ; nupponen , 2015 , shilap revta lepid . 43 ( 169 ) : 128 ; [ fe ]\nethmia asbolarcha meyrick , 1938 ; dt . ent . z . iris 52 : 18 ; tl : china , n . yunnan , likiang\nethmia lineatonotella ; [ nhm card ] ; kun , 2004 , acta zool . hung . 50 ( 4 ) : 339 ( note )\nethmia mulleri busck , 1910 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 11 ( 4 ) : 212 ; tl : tehuacan , mexico\nethmia flavicaudata ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 179 , 218 ( list ) ; [ nhm card ]\nethmia coscineutis meyrick , 1911 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 1 ) : 76 ; tl : waterberg ; durban , natal\nethmia penesella kun & szab\u00f3ky , 2000 ; acta zool acad . sci . hung . 46 ( 1 ) : ( 53 - 78 )\nethmia susa kun & szab\u00f3ky , 2000 ; acta zool acad . sci . hung . 46 ( 1 ) : ( 53 - 78 )\nethmia candidella wiltshirei de lattin , 1963 ; beitr . naturk . forsch . s\u00fcdwdtl . 22 : 53 ; tl : iran , fars , shiraz\nethmia brevistriga clarke , 1950 ; j . wash . acad . sci . 40 ( 5 ) : 163 ; tl : bodega bay , california\nethmia dentata ; diakonoff , [ 1968 ] , bull . u . s . nat . mus . 257 : 256 ; [ nhm card ]\nethmia reposita diakonoff , [ 1968 ] ; bull . u . s . nat . mus . 257 : 257 ; tl : mindanao , zamboanga\nethmia chalcodora meyrick , 1912 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1911 ( 4 ) : 718 ; tl : argentina , la plata\nethmia acontias meyrick , 1906 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 17 ( 2 ) : 409 ; tl : puttalam , ceylon\nethmia hamaxastra meyrick , 1930 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 18 - 20 ) : 563 ; tl : portuguese e . africa , shilouvane\nethmia pullata ; diakonoff , [ 1968 ] , bull . u . s . nat . mus . 257 : 255 ; [ nhm card ]\nethmia albistrigella albistrigella ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 82 , 216 ( list ) , pl . 6c - d\nethmia albolinella shovkoon , 2010 ; nota lepid . 33 ( 1 ) : 146 ; tl : bana - dzhun , kam , valley of goluboy river\nethmia galactarcha meyrick , 1928 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 14 - 15 ) : 418 ; tl : java , tjibodas , mt . gede\nethmia proximella busck , 1912 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 14 ( 2 ) : 84 ; tl : tehuacan , puebla , mexico\nethmia pericentrota meyrick , 1926 ; ann . s . afr . mus . 23 : 339 ; tl : sw . africa , ongka , mafa ovamboland\nethmia phricotypa bradley , 1965 ; br . mus . ruwensori exp . 1952 2 ( 12 ) : 108 ; tl : uganda , bugoyc , 4500ft\nethmia coquillettella busck , 1907 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 8 ( 3 - 4 ) : 94 ; tl : los angeles , california\nethmia nykta shovkoon , 2010 ; nota lepid . 33 ( 1 ) : 140 ; tl : bana - dzhun , kam , valley of goluboy r .\nethmia ubsensis zagulajev , 1975 ; nasekomye mongol . 3 : 347 ; tl : mongolia , ubsu - nurskii aimak , 30km ne barun - turuna , peski\nethmia anatiformis kun , 2001 ; ann . hist . nat . mus . nat . hung . 93 : 208 ; tl : nepal , 1750 - 1950m\nethmia trifida kun , 2004 ; acta zool . hung . 50 ( 4 ) : 340 ; tl : malaysia , pahang , cameron highlands , tanah rata\nethmia nigroapicella ; zimmerman , 1978 , ins . hawaii 9 ( 2 ) : 925 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ] ; [ afromoths ]\nethmia lapidella ; [ nhm card ] ; kun , 2002 , ann . hist . mus . nat . hung . 94 : 173 ; [ afromoths ]\nethmia heptasema ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ] ; kun , 2002 , ann . hist . mus . nat . hung . 94 : 176\nethmia ditreta meyrick , 1920 ; in alluaud & jeannel , voyage afr . orientale , ins . l\u00e9p . 2 : 88 ; tl : tanganyika , taveta\nethmia elutella busck , 1914 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 47 ( 2043 ) : 35 ; tl : porto bello , panama\nethmia zebrata powell , 1959 ; wasmann j . biol . 17 ( 1 ) : 149 ; tl : mexico , 34 mi s of atlixco , puebla\nethmia conglobata meyrick , 1912 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1911 ( 4 ) : 717 ; tl : colombia , san antonio , 5800ft\nethmia joviella walsingham , 1897 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1897 : 90 ; tl : west indies , grenada ( mount gay estate )\nethmia hammella busck , 1910 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 12 ( 1 ) : 53 ; tl : tuis , costa rica , 2400ft\nethmia ballistis meyrick , 1908 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1908 : 732 ; tl : german east africa , dar - es - salaam\ninteresting records of ethmiinae from the former ussr , with description of ethmia ustyurtensis nupponen , sp . n . from kazakhstan ( lepidoptera : gelechioidea , elachistidae )\nethmia nadia clarke , 1950 ; j . wash . acad . sci . 40 ( 5 ) : 161 ; tl : mccloud , siskiyou co . , california\nethmia umbrimarginella busck , 1907 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 8 ( 3 - 4 ) : 94 ; tl : las cruces , new mexico\nethmia monticola monticola ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 104 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 1f , 8i - j\nethmia caliginosella busck , 1904 ; j . n . y . ent . soc . 12 ( 1 ) : 44 ; tl : silverton , colorado , 12000ft\nethmia macelhosiella busck , 1907 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 8 ( 3 - 4 ) : 93 ; tl : st . louis , missouri\nethmia josephinella dyar , 1902 ; j . n . y . ent . soc . 10 : 205 ; tl : dripping spring , organ mts , new mexico\nethmia ungulatella busck , 1914 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 47 ( 2043 ) : 34 ; tl : cambima ; alhajuela , panama\nethmia cypraspis ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 140 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 12h ; [ nhm card ]\nethmia chalcogramma powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 142 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 12j ; tl : bolivia , boyuibe\nethmia coranella dyar , 1902 ; j . n . y . ent . soc . 10 : 207 ; tl : kerrville , ; shovel mt . , texas\nethmia semiombra dyar , 1902 ; j . n . y . ent . soc . 10 : 206 ; tl : san diego , texas ; brownsville , texas\nethmia sattleri kun , 2007 ; ann . hist . mus . nat . hung 99 : 106 ; tl : 100m , westl . shiraz , s . iran\nethmia submersa diakonoff , 1966 ; tijds . ent . 109 ( 3 ) : 80 ; tl : w . celebes , paloe , mt . tompoe , 2700ft\nethmia pusiella deletella de lattin , 1963 ; beitr . naturk . forsch . s\u00fcdwdtl . 22 : 50 ; tl : asia centr . , ili - gebiet , djarkent\nethmia crocosoma resignata diakonoff , [ 1968 ] ; bull . u . s . nat . mus . 257 : 256 ; tl : oriental negros , dumaguete , 390m\nethmia yeni kun , 2001 ; ann . hist . nat . mus . nat . hung . 93 : 215 ; tl : china , hainan , wuchistan , 230m\nethmia didyma kun , 2002 ; ann . hist . mus . nat . hung . 94 : 171 ; tl : nepal , 150 - 300m , terai , chitwan\nethmia nobilis diakonoff , [ 1968 ] ; bull . u . s . nat . mus . 257 : 258 ; tl : luzon , benguet , klondyke , 800ft\nethmia piperella powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 102 , 216 ( list ) , pl . 7i ; tl : jamaica , runaway bay\nethmia chemsaki powell , 1959 ; wasmann j . biol . 17 ( 1 ) : 148 , f . 4 ; tl : 34 mi s of atlixco , puebla\nethmia confusellastra powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 167 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 14h ; tl : mexico , chichen itza\nethmia hieroglyphica powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 175 , 218 ( list ) , pl . 16h ; tl : bolivia , incachaca cochabamba\nethmia prattiella busck , 1915 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 17 ( 2 ) : 85 ; tl : texas , zavalla co . , nueces river\nethmia zaguljaevi kostjuk , 1980 ; ent . obozr . 59 ( 4 ) : 858 ; tl : altai , kuraisky hr . u . rund . aktash , 2600m\nethmia praeclara ; diakonoff , [ 1968 ] , bull . u . s . nat . mus . 257 : 254 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ]\nethmia falkovitshi shovkoon , 2010 ; nota lepid . 33 ( 1 ) : 138 ; tl : kazakhstan , mangistau , n 43\u00b044 ' 04\ne 53\u00b037 ' 17\nethmia lassenella busck , 1908 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 9 ( 1 - 4 ) : 92 ; tl : redington , pima co . , arizona\nethmia umbricostella caradja , 1927 ; mem . sect . stiint . acad . rom . ( 3 ) 4 ( 8 ) : 421 ; tl :\nszetschwan tatsienlu\nethmia bisignata kun , 2002 ; ann . hist . mus . nat . hung . 94 : 171 ; tl : sw . celebes , pangean , near maros , 2000ft\nethmia iridella powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 131 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 11i ; tl : mexico , puebla , tehuacan\nethmia janzeni powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 134 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 12b ; tl : mexico , temescal , oaxaca\nethmia cypraspis meyrick , 1930 ; ann . naturhist . mus . wien 44 : 263 , pl . 1 , f . 31 ; tl : taperinha , para , brazil\nethmia cubensis busck , 1934 ; 164 , pl . 23 , f . 2 , pl . 26 , f . 3 ; tl : cuba , sierra maestra , comaquey\nethmia duckworthi powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 165 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 14g ; tl : panama , barro colorado island\nethmia julia powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 168 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 15b ; tl : puerto rico , isabela substation\nethmia calumniella powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 182 , 218 ( list ) , pl . 16d ; tl : brazil , santarem , para\nethmia clava powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 205 , 218 ( list ) , pl . 18j ; tl : mexico , cordoba , veracruz\nethmia cassiopeia meyrick , 1927 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 12 ) : 362 ; tl : belgian congo , nw . kivu , upper oso r . , 4000ft\nethmia turkmeniella dubatolov & ustjuzhanin , 1998 ; nota lepid . 21 ( 2 ) : 101 ; tl : sw turkmenistan , sw . kopet - dag mts , kara - kala\nethmia papiella powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 95 , 216 ( list ) , pl . 7j ; tl : mexico , los mochis , sinaloa\nethmia notomurinella powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 138 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 12f ; tl : argentina , rio seco , cordoba\nethmia phylacops powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 143 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 13a ; tl : mexico , chichen itza , yucatan\nethmia wellingi powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 158 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 14c ; tl : mexico , chichen itza , yucatan\nethmia nigritaenia powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 172 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 15f ; tl : mexico , chichen itza , yucatan\nethmia semiombra nebulombra powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 190 , 218 ( list ) , pl . 17d ; tl : mexico , merida , yucatan\nethmia penthica walsingham , 1912 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 146 , pl . 5 , f . 9 ; tl : mexico , oaxaca\nethmia cordia powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 202 , 218 ( list ) , pl . 18d ; tl : mexico , chichen itza , yucatan\nethmia discostrigella discostrigella ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 92 , 216 ( list ) , pl . 7f ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia volcanella powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 97 , 216 ( list ) , pl . 8a - b ; tl : mexico , tehuantepec , oaxaca\nethmia hagenella hagenella ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 109 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 9f ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia abraxasella ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 125 , 217 ( list ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia abraxasella abraxasella ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 125 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 11d ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia cupreonivella ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 137 , 217 ( list ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia cellicoma ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 142 , 217 ( list ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia phylacis phylacis ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 146 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 13c ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia farrella powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 170 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 15a ; tl : jamaica , nr farmouth , trelawny parish\nethmia antennipilosa wang & li , 2004 ; ent . news 115 ( 3 ) : 135 ; tl : china , hengxian ( 22 . 6\u00b0n , 109 . 2\u00b0 ) , guangxi\nethmia cribravia wang & li , 2004 ; ent . news 115 ( 3 ) : 136 ; tl : china , lijiang ( 26 . 8\u00b0n , 100 . 2\u00b0e ) , yunnan\nethmia duplicata meyrick , 1914 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 23 ( 1 ) : 130 ; tl : patipola ( 6200ft ) , maskeliya , puttalam , ceylon\nethmia ustyurtensis nupponen , 2015 ; shilap revta lepid . 43 ( 169 ) : 126 ; tl : sw - kazakhstan , 43\u00b024 ' 27\nn 54\u00b033 ' 34\ne , 80m\nethmia albistrigella icariella powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 83 , 216 ( list ) ; tl : california , inyo co . , near mono pass , 12500ft\nethmia thomaswitti kun , 2004 ; acta zool . hung . 50 ( 4 ) : 343 ; tl : s . sulawesi , puncak palopo ( 2 . 55\u00b0s , 120 . 05\u00b0e )\nethmia clarkei powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 117 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 10d ; tl : mexico , quintana roo , isla de mujeres\nethmia scythropa walsingham , 1912 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 148 , pl . 5 , f . 13 ; tl : costa rica , banana river\nethmia phylacis walsingham , 1912 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 147 , pl . 5 , f . 12 ; tl : mexico , durango , presidio\nethmia phylacis ornata ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 147 , 217 ( list ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia baliostola walsingham , 1912 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 144 , pl . 5 , f . 5 ; tl : costa rica , banana river\nethmia omega powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 182 , 218 ( list ) , pl . 16e ; tl : brazil , pelotas , rio grande do sul\nethmia heptasticta walsingham , 1912 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 146 , pl . 5 , f . 8 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , tonalapa\nethmia ubsensis ; [ nhm card ] ; shovkoon , 2010 , nota lepid . 33 ( 1 ) : 148 ; nupponen , 2015 , shilap revta lepid . 43 ( 169 ) : 129\nethmia charybdis ; powell , 1971 , j . lep . soc . 25 ( suppl . 3 ) : 32 ; [ nacl ] , # 972 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia hagenella ; [ nacl ] , # 989 ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 109 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia perpulchra walsingham , 1912 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 146 , pl . 5 , f . 14 ; tl : mexico , vera cruz , orizaba\nethmia ornata busck , [ 1934 ] ; ent . am . ( n . s . ) 13 ( 4 ) : 168 , pl . 35 , f . 2 ; tl : cuba\nethmia cyanea walsingham , 1912 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 144 , pl . 5 , f . 4 ; tl : mexico , vera cruz , atoyac\nethmia scutula powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 203 , 218 ( list ) , pl . 18g ; tl : mexico , 6 mi s of culiacan , sinaloa\nethmia powelli heppner , 1988 ; j . lep . soc . 42 ( 4 ) : 281 , f . 1 - 4 ; tl : 1mi sw islamorada , upper matecumbe key , florida\nethmia ( ethmiinae ) ; zimmerman , 1978 , ins . hawaii 9 ( 2 ) : 925 ; [ nacl ] , 12 ; [ richard brown ] ; [ afromoths ] ; [ fe ]\nethmia orestella powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 84 , 216 ( list ) , pl . 6h ; tl : colorado , hall valley , 11500ft , park co .\nethmia plagiobothrae powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 77 , 216 ( list ) , pl . 5j , 22c ; tl : california , cool , el dorado co .\nethmia vietmiella kun , 2001 ; ann . hist . nat . mus . nat . hung . 93 : 213 ; tl : vietnam , vinh phu , tam dao , 55km nnw hanoi , 800m\nethmia linsdalei powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 116 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 10c ; tl : mexico , 20 mi e of el camaron , oaxaca\nethmia sandra powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 166 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 3d , 14i ; tl : el salvador , 13km n of san salvador\nethmia howdeni powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 176 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 15h ; tl : mexico , 21 mi e of villa union , sinaloa\nethmia lichyi powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 180 , 218 ( list ) , pl . 2e , 4b , 16c ; tl : venezuela , cuenca del rio borborata\nethmia hodgesella powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 196 , 218 ( list ) , pl . 17i ; tl : arizona , madera canyon , 4880ft , santa rita mtns\nethmia oterosella busck , [ 1934 ] ; ent . am . ( n . s . ) 13 ( 4 ) : 165 ; tl : estacion experimental agronomica , santiago de las vegas , cuba\nethmia epileuca powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 86 , 216 ( list ) , pl . 6j ; tl : california , surprise canyon , panamint mtns , inyo co .\nethmia tricula powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 79 , 216 ( list ) , pl . 6a ; tl : california , 3 mi ne of moreno , riverside co .\nethmia timberlakei powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 100 , 216 ( list ) , pl . 8g ; tl : california , citrus experiment station , riversite , riversite co .\nethmia mimihagenella powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 111 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 9h ; tl : new mexico , gran quivira national monument , socorro co .\nethmia burnsella powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 111 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 9j ; tl : texas , palo duro canyon , 2800ft , randall co .\nethmia cypraeella ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 124 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 11c ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia chalcodora ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 141 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 12i ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia gelidella ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 149 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 13e ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia zebrata ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 151 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 13g ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia humilis powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 169 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 15c - d ; tl : jamaica , constant spring , st . andrew parish\nethmia coronata ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 171 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 15e ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia conglobata ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 185 , 218 ( list ) , pl . 16i ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia cyanea ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 186 , 218 ( list ) , pl . 16j ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia baja powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 198 , 218 ( list ) , pl . 18b ; tl : mexico , 26 mi w of la paz , baja california\nethmia pala powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 204 , 218 ( list ) , pl . 18h - i ; tl : mexico , 6 mi s of culiacan , sinaloa\nethmia heptasticta ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 207 , 218 ( list ) , pl . 19b ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia joviella ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 211 , 218 ( list ) , pl . 19f ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia comitella ; [ nhm card ] ; kun , 2002 , insecta koreana 19 ( 2 ) : ( 131 - 136 ) ; nupponen , 2015 , shilap revta lepid . 43 ( 169 ) : 129\nethmia sibirica ; [ nhm card ] ; dubatolov , ustjuzhanin & zintshenko , 1997 , atalanta 28 ( 1 / 2 ) : 164 ; shovkoon , 2010 , nota lepid . 33 ( 1 ) : 147\nethmia davisella powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 115 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 10b ; tl : mexico , 6 mi s of ciudad victoria , tamaulipas , 1050ft\nethmia abraxasella clarissa ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 127 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 11e ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia flavicaudata walsingham , 1912 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 145 , pl . 5 , f . 7 ; tl : mexico , vera cruz , san juan , 600ft\nethmia sphenisca powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 205 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 19a ; tl : mexico , 10 mi w of el salto , durango , 9000ft\nethmia angustalatella powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 214 , 218 ( list ) , pl . 19j ; tl : mexico , 3 mi e of galeana , nueva leon , 5000ft\nethmia brevistriga aridicola powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 76 , 216 ( list ) , pl . 5h ; tl : california , 2 mi ne of lakeside , san diego co .\nethmia ultima ; [ nhm card ] ; dubatolov , ustjuzhanin & zintshenko , 1997 , atalanta 28 ( 1 / 2 ) : 169 ; nupponen , 2015 , shilap revta lepid . 43 ( 169 ) : 129\nethmia geranella barnes & busck , 1920 ; contr . nat . hist . lepid . n . am . 4 ( 3 ) : 242 , pl . 27 , 34 ; tl : la puerta valley , california\nethmia subsimilis ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 117 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 10e - f ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia kirbyi ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 118 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 10g - h ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia nivosella ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 129 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 2b , 11g ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia phoenicura ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 150 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 3b , 13f ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia paucella ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 156 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 2c , 14b ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia semiombra semiombra ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 189 , 218 ( list ) , pl . 17b - c , 20g - h ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia punctessa powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 213 , 218 ( list ) , pl . 19h - i ; tl : mexico 3 mi e of galeana , nueva leon , 5000ft\nethmia discostrigella subcaerulea ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 93 , 216 ( list ) , pl . 7g ; [ nacl ] , # 980a ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia scylla ; powell , 1971 , j . lep . soc . 25 ( suppl . 3 ) : 12 ; [ nacl ] , # 966 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia brevistriga brevistriga ; powell , 1971 , j . lep . soc . 25 ( suppl . 3 ) : 17 ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 75 , 216 ( list )\nethmia minuta ; powell , 1971 , j . lep . soc . 25 ( suppl . 3 ) : 30 ; [ nacl ] , # 970 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia monticola ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 104 , 217 ( list ) ; [ nacl ] , # 987 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia monticola emmeli powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 106 , pl . 9a ; tl : arizona , fort valley , 7350ft , 7 . 5 mi nw of flagstaf , coconin co .\nethmia timberlakei ; powell , 1971 , j . lep . soc . 25 ( suppl . 3 ) : 53 ; [ nacl ] , # 984 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia longimaculella ; [ nacl ] , # 999 ; [ nhm card ] ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 177 , 218 ( list ) ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia plaumanni powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 183 , 218 ( list ) , pl . 16f ; tl : brazil , nova teutonia , santa catarina ( 27\u00b011 ' , 52\u00b023 ' )\nethmia albicostella ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 190 , 218 ( list ) ; [ nacl ] , # 1001 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia playa powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 197 , 218 ( list ) , pl . 18a ; tl : mexico , rio del fuertte , 13 mi n of los mochis , sinaloa\nethmia scylla powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 74 , 216 ( list ) , pl . 1d , 5f , 21a - d ; tl : california , russelmann park , contra costa co .\nethmia szabokyi kun , 2001 ; ann . hist . nat . mus . nat . hung . 93 : 212 ; tl : nepal , annapurna h , 1km n of syange , 1200m 84\u00b025 ' e , 28\u00b024 ' n\nethmia charybdis powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 80 , 216 ( list ) , pl . 1e , 6b ; tl : california , big panoche creek , at san benito - fresno county line\nethmia rhomboidella walsingham , 1897 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1897 ( 1 ) : 45 , pl . 3 , f . 15 ; tl : natal , malvern ; french congo , kangw\u00e9 , ogow\u00e9 river\nethmia palawana ; diakonoff , [ 1968 ] , bull . u . s . nat . mus . 257 : 253 ; [ nhm card ] ; kun , 2004 , acta zool . hung . 50 ( 4 ) : 347\nethmia epilygella powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 137 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 12e ; tl : brazil , nova teutonia , santa cathrarina ( 27\u00b011 ' s , 52\u00b023 ' w )\nethmia pyrausta ; [ nhm card ] ; dubatolov , ustjuzhanin & zintshenko , 1997 , atalanta 28 ( 1 / 2 ) : 165 ; nupponen , 2015 , shilap revta lepid . 43 ( 169 ) : 128 ; [ fe ]\nethmia nigripedella ; [ nhm card ] ; dubatolov , ustjuzhanin & zintshenko , 1997 , atalanta 28 ( 1 / 2 ) : 166 ; nupponen , 2015 , shilap revta lepid . 43 ( 169 ) : 128 ; [ fe ]\nethmia nigrimaculata ; [ nhm card ] ; dubatolov , ustjuzhanin & zintshenko , 1997 , atalanta 28 ( 1 / 2 ) : 167 ; nupponen , 2015 , shilap revta lepid . 43 ( 169 ) : 128 ; [ fe ]\nethmia macneilli powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 101 , 216 ( list ) , pl . 8d ; tl : california , rock cree , 1 mi w of tom ' s place , mono co .\nethmia persica kun , 2007 ; ann . hist . mus . nat . hung 99 : 102 ; tl : iran , b\u00fcyer ahmad , 3km n of sisaht , 2700m , 51\u00b023 ' 21\ne , 31\u00b009 ' 22\nn\nethmia apicipunctella ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 88 , 216 ( list ) , pl . 7a ; [ nacl ] , # 978 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia euphoria kun , 2007 ; ann . hist . mus . nat . hung 99 : 104 ; tl : turkey , agri , karasu - aras mts . 5 km se of sarican , 2000m , 39\u00b047 ' n , 42\u00b028 ' e\nethmia zelleriella ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 112 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 9e ; [ nacl ] , # 992 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia mirusella ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 192 , 218 ( list ) , pl . 17f ; [ nacl ] , # 1002 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia trifurcella ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 193 , 218 ( list ) , pl . 17g ; [ nacl ] , # 1003 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia minuta powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 78 , 216 ( list ) , pl . 3e , 5k - l , 21e - f ; tl : california , 3 mi ne of moreno , riverside co .\nethmia hagenella josephinella ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 110 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 9g ; [ nacl ] , # 989a ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia fritillella powell , 1973 ; smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 136 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 12d ; tl : brazil , nova teutonia , santa catharina , 300 - 500m ( 27\u00b011 ' s , 52\u00b023 ' w )\nethmia notatella ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 154 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 4e , 13i ; [ nacl ] , # 995 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia marmorea ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 194 , 218 ( list ) , pl . 4a , 17h ; [ nacl ] , # 1004 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia monticola fuscipedella ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 107 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 9b - c ; [ nacl ] , # 987b ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia terpnota walsingham , 1912 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 147 , pl . 5 , f . 11 ; tl : costa rica , volcan de irazu , 6000 - 7000ft ; san jos\u00e9 , 4000ft ; tuis , 2400ft\nethmia confusella ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 162 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 2d , 14d - e ; [ nacl ] , # 996 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia gigantea ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 63 ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 187 , 218 ( list ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia semiombra ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 127 ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 188 , 218 ( list ) ; [ nacl ] , # 1000 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia mansita ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 87 ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 90 , 216 ( list ) , pl . 7e ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia proximella ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 117 ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 122 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 11a ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia submissa ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 133 ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 135 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 12c ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia mnesicosma ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 148 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 13d ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; phillips , powell , hallwachs & janzen , 2014 , zookeys 461 : 24 , 10 ( list )\nethmia cubensis ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 41 ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 161 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 16b ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia striatella ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 133 ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 164 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 14f ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia penthica ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 108 ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 200 , 218 ( list ) , pl . 18c ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia oterosella ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 104 ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 208 , 218 ( list ) , pl . 19c ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia phylacis ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 146 , 217 ( list ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; phillips , powell , hallwachs & janzen , 2014 , zookeys 461 : 23 , 10 ( list )\nethmia soljanikovi ; [ nhm card ] ; dubatolov , ustjuzhanin & zintshenko , 1997 , atalanta 28 ( 1 / 2 ) : 164 ; shovkoon , 2010 , nota lepid . 33 ( 1 ) : 149 ; nupponen , 2015 , shilap revta lepid . 43 ( 169 ) : 127\nethmia zaguljaevi ; [ nhm card ] ; dubatolov , ustjuzhanin & zintshenko , 1997 , atalanta 28 ( 1 / 2 ) : 164 ; shovkoon , 2010 , nota lepid . 33 ( 1 ) : 142 ; nupponen , 2015 , shilap revta lepid . 43 ( 169 ) : 128\nethmia umbrimarginella ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 142 ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 70 , 216 ( list ) , pl . 5a ; [ nacl ] , # 962 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia brevistriga ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 27 ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 75 , 216 ( list ) ; [ nacl ] , # 967 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia macelhosiella ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 86 ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 99 , 216 ( list ) ; [ nacl ] , # 982 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia hiramella ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 69 ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 155 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 3a , 13j , 14a ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia terpnota ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 130 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 11h ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; phillips , powell , hallwachs & janzen , 2014 , zookeys 461 : 16 , 9 ( list )\nethmia ungulatella ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 139 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 12g ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; phillips , powell , hallwachs & janzen , 2014 , zookeys 461 : 19 , 9 ( list )\nethmia exornata ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 144 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 13b ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; phillips , powell , hallwachs & janzen , 2014 , zookeys 461 : 20 , 10 ( list )\nethmia chemsaki ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 154 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 13h ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; phillips , powell , hallwachs & janzen , 2014 , zookeys 461 : 25 , 10 ( list )\nethmia catapeltica ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 174 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 15g ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; phillips , powell , hallwachs & janzen , 2014 , zookeys 461 : 39 , 10 ( list )\nethmia bittenella ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 217 ( list ) ; [ nacl ] , # 994 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; phillips , powell , hallwachs & janzen , 2014 , zookeys 461 : 12 , 9 ( list )\nethmia albistrigella ; powell , 1971 , j . lep . soc . 25 ( suppl . 3 ) : 35 ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 81 , 216 ( list ) ; [ nacl ] , # 973 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia discostrigella ; powell , 1971 , j . lep . soc . 25 ( suppl . 3 ) : 46 ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 92 , 216 ( list ) ; [ nacl ] , # 980 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia lassenella ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 79 ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 71 , 216 ( list ) , pl . 5b ; [ nacl ] , # 963 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia monachella ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 94 ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 73 , 216 ( list ) , pl . 5e ; [ nacl ] , # 965 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia caliginosella ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 28 ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 108 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 9d ; [ nacl ] , # 988 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia prattiella ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 116 ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 209 , 218 ( list ) , pl . 19d ; [ nacl ] , # 1007 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia cirrhocnemia ; [ nhm card ] ; dubatolov , ustjuzhanin & zintshenko , 1997 , atalanta 28 ( 1 / 2 ) : 166 ; kun , 2002 , insecta koreana 19 ( 2 ) : ( 131 - 136 ) ; nupponen , 2015 , shilap revta lepid . 43 ( 169 ) : 128 ; [ fe ]\nethmia geranella ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 62 ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 99 , 216 ( list ) , pl . 8e - f ; [ nacl ] , # 983 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia bipunctella ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 103 , 216 ( list ) ; [ nacl ] , # 986 ; [ nhm card ] ; dubatolov , ustjuzhanin & zintshenko , 1997 , atalanta 28 ( 1 / 2 ) : 165 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; [ fe ]\nethmia semilugens ; powell , 1971 , j . lep . soc . 25 ( suppl . 3 ) : 40 ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 85 , 216 ( list ) , pl . 6i ; [ nacl ] , # 976 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia delliella ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 114 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 10a ; [ nacl ] , # 993 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; phillips , powell , hallwachs & janzen , 2014 , zookeys 461 : 11 , 9 ( list )\nethmia festiva ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 56 ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 123 , 217 ( list ) , pl . 11b ; [ nhm card ] ; phillips , powell , hallwachs & janzen , 2014 , zookeys 461 : 12 , 9 ( list )\nethmia albitogata ; powell , 1971 , j . lep . soc . 25 ( suppl . 3 ) : 22 ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 76 , 216 ( list ) , pl . 1c , 5i ; [ nacl ] , # 968 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nethmia duckworthi ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 49 ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 217 ( list ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; phillips , powell , hallwachs & janzen , 2014 , zookeys 461 : 31 , 10 ( list )\nethmia scythropa ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 126 ; powell , 1973 , smiths . contr . zool . 120 : 127 , 217 ( list ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; phillips , powell , hallwachs & janzen , 2014 , zookeys 461 : 14 , 9 ( list )"]}
{"id": 1577, "summary": [{"text": "the red stingray ( dasyatis akajei ) is a species of stingray in the family dasyatidae , found in the northwestern pacific ocean off japan , korea , and china , and possibly elsewhere .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it primarily inhabits shallow , sandy habitats close to shore , and has been known to enter brackish water .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the red stingray has a diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc and gains its common name from its bright orange-red underside ; there may also be patches of orange at various spots on its upper surface .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "most individuals are no more than 1 m ( 3.3 ft ) long .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "feeding mainly on crustaceans and bony fishes , the red stingray plays a key ecological role as an apex predator in its environment .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "reproduction is aplacental viviparous , with females giving birth to 1 or up to 10 pups at a time .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the red stingray is valued as food in japan ; large numbers are caught as bycatch and brought to market , which has seemingly led to a population decline in this unprolific species .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "as a result , the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has assessed it as near threatened . ", "topic": 4}], "title": "red stingray", "paragraphs": ["phylogeography and population structure of the red stingray , dasyatis akajei inferred by mitochondrial control region .\nthe red stingray is a species of ray with the scientific name dasyatis akajei found in both games .\nphylogeography and population structure of the red stingray , dasyatis akajei inferred by mitochondrial control region . - pubmed - ncbi\nclassified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nclassified as data deicient ( dd ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nssg asia northwest pacific red list workshop , valenti , s . v . 2016 .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - red stingray ( dasyatis akajei )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - red stingray ( dasyatis akajei )\ntitle =\narkive species - red stingray ( dasyatis akajei )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\ntake a trip to stingray city aboard one of red sail sports 65 ' luxury sailing catamarans . get in the water with the rays at stingray city sandbar and snorkel on of cayman ' s vibrant reefs .\nvelvet slipper . genuine stingray trim in red with signature diamond heel and bracelet with mark chris monogram accessory . leather sole and lining . handmade in italy .\n) are marked with a star . amino acid positions that are identical are marked in red .\n) is marked with a star . amino acid positions that are identical are marked in red .\nvalenti , s . v . ; ssg asia northwest pacific red list workshop ( 2007 ) .\nred sail sports is the only premier operation delivering full - service dive and watersports services island - wide .\nbennett ' s stingray , dasyatis bennetti ( m\u00fcller & henle , 1841 ) .\npale - edged stingray , dasyatis zugei ( m\u00fcller & henle , 1841 ) .\nthere is little information on the natural history of the bennett ' s stingray .\nno information exists on population abundance and trends for the round stingray in central america .\nshort - tail stingray or bull ray , dasyatis brevicaudata ( hutton , 1875 ) .\nround stingray , taeniura grabata ( \u00e9 . geoffroy saint - hilaire , 1817 ) .\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nred sail sports offers scuba experiences for newbies , dive trips for certified divers and even private dive guides for a more personalized dive experience .\nthere are no specific conservation measures known to be in place for the red stingray . recommended conservation actions for this commercially important but relatively little - known stingray include the collection of data to accurately assess its population levels , and the development and implementation of management plans for all rays and sharks in the region ( 1 ) .\ninformation on the common stingray is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nthe red stingray is believed to be endemic to the northwest pacific ocean , occurring around japan , taiwan and china ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 6 ) . its possible presence in the western central pacific is uncertain ( 1 ) .\nmost stingrays live on or near the ocean bottom in inshore waters ( 2 ) . the red stingray is reported to occur in shallow coastal waters and bays , and over the continental shelf ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 6 ) .\nstingray city means big business in the cayman islands , where each stingray generates as much as $ 500 , 000 annually in tourism income , harvey said . the team plans to continue to monitor stingray city ' s population to track its health\u2014and the industry ' s impact\u2014over time .\nlike other stingrays , the red stingray is likely to be ovoviviparous , a method of reproduction in which the eggs develop and hatch inside the female and are born live ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . in most stingrays , litter size ranges from two to six young , born after a long gestation period of up to twelve months ( 2 ) . however , the red stingray may have smaller litter sizes than most , reportedly giving birth to just one pup per litter ( 1 ) .\niucn ( 2013 ) iucn red list of threatened species . version 2013 . 2 . http : / / www . iucnredlist . org . accessed 4 april 2014\nthe amino acid sequences of human ( h ) mc2r and stingray ( s ) mc2r were aligned .\nstingray city in grand cayman allows swimmers , snorkelers , and divers to swim with and feed the stingrays .\n) , elephant shark ( e ) mc2r ( faa704 . 1 ) , stingray ( s ) mc4r (\nyou may have heard that the ability to chew food separates mammals from other animals . but new footage reveals that stingrays\u2014at least the ocellate river stingray\u2014chew their food too . watch how one stingray chomps down on dragonfly larvae .\nmeyer , p . 1997 . stingray injuries . wilderness environ med 8 ( 1 ) : 24 - 8 .\na biologist from the university of toronto scarborough ( utsc ) has discovered a new kind of tropical freshwater stingray .\nthe range of the bennett ' s stingray is somewhat uncertain due to confusion with other species . it is a\na stingray buried in the sand in saba . stingrays can be hard to see when they cover themselves with substrate .\ntourists interact with southern stingrays at stingray city / sandbar at the study site in the cayman islands . credit : guy harvey\nm range . in this example , mc5r rather mc2r may be the \u201cacth\u201d receptor in the hpi axis of the stingray .\n) were aligned , and amino acid positions in which four of the five sequences were identical are marked in red . the position of critical amino acids in the hfrw - binding site of mc4r orthologs (\nthe amino acid sequences of human ( h ) mc5r ( np _ 005904 . 1 ) and stingray ( s ) mc5r (\nred sail sports has you covered for watersports in grand cayman . from stand - up paddleboards to kayaks , waverunners to sail boats and everything in between . we ' ll make sure you have fun on the water !\na stingray in dark waters . stingrays are dangerous for humans because it is hard to see them when they ' re in dark waters .\nthe stingray ' s spine , or barb , can be ominously fashioned with serrated edges and a sharp point . the underside may produce venom , which can be fatal to humans , and which can remain deadly even after the stingray ' s death . in greek mythology , odysseus , the great king of ithaca , was killed when his son , telegonus , struck him using a spear tipped with the spine of a stingray .\n) is a small , common inshore stingray found along the coastal waters of the eastern pacific . it is distributed from northern california to panama .\na , a comparison of stingray mc2r and human mc2r , vertebrates that last shared a common ancestor over 420 million years ago , the amino acid sequence identity is 37 % ( positions in red ) . given the apparent role of the hypothalamus / pituitary / adrenal ( hpa ) axis and the hypothalamus / pituitary / interrenal ( hpi ) axis in maintaining the fitness of vertebrates (\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - common stingray ( dasyatis pastinaca )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - common stingray ( dasyatis pastinaca )\ntitle =\narkive species - common stingray ( dasyatis pastinaca )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nwhile not independently valuable as a food source , the stingray ' s capacity to damage shell fishing grounds can lead to bounties being placed on their removal .\n, the human , zebrafish , elephant shark , and stingray mc2r amino acid sequences could be aligned to the stingray mc4r sequence by inserting a minimum of two gaps . the positions of critical residues in tm2 , tm3 , tm6 , and tm7 that correspond to the hfrw - binding site for a mc4r ortholog (\ninformation on population abundance for the round stingray is only known for southern california , where they are highly abundant . because this species is large and mobile ( lowe\nmartin , r . a . 2008 . biology of sharks and rays : stingray city limits . reefquest centre for shark research . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .\npassarelli , n . , and a . piercy . 2008 . atlantic stingray . florida museum of natural history , ichthyology department . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .\nsome adult rays may be no larger than a human palm , while other species , like the short - tail stingray , may have a body of six feet in diameter , and an overall length , including their tail , of fourteen feet . stingrays can vary from gray to bright red in color and be plain or patterned . dasyatids are propelled by motion of their large pectoral fin ( commonly mistaken as\nwings\n) .\nthe researchers found that stingray city ' s stingrays show distinctly different patterns of activity than their wild counterparts , who don ' t enjoy daily feedings or close human contact .\nresearchers from nova southeastern university ' s guy harvey research institute in hollywood , fla . , and the university of rhode island studied the southern stingray population of stingray city\u2014a sandbar in the cayman islands that draws nearly a million visitors each year to feed , pet and swim with its stingrays\u2014to assess how the intensive ecotourism has affected the animals ' behavior .\nmost demersal fishes maintain strong relations with bottom substrates and bottom depths and / or topography during their lives . it is important to know these relations to for understand their lives . in tokyo bay , red stingray , dasyatis akajei , classified as near - threatened species by iucn , has increased since the 1980s . it is a top predator and engages in ecosystem engineer by mixing the sand bed surface through burring behavior , and greatly influences a coastal ecosystem . it is reported that this species invades in plage and tidal flats and has sometimes injured beachgoers and people gathering clams in tokyo bay . thus , it is necessary to know its behavior and habitat use to avoid accidents and to better conserve the biodiversity of ecosystems . however , previous studies have not examined its relationship with the bottom environment . this study aims to describe its behavior in relation to the bottom environment . we sounded three dimensional bottom topography of their habitat off kaneda cove in tokyo bay with interferometric sidescan sonar system and traced the movement of red stingrays by attaching a data logger system to survey their migration . the results revealed that red stingray repeated vertical movement between the surface and bottom , and used not only sand beds but also rocky beds .\nwhile the stingray ' s eyes peer out from its dorsal side , its mouth , nostrils , and gill slits are situated on its underbelly . its eyes are therefore not thought by scientists to play a considerable role in hunting . like its shark relatives , the stingray is outfitted with electrical sensors called ampullae of lorenzini . located around the stingray ' s mouth , these organs sense the natural electrical charges of potential prey . many rays have jaw teeth to enable them to crush mollusks such as clams , oysters , and mussels .\nthe red stingray is valued for its meat , and is caught commercially in the coastal waters of japan . it is also commonly taken as bycatch in other fisheries , and this , combined with the strong commercial fishing pressure , appears to be leading to population declines ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 6 ) . the low reproductive rate of this species makes it particularly vulnerable to overfishing ( 1 ) , with populations potentially taking a long time to recover from any losses .\njustification : the reticulated freshwater stingray ( potamotrygon falkneri ) is a little known freshwater stingray from the paran\u00e1 river basin . there is essentially no information available on this species ' ecology or biology . as other potamotrygonids , it faces numerous identified threats including habitat degradation and fishing activities . further evaluation when more information available will be required to assess this species beyond data deficient .\njustification : this demersal ray is reported from a wide range in the mediterranean sea , eastern atlantic and red sea in the western indian ocean . very little is known of its biology . the round fantail stingray ( taeniura grabata ) is vulnerable to capture in demersal trawl and trammel net fisheries , although no specific information is currently available on its capture . at present insufficient information is available to assess the species beyond data deficient and this assessment should be revisited as soon as information becomes available .\nthe red stingray is a top predator in its ocean bottom habitat , feeding mainly on crustaceans and small fish , and also taking various worms and molluscs ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 6 ) . however , very little is known about the life history of this species . male red stingrays are thought to reach sexual maturity at a disc width of around 35 centimetres , and females between 50 and 55 centimetres ( 6 ) . interestingly , at maturity the male and female develop markedly different teeth , with those of the female being virtually flat , and those of the male developing pointed cusps . no large differences in diet have been detected , and it is thought that the differences in the teeth are related to mating behaviour , with the male using the teeth to grip onto the female\u2019s pectoral fins during copulation ( 6 ) .\n. the amino acid sequences of human ( h ) mc2r ( np _ 001278840 . 1 ) , zebrafish ( z ) mc2r ( xp _ 00518229 . 1 ) stingray ( s ) mc2r (\nred sail sports is dedicated to creating unforgettable memories by connecting people with new experiences . our philosophy has remained the same throughout the years : to turn everyday moments into memories with a constant focus on quality and service standards . for over thirty years we are proud to be the most diversified supplier of grand cayman watersports services .\n\u2191 t . r . roberts , makararaja chindwinensis , a new genus and species of freshwater dasyatidid stingray from upper myanmar , the natural history bulletin of the siam society 54 ( 2006 ) : 285\u2013293 .\nthe reticulate whipray is widespread in the indo - west pacific , from south africa to northern australia , including the red sea , the persian / arabian gulf , india , and southeast asia ( north to at least the philippines ) ( white et al . 2006 ; w . white and b . m . manjaji - matsumoto , pers . obs . 2007 ; last and stevens 2009 ) . the species is thought to be a lessepsian immigrant , having entered the mediterranean sea from the red sea through the suez canal ( serena 2005 ) . in northern australia , it occurs widely from shark bay in western australia to brisbane in queensland ( last and stevens 2009 ) .\ntaniuchi , t . and shimizu , m . ( 1993 ) dental sexual dimorphism and food habits in the stingray dasyatis akajei from tokyo bay , japan . nippon suisan gakkaishi , 59 : 53 - 60 .\nflint , d . , and w . sugrue . 1999 . stingray injuries : a lesson in debridement . new zealand med j 112 ( 1086 ) : 137 - 8 . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .\nthe biology and habitat of bennett ' s stingray ( hemitrygon bennetti ) are poorly known . the species reaches a maximum size of at least 130 cm tl and about 50 cm dw ( compagno 1998 ) .\nits your vacation , take your adventures on your schedule ! take advantage of a private snorkel boat charter and experience some of grand cayman ' s top snorkel spots including stingray city , starfish point and more .\nalthough edible , stingrays are not a dietary staple and are not considered a high - quality food . however , they are consumed , including fresh , dried , and salted ( mceachran 2004 ) . stingray recipes abound throughout the world , with dried forms of the wings being most common . for example , in singapore and malaysia , stingray is commonly barbecued over charcoal , then served with spicy sambal sauce . generally , the most prized parts of the stingray are the wings , the\ncheek\n( the area surrounding the eyes ) , and the liver . the rest of the ray is considered too rubbery to have any culinary uses .\nhonma , y . and sugihara , c . ( 1971 ) a stingray , dasyatis akajei , with aberrant pectoral fins from the japan sea . japanese journal of ichthyology , 18 ( 4 ) : 187 - 189 .\namino acid alignment of gar mc2r , mc4r , and mc5r . the amino acid sequences of gar mc2r ( ensloct00000011667 ) , gar mc4r ( ensloct00000022303 ) , and gar mc5r ( enslocg00000018340 ) were aligned and positions that were identical are marked in red . ( a ) alignment of gar mc2r and gar mc5r ; ( b ) alignment of gar mc4r and gar mc5r .\nthe stingray ' s coloration commonly reflects the seafloor ' s shading , camouflaging it from predatory sharks and larger rays . their flattened bodies are composed of pectoral fins joined to their head and trunk with an infamous tail trailing behind .\njustification : the maracaibo river stingray ( potamotrygon yepezi ) is a little known freshwater stingray , endemic to the river catacumbo and its tributaries in colombia , and the maracaibo drainage in venezuela . there is essentially no information available on this species ' ecology or biology . as with other potamotrygonids it faces numerous identified threats including habitat degradation and fishing activities , particularly for the ornamental fish trade . further evaluation when more information is available will be required to assess this species beyond\nthe successive genome duplications during the radiation of the chordates theoretically should yield four paralogous genes in the genomes of extant cartilaginous fishes , non - teleost ray finned fishes , and tetrapods . however , in the genomes of the japanese stingray (\nin the magdalena basin , the young are captured for ornamental purposes and due to the collapse of fisheries of other species , adults of the magdalena stingray are captured for subsistence ( lasso et al . 2011 , m\u00f3jica et al . 2012 ) .\na visit to stingray city is a must while visiting grand cayman . the sandbar is home to many friendly stingrays and is just a short boat ride from rum point . looking for evening activities ? try a sunset sail from rum point too .\nreproductive cycle , making it a relatively productive batoid . this stingray is not targeted but is taken incidentally by commercial , recreational and artisanal fisheries . it is generally discarded , as its small size and large tail spine make it an undesirable target species , however\n. 2012 ) . exploitation rates for the round stingray exceeded biological reference points ( jensen ' s and pauly ' s exploitation rates were calculated to 0 . 77 and 0 . 84 , respectively ) , suggesting that this species may be overexploited ( morales - azpeitia\nthe round stingray is a benthic warm - temperate to tropical round stingray usually found in nearshore waters < 15 m deep , but may occur down to 91 m depth ( mceachran and notarbartolo di sciara 1995 , ebert 2003 ) . these stingrays prefer soft bottoms composed of mud or sand , often in areas where eelgrass ( used for camouflage ) is quite abundant . water temperature plays an important role in the distribution of these stingrays since they prefer temperatures above a minimum of 10\u00b0c ( ebert 2003 , jirik and lowe 2012 ) .\nthe mangrove whipray is likely widespread in the indo - west pacific , around the red sea , maldives , new guinea , micronesia , gulf of thailand , the philippines , eastern indonesia , and off the andaman , santa cruz , and solomon islands ( last and stevens 2009 ) . in australia , it is reported inshore from western australia ( ningaloo reef ) to queensland ( whitsunday passage ) ( last and stevens 2009 ) . there have been records from southern queensland , but these are likely erroneous ( last and stevens 2009 ) . records from the western indian ocean are documented by moore ( 2012 ) and include a specimen from a fish market in bir ali , gulf of aden , yemen in july 2009 , as well as a further specimen captured on video being landed in the gulf of aqaba ( red sea ) near aqaba , jordan in april 2010 .\n( physorg . com ) - - which island of south - east asia has the most stingray species in the world ? according to the new book ' sharks and rays of borneo ' , the island of borneo has 30 different stingrays : not surprising for the most . . .\nlike other stingrays , the red stingray has a flattened body and a long , whip - like tail bearing a strong , saw - edged stinging spine on the upper surface , used as a defensive weapon ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . generally orange - brown above and white to pale pink below , with yellowish margins ( 2 ) ( 4 ) , the body and large pectoral fins form a flattened , diamond - shaped disc , with a moderate snout at the front and a pair of single - lobed pelvic fins at the back . like other stingrays , this species lacks dorsal and caudal fins ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . the gills and mouth are located on the underside of the body , with the eyes situated on top , just in front of openings known as spiracles , through which the stingray can take in water whilst lying on the seabed . water enters the spiracles and is passed out over the gill openings , bypassing the mouth ( 2 ) ( 5 ) .\nthe distribution of this indo - west pacific stingray is not well known , but probably ranges from southern japan to india , possibly including the philippines ( compagno 1998 , compagno et al . 2005 ) . one record from trinidad possibly refers to another species ( compagno et al . 2005 ) .\n) observed that replacing the n - terminal domain of human mc4r with the n - terminal domain of human mc2r inhibited trafficking of the chimeric mc4r protein to the plasma membrane . however , since the n - terminal of stingray mc4r is nearly the same length as the human mc2r domain ( figure\n) . in addition , only the partial c - terminal sequences for the mrap2 orthologs are presented . predicted n - linked glycosylation sites are underlined . note that there are two potential n - linked glycosylation sites in the putative elephant shark mrap1 amino acid sequence . the amino acids in the activation motif for mouse mrap1 are highlighted in red . conserved amino acid positions in the proposed activation motifs of the chicken , zebrafish , elephant shark mrap1 orthologs are also highlighted in red . the amino acids in the reverse topology motif of mouse mrap1 were highlighted in green . conserved amino acid positions in the reverse topology motif of chicken , zebrafish , elephant shark , mouse , and lamprey mrap1 and mrap2 sequences , respectively , were also highlighted in green . finally , the amino acids in the transmembrane domain of mouse mrap1 are highlighted in blue , and the conserved amino acid positions in the chicken , zebrafish , elephant shark , mouse and lamprey mrap1 and mrap2 sequences , respectively , were also highlighted in blue .\nstingrays living in one of the world ' s most famous and heavily visited ecotourism sites\u2014stingray city / sandbar in the cayman islands\u2014have profoundly changed their ways , raising questions about the impact of so - called\ninteractive ecotourism\non marine wildlife , reports a new study published march 18 in the journal plos one .\nfrom a pharmacological perspective , the presence of the putative elephant shark mrap1 ortholog is perplexing . an earlier study had shown that the elephant shark mc2r ortholog could be functionally expressed in cho cells in the absence of co - transfection of an exogenous mrap1 cdna ( 38 ) . elephant shark mc2r could be stimulated in a dose - dependent manner by either human acth ( 1\u201324 ) or by dogfish ( squalus acanthias ) acth ( 1\u201325 ) . more recently , a mc2r cdna cloned from the genome of the stingray , dasyatis akajei , was also functionally expressed in cho cells in the absence of co - transfection of an exogenous mrap1 cdna ( 39 ) . the stingray mc2r ortholog also could be stimulated by stingray acth ( 1\u201324 ) and stingray des - acetyl - \u03b1 - msh . hence , there are several issues with respective to the putative elephant shark mrap1 that need to be resolved . it will be important to determine whether the elephant shark mrap1 mrna is expressed in the same cells as elephant shark mcr mrnas . in addition , pharmacological studies are needed to determine whether co - expression of cartilaginous fish mcr orthologs with the putative elephant shark mrap1 ortholog have any effect on either trafficking of the mcr orthologs to the plasma membrane or sensitivity to melanocortin ligands .\nin the cayman islands , there are several dive sites called stingray city , grand cayman , where divers and snorkelers can swim with large southern stingrays ( dasyatis americana ) and feed them by hand . there is also a\nstingray city\nin the sea surrounding the caribbean island of antigua . it consists of a large , shallow reserve where the rays live , and snorkeling is possible . in belize , off the island of ambergris caye there is a popular marine sanctuary called hol chan . here divers and snorkelers often gather to watch stingrays and nurse sharks that are drawn to the area by tour operators who feed the animals .\n\u2191 p . r . last , b . m . manjaji , and g . k . yearsley , pastinachus solocirostris sp . nov . , a new species of stingray ( elasmobranchii : myliobatiformes ) from the indo - malay archipelago , zootaxa 1040 ( 2005 ) : 1 - 16 . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .\njustification : the giant freshwater stingray ( potamotrygon brachyura ) is the largest species of the potamotrygon genus ; this freshwater stingray is probably endemic to the paran\u00e1 - paraguay river drainages in southern south america . a moderately common but poorly known species . its fecundity is relatively high compared with other potamotrygonids ( up to 19 pups ) but , in general , limited life history and population data are available . it is harpooned for food and also captured for the ornamental fish trade , especially juveniles . given its limited distribution in areas subject to habitat degradation through various human activities further studies , monitoring and a revised assessment in the near future are highly recommended .\nround stingray ranges from humboldt bay in northern california to panama in central america , but appears to be most common between southern california and baja california ( babel 1967 , nordell 1994 , lowe et al . 2007 ) . individuals identified as this species from central america should be examined carefully as the genus is poorly known in this region .\ngrand cayman is the world ' s best - known dive destination . some say it ' s because of the warm , crystal - clear water year - round . others love the stretches of magnificent , unspoiled coral reefs , the schools of colorful fish , the friendly stingrays , the spectacular shipwrecks , the vertical walls teeming with sealife , even the dramatic underwater drop - offs . and most cayman visitors agree that there ' s simply no better way to discover the island ' s many underwater beauties than with red sail sports , the watersports experts .\neastern central and southeast atlantic , mediterranean sea and western indian ocean : mediterranean sea ( serena 2005 ) , eastern atlantic southward from cape verde island to senegal and angola ( whitehead et al . 1984 ) and the indian ocean ( the red sea ) . the species is mostly known from the southern shores of the mediterranean , with a single record from the northern mediterranean ( tuscany : serena et al . 1999 ) , and one from turkey ( basusta et al . 1998 ) . fao fisheries areas : 27 , 34 , 47 , 51 .\nstingray is the common name for any of the various cartilaginous fish comprising the family dasyatidae , characterized by enlarged and flat pectoral fins continuous with the side of the head , no caudal fin , eyes on the dorsal surface , and narrow , long , and whip - like tail , typically with one or more venomous spines . marine , brackish water , and freshwater species are known .\nbennett ' s stingray is presumably taken in demersal trawl and net fisheries operating within its range , but no specific information is available on catches of this species . ray fisheries are important in many areas of the western central pacific , with substantial landings off thailand and singapore ( compagno 1998 ) . stingrays are also taken in various intensive demersal fisheries operating off india ( hanfee 1999 ) .\nstingrays are popular targets of ecotourism . dasyatids are not normally visible to swimmers , but divers and snorkelers may find them in shallow sandy waters . usually very docile , their usual reaction being to flee any disturbance . nevertheless , certain larger species may be more aggressive and should only be approached with caution by humans , as the stingray ' s defensive reflex may result in serious injury or even death .\ndasyatids generally do not attack aggressively or even actively defend themselves . when threatened , their primary reaction is to swim away . however , when attacked by predators or stepped on , the barbed stinger in their tail is whipped up . this attack is normally ineffective against their main predator , sharks . the breaking of the stinger in defense is non - fatal to the stingray , as it will be regrown .\n) observed that exchanging the tm2 / ec1 / tm3 region of human mc2r with the corresponding region of human mc4r resulted in a chimeric mc2r protein that could be activated by either acth or ndp - msh . presumably making a similar chimeric protein for human mc2r , but using the tm2 / ec1 / tm3 region of either elephant shark or stingray mc2r should yield the same outcome . finally , fridmanis et al . (\njustification : the magdalena freshwater stingray ( potamotrygon magdalenae ) is a small freshwater stingray ( adults 19 - 21 cm dw ) that is restricted to the magdalena and atrato river basins in northern colombia . the biological information available indicates that it has low fecundity ( 2 - 4 pups ) and feeds on insect larvae , but further data are needed on its life history . this species is in the ornamental trade and is a by - catch species in other fisheries but no other information is available . monitoring and specific management for the ornamental trade and by - catch are recommended . habitat maintenance and conservation are also required conservation measures . due to its low fecundity and threats , this species is presumed to be declining in abundance . however , it has a wide range and is frequently caught . hence , it is listed as least concern .\nas the species appears to be generally abundant where it occurs , is relatively productive , and appears to be stable or increasing in the northern part of its range , this species is assessed as least concern . however , this stingray may be overexploited as a bycatch species in commercial shrimp trawl fisheries operating in the gulf of california . more data are needed in order to determine how this high exploitation rate may be affecting the population over time .\nall species of river stingray in the parano - plata basin have delicious meat and are harpooned by fishermen when seen in shallow water . artisanal and commercial fishermen also catch some specimens on lines . the attractively patterned juveniles of this species are collected for the ornamental fish trade . the major threats to the species possibly derive from habitat degradation caused by the damming of the r\u00edo paran\u00e1 system for navigation and hydroelectric plants and the construction of many ports along the river .\nwild stingrays are active at night and solitary\u2014they forage through the night over large distances to find food , and rarely cross paths with other stingrays . to see if stingray city ' s fed stingrays stray from this behavior , mark corcoran , lead author of the study who did the research as part of his graduate work at nsu , and the research team tagged and monitored both wild and fed stingrays over the course of two years and compared their patterns of movement .\ndepending on the size of the stingray , humans are usually stung in the foot region . surfers or those who enter waters with large populations of stingrays have learned to slide their feet through the sand rather than stepping , as the rays detect this and swim away . stamping hard on the bottom as one treads through murky water will also cause them to swim away . humans who harass stingrays have been known to be stung elsewhere , sometimes leading to fatalities . contact with the stinger causes local trauma ( from the cut itself ) , pain and , swelling from the venom , and possible later infection from bacteria . immediate injuries to humans include , but are not limited to , poisoning , punctures , severed arteries , and possibly death . fatal stings are very rare . on september 4 , 2006 , australian wildlife expert and television personality steve irwin was pierced in the chest by a stingray barb while snorkeling in australia and died shortly after .\nright now , these animals have no protection at all ,\nharvey said .\nwithout more studies like these , we won ' t know what that means for the wildlife or if we need to take action . it ' s unclear how much of the stingray ' s daily diet comes from tourism provided food , but the good news is we have seen the animals forage when tourists are absent suggesting that these animal are not completely dependent on these handouts .\nsince 1970 , sdrp scientists have operated the world\u2019s longest - running study of a wild dolphin population , assessing the behavior , health , movement , prey and other characteristics of long - term resident bottlenose dolphins in their sarasota bay home . with such a long - range study , czs\u2019s sdrp scientists are experts in field techniques and methodologies for data collection . mote\u2019s stranding investigations program \u2014 a 24 - hour response service for sick and injured marine life in sarasota and manatee counties \u2014 collects multiple types of data from each dolphin rescued or recovered dead , complementing sdrp efforts for a cradle - to - grave understanding of wild dolphins and the threats they face . in the study area of sarasota and manatee counties , the human population has more than tripled and the number of registered boats has quadrupled since 1970 \u2014 increasing the chances of dolphin - human encounters . meanwhile , periodic blooms of florida red tide algae have at times reduced available prey fish along west florida by more than 90 percent , and major red tides of 2005 and 2006 overlapped with intriguing increases in dolphin - human interactions . however , statistical analysis in the new study found that less prey and more human encounters in sarasota bay couldn\u2019t fully account for the dolphins\u2019 behavior . mchugh suggests that more data may be needed to understand these influences . for instance , direct data on dolphin - boat encounters aren\u2019t available for much of the study period , so the researchers relied on indirect indicators \u2014 such as number of boats in a given area \u2014 to estimate human exposure . however , the analyses strongly suggested that dolphins learn unhealthy feeding behavior from one another .\nbefore the current study , one of the strongest cautionary tales came from a long - term resident sarasota bay dolphin nicknamed \u201cbeggar\u201d because people fed him often . according to sdrp and mote scientists , beggar was found dead in 2012 with fish hooks in his stomach , broken bones , signs of old wounds , a history of abnormal behavior and health issues likely related to his human - altered diet . though natural causes \u2014 stingray barbs \u2014 were suspected factors in his death , getting food from people didn\u2019t help .\nthe red stingray dasyatis akajei is distributed in both marine and freshwater , but little is known about its phylogeography and population structure . we sampled 107 individuals from one freshwater region and 6 coastal localities within the distribution range of d . akajei . analyses of the first hypervariable region of mitochondrial dna control region of 474 bp revealed only 17 polymorphism sites that defined 28 haplotypes , with no unique haplotype for the freshwater population . a high level of haplotype diversity and low nucleotide diversity were observed in both marine ( h = 0 . 9393 \u00b1 0 . 0104 , \u03c0 = 0 . 0069 \u00b1 0 . 0040 ) and freshwater populations ( h = 0 . 8333 \u00b1 0 . 2224 , \u03c0 = 0 . 0084 \u00b1 0 . 0063 ) . significant level of genetic structure was detected between four marine populations ( tz , wz , nd and zz ) via both hierarchical molecular variance analysis ( amova ) and pairwise fst ( with two exceptions ) , which is unusual for elasmobranchs detected previously over such short geographical distance . however , limited sampling suggested that the freshwater population was not particularly distinct ( p > 0 . 05 ) , but additional samples would be needed to confirm it . demersal and slow - moving characters likely have contributed to the genetically heterogeneous population structure . the demographic history of d . akajei examined by mismatch distribution analyses , neutrality tests and bayesian skyline analyses suggested a sudden population expansion dating to upper pleistocene . the information on genetic diversity and genetic structure will have implications for the management of fisheries and conservation efforts .\nthis stingray is susceptible to capture in a variety of fishing gear and is caught mainly as bycatch ( hooking , netting and entanglement ) in both artisanal and industrial fisheries aimed at large catfish that are present in the amazon estuary . however , recently a directed fishery has commenced and the local industrial fleet started capturing this species to be exported . it is now being currently exported to european countries by a few fishing industries located in the state of par\u00e1 ( brazil ) . intrinsic factors probably also represent a threat for this species as to most other elasmobranchs ( camhi et al . 1998 ) .\nthey found that fed stingrays swapped their normal nighttime foraging for daytime feeding , and in contrast to their wild counterparts , began to rest at night . they also didn ' t mind rubbing shoulders with their neighbors : at least 164 stingrays abandoned the species ' normal solitary behavior , crowding together in less than a quarter square mile of space at stingray city . they even formed schools and fed together . the fed stingrays mated and became pregnant year - round , instead of during a specific mating season , and also showed signs of unusual aggression , biting each other more frequently than their wild counterparts .\njustification : a large ( to 200 cm disc width ) tropical stingray that is distributed in the western central and southwest atlantic ocean from mexico to brazil including the lesser and greater antilles . almost no data is available on its habitat , biology , ecology and population trends . however , it is caught as bycatch and used as a subsistence food source . base - line studies , including taxonomic aspects , need to be elucidated for this species . given its probable inshore occurrence in fished areas its conservation status will need to be reassessed once data are collected , particularly concerning catch levels . in the first instance though , the species ' taxonomic status needs resolution .\nb ) , and this condition may reflect the close interaction with mrap1 . that interaction most likely started in the ancestral bony fishes , and while the interaction may not have \u201crescued\u201d mc2r functionality , the interaction appears to have stabilized the functional capabilities of teleost and tetrapod mc2r orthologs . tetrapod mc2r orthologs show a similar level of primary sequence conservation . as a result , selection pressures on teleost and tetrapod mc2r orthologs may involve maintaining the close interaction between mrap1 and mc2r . for the cartilaginous fishes , the mrap1 / mc2r relationship is unclear or may not exit , and the selection pressures to maintain mc2r primary sequence identity does not appear to be as strong . for example , in a recent study , on stingray mcrs (\nstudies on the ligand selectivity of dogfish , squalus acanthias ( order squaliformes , subclass elasmobranchii ) , mc3r , mc4r , and mc5r paralogs ( 44 \u2013 46 ) , and the mc1r , mc3r , mc4r , and mc5r paralogs of the stingray , d . akajei [ order rajiformes , subclass elasmobranchii ; ( 39 ) ] found that these mcr paralogs could be activated by either acth or msh - sized ligands in a manner analogous to the corresponding mcr paralogs in teleosts or tetrapods . hence , these paralogs have an hfrw - binding site . however , the mc2r ortholog of the stingray , d . akajei , and the mc2r ortholog from the elephant shark , c . milii ( order chimaeriformes , subclass holocephali ) could also be activated by either acth or msh - sized ligands ( 38 , 39 ) , and as noted in phylogeny and proposed evolution of the mraps , both of these mc2r orthologs could be functionally expressed in cho cells without co - expression of an exogenous mrap1 cdna . the two cartilaginous fish mc2r orthologs , from different subclasses of the cartilaginous fishes , have ligand selectivity properties more similar to mc4r paralogs , and most likely have only a hfrw - binding pocket . this apparent feature for the cartilaginous fishes mc2r orthologs would be quite distinct from teleost and tetrapod mc2r orthologs . whether the ligand selectivity properties of the cartilaginous fishes mc2r orthologs are an ancestral trait or a derived trait unique to the cartilaginous fishes is not clear at this time .\njustification : this is an amended version of the 2007 assessment to accommodate the recent change in genus name from dasyatis to hemitrygon . this indo - pacific stingray\u2019s distribution is not well known , but it probably ranges from japan to india , possibly including the philippines . its habitat and biology are poorly known and it reaches a maximum size of 130 cm total length ( tl ) and 50 cm disc width ( dw ) . it is presumably taken in demersal fisheries operating within its range , but no information is currently available on catches of this species . at present insufficient information is available on the species\u2019 distribution , biology and capture in fisheries to assess it beyond data deficient . further investigation is required and this assessment should be revisited in the near term .\nin m\u00e9xico , a moratorium on the allocation of additional elasmobranch fishing permits was enacted in 1993 , but no formal management plan has been implemented for the round stingray specifically or most other chondrichthyans in m\u00e9xico . however , legislation is being developed in m\u00e9xico to establish national elasmobranch fishery management . currently , elasmobranch landings in m\u00e9xico are poorly monitored and lack species - specific details . all batoids are generally broadly termed \u201cmanta raya\u201d . improved clarity in catch records would provide an essential basis for detecting fishery trends and are needed throughout the species\u2019 range . expanded monitoring of directed elasmobranch catches and bycatch in m\u00e9xico are necessary to provide valuable information on the population status of these rays . fishery - independent surveys of this and other demersal elasmobranchs are also necessary to provide estimates of abundance and biomass .\ncalifornian waters , a network of 29 marine protected areas ( mpas ) were implemented in 2007 under california ' s marine life protection act , representing approximately 204 square miles ( ~ 18 % ) of state waters in the central coast region ( california department of fish and wildlife 2015 ) . due to these mpas , most trawlers are restricted to operating in deeper waters , and only in central and northern california . as a result , fishing effort in the california trawl fishery has been reduced , and catches of this species have also likely been reduced ( d . ebert pers . obs . 2007 ) . the california department of fish collects annual data on commercial fishery landings , however this species is lumped under the general category of\nstingray\n( california department of fish and wildlife 2000 - 2015 ) .\nhemitrygon fluviorum is listed as near threatened , using the previous iucn red list system in the conservation overview and action plan for australian threatened and potentially threatened marine and estuarine fishes published by environment australia ( pogonoski et al . 2002 ) . this report emphasises , however , that there is significant concern for this species and that it needs to be closely monitored to ensure that its conservation status is not raised into the vulnerable category in the near future ( pogonoski et al . 2002 ) . here , however , the species meets the criteria for a vulnerable listing . pogonoski et al . ( 2002 ) recognise critical habitat for h . fluviorum as relatively shallow mangrove and estuarine areas and suggest that habitat protection is required as a recovery objective . while h . fluviorum is likely to occur in a number of marine protected areas in nsw and queensland waters , the zoning plans for these parks and reserves restrict fishing activities in only small areas and do not generally protect sufficient areas of the habitat of this species . the species is still relatively common in some southern queensland estuaries and bays ( hervey bay , parts of moreton bay ) , and these areas may be important for habitat protection ( they are however , also heavily fished both commercially and recreationally and face development pressure ) . education of commercial fishers , aquaculturists and recreational fishers is a priority to halt the destruction of incidental catches of the species .\nthe tail is usually cleaved off before it is returned to the sea , which increases discard mortality . in southern california , the population abundance of this stingray fluctuates seasonally but seems overall to be stable or increasing . in the gulf of california ( mexico ) this species was rarely encountered in artisanal gillnet and trawl fisheries along the coast of baja california sur , but was a dominant bycatch species in commercial shrimp trawl fisheries . exploitation rates in these mexican commercial shrimp trawl fisheries exceeded biological reference points , suggesting that this species may be overexploited , however , no time series data are available . nothing is known of the state of exploitation or population status for this species in central america . no species - specific conservation measures are in place , however , marine protected area implementation ( leading to a redistribution of fishing effort ) in california may have positive effect on this species .\ndental sexual dimorphism was observed in the stingray dasyatis akajei . there was no difference between sexes in dentition at the juvenile stage . however , mature males had a pointed cusp for each tooth while mature females had virtually flat teeth with irregular surfaces . sexual dental dimorphism occurred between a disc width of 350 and 400mm for males collected in tokyo bay , japan . this size range was almost identical to the size at maturity for males , estimated from abrupt increments in clasper length and testis weight . food habits expressed by frequency of occurrence of prey items showed no large difference between sexes . the main food items were crustaceans and fishes . the findings suggest that sexual heterodonty is closely related to the mating behavior of male stingrays . another form of sexual dimorphism was found in size at maturity , i . e . smaller in males than females by a disc width of approximately 200mm .\nthe evolution of the melanocortin receptors ( mcrs ) is closely associated with the evolution of the melanocortin - 2 receptor accessory proteins ( mraps ) . recent annotation of the elephant shark genome project revealed the sequence of a putative mrap1 ortholog . the presence of this sequence in the genome of a cartilaginous fish raises the possibility that the mrap1 and mrap2 genes in the genomes of gnathostome vertebrates were the result of the chordate 2r genome duplication event . the presence of a putative mrap1 ortholog in a cartilaginous fish genome is perplexing . recent studies on melanocortin - 2 receptor ( mc2r ) in the genomes of the elephant shark and the japanese stingray indicate that these mc2r orthologs can be functionally expressed in cho cells without co - expression of an exogenous mrap1 cdna . the novel ligand selectivity of these cartilaginous fish mc2r orthologs is discussed . finally , the origin of the mc2r and mc5r genes is reevaluated . the distinctive primary sequence conservation of mc2r and mc5r is discussed in light of the physiological roles of these two mcr paralogs .\njustification : this stingray occurs in the eastern atlantic and mediterranean sea . it occurs from the shore to about 200 m depth , but is more commonly found in shallow waters ( < 50 m ) . this depth distribution makes it more vulnerable to small - scale inshore fisheries than to offshore trawling . for example , dasyatis pastinaca made up more than 40 % of the elasmobranch biomass captured in the trammel net fishery off the balearic islands . in the northeast atlantic , it is a less common species , generally showing a low abundance index in comparison to the mediterranean sea and may have disappeared from the south of the bay of biscay . data from comparative trawl surveys ( 1948 and 1998 ) conducted in the adriatic sea suggest that this species may have decreased in abundance . although few data are available , this species appears to be less common than it once was in the mediterranean and northeast atlantic . it is currently assessed as near threatened there and further investigation is required into catches and the taxonomic status of population throughout this species ' global distribution before it can be assessed beyond data deficient globally ."]}
{"id": 1580, "summary": [{"text": "anacampsis tristrigella is a moth of the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by walsingham in 1882 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded alabama , arkansas , manitoba , massachusetts , mississippi , ontario , quebec , tennessee and texas .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 12 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are greyish fuscous from the base to beyond the middle , with a greenish hue in some lights and a steel-grey streak along the costal margin , passing over the front of the thorax , beyond the middle very dark brown , with a transverse white fascia extended outwards at the commencement of the costal cilia , narrowed in the middle of the wing , and somewhat dilated about the dorsal margin .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "beyond it are three , sometimes four , white tooth-like streaks , with their bases joined towards the apical margin and separated from the steel-grey fringes by a reduplicated line of dark brown , which passes around the apex .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are brown , with grey fringes , oblique , but scarcely emarginate below the apex .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the base of the costal margin is steel-grey .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on corylus americana . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "anacampsis tristrigella", "paragraphs": ["gelechia ( anacampsis ) tristrigella walsingham , 1882 ; trans . amer . ent . soc . 10 : 181\npeter , thanks for catching the typo on mpg . your photo was placed there by accident and will be moved back to anacampsis tristrigella soon ! thanks\nanacampsis malella amsel , 1959 ; bull . soc . ent . egypt . 43 : 65\nanacampsis sacramenta keifer , 1933 ; calif . dept . agric . , mon . bull . 22 : 362\nanacampsis languens meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 5 ) : 142 ; tl : ecuador , duran\nanacampsis aedificata meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 16 ) : 507 ; tl : brazil , para\nanacampsis diplodelta meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 76 ; tl : brazil , parintins\nanacampsis embrocha meyrick , 1914 ; ann . transv . mus . 4 ( 4 ) : 192 ; tl : new hanover\nanacampsis flexiloqua meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 80 ; tl : peru , iquitos\nanacampsis idiocentra meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 80 ; tl : brazil , santarem\nanacampsis nonstrigella busck , 1906 ; can . ent . 38 ( 4 ) : 121 ; tl : oak station , pennsylvania\nanacampsis parviocellatella bruand , 1850 ; m\u00e9m . soc . doubs 3 ( 3 , livr . 5 - 6 ) : 40\nanacampsis petrographa meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 79 ; tl : brazil , obidos\nanacampsis poliombra meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 77 ; tl : brazil , parintins\nanacampsis cosmia meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 77 ; tl : natal , durban\nanacampsis lapidella walsingham , 1897 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1897 : 81 ; tl : west indies , grenada\nanacampsis quinquepunctella walsingham , 1897 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1897 : 80 ; tl : west indies , grenada\nanacampsis conistica walsingham , 1910 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 35 ; tl : mexico , sonora\nanacampsis lithodelta meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 77 ; tl : peru , jurimaguas , iquitos\nanacampsis lupinella busck , 1901 ; can . ent . 33 ( 1 ) : 14 ; tl : high park , toronto , canada\nanacampsis perquisita meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 78 ; tl : brazil , para , teff\u00e9\nanacampsis insularis walsingham , 1897 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1897 : 81 ; tl : west indies , st . thomas\nanacampsis solemnella ; park , 1991 , ann . hist . - nat . mus . hung . 83 : 121 ; [ nhm card ]\nanacampsis capyrodes meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 80 ; tl : brazil , obidos , parintins , teff\u00e9\nanacampsis rivalis meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 5 ) : 141 ; tl : s . india , shevaroys ; ceylon , kandy\nanacampsis ursula walsingham , 1910 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 35 ; tl : mexico , morelos , cuernavaca\nanacampsis fragariella busck , 1904 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 27 ( 1375 ) : 760 ; tl : pullman , washington\nanacampsis argyrothamniella busck , 1900 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 23 ( 1208 ) : 231 ; tl : palm beach , florida\nanacampsis primigenia meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 5 ) : 141 ; tl : colombia , cali , 500ft ; ecuador , huigra , 4500ft\nanacampsis cornifer walsingham , 1897 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1897 : 79 ; tl : west indies , st . croix ; st . thomas\nanacampsis paltodoriella busck , 1903 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 25 ( 1304 ) : 848 ; tl : mesilla park , new mexico\nanacampsis triangularis braun , 1923 ; proc . calif . acad . sci . ( 4 ) 12 ( 10 ) : 118 ; tl : angeles bay , lower california\nanacampsis considerata meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 78 ; tl : brazil , parintins , manaos , teff\u00e9 ; peru , jurimaguas , iquitos\nanacampsis phytomiella busck , 1914 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 47 ( 2043 ) : 8 ; tl : alhajuela , cabima and porto bello , panama\nanacampsis coverdalella kearfott , 1903 ; j . n . y . ent . soc . 11 : 162 , pl . 9 , f . 13 ; tl : natchitoches parish , louisiana\nanacampsis rhabdodes walsingham , 1910 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 36 , pl . 1 , f . 30 ; tl : mexico , tabasco , teapa\nanacampsis lagunculariella busck , 1900 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 23 ( 1208 ) : 230 , pl . 1 , f . 6 ; tl : palm beach , florida\nanacampsis primigenia ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; landry & roque - albelo , 2010 , revue suisse zool . 117 ( 4 ) : 735 , 699 ( list )\nanacampsis psoraliella barnes & busck , 1920 ; contr . nat . hist . lepid . n . am . 4 ( 3 ) : 226 , pl . 28 , f . 10 ; tl : iowa , sioux city\nanacampsis meibomiella forbes , 1931 ; j . agric . porto rico 15 ( 4 ) : 376 , pl . 42 , f . 16 ; tl : puerto rico ,\ne . e . a . de cuba\nanacampsis populella ; [ nacl ] , # 2246 ; [ nhm card ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 31 ; sumpich & skyva , 2012 , nota lepid . 35 ( 2 ) : 173 ; [ fe ]\nanacampsis niveopulvella ; busck , 1904 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 27 ( 1375 ) : 761 ; [ nacl ] , # 2243 ; [ nhm card ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 31\nanacampsis ( anacampsini ) ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 30 ; [ sangmi lee ] ; landry & roque - albelo , 2010 , revue suisse zool . 117 ( 4 ) : 735 , 699 ( list ) ; [ fe ]\nanacampsis quinquepunctella ; walsingham , 1910 , biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 35 , pl . 1 , f . 35 ; meyrick , 1929 , exot . microlep . 3 ( 16 ) : 507 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nanacampsis lagunculariella ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 78 ; busck , 1914 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 47 ( 2043 ) : 7 ; [ nacl ] , # 2240 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 31\n820x623 ( ~ 87kb ) russia , moscow area , 14 . 8 . 2008 , photo \u00a9 d . smirnov\nthe exact identification of this species is still unknown , but tentatively assumed to belong into this group .\ncompsolechia anisogramma meyrick , 1927 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 12 ) : 353 ; tl : china , shanghai\nlarva on argyrothamnia blodgettii busck , 1900 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 23 ( 1208 ) : 231\nuntomia cenelpis walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 77 , pl . 2 , f . 34 ; tl : mexico , tabasco , teapa\nchlorodecta ( meyrick , 1932 ) ( compsolechia ) ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 7 ) : 197\ncompsolechia comparanda meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 16 ) : 506 ; tl : arizona , palmerlee ; texas , alpine\ncrypticopa ( meyrick , 1931 ) ( gelechia ) ; an . mus . nac . hist . nat . buenos aires 36 : 384\nlarva on fragaria busck , 1904 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 27 ( 1375 ) : 761\n= ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 14 ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 30\nlita fuscella eversmann , 1844 ; fauna lep . volgo - uralensis . . . : 581\ntachyptilia hirsutella constant , 1885 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . ( 6 ) 4 : 256 , pl . 10 , f . 17 ; tl : alpes - maritimes\nhomoplasta ( meyrick , 1932 ) ( compsolechia ) ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 7 ) : 197\ngelechia ( tachyptilia ) innocuella zeller , 1873 ; verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 23 ( abh . ) : 249 ; tl : texas\nagriastis inquieta meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 253 ; tl : british guiana , bartica\naproaerema kearfottella busck , 1903 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 25 ( 1304 ) : 842 ; tl : new jersey\ncompsolechia lacteochrella [ = lacteusochrella ] meyrick , 1925 ; in wytsman , genera insectorum 184 : 123 ( emend . )\nlarva on laguncularia racemosa busck , 1900 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 23 ( 1208 ) : 231\nstrobisia levipedella clemens , 1863 ; proc . ent . soc . philad . 2 : 4\ncompsolechia lignaria meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 10 ) : 292 ; tl : e . siberia , khaborowsk\nlarva on lupinus perennis busck , 1901 , can . ent . 33 ( 1 ) : 15\nmaculatella ( lucas , 1956 ) ( tachyptilia ) ; bull . soc . sci . nat . maroc 35 : 256\ngelechia multinotata meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 5 ) : 134 ; tl : british guiana , bartica , mallali\ngelechia niveopulvella chambers , 1875 ; can . ent . 7 ( 11 ) : 210 ; tl : canada\nagriastis nocturna meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 252 ; tl : british guiana , mallali\ntachyptilia panormitella caradja , 1920 ; dt . ent . z . iris 34 ( 1 / 2 ) : 106\nagriastis peloptila meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 251 ; tl : british guiana , mallali\ngelechia pomaceella walker , 1864 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 29 : 620 ; tl : ega\n= ; park , 2001 , insecta koreana . 18 ( 1 ) : ( 87 - 90 )\nlarva on populus tremula , salix caprea , s . alba , s . spp .\nagriastis prasina meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 251 ; tl : british guiana , mallali\nlarva on croton scouleri , exedeconus miersii landry & roque - albelo , 2010 , revue suisse zool . 117 ( 4 ) : 737\nlarva on prunus salicina park , 1991 , ann . hist . - nat . mus . hung . 83 : 121\ngelechia subactella walker , 1864 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 30 : 1026 ; tl : australia ?\nlarva on salix phylicifolia , s . caprea , s . lapponum , s . repens\ngelechia tephriasella chambers , 1872 ; can . ent . 4 ( 4 ) : 68 ; tl : kentucky\ncathegesis tridentella walsingham , 1910 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 28 , pl . 1 , f . 24 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft\ntachyptila trifoliella constant , 1890 ; bull . soc . ent . fr . 1889 : cxxv\ngelechia ( teleia ) viretella zeller , 1877 ; horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 340 , pl . 4 , f . 110\n[ afromoths ] de prins , j . & de prins , w . , 2013\nsangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;\n[ \u00b2 ] this may require parentheses or not . i don ' t have the necessary information for this taxon .\nexpedition of the california academy of sciences to the gulf of california in 1921 . the tineid moths\nicones insectorum rariorum cum nominibus eorum trivialibus , locisque e c . linnaei . . . systema naturae allegatis . holmiae\nlepidoptera britannica , sistens digestimen novam lepidopterorum quae in magna britannica reperiunter . . . adjunguntur dissertationes variae ad historiam naturalam spectantes\ndie schmetterlinge deutschlands und der schweiz . 2 . abteilung , kleinschmetterlinge . 2 . die motten und federmotten\nsystematische bearbeitung der schmetterlinge von europa , zugleich als text , revision und supplement zu j . h\u00fcbner ' s sammlung europ\u00e4ischer schmetterlinge , die schaben und federmotten , ( 1847 - ) 1853 - 1855 )\nthe moths of america north of mexico including greenland . fascicle 7 . 1 . gelechioidea , gelechiidae ( part ) , dichomeridinae\nzeller , 1877 exotische microlepidopteren horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 3 - 493 , pl . 1 - 6\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nspecific epithet from latin meaning\nthree - streaked ,\nfor the\nthree contiguous white streaks\non the forewing .\nbusck , august 1903 . a revision of the american moths of the family gelechiidae with descriptions of the new species . p . 851 .\na revision of the american moths of the family gelechiidae , with descriptions of new species august busck . 1903 . proceedings of the united states national museum 25 : 767 - 938 .\nthe lepidoptera of new york and neighboring states william t . m . forbes . 1923 . cornell university , ithaca , new york ; memoir 68 .\nnotes on tineidae of north america . lord walsingham . 1882 . transactions of the american entomological society 10 : 165 - 204 .\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 24 june , 2010 - 6 : 20pm additional contributions by randy hardy last updated 28 march , 2018 - 4 : 53pm\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nhabitat : mixed hardwoods and pines , sandy soil , nearby creek . challenging little moth to photograph . its movements were , to me , atypical of a moth . it was extremely fast and not a weak flyer like many small moths are . i was using the camera ' s flash so no diffuser ; therefore disregard the reflection on the wings .\nsince american hazelnut is shown as a larval food source but isn ' t found in our woods in east texas , i looked it up and it ' s in the birch family which does include some other trees found here : alder spp . and hornbeam spp . so , possibly this moth is using those .\nselect your preferred way to display the comments and click ' save settings ' to activate your changes .\nhi maury , moth photographers group is calling this compsolechia crescentifasciella , hodges # 2252 ( chambers , 1874 ) . do you agree ? thanks peter\ngreat shot , herschel - - taken in my part of the county . : - ) ( marvin )\nyou live close to the wilderness area ? excellent . we had 45 butterfly species there this weekend . i will add more shots this next few days .\nthe same quadrant of searcy county , but more like midway between witt springs and marshall . we ' ll be looking forward to those butterfly posts . . . marvin .\nexcellent photo . a widespread species but not often photographed . only live photo that i ' ve seen is by lynn scott in ottawa , canada .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhodges , r . w . et al . , eds . 1983 . check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . e . w . classey limited and the wedge entomological research foundation , london . 284 pp .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\ndistribution data for u . s . states and canadian provinces is known to be incomplete or has not been reviewed for this taxon .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\nall documents and related graphics provided by this server and any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server are provided\nas is\nwithout warranty as to the currentness , completeness , or accuracy of any specific data . natureserve hereby disclaims all warranties and conditions with regard to any documents provided by this server or any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , including but not limited to all implied warranties and conditions of merchantibility , fitness for a particular purpose , and non - infringement . natureserve makes no representations about the suitability of the information delivered from this server or any other documents that are referenced to or linked to this server . in no event shall natureserve be liable for any special , indirect , incidental , consequential damages , or for damages of any kind arising out of or in connection with the use or performance of information contained in any documents provided by this server or in any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , under any theory of liability used . natureserve may update or make changes to the documents provided by this server at any time without notice ; however , natureserve makes no commitment to update the information contained herein . since the data in the central databases are continually being updated , it is advisable to refresh data retrieved at least once a year after its receipt . the data provided is for planning , assessment , and informational purposes . site specific projects or activities should be reviewed for potential environmental impacts with appropriate regulatory agencies . if ground - disturbing activities are proposed on a site , the appropriate state natural heritage program ( s ) or conservation data center can be contacted for a site - specific review of the project area ( see visit local programs ) .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\ndata and apps idaho fish and wildlife information system bringing information to bear on the management and conservation of fish , wildlife , and plants in idaho .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services ."]}
{"id": 1593, "summary": [{"text": "the crab-eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis ) , also known as the long-tailed macaque , is a cercopithecine primate native to southeast asia .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is referred to as the cynomolgus monkey in laboratories .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it has a long history alongside humans ; they have been alternately seen as agricultural pests , sacred animals in some temples , and more recently , the subject of medical experiments .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the crab-eating macaque lives in matrilineal social groups with a female dominance hierarchy , and male members leave the group when they reach puberty .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they are opportunistic omnivores and have been documented using tools to obtain food in thailand and myanmar .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the crab-eating macaque is a known invasive species and a threat to biodiversity in several locations , including hong kong and western new guinea .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the significant overlap in macaque and human living space has resulted in greater habitat loss , synanthropic living , and inter - and intraspecies conflicts over resources . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "crab - eating macaque", "paragraphs": ["the crab - eating macaque . cool mohawk , bro . credit : shawn allen\ncrab - eating macaque can survive from 15 to 30 years in the wild .\ncontaining between 5 and 60 crab - eating macaque individuals . the crab - eating macaque troops are centred around the female crab - eating macaques are they remain in the same place for their whole lives . there are often half as many males in a crab - eating macaque troop than there are females .\ngenomic data from the crab - eating macaque / cynomolgus monkey ( macaca fascicularis ) .\nis made up from fruits , nuts and seeds . the crab - eating macaque also eats\nof around six months , the female crab - eating macaque gives birth to a single infant ( baby ) crab - eating macaque . male crab - eating macaque babies remain with their mothers until they are a couple of years old and are independent enough to find another troop , but the crab - eating macaque babies tend to remain in the troop for their whole lives .\nthe long - tailed macaque is also called the crab - eating macaque , or the cynomolgus or ' java ' monkey .\ninformation on the crab - eating macaque is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nthe crab - eating macaque is a primarily arboreal macaque native to southeast asia . it is also called the cynomolgus monkey and the long - tailed macaque .\n< 0 . 05 , grubbs ' test ) . ce , crab - eating macaque ; cr , chinese rhesus macaque ; ir , indian rhesus macaque .\ncrab - eating macaque has 16 to 26 inches long tail that provides balance when it moves in the treetops . crab - eating macaque is also able to jump horizontal distance of up to 16 . 4 feet .\nthe cynomolgus monkey is the name used in research for macaca fascicularis , sometimes also called the crab - eating macaque or long tailed macaque .\nloss in the form of pollution and deforestation is causing severe declines in the crab - eating macaque population numbers .\ninfant crab - eating macaques are born black , and change colour as they mature .\nmale crab - eating monkeys have moustaches and cheek whiskers , while females have only whiskers .\none group of crab - eating macaques occupies territory of 125 hectares . grooming strengthens social bonds in the group . crab - eating macaques are very aggressive toward other groups or intruders .\ngenetic differentiation of the indonesian crab - eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis / it ) : i . preliminary report on blood protein polymorphism\nin the fact that the crab - eating macaque has a long tail which is about the same length as it ' s body .\ncrab - eating macaque is covered with black fur on birth . it drinks mother ' s milk until the age of 420 days .\ncrab - eating macaques are also called long - tailed macaques , due to their exceedingly long tails .\nthe crab - eating macaque is an arboreal primate meaning that it spends most of its life in the safety of the trees . the crab - eating macaque has a long tail which helps it to balance and sharp nails and its fingers to toes which help with grip .\ngenetic differentiation of the indonesian crab - eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis / it ) : i . preliminary report on blood protein polymorphism | springerlink\nthe crab - eating macaque monkey also easily adjusts to human settlements and are considered sacred at some hindu temples and on some small islands .\ngigadb dataset - doi 10 . 5524 / 100003 - genomic data from the crab - eating macaque / cynomolgus monkey ( macaca fascicularis ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - crab - eating macaque troop\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - crab - eating macaque troop\ntitle =\narkive photo - crab - eating macaque troop\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe crab - eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis ) is a primarily arboreal macaque native to southeast asia . it is also called the cynomolgus monkey and the long - tailed macaque . the crab - eating macaque is found in a wide variety of habitats , including primary lowland rainforests , disturbed and secondary rainforests and riverside and coastal forests of nipa palm and mangrove .\ncrab - eating macaque can reach 15 to 22 inches in length and 3 to 20 pounds of weight . males are much larger than females .\ncrab - eating macaque , also known as cynomolgus monkey , belongs to the group of old world monkeys . there are 10 subspecies of crab - eating macaque that are native to southeast asia . they inhabit subtropical and tropical forests , coastal lowland forests , deciduous and evergreen forests , mangroves and swamps . the greatest threat for the survival of crab - eating macaques in the wild is habitat loss . also , crab - eating macaques are often collected from the wild for the purpose of medical researches and due to pet trade . despite these factors , population of crab - eating macaques is large and stable in the wild .\nsource / reference article learn how you can use or cite the crab - eating macaque article in your website content , school work and other projects .\nthis is a video of the crab - eating macque taken from the bbc ' s planet earth documentary series .\nthreat ( s ) : some believe that the crab - eating macaque is responsible for the extinction of forest birds in and the destruction of agriculture , raiding crops ( sugar cane ) and eating food such as rice and taro plants . crab - eating macaques threaten critical bird breeding areas . the crab - eating macaque has made it to the invasive species specialist group of the world conservation union ' s list of\n100 of the world ' s worst invasive alien species .\nunknown but it has the third largest range of any primate species and the total population of the crab - eating macaque is currently not under significant threat .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - crab - eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - crab - eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis )\ntitle =\narkive species - crab - eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nsussman , r . w . and tattersall , i . 1980 . a preliminary study of the crab - eating macaque macaca fascicularis in mauritius , the maurutius institute bulletin 9 ( 1 ) : 31 - 51 . summary : general ecology of crab - eating macaques on mauritius .\nthe crab - eating macaque is found in a wide variety of habitats , including primary lowland rainforests , disturbed and secondary rainforests and riverside and coastal forests of nipa palm and mangrove . the crab - eating macaque monkey also easily adjusts to human settlements and are considered sacred at some hindu temples and on some small islands .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - juvenile crab - eating macaque sitting in a tree\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - juvenile crab - eating macaque sitting in a tree\ntitle =\narkive photo - juvenile crab - eating macaque sitting in a tree\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nzoos keep crab - eating macaques primarily for educational purposes , because of their interesting social life and because they may be used as an exampke of an introduced invasive species . crab - eating macaques may also serve as ambassadors for the conservation of mangrove forests .\nlike other primates , crab - eating macaques can be quite clever . in thailand and myanmar scientists have documented macaques using tools to help with food preparation . the crab - eating macaque uses stones to open nuts , snails , crabs and other hard to get food items . they also have been observed washing fruits such as papaya and sweet potato before eating them .\ncrab - eating macaque lives in large groups called troops . each group consists of around 20 females and one or few males . dominant female is the leader of the troop .\nwe first used the degree of asymmetry in the divergence between ce macaque / cr macaque and ce macaque / ir macaque to estimate the proportion of the ce macaque genome that is of cr macaque origin . in particular , the proportion of the genome that is introgressed (\ncrab - eating macaques communicate via sounds , visual cues ( body postures ) and olfactory signals ( chemical substances produced in the body ) .\n) a potential introgression region ( shaded blue ) , which contains fewer variations between ce macaque and cr macaque than between the two rhesus macaques ( ir macaque and cr macaque ) . (\nalso called crab - eating or long - tailed macaque . there are ten sub - species . conservation status : iucn red list \u2018 least concern \u2018 physical characteristics | habitat | ecology and behaviour\nadmiralty park probably holds the last population of crab - eating macaques on mainland singapore that inhabits a back mangrove , which partially lines sungei cina .\ncrab - eating macaques use tools such as rocks to break shell of crabs , nuts and oysters and teeth to peel skin of sweet potato .\nother names : m . cynomolgus or m . irus ; crab - eating macaque , cynomolgus monkey , kera macaque , or longtail macaque ; macaque crabier or macaque de buffon ( french ) ; macaca cangrejera ( spanish ) ; javaapa or krabbmakak ( swedish ) ; m . f . atriceps : dark - crowned long - tailed macaque ; m . f . aurea : burmese long - tailed macaque ; m . f . condorensis : con song long - tailed macaque ; m . f . fusca : simeulue long - tailed macaque ; m . f . karimondjawae : kemujan long - tailed macaque ; m . f . lasiae : lasia long - tailed macaque ; m . f . philippinensis : philippine long - tailed macaque ; m . f . tua : maratua long - tailed macaque ; m . f . umbrosa : nicobar long - tailed macaque\ndid you know ? that the crab - eating macaque is rated by the iucn / ssc invasive species specialist group as being among the 100 world ' s worst invasive alien species ? crab - eating macaques are highly adaptable because they are generalist feeders . if expanding outside their origonal range , the may be responsible for the extinction of forest bird species .\nwith a name like crab - eating macaque you might think that these primates enjoy a diet of mostly seafood . however , crab - eating macaques are actually frugivorous , meaning their diet consists mainly of tropical fruit . they also eat a large portion of seeds . together , fruits and seeds make up between 60 % to 90 % of their diet .\nthe native range of the crab - eating macaque includes most of mainland southeast asia , including the malay archipelago islands of sumatra , java and borneo , the islands of the philippines and the nicobar islands in the bay of bengal . although this monkey is often referred to as the crab - eating macaque , its diet is by no means limited to crabs . other food items are in fact far more common .\ncrab - eating macaque is covered with grayish brown or reddish brown fur on dorsal side of the body and pale grey fur on ventral side of the body . tail is dark grey or brown in color .\n, the crab - eating macaque , it sports a cute little punk - rock mohawk . appropriately enough , this species is alternatively known as the egret monkey , which brings us full circle on our linguistic journey .\nsussman , r . w . and tattersall , i . 1980 . a preliminary study of the crab - eating macaque macaca fascicularis in mauritius , the maurutius institute bulletin 9 ( 1 ) : 31 - 51 .\nnatural predators of crab - eating macaques ( macaca fascicularis ) include large carnivores ( panthers and sun - bears in java ) , snakes and possibly large raptors .\nwith broad diets , crab - eating macaques mainly eat fruit , but also feed on items such as insects , bird eggs and as their name suggest , crabs .\nthere are two subspecies of the japanese macaque monkey , macaca fuscata fuscata and yakushima macaque , macaca fuscata yakui .\ncrab - eating macaque is an omnivore ( it eats plants and meat ) . its diet is based on fruit , leaves , nuts , seed , crabs , oysters , small birds and their eggs , lizards and frogs .\nis a crab - eating macaque or long - tailed macaque ( 38 - 55 centimeters long with a tail , 40 - 65 centimeters in length , weighing 4 - 8 kilograms ) . the males and females are both born with black fur , which turns a grey to dark brown or yellowish - brown with lighter underparts and crown hairs which form a small crest . crab - eating macaques are a quadrapedal and diurnal ( active during the day ) species , highly adapted for swimming and climbing trees with tails used for balance when leaping between trees . crab - eating macaques have an average group size of 30 individuals .\na tourist took the footage of a lifetime when she stumbled across a wild long - tailed macaque ( also called a crab - eating macaque ) monkey nuzzling and grooming a small kitten at the monkey forest park in the ubud region of bali , indonesia . the bond isn ' t so surprising though , considering that crab - eating macaques are highly social animals and babies learn from interacting with both their mother and other females in their large groups of up to 60 individuals .\ncrab - eating and long tailed macaque make sense , as the monkeys are often seen eating crabs and they have rather long tails . the name cynomolgus , however , is rather strange so i was curious as to where it came from and why it is used . i checked wikipedia and the following section provided some information :\nclassification : macaca fascicularis is in the family cercopithecidae and subfamily cercopithecinae . there are 16 species of macaques . based on mating style and reproductive systems , there are 4 subgroups . the crab - eating or long - tailed macaque group , also includes the rhesus macaque , the japanese macaque ( snow monkey ) , and the formosan rock macaque . the other three groups are the silenus - sylavanus , sinica , and artoides .\nmacaca fascicularis aureus i . geoffroy saint - hilaire , 1831 \u2013 myanmar long - tailed macaque , burmese long - tailed macaque\n) . we then constructed 19 and 18 multiple paired - end genomic dna libraries with gradually increasing insert sizes for the cr macaque and ce macaque , respectively . the total size of the assembled cr macaque and ce macaque genomes was , respectively ,\nin this lesson you ' ll be learning about the ubiquitous crab - eating macaque . we ' ll be learning about where it lives in southeast asia , its fruit based diet , and unique behaviors including social dominance , tool use and reproductive strategies .\nm . fascicularis , the crab - eating macaque , is native to south - east asia and has been introduced into mauritius , palau ( angaur island ) , hong kong and parts of indonesia ( tinjil island and papua ) . they are conside . . .\nthe crab - eating macaque is a very social animal that lives in groups anywhere from 5 - 60 individuals . these groups are multi - male groups , normally containing 2 - 5 males and 2 - 3 times as many females . their groups are female orientated .\nthe celebes crested macaque ( macaca nigra ) is also known as the crested black macaque , sulawesi crested macaque , or the black \u2018ape\u2019 . the celebes crested macaque lives in the northeast of the indonesian island of sulawesi ( celebes ) as well as on smaller neighbouring islands .\nthe crab - eating macaque is a very social animal that lives in groups anywhere from 5 \u2013 60 individuals . these groups are multi - male groups , normally containing 2 \u2013 5 males and 2 \u2013 3 times as many females . their groups are female orientated . they will remain in a a group up to 4 or 5 years and will emigrate several times throughout their life . crab - eating macaques have a strict dominance hierarchy . adult males rank higher than females .\nis also commonly known as the cynomolgus monkey or cynomolgous macaque . native to malaysia , indonesia and the philippines , crab - eating macaques are closely related to rhesus macaques but have a smaller body size and higher susceptibility to stress as well as other physiological and immunological differences .\ncrab - eating macaques like to live in large , social groups called troops . some troops may have up to 58 members . one benefit is protection against predators . large predators are much less likely to take on a large , howling group of macaques than a single macaque .\nthey will remain in a a group up to 4 or 5 years and will emigrate several times throughout their life . crab - eating macaques have a strict dominance hierarchy . adult males rank higher than females .\n. the two sequenced genomes allowed us to quantify the influence of this introgression at the whole - genome level . specifically , we explored whether a dna signal consistent with interspecies hybridization was apparent within the cr macaque and ce macaque genomes . we calculated the divergence ratio between the ce macaque and cr macaque and compared it with the divergence ratio between the cr macaque and ir macaque for 50 - kb windows across the aligned genomes (\nbenefit ( s ) : the crab - eating macaques were extensively used as the laboratory animal for the research and development of the polio vaccine . in addition , they help in the distribution of introduced plant species .\n, and the population indices are ce macaque : 1 , cr : 2 , ir macaque : 3 . using this equation , we found that\ncontrol level diagnosis : the control level does not seem to be a high priority in all the areas it inhabits . the level of control varies from virtually no protection to being well - protected depending on the region . there seems to be some regulation through export regulations but none that are extensive . the crab - eating macaque inhabits two sanctuaries , nine national parks , and nine reserves . they receive some protection in temple ruins where they are hand fed on a regular basis . the crab - eating macaque is legally protected in the parks and urban forests of malaysia . they are threatened in some of the reserves due to oil drilling and harvesting plans . they are considered sacred by some in bali . this may increase the chances of their survival in these reserves . crab - eating macaques are hunted for food in thailand and borneo and because they are agricultural pests , which remains a growing problem . as a result , this has impeded the government from following through with conservation efforts . crab - eating macaques were exported to the united states and great britain for biomedical research . in the wild , there are currently approximately 2 . 5 million crab - eating macaques , but they are threatened by extensive logging causing habitat loss .\nthe rhesus macaque ( macaca mulatta ) is one of the commonest monkeys in india , often living close to urban areas . in indonesia the crab - eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis ) has become a competent swimmer and dives in the mangrove swamps for crabs and other crustaceans . in malaysia , the pig - tailed macaque ( macaca nemestrina ) has been trained to harvest coconuts . the japanese macaque ( macaca fuscata ) is the most northerly living monkeys and has a shaggy coat to protect it from the cold winters .\n\u2026of two clones of the crab - eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis ) , the first primate clones using the scnt process . ( scnt has been carried out with very limited success in humans , in part because of problems with human egg cells resulting from the mother\u2019s age and environmental factors . )\n. they use their incisors and canine teeth to peel sweet potatoes before eating to avoid the bitter skins .\nthe booted macaque is an omnivore and feeds on figs , buds , invertebrates and cereals . there are two subspecies of the booted macaque that are recognized : macaca ochreata ochreata and muna - buton macaque , macaca ochreata brunnescens .\nthe long - tailed macaques or crab - eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis ) is the only macaque native to singapore . they are also the most common species of non - human primate in singapore and are characterised by their long tails . adults have white fur on their eye lid , whiskers on their cheeks and are brown and grey in colour . babies are born with black coat .\nthe nonhuman primates most commonly used in medical research are from the genus macaca 1 . to better understand the genetic differences between these animal models , we present high - quality draft genome sequences from two macaque species , the cynomolgus / crab - eating macaque and the chinese rhesus macaque . comparison with the previously sequenced indian rhesus macaque reveals that all three macaques maintain abundant genetic heterogeneity , including millions of single - nucleotide substitutions and many insertions , deletions and gross chromosomal rearrangements . by assessing genetic regions with reduced variability , we identify genes in each macaque species that may have experienced positive selection . genetic divergence patterns suggest that the cynomolgus macaque genome has been shaped by introgression after hybridization with the chinese rhesus macaque . macaque genes display a high degree of sequence similarity with human disease gene orthologs and drug targets . however , we identify several putatively dysfunctional genetic differences between the three macaque species , which may explain functional differences between them previously observed in clinical studies .\nthe rhesus macaque monkey had been on the loose in the tampa - st .\na total frequency of macaque - to - human interactions at each study site .\n) . this supports the occurrence of strong gene flow from the cr to the ce macaque genome . by screening the degree of asymmetry in the divergence between the ce and cr macaque and between the ce and ir macaque , we estimated that\ntroops of the toque macaque are a common sight in the cultural triangle , where many ancient temples are situated , hence earning them the nick name of \u2018temple monkey\u2019 . the other two subspecies of toque macaque that have been described are dryzone toque macaque ( macaca sinica sinica ) and wetzone toque macaque ( macaca sinica aurifrons ) .\ncrab - eating macaques are promiscuous ( they mate with more than one partner ) . pregnancy in females lasts 162 to 193 days and ends with one baby . dominant female produces offspring each year . other females usually breed once every two years .\nthe tibetan macaque ( macaca thibetana ) , also known as milne - edwards\u2019 macaque , is found in china , tibet and vietnam . the tibetan macaque lives in subtropical forests either mixed deciduous or evergreen at altitude that range from 800 to 2000 metres .\n, 1973 . polymorphism of red cell nadp - dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase in macaque monkeys .\n, 1969 . geographic variations of transferrin allelic frequencies in continental and insular macaque populations .\nsussman , r . w . and tattersall , i . 1981 . behavior and ecology of macaca fascicularis in mauritius : a preliminary study , primates 22 ( 2 ) : 192 - 205 . summary : general ecology of crab - eating macaques on mauritius .\necological role : crab - eating macaques are the most extensively used laboratory animal next to the rhesus monkey . they are able to easily adapt to mangrove forests , distributed throughout a variety of island habitats , feeding on native fruits and subsequently competing with native birds .\nthe native range of the crab - eating macaque includes most of mainland southeast asia , including the malay archipelago islands of sumatra , java and borneo , the islands of the philippines and the nicobar islands in the bay of bengal . although this monkey is often referred to as the crab - eating macaque , its diet is by no means limited to crabs . other food items are in fact far more common . they are an opportunistic feeding omnivore , meaning they can and will eat a wide variety of animals , plants and other materials , it also eats leaves , flowers , roots and bark . it also preys on bird chicks and nesting female birds , lizards , frogs , fishes and bird eggs .\nand bird ' s eggs particularly during the colder winter months when their are slim pickings on the branches . japanese macaque babies feed on their mother ' s milk until they are able to begin eating more solid foods .\nthe behavioral repertoire of the stumptail macaque . a descriptive and comparative study . bibliotheca primatologica 11\nwe aren ' t monkeying around when we say that this macaque apes albert einstein perfectly .\nmacaca fascicularis philippinensis i . geoffroy saint - hilaire , 1843 \u2013 philippine long - tailed macaque\n, meaning \u201cof mixed breed . \u201d the species name of the long - tailed macaque is\nlong - tailed macaque on nick baker ' s ecologyasia website : fact sheet with photos .\n, the japanese macaque is often loved and protected by the native people . however , growing\nlong tailed macaque ( macaca fascicularis ) | s . a . f . e . project\nlong - tailed macaques are mainly frugivorous but may seasonally focus on other food sources including insects , stems , young and mature leaves , flowers , seeds , grass , mushrooms , invertebrates , bird eggs , clay and bark . crab - eating macaques are excellent swimmers . where they forage in mangroves , they catch crabs , frogs , shrimps and other invertebrates . like other macaques they have cheek pouches in which they can store food as they forage , and transport it away from the foraging site to eat crab - eating macaques live in big groups , which can contain more than 100 individuals . the groups are divided in sub - groups . it is very uncommon to see a macaque living alone . after a pregnancy of 7 to 8 months the females will give birth to a single infant . new - born crab - eating macaques are sparsely haired and dark and weigh about 150 - 470 grams .\n: the home range of crab - eating macaques varies greatly depending on the location and whether they are in their native range or an introduced range . in their native range the home range size may vary from between 50 hectares and 100 hectares , although the national primate conservation\nfemales reach sexual maturity at the age of 4 years , males at the age of 6 years . males leave native group to join other , unrelated group of crab - eating monkeys . young males often fight to establish dominance and ensure higher rank in the new group .\nbut , part of the reason crab - eating macaques are so successful is that they are versatile consumers . they will also eat flowers , honey , bird eggs , fungi , leaves , bark and even clay . macaques sometimes consume clay for the minerals in it , like potassium .\nlocal ganglion cell contr ibutions to the macaque electroretinogram revealed by experimental nerve fiber layer bundle defect .\n, 1973 . genetic variation in the carbonic anhydrase isozymes of macaque monkeys . ii . inheritance of red cell carbonic anhydrase levels in different carbonic anhydrase i genotypes of the pig - tailed macaque ,\n, 1971 . genetic variation and evolution in the red cell carbonic anhydrase isozymes of macaque monkeys .\nfound in a wide range of habitats : primary and secondary forests , mangrove forests , swamps and riverine forests , plantations and the outskirts of towns and villages , often near bodies of water . the crab - eating macaque was introduced to several locations ( hong kong , western new guinea , angaur island in palau , and mauritius ) where they are a threat to many native species .\njiang z ; meng z ; zeng y ; wu z ; zhou z , 2008 . cites non - detrimental finding case study for the exporting of crab - eating macaques . ( macaca fascicularis ) from china . df workshop case studies wg 5 - mammals case study 5 macaca fascicularis .\nthe life span of the tibetan macaque is over 20 years . there are four recognized subspecies of this macaque , macaca thibetana thibetana , macaca thibetana esau , macaca thibetana guiahouensis and macaca thibetana huangshanensis .\nthe number and characteristics of chromosomes of the crab - eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis ) were studied . karyo - types obtained from cultured leukocytes were similar to those of other species of the genus macaca ( 2n = 42 ) . the diploid chromosome number was 42 : 15 pairs of submetacentric autosomes and 5 metacentric . the x - chromosome was metacentric and the y - chromosome was probably acrocentric .\nmuch like raccoons , the crab - eating macaque is keen to take advantage of human activities . macaques make themselves pests to farmers , stealing crops like rice , fruit , sugarcane and taro . they even will steal food from the garbage in cities and villages . unfortunately , these primates can be dangerous . macaques have long canine teeth that can be used to display threatening behavior and even attack enemies .\n1997 . female dominance relationships and food competition in the sympatric thomas langur and long - tailed macaque .\nreferred to as the cynomolgus monkey . in its natural environment , the long - tailed macaque is found\nb mean frequency of macaque - to - human interactions for each behavior investigated across all observation sites .\nin addition to what nishrat has written , crab - eating macaque has a long tail which is the size of its body . their tails also provide balance to their body . they vary in color from light brown to grayish brown fur that covers their legs and arms . they are very sociable and live in groups of about 5 to 60 individuals . they have sharp nails and fingers and toes to help them grip on to things . they also have human life hands . they do not only eat crabs but half of their diet is made up of fruits , nuts and seeds . since they look similar to humans they are our competitors because they eat the same types of foods as we do . crab - eating macaque . ( n . d . ) . retrieved may 17 , 2015 , from urltoken\nm . thibetana , the milne - edwards ' s macaque , is from central china . it is the largest macaque , very short - tailed , dark brown with a bushy pale beard and cheek whiskers .\nsome macaques are nearly tailless , such as the stump - tailed macaque ( m . arctaides ) , some are tailless , such as the barbary ape ( m . sylvanus ) and some have long tails , such as rhesus monkey ( m . mulataa ) . the crab - eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis ) , also known as the cynomolgus monkey and long - tailed macaque , has a very long tail , which is longer than the body , with the body length of the adult monkey about 38 to 55 centimeters ( 15 to 22 inches ) and the tail typically 40 to 65 centimeters ( 16 to 26 inches ) .\nin their natural range , crab - eating macaques ( macaca fascicularis ) are occasionally used as a food source for some indigenous forest dwelling peoples . in mauritius , they are sold to the pharmaceutical industry with a value of approximately us $ 1500 per individual , and in angaur , palau they are sold as pets .\nbertram , b . and ginsberg , j . 1994 . monkeys in mauritius : potential for humane control ( confidential report by the zoological society of london commissioned by the rspca ) : 25 . summary : confidential report summarising the problems posed by crab - eating macaques on mauritius and the feasibility of humane population control .\n1996 . sexual behaviour and mating system of the wild pig - tailed macaque in west sumatra . in :\nthe booted macaque ( macaca ochreata ) is a macaque of the sulawesi island , indonesia . the booted macaque monkey is diurnal ( active during the daytime ) and spends most of the day in the trees . they can grow to a length of 50 \u2013 59 centimetres long plus a tail of 35 \u2013 40 centimetres .\n) single nucleotide divergence between macaque species in 100 - kb windows across the genome . heterozygous variants were ignored in this calculation . the divergence of x chromosomes between the two rhesus macaque subspecies was a significant outlier (\nbats are important pollinators in our ecosystem . contrary to popular belief , bats in singapore do not harm people and have a diet consisting mainly of fruits or insects . fruit - eating bats pollinate the beautiful flowers you see around your neighbourhood while insect - eating bats control insect populations ( including mosquito populations ) !\nclassified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 2 ) . subspecies : dark - crowned long - tailed macaque , macaca fascicularis atriceps , the burmese long - tailed macaque , m . f . aureus , the simeulue long - tailed macaque , m . f . fuscus , the kemujan long - tailed macaque , m . f . karimondjawae , the lasia long - tailed macaque , m . f . lasiae , and the maratua long - tailed macaque , m . f . tua , are classified as data deficient ( dd ) , the con song long - tailed macaque , m . f . condorensis , and the nicobar long - tailed macaque , m . f . umbrosa , are classified as vulnerable ( vu ) , the long - tailed macaque , m . f . fascicularis is classified as least concern ( lc ) and the philippine long - tailed macaque , m . f . philippensis , is classified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nuses in their natural range , crab - eating macaques ( macaca fascicularis ) are occasionally used as a food source for some indigenous forest dwelling peoples . in mauritius , they are sold to the pharmaceutical industry with a value of approximately us $ 1500 per individual , and in angaur , palau they are sold as pets .\ncrab - eating macaques ( macaca fascicularis ) may negatively impact biodiversity by eating the eggs and chicks of endangered forest birds . they compete with native birds for resources such as native fruits . they may aggravate the negative effects of exotic plant species by consuming their fruits and aiding dispersal of their seeds . macaques feed on sugar cane and other crops , affecting agriculture and livelihoods , and can be aggressive towards humans . macaques may carry potentially fatal human diseases , including b - virus .\nto characterize the polymorphisms of several important variants between the ce and cr macaques , we carried out a population survey in 33 unrelated ce macaque individuals of vietnamese origin and 28 cr macaque individuals using pcr amplification and sequencing .\nthe moor macaque ( macaca maura ) is an macaque with brown / black body fur with a pale rump patch and pink bare skin on the rump . it is about 50 \u2013 58 . 5 centimetres in length . the moor macaque monkey eats figs , bamboo seeds , buds , sprouts , invertebrates and cereals in tropical rainforests .\n30 % of the ce macaque genome is of cr macaque origin . we next sought to identify putative introgression regions ( pirs ) in the macaque . we noted that if a given chromosomal region had originated as a consequence of hybridization between ce macaques and cr macaques , the sequence diversity between ce macaques and cr macaques ( denoted as\nhappel r ( 1988 ) seed - eating by west african cercopithecines , with reference to the possible evolution of bilophodont molars . am j phys anthropol 75 : 303\u2013327\ngeneral impacts crab - eating macaques ( macaca fascicularis ) may negatively impact biodiversity by eating the eggs and chicks of endangered forest birds . they compete with native birds for resources such as native fruits . they may aggravate the negative effects of exotic plant species by consuming their fruits and aiding dispersal of their seeds . macaques feed on sugar cane and other crops , affecting agriculture and livelihoods , and can be aggressive towards humans . macaques may carry potentially fatal human diseases , including b - virus .\n\u2014 ( ma ka k ) s . m . et f . 1\u00b0 genre de singes \u00e0 t\u00eate plate et \u00e0 queue courte . un macaque . une macaque . 2\u00b0 ver macaque , ver maringouin , flugacuru , ou berne , larves , dans l am\u00e9rique m\u00e9ridionale , qui sont redout\u00e9es \u00e0 l \u00e9gal des moustiques ; dites , \u2026 \u2026\n\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014 , 1973 . blood protein variations in asian macaques . iii . characteristics of the macaque blood protein polymorphism .\nthe rhesus macaque ( macaca mulatta ) , often called the rhesus monkey , is one of the best known species of old world monkeys . it is a typical macaque , common throughout afghanistan to northern india and southern china .\nwe sequenced the genomes of a female cr macaque and a female ce macaque using a whole - genome shotgun strategy on a next - generation sequencing platform . briefly mitochondrial genome sequence analysis verified the predicted origin of both individuals (\nunder this definition , a negative indicates that cr macaque is closer to ce macaque than to ir macaque . to filter out the regions where the cr macaque sequence was closer to ce macaque by chance alone , we generated simulation data assuming a neutral model using parameters estimated by demographic analysis . the demographic model used for simulation assumed no migration between ce macaque and cr macaque . the program ms 26 was used to generate segregating sites for the three macaques . then , we calculated r diff for each window in the simulated data . the 1 % quartile of r diff in the simulated data was used as a cut - off ( denoted as r cutoff ) , that is p ( r diff < = r cutoff ) = 0 . 01 , for all windows in simulated data .\nmhc class i a region diversity and polymorphism in macaque species . otting n , et al . immunogenetics 2007 may\nmacaques are similar in genetic makeup to humans and have similar immunological , neurological , and reproductive systems ( shidler 2007 ) . combined with the fact that some , such as the rhesus monkey and the crab - eating monkey , adapt well to captivity and are not endangered in the wild , they are popular animals for use in medical and scientific research ( shidler 2007 ) . the rhesus monkey ( macaca mulatta ) , for example , is used in research projects involving understanding genetic and reproductive disorders , exploring age - related health conditions , and developing an aids vaccine ( shidler 2007 ) . the cynomolgus monkey or crab - eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis ) is best known for its use as the first test animal in clinical studies for development of the polio vaccine ( shidler 2007 ) .\nthe females have a rigid hierarchy with infants inheriting their mother\u2019s rank . female gestation period is 173 days , females bear only one young , which weighs about 500 grams at birth . the japanese macaque has an average life span of 30 years . the japanese macaque is very smart . it is the only animal other than humans and raccoons that is known to wash its food before eating it .\nthe moor macaque is sometimes called dog - ape because of its dog - like muzzles , although they are no more closely related to apes than any other old world monkey . the moor macaque inhabits only sulawesi ( indonesia ) .\nso , what ' s the problem with having an extra guest at the table ? crab - eating macaques have a highly varied diet . they compete with native species for all types of food , and can decimate local bird populations by dining on eggs . without natural predators , their population booms out of control and can outcompete native species .\nthis animal has several common names . it is often referred to as the long - tailed macaque due , unsurprisingly , to its unusually long tail that is often longer than the body . the species is also commonly known as the crab - eating macaque because it is often seen foraging beaches for crabs . another common name for m . fascicularis is the cynomolgus monkey , which literally means\ndog - milker\nmonkey ; this is the name most commonly used in laboratory settings . in indonesia , m . fascicularis and other macaque species are known generically as kera , possibly because of the high - pitched alarm calls they give when in danger (\nkrra ! krra !\n) .\n) . in addition , > 93 % of 50 - kb genomic windows displayed a lower divergence rate between the ce and cr macaques in comparison with the ce and ir macaques . therefore , unsorted ancestral polymorphisms could not entirely explain the high proportion of inconsistent regions observed between the ce macaque and cr macaque . furthermore , by combining previous single nucleotide polymorphism ( snp ) data from ir and cr macaque populations with data from our own sequenced cr and ce macaque individuals\ncrab - eating , or long - tailed , macaques ( m . fascicularis ) of southeast asia have whiskered brown faces ; they live in forests along rivers , where they eat fruit and fish for crabs and other crustaceans . rhesus monkeys ( m . mulatta ) are native to northern india , myanmar ( burma ) , southeast asia , and eastern\u2026\nthe cynomolgus , or crab - eating macaque ( macaca fascicularis ) is native to southeast asia . they are widely distributed in malaysia , indonesia and the philippines . they inhabit tropical forests , but are quite tolerant of captive housing and diets . there are several major breeding colonies in the u . s . , but large numbers of these animals can be imported from indonesia and other sources , making them readily available to laboratories at much lower cost than rhesus monkeys .\nthat one always loses the best specimens , is proverbial : this monkey was the biggest macaque i had ever seen .\nfuentes a . patterns and context of human\u2013macaque interactions in gibraltar . in : hodges jk , cortes kj , editors .\nthe long - tailed macaque \u2013 an ecologically important animal with a society that is similar to ours in many ways .\nnparks has carried out research collaborations with local and international researchers since 2003 , which help to manage our macaque population .\nmacaca fascicularis ( primates : cercopithecidae ) long - tailed macaque by tan qiao hao joys , 2014 , on taxo4254 .\nnative to southeast asia , the crab - eating macaque is an adaptable species that has spread to many parts of the world . these primates are far from endangered , and have actually been classified as an invasive species due to their disruption in non - native ecosystems . although they are native to southeast asia , they are now found in parts of mainland asia , mauritius island in the indian ocean , and some islands in indonesia due to human introduction of the species .\nhowe hf ( 1986 ) seed dispersal by fruit - eating birds and mammals . in : murray dr ( ed ) seed dispersal . academic press , sydney , pp 123\u2013189\n( a ) schematic of protein encoded by trim5 in macaque . annotated functional domains are marked with the names of domains in the colored boxes . the positions of nonsynonymous polymorphisms and the two - amino - acid deletion ( in red ) are marked . ( b ) the frequencies of all the nonsynonymous polymorphisms and the two - amino - acid deletion in the cr macaque and ce macaque populations . the frequency is counted for the genotype that appears in the ir macaque reference .\nfuruichi , t . ( 1983 ) . interindividual distance and influence of dominance on feeding in a natural japanese macaque troop .\nyamada , m . ( 1963 ) . a study of blood - relationship in the natural society of the japanese macaque .\n. we\u2019ll get back to the macaque in a moment , but , for now , let\u2019s move on to our wrasse .\na rhesus macaque monkey sits on a perch at the national institutes of health ' s animal center in poolesville , md .\nthe lion - tailed macaque primarily eats fruits , however , it also eats leaves , buds , insects and small vertebrates .\ndistribution and status of long - tailed macaque ( macaca fascicularis aurea i . geofroy saint - hilaire , 1830 ) in bangladesh\nthe bonnet macaque ( macaca radiata ) is a macaque that resides in india . the bonnet macaque is a diurnal monkey which means it is mostly active during the daytime . bonnet macaques are around 35 \u2013 60 centimetres long plus a tail of 35 \u2013 68 centimetres . male bonnet macaques weigh 5 . 5 to 9 kilograms and females 3 . 5 to 4 . 5 kilograms .\nnatural predators of crab - eating macaques ( macaca fascicularis ) include large carnivores ( panthers and sun - bears in java ) , snakes and possibly large raptors . some primate taxonomists consider m . fascicularis to be more of a species group or superspecies , as it has a complex relationship with other species such as m . mulatto , m . cyclopis , and m . fuscata .\nthe common macaque is a strong , well - built monkey , of a dark grey colour , with a short stubby tail .\nwe constructed 19 and 18 paired - end libraries , with spanning size ranges of 200 bp to 10 kb ( supplementary section 1 ) , from the cr macaque and ce macaque , respectively . the libraries were prepared following the manufacturer ' s standard instructions and sequenced on illumina hiseq ( 2000 ) platform . whole genome sequencing was done as described previously 22 . a total of 178 . 98 gb data and 198 . 39 gb data were generated from these libraries for the cr macaque and ce macaque , respectively .\nnotes natural predators of crab - eating macaques ( macaca fascicularis ) include large carnivores ( panthers and sun - bears in java ) , snakes and possibly large raptors . some primate taxonomists consider m . fascicularis to be more of a species group or superspecies , as it has a complex relationship with other species such as m . mulatto , m . cyclopis , and m . fuscata .\nand human genome sequences . about 97 % of cr macaque scaffolds and 92 % of ce macaque scaffolds could be placed onto chromosomes . we also applied rna - seq to profile transcripts in various tissues from one ir macaque and two ce macaques ( online methods ) . an integrated analysis combining genomic and transcriptome data was then used to define transcript structure and ascertain the expression profile of each gene (\ncrab - eating macaques are arboreal primates living in many habitats of southeast asia , but they have become an invasive species in nearby islands and mainland asia . they are small with long tails , gray fur , and pinkish - brown faces , and sharp canines that are used to fight predators and each other . they are frugivorous , eating a diet mostly of fruit , but also flowers , leaves , insects , eggs , sea animals and even human garbage . they live in large troops with dominant males and females . females give birth to one offspring , but demonstrate limited parental care .\nbut of course , there must be a reason for their name . crab - eating macaques that live near water particularly in coastal forests or mangroves are known for their seafood diet . they can be seen scavenging for crabs and frogs near the water . species in indonesia have even evolved to become strong swimmers . they dive for aquatic species , such as crabs that are underwater , shrimps , and octopuses .\nfuentes a , kalchik s , gettler l , kwiatt a , konecki m , jones - engel l . characterizing human\u2013macaque interactions in singapore .\nthe development of disease in baboons is somewhat slower than in the rhesus macaque . infection of wild troops with bovine tb has been described (\nmacaque monkeys that have developed the ability to use stone tools to open shellfish are in danger of losing the skill because of human development .\nsource / reference article learn how you can use or cite the japanese macaque article in your website content , school work and other projects .\nlocal dispersal methods escape from confinement : the risk of pet crab - eating macaques ( macaca fascicularis ) escaping and forming new populations is significant as many people import these animals to keep or sell as pets ( kemp and burnett , 2003 ) . natural dispersal ( local ) : the home range of crab - eating macaques ( macaca fascicularis ) varies greatly depending on the location and whether they are in their native range or an introducted range . in their native range the home range size may vary from between 50 hectares and 100 hectares . the mean troop home range in their introduced range is estimated to be only 800 m\u00b2 in mauritius ( sussman and tattersall , 1986 , carter and bright , 2002 ) . in their introduced range in papua ( indonesia ) the home range size may vary between 3 hectares and 22 hectares .\nthe scientific name of the crab - eating macaque is macaca fascicularis . macaca comes from the portuguese word macaco , which was picked up from makaku , a fiot ( west african language ) word ( kaku means ' monkey ' in fiot ) . fascicularis is latin for ' a small band or stripe ' . sir thomas raffles , who gave the animal its scientific name in 1821 , did not specify what he meant by the use of this word , although it is presumed it had something to do with his observation of the animal ' s color ."]}
{"id": 1598, "summary": [{"text": "the common chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs ) , usually known simply as the chaffinch , is a common and widespread small passerine bird in the finch family .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the male is brightly coloured with a blue-grey cap and rust-red underparts .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the female is much duller in colouring but both sexes have two contrasting white wings-bars and white sides to the tail .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the male bird has a strong voice and sings from exposed perches to attract a mate .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the chaffinch breeds in much of europe , across asia to siberia and in northwest africa .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "the female builds a nest with a deep cup in the fork of a tree .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the clutch is typically 4 \u2013 5 eggs , which hatch in about 13 days .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the chicks fledge in around 14 days but are fed by both adults for several weeks after leaving the nest .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "outside the breeding season chaffinches form flocks in open countryside and forage for seeds on the ground .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "during the breeding season they forage on trees for invertebrates , especially caterpillars , and feed these to their young .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the chaffinch is a partial migrant ; birds breeding in warmer regions are sedentary while those breeding in the colder northern areas of its range winter further south .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the eggs and nestlings of the chaffinch are taken by a variety of mammalian and avian predators .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "its large numbers and huge range mean that chaffinch is classed as of least concern by the international union for conservation of nature . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "common chaffinch", "paragraphs": ["common chaffinch are common at feeders in their normal range , attending for most commonly offered seeds .\ndescription : common and familiar , the common chaffinch lives close to humans in the most part of its range .\ncommon chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs ) is a species of bird in the fringillidae family .\nparticularly common in wood pigeons ( columba palumbas - common wood - pigeon ) . fractured coracoid and clavicle common . ( v . w26 )\nthe common chaffinch is a singing bird and thus the \u201cchaffinch lovers\u201d breed them to take part in singing contests . some expressions that refer to its singing abilities like \u201cgay or happy as a chaffinch\u201d are still common nowadays .\nthe common chaffinch is the most common finch in western europe . it is also called a spink , from its fink or vink sounding call .\nseen occasionally in wild common buzzards ( buteo buteo - common buzzard ) . ( v . w26 )\ncommon chaffinch , hout bay , western cape , south africa . [ photo duncan robertson \u00a9 ]\nthe song of a common chaffinch is often referred to as chip chip chip chewy chewy chewy .\ncommon chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs ) a female feeding on the ground . | the internet bird collection | hbw alive\nremember that\ncommon things occur commonly\n; in wildlife casualties trauma ( physical damage ) is a common reason for presentation .\nflight : common chaffinch performs undulating flight . it hovers before to alight , displaying the white patches of wings and tail .\nsvensson 2015 . a new north african subspecies of common chaffinch fringilla coelebs . bull boc 135 ( 1 ) : 69\u009676 .\nlouse flies ( hippoboscidae family ) are common external parasites in buzzards ( buteo buteo - common buzzard ) . ( v . w26 )\nsvensson , l . 2015 . a new north african subspecies of common chaffinch fringilla coelebs . bulletin of the british ornithologists\u2019 club 135 : 69\u201376 .\nthis entry was posted in libya , north africa , taxonomy and tagged common chaffinch , endemic species and subspecies , fringilla coelebs . bookmark the permalink .\ncomplete mitochondrial genomes from four subspecies of common chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs ) : new inferences about mitochondrial rate heterogeneity , . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nthe common chaffinch is a widespread species in europe , and is the most common finch found there . its range extends throughout western asia , northwestern africa , the azores and madeira , and is also found on the canary islands of tenerife and gran canaria . an occasional common chaffinch may be seen in north america , but these may be escaped caged birds . an introduced colony of common chaffinches also still exists in south africa near cape town . this species prefers open woodlands , gardens and farms , and primarily eats seeds while feeding its young a diet of insects . the common chaffinch has a conservation rating of least concern .\nprotection / threats / status : common chaffinch is very common and widespread in its range . it may be vulnerable to pesticides and herbicides included in the seeds . domestic cats are their main predators . however , populations are not threatened at this moment .\nebcc . 2015 . pan - european common bird monitoring scheme . available at : urltoken .\nrange : common chaffinch is found throughout europe . it lives from western europe to western asia , middle - east , north africa and the macaronesian islands in atlantic ocean .\ndiet : common chaffinch feeds mainly on seeds taken on the ground , but it also consumes insects , spiders and earth worms , and some fallen fruits such as apples .\ncomplete mitochondrial genomes from four subspecies of common chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs ) : new inferences about mitochondrial rate heterogeneity , neutral theory , and phylogenetic relationships within the order passeriformes .\nlike the bullfinch , the chaffinch used to be a common visitor in the winter , but in recent years the numbers have dwindled and now we hardly ever see them .\nandrea corso , birding frontiers , 3 jun 2014 : identification of african chaffinch .\nrodrigues et al 2014 . genetic diversity and morphological variation of the common chaffinch fringilla coelebs in the azores . j avian biol 45 ( 2 ) : 167\u2013178 . [ pdf ]\nhabitat : common chaffinch is found in various kinds of woodlands , as deciduous or coniferous . it prefers open woodlands , and it is very common in parks and gardens , cultivated areas , orchards and hedgerows . outside the breeding season , it performs some dispersion and frequents open farmlands .\nit is neither the house sparrow nor the common blackbird but the common chaffinch which is our most abundant breeding bird . it occurs almost anywhere where there are several trees , for it is not very choosy . in winter , the chaffinch is a very common visitor to bird tables . here it mostly makes do with gleaning seeds that have fallen to the ground . since the females are a little smaller and therefore not so well adapted to winter conditions , they migrate further to the west and south than males . therefore , in switzerland and especially in northern europe , males predominate in winter . this may be the reason why the common chaffinch was given its scientific name fringilla coelebs , the \u0093bachelor finch\u0094 .\nsu\u00e1rez et al 2009 . phylogeography and genetic structure of the canarian common chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs ) inferred with mtdna and microsatellite loci . mol phylogenet evol 53 ( 2 ) : 556\u2013564 . [ pdf ]\nrodrigues , lopes , reis , resendes , ramos & trist\u00e3o da cunha ( in press ) . genetic diversity and morphological variation of the common chaffinch fringilla coelebs in the azores . j avian biol . [ abstract ]\nthe chaffinch was slow to become established in new zealand , but is now abundant throughout the country .\npopulation differentiation , historical demography and evolutionary relationships among widespread common chaffinch populations ( fringilla coelebs ssp . ) . master of science , university of toronto . full text auteur : samarasin - dissanayake , pasan advisor : baker , allan\nin this recent taxonomic paper , lars svensson described a new subspecies of common chaffinch from north cyrenaica , libya : fringilla coelebs harterti subsp . nov . until now , the birds breeding in this region were generally included in fringilla coelebs africana .\ninsects , caterpillars , seeds and nuts are common foods of the beautiful chaffinch . in the garden , you ' ll find the chaffinch enjoys rummaging around for sunflower hearts and seeds . they are a little shy and don ' t take too well to feeding openly on hanging feeders . therefore , chaffinches can often be found feeding under hedges and bird tables .\nbirds of spain common chaffinch is one of the 567 treated in lynx ' s field guide birds of spain . recommended by seo / birdlife , it contains updated information on all bird species present in spanish territories . in english . also available in spanish .\nchaffinch . adult male singing . anderson park , taradale , napier , november 2011 . image \u00a9 adam clarke by adam clarke\nthe chaffinch is one of the most common bird species in the uk and one of the top 10 most reported birds in garden birdwatch gardens . in britain , the highest breeding densities are found in southern , central and eastern england , and on upland edges in northern england and scotland .\nwith its colourful plumage and distinctive song , the chaffinch is the bird that is most commonly seen and heard in the caledonian forest .\nthe brambling is similar but has white rump and all - black tail , the chaffinch has white outer tail feathers in both sexes . they often form mixed flocks in the winter ; the brambling ' s white rump and chaffinch ' s white wing bars are diagnostic features .\ncommon chaffinch : eurasian species ; widely scattered as far as north africa , western asia , southern russia , and western siberia . accidental during migration in the maritimes and in massachusetts and maine ; found almost anywhere with scattered shrubs and trees , orchards , farmlands , parks , gardens , and suburbs .\nangus , d . j . 2013 . chaffinch . in miskelly , c . m . ( ed . ) new zealand birds online .\nwe present new insights into the genetic diversity and phylogeography of the common chaffinch fringilla coelebs from the azores , based on sequences of mitochondrial and nuclear genes from 44 individuals and an outgroup / comparison of 44 birds from madeira , the canary islands and the continental western palearctic . to understand the level of concordance between the genetic data and morphometric variability we analysed eight morphometric characters from 413 adult living birds from all the azores islands and compared the population genetic distances with quantitative morphometric traits . our results indicate the occurrence of gene flow among the common chaffinch populations in the archipelago revealing the lack of current genetic structure within it and the existence of two co - occurring lineages . results also indicate the existence of morphometric differences among islands that could be due to ecological features instead of island isolation . this study also confirms the genetic distance among the common chaffinch populations within macaronesia and between these archipelagos and the continental western palearctic .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs )\ntitle =\narkive species - chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe chaffinch is well known for its\nrain\ncall which is a repetitive short trill , and a loud\npink pink\ncall .\nchaffinch populations were affected in the 1950s by use of agricultural chemicals and changes in farming practice , but now seems to be doing all right .\ndespite the attentions of predators and parasites the chaffinch population in the uk is thriving , and it is the second most abundant bird in the country .\ncommon chaffinch usually returns to the same territory every year . male is very aggressive , chasing away intruders or other birds . female arrives in march . mates stay together about six weeks before to breed . the male performs courtship displays but the female may be aggressive towards him . however , they feed together on the ground .\nclement , p . 2016 . common chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . and de juana , e . ( eds ) , handbook of the birds of the world alive , lynx edicions , barcelona .\nbehaviour : common chaffinch feeds in large groups in winter , taking seeds in farmlands and gardens . but in breeding season , this bird is strongly territorial . they usually feed on the ground and often mix with other fringillidae and sparrows . it walks on the ground with fast and short steps , hops , and flies from tree to tree .\ncommon findings and reasons for presentation - crow , jay , magpie etc . considerations ( the species - specific sections should be read in association with the general physical / clinical examination section above )\nthe chaffinch is the most abundant finch in the uk . with its striking pinkish - red breast and cheeks , grey - blue crown and nape and characteristic white wing bars , the chaffinch is arguably our most ' underrated ' bird . watch carefully and you ' ll notice that throughout summer the plumage is brighter than in winter .\ncommon findings and reasons for presentation - garden birds etc . ( small passerines ) considerations ( the species - specific sections should be read in association with the general physical / clinical examination section above )\ncorso , a . , vigan\u00f2 , m . & starnini , l . 2015 . identification of african chaffinch . dutch birding 37 ( 6 ) : 392 - 402 .\nthe chaffinch is noted for its characteristic ' rain ' call , with a memorable\nchip , chip , chip . chooee , chooee , cheeoo\n. listen below .\nthe chaffinch is a sparrow - sized bird in the finch family fringillidae , in the order passeriformes , which is the taxonomic category that covers perching birds ( more than half of all bird species ) . an adult chaffinch is 14 - 16 cm . in length , with a wingspan of up to 28 cm . , and weighs 20 \u2013 25 gm .\nclement , p . ( 2018 ) . common chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nchaffinch numbers start to increase in gardens in the winter thanks to the addition of migrants from the continent . in the autumn , however , their use of gardens reflects the size of the seed crop produced by beech trees . in years where there has been a poor crop , chaffinch numbers in gardens are higher because they are taking advantage of the supplementary food provided .\nthere have been several records of african chaffinch in great britain . these birds looked very similar to african and different from european ( greenish mantle , rosy belly , grey hood ) . however , they had also some diagnostic features not found in african chaffinch ( grey wash on the breast , pale or colourless underparts , orange tone on the belly , reduced pink belly , pink tones on the ear coverts and the malar area , mantle greenish - brown ) . the british committee did not recognize them as true african chaffinch . the may be some aberrant european ones .\npredators of the chaffinch include raptors such as the sparrowhawk ( accipiter nisus ) , goshawk ( accipiter gentilis ) , merlin ( falco columbarius ) and tawny owl ( strix aluco ) . chaffinches will engage in mobbing behaviour to discourage predators , for example if they see a tawny owl roosting in a tree during the day . the pine marten ( martes martes ) will take both eggs and chicks if it finds a chaffinch nest . unlike some other similar - sized birds , the chaffinch rarely suffers from brood parasitism by the common cuckoo ( cuculus canorus ) , whereby the cuckoo dupes an unsuspecting host bird into raising a cuckoo chick as though it was its own . this is possibly explained by the fact that chaffinches have been observed making an aggressive response to cuckoos that approach their nesting sites .\nthe common chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs ) is a widespread passerine species in the west palearctic , and is a common breeder in most of europe , western asia , northern africa , and the macaronesian islands in the atlantic ocean . a total of 19 subspecies are described , whereas five of these are located on the macaronesian islands . three subspecies are found in the canary islands , one in madeira , and one in the azores . each of these three archipelagos has a unique climate and ecology , and together with the different geological age and the variation in distance to land these archipelagos provide us with a good background to study evolutionary changes and speciation .\nthe chaffinch is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) . included in the birds of conservation concern green list ( low conservation concern ) ( 4 ) .\nlibyan chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs harterti ) : a new subspecies found only in cyrenaica , north - east libya ( photo : encyclopedia of wild birds in libya \u2013 \u0645\u0648\u0633\u0648\u0639\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u064a\u0648\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0644\u064a\u0628\u064a\u0627 ) .\nchaffinch nests are cup shaped , built primarily from moss , grass and feathers , and lined with feathers and wool . these nests can often be spotted in forks of branches or buried within shrubs .\nthe chaffinch is a popular pet bird in many countries . in belgium , the ancient traditional sport of vinkenzetting pits male chaffinches against one another in a contest for the most bird calls in an hour .\nlibyan chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs harterti ) : a new subspecies found only in cyrenaica , north - east libya . ( \u200ephoto : encyclopedia of wild birds in libya \u2013 \u0645\u0648\u0633\u0648\u0639\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u064a\u0648\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0644\u064a\u0628\u064a\u0627 ) \u200e\nthe chaffinch is resident year - round and breeds in scotland . the uk population has been estimated at about 6 million pairs , and in winter this is boosted by birds , often predominantly females , which migrate southwards from scandinavia . the chaffinch\u2019s specific name \u2018coelebs\u2019 means \u2018bachelor\u2019 and was given to it based on the observation in sweden that the males stayed there over the winter , while the females moved south .\nthe natural range of the chaffinch is europe , western and central asia , the middle east and north africa . it also inhabits islands in the north atlantic . it was also successfully introduced to south africa .\ncareful examination for puncture wounds should be made in all casualties with a history of possible cat attack . in small garden birds ( passerines ) it is particularly common for bite wounds to be located on the bird ' s chest underneath the wings .\nthe average lifespan of the chaffinch is estimated at 3 years , although individuals have been known to live to a maximum of 12 or even 14 years . the song of the male chaffinch is one of the most distinctive of all bird songs in the uk and consists of a series of sharp , quick notes followed by a flourish at the end . it lasts for up to 5 seconds , and is often repeated constantly for a minute or more . the chaffinch also makes another call , consisting of a repeated trill , and this is known as the \u2018rain call\u2019 , as in the past it was thought to foretell rain .\nthe male chaffinch has a pink breast and cheeks , blue - grey crown and nape , and chestnut brown back . in summer , its bill is grey - blue , turning to pale brown in the winter .\noccurs from europe to western asia but was introduced to cape town , south africa in ca . 1898 , where it is locally common from rondebosch to tokai . it almost exclusively occupies plantations , alien woodlands , parks and gardens , rarely moving into mountain fynbos .\nthe chaffinch is common and widespread throughout scotland , except in the largely treeless areas of some of the remoter islands , such as the outer hebrides and shetland , where it is scarce or absent . it occurs wherever there are bushes , scrub or woodland , and is found in gardens , hedgerows and town parks . it is the commonest bird in the caledonian forest , living in both scots pine - and birch - dominated areas , and has also adapted to live in conifer plantations .\non the head , forehead is blackish . crown , nape and neck sides are grey . cheeks and ear - coverts are pinkish - brown , as underparts . in winter plumage , chaffinch male has same pattern but duller plumage .\ngryczynska a , dolnik o , mazgajski td . ( 1999 ) parasites of chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs ) population . part i . coccidia ( protozoa , apicomplexa ) . wiad parazytol . 45 ( 4 ) : 495 - 500 .\nthe chaffinch is our commonest finch and has striking double white wing bars . the wing bars are formed by white patches on the wing coverts , and primary and secondary wing feathers . its summer plumage is brighter that its winter plumage .\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto common chaffinch\u2019s typical call when perched is a \u201cpink - pink\u201d very sharp . we can also hear a thin \u201cseee\u201d as alarm call . the flight - call is a \u201cyup - yup\u201d . the song is a short and vigorous series of descending notes ending in a \u201cchip - chip - chip - chip - chett - chett - chett - chett - diddip - diddiooo\u201d very variable . the song may be heard from far , and varies according to the region , forming local dialects .\nthe common chaffinch is a bird of the old world , with a range that covers most of europe , northwest africa , and northwestern parts of asia . a popular bird in great britain , they were also introduced in a number of former british colonies . populations persist in new zealand where they are one of the most numerous songbirds , while small populations persist in south africa . in the western hemisphere , they are rare vagrants , with most birds found near the atlantic coastline of eastern canada and the northeastern united states .\nchaffinches occupy a wide range of habitats from sea - level to 1400 m , wherever there are trees or scrub . they inhabit pine and other exotic forests , indigenous forests and sub - alpine scrub , and are common in gardens , parks , orchards and farmland with shelterbelts and hedgerows .\nyablonovska - grishchenko , grishchenko & tsvelykh 2014 . geographic variation of song of the crimean chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs solomkoi ) . berkut 23 ( 1 ) : 40\u009655 . [ abstract ] [ with thanks to alain foss\u00e9 for reporting on avianreferences . ]\nthe main food of the chaffinch is seeds , although its diet also includes berries and fruits . the chicks are fed insects , especially caterpillars , and in the breeding season the adults also eat insects . in some places , including the visitor car parks in glen affric , chaffinches have become accustomed to being fed breadcrumbs by people , particularly in the spring . in winter , the chaffinch forms large feeding groups , sometimes in mixed flocks with the closely - related brambling ( fringilla montifringilla ) .\na detailed list of the species of the family is displayed to our subscribers , showing the following columns : genus , species , common name , conservation status , figure , and the check mark . above the table , a tiny search engine is displayed to facilitate the filtering of the species .\nalarm calls have some acoustic characteristics common to a number of species . some birds tend to have relatively high - pitched , pure tone alarm calls that can make them difficult to locate . among some bird species , such as the reed bunting , blackbird , great titmouse , blue titmouse , and\nsimilar species : males are not readily confused with any other species , but the female can be mistaken for a female house sparrow . however , the female chaffinch is slimmer , lacks dark streaks on the upper surface and has prominent white wing markings .\nwith its wide geographic range , large population size and stable numbers , the chaffinch is not at risk at all , and in the iucn red list of threatened species it is classified as \u2018least concern\u2019 , meaning that it is at the lowest risk of extinction .\nfringillidae are known for their seed - eating behavior and cheery songs ; characteristics that facilitated and popularized the domestication of the island canary . finches such as white - winged crossbills are also known for their\nirruptive\nmigrations in search of food sources that can make them locally common one winter and absent the next .\nthe eggs of the chaffinch are about 20 mm by 15 mm in size , and are smooth , glossy , and light blue with purple - brown blotches . the duties of incubating the eggs are performed by the female . the newly - hatched young are fed by both adults .\ncorso , a . , vigan\u00f2 , m . & starnini , l . 2015 . identification of african chaffinch . dutch birding 37 ( 6 ) : 392 - 402 . i see that harterti also mentioned . i saw 2 pages on twitter , many photos of birds in hand and drawings .\nthe male chaffinch is unmistakeably handsome with a blue - grey cap , pink cheeks and breast and a reddish - brown mantle . females and juveniles are much duller , consisting of grey - brown upper - parts and dull greyish - white underparts . all chaffinches , however , have distinct wing bars .\nthe source of mites was a second year aged female of the common chaffinch , fringilla coelebs , which accidentally died in the mist net during a field study of tick communities of birds in dumbrava ( 46 . 825287 n , 23 . 220062 e ) , romania in march 2011 . careful examination of the specimen revealed the presence of extensive hyperkeratotic lesions on both legs . few crusts were scraped from one of the legs using a sterile scalpel blade , and mites were collected under a dissection microscope . individual mites were preserved in 96 % ethyl alcohol for further molecular analysis . the other leg was preserved in 10 % buffered formalin for subsequent histological investigation .\nthe male chaffinch establishes a breeding territory in february , usually returning to the same territory each year . the male sings and performs courtship displays to attract a female , and a pair will spend about six weeks together before breeding begins . reproduction takes place in april and may , and the female builds the\nthis section provides a general indication of the common conditions seen with uk wildlife casualties . it is not an all - encompassing overview of the diseases / conditions recorded in those species . further diagnosis and treatment of disease may require the veterinary clinician to familiarise themselves with the diseases , agents and treatment protocols from external texts and other references , or to take further advice .\nas a mainly seed - eating bird the chaffinch has a negative effect on the ability of plants to reproduce , by consuming their seeds , but this rarely makes a significant difference , because of the volume of seed produced by most plants . however , in some cases its feeding behaviour is beneficial , for instance with the berries of the rowan tree ( sorbus aucuparia ) . when the chaffinch eats those , it digests the pulp of the berries , but the seeds pass through its gut unharmed and germinate where they are deposited in its droppings \u2013 often underneath where it perches , on the branches of old scots pines ( pinus sylvestris ) .\nthe colonization history of the macaronesian islands is not well understood , but my data support the hypothesis of marshal and baker ( 1999 ) . they argue for a north african origin of the common chaffinch , and that the radiation followed two main routes : one colonizing the macaronesian islands , while the other spread northwards trough europe . a macaronesian colonization from the mainland , to the azores , trough madeira , and finally to the canary islands seems most likely . further , the homogeneity on all measured traits among the azorean populations is in contrast to the large differences between populations in the canary islands . different levels of gene flow among the azores and the canary islands can be the origin of these findings .\na number of ectoparasites , or external parasites , feed on the chaffinch , including fleas such as the european chicken flea ( ceratophyllus gallinae ) and the moorhen flea ( dasypsyllus gallinulae ) , chewing lice ( menacanthus sp . ) and three species of feather mites ( analges passerinus ) , ( monojoubertia microphylla ) and ( pteronyssoides striatus ) . the larvae of a blood - sucking blowfly ( protocalliphorus sp . ) have been found feeding on chaffinch chicks in the nest . the sheep or deer tick ( ixodes ricinus ) also occurs on the chaffinch , and some birds have been recorded containing the bacterium ( borrelia burgdorferi ) that causes lyme disease , which is transmitted by the tick . several species of intestinal parasites , or coccidia , in the genus isospora and a blood parasite ( haemoproteus sp . ) have been found in chaffinches . a virus known as fringilla papillomavirus causes a wart - like growth on the legs of chaffinches , with the warts sometimes covering a whole leg .\n\u201cas with any star athlete , like lance armstrong , what separates a champion bird from a loser is natural talent , \u201d said filip santens , a leading vinkenier , who prepares his five - time champion chaffinch for matches by pumping heavy - metal guns n\u2019 roses music into his cage and feeding him high - protein birdseed .\nthe chaffinch ( fringilla coelebs ) is one of the best - known and most common of all british birds ( 5 ) . both sexes can be easily identified in flight when they reveal double white flashes on the wings and white tail - sides ( 3 ) . in summer the males have colourful plumage , with a rosy - red breast and cheeks and a bluish - grey crown and nape of the neck . these colours fade somewhat in winter . adult females and juveniles have a buff or greyish coloured breast and greyish - green upperparts ( 2 ) . chaffinches produce a variety of calls , including a loud , clear pink call when perched ( 2 ) . the musical rattling song is also loud ( 6 ) .\nbto researchers , working alongside others involved in the garden bird health initiative , used garden birdwatch and other data to establish the impact of this disease on greenfinch and chaffinch populations . the results of this work revealed a substantial population decline in those areas where disease incidence was greatest . find out more about this work and read the paper .\na new subspecies of common chaffinch fringilla coelebs in north africa is described . it is restricted to northern cyrenaica in north - east libya . differences from the other north african subspecies , f . c . africana and f . c . spodiogenys , are discussed , the main ones being that males invariably possess a prominent white patch on the central nape , a hint of a white post - ocular supercilium , a more yellowish tinge both above and below , stronger yellow fringes to the tertials and wing - coverts , and a less clean blue - grey head . reasons for not recognising the subspecies f . c . koenigi are reconfirmed . there is some variation in size and in saturation of male plumage within the range of africana , making separation of koenigi untenable .\nwidespread throughout britain ; the chaffinch is absent only from high ground such as the scottish highlands ( 5 ) . during winter , birds from northern europe migrate to britain . it is typically the females that migrate , and linnaeus named the species coelebs , meaning \u2018the bachelor\u2019 because it was the male birds that remained in his native sweden for the winter ( 5 ) .\nmouth should be opened and checked for plaques , discoloration or necrotic areas . oral plaques are particularly common in birds of prey , pigeons and doves ( columbidae ) . a number of diseases can cause oral lesions including trichomoniasis (\ncanker\n,\nfrounce\n) , candidiasis ( see : candidiasis in waterfowl ) , avian pox and capillariasis . diagnosis of the condition requires examination of a direct wet smear and stained preparation of the lesion .\nduring the last few years it has been a female chaffinch that has visited most frequently , though occasionally a male has accompanied her . once in the garden , they seem to become almost panic stricken for no apparent reason and then disperse . this behaviour is in stark contrast to those in other areas , such as snowdonia , where they are somewhat extroverted , and is presumably because they are so few in number in our garden .\nthe chaffinch is one of the most widespread and abundant bird in britian and ireland . its patterned plumage helps it to blend in when feeding on the ground and it becomes most obvious when it flies , revealing a flash of white on the wings and white outer tail feathers . it does not feed openly on bird feeders - it prefers to hop about under the bird table or under the hedge . you ' ll usually hear chaffinches before you see them , with their loud song and varied calls .\nindeed , harterti has not included in the paper with more photos and no illustration by lorenzo , as recently has been impossible to visit lybia : - ( ( ( ( and there are very few photos of alive birds available . so , lorenzo did not wanted to work out on plates without see many photos or the birds in the field , and i did not menaged to find photos of alive birds . further , skins are not so common around . nb : the artworks by lorenzo starnini in our paper have been printed way too dark compared to the original : - ( ( (\nthe chaffinch occurs throughout all of europe and western asia , including russia , georgia , armenia , azerbaijan , turkey and northern iran . it also occurs in northwest africa , in morocco , algeria and western tunisia , and in the macaronesian islands , where there is an endemic subspecies in each of madeira and the azores , and three subspecies in the canary islands . it has been introduced from britain to new zealand , where it has become well - established , and to south africa , where there is a small population near cape town .\nrichardson & borden ( 1972 ) suggested that the braconis parasitoid coeloides vancouverensis found the location of its host , the bark beetle dendroctonus pseudotsugata , through the intervening bark by detecting the heat generated by host individuals . their evidence has since been disputed ( mills et al . 1991 ) , and i am not aware of any further instances of host or prey location by local temperature . if this were a common phenomenon , then some crypsis would be achieved by inhabiting already warm microhabitats . for example , a bark beetle might gain protection by being preferentially located to parts of trees which are reliably exposed to the warming effects of direct sunlight .\nduring the breeding season , the male chaffinch performs a courtship display , showing off his bright breeding plumage ( 6 ) . the female builds the nest ( 5 ) , typically in the fork of a tree and camouflages it with lichen and moss ( 2 ) . the female incubates the eggs alone ( 6 ) for 11 to 14 days . one brood of around four eggs is produced each year ( 5 ) . the young chaffinches will have fully fledged 13 to 14 days after hatching from the egg , and the maximum known lifespan of this species is 14 years ( 3 ) .\n. . . pteronyssoides striatus ( robin , 1877 ) ( pteronyssidae ) , a monoxenous inhabitant of the european f . coelebs [ 25 , 27 ] , presumably is not present on this host in the azores . these three hosts , turdus merula , pyrrhula murina and fringilla coelebs , are the oldest passerine species to have colonized the archipelago , doing so more than 1 million years ago [ 38 , 42 , 51 ] . one possible explanation for the absence of some common feather mites on these passerines in the azores could be the founder effect inherent to the colonization processes of isolated islands , called ' ' missing the boat ' ' by macleod et al . [ 22 ] , in which colonizing hosts may reach the islands carrying only a subset of their respective native feather mites assemblages [ 20 , 32 , 44 ] . . . .\nthe female lays 3 \u2013 5 eggs , one per day , and they are pale greenish - blue in colour with purple speckled markings . incubation is done by the female alone , and takes 11 \u2013 14 days . after hatching , the chicks are fed in the nest by the female for about 12 \u2013 16 days . once the chicks leave the nest they stay nearby , and the male joins in with feeding them , for another 15 \u2013 20 days , until they are able to feed for themselves . the chaffinch will raise either one or two broods per year . experiments have shown that male chicks need to hear the song of adult males during a critical time period after hatching , in order to become proficient singers themselves when mature .\nthe right - hand page is part of the ' ordinary of the mass ' , the central canon of the mass which is recited every time the eucharist is celebrated . this section is famous for its realistically depicted english birds , which seem to be singing in celebration alongside the chant . the birds represent a range of species found chiefly in north - east england and were probably copied from an artist ' s sketchbook . the bishops of sherborne appear in a series of miniatures and events in the development of christianity are described in roundels in the lower margins . the left - hand page has an illustration of the feeding of the five thousand , showing the biblical characters in stylised clothes , rather than 15th - century dress . birdsong : the song of the chaffinch , which can be seen in the bottom right - hand corner of page 18 , can be heard here .\nlike most finches , it features sexual dimorphism , meaning that the male and female have clear physical differences , which in the case of the chaffinch take the form of distinct colour variation between the sexes . the male is more brightly - coloured than the female , with reddish - orange underparts and cheeks , blue - grey on the top of the head and back of the neck , a green rump and double white bars on the wings , which are visible both when it is at rest and in flight . the female is duller overall , with the body being mainly greenish - brown , but the double white wing bars are similar to those on the male . the plumage of the male becomes brighter in spring , for the breeding season , and after moulting in early autumn it is paler throughout the winter until the following spring . both the male and female have a short , thick , conical beak .\na particularly satisfying study is that of the calling by katydid insects that are predated by bats , as reported by belwood & morris ( 1987 ) . in a cross - species comparison , they show that species in a habitat where bat predation was common spent less time producing mate - attraction noises ( termed singing ) than species in a nearby habitat without bats . the one species from the bat - vulnerable habitat that sang for a high proportion of time specialized in singing from a particularly spiny plant that offered excellent protection from bats . in cage experiments , the authors further demonstrated that bats took longer to locate infrequent callers and entirely failed to locate silent insects . although this study demonstrates conclusively that call production is modulated in accordance with control of predation risk , whether it is best described as hiding or \u2018crypsis\u2019 , according to my definitions in the introduction , is less clear . i would describe complete cessation of calls as hiding . if bats spend some time attempting to locate an insect ( equivalent to several inter - call intervals ) , then reduction in calling rate might usefully be described as crypsis if the longer inter - call interval disrupts localization . alternatively if bats simply pounce on any insects that reveal their position with a call when the bat happens to be passing close by , then reduction in call frequency might more usefully be described as hiding . in the first case , protection from predation occurs because the prey ' s rate of detection per unit time decreases , but the prey is always at some risk , whereas in the second case , the fraction of time when detection is possible at all is decreased . this discussion illustrated that , just as visual crypsis , evaluation of whether a specific trait is cryptic or not is a function of the ecology of the viewer as well as the focal organism .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nthis version of turning the pages does not require the shockwave plug - in . it foregoes the interactive animation that lets you ' virtually ' turn pages and brings you the same high - quality images of our greatest books in standard web pages .\nlongevity lists were in the 1970s compiled by w . rydzewski and published several times in the journal the ring . these lists were the basis for updated lists published by roland staav in euring newsletters in 1998 and 2001 . the list has successively been updated during recent years , but there are still many recoveries of old birds hidden in the archives of the ringing schemes .\nbirds ringed as full - grown or adults have been included with a minimum age based on age at ringing ( start of year set to 1st of july ) and in those recoveries are age preceded by a > .\nthe plan is to include the two oldest individuals of a species in the list and the minimum age for a recovery to be included is five years . recoveries of birds in the list where ring number and details are not included are published in atlases by those schemes .\nall schemes are kindly requested to support updates of this list . new longevity records ( either oldest or second oldest ) should be sent to the bird ringing centre at the swedish museum of natural history in stockholm by email .\nthis longevity list should be cited as : fransson , t . , kolehmainen , t . , kroon , c . , jansson , l . & wenninger , t . ( 2010 ) euring list of longevity records for european birds .\ncombined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : fringilla coelebs . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nfollowing the taxonomy applied to hbw alive , derived from the recently published hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world , this family now contains species that were formerly considered to comprise the family hawaiian honeycreepers ( drepanididae ) . see link for information on this group .\nonly subscribers have complete access to the families of the hbw alive . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nforms three well - defined subfamilies # r , including euphoniinae , previously placed in thraupidae . also includes drepanidini , sometimes treated as a separate family ( as in hbw ) , but here considered merely a tribe of carduelinae . extensive phylogenetic data available , and comparatively few species remain wholly unscreened ; nonetheless , study of internal relationships has been confounded by recurring plumage patterns and use of similar feeding niches by taxa that prove to be far from closely related .\nthe finches , as presently defined , comprise two distinct subfamilies , fringillinae and carduelinae , sometimes regarded instead as tribes , fringillini and carduelini . nevertheless , the systematics of the \u201cseed - eaters\u201d , small to medium - sized passerines with a relatively stout conical bill and . . .\nonly members are able to see the rest of the text . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now .\nfringilline and cardueline finches range in size from 9 cm to 25 cm and in mass from 8 g to 99 g . both subfamilies exhibit slight sexual size dimorphism , females being fractionally smaller than males , and both have fairly long , blunt - pointed wings and scutellate tarsi , booted at the side and . . .\nas members of a family that has evolved to exploit a wide variety of seeds within largely temperate regions , finches are most typically birds of habitats which show strong seasonal changes . these habitats produce food in localized flushes , and finches are adapted to move between them , taking . . .\nthe flight of finches is typically undulating , with periodic brief closure of the wings , at speeds which can appear quite leisurely , although this impression may be deceptive . more heavily built species such as the hawfinch achieve considerable momentum in their flights , but when covering . . .\nas finches are for the most part highly sociable species , it is unsurprising that they should have developed considerable vocabularies by which to communicate , their vocal patterns varying with the behavioural ecology of the species . fringilline finches , which hold breeding - and - feeding . . .\nfinches are specialized to varying degrees as seed - eaters . there is a certain amount of niche separation from emberizid buntings and sparrows , which tend towards grass - seed specialization supplemented by insects . . .\nfinches are almost entirely socially monogamous , at least during each nesting season , but their breeding strategies divide up largely on phylogenetic lines . fringilline finches are far more strongly territorial , and feed their young on invertebrates , with the result that breeding activity is . . .\nmigration from the breeding area is a response to reduced food availability . since , in temperate climates , seeds persist in the environment across seasonal boundaries with greater predictability and constancy than invertebrates do , seed - eating species such as finches are far less constrained . . .\ntypically , seed - eating birds such as finches are rather abundant . many have profited from the global growth in agriculture , which has produced huge areas of cultivated lands and orchards , created long lines of hedgerows and woodland edge , and broadly generated the conditions for the spread of . . .\nthe great majority of true finches , almost 90 % of the family total , enjoy a secure conservation status at the global level , being placed in the iucn category of least concern . as already noted , this is likely to be attributable , at least in part , to the fact that finches have actually profited . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to access to a lot of extra features !\nlist of species of the finches ( fringillidae ) family . each species provides information on taxonomy , descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation and bibliography .\nyou don ' t have any subscription to the hbw alive . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\ncollar , n . , newton , i . & bonan , a . ( 2018 ) . finches ( fringillidae ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ncramp , s . and simmons , k . e . l . ( eds ) . 1977 - 1994 . handbook of the birds of europe , the middle east and africa . the birds of the western palearctic . oxford university press , oxford .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern ."]}
{"id": 1600, "summary": [{"text": "gracillaria arsenievi is a moth of the gracillariidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is known from the island of hokkaid\u014d in japan and the russian far east .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "the wingspan is 10-13.2 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the larvae feed on fraxinus americana , fraxinus chinensis , fraxinus mandshurica , fraxinus pennsylvanica , syringa amurensis , syringa reticulata and syringa vulgaris .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they mine the leaves of their host plant .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the mine starts as upper epidermal and tortuous-linear , and later becomes a blister-like blotch .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the leaf roll made by the larva of the late instars is conical or trigonal , always rolled up from the tip of the leaf or leaflet on the lower side .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the cocoon is situated on the edge of a living leaf around the leaf roll .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "it is whitish and boat-shaped .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the species probably hibernates in the adult stage . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "gracillaria arsenievi", "paragraphs": ["html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndiakonoff , a . 1955 . microlepidoptera of new guinea . results of the third archbold expedition ( american - netherlands indian expedition 1938 - 1939 ) . part v . - verhandelingen der koninklijke nederlandse akademie van wetenschappen , afdeling natuurkunde ( 2 ) 50 ( 3 ) : 1\u2013210 .\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nthis page is based on a wikipedia article written by authors ( here ) . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 license ; additional terms may apply . images , videos and audio are available under their respective licenses .\ngithub is home to over 28 million developers working together to host and review code , manage projects , and build software together .\nyou signed in with another tab or window . reload to refresh your session .\nyou signed out in another tab or window . reload to refresh your session .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services ."]}
{"id": 1604, "summary": [{"text": "canine transmissible venereal tumors ( ctvts ) , also called transmissible venereal tumors ( tvts ) , canine transmissible venereal sarcoma ( ctvs ) , sticker tumors and infectious sarcoma is a histiocytic tumor of the external genitalia of the dog and other canines , and is transmitted from animal to animal during mating .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "it is one of only four known transmissible cancers ; another is devil facial tumor disease , a cancer which occurs in tasmanian devils .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "the tumor cells are themselves the infectious agents , and the tumors that form are not genetically related to the host dog .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "although the genome of a ctvt is derived from a canid ( probably a dog , wolf or coyote ) , it is now essentially living as a unicellular , asexually reproducing ( but sexually transmitted ) pathogen .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "sequence analysis of the genome suggests it diverged from canids over 6,000 years ago ; possibly much earlier .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the most recent estimates of its time of origin place date it to about 11,000 years ago .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "however , the most recent common ancestor of extant tumors is more recent : it probably originated 200 to 2,500 years ago .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "canine tvts were initially described by russian veterinarian m.a. novinsky ( 1841 \u2013 1914 ) in 1876 , when he demonstrated that the tumor could be transplanted from one dog to another by infecting them with tumor cells . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "canine transmissible venereal tumor", "paragraphs": ["the first thing you should know about canine transmissible venereal tumor is that you should never do a google image search for \u201c canine transmissible venereal tumor . \u201d\ncanine transmissible venereal tumor ( tvt ) : a review . - pubmed - ncbi\n1 .\noverview of canine transmissible venereal tumor .\nmerck veterinary manual . web .\n2 .\ncanine transmissible venereal tumor : a review .\ninternet scientific publications . web .\ncanine transmissible venereal tumour : cytogenetic origin , immunophenotype , and immunobiology . a review .\ntheriogenology question of the month . transmissible venereal tumor ( tvt ) . - pubmed - ncbi\ng purohit . canine transmissible venereal tumor : a review . the internet journal of veterinary medicine . 2008 volume 6 number 1 .\nkroger d , grey rm , boyd jw . an unusual presentation of canine transmissible venereal tumor . canine practice santa barbara . 1991 ; 16 ( 6 ) : 17\u201321 .\nin healthy dogs , spontaneous regression of a transmissible venereal tumor will indicate full cure .\ncanine transmissible venereal tumour : cytogenetic origin , immunophenotype , and immunobiology . a review . - pubmed - ncbi\nr - 10 . cohen d . ( 1985 ) the canine transmissible venereal tumor : a unique result of tumor progression . adv cancer res . 43 : 75 - 112 .\nmozos e , mendez a , gomez - villamandos jc . immunohistochemical characterization of canine transmissible venereal tumor . vet pathol . 1996 ; 33 : 257\u201363 .\nr - 26 . hoque , m ( 1995 ) . different modes of therapy for canine transmissible venereal tumor . veterinarian . 19 : 1 - 2 .\nr - 29 . idowu , a . l . ( 1985 ) cryosurgery of canine transmissible venereal tumor . tropical vet . 3 : 74 - 78 .\nr - 57 . richardson rc . ( 1981 ) . canine transmissible venereal tumor . comp contin educ pract . vet . 3 : 951 - 956 .\ndas u , das ak . review of canine transmissible venereal sarcoma . vet res commun . 2000 ; 24 : 545\u20136 .\nr - 27 . hoque , m ( 2002 ) . an update on canine transmissible venereal tumor . intas polivet . 3 ( ii ) : 227 - 234 .\neffective treatment of transmissible venereal tumors in dogs with vincristine and il2 . - pubmed - ncbi\nr - 23 . higgins da . ( 1966 ) observations on the canine transmissible venereal tumor as seen in the bahamas . vet rec . 79 ( 3 ) : 67 - 71 .\nr - 67 . vermooten mi . ( 1987 ) canine transmissible venereal tumor ( tvt ) : a review . j s afr vet assoc . 58 ( 3 ) : 147 - 150 .\nr - 73 . yang tj . ( 1988 ) . immunobiology of a spontaneously regressive tumor , the canine transmissible venereal sarcoma ( review ) . anticancer res . 8 : 93 - 96 .\nin this issue of cell , murgia et al . ( 2006 ) confirm that the infectious agent of canine transmissible venereal tumor is the cancer cell itself and that the tumor is clonal in origin . their findings have implications for understanding the relationship between genome instability and transmissible cancer and for conservation biology , canine genomics , and companion animal medicine .\nr - 44 . mukaratirwa , sand gruys e ( 2003 ) canine transmissible venereal tumor : cytogenetic origin , immunophenotype and immunobiology . a review . vet q . 25 ( 3 ) : 101 - 111 .\nthe occurrence , transmission , clinical appearance , histological findings , chromosome studies , immunity , different methods of treatment and the prevention of canine transmissible venereal tumour are reviewed .\ntransmissible venereal tumor ( tvt ) is a tumor of dogs that is surprisingly common and widely distributed . canine tvt occurs primarily in dogs that are largely uncontrolled and allowed to breed indiscriminately . it also affects other canids such as coyotes , foxes and jackals .\nr - 74 . yang tj , palker tj and harding mw . ( 1991 ) . tumor size , leukocyte adherence inhibition and serum levels of tumor antigen in dogs with the canine transmissible venereal sarcoma . cancer immunol immunoth . 33 : 255 - 256 .\ncanine transmissible venereal tumour ( ctvt ) , also known as transmissible venereal tumour ( tvt ) or sticker\u2019s sarcoma , is a transmissible cancer that affects dogs . ctvt is spread by the transfer of living cancer cells between dogs , usually during mating . ctvt causes tumours which are usually associated with the external genitalia of both male and female dogs .\nr - 25 . hill dl , yang tj and wachtel a . ( 1984 ) canine transmissible venereal sarcoma : tumor cell and infiltrating leukocyte ultra structure at different growth stages . vet pathol . 21 : 39 - 45 .\nr - 53 . prier , j . e and johnson , j . h ( 1964 ) malignancy in a canine transmissible venereal tumor . j . amer . vet . med . assoc . 145 : 1092 - 1094 .\nr - 58 . rogers ks . ( 1997 ) . transmissible venereal tumor . comp contin educ pract vet . 19 ( 9 ) : 1036 - 1045 .\nr - 72 . yang , t . j ( 1987 ) parvovirus induced regression of canine transmissible tumor . amer . j . vet res . 48 : 799 - 800 .\nr - 54 . powers , r . d . ( 1968 ) immunologic properties of canine transmissible venereal sarcoma . am . j . vet . res . 29 , 1637 - 1645 .\ndas u , das ak , das d , das bb . clinical report on the efficacy of chemotherapy in canine transmissible venereal sarcoma . indian vet j . 2009 ; 68 : 249\u201352 .\nrogers ks , walker ma , dillon hb . transmissible venereal tumor : a retrospective study of 29 cases . j am anim hosp assoc . 1998 ; 34 : 463\u20139 .\nthe histopathology report will give your veterinarian the specific diagnosis that indicates how it is likely to behave . in healthy dogs , spontaneous regression of a transmissible venereal tumor will indicate full cure and the tumor is unlikely to regrow .\nr - 7 . cockrill jn and beasly jn . ( 1975 ) . ultra structural characteristics of canine transmissible venereal tumor various stages of growth and regression . am . j . vet . res . 36 ( 5 ) : 677 - 681 .\nr - 28 . hoque , m . , singh , g . r and pawde , a . m . ( 1995 ) electrosurgery versus scalpel surgery in canine transmissible venereal tumor . j . vet . serg . 4 : 51 - 54 .\ncohen d . the transmissible venereal tumor of the dog a naturally occurring allograft ? : a review . isr j med sci . 1978 ; 14 ( 1 ) : 14\u20139 .\n. . . it is a well characterized sexually transmitted neoplasm but can also be transmitted by other social behaviours such as licking , sniffing and biting of the tumor affected areas [ 3 , 4 ] . canine transmissible venereal tumor is generally considered as a benign tumor [ 5 ] and it is rarely reported in extragenital locations [ 3 , 6 ] . the present report records primary extragenital transmissible venereal tumors in a pup and two adult dogs and their successful treatment . . . .\nr - 13 . das , a . k . , das , u , das , d . , sengupta , j . ( 1990 ) . histopathologial study of canine transmissible venereal tumor . indian vet . j . 67 : 473 - 474 .\nr - 62 . souza ff de , tinucci - costa m and faria jr d . ( 1998 ) . doxorubicin treatment for recurrent canine transmissible venereal tumor . in : proceedings of the xxiii congress of the world small anim vet assoc . 772 .\nbastan a , baki acar d , cengiz m . uterine and ovarian metastasis of transmissible venereal tumor in a bitch . turk j vet anim sci . 2008 ; 32 : 65\u20136 .\nr - 24 . harmelin , a . , zuckerman , a . and nyska , a . ( 1995 ) correlation of ag - nor protein measurements with prognosis in canine transmissible venereal tumor . j . comp . pathol . 112 , 429 - 433 .\nr - 20 . gandotra , v . k . , chauhan , f . s and sharma , r . d ( 1993 ) . occurrence of canine transmissible venereal tumor and evaluation of two treatments . indian vet . j . 70 : 854 - 857 .\namber ei , henderson ra , adeyanju jb , gyang eo . single - drug chemotherapy of canine transmissible venereal tumour with cyclophosphamide , methotrexate or vincristine . j vet intern med . 1990 ; 4 : 144\u20137 .\na transmissible venereal tumor , or tvt , is a naturally occurring tumor that is sexually transmitted from one dog to another . a high number of cases tend to be seen in large cities and temperate areas . tvt is usually seen in young ,\nr - 1 . amber ei , henderson ra and adeyanju jb , ( 1990 ) . single - drug chemotherapy of canine transmissible venereal tumor with cyclophosphamide , methotrexate , or vincristine . j . vet . intern . med . 4 ( 3 ) : 144 - 147 .\nr - 47 . nayak , r . c . , nandi , s . n . and bhowmik , m . k . ( 1987 ) canine transmissible venereal tumor ( ctvt ) with a note on metastasis . indian vet . j . 64 : 252 - 253 .\nr - 59 . saratsis ph , ypsilantis p and tselkas ( 2000 ) . k . semen quality during vincristine treatment in dogs with transmissible venereal tumor . theriogenology . 53 : 1185 - 1192 .\ntwenty - nine cases of naturally occurring , transmissible venereal tumor were studied retrospectively . the external genitalia was the primary site of tumor involvement in 27 dogs , with the remaining two dogs having primary intranasal involvement . extragenital tumor involvement was identified in six cases , including five cases with metastatic disease . fifteen cases were treated effectively with radiation therapy alone . radiation therapy also was effective in four cases that were resistant to chemotherapy . four of five cases treated with at least four doses of vincristine as a solitary agent also achieved complete remissions . transmissible venereal tumor remains a unique canine tumor that often is curable despite the development of extragenital primary lesions or metastasis .\np\u00e9rez j , bautista mj , carrasco l , g\u00f3mez - villamandos jc , mozos e . primary extragenital occurrence of transmissible venereal tumors : three case reports . canine pract . 1994 ; 19 ( 1 ) : 7\u201310 .\ntransmissible venereal tumors are a cancer that causes nodular tumors in sexually active dogs of both sexes , often in the genital area . this sexually transmitted disease is also referred to as sticker\u2019s sarcoma , venereal granuloma , infective venereal tumor , and transplantable lymphosarcoma . tumors of this type are common in stray , roaming dogs , and those residing in shelters .\nr - 71 . yang t . j . and jones j . b . ( 1973 ) . canine transmissible venereal sarcoma : transplantation studies in neonatal and adult dogs , journal of the national cancer institute 51 : 1915 - 1918 .\nr - 4 . calvet ca . ( 1983 ) . transmissible venereal tumor in the dog . in : kirk rw , ed . current veterinary therapy viii . philadelphia : wb saunders co . 413 - 415 .\nr - 30 . idowu , a . l . ( 1977 ) . the chromosomes of the transmissible venereal tumor of dogs in ibadan , nigeria . res . vet . sci . 22 : 271 - 273 .\nstockmann d , ferrari hf , andrade al , lopes ra , cardoso tc , luvizotto maria cr . canine transmissible venereal tumors : aspects related to programmed cell death . braz j vet pathol . 2011 ; 4 ( 1 ) : 67\u201375 .\nr - 9 . cohen , d . ( 1980 ) in vitro cell mediated cytotoxicity and antibody dependent cellular cytotoxicity to the transmissible venereal tumor of the dog . j national cancer institute . 64 : 317 - 21 .\nr - 32 . jain , a . , tiwari , r . p . , tiwari , s . k , gupta , n and awasthi , m . k ( 2002a ) . histopathological studies in canine transmissible venereal tumor . indian j . anim . reprod . 23 ( 1 ) : 60 - 62 .\ncanine transmissible venereal tumor , also called sticker ' s sarcoma , is a naturally occurring , horizontally transmitted round cell tumor found in domestic dogs and potentially other canids such as gray wolves and coyotes . 1 , 2 although there have been reports of this tumor in most parts of the world , a high incidence seems to exist in temperate climates . the tumor is seen most commonly in young , sexually active , intact dogs allowed to roam freely ( including stray dogs ) . 1 - 3 these tumors are usually spread during coitus or other social behaviors such as sniffing and licking . 1 , 2 thus , the typical locations of these tumors are the external genitalia and the nasal and oral cavities . 1 - 3 other less common locations include the anal mucosa and the skin and subcutaneous areas . 3 , 4 a recent report of a multicentric , extragenital , cutaneous canine transmissible venereal tumor in a sexually immature 11 - month - old virgin female mixed - breed dog suggests that transmissible venereal tumor cells can be inoculated into puppy skin lesions by the mother during social interactions such as grooming and other mothering behavior . 4 transmissible venereal tumor metastasis has been seen involving the lymph nodes , skin , eyes , liver , musculature , abdominal viscera , lungs , and brain . 3 - 5\nr - 45 . mukaratirwa , s . , chimonyo , m . , obwolo , m . , gruys e and nederbragt , h ( 2004 ) . stromal cells and extracellular matrix components in spontaneous canine transmissible venereal tumor at different stages of growth . histol . histopathol . 19 ( 4 ) : 1117 - 23 .\npark ms , kim y , kang ms , oh sy , cho dy , shin ns , kim dy . disseminated transmissible venereal tumor in a dog . journal of veterinary diagnostic investigation 2006 ; 18 ( 1 ) 1 : 130\u2013133 .\nr - 14 . das , a . k . , das , u , das , b . b . ( 1991 ) . clinical report on the efficacy of chemotherapy in canine transmissible venereal sarcoma . indian vet . j . 68 : 249 - 252 .\nr - 40 . mizuno , s . , fujinaga , t . and hagio , m . ( 1994 ) role of lymphocytes in spontaneous regression of experimentally transplanted canine transmissible venereal sarcoma . j . vet . med . sci . 56 , 15 - 20 .\nr - 51 . pandey , s . k . , dhawedkar , r . g and patel , m . r ( 1977 ) . canine transmissible venereal sarcoma : clinical trial with autogenous formalized vaccine . indian vet . j . 54 : 852 - 853 .\nr - 48 . ndirty , c . g . , mbogwa , s . w and sayer , p . d ( 1977 ) extragenitally located transmissible venereal tumor in dogs . mod . vet . prac . 58 : 945 - 46 .\ntransmissible venereal tumor is a transplant of cancer cells . the cancer cells always have an abnormal number of chromosomes ( 59 instead of the normal canine 78 ) . the original cell type is probably a histiocyte ( part of the body ' s own immune system ) but other types of white blood cells have also been suggested as the origin .\nr - 34 . kennedy , j . r . , yang , t - j . and allen , p . l . ( 1977 ) canine transmissible venereal sarcoma : electron microscopic changes with time after transplantation . br . j . cancer 36 , 375 - 385 .\nr - 3 . calvet ca , leifer ce , mcewen eg . ( 1982 ) . vincristine for the treatment of transmissible venereal tumor in the dog . j amer . vet . med . assoc . 181 ( 2 ) : 163 - 164 .\nmello martins mi , ferreira de souza f , gobello c . the canine transmissible venereal tumor : etiology , pathology , diagnosis and treatment . in : recent advances in small animal reproduction . p . w . concannon , g . england , j . veretgegen , c . linde - forsberg ( eds ) . international veterinary information service , ithaca ny (\nalso known as infectious sarcoma , venereal granuloma , transmissible lymphosarcoma or sticker tumor , this disease is a benign tumor that occurs primarily on the external genitals of both male and female dogs . it is one of a very few tumors that can be transmitted by direct contact . it acts like a freely living organism - - more a parasite than a cancer .\nyes . this cancer grows rapidly at first and then remains static before the dog ' s immune system produces specific antibodies that cause the tumor to spontaneously regress . once the tumor regresses , that dog is then highly resistant to further tumor implantation .\nthe dog was treated weekly with intravenous vincristine . a dramatic reduction in tumor size occurred after the first dose , with complete tumor remission after seven doses . the dog was tumor - free at its last recheck one month after the last vincristine injection .\ntransmissible venereal tumor is transmitted from dog to dog . preventing physical contact between your infected dog and others is essential . you should also wash your hands after handling your dog and disinfect anything that may be contaminated with living cells from your dog that could come into contact with other dogs . the tumor cannot be transmitted from dogs to other animal species or to people .\nr - 52 . pandey , s . k . , chandpuria , v . p . , bhargawa , m . k . and tiwari , s . k . ( 1989 ) . incidence , treatment approach and metastasis of canine transmissible venereal sarcoma . indian j anim . sci . 59 : 510 - 513 .\nr - 22 . gonzalez c . m . , griffey s . m . , naydan d . k . , flores e . , cepeda r . , cattaneo g . , madewell b . r . ( 2000 ) canine transmissible venereal tumor : a morphological and immunohistochemical study of 11 tumors in growth phase and during regression after chemotherapy . j . comp . pathol . 122 : 241 - 248 .\nthe second thing you should know about canine transmissible venereal tumor , which we\u2019ll shorten to ctvt , is that it\u2019s actually the business end of a contagious cancer that seems to have plagued a small population of dogs for the past 11 , 000 years . this makes ctvt one of just three cancers we know of that can pass from animal to animal like a rock \u2019n\u2019 roll - loving demon . the other cases include tasmanian devil facial tumor disease and a sarcoma scientists infected syrian hamsters with in the 1960s\nr - 17 . erunal - maral , n . , fidnik , m and aslan , s ( 2000 ) . use of exfoliative cytology for diagnosis of transmissible venereal tumor and controlling the recovery period in the bitch . dtsch . tierarztl . wochenschr . 107 ( 5 ) : 175 - 80 .\nr - 16 . dinesh , n . m . , ranganath , b . n . , jaydevappa , s . m . and srinivas , c . l . ( 1993 ) . effect of vincristine sulfate on canine transmissible venereal tumors : - haematological and biochemical studies . indian vet . j . 70 : 741 - 744 .\nhelp canines worldwide . your donation helps us continue our educational work and assists organizations which help canine recovery . please donate today .\nr - 0 . aprea , a n , allende m g and idiard r . ( 1994 ) tumor ven\u00e9reo transmissible intrauterino : descripci\u00f3n de un caso . vet argentina xi . 103 : 192 - 194 .\ner\u00fcnal - maral n , findik m , aslan s . use of exfoliative cytology for diagnosis of transmissible venereal tumour and controlling the recovery period in the bitch . dtsch tierarztl wochenschr . 2000 ; 107 ( 5 ) : 175\u201380 .\nr - 38 . maiti , s . k . , roy , s . , ali , s . l . and ghosh , r . c . ( 1995 ) . therapeutic management of transmissible venereal tumor with vincristine in dog . a case report . indian vet . j . 72 ( 6 ) : 614 - 615 .\nr - 35 . liao , k . w , lim , z . y . , pao , h . n . , kam , s . y . , wang , f . i and chu , r . m . ( 2003 ) . identification of canine transmissible venereal tumor cells using in situ polymerase chain reaction and stable sequence of the long interspersed nuclear element . j . vet . diag . invest . 15 ( 5 ) : 399 - 406 .\nr - 63 . tella , m . a . , ajala , o . o and taiwo , v . o ( 2004 ) . complete regression of transmissible venereal tumor ( tvt ) in nigerian mongrel dogs with vincristine sulfate chemotherapy . afr . j . bio . med . res . 7 ( 3 ) : 133 - 138 .\nthe cancer is transmitted by sexual contact or direct contact with the infected tumor ( e . g . by licking ) . therefore , an infected dog transmitted this tumor to your dog through direct contact .\nclinically , this tumor has a fairly typical appearance . definitive diagnosis relies upon microscopic examination of tissue .\nthe probability is that you have never seen a tumor that can be spread from one individual to another . but did you know that there is a tumor that can be transmitted from dog to dog ?\nsingh j , rana js , sood n , pangawkar gr , gupta pp . clinico - pathological studies on the effect of different anti - neoplastic chemotherapy regimens on transmissible venereal tumours in dogs . vet res commun . 1996 ; 20 : 71\u201381 .\nwe will explore extinct canine species including prehistoric , wild extinct canines , and extinct domestic species . learn how and why these species became extinct .\nr - 46 . nak , d . , nak , y , cangul , i . t and tuna , b ( 2005 ) . a clinico - pathological study on the effect of vincristine on transmissible venereal tumor in the dog . j . vet . med . a . physiol . pathol . clin . med . 52 ( 7 ) : 366 - 70 .\nallen sw , prasse kw , mahaffey ea . cytologic differentiation of benign from malignant canine mammary tumours . vet pathol . 1986 ; 23 : 649\u201355 .\nanother experimental method is the use of biotherapy , or biologic response modifiers . these are antigen vaccines , growth factors , or immunomodulators that change the tumor\u2019s relationship with the host by affecting the tumor directly , or it\u2019s environment .\nkunakornsawat s , yippaditr w , jamjan n , bootcah r , netramai s , viriyarumpa j , kornkaewrat k . surgical correction of transmissible venereal tumor with vincristine - resistance using episiotomy and vulvovaginoplasty in female and subtotal penile amputation and scrotal ablation in male dogs . in proceeding of 48th kasetsart university annual conference : veterinary medicine . feb 3\u20135 , bangkok , thailand . 2010 : 191\u2013200 .\nd . nak , y . nak , i . t . cangul , b . tuna , a clinico - pathological study on the effect of vincristine on transmissible venereal tumour in dogs , journal of veterinary medicine series a . 2005 ; 52 : 7 366 - 370\nr - 60 . singh , j . , rana , j . s . , sood , n . , pangawkar , g . r and gupta , p . p ( 1996 ) . clinico - pathological studies on the effect of different anti - neoplastic chemotherapy regimens on transmissible venereal tumor in dogs . vet . res . commun . 20 ( 1 ) : 71 - 81 .\nr - 66 . tiwari , s . k . , ghosh , r . c . , mascasenhas , a . r and chauhan , h . v . s ( 1991 ) . canine venereal sarcoma and its surgical management . indian . vet . j . 68 : 1078 - 1079 .\ncanine transmissible venereal tumor ( tvt ) is a commonly occurring tumor of dogs affecting both sexes . it is common in dogs which have an uncontrolled sexual behavior with incidence ranging from 2 to 43 percent of all tumors in temperate climates . the etiology appears to be cell transplant from affected to unaffected dogs . the pathogenesis , gross and microscopic findings , diagnosis , prognosis and therapies have been reviewed . gross findings of small nodule like lesions which bleed is the most consistent clinical finding . smears made from the tumor reveal round cells with vacuoles and mitotic figures . the tumor is many times self limiting and vincristine sulfate is currently considered the most effective therapy . the use of vincristine sulfate in male dogs must balance the potential benefits to the patient and the interest in using the animal for breeding as vincristine sulfate impairs the semen quality . immune therapy of tvt is still to be validated for clinical use .\nr - 6 . chauhan , h . v . s . , ghosh , r . c . , mascrenhas , a . r and tiwari , s . k . ( 1991 ) canine venereal sarcoma and its surgical management . indain vet . j . 68 ( 11 ) : 1078 - 79 .\nelizabeth p . murchison et al . \u2019s article \u201c transmissible dog cancer genome reveals the origin and history of an ancient cell lineage \u201d in science\nwe know of few cancers that are contagious . the ones we\u2019re most familiar with are caused by viruses , such as the human papillomavirus ( hpv ) , which can cause cervical cancer , and hepatitis b , which can cause liver ( hepatic ) cancer . ( to read more about these virus - caused cancers and their vaccines , check out my book biology bytes : digestible essays on stem cells and modern medicine . ) that\u2019s why it\u2019s so surprising , and fascinating , to find cancers that are contagious and not caused by viruses . one example is canine transmissible venereal tumor ( ctvt ) .\nfeldman ec , nelson rw . canine and feline endocrinology and reproduction . philadel - phia , pa : w . b . saunders company ; 1987 . p . 475\u20137 .\nr - 12 . das , a . k . , das , u , das , s . k . , sengupta , j . , das , b . b and bose , p . k . ( 1989 ) metastasis of canine venereal sarcoma in a dog . indian j vet surg . 10 : 75 - 76 .\ncanine tvt is cauliflower - like , pedunculated , nodular , papillary , or multilobulated in appearance . it ranges in size from a small nodule ( 5 mm ) to a large mass\n, iv , once weekly for 3\u20136 wk ) is reported to be effective . the rate of tumor regression is negatively correlated with tumor size , older age , and season . usually , total remission can be expected by the sixth treatment . adriamycin ( 30 mg / m\nthe main symptom of this disease is the presence of tumors which are usually located in the genitals of both sexes , as well as the nasal and oral cavities . while tumor spread is uncommon , it can occur without a genital tumor being present . locations can include :\nreif js , maguire tg , kenney rm , brodey rs . a cohort study of canine testicular neoplasia . j am vet med assoc . 1979 ; 175 ( 7 ) : 719\u201323 .\n. . . antineoplasm , dog , venereal lymphosarcoma , sticker tumor . introdu\u00e7\u00e3o o tumor ven\u00e9reo transmiss\u00edvel ( tvt ) foi constatado em todos os continentes , com maior preval\u00eancia nas zonas de clima tropical e subtropical ( rogers et al . , 1998 ) . acomete a esp\u00e9cie canina , apresentando uma predomin\u00e2ncia maior em animais jovens , errantes e sexualmente ativos ( rogers et al . , 1998 ; silva et al . , 2007 ) . . . .\nr - 70 . wright , d . h . , peel , s . , cooper , e . h . and hughes , d . t ( 1970 ) . transmissible venereal sarcoma of dogs : a histochemical and chromosomal analysis of tumors in uganda . eur . j . clin . biol . res . 15 : 155 .\nhenson kl . reproductive system . in : raskin r , meyer d , editors . atlas of canine and feline cytology . firstth ed . philadelphia : w . b . saunders ; 2001 .\nr - 19 . ferreira , a . j . , jaggy , a . , varej\u00e3o , a . p . , ferreira , m . l . p . , correia , j . m . j . , mulas , j . m . , almeida , o . , oliveira , p . and prada , j . ( 2000 ) brain and ocular metastases from a transmissible venereal tumor in a dog . j . small anim . pract . 41 , 165 - 168 .\nr - 55 . rao , t . m . , kumar , v . g . , raghvender , k . b . p . , joshi , m . r and rao , r . l . n . ( 1993 ) cryosurgical treatment of transmissible venereal tumors . j . vet . anim . sci . 24 : 149 - 152 .\nboscos cm , ververidis hn . canine tvt\u2014clinical findings , diagnosis and treatment . in proceedings of the 29th world small animal veterinary association , oct 6\u20139 . rhodes , greece . [ online ] . available from\nto improve treatment of inoperable transmissible venereal tumors ( tvts ) in dogs . recently , we showed that tvt is sensitive to intratumoral treatment with interleukin - 2 ( il2 ) . in addition it is known that tvt is sensitive to intravenous treatment with vincristine . in the present study we tried to establish the therapeutic effect of intratumoral treatment with vincristine and il2 .\nimmunological studies have clearly demonstrated that tvt is antigenic in the dog and an immune response against the tumor plays a major role in determining the course of the disease ( mizuno et al . , 1994 ) . in most adult dogs the tumor regresses spontaneously after a period of logarithmic growth , and the development of tumor immunity prevents successive occurrences ( powers , 1968 ) . in contrast , the tumor progresses to ulceration and metastasis in the immunologically incompetent or compromised host ( cohen , 1973 ) . nevertheless , metastases have been reported in occasional cases ( ferreira et al . , 2000 ) . the biological behavior of canine tvt can be estimated by the demonstration of agnors ( harmelin et al . , 1995 ) . the poor prognosis in tvt is due to an increase of the agnors in the nucleus of tvt cells .\nr - 5 . chaudhary , c and rao , m . r . k ( 1982 ) . certain canine neoplasms encountered in andhra pradesh . indian . vet . j . 59 : 100 - 102 .\nr - 33 . johnston sd . ( 1991 ) performing a complete canine semen evaluation in a small animal hospital . vet clin north amer small anim pract . 21 ( 3 ) : 545 - 551 .\n3 . borrell , brendan .\nhow a contagious dog tumor went global .\nurltoken . nature publishing group , 23 jan . 2014 . web .\nwhile this type of tumor has been diagnosed throughout many areas of the world , it seems to favor temperate climates , such as the united states , southern europe , asia , africa , and the caribbean . it is believed that transmissible venereal tumors ( tvt ) are the oldest known form of cancer , and first emerged 11 , 000 years ago . all tvt tumors contain dna belonging to the first dog infected with this cancer , and researchers are analyzing the mutations seen in these tumors to figure out how tvt first developed and spread .\nthis is the place to visit for all dogs wild . learn about the differing species of canine , how they live , reproduce , their diet , their genetics , and what you can do to ensure their survival .\ndifferences in cell types have been found between stages of tumor progression . tumors in progressive growth have round cells with microvilli while regressing tumors present transitional rather fusiform cells .\n. . . vincristine sulphate is among the most used agents in small animal clinical oncology ( cave et al . 2007 ) . its application has been reported in illness such as canine transmissible venereal tumor ( ctvt ) ( nak et al . 2005 ; rogers et al . 1998 ) , lymphomas ( ponc\u00e9 et al . 2004 ; rodaski and nardi 2006 ) , leukemia ( rodaski and nardi 2006 ) , and kidney nephroblastoma ( seaman and patton 2003 ) . vincristine used alone as a chemotherapeutic agent is able to induce a total remission of ctvt in most cases ( nak et al . 2005 ; rodaski and nardi 2006 ) , while in certain types of sarcoma , its use must be combined with other drugs for a satisfactory therapeutic response ( cave et al . 2007 ) . . . .\ncanine transmissible venereal tumour ( ctvt ) is the only known naturally occurring tumour that can be transplanted as an allograft across major histocompatibility ( mhc ) barriers within the same species , and even to other members of the canine family , such as foxes , coyotes and wolves . the progression of this tumour is unique in that , it follows a predictable growth pattern . in natural and experimental cases , the growth pattern includes progressive growth phase , static phase and regression phase , and this is followed by transplantation immunity in immunocompetent adults , while metastasis occurs in puppies and immunosuppressed dogs . because of the uniqueness of ctvt transmission and progression , experimental investigations of various aspects of the biology of ctvt have been used to provide clues to the immunobiology of both animal and human tumours . this review examines the current state of knowledge of the aspects of the cytogenetic origin , immunophenotype , immunobiology and immunotherapy of ctvt .\ntransmissible venereal tumor ( tvt ) is a coitally transmitted tumor of dogs with widespread distribution . the present study describes the occurrence of the primary oral and nasal tvt in a 10 - year - old , female , mix - breed dog . the case was presented with a history of anorexia , inability to swallow and dyspnea . clinical examinations revealed the emaciation , muzzle deformity due to the presence of a friable , fleshy , cauliflower - like mass in the oral cavity and submandibular lymphadenopathy . tvt was diagnosed based on histopathological findings . the dog was discharged with therapeutic intervention with vincristine . unfortunately , the case died before readmission because of the progressive worsening of the general condition . our findings highlight the need for considering tvt for the differential diagnosis of the extragenital masses in dogs .\ncanine transmissible venereal tumors ( tvts ) are cauliflower - like , pedunculated , nodular , papillary , or multilobulated in appearance . they range in size from a small nodule ( 5 mm ) to a large mass ( > 10 cm ) that is firm , though friable . the surface is often ulcerated and inflamed and bleeds easily . tvts may be solitary or multiple and are almost always located on the genitalia . the tumor is transplanted from site to site and from dog to dog by direct contact with the mass . they may be transplanted to adjacent skin and oral , nasal , or conjunctival mucosae . the tumor may arise deep within the preputial , vaginal , or nasal cavity and be difficult to see during cursory examination . this may lead to misdiagnosis if bleeding is incorrectly assumed to be hematuria or epistaxis from other causes . initially , tvts grow rapidly , and more rapidly in neonatal and immunosuppressed dogs . metastasis is uncommon ( 5 % ) and can occur without a primary genital tumor present . when metastasis occurs , it is usually to the regional lymph nodes , but kidney , spleen , eye , brain , pituitary , skin and subcutis , mesenteric lymph nodes , and peritoneum may also be sites .\nbased on its genetics , ctvt is thought to have started as a tumor in a dog that looked similar to an alaskan malamute ( shown here ) or husky . ( image credit :\nmaiolino p , restucci b , papparella s , paciello o , de vico g . correlation of nuclear morphometric features with animal and human world health organization international histological classifications of canine spontaneous seminomas . vet pathol . 2004 ; 41 ( 6 ) : 608\u201311 .\ncytologic examination of impression smears made from tissue excised from the mass revealed a markedly cellular sample with a predominant population of homogeneous , discrete round cells with mild anisocytosis and anisokaryosis ( figure 2 ) . these cells had a moderate amount of pale - blue cytoplasm , often containing a few small punctate vacuoles . the nuclei were round with coarse chromatin and a single prominent nucleolus . moderate mitotic activity was observed ( 0 to 2 / 50x field ) ( figure 3 ) . occasional neutrophils , lymphocytes , plasma cells , and squamous cells were noted in the background , as were variable numbers of erythrocytes . the cytologic diagnosis was transmissible venereal tumor .\nbut unlike the afflictions of devils and hamsters , ctvt is an std\u2014a sexually transmitted disease . the cancer spreads when tumor cells are shed by the host during a moment of intimacy and make contact with another canine , at which point they set up shop in the new dog\u2019s private parts . symptoms of infection range from bleeding genitals to what an early 19 th century veterinary practitioner described as \u201c an ulcerous state , accompanied with a fungous excrescence . \u201d\nr - 2 . boscos , cm and ververidis , hn . ( 2004 ) . canine tvt : clinical findings , diagnosis and treatment . sci . proc wsva - fecava - hvms world congress , rhodes , greece . ( 2 ) : 758 - 761 .\ncell line ( somatic cells are ones that aren\u2019t sperm or eggs ) . based on the number of dna mutations in the tumor cells , and how quickly they\u2019re likely to arise over time , it\u2019s thought that the original tumor formed in a dog living around 10 , 200 to 12 , 900 years ago . amazingly , based on the tumor\u2019s genetics and what we know of dog breed genetics today , scientists figured out that the dog was likely medium - to - large in size and may have looked similar to an alaskan malamute or husky \u2013 it was solid black or had black - and - white banded coloring .\ncanine tvt was initially described by novinsky in 1876 , who demonstrated that the tumor could be transplanted from one susceptible host to another by inoculating it with tumoral cells ( richardson , 1981 ) . some workers attributed this neoplasia to be because of viral agents ( cockril and beasly , 1975 ) , however , the tumor could not consistently be transmitted by cell free extracts ( demonbreun and goodpasture , 1934 ; calvet , 1983 ) and oncogenic viral particles have never been seen in the tumor cells with the electron microscope ( moulton , 1990 ) . the current consensus view is therefore that the abnormal cells of the neoplasm are the vectors of transmission . the exfoliation and transplantation of neoplastic cells during physical contact provide the main mode of transmission onto genital mucosa , and also onto nasal or oral mucosa , during mating or licking of affected genitalia , respectively ( cohen , 1985 ; johnston , 1991 ) . the loss of mucosal integrity favors transmission ( vermooten , 1987 ) .\nr - 42 . moulton je . ( 1978 ) . tumor of genital systems . in : moulton je , ed . tumors in domestic animals . 2 . ed . california : university of california . 326 - 330 .\na sample of lymph fluid will be sent to laboratory for further evaluation , to determine if cancerous cells are in the sample . the presence of cancerous cells in the lymph nodes is often a strong indication that the tumor is not\nr - 68 . weir ec , pond mj and duncan jr . ( 1987 ) . extragenital located tvt tumor in the dog . literature review and case reports . j am anim hosp assoc . 14 : 532 - 536 .\nresistant cases can be treated with doxorubicin , 30 mg / m 2 , iv , with 3 applications every 21 days ( richardson , 1981 ; souza et al . , 1998 ) . when total disappearance of the tumor cannot be achieved by chemotherapy , electro - cauterization or cryo - cauterization can be useful ( rogers , 1997 , vermooten , 1987 ) . after therapy , small remnant lesions can disappear spontaneously after 1 or 2 weeks ( unpublished observations ) . in cases that fail to resolve with chemotherapy , radiotherapy has been reported to yield good results ( boscos et al . , 2004 ) . the tumor immunity plays a role in tumor regression after modest chemotherapy ( gonzalez et al . , 2000 ) .\nbrand\u00e3o cvs , borges ag , ranzani jjt , rahal sc , teixeira cr , rocha ns . tumor ven\u00e9reo transmiss\u00edvel : estudo retrospectivo de 127 casos ( 1998\u20132000 ) . rev educ contin crmv - sp . 2002 ; 5 ( 1 ) : 25\u201331 .\nin dogs whose immune systems are unable to properly respond , tumors will continue to grow and spread into other areas , and will need to be treated . surgical excision of small or localized tumors can be effective , but may not be the best choice when external genitalia is affected , and also carries the risk of tumor implantation into surgical wounds from instruments and gloves that have become contaminated . recurrence has been seen to occur even in successful tumor removal . most often , surgery is followed by other therapies .\namaral as , gaspar lfj , bassani - silva s , rocha ns . diagn\u00f3stico citol\u00f3gico do tumor ven\u00e9reo transmiss\u00edvel na regi\u00e3o de botucatu , brasil ( estudo descritivo : 1994\u20132003 ) . revista portuguesa de ci\u00eancias veterin\u00e1rias . 2004 ; 99 ( 551 ) : 167\u201371 .\nbut a lineage that dates back to columbus\u2019s time is still relatively recent compared to how long ago the cancer itself originated . the team estimates that ctvt blinked into existence in a dog that lived between 10 , 179 and 12 , 873 years ago\u2014this dog\u2019s mutated cells were the source of the endlessly contagious cancer . by comparing dna from the modern tumor cells to the genotypes of 1 , 106 dogs , wolves , and coyotes , the researchers conclude that the first animal to suffer from ctvt was a black - ish , relatively inbred canine resembling a malamute . and from this whelp , a miracle was born .\nthis condition is the result of direct contact with tumor cells from a diseased animal . it is transmitted through the act of sex , and can also be transmitted by oral contact . intact , free roaming dogs are at greater risk of acquiring and spreading this disease .\na urinalysis is performed , along with blood tests that include a cbc and serum analysis , all of which can rule out the presence of parasites that can cause many of the same symptoms . it can also reveal abnormalities that can point to organs that may be affected . tissue samples can be collected by a fine needle aspiration , surgical excision , or punch biopsy , and are analyzed to discover the nature and type of tumor your dog has . this tumor has a characteristic appearance which can help to diagnose this particular type of cancer .\nmoreover , regressing tumors have a high number of t lymphocytes ( hill et al . , 1984 ) . it is thought that substances secreted by the lymphocyte infiltrate are responsible for the tumor\u2019s regression by inducing cellular differentiation ( yang , 1988 , yang et al . , 1991 ) . a recent study suggested the role of hyaluronan in the growth of the tumor . this study also emphasized that the modulation of stromal cells that occur during the regression of tvt is similar to that occurring during wound healing ( mukaratirwa et al . , 2004 ) .\nwhilst a first assumption is that this tumour is transmissible through mating , it is also possible for the oral and nasal cavities of dogs to be affected by this tumour too so social behaviour like sniffing and licking may also transmit the tumour . these tumours may spontaneously resolve , but normally chemotherapy is required . regards dr callum turner dvm\nshafiee r , javanbakht j , atyabi n , kheradmand p , kheradmand d , bahrami a , daraei h , khadivar f . diagnosis , classification and grading of canine mammary tumours as a model to study human breast cancer : a clinico - cytohistopathological study with environmental factors influencing public health and medicine . cancer cell int . 2013 ; 9 ; 13 ( 1 ) : 79 .\nin some dogs , tumors can trigger an immunologic response that can result in spontaneous regression of the tumor . often , tumors will grow rapidly , then remain at a certain size before regression can occur , after which your dog may be resistant to a future implantation of tvt cells .\nctvt is a cancer that can be transmitted between dogs when they breed . instead of being transmitted by the usual infectious agents \u2013 such as viruses or bacteria \u2013 the tumors are spread by the tumor cells themselves . and , based on a genetics study published just last week in the journal\noverall , this is an eye - opening finding \u2013 while we usually only think of \u201cdescendants\u201d in terms of an animal\u2019s progeny , ctvt ( and its 11 , 000 - year - old tumor cell line ) is an example of how that can be a limited view of the world .\nctvt tumors in dogs today have an astounding 1 . 9 million mutations . this is impressive considering that the tumor has been able to survive and spread for so many years while carrying along this huge number of mutations that could easily make it unstable . ( most human cancers only get about 1 , 000 to 5 , 000 mutations , but obviously aren\u2019t anywhere near 11 , 000 years old . ) that said , the tumor\u2019s genetics appear to have stabilized in the last few centuries ( or before this ) \u2013 the researchers compared the genetics of ctvt in dog populations that have been separated for about 500 years and found that their tumors were very similar ( about 95 % of the same mutations ) . this stabilization may have been needed for the ctvt tumors to continue to survive \u2013 it\u2019s possible that if it gets any more mutations , the tumor will be unstable .\nsquamous cell carcinoma of the canine nasal cavity and frontal sinus was diagnosed in eight cases between may 1988 and april 1994 . the most common presenting complaints were nasal discharge , including epistaxis ; sneezing ; and facial deformity or exophthalmos . metastasis was not identified in any case , but bone lysis and invasion into tissues outside the nasal cavity were noted in five cases . . . . [ show full abstract ]\nhowever , cancer biologists like elizabeth murchison have learned to look past ctvt\u2019s cauliflower - like exterior to appreciate the science within . a native tasmanian , murchison was lured into the wonderful world of transmissible cancers by studying her island\u2019s devils . \u201cfrom there , i learnt about the dog cancer , and found it completely fascinating , \u201d she told me in an email .\nr - 50 . padile , r . d . , panchbhai , v . s . , bhokre , a . p . , jadhao , p . t and baoat , s . t ( 1988 ) . haematological and blood biochemical changes in dogs after vincristine administration for treatment of venereal granuloma . j . vet . surg . 19 ( 1 ) : 47 .\nimmunotherapy studies have also been reported . there are reports to show that generalized form of tvt may regress following transfusion of whole blood or serum from a recovered animal or after treatment with tumor homogenate used as an autocthonius vaccine ( prier and johnson , 1964 ; powers , 1968 ) . a very few paramunity activators have been tried in tvt . the intra - lesional application of calmette - gu\u00e9rin ' s bacillus ( bcg ) was used for three weeks with sporadic success ( johnston , 1991 ) . recurrences have been described after immunotherapy using staphylococcus protein a , bcg or a vaccine made from tumoral cells ( amber et al . , 1990 ; rogers , 1997 ) . biotherapy has unfortunately also resulted in a high rate of recurrence ( richardson , 1981 ; vermooten , 1987 , amber et al . , 1990 ) . parvovirus vaccine has been shown to prevent experimental tumor transplantation when the vaccine was inoculated simultaneously with the tumor ( yang , 1987 ) , but the routine use of this vaccine is not reported . paramunity activators are given with the intention of enhancing the non - specific immune reactivity to the host , and this non - specific immunity is both humoral and cellular ( mayr , 1981 ) . since humoral and cellular immunity is known to play an important role in the regression of tvt ( cohen , 1980 ; mizuno et al . , 1994 ) paramunity activators are expected to be effective in both prophylaxis and treatment of this tumor . local injection of interleukin - 2 has been tried for immunotherapy with 32 % success ( otter et al . , 1999 ) . the mechanism how il - 2 causes regression of the tumor is not clear .\nthis is a common tumor , only found in dogs . it has a patchy worldwide distribution including parts of the caribbean , usa , southern europe , asia and africa . it is transmitted by direct physical contact . it occurs in both sexes and may appear as multiple subcutaneous nodules on the genitalia , lips and other parts of the body .\nmost often , the presence of a tumor in the genital region will prompt a veterinary visit . a physical examination may include a digital vaginal examination in females , and possibly a vaginoscopy , as tumors can grow inside the vagina and be hard to see . a diagnosis is based on symptoms , the presence of tumors , and the results of testing .\n. . . tvt is a radiosensitive tumor and substances generating orthovoltage ( thrall 1982 ) or megavoltage ( rogers et al . 1998 ) like cobalt are used for this purpose . radiotherapy , as an alternative to chemotherapy treatment in tvt , can be used for the treatment - resistant lesions or the lesions forming in brain , testis or eyes . . . .\nr - 49 . otter , w . d . , cadee , j . , gavhumende , r , degroot , c . j . , hennick , w . e . and stewart , r ( 1999 ) . effective cancer therapy with a single injection of interleukin - 2 at the site of tumor . cancer immunology immunotherapy . 48 : 419 - 420 .\nthe management of tvt has not been very easy . several treatments including surgery , radiotherapy , immunotherapy , biotherapy and chemotherapy have been applied for tvt . surgery has been used extensively for the treatment of small , localized tvts , although the recurrence rate can be as high as 50 - 68 % in cases of large invasive tumors ( rogers , 1997 ; weir et al . , 1987 ) . contamination of the surgical site with tvt cells is also a source of recurrence ( boscos and ververidis , 2004 ) . methods to prevent recurrence subsequent to surgery include excision along with cauterization ( hoque , 1995 ) , electrosurgical or cryosurgical excision ( idowu , 1985 ; rao et al . , 1993 ; hoque et al . , 1995 ) or chemotherapy subsequent to surgical excision . transmissible venereal tumors are radiosensitive and orthovoltage as well as cobalt have been used for this purpose ( weir et al . , 1987 ) .\nsquamous cell carcinoma of the nasal planum was diagnosed in eight dogs between march 1988 and january 1994 . epistaxis , sneezing , and ulceration or swelling of the nasal planum were the most common presenting complaints . although no evidence of metastasis was identified , the primary tumor in all cases was locally invasive with extensive involvement of underlying tissues . advanced imaging . . . [ show full abstract ]\nearly therapeutic effects were : three complete regressions , four partial regressions , three stable disease , and two progressive disease . late therapeutic effects were established 45 - 60 months after the first presentation ; there were five complete regressions , no partial regressions , nor stable or progressive diseases . interestingly , all five dogs with late therapeutic effects were in good health . no tumor recurrence was noted .\n. . . however , some studies have reported a higher prevalence in females , 4 , 15 likely associated with areas with no birth control or many females and fewer males . however , other studies have shown a higher prevalence in males , 6 , [ 16 ] [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] suggest - ing a strong relationship between ctvt and promiscuous reproduction behavior in dogs that directly sniff and lick the vaginal tumor . . . .\nwhat is the prognosis with tvt ? initially , tvts grow rather fast and more rapidly in neonatal and immuno - suppressed dogs . metastasis ( spreading ) is uncommon ( 5 % ) . many cases resolve spontaneously and self cure . complete surgical removal is difficult and recurrence is likely . radiation therapy is effective but the tumor is very responsive to chemotherapy 1 . currently a drug called vincristine is helpful with a period of 6 - 7 weeks as the recommended treatment .\n. . . ctvt primarily affects the genital external epithelium of male dogs and bitches . 6 , 7 ctvt is transmitted when malignant cells are transferred directly from 1 dog to another dog via coitus , licking , biting or sniffing tumor areas , such as the external genitalia or skin . 6 , 8 , 9 ctvt presents a low metastatic potential 7 , 10 ; however , metastases to the skin , lungs , abdominal organs , and central nervous system have been described . . . .\nall things canid has joined with the american society of animal naturopathy to offer you a 50 % discount on your first animal naturopathy course . canine natural educational classes are available through the\u0101 american society of animal naturopathy . these include nutrition , homeopathy , naturopathy , breeding , and vaccines as well as many more . you will receive a 50 % discount on classes ( books not included ) if you mention all things canid when ordering your classes . for the discount just visit the site , chose your classes , and email your list of the classes you want to take using the form provided . a invoice will be sent to you with your 50 % discount applied .\ntvt has continued to be a serious problem around the world ( moulton , 1961 ) occurring at same frequencies in both male and female dogs ( smith and washbourn , 1998 ) . it is estimated to be more prevalent in temperate climates ( ndirty et al . , 1977 ; withrow and mcewen , 1989 ; rogers , 1997 ) . a large number of reports have been produced in india ( pandey and dhawedkar , 1977 ; chaudhary and rao , 1982 ; nayak et al . , 1987 ; padile et al . , 1988 ; das et al . , 1989 ; pandey et al . , 1989 ; das and sahay , 1990 ; chauhan et al . , 1991 ; das et al . , 1991 ; tiwari et al . , 1991 ; dinesh et al . , 1993 ; gandotra et al . , 1993 ; hoque et al . , 1995 ; maiti et al . , 1995 ; jain et al . , 2002 a , 2002b ) . it is commonly observed in dogs that are in close contact with one another , or in stray and wild dogs that exhibit unrestrained sexual activity ( cangul , 2003 ) . in india tvt is known to be the most frequently reported tumor in dogs ranging from 23 - 43 % of the total number of tumors in canine population ( gandotra et al . , 1993 ; chaudhary and rao , 1982 ) . uncontrolled sexual behavior and a large stray dog population appear to be one reason for such a high incidence of tvt . an age related incidence has been shown for tvt ( higgins , 1966 ; pandey et al . , 1997 ; thakur and bradley , 1983 ) with the tumor being common at 2 - 5 years of age ."]}
{"id": 1611, "summary": [{"text": "the pygmy seahorses comprise several species of tiny seahorse in the syngnathid family or syngnathidae ( seahorses and pipefish ) .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "family syngnathidae is part of order syngnathiformes , which contains fishes with fused jaws that suck food into tubular mouths .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they are found in southeast asia in the coral triangle area .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "they are some of the smallest seahorse species in the world , typically measuring less than 2 centimetres ( 0.79 in ) in height .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the first pygmy seahorse known to science was hippocampus bargibanti .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "at least six more species were named after 2000 .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the first species discovered lives exclusively on fan corals and matches their colour and appearance .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "so effective is pygmy seahorse camouflage that it was discovered only when a host gorgonian was being examined in a laboratory .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "in 1969 a new caledonian scientist , georges bargibant , was collecting specimens of muricella spp gorgonians for the noum\u00e9a museum and whilst one of these was on his dissection table he happened to notice a pair of tiny seahorses .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the next year they were officially named by whitley as bargibant 's pygmy seahorse .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "other species live on soft corals or are free-ranging among seagrasses and algae . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "pygmy seahorse", "paragraphs": ["not many creatures can match the pygmy seahorse for being so simultaneously enigmatic and simply gorgeous . the cryptic pygmy seahorse\nthis pygmy seahorse is one of 9 known species of pygmy seahorse . due to their amazing camouflage ability and tiny size , many pygmy seahorse species have only been discovered over the past 10 years , and more may be discovered . in addition , many species have different color morphs , making identification even more difficult .\nthe dwarf seahorse ( hippocampus zosterae ) is a small seahorse found in the western atlantic ocean . they are also known as little seahorses or pygmy seahorses .\nthe common pygmy seahorse or bargibant ' s seahorse is one of the tiniest known vertebrates . this seahorse was named after the scuba diver who discovered the species in 1969 while collecting specimens for the noumea aquarium in new caledonia .\nmcgrouther , m . pygmy seahorse , hippocampus bargibanti whitley , 1970 . australian museum . accessed january 30 , 2016 .\nthe kenyan pygmy chameleon isn ' t the only adorably tiny pygmy species . there are also marshall ' s pygmy chameleon and spectral pygmy chameleon . below is the brookesia minima , or commonly called the madagascan dwarf chameleon , the minute leaf chameleon , the pygmy leaf chameleon , the nosy be pygmy leaf chameleon , and the tiny ground chameleon . in other words , chameleons can blend in not only with their colors but also with their names !\nas its name implies , the pygmy seahorse is a tiny fish . it lives on gorgonians ( sea fans ) of the genus muricella .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - pygmy seahorse ( hippocampus bargibanti )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - pygmy seahorse ( hippocampus bargibanti )\ntitle =\narkive species - pygmy seahorse ( hippocampus bargibanti )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nonly known to occur on gorgonian corals of the genus muricella , the pygmy seahorse is typically found between 16 and 40 metres depth ( 2 ) .\nthe pygmy seahorse is classified as data deficient ( dd ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) , and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) .\nthe pygmy seahorse has a short snout , rounded knob - like coronet and irregular bulbous tubercles on the body . it has a rounded spine above each eye and on each cheek .\nwhy are they only being discovered now ? since no one knew they existed , they were not being looked for . because of their astonishing camouflage , they were easily overlooked until 1969 in new indonesia when h . bargibanti was discovered . it was found on accident when a biologist was observing muricella sp . gorgonians which were retrieved by divers . the biologist found the tiny seahorse was using the gorgonian as its host . this species was so well hidden that they were not even noticed until the coral was examined in a lab ! many species of pygmy seahorses were discovered just recently , including hippocampus debelius , or the soft - coral seahorse , which was revealed in 1993 by an underwater photographer . severn\u2019s pygmy seahorse , pontoh\u2019s pygmy seahorse , and satomi\u2019s pygmy seahorse were just named at the end of 2008 ! the majority of pygmy seahorses have been found by divers instead of scientists . scientists then later verified the divers findings .\nunder the care of experienced researchers at national aquaria , all pygmy seahorses and their gorgonians have died .\nnoaa fisheries . dwarf seahorse ( hippocampus zosterae ) . accessed september 30 , 2014 .\n. other distinctive pygmy seahorse characteristics include a fleshy head and body , a very short snout , and a long , prehensile tail . this is also one of the smallest seahorse species in the world , typically measuring less than 2 centimetres ( 0 . 79 in ) in height .\nvincent , a . 1995 . a role for daily greetings in maintaining seahorse pair bonds .\nhello , my names angela . where can i buy a seahorse in ma or nh ?\nthere are a number of enrichments available to improve brine shrimp . you can even make your own . probably the most popular among seahorse keepers is dan\u2019s feed , available through seahorse source .\npygmy seahorses have such a weird but elegant look to them , their bright colors are so attractive as well .\nthe pygmy seahorse is known from coral reefs in the tropical western pacific around australia ( queensland ) , indonesia , japan , new caledonia , papua new guinea and the philippines ( 1 ) ( 2 ) .\nbefore getting into dwarf seahorse care , it\u2019s important to understand a little bit about their biology .\nwhat is a pygmy seahorse ? pygmy seahorses are part of the genus hippocampus which all seahorses belong . they are minute seahorse species found through the world , most less than one inch in size . while they have been known about to science since the discovery of h . bargibanti in 1969 , most species have been discovered within the past 10 years . since then , they have become one of the most popular creatures for recreational divers to seek out .\nstockton , n . 2014 . baby pygmy seahorses are even cuter than you think . wired . accessed january 30 , 2016 .\nthe first time i saw pygmy seahorse in bali . i didn\u2019t know what my guide show me , and he bring me more close with the gorgonian and finally i saw very2 small things moving . i am very happy diving in bali \ud83d\ude00\nmasonjones , h . , s . lewis . 1996 . courtship behavior in the dwarf seahorse , hippocampus zosterae .\nlourie , s . a . and randall , j . e . ( 2003 ) a new pygmy seahorse , hippocampus denise ( teleostei : syngnathidae ) from the indo - pacific . zoological studies , 42 ( 2 ) : 284 - 291 .\nauthenticated ( 19 / 12 / 2006 ) by sara lourie , project seahorse / redpath museum , mcgill university . urltoken\nthe walea seahorse is named after an island in central sulawesi , indonesia\u2014the only place it has so far been found .\ngomon , m . f . 1997 . a remarkable new pygmy seahorse ( syngnathidae : hippocampus ) from south - eastern australia , with a description of h . bargibanti whitley from new caledonia . memoirs of the museum of victoria 56 ( 1 ) : 245\u2013253 .\npygmy seahorses are unique from other seahorse species in that they are much smaller , less than an inch tall . in fact , they are the smallest seahorses in the world , and the record holder h . satomiae is only 13mm tall when fully grown . that\u2019s just barely over a half an inch ! they are also closely associated with their host as they possess the amazing ability to mimic it which protects them from predators . because of this , new species of pygmy seahorses are still being discovered ! unlike many other seahorses , the pygmy seahorse does not have recognizable body rings . other things that make them different from other species of seahorse not having a fully formed pouch and some types having a single gill slit such as h . colemani , h . pontohi , and h . severnsi .\npygmy seahorses are listed as data deficient on the iucn red list due to lack of published data on population sizes or trends for the species .\nlike other seahorses , it\u2019s the male pygmy that becomes pregnant . he gives birth to around a dozen young after a gestation of 10 - 14 days\ndue to the very small size of the pygmy seahorse they can\u2019t eat anything large at all . they tend to consume very small particles of food from their environment . mainly this is in the form of the young brine shrimp but they do consume some other types of crustaceans .\n2003 .\nbiology of seahorses\n( on - line ) . project seahorse . accessed october 13 , 2004 at urltoken .\nthe pygmy seahorse is one of the newest that have been identified . since they are so tiny and they blend so well with the surroundings . they weren\u2019t even known to exist until they were accidentally placed in captivity on some coral reef and then they were detected and closely examined .\nreijnen , b . t . , et al . 2011 . fish , fans and hydroids : host species of pygmy seahorses . zookeys 103 : 1\u201326 .\nall but one of the seven species so far identified is found in southeast asia . coleman\u2019s pygmy is confirmed only from lord howe island off australia\u2019s east coast\nepoch times staff . ( 8 / 11 / 2011 . )\nscience in pictures : pygmy seahorses .\nthe epoch times , northern california edition .\npygmy seahorses can be found coastal areas ranging from southern japan and indonesia to northern australia and new caledonia . they normally reside in depths of 10 - 40m on reefs . these distinctive pygmy seahorse species have attracted the attention of divers worldwide , making it extremely valuable to the diving industry . in sabah , a colony of pygmy seahorses is visited by about 100 divers per day . unfortunately , these visits can be dangerous to the seahorses . with photographers constantly taking pictures , the flashes from cameras could possibly influence them in negative ways . at this time , there are no policies to protect them from harm .\nmasonjones hd and sm lewis . 1996 . courtship behavior in the dwarf seahorse , hippocampus zosterae . copeia 1996 : 634 - 640 .\nthere are three species of pygmy shrew in the world , the american pygmy shrew ( pictured above ) , eurasian pygmy shrew , and the etruscan pygmy shrew . of the three , the etruscan pygmy shrew , pictured below , is the smallest and it is also considered the smallest mammal in the world by mass ( the kitti ' s hog - nosed bat is the smallest by skull size ) . the tiny creature grows to only about 1 . 4 inches in body length , but despite that size , it will eat 1 . 5 to 2 times its own body weight in food a day , scarfing down everything from small vertebrates and invertebrates , to prey as large as itself ! if you think that ' s amazing , the 2 - inch long american pygmy shrew eats three times its body weight a day , requiring it to capture and eat a meal every 15 - 30 minutes just to stay alive . small body , but enormous appetite !\nif you happen to come across a pygmy seahorse , please remember to follow these tips . you may look at them but always be careful around pygmy seahorses . do not touch or attempt to move them . obviously , do not try to collect them for pet - owning or trade purposes . keep flashlights and flash photography away from them . avoid touching or destroying the seafan and take note of the coral around you . they are sensitive to stress and dislike flashes and harassment from divers . pygmy seahorses are safe as long as they are not disturbed in any way . we want these beautiful and colorful creatures to stay .\nmuch has changed regarding our understanding of seahorse care , and many other species are now commonly available . yet the dwarf seahorse remains an ever popular , easy to care for aquarium pet . the basics of keeping them are quite simple as long as you follow a few guidelines .\nadults are usually found in pairs or clusters of pairs , with up to 28 pygmy seahorses recorded on a single gorgonian , and may be monogamous . as with other\nvery little is known about the total number of pygmy seahorses , population trends , distribution , or major threats . it has therefore been classified as data deficient on the\n@ paul no they are two different species . they are very similar , but they are not the same animal . pygmy seahorses are slightly smaller than dwarf seahorses .\nif one wants to keep a miniature species of seahorse in an aquarium , consider looking into the hippocampus zosterae , also known as the dwarf seahorse , instead . dwarf seahorses are much less sensitive to captive conditions and are easier to take care of . pygmy seahorses are often confused with dwarf seahorses in literature . although both are similarly tiny , they are not the same . dwarf seahorses do have the similar appeal of being tiny but make better pets .\nproject seahorse . 2003 . hippocampus bargibanti . the iucn red list of threatened species 2003 : e . t10060a3158205 . accessed january 30 , 2016 .\npygmy seahorses live on gorgonian corals off australia , new caledonia , indonesia , japan , papua new guinea , and the philippines , in water depths of about 52 - 131 feet .\nproject seahorse ( 2003 ) . hippocampus bargibanti . 2006 . iucn red list of threatened species . iucn 2006 . urltoken . retrieved on 12 may 2006 .\nproject seahorse 2003 . hippocampus zosterae . the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2014 . 2 . < urltoken > . accessed september 30 , 2014 .\nvincent , a . 1997 .\nnova - kingdom of the seahorse\n( on - line ) . pbs . accessed october 13 , 2004 at urltoken .\nstrawn k . 1958 . life history of the pigmy seahorse , hippocampus zosterae jordan and gilbert , at cedar key , florida . copeia 1958 : 16 - 22 .\njordan , , gilbert . 1882 .\nhippocamous zosterae ( dwarf seahorse )\n( on - line ) . fishbase . accessed october 13 , 2004 at urltoken .\nfound in the swamps and forests of west africa , the pygmy hippo is one of the only two species of hippo on earth , and it is endangered . the elusive and nocturnal pygmy hippo is vulnerable not only to the loss of habitat to agriculture , but also to hunting and poaching . experts estimate there are fewer than 3 , 000 of these unique little guys left in the wild .\npygmy seahorses are only found living in coral reefs , sea grass beds , and algae , which makes them vulnerable to habitat destruction of that species of coral is destroyed . most of the host corals have been found to be nearly impossible to maintain in captivity . because these corals can only thrive in the wild , it is possible that divers may disrupt the environment of the pygmy seahorses . gorgonian corals are susceptible to destruction by divers and that is not good for the pygmy seahorses , since their survival largely depends on the corals . it is important that divers follow recommended guidelines to viewing these animals .\nthough small in size , these animals are not small on personality nor good looks ! check out these fascinating and , let ' s admit it , simply adorable pygmy species from all over the globe .\nthe small size of the pygmy seahorse makes it very hard for them to be able to live along . they attach to a host \u2013 gorgonian corals \u2013 in order to survive . the coloring of them will blend with them . this is how they are able to survive since they can\u2019t swim well and they are too small to handle the water currents without an anchor .\nvery little is known about the total number of pygmy seahorses , population trends , distribution , or major threats . it has therefore been classified as data deficient on the iucn red list 2006 . because of the unusual and attractive colouration of this small seahorse it is possible that it could be being collected for the aquaria trade , although no international trade in the species has been recorded .\nit ' s amazing how many pygmy bird species exist , including this pygmy cormorant . a seabird of southeastern europe and southwestern asia , they live among reedbeds and near open waters , and are often found in rice fields and other flooded crop areas . because they require wetlands to survive , their populations have been dramatically affected over recent decades as wetlands have been drained for agricultural purposes and other changes to their watery habitats .\nthey are easily identified by their small size , as well as by amount of body rings ( 9 or 10 ) and dorsal fin rays ( 12 ) . this seahorse ' s common name could be used for other small species of seahorse , but this species is on of the smallest at around 2 . 5cm ( 1\n) total length in adult males .\nthis gremlin - looking critter made headlines when it was\nrediscovered\nin 2000 after one was accidentally killed in a trap set for rats . the species hadn ' t been spotted since the 1920s and was thought to be extinct , but finally in 2008 researchers from texas a & m university spotted the first living pygmy tarsiers in decades . the 4 - inch long pygmy tarsiers weigh only about 2 ounces , and prey entirely on insects .\nvery little is known about the total number of pygmy seahorses , population trends , distribution , or major threats . it has therefore been classified as data deficient on the iucn red list ( 1 ) . because of the unusual and attractive colouration of this small seahorse it is possible that it could be being collected for the aquaria trade ( 1 ) , although no international trade in the species has been recorded ( 2 ) .\nthere are five species of pygmy possum , four endemic to australia and one found in papua new guinea and indonesia . the eastern pygmy possum , pictured above and below , is one of the australian species . it is only about 2 . 8 - 3 . 5 inches long , and a 3 - 4 . 3 inch long tail . meanwhile , the tasmanian pygmy possum , pictured perched on the rocks in the image below , is the world ' s smallest possum , weighing in at only about . 25 oz and growing to only about 2 . 5 - 3 inches in body length . these teensy possums need to keep a sharp eye out for owls , which readily prey on them .\nthe color and shape of this seahorse nearly perfectly matches the corals on which it lives . check out a video of these tiny seahorses to experience their incredible ability to blend in with their surroundings .\nthe small size and specific body ring and dorsal ray counts should be sufficient to allow the dwarf seahorse to be distinguished from the larger congener hippocampus erectus , with which it may co - occur .\nvery little is known about the total number of pygmy seahorses , population trends , distribution , or major threats . it has therefore been classified as data deficient on the iucn red list 2006 ( 1 ) . because of the unusual and attractive colouration of this small seahorse it is possible that it could be being collected for the aquaria trade ( 1 ) , although no international trade in the species has been recorded ( 2 ) .\nlast but certainly not least , not even by pygmy standards , is the pygmy three - toed sloth . this is one of the world ' s most endangered species with only about 100 left in the wild on isla escudo de veraguas , panama . after a controversial issue of dallas aquarium attempting to import eight of these sloths , supposedly for a captive breeding program in texas , the captured sloths were released . the above video is one of them being returned to its home .\nwilson mj , and acj vincent . 1998 . preliminary success in closing the life cycle of exploited seahorse species , hippocampus spp . , in captivity . aquarium sciences and conservation 2 : 179 - 196 .\nyes , even the largest animal alive on earth today , the blue whale , has a pygmy relative . this subspecies is found in the indian and pacific oceans , and grows to 79 feet ( which apparently is puny in the world of blue whales ) . they ' re described as\ntadpole\nshaped compared to their larger cousin , with a shorter tail and proportionately larger head . it ' s estimated that there are around 10 , 000 pygmy blue whales traveling the oceans .\ni am looking to buy two small seahorse\u2019 to keep as pets and i wld like to know where t obuy them at email me back at beall . jasmine @ urltoken they are really kool creatures ilove them\nthey carry about 10 - 20 eggs per breeding . the eggs are fertilized and incubated until hatching time . offspring are born live about two weeks later and are then independent from parents . fry , or baby seahorses , usually cling to coral reefs and feed immediately after birth . they look just like miniature versions of the parents . little is known about the pygmy seahorse\u2019s life cycle , although other small seahorses species are known to live for around a year .\npygmy seahorses are found in the costal regions of the indo - pacific ocean , including indonesia , new guinea , great barrier reef , new caledonia , japan , and the philippines . they range from 3 \u00b0n \u2013 23 \u00b0s and do not migrate .\nreijnen , b . t . , van der meij , s . e . t . , van ofwegen , l . p . ( 2011 )\nfish , fans and hydroids : host species of pygmy seahorses .\nzookeys 103 : 1 - 26 .\nthough they may be tiny , these itty bitty raptors are fierce , and there are a bunch of them ! roughly 25 - 35 species of pygmy owl , or owlet , can be found all over the world , but they ' re mainly found in western north america and central america . the northern pygmy owl , pictured below , ranges all the way from canada to honduras . with a wingspan of only 30 - 40 centimeters , the raptor usually goes after insects or smaller prey like lizards , rodents and small birds .\npygmy seahorses are not suitable for home aquariums because their survival likely depends on host corals . waikiki aquarium has attempted to keep the host gorgonian for h . bargibanti , and was unable to keep it alive more than a few months . these species of seahorses have very small mouths , making them difficult to feed in a closed system . not only is the environment for pygmy seahorses hard to maintain , it is probably impossible to obtain the seahorses themselves anyway since they are so rare . they are extremely delicate and are better off living in the wild .\nlourie , s . a . , vincent , c . j . & h . j . hall . 1999 . seahorses . an identification guide to the world ' s species and their conservation . project seahorse . pp . 214 .\ndwarf seahorses are also collected in florida for the marine ornamental aquarium industry . annual seahorse landings vary widely , but adams et al . ( 2001 ) indicates more than 80 , 000 h . zosterae were collected in florida in 1992 .\n, commonly known as the dwarf seahorse , inhabits coastal waters of the western atlantic ocean , including the caribbean sea , the gulf of mexico , and the continental shelf of the southeastern united states ( jordan and gilbert , 1882 ) .\nand other seahorse species produce a rapid clicking sound as a form of communication . these clicking sounds have been observed during courtship and copulation , inter - male competition , feeding , and stress produced , for example , by moving a seahorse from one tank into another . dwarf seahorses produce these clicking sounds by stridulation , which is the production of sound through the grinding together of hard , usually bony structures . in this case the skull grinds against the vertebrae . more specifically ,\nthe ( appropriately named ) pygmy mouse lemur is a tiny primate only about 4 . 7\u20135 . 1 inches long , including the tail ! found only in a localized area of kirindy forest in western madagascar , the species is threatened by poachers who capture them for the pet trade .\nlives well camouflaged amongst the branches of the gorgonian coral . it is a tiny timid creature with a maximum length of less than an inch , however watch out if you are a little shrimp , this cute seahorse has a sharp eye and a big appetite . this is a very popular seahorse amongst underwater enthusiasts which is why roger and catherine have released it as a limited edition print on archival paper which is signed by the artist . ( print run limited to rogers lifetime )\nrange from 5 to 20 milliseconds in length and are between 2 . 65 and 3 . 43 khz . also , as size of the seahorse increases the peak frequencies of the clicking sounds decrease ( colson et al . , 1998 ) .\nthat\u2019s a tough call . the tankmates article says that they are a one \u2013 good with everything but might not be safe with seahorse fry . dwarfs are a bit of an anomaly , being so small , but they\u2019re larger than fry .\nis one of the smallest of the many different seahorse species , ranging in size between 2 to 2 . 5 cm . the maximum reported size was a male of 5 . 0 cm ( jordan and gilbert , 1882 ) . this species of seahorse can be distinguished from other western atlantic seahorse species by the presence of 10 to 13 dorsal and pectoral fin rays ( daswon and vari , 1982 ) . also , dwarf seahorses possess 9 to 10 trunk rings , a high knob - like coronet that lacks spines or projections , knob - like spines on the body , a short snout that is one - third the length of the head , and skin covered in tiny warts ( lourie et al . , 2004 ) .\nthe western pacific is where you will find this species of seahorse living . from southern japan to northern australia you will find them . they are found in caledonia . the shallow areas that are also very warm are where they will be living .\nlourie , s . , s . foster , e . cooper , a . vincent . 2004 .\na guide to the identification of seahorses\n( on - line pdf ) . project seahorse . accessed october 14 , 2004 at urltoken .\nthe seahorses refered to in the above article are dwarf seahorses not pygmy seahorses . the main article refers to this confusion . so long as you can supply daily live food ( enriched brine shrimp ) then dwarfs will readily breed , mine had 10 babies within 1 month of arrival into the aquarium \ud83d\ude42\nthe maximum length of a dwarf seahorse is just under 2 inches . like many other seahorse species , it has a variety of color forms , which range from tan to green to almost black . their skin may be mottled , have dark spots , and covered in tiny warts . these seahorses have a short snout , and a coronet on top of their head that is very high and column - like or knob - like in shape . they may also have filaments extending from their head and body .\nthe first known pygmy seahorse species was hippocampus bargibanti , which was actually discovered on a gorgonian coral that was being examined in a laboratory . and no wonder ; the species is only about 2 centimeters in length and is exceptional at blending with its host coral . even so , scientists have managed to discover six more species since 2000 . very little is known about these species , and they do not survive in aquariums even under the most expert of care , which is why it is good they are listed under cites and the australian wildlife protection act .\nall seahorses are carnivores . pygmy seahorses feed on zooplankton , primarily copepods . h . bargibanti has been observed eating zooplankton captured in the polyps of its host coral . they do not have tongues or teeth . prey is sucked into the seahorse\u2019s mouth once it is within range . they have very small mouths so they require areas that flourish with its natural food . this species also does not have a stomach for digestion , making their digestive systems inefficient . therefore , food must constantly be ingested to survive since they do not have a place to store its food .\nif you thought bunny rabbits couldn ' t get any cuter , meet the columbia basin pygmy rabbit . this species - - the smallest rabbit in north america - - is found only in one area of washington state , the ( you guessed it ) columbia basin . because of the specific location , the species is subject to threat by habitat loss and wildfires . the pygmy rabbit was listed under the endangered species act in 2003 and a recovery plan , including captive breeding program and collaborative recovery effort with oregon zoo , washington state university , northwest trek wildlife park , usfws and other state wildlife agencies , is in place .\njustification : hippocampus bargibanti is a coral reef - inhabiting pygmy seahorse that inhabits the indo - west pacific from southern sumatra to new caledonia and from tokyo , japan , to the southern edge of australia ' s great barrier reef . the species is only found on muricella corals . they may be threatened by habitat loss due to coastal development , polllution , destructive fishing practices , and the effects of climate change . further research is needed to determine population size , trends in abundance , and how these threats are affecting the species . therefore h . bargibanti is listed as data deficient .\nof its host species of gorgonian coral , while its body matches the gorgonian stem . it is not known whether individuals can change colour if they change hosts , although the ability to change colour according to their surroundings does exist in some other seahorse species , such as\nlourie , s . a . , a . c . j . vincent and h . j . hall , 1999 . seahorses : an identification guide to the world ' s species and their conservation . project seahorse , london . 214 p . ( ref . 30915 )\nlourie , s . a . , foster , s . j . , cooper , e . w . t . and a . c . j . vincent . 2004 . a guide to the identification of seahorses . project seahorse and traffic north america . 114 pp .\nthe ability of seahorses to change color in many social situations is most likely a form of communication about the state or mood of the seahorse to its mate or other members of its species ( indiviglio , 2002 ) . mates also communicate with nose pointing and body vibrations .\ndwarf seahorses look similar to other common seahorse species . they have cirri , for camouflage , but these usually disappear when kept in the aquarium . their colouration varies from beige to yellow to green to black to mottled , and they are capable of colour change like a chameleon .\nall pygmy seahorses are distinguished as having a plump head and body , a short truncated snout , and a long tail capable of clinging to coral . species can be differentiated by colors , size , and other characteristic appearances . h . severnsi , for example , lacks tubercles on its head . all seahorses swim upright with their head up and tail down , and are propelled forward with their dorsal fin . these seahorses normally stay still and will let go of its host to relocate a few centimeters at a time when disturbed . they can swim for about a minute and can also float . different species of pygmy seahorses vary in color and distinctness of tubercles .\nsince pygmy seahorses are camouflaged so well , specific information of the population trends , distribution , and amount of pygmy seahorses is unknown . because little is known , they are classified as \u201cdata deficient . \u201d\u009d it is probable that they will be collected for trade for their remarkable beauty . research must be administered to this species in order to find out its status so that policies can be implemented to keep them safe and protected . however , this will prove to be challenging because of its ability to hide so well . it is important that they are secure from exploitation of their stunning appearance . there are already projects and teams committed to conserving seahorses and their habitats .\nthe pygmy seahorse is undoubtedly one of the most well camouflaged species in the oceans , being extremely difficult to spot amongst the gorgonian coral it inhabits . so effective is this camouflage that the species wasn ' t actually discovered until its host gorgonian was being examined in a lab . large , bulbous tubercles cover this species ' body and match the colour and shape of the polyps of its host species of gorgonian coral , while its body matches the gorgonian stem . two colour morphs exist \u2013 pale grey or purple individuals scattered with pink or red tubercles are found on the similarly coloured gorgonian coral muricella plectana , and yellow individuals with orange tubercles are found on gorgonian coral muricella paraplectana . it is not known whether individuals can change colour if they change hosts , although the ability to change colour according to their surroundings does exist in some other seahorse species , such as h . whitei . other distinctive characteristics include a fleshy head and body , a very short snout , and a long , prehensile tail . this is also one of the smallest seahorse species in the world , typically measuring less than 2 cm in height . the male carries eggs and young concealed within the trunk region .\nlourie , s . a . , a . c . j . vincent and h . j . hall , 1999 . seahorses : an identification guide to the world ' s species and their conservation . project seahorse , london . 214 p . via fishbase , september 30 , 2014 .\npygmy seahorses are marine fish and live in coastal reefs on gorgonians . different species live on different kinds of gorgonian corals ranging from anella to muricella . h . colemani is found among zostera and halophila plants . the coral provides a safe hiding place for them . they blend in perfectly with their colors matching that of the coral as well as similar texture , since they have tubercles that go with the polyps of coral . h . waleananus are often found on soft corals and have exceptionally long tails . up to 28 pairs of adult pygmy seahorses can be found on a single gorgonian , as adults are usually paired together and are often monogamous . they are mostly found in tropical waters .\nlourie , s . a . , foster , s . j . , cooper , e . w . t . and vincent , a . c . j . ( 2004 ) a guide to the identification of seahorses . project seahorse and traffic north america , washington d . c . .\nlourie , s . a . , foster , s . j . , cooper , e . w . t . and vincent , a . c . j . ( 2004 ) a guide to the identification of seahorses . project seahorse and traffic north america , washington d . c . .\nthe dwarf seahorse , hippocampus zosterae , is a small seahorse common to florida seagrass flats . it is variable in color , often tan and unpatterned , but individuals can also range in color from green to nearly black . the snout is long relative to body size and the coronet ( head projection ) is high and knob - like . the dorsal fin has 11 - 13 fin rays and a dark submarginal stripe that may aid in identification . body ring counts reveal 10 - 14 trunk rings and 31 - 33 tail rings ( hoese and moore 1977 , robins et al . 1986 ) .\ni think i ay still stick with dwarf as i dont have the room for a full sized seahorse , but i may keep them in a breeding net so they breed and then i will have more in the tank , and i have found instant brineshrimp that has been used on dwarves before .\nmaintenance is extremely important in dwarf seahorse aquariums . it is probably one of the trickiest aspects of keeping them . because the amount of food that goes into the aquarium , their water is fouled easily . 25 % water changes every other week are a bare minimum , and a weekly schedule is ideal .\nthe pygmy seahorse is undoubtedly one of the most well camouflaged species in the oceans , being extremely difficult to spot amongst the gorgonian coral it inhabits . so effective is this camouflage that the species wasn ' t actually discovered until its host gorgonian was being examined in a lab . large , bulbous tubercles cover this species ' body and match the colour and shape of the polyps of its host species of gorgonian coral , while its body matches the gorgonian stem . two colour morphs exist \u2013 pale grey or purple individuals scattered with pink or red tubercles are found on the similarly coloured gorgonian coral muricella plectana , and yellow individuals with orange tubercles are found on gorgonian coral muricella paraplectana ( 4 ) . it is not known whether individuals can change colour if they change hosts , although the ability to change colour according to their surroundings does exist in some other seahorse species , such as h . whitei ( 5 ) . other distinctive characteristics include a fleshy head and body , a very short snout , and a long , prehensile tail ( 4 ) ( 6 ) . this is also one of the smallest seahorse species in the world , typically measuring less than 2 cm in height ( 1 ) . the male carries eggs and young concealed within the trunk region ( 5 ) .\nthis poses a problem for dwarf seahorses for two reasons . in such large numbers , they can quickly consume all the food in the aquarium . however , a much bigger threat comes from stinging cells . their sting isn\u2019t particularly potent to most animals , but for the tiny dwarf seahorse , the sting can be deadly .\nas for filtration type , it varies quite a bit . people are moving away from sponge filters , but using the integrated filters can be difficult ; either the flow ends up too high , or their isn\u2019t a good way to protect the intake . there is a lot of experiments going on by dwarf seahorse keepers on the best way to handle dwarf seahorse filtration . putting sponges and hose over the intakes has mixed results too . they frequently get clogged to quickly . and you have to be careful with filters removing food . that\u2019s one advantage of sponge filters ; they don\u2019t remove food from the water column . however they can get clogged too .\nthe pygmy raccoon , or cozumel raccoon , is a critically endangered species found only on cozumel island off the yucatan peninsula . these tiny versions of their much larger and more populous cousins are on the verge of extinction , with only around 500 left . recently conservation photographer kevin schafer spent time photographing these adorable critters in an effort to help bring awareness to them and promote conservation of the species .\noh yeah ! , that something else i wanted to ask . what would be the best kind of filter to use ? my bf asked our local fish shop and one of the guys who had just set up a seahorse tank said a gravel filter , but i\u2019ve read these arent good to use in with the dwarves ? ? ?\npygmy seahorses are ovoviviparous , but unlike most animals , the male carries the eggs , which are contained in an on his underside . when mating occurs , the female transfers her eggs into the male ' s pouch , where he fertilizes the eggs . about 10 - 20 eggs are carried at one time . the gestation period is about 2 weeks . the young hatch looking like even tinier , mini seahorses .\naustralian populations of pygmy seahorses are listed under the australian wildlife protection act , so that export permits are now required , although they are only granted for approved management plans or captive - bred animals . with such limited data available , there is an urgent need for further research to be conducted on its biology , ecology , habitat , abundance and distribution , before its status can be properly assessed and conservation measures implemented accordingly .\nwe ' re used to seeing the enormous size of african and indian elephants , but the borneo pygmy elephant is no less special despite its smaller size . according to dna analysis , it is thought that this species was isolated about 300 , 000 years ago from their mainland cousins , making them a subspecies of asian elephant . found in tropical rainforest habitats in north borneo , it is estimated there are fewer than 2 , 000 left .\ndwarves , just like large seahorses , need places to hitch . many keepers opt for artificial decorations because of the risk of hydroids ( see below . ) most basic aquarium plants work well . macro algae can be used but must be treated for hydroids . live rock should be used with caution , as many pest can hitch hike in and harm the diminutive seahorse .\nwith a head about the size of a human thumb , the pygmy marmoset is the smallest monkey in the world and among all primates , only the mouse lemur ( listed below ) is smaller . it is found in the rainforests of the amazon basin , where it uses its sharp nails to cling to the branches of trees and its specialized teeth to feed on tree gum . it also makes a snack of insects , fruit and nectar .\n. frankly , thank goodness for multiple species because we can ' t get enough of the cuteness ! the pygmy jeroba is considered the world ' s smallest rodent and , as andrew sullivan put it , has\na rabbit ' s face on tweety - pie ' s body\n. though tiny , its long legs allow it to hop as far as nine feet in a single bound . here is some of that famous cuteness in action :\nlourie , s . a . , a . c . j . vincent and h . j . hall , 1999 . seahorses : an identification guide to the world ' s species and their conservation . project seahorse , london . 214 p . in froese , r . and d . pauly . editors . 2015 . fishbase ( 10 / 2015 ) . accessed january 30 , 2016 .\nthank you so much for you hard work and research . i had seahorse\u2019s many years ago back in the days when you use to ordered them from the backs of comic books i was about 12 . i loved having them but back then information was limited . there was no internet and the information on then was very limited from pet shop owners if accurate . i had them and made every mistake on the book . i had them in large tank with other mates , feeding regiment was off , enrichment wasn\u2019t even heard off no one really new about and i could go on and on but ill leave out the details even though i always had marine tanks i just gave up on seahorse keeping all together because it was not fair for the horses cruel and expensive . i went trough dwarf , large seahorse\u2019s you name it . i was always intrigued by them and love them . i would make frequent trips to the mystic and boston aquarium whenever i get and urge to see them , and they were subjects of my artwork . recently i have taken up the hobby but not before reading and re reading and researching before i even set the tank up . i must say after countless of articles yours is the easiest to understand and the most detailed by far . here i am at 53 years old enjoying once again on of my childhood dreams a successful seahorse aquarium . i have purchase tank raised dwarfs and the are doing great and i have pair that mated and already have raise young that only home has been my tank . thank you so much for your webpage is valuable information .\nhi brenda ! that\u2019s a fairly complex question and a lot of it will be based on what you want to accomplish . i suggest signing up at our forums so we can get more details about what you\u2019re looking for , and what your experience level is . it sounds like you\u2019re looking for larger seahorse to keep , not dwarves due to the tank size you have . you\u2019ll want to make sure you get captive bred seahorses .\ndwarf seahorse are subtropical , but can handle a wide range of temperatures as long as the change isn\u2019t too quick . you can expect to successfully keep them between the temperatures of 65 and 80 degrees , with 68 - 74 being optimal . this means they don\u2019t need a heater if kept in a normally heated house . a thermometer is a must though , to monitor for large temperature swings and the temperature going outside of the safe zone .\nvery little is known about the ecology of this species . it is one of the smallest seahorse species , measuring less than 2 cm in height ( lourie et al . 1999 ) . it has a specific habitat , being found only on gorgonian corals muricella plectana ( gomon 1997 , tackett and tackett 1997 , whitley 1970 ) at depths ranging from 16\u201340 m ( tackett and tackett 1997 ) . hippocampus bargibanti appears to form pairs and may be monogamous .\nthese are among the smallest of all living things in the water when they are born . they do have a higher rate of survival than most species of seahorses though . this is due to the fact that they are among the best at hiding in their natural setting . their color allows them to blend easier than any other type of seahorse in the world . they have to care for themselves immediately after birth as there is no parental care at all .\nvery little is known about the ecology of this species . it is one of the smallest seahorse species , measuring less than 2 cm in height ( lourie et al . 1999 ) . it has a specific habitat , being found only on gorgonian corals muricella plectana ( gomon 1997 , tackett and tackett 1997 , whitley 1970 ) at depths ranging from 1640 m ( tackett and tackett 1997 ) . hippocampus bargibanti appears to form pairs and may be monogamous ( tackett and tackett 1997 ) .\nseahorse populations are declining mainly due to large quantities collected and sold for the aquarium trade and for traditional chinese medicine . chinese medicine alone is the largest consumer of seahorses , with an estimate of 20 million seahorses used per year for this economic market . evidence from the year 2000 showed that more than 50 tons of dried seahorses were collected for the trade in asia alone . research has estimated that populations are declining at rates of anywhere between 15 to 50 % over 5 year periods , depending on the species .\nit\u2019s recently come to my attention that very young seahorses of larger species are being sold as dwarf seahorses . these seahorses have much different requirements , and will quickly outgrow the small aquarium hippocampus zosterae require . if you found this article after purchasing a \u201cdwarf seahorse\u201d , please take a look at our article on the species mix up to ensure what you got was actually what you were told it was . if you\u2019re unsure , please take a moment and post a picture to our forums . added 8 / 8 / 2015\nthere are many features that mark the development of young seahorses within the brood pouch . for example , dorsal fin rays develop first , followed by anal fins . both of these structures form before the complete growth of the mouth apparatus . during the larval stage of seahorse development external feeding is not necessary because the brood pouch provides larvae with nutrients . also , the yolk sack , which provides the young with nutrients , is preserved throughout the postembryonic period and disappears only moments before birth . therefore , the mouth apparatus does not become functional until young are released from the brood pouch ( kornienko , 2001 ) . compared to an adult seahorse , offspring within the brood pouch have a rounded tail instead of tetrahedral tail , a wider and shorter snout , a dorsal fin that is closer to the tail , and pectoral fins that are closer to the back of the head ( kornienko , 2001 ) . in addition , the season and the environment , such as water temperature , disproportionately influences the sex ratio of developing seahorses ( dawson and vari , 1982 ) .\nomg they are soooooo beautifull . i would love to see these guys introbuced into the aquariums . but if they cant survive then id love to make sure their habbitat isnt disrupted . i read on a website that someone had actually had these guys in a aquarium and had breed them but i cant rember were i seen it if i come across it again ill post it . there my favorit seahorse . i also read that up to 100 + of these guys can live on 1 host plant . it was on a youtude video ."]}
{"id": 1614, "summary": [{"text": "the european hare ( lepus europaeus ) , also known as the brown hare , is a species of hare native to europe and parts of asia .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is among the largest hare species and is adapted to temperate , open country .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "hares are herbivorous and feed mainly on grasses and herbs , supplementing these with twigs , buds , bark and field crops , particularly in winter .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "their natural predators include large birds of prey , canids and felids .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they rely on high-speed endurance running to escape from their enemies ; having long , powerful limbs and large nostrils .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "generally nocturnal and shy in nature , hares change their behaviour in the spring , when they can be seen in broad daylight chasing one another around in fields .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "during this spring frenzy , they sometimes strike one another with their paws ( \" boxing \" ) .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this is usually not competition between males , but a female hitting a male , either to show she is not yet ready to mate or as a test of his determination .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the female nests in a depression on the surface of the ground rather than in a burrow , and the young are active as soon as they are born .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "litters may consist of three or four young and a female can bear three litters a year , with hares living for up to twelve years .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the breeding season lasts from january to august .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the european hare is listed as being of least concern by the international union for conservation of nature because it has a wide range and is moderately abundant .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "however , populations have been declining in mainland europe since the 1960s , at least partly due to changes in farming practices .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the hare has been hunted across europe for centuries , with more than five million being shot each year ; in britain , it has traditionally been hunted by beagling and hare coursing , but these field sports are now illegal .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "the hare has been a traditional symbol of fertility and reproduction in some cultures , and its courtship behaviour in the spring inspired the english idiom mad as a march hare . ", "topic": 22}], "title": "european hare", "paragraphs": ["currently , european hares are limited to south - eastern australia ' s temperate climate that replicates the climate of the european hares cool european origins .\nschai - braun s , hackl\u00e4nder k . home range use by the european hare (\nmarboutin e , peroux r . survival pattern of european hare in a decreasing population .\nvaughan n , lucas ea , harris s , white pcl . habitat associations of european hare\n( 2003 ) : population dynamics in european hare : breeding parameters and sustainable harvest rates .\nhistory of the brown hare ( hare - preservation - trust . co . uk )\nhackl\u00e4nder k , arnold w , ruf t . postnatal development and thermoregulation in the precocial european hare (\nhansen k ( 1992a ) reproduction in european hare in a danish farmland . acta theriol 37 : 27\u201340\n( 1965 ) : studies on the european hare . ix . helminth fauna in the annual cycle .\nof hare found close to farmland and open forests worldwide . the hare is a very adaptable\nlindl\u00f6f b ( 1978 ) aggressive dominance rank in relation to feeding by european hare . viltrevy 10 : 145\u2013158\nlindl\u00f6f b ( 1978 ) aggressive dominance rank in relation to feeding by european hare . viltrevy 10 : 146\u2013157\n( 2007 ) : actual health state of european brown hare from hunting grounds of south - western slovakia .\nbonino , n . , a . montenegro . 1997 . reproduction of the european hare in pantagonia , argentina .\nthe european hare grows to about 50 \u2013 70 centimetres and has a tail length of 7 \u2013 11 centimetres .\nlamarque f , barratt j , moutou f . principle diagnoses for determining causes of mortality in the european hare (\nhillgrove , a 1981 , studies of the european brown hare ( lepus capensis l . ) , la trobe university school of agriculture . jurasovic , anton date unknown , hunting european brown hare , viewed 11th november 2009 at url : urltoken\nraczynski j . studies on the european hare . v . reproduction . acta theriol . 1964 ; 919 : 305\u2013352 .\nedwards pj , fletcher mr , berny p . review of the factors affecting the decline of the european brown hare ,\nhave even noticed the hare . the hare then hops very quickly , in a similar way to a\nhackl\u00e4nder k , tataruch f , ruf t . the effect of dietary fat content on lactation energetics in the european hare (\nis a huge pest , with introduction resulting in agricultural disaster ( dragg , 1974 ; bonino and montenegro , 1997 ) . other common names for the european hare : common hare , brown hare ( caillol and meunier , 1989 ; poli\nthe european hare was introduced to australia in the late 1830s in tasmania , although this initial attempt to establish wild populations failed .\ngrigera de , rappoport eh ( 1983 ) status and distribution of the european hare in south america . j mamm 64 : 163\u2013166\ngrigera d , rapoport e ( 1983 ) status and distribution of the european hare in south america . j mamm 64 : 163\u2013166\nthe european hare or brown hare ( lepus europaeus ) is a species of hare native to northern , central and western europe and western asia . the european hare is a mammal adapted to temperate open country . it is related to the rabbit , which is in the same family but a different genus . the european hare breeds on the ground rather than in a burrow and relies on speed to escape . in comparison to the rabbit , it is larger in size , has longer ears and longer legs .\ngavier - widen d . european brown hare syndrome . in : gavier - widen d , duff jp , meredith a , editors .\nhamill r . m , doyle d , duke e . j . spatial patterns of genetic diversity across european subspecies of the mountain hare ,\nfrylestam b ( 1976 ) effect of cattle grazing and harvesting of hay on density and distribution of a european hare population . in : pielowski z , pucek z ( eds ) ecology and management of european hare populations . proceedings of the international symposium , poznan , 1974 , pp 199\u2013203\nbroekhuizen , s . , f . maaskamp . 1980 . behaviour of does and leverets of the european hare ( lepus europaeus ) whilst nursing .\nsmith rk , jennings nv , robinson a , harris s . conservation of european hares\nty - book ti - taxonomic status of the european hare in ontario / ur - urltoken pb - royal ontario museum , cy - toronto : py - 1954 n1 - cover title . au - peterson , randolph l . au - royal ontario museum . kw - european hare kw - ontario er -\nlepus europaeus ( brown or european hare ) ; two adults , feeding in a field margin . wykeham , north yorkshire , england . may , 2011 .\ngrigera de , rapoport eh , 1983 . status and distribution of the european hare in south america . journal of mammalogy , 64 : 163 - 166 .\np\u00e9pin d ( 1986 ) spring density and daytime distribution of the european hare in relation to habitat in an open field agrosystem . z s\u00e4ugetierk 51 : 79\u201386\nreid n , 2011 . european hare ( lepus europaeus ) invasion ecology : implication for the conservation of the endemic irish hare ( lepus timidus hibernicus ) . biological invasions , 13 ( 3 ) : 559 - 569 . urltoken\nchroust k . dynamics of coccidial infection in free living and cage - reared european hares .\nstories , however , cast the fox as an evil agent of possession . european tricksters include\nstott p , 2008 . comparisons of digestive function between the european hare ( lepus europaeus ) and the european rabbit ( oryctolagus cuniculus ) : mastication , gut passage , and digestibility . mammalian biology , 73 ( 4 ) : 276 - 286 pp .\nsmaller hares native to southern europe previously regarded as european hares have been divided as a separate species in recent years , including the broom hare in northern spain .\nfrom apperances in aesop ' s fables to alice in wonderland , the european hare ' s widespread range has made it into a cultural icon throughout many nations .\nschmidt nm , asferg t , forchhammer mc . long - term patterns in european brown hare population dynamics in denmark : effects of agriculture , predation and climate .\neuropean hares are generally shy mammals , however , their behaviour changes in springtime . many are seen in broad daylight chasing one another in meadows . this behaviour appears to be competitions between the male european hares to attain dominance which allows them more access to breeding female european hares .\nthe european hare is declining in europe due to changes in farming practices . its natural predators include the golden eagle and carnivorous mammals like the red fox and wolf .\nvalencak t , arnold w , tataruch f , ruf t . high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids in muscle phospholipids of a fast runner , the european brown hare (\n, with hares being able to move at speeds of around 45mph . the strong hind legs of the hare , combined with the large feet of the hare give the hare the ability to run so quickly . the hare is also able to jump over large distances with great ease .\nkrupka j , dziedzic r ( 1976 ) determination of digestibility coefficients of feeds ingested by european hares . in : pielowski z , pucek z ( eds ) ecology and management of european hare populations . proceedings of the international symposium , poznan , 1974 , pp 101\u2013103\n, are generally smaller than european continental individuals which commonly reach 3 . 8 - 4 kg (\nthe study was funded by the european commission directorate general for health and consumers and the iarc .\nthe male european hare is called a ' jack ' while the female is called a ' jill ' . offspring under one year are referred to as ' leverets ' .\nlepus europaeus ( brown or european hare ) ; close view of an adult , feeding in a field margin . wykeham , north yorkshire , england . may , 2011 .\np\u00e9pin d , angibault jm ( 2007 ) selection of resting sites by the european hare as related to habitat characteristics during agricultural changes . eur j wildl res 53 : 183\u2013189\n( 1 ) hare dl , toukhsati sr , johansson p , jaarsma t . depression and cardiovascular disease : a clinical review . european heart journal 2013 november 25 . (\nsyrj\u00e4l\u00e4 p , nylund m , heinikainen s , 2005 . european brown hare syndrome in free - living mountain hares ( lepus timidus ) and european brown hares ( lepus europaeus ) in finland 1990\u20132002 . journal of wildlife diseases , 41 ( 1 ) : 42 - 7 .\ntry and get a hare that has been hung only but not frozen . although both are delicious the unfrozen hare delivers a better taste and texture .\nlong - term ultrasonographic evaluation and characterisation of embryonic and foetal development as well as embryonic mortality , experimental investigations of superfoetation , ultrasound - guided biopsy techniques in european brown hare .\nanonymous ( 1979 ) convention on the conservation of european wildlife and natural habitats . council of europe , strasbourg\nsmith rk , harris s , jennings nv . a quantitative analysis of the abundance and demography of european hares\nsmith rk , jennings nv , harris s . a quantitative analysis of the abundance and demography of european hares\nbonino n , coss\u00edos d , menegheti j , 2010 . dispersal of the european hare , lepus europaeus in south america . folia zoologica , 59 ( 1 ) : 9 - 15 .\nchiari m , ferrari n , giardiello d , avisani d , zanoni m , alborali g , et al . temporal dynamics of european brown hare syndrome infection in northern italian brown hares (\nchiari m , ferrari n , giardiello d , avisani d , zanoni m , alborali gl , et al . temporal dynamics of european brown hare syndrome infection in northern italian brown hares (\nhare - bell ,\nso called because it grows in thickets haunted by hares ;\nhare - parsley\n, because it is eaten by hares .\nbill oddie tries a bit of hare whispering to get closer to his subject .\naccording to jewish tradition , the hare is among four mammals deemed not kosher .\ncornwall\u2019s white hare warns the fisherfolk of tempests when not haunting a faithless lover .\nthe european hare ' s , or brown hare\u2019s , fur coat is brown - russet , and its underside is white . it resembles a rabbit , but has a larger body , longer hind legs , and longer , black - tipped ears . its adult length from its head to its rump is between 52 and 59 . 5 centimeters , according to arkive initiative . the european hare\u2019s 8 - to 12 - centimeter tail is black on its upper surface , and white underneath . on average , a mature european hare weighs 3 to 4 kilograms , according to the mammal society ( ms ) . these hares ' irises are golden , and their pupils black .\neuropean hares can cause significant damage when gnawing the bark of young trees and shrubs . european hares also chew off the stems of young trees , damaging or killing the plant . hares can cause severe damage to revegetation sites .\nultrasonographic characterisation of prenatal development in european brown hares ( lepus europaeus pallas , 1778 ) : an evolutionary approach .\npoli , a . , m . nigro , d . gallazi , g . sironi , a . lavazza . 1991 . acute hepatosis in the european brown hare ( lepus europaeus ) in italy .\nin finland the hare must never be called\nbad\nduring the hunting season .\nit appears that the hare was once a common embodiment of the corn - spirit .\nand the princess who solves the riddles does so by the help of a hare .\n( 1990 ) : some remarks on the prevalence and species composition of hare coccidia .\n, as is nanabozho , the hare , who in the southeast is called rabbit .\nalthough european hares are not considered a major pest to agriculture , there have been times in the past where hare density has been high . for example , in the 1930s and 1940s when land in the mallee region of victoria was being cleared for farming , european hare density became very high . this example along with others suggests that hares will look to make use of land recently cleared of tree cover .\npage a , kirkpatrick w , massam m , 2008 . european hare ( lepus europaeus ) risk assessment for australia . western australia , australia : department of agriculture and food , 1 - 21 pp .\neuropean hares are prone to several different types of parasites and disease which cause a higher proportion of deaths than predators .\nthe hare also appears in folk tales . in african folk tales , the hare is a trickster ; some of the stories about the hare were retold among african slaves in america , and are the basis of the brer rabbit stories . many cultures , including the indian and japanese , see a hare in the pattern of dark patches in the moon . one of aesops fables tells the story of ' the tortoise and the hare ' .\nhewson r ( 1991 ) mountain hare / irish hare . in : corbet gb , harris s ( eds ) the handbook of british mammals . blackwell , oxford , pp 161\u2013167\nfromsejer p ( 1992 ) critical factors in the population dynamics of brown hare . in : polish hunting association ( eds ) zajac hare , international symposium , czempin , pp 139\u2013142\nlavazza a , guberti v , ferri m , zanni ml , poglayen g , nardin a et al ( 1997 ) epidemiology of european brown hare syndrome ( ebhs ) in modena province ( north italy ) . in : proceedings of the 4th international congress of the european society for veterinary virology . edinburgh , uk , pp 34\u201337\ndora e . grigera , eduardo h . rapoport ; status and distribution of the european hare in south america , journal of mammalogy , volume 64 , issue 1 , 28 february 1983 , pages 163\u2013166 , urltoken\nlepus europaeus the european brown hare share the order lagomorpha with the rabbit , but is physically larger and has black - tipped ears and longer legs . both were introduced from the united kingdom to australia by early settlers for sport and recreational hunting . hares live above ground in \u2018forms\u2019 or \u2018scrapes\u2019 and in their native habitat in the uk and europe they are at the point of extinction . this is due to european brown hare syndrome virus ( like rabbit calici but hare specific ) and generations of hunting pressure .\nsince it is a nocturnal animal , the european hare feeds at night . during the day , it spends its time in a small depression it digs in the ground within long grass , and these are referred to as\nform\n. european hares are also generally solitary , except for when they come together for mating . still , there are certain instances when european hares may band together in clusters when feeding , according to the mammal society . to evade predators like foxes , coyotes , owls , wildcats or hawks , the european hare relies on its sharp senses . if threatened , these animals will usually opt to run away , sometimes achieving speeds of up to 70 kilometers an hour ( 43 miles per hour ) . though the european hare is usually quiet , it occasionally makes low grunts , as well as shrills when caught or injured , according to animal diversity .\nkronfeld n , shkolnik a . adaptation to life in the desert in the brown hare (\nsmiddy p ( 1994 ) hare species in co cork . ir nat j 24 : 417\u2013418\ntapper s , yalden d ( 2010 ) the brown hare . the mammal society , southampton\nthe timing of crops and their growth is critical for farmland wildlife such as the hare .\nthe rise and fall of the brown hare in wales ( ccw . gov . uk )\ngoszczynski j , waseilewski m . predation of foxes on a hare population in central poland .\nvan wieren se , wiersma m , prins hht . climatic factors affecting a brown hare (\ndavid l . hare ( with tiny jaarsma , peter johansson , samia r . toukhsati )\nnovaro aj , capurro af , travaini a , funes mc , ravinovich je ( 1992 ) pellet - count sampling based on spatial distribution : a case study of european hare in patagonia . ecol aust 2 : 11\u201318\nsmith rk , jennings nv , tataruch f , hackl\u00e4nder k , harris s . vegetation quality and habitat selection by european hares\nbray y , marboutin e , p\u00e9roux r , ferron j . reliability of stained placental - scar counts in european hares .\npopulations of european hares ( lepus europaeus ) have experienced a dramatic decline throughout europe in recent decades . european hares are assumed to prefer weeds over arable crops , and weed abundance was reduced by the intensification of agriculture . therefore , modern agriculture has been blamed as a major factor affecting european hare populations . however , it is questionable whether european hares select weeds at all , as previous studies had major methodological limitations . by comparing availability and use of plants with chesson\u2019s electivity index , we investigated whether the european hare actually feeds selectively on different plants in arable land . food availability and use were dominated by cultivated crops ( e . g . winter wheat , spring barley and sugar beet ) . diet selection analysis revealed that in autumn and winter , european hares predominantly preferred cultivated crops ( winter wheat ) and food items provided by hunters ( tubers of sugar beet and carrot ) . in spring and summer , apart from soy , only weeds ( e . g . clover and corn poppy ) were positively selected , especially after cereal crops were harvested . we suggest that the decline in european hare populations throughout europe was facilitated by the decrease in weed abundance . wildlife - friendly set - asides in arable land have the potential to reconcile the european union\u2019s common agricultural policy with wildlife conservation .\nas an herbivore , the european hare grazes on young grass shoots , herbs , and agricultural crops . it also nibbles on the bark of young trees and bushes , according to the wildlife trusts . in the winter period , the european hare feeds on twigs , buds , shrub bark , small trees , and young fruit tree bark , according to animal diversity ( ad ) . since its nocturnal , it primarily feeds at night . during feeding , two to three adults can eat as much vegetation as one sheep . the european hare re - ingests its green , soft fecal pellets , a practice called coprophagia , in efforts to maximize nutrient extraction from their diets .\nbern convention ( 1979 ) convention on the conservation of european wildlife and natural habitats . bern convention , council of europe , strasbourg\nhare flanking sequence 1 was pcr amplified using platinum pfx ( invitrogen ) according to manufacturer\u2019s instructions and primers forward gt464 5\u2032 - gtgttagagagttagaagcag - 3\u2032 and reverse rel13 5\u2032 - ccccttatatacagtttctagaggc - 3\u2032 . for hare flanking sequence 2 primers were forward gt469 5\u2032 - ggcacttatcacgcagaagtg - 3\u2032 and reverse gt460 5\u2032 - gtttacagcgtctgagggtccc - 3\u2032 . hare pol sequence was amplified using primers rel9 and rel2rev as described above . hare gag sequence was amplified using the primers forward rel1fwd 5\u2032 - tgttagggaaccattcacagagaaagtaattg - 3\u2032 and reverse hare seq + 2045 5\u2032 - ccccctaggtttacctttaaggtagg - 3\u2032 . hare env sequence was amplified using the primers forward rel5fwd 5\u2032 - acctttgaacaaaacaggggagtccaaatagggtagggacaagaaaag - 3\u2032 and reverse rel5rev 5\u2032 - aagcatacaagaaccatacaaaatattgctcc - 3\u2032 . pcr amplifications were repeated on dna extracted from a kidney cell line derived from a european brown hare ( a gift from jean francois vautherot ) .\nlincoln , g . 1974 . reproduction and march madness in the brown hare , lepus europaeus .\n; and it is customary in many parts of the country\nto place a figure of the hare among the easter eggs , when given as a present , either a hare in a basket of eggs , or a small figure of a hare in one of the fancy eggs\n.\ntapper sc , barnes rfw . influence of farming practice on the ecology of the brown hare (\ndavid l . hare , samia r . toukhsati , peter johansson , tiny jaarsma ; depression and cardiovascular disease : a clinical review , european heart journal , volume 35 , issue 21 , 1 june 2014 , pages 1365\u20131372 , urltoken\noberle also concludes that the hare which lay the particoloured easter eggs was sacred to the same goddess .\nthe fact that many plants are named after the hare may also , as oberle thinks , have a mythological significance ; though the origin of such names as\nhare - bell\nand\nhare - parsley\nappears sufficiently explained in hone ' s table - book upon other grounds . [ 78 ]\nthe story of ' jack ' and \u2018jill\u2019 : a female brown hare finding a suitable male match .\nhalf human half hare figure sculptures by sophie ryder displayed outside the pump rooms and abbey in bath .\ngiannoulis t , stamatis c , tsipourlianos a , mamuris z , 2017 . mitogenomic analysis in european brown hare ( lepus europaeus ) proposes genetic and functional differentiation between the distinct lineages . mitochondrial dna part a . 18 : 1 - 8 .\nthe weight of a full grown adult hare varies between 2 . 5 and 6 . 5 kilograms . because of its longer legs , it can run at speeds of up to 70 kilometres per hour . european hares are herbivores and their diet consists of grasses and herbs during summer months and changes to twigs and bark in the winter . the european hare is known as a pest to orchard farmers as it also feeds upon buds of young orchard trees during the end of winter .\nthe european hare ( lepus europaeus ) has declined throughout its native range but invaded numerous regions where it has negatively impacted native wildlife . in southern sweden , it replaces the native mountain hare ( l . timidus ) through competition and hybridisation . we investigated temporal change in the invasive range of the european hare in ireland , and compared its habitat use with the endemic irish hare ( l . timidus hibernicus ) . the range of the european hare was three times larger and its core range twice as large in 2012\u20132013 than in 2005 . its rate of radial range expansion was 0 . 73 km year \u22121 with its introduction estimated to have occurred ca . 1970 . both species utilised improved and rough grasslands and exhibited markedly similar regression coefficients with almost every land cover variable examined . irish hares were associated with low fibre and high sugar content grass ( good quality grazing ) whilst the invader had a greater tolerance for low quality forage . european hares were associated with habitat patch edge density , suggesting it may be more suited to using hedgerows as diurnal resting sites than the irish hare . consequently , the invader had a wider niche breadth than the native but their niche overlap was virtually complete . given the impact of the european hare on native species elsewhere , and its apparent pre - adaption for improved grasslands interspersed with arable land ( a habitat that covers 70 % of ireland ) , its establishment and range expansion poses a significant threat to the ecological security of the endemic irish hare , particularly given their ecological similarities .\nthe european hare is native to great britain and central and western europe . it\u2019s also found in parts of the middle east and central asia . within these territories , it inhabits agricultural cropland or grasslands in temperate and open habitats , as well as in pastures bordered by hedgerows and woodlots , according to animal diversity . the international union for conservation of nature ' s ( iucn ' s ) 2008 red list of threatened species classified the european hare as a species of\nleast concern\namong . nonetheless , its population is in decline in certain areas due to poaching , intensification of commercial agriculture within their habitats , diseases such as the european hare syndrome and tularaemia , and changes in cropping regimes which affect their food sources .\nfour species of nematodes , six species of coccidian , liver flukes and two species of dog tapeworms are all internal parasites that infect european hares in australia . several species of external parasites have also been observed on european hares in australia including the european rabbit flea ( spilopsyllus cuniculi ) the stickfast flea ( echidnophaga myrmecobii ) , the lice ( haemodipsus setoni and haemodipsus lyriocephalus ) , and the mite ( leporacarus gibbus ) .\nsmall group of hares of russian origin reported on islets of oahu but by 1963 this could not be confirmed . probably confusion with european rabbits\np\u00e9pin d , cargnelutti b ( 1994 ) individual variations of daily activity patterns in radiotracked european hares during winter . acta theriol 39 : 399\u2013409\na marked increase in serum alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase four days after inoculation in a hare that died ; a more moderate , transient increase in a hare that survived . ( b22 . 30 . w17 )\n) . we probed hind3 cut genomic dna from 2 rabbit cell lines ( sirc , erep ) and a european brown hare with radioactively labelled dna derived by pcr from rabbit genomic dna . the southern blot revealed the presence of multiple insertions in the rabbit genome and at least 5 insertions in the hare genome . next , we sought relik orthologues in the\nadditionally single disease incidents were found during necropsy . these included an approximately walnut - sized abscess in the mammary gland area of one adult female hare , a suppurative bronchitis in a sub - adult male hare , and a moderate pyometra with multiple cysts in an adult female hare . these altered organs were sampled for bacteriology .\nroedenbeck ia , voser p . effects of roads on spatial distribution , abundance and mortality of brown hare (\nthe european hare is an opportunistic feeder and as well as grazing predominately on grasses , it will also consume crops , such as vegetables , lucerne and cereal crops . this can cause significant economic loss to land owners that have european hares on or adjacent to their land . hares can travel significant distances , so the potential for one animal to cause widespread damage to plants is relatively high . european hares can also be a problem in forestry , ornamental or fruit producing plantations as they can gnaw back the bark of young trees and vines .\nthe brown or european hare ( l . europaeus ) is a highly adaptable medium - sized mammal , commonly 3 . 8 - 4 kg in weight with the exception of some individuals reaching 5 kg , although there is much regional and sexual . . .\npopescu f , hackl\u00e4nder k , arnold w , ruf t . effects of season and reproductive state on lipid intake and fatty acid composition of gastrointestinal tract contents in the european hare . j comp physiol b . 2011 ; 181 : 681\u2013689 . pmid : 21328065\nsevere leucopaenia evident at 24 hours post inoculation in a hare which developed severe disease ; in a hare which survived , a more modest , temporary reduction in leucocyte count was recorded . ( b22 . 30 . w17 )\n@ book { bhl111741 , title = { taxonomic status of the european hare in ontario / } , copyright = { not provided . contact contributing library to verify copyright status . } , url = urltoken note = urltoken - - - cover title . } , publisher = { toronto : royal ontario museum , } , author = { peterson , randolph l . and royal ontario museum . } , year = { } , pages = { 20 } , keywords = { european hare | ontario | } , }\nhackl\u00e4nder k , zeitlhofer c , ceulemans t , suchentrunk f . continentality affects body condition and size but not yearly reproductive output in female european hares (\nin other parts of germany there are traces of a similar tradition . thus , the children in south germany are told that a hare lays the pasche eggs , and a nest is made for the hare to lay them in\nfreitas , h . 2006 natural hybridization between the iberian hare ( lepus granatensis ) and the brown hare ( l . europaeus ) in northern iberian peninsula . msc thesis , faculdade de ci\u00eancias do porto , porto , portugal .\n, as hares spend most of their time resting and foraging for food . the hare mainly eats plant matter ( grass being one of the favourite foods of the hare ) but hares also eat seeds , vegetables and fruit in\n. we have already noticed the very old and close connection between the hare and the moon . a large category of hare - myths have arisen out of the supposed likeness of the spots upon the moon ' s face to the figure of a hare . the story of the hare offering himself as a meal to the hungry buddha , who in return translated him to the moon , is well known , and occurs with many variations in eastern legend .\npikula , j . , beklova , m . , holesovska , z . and treml , f . 2004 . ecology of european brown hare and distribution of natural foci of tularaemia in the czech republic . acta veterinaria brno 73 ( 2 ) : 267 - 273 .\nthe european hare , lepus europaeus , is a well known sight across the open fields of the uk . with the mating season just beginning and running from january all the way until august we are likely to see this usually shy and nocturnal lagomorph much more frequently .\ncaravaggi a , leach k , santilli f , rintala j , helle p , tiainen j , bisi f , martinoli a , montgomery wi , reid n , 2017 . niche overlap of mountain hare subspecies and the vulnerability of their ranges to invasion by the european hare ; the ( bad ) luck of the irish , biological invasions , 19 ( 2 ) : 655 - 674 pp\nposch r ( 2012 ) use of selective media for direct isolation of francisella tularensis from european brown hares . university of veterinary medicince , vienna ; master thesis\npublished on behalf of the european society of cardiology . all rights reserved . \u00a9 the author 2013 . for permissions please email : journals . permissions @ urltoken\nsuchentrunk f , willing r , hartl gb . on eye lens weights and other age criteria of the brown hare (\npierpaoli m , riga f , trocchi v , randi e . species distinction and evolutionary relationships of the italian hare (\nthe story of a ' jill ' , a female brown hare , finding her suitable male match ' jack ' .\nbelovsky ge ( 1984 ) moose and snowshoe hare competition and a mechanistic explanation from foraging theory . oecologia 61 : 150\u2013159\nhow to allure the hare .\nfacsimile of a miniature in the manuscript of phoebus ( fifteenth century ) .\nsuchentrunk f , willing r , hartl gb . on eye lens weights and other age criteria of the brown hare (\ncowan dp , 2004 . an overview of the current status and protection of the brown hare ( lepus europaeus ) in the uk ; a report prepared for european wildlife division . london , uk : department for environment , food and rural affairs , 1 - 30 pp . urltoken\neec 43 / 92 ( 1992 ) directive on the conservation of natural habitats of wild fauna and flora . official journal of the european union l 206 , 7\nfr\u00f6lich k , wisser j , schm\u00fcser h , fehlberg u , neubauer h , grunow r , et al . epizootiologic and ecologic investigations of european brown hares (\n\u2018 coffee drinking and mortality in 10 european countries \u2019 by gunter , m . j . et al , is published in the journal annals of internal medicine .\nlike the rabbit , the hare ' s hind limbs are longer than its front limbs . the fur of the european hare has a flecked appearance , made up of tan , black and white hairs , ruddy brown or grey above and white below . this allows the hare to blend in well with dry grass . like rabbits , hares have 28 teeth with the lower tooth rows being closer together than the upper rows . in the upper jaw , the hare has two pairs of continuously growing , enamel covered upper incisors ; the front long pair has a cutting edge , while the peg teeth located behind these do not have a cutting edge . at birth , the hare has three sets of incisors , but the outer pair is lost soon after birth .\nlev\u00e4nen r , kunnasranta m , pohjoism\u00e4ki j , 2015 . abundance and distribution of hare hybrids in finland . in : angerbj\u00f6rn a , dal\u00e9n l , elmhagen b , werdelin l ( eds ) proceedings of the 7th european congress of mammalogy . stockholm university , stockholm , 54 pp .\nlamarque , f . , barrat , j . and moutou , f . 1996 . principal diagnoses for determining causes of mortality in the european brown hare ( lepus europaeus ) found dead in france between 1986 and 1994 . gibier faune sauvage 13 ( 1 ) : 53 - 72 .\neuropean hares are herbivorous , eating grasses , herbs , and field crops during summer . during winter european hares feed on twigs , buds , shrub bark , small trees , and young fruit tree bark . they also commonly re - ingest their green , soft fecal pellets . this is known as coprophagia . two or three adult\neuropean hares are widespread throughout europe , where they are called common hares . european hares have done well in north america , with population numbers quickly rising to the current density . in ontario population density has been as high as 100 per square mile , and has leveled to about 25 per square mile ( bansfield , 1974 ; dragg , 1974 ) . in recent decades there have been outbreaks of increased mortality due to disease , particularly in europe . this syndrome includes acute hepatosis , enteritis , nephrosis , general jaundice , congestion , and hemorrhage of internal organs , and has been called european brown hare syndrome ( poli\nthulin c . g , jaarola m , tegelstrom h . the occurrence of mountain hare mitochondrial dna in wild brown hares .\nthe role of vuk . s . karadzic in the history of serbian nationalism ( in the context of european linguistics in 1 . 1 / 2 19 . century )\nthe hare has given rise to local place names , as they can often be repeatedly observed over many years in favored localities . an example in scotland is ' murchland ' , the scots for a hare being\nmurchen\n( warrack 1986 ) .\nneumann f , schai - braun s , weber d , amrhein v ( 2011 ) european hares select resting places for providing cover . hystrix it j mamm 22 : 291\u2013299\nalso appear to have abstained from eating this animal . in india hare ' s meat was specially permitted by the laws of manu\nhart s . d , kropp p r , hare r . d . performance of male psychopaths following conditional release from prison .\neuropean hares are usually quiet animals . they make low grunts from time to time and\nguttural\ncalls from the doe ( female ) to her leverets . it has been suggested that european hares grind their teeth as an alarm call . they also emit a shrill call when hurt or caught ( peterson , 1966 ; bansfield , 1974 ) .\ncitation : schai - braun sc , reichlin ts , ruf t , klansek e , tataruch f , arnold w , et al . ( 2015 ) the european hare ( lepus europaeus ) : a picky herbivore searching for plant parts rich in fat . plos one 10 ( 7 ) : e0134278 . urltoken\nin some parts of ayrshire the cutting of the last corn is called ' cutting the hare ' , and in germany the name for the last sheaf is ' the hare ' . in east prussia they say that the hare sits in the last patch of standing corn , and must be chased out by the last reaper .\nthe reapers hurry with their work , each being anxious not to have to\nchase out the hare\n; for the man who does so\u2014that is , who cuts the last corn\u2014is much laughed at . at birk , in transylvania , when the reapers come to the last patch , they cry out ,\nwe have the hare .\nat aurich an expression for cutting the last corn is\nto cut off the hare ' s tail\n.\nhe is killing the hare ,\nis commonly said of the man who cuts the last corn in germany , sweden , holland , france , and italy . in norway , the man who is thus said to\nkill the hare\n, must give\nhare ' s blood\n, in the form of brandy , to his fellows to drink . [ 83 ]\n3 . the leading motive of both processions is a hare . in the one case , the hare is followed to the mayor ' s house , where a feast is eaten . whether this feast originally comprised hare ' s flesh , i have not been able to ascertain , though , from an entry in the chamberlains ' accounts , it appears that at one easter hunting a great many hares were caught , [ 107 ] and these would presumably be used for the mayor ' s banquet . at hallaton , the hare is carried in procession ( sometimes in the shape of hare - pies , sometimes also mounted on a pole ) from the parson ' s house to a sacred spot on the boundary of the parish , where the feast of hare - pies is eaten .\nin holtzmann ' s german mythology she is also referred to as the goddess of dawn . [ 15 ]\nthe easter hare is unintelligible to me\n, he adds ,\nbut probably the hare was the sacred animal of ostara .\n[ 16 ]\nthe hare\u2019s geographical limits in australia are limited to the south east of the continent and tasmania . individual range is 5 - 50 hectares ( rabbit is 5 hectares ) . the hare is very mobile and will range far to seek out the \u2018best\u2019 food sources .\npallas ) in agricultural areas of northern germany . in : hofer h , arnold w ( eds ) the decline in european hares , international symposium , berlin , 18\u201322 april 2001\n1620 , april 2 . thos . fulnety solicits the permission of lord zouch , lord warden of the cinque ports , to kill a hare on good friday , as huntsmen say that those who have not a hare against easter must eat a red herring .\nthe brown hare is widespread throughout central and western europe , including most of the uk , although it is absent from the northwest and western highlands in scotland , where the species is replaced by the mountain hare ( lepus timidus ) ( 5 ) . it is likely that the romans introduced the brown hare to britain , as there are no records of this species before roman times ( 5 ) .\nsource / reference article learn how you can use or cite the hare article in your website content , school work and other projects .\nbroekhuizen s , maaskamp f , 1981 . annual production of young in european hares ( lepus europaeus ) in the netherlands . journal of zoology , 193 : 499 - 516 pp .\nalves p . c , melo - ferreira j , branco m , suchentrunk f , ferrand n , harris d . j . evidence for genetic similarity of two allopatric european hares (\nadd the hare pieces back to the pot and pour in the wine or ale with the juice and peeled rind of half a lemon .\nhares hide and can accelerate to high speed when disturbed or threatened . when approached , the hare will remain still in its form until the predator is within 1 - 2 metres . the hare will then break cover and sprint away at high speed . a hare will confuse predators by doubling back on its tracks to leave a disarrayed trail . this will often involve a large leap sideways to break its scent trail .\nanother example of possible erroneous taxonomic inferences due to phylogenetic assessments based only on mtdna is found in the arctic hare complex . this complex includes\nif few town - based people are fortunate enough to see a hare in the wild , there can be no britons unfamiliar with its appearance . today hare mythology has extended and the hare motif is to be found on fabric , wallpaper , cushions , lampshades and ties ; it has been used as a letterhead , a heraldic device and in the design of stock pins , cuff - links , brooches and charms for bracelets .\nvalencak t , tataruch f , ruf t . peak energy turnover in lactating european hares : the role of fat reserves . j exp biol . 2009 ; 212 : 231\u2013237 . pmid : 19112142\nin hare mythology , the hare is a creature with pagan , sacred and mystic associations , by turns benign , cunning , romantic or , most famously , in its march courtship rituals , mad . it is largely silent , preferring to feed at night or , in summer , as the last light fades from the day , a shadowy existence which adds to its mysteriousness in hare mythology . in alison uttley\u2019s little grey rabbit stories the character of hare is superior and strutting , occasionally pernickety , always aloof \u2013 a rendering for children of the animal\u2019s natural reserve as well his appropriateness as a denizen of that world of aristocratic entitlement evoked by sackville - west . for example , it is hare who keeps grey rabbit up to scratch in the matter of housekeeping : \u201cwhere\u2019s the milk , grey rabbit ? \u201d asked hare . \u201cwe can\u2019t drink tea without milk . \u201d\nin western brittany the peasants , not many years ago ,\ncould hardly endure to hear the hare ' s name\n. [ 51 ]\n( 2 ) the hare portends a fire . there are reports of this superstition from south northamptonshire [ 60 ] and from ely , [ 61 ] and also from hungary . [ 62 ] in the wheal vor mine the appearance of a hare presages a fatal accident . [ 63 ]\n,\nwill i say as to the commendation of the hare , and of the defence of the hunter ' s toyle , that no one beast , be it never so great , is profitable to so many and so divers uses in physicke as the hare and partes thereof .\nand to the instances there collected by mr . black i may add a belief of the ancient romans , that eating hare ' s flesh for\nin china , the hare appears , as in kaffirland , as the guardian of the wild beasts , and defends the lamb from the wolf .\ngortazar c , millan j , acevedo p , escudero ma , marco j , fernandez luco dde , 2007 . a large - scale survey of brown hare lepus euroapeus and iberian hare l . granatensis populations at the limit of their ranges . wildlife biology , 13 : 244 - 250 .\nhughes m , montgomery wi , prod\u00f6hl p ( 2006 ) population genetic structure and systematics of the irish hare . environment and heritage service , belfast\neuropean roe deer , european brown hare and guinea pigs are kept and bred in an area of about 4ha . a small number of arctic hare , marmots , sheep , goats and donkeys are kept as well for comparative studies . the frs consists of several semi - natural enclosures of different sizes and cages allowing observation , capture and handling of individuals . furthermore , the frs offers the infrastructure needed for maintenance and modern animal husbandry , i . e . examination and residence rooms . three animal keepers and two animal keeper apprentices are continuously working at the frs . we offer the opportunity for taking a gap year as a volunteer in the environmental sector ( freiwilliges \u00f6kologisches jahr ) .\nfickel , j . , schmidt , a . , putze , m . , spittler , h . , ludwig , a . , streich , w . j . and pitra , c . 2005 . genetic structure of populations of european brown hare : implications for management . journal of wildlife management 69 ( 2 ) : 760 - 770 .\nthe brown hare is britain\u2019s fastest land mammal . propelled by those powerful hind legs which define its shape as surely as its long , black - tipped ears , the hare has been known to run at speeds exceeding 40mph . added to its shyness , this astonishing turn of speed accounts for the apparent elusiveness of the hare . sighted only rarely in some areas for much of the year , it retains a mystique long forfeited by rabbits .\neuropean hares have become an important and challenging game animal , especially in north america . the meat is said to be white and delicious ( william and whitaker , 1943 ; bansfield , 1974 ) .\nvalencak t , ruf t . energy turnover in european hares is centrally limited during early , but not during peak lactation . j comp physiol b . 2009 ; 179 : 933\u2013943 . pmid : 19533150\nthanks for taking time to summarise this . i agree that hare taxonomy is a real pigs - ear at the moment , and its often virtually impossible to distinguish the species in the field based on current morphological descriptions . i don\u2019t know much about hares in other areas , but i agree that on the african continent there are probably only three species : l . capensis ( cape hare ) , l . starcki ( starck\u2019s hare ) , and what i call l . victoriae ( scrub hare or african savanna hare ) , which is part of the l . saxatilis complex . the problem is that even the cape and scrub hares can be fiendishly difficult to tell apart \u2013 unless you can find a dead one and examine their teeth .\neuropean hares , lepus europaeus , exhibit an interesting reproductive phenomena known as superfetation , whereby a late pregnancy female can mate , ovulate , and be impregnated and thus have two litters of different ages in her uterus at one time ( smith 2004 ) . the european hare also has an elaborate courtship pattern involving large mating groups that aggregate , from which animals pair off , and are faithful and live together for about one month ( smith 2004 ) . there is an extended courtship ritual , followed by brief copulation ( less than ten seconds ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - brown hare ( lepus europaeus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - brown hare ( lepus europaeus )\ntitle =\narkive species - brown hare ( lepus europaeus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nusing game bag records and county mammal reports , past changes in the numbers of hares in britain are described . there appears to have been a widespread decline in hare numbers following the introduction of the ground game act 1880 , with declines occurring even earlier in parts of the west , where hare numbers have shown little signs of recovering thereafter . in central and eastern areas , hare numbers increased at various rates up to the second world war .\nplace in a plastic bag the flour , powdered ginger , large pinch of salt and hare pieces . twist the top of plastic bag closed with some air trapped inside and shake bag around . oh ! do choose a strong bag or prepare to witness the hare bolt in a puff of white .\nthe adult hare is a medium sized mammal , about the size of a domestic cat , with considerable plasticity in size and fur coloration . it has distinctive long ears and hind legs and large hind feet which produce a typical hare footprint in snow . brown hares from england , often referred to as\nlike rabbits , caecotrophy ( the reingestion of faecal material from the caecum ) is a behaviour that is used by european hares in order to gain the maximum amount of nutrients from their food as possible .\neuropean hares are mainly solitary animals except during mating season . they are crepuscular and nocturnal , mostly foraging at night ( between 7 p . m . and 7 a . m . ) . european hares remain active all year round . during the day they crouch in a depression called a ' form ' , partially concealed with their back showing ( bansfield , 1974 ) . european hares posess an excellent sense of sight , smell , and hearing . upon detection of a predator , european hares will run to escape , and can dodge and change direction quickly if needed . they are very fast and have been clocked at up to 35 mph ( about 60 kph ) running in a straight line . they will also dive into streams if needed as they are decent swimmers ( william and whitaker ; bansfield , 1974 ) .\nin teutonic myth , the earth and sky goddess holda , leader of the wild hunt , was followed by a procession of hares bearing torches . although she descended into a witch - like figure and boogeyman of children\u2019s tales , she was once revered as a beautiful , powerful goddess in charge of weather phenomena . freyja , the headstrong norse goddess of love , sensuality , and women\u2019s mysteries , was also served by hare attendants . she traveled with a sacred hare and boar in a chariot drawn by cats . kaltes , the shape - shifting moon goddess of western siberia , liked to roam the hills in the form of a hare , and was sometimes pictured in human shape wearing a headdress with hare\u2019s ears . eostre , the goddess of the moon , fertility , and spring in anglo\u2013saxon myth , was often depicted with a hare\u2019s head or ears , and with a white hare standing in attendance . this magical white hare laid brightly colored eggs which were given out to children during spring fertility festivals - - an ancient tradition that survives in the form of the easter bunny today ."]}
{"id": 1634, "summary": [{"text": "epiglaea decliva , the sloping sallow moth , is a moth of the noctuidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from quebec and maine to south carolina , west to kansas and north to alberta .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of barrens , thickets , woodlots and forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the wingspan is 40 \u2013 50 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings range from orangish to reddish-brown or purplish-brown .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the reniform and orbicular spots are filled with a slightly darker colour , and have a pale outline .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are dirty brownish-grey with wavy red terminal line .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing from october to december in one generation per year .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on the leaves of malus , prunus and quercus species .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they have a brown to reddish-brown body and a mottled black head .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they reach a length of 50 mm when full-grown .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the larvae can be found from may to july .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the species overwinters as an egg . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "epiglaea decliva", "paragraphs": ["photographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nadults - forewing light brownish - gray with several black longitudinal lines running length of wing ; pm line curves immediately below costa toward outer margin , then breaks into dark dots before continuing to inner margin ; diffuse dark patch at anal angle ; female has thick black line running through center of wing from base to midpoint of outer margin ; fringe checkered ; hindwing white with some brownish - gray shading along upper half of outer margin ; fringe white .\ncatabena lineolata has thinner / finer black lines , and a more northern distribution .\nbecker , v . o . & s . e . miller 2002 . the large moths of guana island , british virgin islands : a survery of efficient colonizers ( sphingidae , notodontidae , noctuidae , arctiidae , geometridae , hyblaeidae , cossidae ) . jl . lep . soc . 56 ( 1 ) : 44 ( pdf )\nhampson , g . f . 1909 . catalogue of the lepidoptera phal\u00e6n\u00e6 in the british museum . 8 : 236 ; pl . 78 , fig . 15 . ( treats terminellus as a syn . of vitrina )\nherrich - sch\u00e4ffer , 1868 . correspondenz - blatt des zoologisch - mineralogischen vereins in regensburg . 22 : 147\nwalker , f . 1857 . noctuid\u00e6 . list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum . 11 : 718\npresence in california ; list of 3 specimen records with dates and locations ( u . of california at berkeley )\nadditions and corrections to the check list of the noctuoidea ( insecta , lepidoptera ) of north america north of mexico iii lafontaine j . d . & b . c . schmidt . 2015 . zookeys 527 : 127 - 147 .\ncontributed by robin mcleod on 16 february , 2008 - 2 : 10pm additional contributions by steve nanz , maury heiman , ron m . , randy hardy last updated 29 january , 2018 - 6 : 33pm\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\nsouth of canada , compare with footpath sallow ( metaxaglaea semitaria ) and roadside sallow ( m . viatica ) - see photos of these and related species by jim vargo at mpg\npresence in south carolina county distribution map ( john snyder , furman u . , south carolina )\nfield guide to moths of eastern north america charles v . covell , jr . 2005 .\non tree trunk with beer / brown sugar bait . submitted for pa bg record .\ncame to bait . november ( and december ) was unusually warm in 2015 . also saw one on 27 nov 2015 .\na sloping sallow moth in anne arundel co . , maryland ( 10 / 24 / 2016 ) . verified by roger downer / bamona . photo by tyler bell . ( mbp list )\na sloping sallow moth in harford co . , maryland ( 10 / 23 / 2015 ) . verified by roger downer / bamona . photo by dave webb . ( mbp list )\na sloping sallow moth in howard co . , maryland ( 10 / 30 / 2004 ) . photo by larry line . ( mbp list )\nuse of images featured on maryland biodiversity project is only permitted with express permission of the photographer .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhodges , r . w . et al . , eds . 1983 . check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . e . w . classey limited and the wedge entomological research foundation , london . 284 pp .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\ndistribution data for u . s . states and canadian provinces is known to be incomplete or has not been reviewed for this taxon .\nan occurrence where the species occurs or has occurred with potential for persistence or regular recurrence . minimally a collection ( generally must be an adult ) associated with suitable habitat . photodocumentation except from spread specimens is strongly discouraged but sometimes will suffice high quality occurrences will occupy at least hundreds of hectares and in some areas eos often cover tens of thousands of hectares . where forests are fragmented the metapopulation concept probably applies , similarly if the foodplant is very unevenly distributed within a large forest .\ngeneral habitat boundaries will sometime suffice for mapping , especially for conifer feeders . when plausible combine populations in proximate fragments as one metapopulation . see habitat and food comments fields and / or ask local experts for species - specific habitat information . be particularly careful with pine feeding zale species which may be species - specific . note that many of conifer feeders such as feralia , panthea and pine feeding zale do not wander far from their hostplants . in general then is the densitiy of pines ( or other appropriate conifers ) drops below about five per hectare in mixed forests such parts are probably best not mapped as habitat for these moths except over short distancs between more suitable patches .\nif the habitat is occurring patchily within an extensive overall wooded landscape consider all patches within half the suitable habitat separation distance of at least one other as one metapopulation occurrence . however apply the unsuitable habitat distance across cleared lands .\ninferred extent , for example based on one specimens in a light trap , is all suitable habitat within two kilometers of the collection point . if the habitat is more extensive than that there is almost no chance the resulting 1000 hectare circle will close to contain the entire occurrence . however when data are minimal conservative assumptions are warranted .\ncare has been taken not to include species that would likely violate any of the distances given , especially inferred extent . herminiine , smaller\ndeltoids\nand some other small weak fliers are not included in this group . this group is mostly for noctuids that are either polyphagous or feed on a dominant , codominant , or at least frequent foodplant . it may not be appropriate for species feeding on grasses , forbs , shrubs or even tree that tend to occur as localized , well separated patches within a forest , although if such patches are fairly frequent they should work ( see alternate separation procudure ) .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nlafontaine , j . d . and b . c . schmidt . 2010 . annotated check list of the noctuoidea ( insecta , lepidoptera ) of north america north of mexico . zookeys 40 : 1 - 239 .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\nall documents and related graphics provided by this server and any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server are provided\nas is\nwithout warranty as to the currentness , completeness , or accuracy of any specific data . natureserve hereby disclaims all warranties and conditions with regard to any documents provided by this server or any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , including but not limited to all implied warranties and conditions of merchantibility , fitness for a particular purpose , and non - infringement . natureserve makes no representations about the suitability of the information delivered from this server or any other documents that are referenced to or linked to this server . in no event shall natureserve be liable for any special , indirect , incidental , consequential damages , or for damages of any kind arising out of or in connection with the use or performance of information contained in any documents provided by this server or in any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , under any theory of liability used . natureserve may update or make changes to the documents provided by this server at any time without notice ; however , natureserve makes no commitment to update the information contained herein . since the data in the central databases are continually being updated , it is advisable to refresh data retrieved at least once a year after its receipt . the data provided is for planning , assessment , and informational purposes . site specific projects or activities should be reviewed for potential environmental impacts with appropriate regulatory agencies . if ground - disturbing activities are proposed on a site , the appropriate state natural heritage program ( s ) or conservation data center can be contacted for a site - specific review of the project area ( see visit local programs ) .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users ."]}
{"id": 1635, "summary": [{"text": "myrmecia flammicollis is an australian ant which belongs to the myrmecia genus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is native to australia .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "they are usually distributed in the north of queensland .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "they were described by william brown in 1953 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "myrmecia flammicollis resembles the m. petiolata .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the body back of the myrmecia flammicollis is black while prothorax is largely or completely an orange-red colour . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "myrmecia flammicollis", "paragraphs": ["the above specimen data are provided by antweb . please see myrmecia flammicollis for further details\nthe following myrmecia species groups are based on ogata & taylor ( 1991 [ 1 ] ) .\ndie gattung myrmecia ist unterteilt in 9 artengruppen damit sich die vielen arten dieser gattung leichter klassifizieren lassen .\nthe genus myrmecia is sub - divided in 9 species groups for an easier classification of the many species .\nbrown , w . l . , jr . 1953j . revisionary notes on the ant genus myrmecia of australia . bull . mus . comp . zool . 111 : 1 - 35 pdf\nogata , k . , taylor , r . w . ( 1991 ) ants of the genus myrmecia fabricius : a preliminary review and key to the named species ( hymenoptera : formicidae : myrmeciinae ) . journal of natural history , 25 , 1623\u20131673 .\nthe following information is derived from barry bolton ' s new general catalogue , a catalogue of the world ' s ants .\nholotype , worker ,\nthe rocky scrub\naround the headwaters of the rocky river , in the mcilwraith range , ne of coen , cape york rocky peninsula , queensland , australia , museum of comparative zoology .\nparatype , 1 worker , lankelly creek , mcilwraith range , cape york peninisula , queensland , australia , museum of comparative zoology .\nparatype , 2 workers , rocky scrub , mcillwraith range , cape york peninsula , queensland , australia , museum of comparative zoology .\nparatype , 1 worker , rocky scrub , mcillwraith range , cape york peninsula , queensland , australia , queensland museum .\nthis page was last modified on 24 july 2017 , at 16 : 59 .\nthis page was last modified on 14 march 2013 , at 01 : 49 .\nyou must log in to access this functionality . you may create an account , or log in anonymously , here .\nantweb content is licensed under a creative commons attribution license . we encourage use of antweb images . in print , each image must include attribution to its photographer and\nfrom urltoken\nin the figure caption . for websites , images must be clearly identified as coming from urltoken , with a backward link to the respective source page . see how to cite antweb .\nantweb is funded from private donations and from grants from the national science foundation , deb - 0344731 , ef - 0431330 and deb - 0842395 . c : 0\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 4d12def2 - 92d2 - 4774 - 806b - 37dee2d2539c\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 5c309303 - 6f05 - 4610 - a775 - 686f653191eb\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 63b90975 - 2edd - 4a90 - 8f13 - 61f8be7feafc\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 780c9659 - a044 - 4bc1 - b245 - 4c9f6f01e8cc\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 8b829319 - 72cf - 4fa6 - 9855 - cf92db95bee1\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 9d16d1b0 - 8d69 - 4a79 - a9f9 - a96ab0403f88\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : b674a35c - 5d8e - 48b2 - a4a8 - 92936dae13cf\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : e681e252 - f036 - 4be3 - ba40 - 928f02966766\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f7b9376a - 762b - 4b90 - 8804 - 4de674639b68\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 250346\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken"]}
{"id": 1643, "summary": [{"text": "bucculatrix solidaginiella is a moth in the bucculatricidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from florida , louisiana , maine , missouri , new jersey , mississippi and ohio .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 11-12.5 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are white , marked with pale ocherous to brownish ocherous .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are brownish ocherous .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing from april to august .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on solidago species .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they feed in the growing tips of young shoots of their host plant , destroying the terminal bud , but barely boring into the tip of the stem .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "pupation takes place in a white cocoon . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "bucculatrix solidaginiella", "paragraphs": ["most authors recognize just a single large genus , bucculatrix , although two australian species , cryphioxena notosema and the scribbly gum moth ( ogmograptis scribula ) are sometimes placed in this family rather than in elachistidae .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhodges , r . w . et al . , eds . 1983 . check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . e . w . classey limited and the wedge entomological research foundation , london . 284 pp .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\ndistribution data for u . s . states and canadian provinces is known to be incomplete or has not been reviewed for this taxon .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\nall documents and related graphics provided by this server and any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server are provided\nas is\nwithout warranty as to the currentness , completeness , or accuracy of any specific data . natureserve hereby disclaims all warranties and conditions with regard to any documents provided by this server or any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , including but not limited to all implied warranties and conditions of merchantibility , fitness for a particular purpose , and non - infringement . natureserve makes no representations about the suitability of the information delivered from this server or any other documents that are referenced to or linked to this server . in no event shall natureserve be liable for any special , indirect , incidental , consequential damages , or for damages of any kind arising out of or in connection with the use or performance of information contained in any documents provided by this server or in any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , under any theory of liability used . natureserve may update or make changes to the documents provided by this server at any time without notice ; however , natureserve makes no commitment to update the information contained herein . since the data in the central databases are continually being updated , it is advisable to refresh data retrieved at least once a year after its receipt . the data provided is for planning , assessment , and informational purposes . site specific projects or activities should be reviewed for potential environmental impacts with appropriate regulatory agencies . if ground - disturbing activities are proposed on a site , the appropriate state natural heritage program ( s ) or conservation data center can be contacted for a site - specific review of the project area ( see visit local programs ) .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\nthere are no photos of this species on the website yet . you can offer your photo by logging into your account\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\nbucculatricidae or ( bucculatrigidae ) is a family of moths . this small family has representatives in all parts of the world . some authors place the group as a subfamily of the family lyonetiidae .\nadults of this family are easily overlooked , being very small with narrow wings wrapped around the body at rest . when small , the larvae are leaf - miners , forming distinctive brown blotches on leaves . when larger , they usually feed on the leaves externally . many species have specific host plants . the pupal cases have distinctive longitudinal ridges , leading to members of the family commonly being called ribbed cocoon makers .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 11 / 10 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\nthe wingspan is about 7 . 5 mm . the forewings are white , sparsely dusted with pale ocherous - tipped scales . the markings are formed by groups of ocherous and black - tipped ocherous scales . the hindwings are silvery , faintly ocherous tinged .\nthe wingspan is 22\u201325 mm . the head is pale yellow - ocherous . the antennae are pale ocherous . the thorax and abdomen are pale yellowish - ocherous . the forewings are light brownish - ocherous , often more or less suffused with whitish - ocherous . the hindwings are gray .\nthe wingspan is about . the head is light yellow - ocherous sprinkled with whitish . the antennae are whitish - ocherous , with a dark fuscous line above . the thorax is brownish - ocherous sprinkled with whitish and the abdomen is whitish - ocherous , faintly streaked with brownish . the forewings are brownish - ocherous , slightly sprinkled with whitish , although the dorsal half is suffused with pale whitish - ocherous from the base to the cleft . the hindwings are ferruginous - fuscous .\nthe wingspan is 7\u20138 mm . the forewings are pale ocherous to dark brownish ocherous , with brilliant silvery marks . the hindwings are pale brownish or reddish ocherous to dark fuscous . adults have been recorded on wing from june to july .\nthe wingspan is 11 - 12 . 5 mm . the forewings are white , marked with pale ocherous to brownish ocherous . the hindwings are brownish ocherous . adults are on wing from april to august .\nthe wingspan is 5\u20136 mm . the forewings are ocherous white with brownish ocherous patches . the hindwings are grey .\nthe wingspan is 6 . 5 mm . the forewings are whitish with a slight ocherous tinge and dusted with scattered brownish ocherous scales . the hindwings are pale greyish , faintly ocherous tinged . adults have been recorded on wing in july .\nthe wingspan is about 9 mm . the forewings are pale straw - colour , the marks formed by ocherous brown - tipped scales . the hindwings are pale greyish ocherous , somewhat irrorated .\nthe wingspan is 14 mm . the forewings are white with ocherous - fuscous . the hindwings are pale brownish ocherous . adults have been recorded on wing in may .\nthe wingspan is 9 . 5\u201312 mm . the forewings are white , with scattered minute brown - tipped pale ocherous scales . the hindwings are white or whitish ocherous ."]}
{"id": 1659, "summary": [{"text": "angwantibos are the two species of strepsirrhine primates that are classified in the genus arctocebus of the family lorisidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they are also known as golden pottos because of their yellow or golden coloration .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "angwantibos live in tropical africa and their range includes nigeria , cameroon north of the democratic republic of congo .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "angwantibos grow to a size of 22 to 30 cm , and have almost no tail at all .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "they only weigh up to 0.5 kg .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "their fur is yellow brown to golden in color .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "their snout is more pointed than that of the other lorids and this , along with their round ears , gives it the bear-like appearance that lends them their name in german : b\u00e4renmaki , \" bear lemur \" .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "solitary , nocturnal and arboreal , they prefer the underbrush and the lower layers of the forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "they spend the day hidden in the leaves .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "like all lorisids they are characterized by slow movements .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "the diet of angwantibos consists predominantly of insects ( mostly caterpillars ) , and occasionally fruits .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "owing to their careful movements and their good sense of smell , they can quietly stalk and close-in on their prey and catch it with a lightning-quick movement .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the males mate with all available females whose territory overlaps with theirs .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "copulation takes place hanging onto a branch .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "gestation lasts 130 days and births are of a single offspring .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the juvenile clasps itself first to the belly of the mother and later she may park her offspring on a branch while she goes searching for food .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "within three to four months the young are weaned , at about six months it leaves its mother , and at an age of eight to ten months it becomes fully mature .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the life expectancy of angwantibos is at most 13 years .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "a subplot in gerald durrell 's first book the overloaded ark centres on his attempts to secure an angwantibo for zoological study . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "angwantibo", "paragraphs": ["calabar angwantibo - arctocebus calabarensis the calabar angwantibo is found in cameroon and nigeria . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nwhat made you want to look up angwantibo ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - golden angwantibo ( arctocebus aureus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - golden angwantibo ( arctocebus aureus )\ntitle =\narkive species - golden angwantibo ( arctocebus aureus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe golden angwantibo is closely related to the calabar angwantibo , arctocebus calabarensis , and was previously considered a subspecies of the latter . however , it can be distinguished by its smaller size , more slender build and shorter , brighter red - orange fur ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) .\nthe golden angwantibo is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) .\nthe calabar angwantibo ( arctocebus calabarensis ) , also known as the calabar potto , is a strepsirrhine primate of the family lorisidae . it shares the genus arctocebus with the golden angwantibo ( arctocebus aureus ) . it is closely related to the potto ( perodicticus potto ) and to the various lorises . the calabar angwantibo lives in the rain forests of west africa , particularly in tree - fall zones . in areas where the forest has been cleared , it has been known to live on farmland .\nthe main threat to the golden angwantibo is habitat loss , due to logging and cultivation ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 7 ) . in addition , although it is thought to be too small and cryptic to face much danger from human hunters ( 4 ) , traps are not selective , meaning the golden angwantibo may be threatened by traps set for other species , particularly in light of its habit of coming down to the ground ( 8 ) . the opening up of previously inaccessible areas for logging may lead to increased hunting pressure ( 9 ) , and there may also be indirect effects of poaching of other species ; for example , forest elephants help create the areas of secondary growth favoured by the golden angwantibo , and the loss of these elephants may therefore reduce golden angwantibo habitat ( 8 ) . the relatively limited distribution of the golden angwantibo makes it more vulnerable to these threats than more widespread species ( 10 ) .\nthe golden angwantibo ( arctocebus aureus ) is a small , nocturnal primate with thick , woolly fur , which , as its name suggests , is golden - red or orange in colour . the underparts are creamy or greyish , and fine guard hairs on the back , shoulders and haunches have crinkled tips , giving the fur a frosted appearance . the head is rounded , with a pointed , narrow muzzle , the ears are small and rounded , and the eyes are large , giving the golden angwantibo excellent night vision ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . the golden angwantibo has no tail , and , instead , its extremely powerful grip , made possible by a specialised arrangement of blood vessels in the wrists and ankles , aids it in moving securely through the trees ( 2 ) ( 6 ) . in common with other loridae ( lorises , pottos and angwantibos ) , the golden angwantibo has nails on all digits except for the second digit of each foot , which possesses a \u2018toilet claw\u2019 , used in grooming ( 2 ) ( 6 ) . interestingly , the index finger is reduced to a mere stub ( 2 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) .\nthe golden angwantibo has a widespread but patchy distribution in the tropical forests of west africa , in cameroon , congo , gabon , equatorial guinea , angola and central african republic ( 1 ) ( 4 ) . it occurs south of the sanaga river in cameroon , and east as far as the congo and ubangui rivers in congo ( 7 ) .\n\u2026but much smaller primates called angwantibo s ( arctocebus calabarensis and a . aureus ) live only in the rainforests of west - central africa . they measure 24 cm ( 9 . 5 inches ) long and are yellowish in colour , with a long , thin snout . like the potto , they are tailless , but the third finger as well as the\u2026\nactive mainly at night , the golden angwantibo sleeps by day in thick foliage or in the shelter of tree crevices . it moves through the trees on all fours , using a slow , deliberate , \u2018hand - over - hand\u2019 movement , and crosses between trees by stretching between terminal branches , rather than by leaping or jumping ( 2 ) ( 6 ) ( 7 ) . on the ground , the golden angwantibo shows a unique defensive behaviour . if threatened , it stands with limbs rigid , widely spaced and fully extended , and the head tucked into the chest . if touched , it may lunge at the attacker from between the legs , with a quick , slashing bite ( 4 ) . alternatively , when in the trees , it may simply roll into a ball while clinging tightly to a branch ( 2 ) ( 5 ) .\nthe golden angwantibo feeds mainly on insects and other invertebrates , particularly caterpillars , which it supplements with fruit ( 2 ) ( 5 ) ( 7 ) . it may even rear onto its hind legs and use the hands to catch moths in flight ( 2 ) ( 5 ) . the golden angwantibo eats many unpalatable and even poisonous invertebrates ( 4 ) , and is thought to have an unusually slow metabolism which may allow undesirable chemicals to be neutralised in the gut ( 6 ) . although mainly solitary , the golden angwantibo may occasionally meet with other individuals with whom its home range overlaps ( 5 ) ( 6 ) . most communication is through scent ( 4 ) ( 6 ) , particularly through urine marks ( 7 ) . the female gives birth twice a year , to a single infant ( 1 ) , after a gestation of between 131 and 136 days . births may occur at any time of year , but are most often recorded during the wet season ( 7 ) . the infant clings to the female\u2019s belly for the first three to four months , after which it is weaned , and begins to follow the female or ride on her back . individuals become sexually mature at around eight to ten months and may live for up to thirteen years ( 2 ) .\nthe golden angwantibo is listed on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) , meaning international trade in the species should be carefully controlled ( 3 ) . it is also protected by law in gabon , and is listed under class b of the african convention , which only allows it to be legally hunted , killed or captured with special authorisation ( 1 ) ( 11 ) . it is presumed to occur in a number of the new national parks in gabon ( 1 ) , and its ability to live in secondary forest may help the golden angwantibo to survive in habitats that have been disturbed by humans ( 2 ) . however , the species is difficult to census thoroughly because of its nocturnal and secretive habits , and it has been understudied in the wild , meaning more research is needed to more fully understand the ecology and social organisation of this poorly known primate ( 10 ) and to better establish its true conservation status ( 1 ) .\nthe golden angwantibo inhabits moist evergreen , lowland forest , preferring areas with fallen trees or young secondary growth . it is generally found in the understorey , below five metres , and may also venture onto the forest floor in search of food . it avoids climbing higher than about 15 metres , where the risk of predation , competition with birds , and exposure to wind and sun is higher , and also avoids climbing larger branches which its small , narrow hands and feet are not suited to grasping ( 4 ) ( 7 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nmammalogists for helping to forge the nomenclatural mesh that holds our science together . * journal of mammalogy * to refer to this work as a checklist undervalues it and does not give sufficient credit to the authors and editors for their meticulous efforts in its production . a valuable reference work and a vital tool , particularly for researchers . * journal of natural history * by far the most convenient source for finding the correct scientific name of any mammal and should be on the reference shelf of libraries striving to have useful science sections . * science books and films * the editors and authors are to be congratulated for undertaking such an outstanding and authoritative work , and it should serve as a standard reference for mammalian species taxonomy for many years to come . * journal of mammalian evolution * the third edition adds to its reputation as an outstanding and authorative work . * national museum of natural history weekly update & forecast * impressive and elegant work . - - g . r . seamons * reference reviews * a must - have text for any professional mammalogist , and a useful and authoritative reference for scientists and students in other disciplines . * southeastern naturalist * a magnificent work important to anyone seriously interested in mammals . this work is essential for academic or special libraries supporting zoology or conservation and for large public libraries . * american reference books annual * as were many of our colleagues , we were waiting for this revised edition since 2003 . . . we can say that the wait was worth it . - - sergio solari and robert j . baker * journal of mammalogy *\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nauthenticated ( 12 / 10 / 10 ) by dr elizabeth pimley , senior ecologist , worcestershire wildlife consultancy . urltoken\nevergreen forest forest consisting mainly of evergreen trees , which retain leaves all year round . this is in contrast to deciduous trees , which completely lose their leaves for part of the year . gestation the state of being pregnant ; the period from conception to birth . guard hair in some mammals , long , coarse hairs that protect the softer layer of fur below . home range the area occupied by an animal during routine activities , which is not actively defended . invertebrates animals with no backbone . nocturnal active at night . secondary forest forest that has re - grown after a major disturbance , such as fire or timber harvest , but has not yet reached the mature state of primary forest . subspecies a population usually restricted to a geographical area that differs from other populations of the same species , but not to the extent of being classified as a separate species .\nnowak , r . m . ( 1991 ) walker\u2019s mammals of the world . the johns hopkins university press , baltimore and london .\nkingdon , j . ( 1997 ) the kingdon field guide to african mammals . academic press , london .\nankel - simons , f . ( 1999 ) primate anatomy : an introduction . academic press , san diego , california .\nmacdonald , d . w . ( 2006 ) the encyclopedia of mammals . oxford university press , oxford .\nblom , a . , alers , m . p . t . , feistner , a . t . c . , barnes , r . f . w . and barnes , k . l . ( 1992 ) primates in gabon - current status and distribution . oryx , 26 ( 4 ) : 223 - 234 .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nmittermeier , r . a . , rylands , a . b . and wilson d . e . 2013 . handbook of the mammals of the world : volume 3 primates . lynx edicions , barcelona .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its tolerance of some degree of habitat modification and since it persists quite well in secondary degraded forest . however , in eastern nigeria , there is some hunting pressure which if continues unabated may place this species in a higher category of threat .\nthis species is found in western equatorial africa , with a very patchy and localised distribution within the lowland rainforest block between the niger river and the sanaga river in nigeria and cameroon .\na cryptic species that is thought to be locally abundant within its patchy distribution . originally , they were particularly adapted to clearings in the forest and towards the forest edge .\nconfined to areas of very dense , low undergrowth with abundant lianas and vines within the understorey of primary , secondary , and coastal rainforest . this species particularly favours the growth that springs up in clearings , trees falls , and along forest edges . wherever it is already established , small - scale clearances , selective tree - felling , and road - making probably favour this species . in such areas it is likely to become abundant in thickets and patches of dense secondary growth . it feeds mainly on caterpillars ( which are found by smell ) , and also on beetles and fruits . this species is able to produce two young in a year .\nmajor threats are habitat destruction from forestry and clearance for cultivation , as well as some hunting for meat in nigeria . this species will not be affected by low - level habitat disturbance , since it is able to inhabit secondary forests as long as dense undergrowth remains and inter - tree distance are not too great . however , broader clearances ( e . g . those made for plantations , clear - felling , and agriculture ) are likely to eliminate it because of its weak capacity to disperse .\nthis species is listed as class b under the african convention , and under appendix ii of cites . it is known to occur in cross river national park ( nigeria ) and korup national park ( cameroon ) . it probably occurs in a few others in the area , although its presence is not confirmed . further surveys are needed to determine its true conservation status .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\njustification : listed as least concern as the species is relatively widespread in central africa , and there are no known major threats resulting in a significant population decline .\nthis species may occur from the sanaga river to the congo river / ubangi river , but with a very localized and patchy distribution . the range limits of this species are poorly known .\nthis cryptic species is considered rare in gabon , where densities of 2 individuals / km\u00b2 were found in dense primary forest and 7 / km\u00b2 in thickets in secondary forest . normal census methods are impossible because it hides its head and eyes at the least disturbance .\nconfined to vine tangles and areas with abundant young ( or slow - growing ) leafy stems in the understorey of moist evergreen , lowland rainforests . large vertical branches are never climbed because the small , narrow hands and feet of this species are adapted only to close around stems less than 6 cm in diameter . this species avoids climbing higher than 15 m ( it mostly lives below 5 m ) due to heightened competition from birds , less consistent insect resources , more exposure to wind , sun , and predators , and fewer thin - branched tangles to shelter in . it frequently descends to the forest floor for fallen fruits and invertebrates . caterpillars of all species are eaten , including hairy and distasteful species that are avoided by other insect - predators . the females give birth to one infant twice per year .\nthis species is too small and cryptic to face much danger from human predation . clear - felling and large - scale clearances are the only major threat to their habitat .\nthis species is protected by law in gabon . it is listed as class b under the african convention , and under appendix ii of cites . it is presumably in a number of the new national parks in gabon . this is a poorly known species in need of further research .\n, are endemic in western equatorial africa , and are found in cameroon , equatorial guinea , nigeria , and zaire .\ncan be found in primary and secondary forests , where it prefers tree fall zones . this species also resides within forestry and agricultural plantations .\nis adapted to undergrowth , foraging within the lower canopy of the forest . it will spend most of its time within 5 m of the ground .\ncan range from 266 to 465 grams . the head - body length ranges from 229 to 305 mm . this species has a reduced , nub - like tail that measures from 4 to 10 cm , along with a reduced index finger . the second digit on each toe is used as a grooming claw .\npelage coloration ranges from orange to yellow to brown on the dorsal side , with white or buff pelage on the ventral side . facial markings include a white stripe above the nose .\nmales mate polygynously , copulating with the females whose home ranges overlap their territories . a female signals to a male that she is ready to mate by suspending herself upside down from a branch . both male and female suspend themselves upside - down from a branch during copulation .\nfemales have an estrous cycle of 36 to 45 days . gestation lasts between 131 and 136 days . they are capable of breeding more than one time per year , although details on interbirth intervals are not available .\nthe breeding season typically begins in the middle of the dry season and lasts until the start of the wet season . because of this , golden pottos can breed more than once per year . golden pottos copulate only at the end of the estrous cycle , when the female is about to ovulate . the female signals to the male that she is ready to mate by suspending herself upside down from a branch . both male and female suspend themselves upside - down from a branch during copulation .\nfemales give birth to a single offspring . the young potto clings to the belly of the mother for about 4 months . young are weaned between three and four months of age , at which time they begin to ride on their mother ' s back . young leave the mother ' s home range around six months of age . they reach sexual maturity around 18 months .\nbreeding season breeding begins in the middle of the dry season and ends at the beginning of the wet season .\nmales are not known to provide parental care in this species . at birth , the young are able to cling to the mother ' s fur , and have their eyes open . they are not able to climb or walk well on their own . the female cares for the young , carrying the infant first on her belly and later on her back . females nurse their offspring for 3 to 4 months , and forage with them in the underbrush for another 2 months . at about 6 months of age , the young disperse .\nin the wild , golden pottos can be expected to live anywhere from 12 to 15 years with an average life expectance of 13 years . when kept in captivity the lifespan of\nmales have home ranges which overlap the home ranges of 2 to 3 females . pottos are solitary animals who forage and sleep alone , although throughout the year , a male makes contact with females resident in his home range .\nthis species moves slowly and is a quadrupedal climber . while climbing , three of a golden potto\u2019s limbs are always grasping for support while swinging from branch to branch . golden pottos are nocturnal and arboreal , sleeping within thick foliage cover . ( nowak , 1999 )\ncommunication in this species has not been well described . vocalizations are recorded . in addition , the visual signal of a female positioning herself for copulation is important in breeding . presumably , as in other prosimians , there is scent marking of territories . tactile communication is important between mother and offspring , as well as between mates .\ngolden pottos are primarily insectivorous , eating mainly insects that are rejected by other insectivores . caterpillars are among the most common insects consumed by\n. other insects consumed include beetles , ants , moths and crickets . before eating a caterpillar , golden pottos will rub the caterpillar in their hands to remove any hair the caterpillar may have . this prevents irritation from defensive hairs on the caterpillars . golden pottos will also eat fruit and gums .\nthis species tends to forage alone within the lower canopy or on the ground within the undergrowth . although golden pottos generally move slowly , they have been observed quickly rearing on their back legs in order to snatch moths from the air .\ndetails on predation of these pottos are not available , although they presumably fall victim to small carnivores , and the standard nocturnal predators of equatorial africa .\nis known to roll up into a ball when threatened , keeping the face under the armpit . if attacked , golden pottos will bite the predator on the snout , not letting go . infants cling to the mother if she appears alarmed . newborns are born with eyes open and can cling to their mothers ' fur or to tree branches . in order to avoid birds of prey , these primates rarely climb higher than 15 m . ( charles - donimique , 1977 )\ngolden pottos help to disperse seeds of the fruit they have eaten by defecation ( nowak , 1999 ) .\ngolden pottos are hunted for their meat by humans ( kingdon , 1997 ) .\nis a cites appendix ii species , which means there are restrictions and guidelines pertaining to the trade and exploitation of this species . this species also faces habitat destruction as the rainforests are cut down for timber and to open up farmland . although these pottos are adapted to secondary vegetation , they are unable to disperse across unforested areas . ( kingdon , 1997 )\ntaryn olson ( author ) , university of wisconsin - stevens point , chris yahnke ( editor ) , university of wisconsin - stevens point .\nliving in sub - saharan africa ( south of 30 degrees north ) and madagascar .\nyoung are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nrainforests , both temperate and tropical , are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground . epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant . precipitation is typically not limiting , but may be somewhat seasonal .\nthe region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .\nreproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .\nto cite this page : olson , t . 2003 .\narctocebus calabarensis\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nthis is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nprimate info net is maintained by the wisconsin primate research center ( wprc ) library at the university of wisconsin - madison . wprc programs are supported by grant numbers rr000167 and rr015311 , national primate centers program , national center for research resources , the national institutes of health .\ndisclaimer : the wisconsin primate research center provides primate info net as an informational service . we are not responsible for the content of linked sites , nor does inclusion of a link imply endorsement of the views expressed in that content .\nthis entry lacks etymological information . if you are familiar with the origin of this term , please add it to the page per etymology instructions . you can also discuss it at the etymology scriptorium .\nthis page was last edited on 26 may 2017 , at 02 : 11 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\nlove words ? you must \u2014 there are over 200 , 000 words in our free online dictionary , but you are looking for one that\u2019s only in the merriam - webster unabridged dictionary .\nthe story of an imaginary word that managed to sneak past our editors and enter the dictionary .\ntake this quiz and discover 12 words for things you didn ' t know had words .\ncollins english dictionary - complete & unabridged 2012 digital edition \u00a9 william collins sons & co . ltd . 1979 , 1986 \u00a9 harpercollins publishers 1998 , 2000 , 2003 , 2005 , 2006 , 2007 , 2009 , 2012\na curated database of candidate human ageing - related genes and genes associated with longevity and / or ageing in model organisms .\na curated database of genes associated with dietary restriction in model organisms either from genetic manipulation experiments or gene expression profiling .\nprojects focused on gene expression profiling of ageing and of dietary manipulations of ageing , such as caloric restriction .\nsoftware for ageing research , including the ageing research computational tools ( arct ) perl toolkit .\na curated database of ageing and life history information in animals , including extensive longevity records .\nthe benchmark genome assembly and annotation of the long - lived , cancer - resistant naked mole - rat ( heterocephalus glaber ) .\na high - coverage genome of the bowhead whale ( balaena mysticetus ) , the longest - lived mammal .\nanalyses using the anage database to study the evolution of longevity and ageing in vertebrate lineages .\na portal of ageing changes covering different biological levels , integrating molecular , physiological and pathological age - related data .\nthe whosage database contains people and biotech companies that are contributing to increase our understanding of ageing and life - extension .\nrecord longevity in captivity belongs to one male specimen that lived for 13 years at london zoo [ 0671 ] . there are unverified reports of animals living nearly 20 years in captivity .\n[ 0036 ] savage et al . ( 2004 ) , the predominance of quarter - power scaling in biology\n[ 0455 ] virginia hayssen et al . ( 1993 ) , asdell ' s patterns of mammalian reproduction : a compendium of species - specific data\n[ 0731 ] zullinger et al . ( 1984 ) , fitting sigmoid equations to mammalian growth curves\ncomments , suggestions , ideas , and bug reports are welcome . please contact us .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nattributes / relations provided by \u2666 1 myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2006 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed february 01 , 2010 at urltoken \u2666 2 de magalhaes , j . p . , and costa , j . ( 2009 ) a database of vertebrate longevity records and their relation to other life - history traits . journal of evolutionary biology 22 ( 8 ) : 1770 - 1774 \u2666 3 hamish wilman , jonathan belmaker , jennifer simpson , carolina de la rosa , marcelo m . rivadeneira , and walter jetz . 2014 . eltontraits 1 . 0 : species - level foraging attributes of the world ' s birds and mammals . ecology 95 : 2027\necoregions provided by world wide fund for nature ( wwf ) . wildfinder : online database of species distributions , ver . 01 . 06 wwf wildfinder\nprotected areas provided by biological inventories of the world ' s protected areas in cooperation between the information center for the environment at the university of california , davis and numerous collaborators .\nhome | wild files | n . h . animals | animals a - z | watch online\nthere are 10 species of small primates in this family . lorises are found in asia . pottos and angwantibos are found in africa . lorises , pottos and angwantibos have thick , wooly fur ; short or no tails ; and big , round eyes .\nthe primates in this family live in trees , but unlike other primates , they do not swing or leap from branch to branch . they slowly crawl around on tree branches .\nthey can crawl on the top of a branch , or hang upside down and crawl on the underside of a branch . lorises , pottos , and angwantibos are nocturnal . they spend the day resting in tree hollows or on tree branches . at night the slowly crawl around the tree branches searching for fruit and insects .\nleast concern near threatened vulnerable endangered critically endangered extinct in wild extinct status and range is taken from icun redlist . if no status is listed , there is not enough data to establish status .\nbengal slow loris - nycticebus bengalensis the bengal slow loris is found in bangladesh , cambodia , china , india , laos , myanmar , thailand , and vietnam . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nbornean slow loris - nycticebus menagensis the bornean slow loris is found in brunei darussalam , indonesia , malaysia , and the philippines . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ngray slender loris - loris lydekkerianus the gray - slender loris is found in india and sri lanka . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ngreater slow loris - nycticebus coucang the greater slow loris is found in indonesia , malaysia , singapore , and thailand . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ngreater slow loris - nycticebus coucang greater slow lorises are covered with short , thick , woolly fur in a variety of colors and patterns . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ngreater slow loris - nycticebus coucang the greater slow loris stays motionless for hours . source : los angeles zoo intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ngreater slow loris - nycticebus coucang the greater slow loris eats eat snails , insects , lizards , birds , small mammals , and fruit . source : woodlands park zoo intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\njavan slow loris - nycticebus javanicus the javan slow loris is found in indonesia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\npotto - perodicticus potto the potto is found in angola , benin , burundi , cameroon , central african republic , congo , c\u00f4te d ' ivoire , equatorial guinea , gabon , ghana , guinea , kenya , liberia , nigeria , rwanda , sierra leone , togo , and uganda . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\npotto - perodicticus potto pottos have long , slender bodies , large eyes , and small , round ears . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\npotto - perodicticus potto pottos leave urine trails along branches to communicate with each other through scent . source : cincinnati zoo intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\npygmy slow loris - nycticebus pygmaeus the pygmy slow loris is found in cambodia , laos , and vietnam . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nslender loris - loris tardigradus the slender loris is found in sri lanka . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nslender loris - loris tardigradus the slender loris is nocturnal and lives in trees . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes"]}
{"id": 1660, "summary": [{"text": "leioproctus fulvescens is a species of bee native to the south island of new zealand .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "adults are about 10 mm long with dense characteristically yellow to orange-brown hair ; this feature distinguishes them from other new zealand leioproctus species , which have white to cream hairs .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the bees fly primarily in the spring and summer , with the majority of individuals between november to march , though some have been observed as early as september .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "the bees nest underground in a variety of soil types , including beach sand , salt flats , dry river banks , clay , garden soil , and compacted dirt and shingle roads ; nearly any soil type appears to be used so long as it is on relatively free of vegetation , has a relatively low level of moisture and a sunny aspect .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "females prefer to build their nest tunnels in slightly sloping ground , and dig the main shaft anywhere from 100-500mm into the ground .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "along the tunnel , there are often a number of side branches , each terminating in a single oval nesting chamber .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the chamber is lined with a cellophane-like substance which reduces the amount of moisture that can enter the cell , providing a protective chamber for the larvae to develop .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "each chamber is provisioned with a ball of pollen and nectar , on top of which a single egg is laid .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "once completed , the chamber is sealed up with packed earth .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "females forage mainly on plants in the family asteraceae , such as gentiana corymbifera ( snow gentian ) , raoulia , and some of the white flowered hebes such as hebe subalpina .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "they have also been observed foraging on introduced asters , such as yarrow and canada thistle . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "leioproctus fulvescens", "paragraphs": ["scientific illustration of new zealand native bee leioproctus fulvescens . one of the bees i ' m working with in my current research project .\nleioproctus fulvescens , a native colletid of new zealand . now that i have access to the lab\u2019s insect collection , i can finally get reference photos to create as many illustrations as i want .\nthey dig nest holes in the ground , and sometimes a nesting area riddled with bee holes gives the impression of a colony . a small pile of soil is the usual sign of individual nest tunnels . each species prefers a specific type of soil . for example , leioproctus fulvescens needs fine - grained soil , while leioproctus metallicus nests in coastal sand .\nthe most commonly seen native bees are 18 species of leioproctus . these bees are robust and hairy , looking similar to honeybees but smaller ( 5\u201312 millimetres long ) . all are black except for the south island species leioproctus fulvescens , which is covered with dense orange\u2013yellow hair . they are often seen in summer carrying pollen on their back legs , like honeybees and bumblebees .\nthe yellow hairs are a key character of l . fulvescens . there are 18 leioproctus species in new zealand , but l . carinatifrons is not one of them , as it is native to australia . you might come to nz ? cool !\nthe south island species that is pictured above and below is the most colourful of our native bees , leioproctus fulvescens . although they have quite cosmopolitan tastes , members of the daisy family ( such as the olearia cymbifolia shown in these images ) are important sources of pollen for l . fulvescens . on a sunny day in the mackenzie basin , large numbers of this conspicuous bee can be viewed going about their business .\nflax ( phormium spp . ) do not just extend their largesse towards our native birds ( who avidly feed upon their nectar ) , as shown by the leioproctus sp . pictured below , which was emerging from a phormium tenax flower in west auckland . it clearly displays the ' pollen pellets ' that bees collect on their hind legs as they harvest , a feature that is also evident in the photograph of leioproctus fulvescens above .\nthe final image shows an individual of leioproctus fulvescens visiting a celmisia gracilenta flower amidst degraded tussockland near the glenmore tarns . amidst all of the legitimate concern regarding the decline of honeybees throughout the world , it is also important to be conscious of maintaining healthy populations of other pollinators from our environments ( such as native bees , butterflies and new zealand ' s diverse and significant range of fly species ) .\noh man , this is quite detailed . not sure if this is what i will expect to see if my family does move to new zealand ( being their\nnative bee\n. ) it amazes me how species that superficially look the same can be so different in minute ways . seems this bee someone told me was a new zealand native bee was actually leioproctus carinatifrons . ( is it possible for the fulvescens species not to have the orange - yellow hairs ? )\nhalf - healed , half fresh , but man , am i super psyched to have wrapped up this tattoo on josh today . also a little sad ! it\u2019s been so fun to work on ! new zealand and northern european native birds , plants , and insects . trees are pohutukawa , birch , beech , rowan ; birds are tui , kea , house swallow , and raven ; today added a magpie moth and two leioproctus fulvescens bees . hopefully i\u2019ll snag some healed photos before he heads back to nz ! detail post after this .\nooh , thank you for clearing that up ! that ' s what i read about l . fulvescens as well , but i have not seen even a preserved specimen for myself . i ' m not very sure . we have friends ( and some relatives ) in australia , but a high school classmate of mine lives in nz . she ' s been inviting me to visit her for a while , now .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nflies , caddisflies , craneflies , damselflies dragonflies , gnats , mayflies . midges , mosquitoes\ninsects ( ants , beetles , bugs , cicadas , cockroaches , centipedes , crickets , grasshoppers , lacewings , ladybirds , mantis , millipedes , scale , shield bugs , stick insects , wetas , weevils , etc . ) .\nreptiles ( frogs , geckos , skinks , snakes , lizards , turtles ) .\ntrees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names a to f with photo .\ntrees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names g to l with photo .\ntrees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names m to q with photo .\ntrees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names r to z with photo .\ntrees ( new zealand ) hebes and their hybrids & cultivars ( photos ) .\nweeds & escapee plants : a to f ( common names with photo ) .\nweeds & escapee plants : g to l ( common names with photo ) .\nweeds & escapee plants : m to q ( common names and photo ) .\nweeds & escapee plants : r to z ( common names with photo ) .\n\u00a9 copyright 2008 - 2018 - t . e . r : r . a . i . n . all rights reserved . last update : 27 - nov - 17 . site designed & hosted by smokeylemon .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ngriswold , t . , d . yanega , et al . ; as - yet unpublished manuscript\njohn ascher , connal eardley , terry griswold , gabriel melo , andrew polaszek , michael ruggiero , paul williams , ken walker , and natapot warrit . additional credits noted at : urltoken ; = apoidea _ species\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nella mai \u2013 boo ' d up ( remix ) ft . nicki minaj & quavo\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nlike wasps , bees may be solitary or social . they feed on nectar and pollen , and play an important role in the pollination and survival of many flowering plants . new zealand has 28 native and 13 introduced species of bee .\nat least three native bee species have a basic social structure , a bit like the introduced honeybee and bumblebee . the rest are solitary , although they may make nests close together .\nnative bees pollinate many native plants . they are also widespread in kiwifruit and apple orchards and some vegetable crops , and may be important pollinators in horticulture .\nthe seven hylaeus species are 7\u20139 millimetres long , and slender . almost hairless , they are black with small yellow markings on the face and thorax . they make nests in blind tunnels in twigs and branches , or in old beetle holes in logs . they have no special pollen - carrying structure on the back legs , so carry pollen in the stomach .\nthe smallest ( 4\u20138 millimetres long ) and most easily overlooked native bees are four species of lasioglossum . they are black or greenish , only moderately hairy , and nest in the soil . at least one species , lasioglossum sordidum , has adapted well to modified habitats . its nests are often found along fencelines , on horticultural land sprayed bare with herbicides , and on stopbanks and ditch sides above water level .\nall text licensed under the creative commons attribution - noncommercial 3 . 0 new zealand licence unless otherwise stated . commercial re - use may be allowed on request . all non - text content is subject to specific conditions . \u00a9 crown copyright .\nthank you ! there are lots of details in tiny things , and i love them .\nmost of our native bees don ' t quite match the perception of how a bee should look or behave . they do not form hives or live in swarms ; they generally live in burrows within the ground ; and many are relatively small and unassuming . however , they are fascinating members of our ecologies , and deserving of our attention ( particularly as they play a role in the pollination of a great number of plant species , both native and exotic ) .\nthe other bee that is pictured below , which i presumed to be a species of lasioglossum , was one of many native pollinators ( including a striking species of hoverfly ) that were making the most of hebe parviflora ' s abundant flowering ."]}
{"id": 1664, "summary": [{"text": "aplysina archeri ( also known as stove-pipe sponge because of its shape ) is a species of tube sponge that has long tube-like structures of cylindrical shape .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "although they can grow in a single tube , they often grow in large groups of up to 22 tubes .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "a single tube can grow up to 5 feet ( 1.5 m ) high and 3 inches ( 7.6 cm ) thick .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "these sponges mostly live in the western atlantic ocean : the caribbean , the bahamas , florida , and bonaire .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "like most sponges , they are filter feeders ; they eat food such as plankton or suspended detritus as it passes them .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "very little is known about their behavioral patterns except for their feeding ecology and reproductive biology .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "tubes occur in varying colors including lavender , gray , and brown .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they reproduce both by asexual and sexual reproduction .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "these sponges take hundreds of years to grow and never stop growing until they die .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "snails are among their natural predators .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the population density of these sponges is going down because of oil spills and other pollution . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "aplysina archeri", "paragraphs": ["yan wong changed the thumbnail image of\nfile : aplysina archeri ( stove - pipe sponge - pink variation ) . jpg\n.\nthe stovepipe sponge ( aplysina archeri ) is a species of tube sponge found mainly in the atlantic ocean , including the waters around the caribbean , bahamas , florida , and bonaire .\n( of verongia archeri ( higgin , 1875 ) ) alcolado , p . m . 1980 . esponjas de cuba . nuevos registros . poeyana 197 : 1 - 10 . page ( s ) : 2 [ details ]\n( of luffaria archeri higgin , 1875 ) higgin , t . ( 1875 ) . on a new sponge of the genus luffaria , from yucatan , in the liverpool free museum . annals and magazine of natural history . ( 4 ) 16 : 223 - 227 . page ( s ) : 224 - 227 ; pl vi [ details ]\naplysina archeri ( higgin , 1875 ) : p\u00e9rez et al . ( 2017 ) : 9 . [ statut pour la martinique ] p\u00e9rez , t . , diaz , m - c . , ruiz , c . , condor - lujan , b . , klautau , m . , hajdu , e . , lobo - hadju , g . , zea , s . , pomponi , s . a . , thacker , r . w . , carteron , s . , tollu , g . , pouget - cuvelier , a . , th\u00e9lamon , p . , marechal , j . - p . , thomas , o . p . , ereskovsky , a . v . , vacelet , j . & boury - esnault , n . 2017 . how acollaborative integrated taxonomic effort has trained new spongiologists and improved knowledge of martinique island ( french antilles , eastern caribbean sea ) marine biodiversity . plos one 12 ( 3 ) : e0173859\naplysina archeri this is a type of sea sponge usually called stove pipe sponge . it can get to 5 feet tall and 3 inches thick . - this sponge mates like many other sponge species . - it can either be sexual or asexual . - it asexual , the sponge forms little pods called gammeles that are located on the external part of the sponge . currents in the water detach them and carry these pods to wherever . - where they land , is where they will hatch and start a new sponge . - sexual reproduction between two stove pipe sponges is random . - they are all the same gender , hermaphrodites , and do not have sexual organs . - to sexually reproduce , this sponge sprays sperms out all around it , into the water . - the sperm is carried by the current and if it hits another stove - pipe sponge , it becomes pregnant . - pregnant sponges keep the eggs in them until they are mature , then they let them out and they create new sponges .\n( of verongia archeri ( higgin , 1875 ) ) laubenfels , m . w . de . ( 1936 ) . a discussion of the sponge fauna of the dry tortugas in particular and the west indies in general , with material for a revision of the families and orders of the porifera . carnegie institute of washington publication . 467 ( tortugas laboratory paper 30 ) 1 - 225 , pls 1 - 22 . page ( s ) : 24 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of luffaria archeri higgin , 1875 ) van soest , r . w . m . ( 1978 ) . marine sponges from cura\u00e7ao and other caribbean localities . part i . keratosa . in : hummelinck , p . w . & van der steen , l . j . ( eds ) , uitgaven van de natuurwetenschappelijke studiekring voor suriname en de nederlandse antillen . no . 94 . studies on the fauna of cura\u00e7ao and other caribbean islands . 56 ( 179 ) : 1\u201394 . [ details ]\nm . de kluijver , g . gijswijt , r . de leon & i . da cunda\n) . sometimes they grow single , but more often in large groups of up to 22 tubes , which normally are in contact with each other only at their base . the surface is though and shows much relief (\n) and sometimes an obscured pattern of rounded disc - shaped elevations of 3 - 9 mm . the shallow depressions between the elevations contain rows of pores . the surface is generally finely conulose and does not show the deep and meandering grooves of\nconspicuous pink or purplish gray . the tubes ' interiors often cream colored , but always lighter than the exterior color .\nhumann , p . , 1992 . reef creature identification - florida caribbean bahamas , ( ed . n . deloach ) . new world publications , inc . , paramount miller graphics , inc . , jacksonville , florida .\nsoest , r . w . m . van , 1978 . marine sponges from cura\u00e7ao and other caribbean islands . part i . keratosa . studies on the fauna of cura\u00e7ao and other caribbean islands , 179 .\nvan soest , r . w . m ; boury - esnault , n . ; hooper , j . n . a . ; r\u00fctzler , k . ; de voogd , n . j . ; alvarez , b . ; hajdu , e . ; pisera , a . b . ; manconi , r . ; sch\u00f6nberg , c . ; klautau , m . ; picton , b . ; kelly , m . ; vacelet , j . ; dohrmann , m . ; d\u00edaz , m . - c . ; c\u00e1rdenas , p . ; carballo , j . l . ; r\u00edos , p . ; downey , r . ( 2018 ) . world porifera database .\nvan soest , r . w . m . ( 1978 ) . marine sponges from cura\u00e7ao and other caribbean localities . part i . keratosa . in : hummelinck , p . w . & van der steen , l . j . ( eds ) , uitgaven van de natuurwetenschappelijke studiekring voor suriname en de nederlandse antillen . no . 94 . studies on the fauna of cura\u00e7ao and other caribbean islands . 56 ( 179 ) : 1\u201394 . page ( s ) : 58 - 59 ; fig 19 , pl xi 3 - 4 [ details ]\nzea , s . ( 1987 ) . esponjas del caribe colombiano . ( cat\u00e1logo cientifico : bogot\u00e1 , colombia ) : 1 - 286 . page ( s ) : 55 - 57 [ details ]\nr\u00fctzler , k . ; d\u00edaz , m . c . ; van soest , r . w . m . ; zea , s . ; smith , k . p . ; alvarez , b . ; wulff , j . ( 2000 ) . diversity of sponge fauna in mangrove ponds , pelican cays , belize . atoll research bulletin . 476 : 230 - 248 . page ( s ) : 239 [ details ]\nvan soest , r . w . m . ( 1981 ) . a checklist of the cura\u00e7ao sponges ( porifera demospongiae ) including a pictorial key to the more common reef - forms . verslagen en technische gegevens instituut voor taxonomische zo\u00f6logie ( zo\u00f6logisch museum ) universiteit van amsterdam . 31 : 1 - 39 . page ( s ) : 25 [ details ]\nr\u00fctzler , k . ; van soest , r . w . m . ; piantoni , c . ( 2009 ) . sponges ( porifera ) of the gulf of mexico . in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m press , college station , texas . 285\u2013313 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nalcolado , p . m . ; busutil , l . ( 2012 ) . inventaire des spongiaires n\u00e9ritiques du parc national de la guadeloupe ( inventario de las esponjas ner\u00edticas del parque nacional de guadalupe ) . serie oceanol\u00f3gica . 10 , 62 - 76 . page ( s ) : 71 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nvacelet , j . ( 1990 ) . les spongiaires . in le monde marin . ( ed . claude bouchon ) pp 16 - 33 . la grande encyclop\u00e9die de la cara\u00efbe . editions cara\u00efbes , pointe \u00e0 pitre . page ( s ) : 31 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\np\u00e9rez , t . ; d\u00edaz , m . c . ; ruiz , c . ; c\u00f3ndor - luj\u00e1n , b . ; klautau , m . ; hajdu , e . ; l\u00f4bo - hajdu , g . ; zea , s . ; pomponi , s . a . ; thacker , r . w . ; carteron , s . ; tollu , g . ; pouget - cuvelier , a . ; th\u00e9lamon , p . ; marechal , j . - p . ; thomas , o . p . ; ereskovsky , a . e . ; vacelet , j . ; boury - esnault , n . ( 2017 ) . how a collaborative integrated taxonomic effort has trained new spongiologists and improved knowledge of martinique island ( french antilles , eastern caribbean sea ) marine biodiversity . plos one . 12 ( 3 ) : e0173859 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 9 [ details ]\nlehnert , h . ; van soest , r . w . m . ( 1998 ) . shallow water sponges of jamaica . beaufortia . 48 ( 5 ) : 71 - 103 . page ( s ) : 98 [ details ]\nlendenfeld , r . von . ( 1889 ) . a monograph of the horny sponges . ( tr\u00fcbner and co . : london ) : iii - iv , 1 - 936 , pls 1 - 50 . , available online at urltoken ; view = 1up ; seq = 1 page ( s ) : 413 - 415 [ details ]\npulitzer - finali , g . ( 1986 ) . a collection of west indian demospongiae ( porifera ) . in appendix , a list of the demospongiae hitherto recorded from the west indies . annali del museo civico di storia naturale giacomo doria . 86 : 65 - 216 . page ( s ) : 183 - 184 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nnotes : long tubes , single or in groups , usually having an iridiscent lavender color , but co - occurring specimens may be brownish or greenish tan .\nin continuing your browsing of this site , you accept the use of cookies to offer you suitable content and services and realize visits statistics . learn more about cookies .\ntricart & foubert ( 2000 ) [ statut pour la martinique ] tricart , s . & foubert , a . 2000 . base de r\u00e9f\u00e9rence de l ' inventaire znieff - mer : validation des donn\u00e9es sur les esp\u00e8ces marines des cara\u00efbes ( guadeloupe , martinique et guyane ) . in : guillaume , m . ( coord . ) 2000 . l ' inventaire znieff - mer dans les dom : bilan m\u00e9thodologique et mise en place . patrimoines naturels , 42 : 105 - 128 .\nalcolado & busutil ( 2012 ) [ statut pour la guadeloupe ] alcolado , p . m . & busutil , l . 2012 . inventaire des spongiaires n\u00e9ritiques du parc national de la guadeloupe . serie oceanol\u00f3gica , 10 : 62 - 76 .\nnational inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .\nthis species has long tube - like structures cylindrical in nature and many tubes are attached to one particular part of the organism . the tubes occur in varying colors including lavender , gray and brown .\nthe stovepipe sponge is a filter feeder and eats food such as plankton or suspended detritus as it passes by them . very little is known about its behavioral patterns except for its feeding ecology and reproductive biology .\nit reproduces both asexually and sexually . sperm is released into the water column where it floats and then settle down on substrate and begins to reproduce cells and grow . it takes hundreds of years for a single sponge to mature and it actually never stops growing until it dies .\nimage caption : stove - pipe sponge - pink variation . credit : nick hobgood / wikipedia ( cc by - sa 3 . 0 )\nthe tropical marine communities are considered among the most diverse on earth . the variety of colors , shapes , and sizes shown by the fauna of these communities are immense . the coral and sponge communities are among the most conspicuous . in spite of this , little is known about the ecology of marine sponges , as research has been hindered by taxonomic problems and difficulties that arise in their quantitative evaluation .\nthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .\nalvarez mb , diaz mc ( 1985 ) las esponjas de un arrecife coralino en el parque nacional archipi\u00e9lago de los roques : i , taxonomia . ii , estructura ecologica : 1\u2013216 ( tesis de licenciatura , universidad central de venezuela , facultad de ciencias , escuela de biologia , caracas )\nbloom sa ( 1975 ) the motile scape response of a sessile prey : a sponge - scallop mutualism . j exp mar biol ecol 17 ( 3 ) : 311\u2013321\nchace fa ( 1972 ) the shrimps of the smithsonian - bredin caribbean expedition with a summary of the west indian shallow - water species ( crustacea : deeapoda : natantia ) . smithson contrib zool 98 ( i - x ) : 1\u2013179\nconnor ef , mccoy ed ( 1979 ) the statistics and biology of the species - area relationship . am nat 113 ( 6 ) : 791\u2013817\nda\u00fcer dm ( 1973 ) polychaete fauna associated with gulf of m\u00e9xico sponges . fi sci 36 ( 2\u20134 ) : 192\u2013196\ndendy ( porifera ) as an ecological niche in the littoral zone of the dahlak archipelago ( eritrea ) . bull sea fish res stn israel 41 : 17\u201325\n( l . ) : a commensal - protective mutualism . j exp mar biol ecol 36 : 1\u201310\nfrith dw ( 1976 ) animals associated with sponges at north hayling , hampshire . j linn soc ( zool ) 58 : 353\u2013362\nin the roques archipelago , venezuela . bijdr dierkd 54 ( 2 ) : 220\u2013230\nkilburn pd ( 1966 ) analysis of the species - area relation . ecology 47 : 831\u2013843\nlong er ( 1968 ) the associates of four species of marine sponges of oregon and washington . pac sci 22 ( 3 ) : 347\u2013351\nmacarthur rh , wilson eo ( 1967 ) the theory of island biogeography . princeton universtiy press , princeton nj\nosman rw ( 1977 ) the establishment and development of a marine epifaunal community . ecol monogr 41 : 37\u201363\npearse as ( 1932 ) inhabitants of certain sponges at dry tortugas . pap tortugas lab 28 ( 7 ) : 117\u2013124\npearse as ( 1950 ) notes on the inhabitants of certain sponges at bimini . ecology 31 : 149\u2013151\npearson k ( 1900 ) on the criterion that a given system of deviations from the probable in the case of a correlated system of variables is such that it can be reasonably supposed to have arisen from random sampling . phil mag ser 5 , 50 : 157\u2013175\npeattie me , hoare r ( 1981 ) the sublittoral ecology of the menai strait ii . the sponge\nand its associated fauna . est coast shelf sci 13 ( 6 ) : 621\u2013635\npielou ec ( 1966 ) shannon\u2019s formula as a measure of specific diversity : its use an disuse . am nat 100 : 463\u2013465\npreston fw ( 1962 ) the canonical distribution of commonness and rarity . ecology 43 : 185\u2013215 , 410\u2013432\nrandall ie , hartman wd ( 1968 ) sponge - feeding fishes of the west indies . mar biol l ( 3 ) : 216\u2013225\nrodriguez g ( 1980 ) crust\u00e1ceos dec\u00e1podos de venezuela . instituto venezolano de investigaciones cient\u00edficas ( ivic )\nr\u00fctzler k ( 1976 ) ecology of tunisian commercial sponges . tethys 7 ( 2\u20133 ) : 249\u2013264\nr\u00fctzler k ( 1978 ) sponges in coral reefs . in : stoddart dr , johannes re ( eds ) coral reefs : research methods . monographs on oceanographic methodology 5 . unesco , pp 299\u2013313\nschoener a ( 1974 ) experimental zoogeography : colonization of marine mini - islands . am nat 108 ( 964 ) : 715\u2013738\nshannon ce , weaver w ( 1963 ) the mathematical theory of communication . university of illinois press , urbana\nsneath ph , sokal rr ( 1973 ) numerical taxonomy . wh freeman , san francisco\nsorensen t ( 1948 ) a method of establishing groups of equal amplitude in plant society based on similarity of species content . k dan vidensk selsk 5 : 1\u201334\ntello j ( 1975 ) cat\u00e1logo de la fauna venezolana , viii mollusca . publicaciones de la comision organizadora de la iii conferencia de las naciones unidas sobre el derecho del mar . caracas\ntyler jc , b\u00f3hlke je ( 1972 ) records of sponge - dwelling fishes , primarily of the caribbean . bull mar sci 22 ( 3 ) : 601\u2013643\n. in : taylor d ( ed ) proc : 3rd int coral reef symp 1 . biology , may 1977 miami , florida\nuebelacker jm ( 1978 ) a new parasitic polychaetous annelid ( arabellidae ) from the bahamas . j parasitol 64 ( 1 ) : 151\u2013154\na lo largo de un gradiente de profundidad en el parque nacional archipi\u00e9lago de los roques , venezuela . tesis de grado universidad central de venezuela\nwilliams cb ( 1964 ) patterns in the balance of nature . academic press , london\nzoppi e ( 1967 ) contribuci\u00f3n al estudio de los equinodermos de venezuela . acta biol venez 5 ( 17 ) : 267\u2013324\nin a coral reef of the archipi\u00e9lago de los roques , national park , venezuela . in : reitner j . , keupp h . ( eds ) fossil and recent sponges . springer , berlin , heidelberg"]}
{"id": 1675, "summary": [{"text": "cyclophora punctaria , the maiden \u2019s blush , is a moth of the family geometridae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the species can be found in europe .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 13 \u2013 25 mm. , first generation , the second generation is typically much smaller and reaches only about 22 mm wingspan .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings have a sand ground colour , or may have reddish or yellowish tints .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the pattern is variable .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the medium-sized , slightly curved and brown coloured cross line is always clearly marked .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "basal to this there is strongly curved row of dots.distally is a slightly curved row of dots .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "a further line dots is the margin .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the fringes are the basic colour .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the pattern elements continue on the hindwings .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the discal marks are the base colour and therefore hardly visible .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the moths fly in generations from may to june and in august in western europe .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the larvae feed on oak leaves . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "cyclophora punctaria", "paragraphs": ["kari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\ntammivy\u00f6mittari\nto\ncyclophora punctaria linnaeus 1758\n.\nmaiden ' s blush ( cyclophora punctaria ) - norfolk moths - the macro and micro moths of norfolk .\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\ngrauroter g\u00fcrtelpuppenspanner\nto\ncyclophora punctaria linnaeus 1758\n.\nhabitat : cyclophora punctaria inhabits oak - rich sites of all types and occurs especially in forest edges of light forests .\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\ngesprenkelter eichen - g\u00fcrtelpuppenspanner\nto\ncyclophora punctaria linnaeus 1758\n.\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\ngepunkteter eichen - g\u00fcrtelpuppenspanner\nto\ncyclophora punctaria linnaeus 1758\n.\nlife cycle : cyclophora punctaria has mostly two generations per year from mid - april to mid - june and early july to late august . the larva can be found from june to early october .\nendangerment factors : cyclophora punctaria is still quite common and only at little risk ( dark forest management with monocultures of spruce and others ) . i found the caterpillars on the eastern swabian alb along with those of cyclophora albipunctata ( these on betula ) in young plantations with oak and wild birch trees and at forest edges .\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\noccurring in oak woodland , this rather attractive species is fairly common locally in the south of england , becoming scarcer further north into scotland .\nspecies , it has two generations , the first flying in may and june , and the second in august .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 07 - 05 19 : 24 : 55 page render time : 0 . 2309s total w / procache : 0 . 2676s\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nremarks : the distribution extends from the iberian peninsula through much of europe to the caspian sea .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nquite variable in markings , some have large area of reddish blush in centre of forewing others a single reddish cross line .\nrecorded in 59 ( 86 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1873 . last recorded in 2018 .\nunderlying maps using digital map data \u00a9 norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola\u2122 2018 . \u00a9 james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data \u00a9 nola\u2122 2018\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nnotes : local in oak woodland throughout much of england and wales . in hampshire and on the isle of wight still widespread and locally common , but less numerous on the chalk . wingspan 25 - 32 mm . fairly unmistakable , but worn , faded specimens could be confused with second generation clay triple - lines c . linearia , which see . larva feeds on pedunculate and sessile oak , over - wintering as a pupa .\nreceive our free weekly newsletter which includes our popular photo of the week and review of the week features , plus competitions , special offers and much more . hide message .\nview thousands of photos and video of butterflies and moths from around the world , or upload your own . to search by species , use the species guide ( change\nioc\nto\nbutterflies & moths\nbefore searching by taxon ) .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nbl\u00e5 punkter visar fynd registrerade i artportalen och \u00f6vriga databaser anslutna till lifewatch . kan inneh\u00e5lla observationer som inte \u00e4r validerade . kartan uppdateras var fj\u00e4rde vecka .\ni det avancerade verktyget kan man s\u00f6ka ut och f\u00e5 fram artlistor , t ex arter i ett visst l\u00e4n , i en viss biotop , substrat , som p\u00e5verkas av en hotfaktor , eller som \u00e4r knutna till en sk v\u00e4rdart , t ex tr\u00e4det alm . dessa kan \u00e4ven kombineras .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , knutna till alm , \u00e4r beroende av d\u00f6d ved och som finns i kronobergs l\u00e4n .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , lever i sm\u00e5vatten och som p\u00e5verkas negativt av igenv\u00e4xning .\ndefaultl\u00e4get i verktyget \u00e4r arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade 2015 och dessa \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga s\u00f6kfaktorer . under fliken r\u00f6dlistekategori kan man dock v\u00e4lja att \u00e4ven inkludera arter som inte \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade . om man v\u00e4ljer att inkludera icke r\u00f6dlistade arter beh\u00f6ver man vara medveten om att samtliga arter inte \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga faktorer . nedan en sammanst\u00e4llning av vad som \u00e4r komplett .\ndenna funktion anv\u00e4nds n\u00e4r du vill skapa din egen lista av arter att hantera . du kan t . ex . navigera mellan arterna i listan genom att klicka p\u00e5 deras namn . du kan ocks\u00e5 v\u00e4lja att anv\u00e4nda knappen \u201dj\u00e4mf\u00f6r arter\u201d f\u00f6r att se bilder , kartor och k\u00e4nnetecken i en j\u00e4mf\u00f6relsevy .\ndu kan komponera ditt eget urval av arter genom att klicka dig fram via sl\u00e4kttr\u00e4det och d\u00e4r v\u00e4lja arter eller artgrupper till din lista . ett annat s\u00e4tt att g\u00f6ra ditt urval \u00e4r att anv\u00e4nda fliken \u201dfiltrera\u201d , d\u00e4r du kan s\u00f6ka p\u00e5 olika egenskaper . ovanf\u00f6r listan med s\u00f6kresultatet finns en knapp \u201dl\u00e4gg i mitt urval\u201d .\nthe mit license copyright ( c ) 2014 - 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{"id": 1677, "summary": [{"text": "platytroctes apus is a species of fish in the family platytroctidae , the tubeshoulders .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is known commonly as the legless searsid and legless tubeshoulder .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is native to tropical and temperate oceans around the world .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it has been found at depths between 385 and 5393 meters , but it generally remains between 1000 and 2000 meters .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "little is known about this rarely-collected deepsea fish .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it reaches up to 18 centimeters in length .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its body is laterally compressed and is described as \" leaf-like \" and \" flabby \" .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is dark brown in color with luminous patches . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "platytroctes apus", "paragraphs": ["kari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nvelttovalokuore\nto\nplatytroctes apus g\u00fcnther , 1878\n.\na legless tubeshoulder , platytroctes apus , from seamounts in the tasman sea . source : robin mcphee & mark mcgrouther / norfanz founding parties . license : all rights reserved\nplatytroctes apus g\u00fcnther 1878 , ann . mag . nat . hist . 5 2 ( 2 , 22 , 28 ) : 249 . type locality : atlantic ocean [ 01\u00b0n , 26\u00b0w ] . depth 1500 fathoms\nscientific synonyms and common names platytroctes apus g\u00fcnther , 1878 synonyms : platytroctes apus g\u00fcnther , 1878 , ann . mag . nat . hist . , ( 5 ) 2 : 249 ( abt . 01\u00b0n . , 26\u00b0 w . , 274 m ) . holotype : bmnh no . 1887 . 12 . 7 . 235 . platytroctes apus : g\u00fcnther , 1887 : 229 - 230 , pl . lviii ( fig . a ) alcock , 1890 : 307 goode & bean , 1896 : 46 , pl . xv ( fig . 53 ) zugmayer , l911b : 8 - 9 roule , 1916 : 12 ; 1919 : 1416 , pl . i ( fig . 4 , 4a - c ) koefoed , 1927 : 58 fowler , 1936 : 191 - 192 , fig . 80 lozano rey , 1947 : 85 - 87 , fig . 15 - 16 grey , 1956 : 116 - 117 parr , 1960 : 34 - 37 , fig . 22 - 26 krefft , 1963 : 83 . platytroctes procerus brauer , 1906 , wiss . ergebn . dt . tiefsee - exped . ' valdivia ' , 15 ( 1 ) : 23 - 24 , fig . 3 ( 14\u00b039 ' 05\nn . , 21\u00b051 ' 08\nw . , 2500 m ) . holotype : zmhu no . 17427 . common names : legless searsid [ en ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\noccurs in the atlantic , pacific and indian oceans . this is a rarely captured , deep - dwelling species . current threats to this species are unknown and ecological information is limited . this species is listed as least concern .\noccurs circumglobally in temperate and tropical waters ( carter 2002 ) . this species occurs tropical western atlantic , indian and pacific oceans and in the eastern atlantic from iceland to south of the equator at the sierra leone rise ( pakhorukov 1999 , quero\nit is equatorial in the indian ocean , extends to about 66\u00b0n in the eastern atlantic and is absent in the southern atlantic ( matsui and rosenblatt 1987 ) . there are scattered records from denmark strait and bay of biscay to gabon ( qu\u00e9ro\n2008 ) but it has been reported from 385 m to 5 , 393 m ( randall and farrell 1997 ) . it is known to occur in the low - oxygen waters off the bay of bengal and the arabian sea ( matsui and rosenblatt 1987 ) .\nanguilla ; aruba ; australia ; bangladesh ; barbados ; belize ; benin ; bermuda ; bonaire , sint eustatius and saba ; british indian ocean territory ; cameroon ; cape verde ; cayman islands ; colombia ; comoros ; costa rica ; c\u00f4te d ' ivoire ; cuba ; cura\u00e7ao ; dominican republic ; ecuador ( ecuador ( mainland ) ) ; equatorial guinea ; france ( france ( mainland ) ) ; french guiana ; french southern territories ( mozambique channel is . ) ; gabon ; gambia ; ghana ; greenland ; grenada ; guinea ; guinea - bissau ; guyana ; haiti ; honduras ; iceland ; india ; indonesia ; iran , islamic republic of ; ireland ; jamaica ; kenya ; liberia ; madagascar ; malaysia ; maldives ; mauritania ; mauritius ; mexico ; montserrat ; morocco ; mozambique ; myanmar ; new caledonia ; nicaragua ; nigeria ; norfolk island ; oman ; pakistan ; panama ; philippines ; portugal ( azores , madeira , portugal ( mainland ) , selvagens ) ; puerto rico ; r\u00e9union ; saint pierre and miquelon ; saint vincent and the grenadines ; sao tom\u00e9 and principe ( principe , s\u00e2o tom\u00e9 ) ; senegal ; seychelles ; sierra leone ; somalia ; spain ( canary is . , spain ( mainland ) ) ; sri lanka ; suriname ; tanzania , united republic of ; thailand ; timor - leste ; togo ; trinidad and tobago ; united kingdom ; united states ; venezuela , bolivarian republic of ; virgin islands , british ; western sahara ; yemen\n( froese and pauly 2011 , fishnet2 2012 ) . this species is rarely captured ( iwamoto pers . comm . 2013 ) .\ncan reach a size of 18 cm standard length ( carter 2002 ) . this species inhabits low - oxygen waters and have poorly developed gill filaments ( matsui and rosenblatt 1987 ) .\nare unknown . if any threats do exist , for they are probably limited by the depth range of this species .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngreek , platys = flat + greek , troktes , - ou = that eats ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; bathypelagic ; depth range 385 - 5393 m ( ref . 40846 ) . deep - water ; 67\u00b0n - 21\u00b0s , 57\u00b0w - 119\u00b0e\neastern atlantic : scattered records from denmark strait and bay of biscay ( ref . 6682 ) to gabon ( ref . 4461 ) . indian , pacific and western atlantic : in tropical waters .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 18 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 4461 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 20 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 17 . body highly compressed and flabby ; body leaf - like in appearance ; no nodular luminous organ on body , upper and lower edges of caudal peduncle fringed by black presumably luminous tissue ; pectoral fin tiny ; body dark brown ; opercular region , shoulder luminous organ , and anus black ( ref . 13608 ) .\nreported to reach the depth of 5 , 393 m ( r . e . pohl , pers . comm . , 28 / 11 / 01 ) .\nqu\u00e9ro , j . - c . , t . matsui , r . h . rosenblatt and y . i . sazonov , 1984 . searsiidae . p . 256 - 267 . in p . j . p . whitehead , m . - l . bauchot , j . - c . hureau , j . nielsen and e . tortonese ( eds . ) fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and the mediterranean . unesco , paris . vol . 1 . ( ref . 6682 )\n) : 1 . 9 - 4 . 9 , mean 3 ( based on 5566 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 7500 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01122 ( 0 . 00514 - 0 . 02450 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 87 - 3 . 21 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 \u00b10 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( assuming tmax > 3 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 12 of 100 ) .\ntusks . gillrakers ( 29 ) 33 - 40 ( 8 - 11 on upper limb ) .\n, with 15 - 19 finrays . no light organs . most scales bearing a\n: scattered records from west of morocco , off portugal , bay of biscay and denmark strait . elsewhere , southward to about 9\u00b0 25 ' n , also\nalcock , a . w . 1890b . natural history notes from h . m . indian marine survey steamer ' investigator ' , commander r . f . hoskyn , r . n . , commanding . no . 18 . on the bathybia fishes of the arabian sea , obtained during the season 1889 - 1890 . ann . mag . nat . hist . , ( 6 ) 6 ( 34 ) : 295 - 311 .\nbrauer , a . 1906 . die tiefseefische . 1 . systematischer teil . wiss . ergebn . dt . tiefsee - exped . ' valdivia ' , iena , 15 ( 1 ) : pp . 1 - 432 , 18 pl . , 176 fig .\nfowler , h . w . 1936 . the marine fishes of west africa , based on the collection of the american museum congo expedition 1909 - 1915 . bull . am . mus . nat . hist . , 70 ( 1 ) , jan . 21 , 1936 : pp . vii + 1 - 606 , fig . 1 - 275 ; ( 2 ) , nov . 18 , 1936 : pp . 607 - 1493 , fig . 276 - 567 .\ng\u00fcnther , a . 1878 . preliminary notices of deep - sea fishes collected during the voyage of h . m . s . challenger . ann . mag . nat . hist . , ( 5 ) 2 : pp . 17 - 28 , pp . 179 - 187 , pp . 248 - 251 .\ngoode , g . b . ; bean , t . h . 1896 . oceanic ichthyology , a treatise on the deep - sea and pelagic fishes of the world , based chiefly upon the collections made by steamers blake , albatross and fish hawk in the northwestern atlantic . smithson . contrib . knowl . , 30 and spec . bull u . s . natn . mus . , 1895 [ 1896 ] and mem . mus . comp . zool . harv . , 1 ( text ) : pp . xxxv + 1 - 553 ; 2 ( atlas ) : pp . xxiii + 1 - 26 , 123 pl . , 417 fig .\ngrey , m . 1956 . the distribution of fishes found below a depth of 2000 meters . fieldiana , zool . , 36 ( 2 ) : 75 - 337 .\ng\u00fcnther , a . 1887 . report on the deep - sea fishes collected by h . m . s . challenger during the years 1873 - 1876 . challenger reports , zool . , 22 : ixv + 268 pp . , 7 fig . , 66 pl .\nkoefoed , e . 1927 . fishes from the sea - bottom . rep . scient . results michael sars n . atlant . deep sea exped . , [ tittle page : 1927 , 1932 ] , 4 ( 1 ) : 148 pp . , 55 fig . , 6 pl .\nlozano y rey , l . 1947 . peces ganoideos y fisostomos , mems r . acad . cienc . exact . fis . nat . madr . , ser . : cienc . nat . , 11 : xv + 839 p . , 190 fig . , 20 pl .\nparr , a . e . 1960 . the fishes of the family searsidae . dana rep . , ( 51 ) : pp . 1 - 109 , fig . 1 - 73 .\nroule , l . 1916a . notice pr\u00e9liminaire sur quelques esp\u00e8ces nouvelles ou rares des poissons provenant des croisieres de s . a . s . ie prince de monaco . bull . inst . oc\u00e9anogr . , monaco , ( 320 ) : 1 - 32 .\nroule , l . 1919 . poissons provenant des campagnes du yacht ' princesse alice ' ( 1891 - 1913 ) et du yacht ' hirondelle ii ' ( 1914 ) . r\u00e9sult . camp . scient . prince albert 1 , 52 : 191 pp . , 7 pl .\nzugmayer , e . 1911b . poissons provenant des campagnes du yacht ' princesse alice ' . r\u00e9sult . camp . scient . prince albert 1 , 35 : 174 pp . , 6 pl .\na deep - bodied dark brown tubeshoulder with a black opercular region , shoulder luminous organ , and anus , tiny pectoral fins , and luminous glands along the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the caudal peduncle .\nnorthwest of port hedland , western australia , and on the norfolk ridge , north and south of norfolk island . elsewhere the species is circumglobal in tropical to temperate waters .\ndorsal fin 20 ; anal fin 17 . body highly compressed , flabby , leaf - like in appearance ; upper and lower edges of caudal peduncle fringed by black luminous tissue ; pectoral fin tiny .\ng\u00fcnther , a . 1878 . preliminary notices of deep - sea fishes collected during the voyage of h . m . s . challenger .\ng\u00fcnther , a . 1887 . report on the deep - sea fishes collected by h . m . s challenger during the years 1873\u20131876 .\nreport on the scientific results of the voyage of h . m . s . challenger 1873\u20131876 , zoology\n. the iucn red list of threatened species 2015 : e . t190217a21908841 . urltoken downloaded on 16 july 2017 .\nhartel , k . e . , kenaley , c . p . , galbraith , j . k . & sutton , t . t . 2008 . additional records of deep - sea fishes from off the greater new england .\nmatsui , t . & rosenblatt , r . h . 1987 . review of the deep - sea fish family platytroctidae ( pisces : salmoniformes ) .\npakhorukov , n . p . 1999 . underwater observations on deepwater fish of the atlantic ocean in the region of the sierra leone rise .\nparr , a . e . 1960 . the fishes of the family searsidae .\nqu\u00e9ro , j . - c . , matsui , t . , rosenblatt , r . h . & sazonov , yu . i . 1984 . searsiidae , pp . 256 - 267 . in : whitehead , p . j . p . , bauchot , m . - l . , hureau , j . - c . , nielsen , j . & tortonese , e . ( eds ) 1984 .\nsazonov , yu . i . 1986 : morphology and classification of the fishes of the family platytroctidae ( salmoniformes , alepocephaloidei ) .\nsazonov , yu . i . 1996 . morphology and significance of the luminous organs in alepocephaloid fishes , pp . 151 - 163 . in : uiblein , f . , ott , j . , stachowitsch , m . ( eds ) deep - sea and extreme shallow - water habitats : affinities and adaptations .\nsazonov , y . i . 1999 . family platytroctidae . pp . 1894 - 1895 in carpenter , k . e . & niem , v . h . ( eds ) .\nthe living marine resources of the western central pacific . fao species identification guide for fisheries purposes .\nwilliams , a . & stewart , a . l . 2015 . family platytroctidae . pp . 346 - 353 in roberts , c . d . , stewart , a . l . & struthers , c . d .\n. wellington : te papa press vol . 2 pp . 1 - 576 .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nyearsley , g . k . , last , p . r . & morris , g . b . 1997 ,\ncodes for australian aquatic biota ( caab ) : an upgraded and expanded species coding system for australian fisheries databases\n, pp . 15 pp . + appendices\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 4a21abe5 - 5c3d - 45b6 - 9476 - bd340b45caf4\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 92e094f2 - 94c6 - 4226 - 9167 - 5a1b294d827f\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : efef03cd - 1cab - 4c4a - a2d7 - 973ad085221b\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f02d8f5d - 1d9c - 45d1 - 8c63 - dc6046012477\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f587d0a9 - 1ee7 - 4075 - 92a1 - 3f6416b3f69d\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 332303\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country ."]}
{"id": 1682, "summary": [{"text": "chamaesphecia nigrifrons is a moth of the family sesiidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in central and south-eastern france , corsica , luxembourg , south-western germany , austria , south-eastern czech republic , eastern slovakia , hungary , croatia , slovenia , former yugoslavia , serbia , southern republic of macedonia , bosnia and herzegovina , bulgaria , northern romania , northern greece , southern ukraine ( the crimea ) , transcaucasia , north-western and southern turkey and north-western syria .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the wingspan is 9 \u2013 18 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are brownish black and the transparent areas are small and covered with hyaline scales .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings have black veins , a broad discal spot and black margins .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on hypericum perforatum .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the live in the root of their host plant for one year .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "pupation takes place in the basal part of the dry stem .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "in autumn , they eject reddish brown sawdust from the galleries at the base of the stems while constructing a tunnel up into an old stem of the host . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "chamaesphecia nigrifrons", "paragraphs": ["chamaesphecia spuler , 1910 ; schmett . eur . 2 : 311 ; ts : sphinx empiformis esper\nchamaesphecia anthrax le cerf , 1920 ; in oberth\u00fcr , etud . l\u00e9pid . comp . 17 : 528\nchamaesphecia festai turati , 1925 ; boll . mus . zool . torino 39 ( 7 ) : 5\nchamaesphecia crassicornis bartel , 1912 ; gross - schmett . erde 2 : 409 ; tl : kazakhstan , uralsk\nchamaesphecia anatolica schwingenschuss , 1938 ; ent . rdsch . 55 : 175 ; tl : turkey , konya , aksehir\nchamaesphecia micra le cerf , 1916 ; \u00e9tud . l\u00e9pid . comp . 11 : 15 ; tl : algeria , lamb\u00e8se\nchamaesphecia stelidiformis f . amygdaloidis schleppnik , 1933 ; zs . \u00f6st . entver . 18 : 24 ; tl : austria , hochkar mts .\nchamaesphecia maurusia p\u00fcngeler , 1912 ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 2 : 412 ; tl : algeria , teniet - el - had\nchamaesphecia thracica lastuvka , 1983 ; acta univ . agric . ( brno ) 31 ( 1 / 2 ) : 207 ; tl : bulgaria , micurin\nchamaesphecia guenter herrmann & hofmann , 1997 ; [ bsw4 ] , 267 ; tl : morocco , middle atlas , tizi - n - iar , ca . 1600m\nchamaesphecia palustris kautz , 1927 ; verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 77 : 2 ; tl : austria , bruck a . d . leitha , wilfleinsdorf\nchamaesphecia hungarica ; gorbunov , 1991 , atalanta 22 ( 2 / 4 ) : 141 ( note ) , pl . xxii , f . 15 ; de freina , 1997 , [ bsw4 ] , 218\nbartsch , d . & kallies , a . ( 2008 ) : zur kenntnis einiger arten von chamaesphecia spuler , 1910 in marokko ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 118 ( 2 ) , 85 - 93 .\nchamaesphecia rondouana le cerf , 1922 ; in oberth\u00fcr , \u00e9tud . l\u00e9pid . comp . 19 ( 2 ) : 32 , pl . 540 , f . 4535 - 4536 ; tl : g\u00e8dre ; gavarnie , hautes - pyr\u00e9n\u00e9es\nchamaesphecia anthrax ; le cerf , 1922 , \u00e9tud . l\u00e9pid . comp . 19 ( 1 ) : 131 , ( 2 ) pl . 540 , f . 4541 ; de freina , 1997 , [ bsw4 ] , 234\nbartsch , d . & lingenh\u00f6le , a . ( 2011 ) : chamaesphecia cilicia sp . nov . aus dem taurus gebirge , t\u00fcrkei ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 121 ( 2 ) , 89 - 91 .\nniculescu , e . v . ( 1960 ) : contributions morphologiques \u00e0 l ' \u00e9tude des aegeriidae ( lepidoptera ) pal\u00e9arctiques . i ) chamaesphecia minianiformis frr . \u2013 bulletin de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 entomologique de mulhouse 1 , 1 - 5 .\nchamaesphecia kistenjovi gorbunov , 1991 ; atalanta 22 ( 2 / 4 ) : 137 , f . 23 - 27 , pl . xxii , f . 13 - 14 ; tl : georgia , borzhomi , 41\u00b055 ' n , 43\u00b018 ' n\nchamaesphecia ophimontana gorbunov , 1991 ; atalanta 22 ( 2 / 4 ) : 140 , pl . xxii , f . 16 ; tl : transcaucasus , nakhichevan , daralagez mt . range , ~ 3km n buzgov , 39\u00b032 ' n , 45\u00b024 ' e\nchamaesphecia guriensis ; bartel , 1912 , gross - schmett . erde 2 : 407 , pl . 52 c ; dalla torre & strand , 1925 , lepidopterorum catalogus 31 : 94 ; heppner & duckworth , 1981 , smiths . contr . zool . 314 : 36 ; gorbunov , 1986 , trudy vsesojuznogo entomologiceskogo obscestva 67 : 8 ; lastuvka , 1989 , acta univ . agric . ( brno ) 37 : f . 27 ; gorbunov , 1991 , atalanta 22 ( 2 / 4 ) : 135 , f . 19 - 22 , pl . xxii , f . 9 - 12\np\u00fchringer , f . & kallies , a . ( 2004 ) : provisional checklist of the sesiidae of the world ( lepidoptera : ditrysia ) . \u2013 mitteilungen der entomologischen arbeitsgemeinschaft salzkammergut 4 , 1 - 85 ; updated by f . p\u00fchringer .\n, a - 4817 st . konrad , austria ; \u00a9 dr . axel kallies , the walter and eliza hall institute , 1g royal parade , parkville , victoria 3050 , australia )\neuthrenini fischer 2006b : 219 [ afrokona fischer 2006 ] ; unavailable ( art . 29 . 1 iczn )\n( felder & felder 1874 : 9 , pl . 82 ) , trochilina 14\n( boisduval in guerin - meneville [ 1832 ] : pl . 84 : fig . 3 ) ,\n( esper 1800 : 29 ) , sphinx ; rejected name ( opinion nr . 1287 iczn )\n( linnaeus 1758 : 493 ) , sphinx ; rejected name ( opinion nr . 1288 iczn )\n( snellen 1900 : 34 ) , sesia ; junior primary homonym of sesia thysbe f . uniformis grote & robinson 1868\n[ as trichocerata myrmosaeformis var . lucida ( lederer 1853 ) , nomen nudum ]\ntaxa originally described as sesia spp . ( never assigned to sesiidae , but available for homonymy )\n( cramer [ 1776 ] : 95 , 152 ( index ) , pl . 61 , fig . c ) ,\nagassiz , j . l . r . ( [ 1847 ] ) : nomenclatoris zoologici index universalis . \u2013 nomenclator zoologicus 2 ( 12 ) ( 1846 ) , 393 pp . ( 319 )\nalpheraky , s . n . ( 1882 ) : l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res du district de kouldj\u00e0 et des montagnes environnantes . ii\u00e8me partie . heterocera . \u2013 horae societatis entomologicae rossicae 17 , 15 - 103 , pls 1 - 3 . ( 18 - 22 , pl . 1 )\namsel , h . - g . ( 1933 ) : die lepidopteren pal\u00e4stinas . eine zoogeographisch - \u00f6kologisch - faunistische studie . \u2013 zoogeographica 2 , 1 - 146 . ( 25 )\namsel , h . - g . ( 1935 ) : neue pal\u00e4stinensische lepidopteren . \u2013 mitteilungen aus dem zoologischen museum in berlin 20 , 271 - 319 . ( 277 - 278 )\narita , y . ( 1989 ) : two new and an unrecorded clearwing moths ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) from thailand . \u2013 microlepidoptera of thailand 2 , 9 - 14 .\n( moore ) ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from japan . \u2013 tyo to ga 43 ( 3 ) , 221 - 224 .\ndehne ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) of japan . \u2013 japanese journal of entomology 60 ( 2 ) , 449 - 462 .\n( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from yakushima island , japan . \u2013 tyo to ga 44 ( 2 ) , 77 - 80 .\narita , y . & gorbunov , o . ( 1995a ) : sesiidae of nepal . in haruta , t . ( ed . ) : moths of nepal . \u2013 tinea 14 ( suppl . 2 ) , 194 - 206 , pls 108 + 128 .\nhampson , [ 1893 ] ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) of the oriental region . \u2013 transactions of the lepidopterological society of japan 46 ( 2 ) , 103 - 111 .\ntypes ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) kept in the hope entomological collections , oxford university , uk . \u2013 transactions of the lepidopterological society of japan 46 ( 4 ) , 185 - 205 .\narita , y . & gorbunov , o . ( 1995d ) : a revision of the genus heterosphecia le cerf , 1916 ( lepidoptera : sesiidae , osminiini ) . \u2013 tinea 14 ( 2 ) , 131 - 141 .\nh\u00fcbner , [ 1819 ] ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from thailand . \u2013 transactions of the lepidopterological society of japan 47 ( 3 ) , 157 - 173 .\narita , y . & gorbunov , o . , ( 1996b ) : a revision of ferdinand le cerf ' s clearwing moth types ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) , kept at the paris museum . i . the genus\nh\u00fcbner , [ 1819 ] in the oriental and australian regions . \u2013 japanese journal of systematic entomology 2 ( 2 ) , 137 - 187 .\nclearwing moth ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from kyushu , japan . \u2013 transactions of the lepidopterological society of japan 48 ( 1 ) , 33 - 38 .\narita , y . & gorbunov , o . ( 1998a ) : a revision of ferdinand le cerf ' s clearwing moth types ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) , kept at the paris museum . iii . the genus\nle cerf , 1916 in the oriental region . \u2013 transactions of the lepidopterological society of japan 49 ( 1 ) , 19 - 29 .\narita , y . & gorbunov , o . ( 1998b ) : a revision of embrik strand ' s clearwing moth types ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) from taiwan . \u2013 chinese journal of entomology 18 ( 3 ) , 141 - 165 .\narita , y . & gorbunov , o . ( 2000a ) : on the tribe melittiini ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) of vietnam . \u2013 tinea 16 ( 4 ) , 252 - 291 .\narita , y . & gorbunov , o . ( 2000b ) : notes on the tribe osminiini ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from vietnam , with descriptions of new taxa . \u2013 transactions of the lepidopterological society of japan 51 ( 1 ) , 49 - 74 .\nle cerf , 1916 ( lepidoptera , sesiidae , osminiini ) of vietnam and adjacent countries . \u2013 transactions of the lepidopterological society of japan 51 ( 3 ) , 205 - 214 .\narita , y . & gorbunov , o . ( 2001 ) : sesiidae of taiwan . i . the tribes tinthiini , similipepsini , paraglosseciini , pennisetiini , paranthrenini and cissuvorini . \u2013 japanese journal of systematic entomology 7 ( 2 ) , 131 - 188 .\nhampson ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from taiwan . \u2013 transactions of the lepidopterological society of japan 53 ( 4 ) , 241 - 244 .\narita , y . & gorbunov , o . g . ( 2002b ) : sesiidae of taiwan . ii . the tribes osminiini , melittiini and sesiini . \u2013 japanese journal of systematic entomology 8 ( 2 ) , 199 - 241 .\narita , y . & gorbunov , o . g . ( 2003a ) : new taxa of wasp - waisted clearwing moths ( lepidoptera , sesiidae , similipepsini ) from vietnam . \u2013 transactions of the lepidopterological society of japan 54 ( 1 ) , 11 - 19 .\narita , y . & gorbunov , o . g . ( 2003b ) : in arita , y . , gorbunov , o . g . & mohamed , m . : on the knowledge of the clearwing moth ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) of the maliau basin , sabah , borneo . \u2013 transactions of the lepidopterological society of japan 54 ( 2 ) , 131 - 142 .\n( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from north vietnam . \u2013 transactions of the lepidopterological society of japan 52 ( 1 ) , 51 - 57 .\narita , y . & kallies , a . ( 2003 ) : a new species of the genus trilochana moore , 1879 ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from sulawesi . \u2013 transactions of the lepidopterological society of japan 54 ( 4 ) , 229 - 232 . arita , y . & kallies , a . ( 2005 ) : see kallies , a . & arita , y . ( 2005 ) .\narita , y . & kimura , m . ( 2016 ) : see arita , y . , kimura , m . , yata , n . & nagase , m . ( 2016 ) .\narita , y . , kallies , a . , hsu , y . - f . , liang , j . - y . , lai , b . - c . , yang , m . - m . & yata , n . ( 2016 ) : polymorphism of nokona pilamicola ( strand , [ 1916 ] ) ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) in taiwan .\narita , y . , kimura , m . & owada , m . ( 2009 ) : two new species of the clearwing moth ( sesiidae ) from okinawa - jima , the ryukyus . \u2013\ntransactions of the lepidopterological society of japan 60 ( 3 ) , 189 - 192 .\narita , y . , kimura , m . , yata , n . & nagase , m . ( 2016 ) : vicariance in the macroscelesia japona species - group ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) in the ryukyus , japan . \u2013 tinea 23 ( 4 ) , 184 - 198 . arita , y . & nagase , m . ( 2016 ) : see arita , y . , kimura , m . , yata , n . & nagase , m . ( 2016 ) .\nkallies & arita , 1998 ( lepidoptera : sesiidae , paranthrenini ) from south - east asia , with list of literature on oriental sesiidae published since 1988 . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 114 ( 3 ) , 116 - 120 .\n( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from japan . \u2013 japanese journal of entomology 57 ( 1 ) , 61 - 66 .\narita , y . & tosevski , i . ( 1992 ) : in tosevski , i . & arita , y . : a new species of the clearwing moth genus\n( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from the ryukyus . \u2013 japanese journal of entomology 60 ( 3 ) , 619 - 623 .\n( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) of japan . \u2013 tinea 12 ( suppl . ) , 158 - 167 .\narita , y . & yata , n . ( 2016 ) : see arita , y . , kimura , m . , yata , n . & nagase , m . ( 2016 ) .\narita , y . & xu , z . ( 1994a ) : in arita , y . , xu , z . & liu , x . : a new\n( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) , clearwing borer on pecan from nanjing , china . \u2013 tinea 14 ( 1 ) , 61 - 64 .\narita , y . & xu , z . ( 1994b ) : in arita , y . , xu , z . & liu , x . : description of a new\nclearwing moth injuring poplar street trees in lhasa , tibet ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) . \u2013 tyo to ga 45 ( 3 ) , 193 - 199 .\nassmann , a . ( 1845 ) : schw\u00e4rmer oder d\u00e4mmerungsschmetterlinge ( sphinges ) . \u2013 abbildung und beschreibung der schmetterlinge schlesiens 2 , 48 pp , 26 pls . ( 17 - 26 , 45 - 47 , pls 5 - 7 , 24 )\naurivillius , p . o . c . ( 1879 ) : lepidoptera damarensia . f\u00f6rteckning pa fj\u00e4rilar insamlade i damaralandet af g . de vylder aren 1873 och 1874 jemte beskrifning \u00f6fver f\u00f6rut ok\u00e4nda arter . \u2013 \u00f6fversigt af kongliga vetenskaps - akademiens f\u00f6rhandlingar 36 ( 7 ) , 39 - 69 . ( 47 - 48 )\naurivillius , p . o . c . ( 1905 ) : lieutnant a . schultzes sammlung von lepidopteren aus west - afrika . \u2013 arkiv f\u00f6r zoologi 2 ( 12 ) , 1 - 47 , 5 pls . ( 43 - 46 )\naurivillius , p . o . c . ( 1909 ) : lepidoptera , rhopalocera und heterocera ( pars i ) von madagaskar , den comoren und den inseln ostafrikas . in voeltzkow , a . : reise in ostafrika in den jahren 1903 - 1905 , wissenschaftliche ergebnisse 2 , [ 309 ] - 348 , 19 pls . ( 342 , pl . 19 )\nbakowski , m . , bartsch , d . & kallies , a . ( 2008 ) : a review of the similipepsini of the afrotropical region ( lepidoptera : sesiidae : tinthiini ) . \u2013 annales zoologici 58 ( 4 ) , 785 - 797 .\nbarnes , w . & benjamin , f . h . ( 1925 ) : change of a preoccupied name ( lepidoptera : aegeriidae ) . \u2013 proceedings of the entomological society of washington 27 ( 1 ) , 14 .\nbarnes , w . & lindsey , a . w . ( 1922 ) : descriptions of two new species of aegeriidae ( lep . ) . \u2013 bulletin of the brooklyn entomological society ( n . s . ) 18 ( 4 ) , 122 - 123 .\nbarnes , w . & mcdunnough , j . h . ( 1918 ) : notes and new species . \u2013 contributions to the natural history of the lepidoptera of north america 4 ( 2 ) , 61 - 208 . ( 178 )\nbartel , m . ( 1902 ) : die palaearktischen grossschmetterlinge und ihre naturgeschichte . zweiter band : nachtfalter . i . abteilung , 239 - 384 . \u2013 leipzig .\n- art aus der schweiz . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift ( guben ) 19 , 190 - 191 .\nbartel , m . ( 1912 ) : 24 . familie : aegeriidae ( sesiidae ) . \u2013 in seitz , a . ( ed . ) : die gro\u00dfschmetterlinge der erde 2 , 375 - 416 , pls 51 - 52 .\nbartsch , d . ( 2003 ) : beitrag zur glasfl\u00fcglerfauna von nepal ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 113 ( 5 ) , 145 , 149 - 151 .\nbartsch , d . ( 2004 ) : die sesienfauna zyperns - eine kommentierte \u00fcbersicht ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 114 ( 2 ) , 80 - 86 .\nbettag , 1997 aus marokko ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 116 ( 5 ) , 211 - 215 .\nbartsch , d . ( 2008 ) : redescription and systematic position of the afrotropical clearwing moth genus grypopalpia hampson , 1919 ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 118 ( 5 ) , 221 - 224 .\nbartsch , d . ( 2008 ) : a review of the paranthrenini of the afrotropical region ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 118 ( 6 ) , 265 - 280 .\nbartsch , d . ( 2009 ) : melittosesia , a new genus of clearwing moths with a review of the sesiini boisduval , 1828 in madagascar ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 119 ( 1 ) , 9 - 16 .\nbartsch , d . ( 2010 ) : taxonomic revision of the clearwing moth genus crinipus hampson , 1896 ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 zootaxa 2618 , 36 - 46 .\nbartsch , d . ( 2012 ) : revision of types of several species of bembecia h\u00fcbner , 1819 from northern africa and southwestern europe ( sesiidae ) . \u2013 nota lepidopterologica 35 ( 2 ) , 125 - 133 .\nbartsch , d . ( 2013 ) : revisionary checklist of the southern african sesiini ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) with description of new species .\nbartsch , d . ( 2015 ) : new taxa of southern african sesiini ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) .\nbartsch , d . ( 2016a ) : revisionary checklist of the southern african osminiini ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) .\nbartsch , d . ( 2016b ) : melittia fiebigi spec . nov . and afromelittia caerulea spec . nov . , two new melittiini from southern africa ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) .\nannals of the ditsong national museum of natural history 6 , 109 - 115 .\nbartsch , d . & berg , j . ( 2012 ) : new species and review of the afrotropical clearwing moth genus camaegeria strand , 1914 ( lepidoptera : sesiidae : synanthedonini ) . \u2013 zootaxa 3181 , 28 - 46 .\nspec . nov . ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 nachrichten des entomologischen vereins apollo , n . f . 18 ( 1 ) , 29 - 40 .\nbartsch , d . , bettag , e . , bl\u00e4sius , r . & lingenh\u00f6le , a . ( 2006 ) : zur kenntnis von pyropteron doryliforme ( ochsenheimer , 1808 ) , pyropteron biedermanni le cerf , 1925 und pyropteron ceriaeforme ( lucas , 1849 ) stat . rev . ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 116 ( 1 ) , 3 - 10 .\nbartsch , d . & p\u00fchringer , f . ( 2005 ) : die glasfl\u00fcgler kretas ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 115 ( 3 ) , 131 - 139 .\nsp . nov . aus der s\u00fcdt\u00fcrkei ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 112 ( 3 ) , 78 - 80 .\n, zwei neue glasfl\u00fcgler arten aus afghanistan ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 120 ( 6 ) , 243 - 248 .\nbecker , v . o . ( 1984 ) : 29 . gelechiidae . \u2013 in heppner , j . ( ed . ) : atlas of neotropical lepidoptera . checklist : part 1 . micropterigoidea - immoidea 1 , 1 - 112 . ( 44 - 53 )\nbehrens , j . ( 1889 ) : in french , g . h . : some texas , arizona and california moths . \u2013 the canadian entomologist 21 ( 9 ) , 161 - 163 . ( 163 )\nbellier de la chavignerie , j . b . e . ( 1860 ) : observations sur la faune entomologique de la sicile . \u2013 annales de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 entomologique de france ( troisi\u00e8me s\u00e9rie ) 8 ( 3 ) , 667 - 713 , pl . 12 . ( 681 - 684 )\nbertaccini , e . & fiumi , g . ( 2002 ) : bombici e sfingi d ' italia ( lepidoptera sesioidea ) 4 , 181 pp , 8 pls . ( 32 - 181 , pls 1 - 8 )\nsp . n . , ein neuer glasfl\u00fcgler aus marokko ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 nachrichten des entomologischen vereins apollo , n . f . 18 ( 1 ) , 23 - 27 .\nbettag , e & bl\u00e4sius , r . ( 1998 ) : eine neue glasfl\u00fcglerart aus marokko ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 phegea 26 ( 2 ) , 71 - 75 .\nbettag , e . & bl\u00e4sius , r . ( 1999 ) : \u00fcber den status von dipsosphecia megillaeformis var . tunetana ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 phegea 27 ( 3 ) , 93 - 101 .\n- art aus s\u00fcdspanien . une nouvelle esp\u00e8ce de synanthedon du sud de l ' espagne ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) . \u2013 revue de l ' association roussillonnaise d ' entomologie 11 ( 1 ) , 4 - 16 .\nbeutelspacher , b . c . r . ( 1983 ) : redefinicion taxonomica de montezumia cardinalis dampf ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 ciencia forestal 8 ( 43 ) , 24 - 32 .\nbeutenm\u00fcller , w . ( 1893 ) : notes on some north american moths , with descriptions of new species . \u2013 bulletin of the american museum of natural history 5 , 19 - 26 . ( 22 - 26 )\nbeutenm\u00fcller , w . ( 1894a ) : studies of some species of north american aegeriidae . \u2013 bulletin of the american museum of natural history 6 , 87 - 98 .\nbeutenm\u00fcller , w . ( 1894b ) : on north american moths , with the description of a new species of triprocris . \u2013 bulletin of the american museum of natural history 6 , 365 - 368 .\nbeutenm\u00fcller , w . ( 1896 ) : critical review of the sesiidae found in america , north of mexico . \u2013 bulletin of the american museum of natural history 8 , 111 - 148 .\nbeutenm\u00fcller , w . ( 1897 ) : notes on north american sesiidae , with descriptions of new species . \u2013 bulletin of the american museum of natural history 9 , 213 - 216 .\nbeutenm\u00fcller , w . ( 1898 ) : three new species of sesiidae . \u2013 journal of the new york entomological society 6 ( 4 ) , 240 - 241 .\nbeutenm\u00fcller , w . ( 1899a ) : new african sesiidae . \u2013 journal of the new york entomological society 7 , 170 - 172 .\nbeutenm\u00fcller , w . ( 1899b ) : descriptions of and notes on some north american lepidoptera . \u2013 journal of the new york entomological society 7 ( 4 ) , 254 - 256 .\nbeutenm\u00fcller , w . ( 1900a ) : synopsis of the species of melittia of america , north of mexico , with description of a new species . \u2013 bulletin of the american museum of natural history 12 ( 1899 ) , 149 - 151 .\nbeutenm\u00fcller , w . ( 1900b ) : on some species of north american lepidoptera . \u2013 bulletin of the american museum of natural history 12 ( 1899 ) , 157 - 160 .\nbeutenm\u00fcller , w . ( 1900d ) : two new sesiidae . \u2013 journal of the new york entomological society 8 , 254 .\nbeutenm\u00fcller , w . ( 1901 ) : monograph of the sesiidae of america , north of mexico . \u2013 memoirs of the american museum of natural history 1 ( 6 ) , 217 - 352 , pl . 29 - 36 .\n. \u2013 journal of the new york entomological society 10 ( 2 ) , 126 .\nbeutenm\u00fcller , w . ( 1909 ) : descriptions of three new sesiidae . \u2013 entomological news 20 , 82 - 84 .\nbeutenm\u00fcller , w . ( 1916 ) : description of a new sesiid . \u2013 the canadian entomologist 48 ( 11 ) , 372 .\nboisduval , j . a . ( 1828 ) : europaeorum lepidopterorum index methodicus 1 , 103 pp . \u2013 paris . ( 29 - 31 )\nboisduval , j . a . ( 1829 - 1844 ) : dixi\u00e8me ordre : l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res . in gu\u00e9rin - m\u00e9n\u00e9ville , f . e . : iconographie du r\u00e8gne animal de g . cuvier , ou repr\u00e9sentation d ' apres nature de l ' une des esp\u00e8ces les plus remarquables , et souvent non encore figur\u00e9es , de chaque genre d ' animaux , vol . 2 and 3 , 576 pp , 104 pls . \u2013 paris . ( pl . 84 , [ 1832 ] ;\n) boisduval , j . a . ( 1836 ) : histoire naturelle des insectes . sp\u00e9cies g\u00e9n\u00e9ral des l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res 1 , xii + 690 pp , 24 pls . \u2013 paris . ( pl . xiv ) boisduval , j . a . ( 1840 ) : genera et index methodicus europaeorum lepidopterorum ( pars i sistens papiliones , sphinges , bombyces , noctuas ) , 238 pp . \u2013 paris . ( 41 - 44 ) boisduval , j . b . a . ( 1869 ) : l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res de la californie . \u2013 annales de la societe entomologique de belgique 12 ( 1868 - 1869 ) , 1 - 94 . ( 63 - 64 ) boisduval , j . a . ( [ 1875 ] ) : sphingides , s\u00e9siides , castnides . \u2013 histoire naturelle des insectes . sp\u00e9cies g\u00e9neral des l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res h\u00e9teroc\u00e8res ( boisduval & guen\u00e9e ) 1 ( 4 ) , iv + 568 pp , 11 pls . ( 20 , 381 - 479 , pl . 9 ) . borkhausen , m . b . ( 1789 ) : der europ\u00e4ischen schmetterlinge zweiter theil . abendschmetterlinge , sphinxe , schw\u00e4rmer . \u2013 naturgeschichte der europ\u00e4ischen schmetterlinge nach systematischer ordnung 2 , 4 + 96 + 239 pp , 1 pl . ( 126 - 132 , 168 - 175 ) bradley , j . d . ( 1956 ) : a new clearwing moth from west africa predaceous on scale - insects ( lep . : aegeriidae ) . \u2013 the entomologist 89 , 203 - 205 . bradley , j . d . ( 1957 ) : a new species of conopia from malaya ( lep . : aegeriidae ) . \u2013 the entomologist 90 , 67 - 69 . bradley , j . d . ( 1968 ) : two new species of clearwing moths ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) associated with sweet potato ( ipomoea batatas ) in east africa . \u2013 bulletin of entomological research 58 , 47 - 53 . bremer , o . ( 1861 ) : neue lepidopteren aus ost - sibirien und dem amur - lande , gesammelt von radde und maack , beschrieben von otto bremer . \u2013 bulletin de l ' academie imperiale des sciences de saint petersbourg 3 ( 7 ) , 461 - 496 ( 475 - 476 ) . bremer\n( 1870 [ 1867 ] ) : lepidoptera eversmanniana . \u2013 horae societatis entomologicae rossicae 4 , 6 .\nbrethes , j . ( 1920 ) : insectos \u00fatiles y daninos de rio grande do sul y de la plata . \u2013 anales de la sociedad rural argentina 54 , 281 - 290 , 307 - 308 . ( 284 )\n( sesiidae ) , from florida . \u2013 journal of the lepidopterists ' society 39 ( 4 ) , 262 - 265 .\nedwards ( lepidoptera aegeriidae ) . \u2013 notas del museo de la plata 6 ( 48 ) , 157 - 163 , pls i - ii .\nbryk , f . ( 1947 ) : neue ostasiatische aegeriiden ( lep . ) . \u2013 opuscula entomologica 12 , 96 - 109 .\nbryk , f . ( 1953 ) : lepidoptera aus dem amazonasgebiete und aus peru gesammelt von dr . douglas melin und dr . abraham roman . \u2013 arkiv f\u00f6r zoologi 5 ( 1 - 3 ) , 1 - 268 . ( 262 - 266 )\nburmeister , h . ( 1878 ) : l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res . \u2013 description physique de la r\u00e9publique argentine , d ' apres des observations personelles et \u00e9trang\u00e8res 5 ( 1 ) , vi + 526 pp , 24 pls . ( 359 - 362 )\nbusck , a . ( 1909 ) : notes on the family aegeriidae ( sesiidae ) , with a synoptic table of the north american genera . \u2013 proceedings of the entomological society of washington 11 ( 3 ) , 115 - 118 .\nbusck , a . ( 1910 ) : list of trinidad microlepidoptera , with descriptions of new forms . \u2013 bulletin of the department of agriculture 9 , 241 - 245 . ( 242 - 243 )\nbusck , a . ( 1913a ) : new microlepidoptera from british guiana . \u2013 insecutor inscitiae menstruus 1 , 88 - 92 .\nbusck , a . ( 1913b ) : two microlepidoptera injurious to chestnut . \u2013 proceedings of the entomological society of washington 15 ( 3 ) , 102 - 104 .\nbusck , a . ( 1914 ) : descriptions of new microlepidoptera of forest trees . \u2013 proceedings of the entomological society of washington 16 ( 4 ) , 143 - 150 , pls vii - viii . ( 143 - 144 )\nbusck , a . ( 1915a ) : descriptions of new north american microlepidoptera . \u2013 proceedings of the entomological society of washington 17 ( 2 ) , 79 - 94 . ( 80 - 81 )\nbusck , a . ( 1915b ) : new genera and species of microlepidoptera from panama . \u2013 proceedings of the united states national museum 47 ( 2043 ) ( 1914 ) , 1 - 67 . ( 61 )\nbusck , a . ( 1920 ) : descriptions of new central american microlepidoptera . \u2013 insecutor inscitiae menstruus 8 ( 4 - 6 ) , 83 - 95 . ( 83 )\nbusck , a . ( 1929 ) : a new aegeriid on cowpea from brazil ( lepidoptera : aegeriidae ) . \u2013 proceedings of the entomological society of washington 31 ( 7 ) , 134 - 137 .\nbutler , a . g . ( 1874 ) : notes on the aegeriidae , with descriptions of new genera and species . \u2013 the annals and magazine of natural history ( fourth series ) 14 , 407 - 411 .\nbutler , a . g . ( 1876 ) : descriptions of lepidoptera from the collection of lieut . howland roberts . \u2013 proceedings of the zoological society of london , 308 - 310 . ( 309 , pl . xxii )\nbutler , a . g . ( 1878 ) : illustrations of typical specimens of lepidoptera heterocera in the collection of the british museum 2 , 62 pp , pls 21 - 40 - london . ( 59 - 61 , pl . 40 )\nbutler , a . g . ( 1881 ) : descriptions of new genera and species of heterocerous lepidoptera from japan . \u2013 the transactions of the entomological society of london ( 4\nbutler , a . g . ( 1882 ) : descriptions of new species of lepidoptera , chiefly from duke - of - york island and new britain . \u2013 the annals and magazine of natural history ( fifth series ) 10 , 36 - 43 , 149 - 160 , 226 - 238 . ( 237 - 238 )\nbutler , a . g . ( 1883 ) : heterocerous lepidoptera collected in chili by thomas edmonds , esq . part iv . \u2013 pyrales and micros . \u2013 the transactions of the entomological society of london ( 4\n, n . g . in pryer , h . j . s . : on two remarkable cases of mimicry from elopura , british north borneo . \u2013 the transactions of the entomological society of london ( 4\nbutler , a . g . ( 1896 ) : on a collection of butterflies obtained by mr . richard crawshay in nyasa - land , between the months of january and april 1895 . \u2013 proceedings of the zoological society of london , 108 - 136 . ( 134 , pl . vi )\nbutler , a . g . ( 1902 ) : on two collections of lepidoptera made by sir harry johnston , k . c . b . , in the uganda protectorate during the year 1900 . \u2013 proceedings of the zoological society of london ( 1 ) , 44 - 51 . ( 50 , pl . 1 )\nbytinski - salz , h . ( [ 1937 ] ) : secondo contributo alla conoscenza della lepidotterofauna della sardegna . \u2013 memorie della societa entomologica italiana 15 ( 2 ) ( 1936 ) , 194 - 212 . ( 198 )\ncl . \u2013 deutsche entomologische zeitschrift iris 2 ( 1889 ) , 268 - 269 .\ncapuse , i . ( 1973a ) : 236 . aegeriidae . ergebnisse der zoologischen forschungen von dr . z . kaszab in der mongolei ( lepidoptera ) . \u2013 reichenbachia ( zeitschrift f\u00fcr entomologische taxonomie ) 14 ( 15 ) , 109 - 124 .\ncapuse , i . ( 1973b ) : zur systematik und morphologie der typen der sesiidae ( lepidoptera ) in der r . p\u00fcngeler - sammlung des zoologischen museums zu berlin . \u2013 mitteilungen der m\u00fcnchner entomologischen gesellschaft 63 , 134 - 171 .\nclarke , j . f . g . ( 1962 ) : neotropical microlepidoptera . ii . a new genus and species of clear - wing moth injurious to fig in colombia ( lepidoptera : aegeriidae ) . \u2013 proceedings of the united states national museum 113 , 383 - 388 .\nclemens , b . ( 1860 ) : contributions to american lepidopterology . \u2013 no . 3 . \u2013 proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia 12 , 4 - 15 . ( 14 - 15 )\nclerck , c . a . ( 1759 - [ 1764 ] ) : icones insectorum rariorum cum nominibus eorum trivialibus , locisque e c . linnaei . . . syst . nat . allegatis 1 , 21 pp , 55 pls . \u2013 stockholm . { 1759 : pls 1 - 16 ; 1764 : pls 17 - 55 } ( pl . 9 , 1759 )\ncloss , a . ( 1916 ) : einige neue sphingidenformen ( lep . ) . \u2013 entomologische mitteilungen 5 ( 5 / 8 ) , 199 - 200 . ( 200 )\ncloss , a . g . ( 1920 ) : [ contribution ] . in : berliner entomologen - bund : sitzung am 20 . m\u00e4rz 1919 . \u2013 internationale entomologische zeitschrift 14 , 13 .\n, spec . nov . ( lep . het . , sphingidae ) . \u2013 internationale entomologische zeitschrift 16 ( 14 ) , 118 .\ncockayne , e . a . ( 1955 ) : aberrations of british lepidoptera . \u2013 entomologist ' s gazette 6 , 3 - 6 , pl . 1 . ( 3 )\ncockerell , t . d . a . ( 1908 ) : new sesiid moths . \u2013 the canadian entomologist 40 ( 9 ) , 329 - 331 .\ncosta , o . g . ( 1832 - 1836 ) : fauna del regno di napoli . . . a . lepidotteri 1 , 20 - 21 .\ncramer , p . ( 1775 - 1779 ) : de uitlandsche kapellen voorkomende in de drie waereld - deelen asia , africa en america ( papillons exotiques des trois parties du monde , l ' asie , l ' afrique et l ' amerique ) 1 , 155 pp , 96 pls . \u2013 amsterdam . { 1775 : issues 1 - 7 , 1776 : issue 8 } ( 83 , pl . 52 , 1775 )\ncramer , p . ( 1775 - 1779 ) : de uitlandsche kapellen voorkomende in de drie waereld - deelen asia , africa en america ( papillons exotiques des trois parties du monde , l ' asie , l ' afrique et l ' amerique ) 2 , 151 pp , pls 97 - 192 . \u2013 amsterdam . ( 73 , 80 , 151 ( index ) , pls 142 , 146 , 1777 )\ncyrillus , d . ( 1787 ) : entomologiae neapolitanae specimen primum , 8 p . , 12 pls . \u2013 neapoli . ( pl . 4 )\ndalla torre , k . w . & strand , e . ( 1925 ) : aegeriidae . \u2013 lepidopterorum catalogus 31 , 202 pp .\ndalman , j . w . ( 1816 ) : f\u00f6rs\u00f6k till systematisk uppst\u00e4llning af sveriges fj\u00e4rilar . \u2013 kongliga svenska vetenskaps - akademiens handlingar 37 , 48 - 101 , 129 , 199 - 225 .\ndampf , a . ( 1930 ) : dos plagas de los bosques de mexico nuevas para la ciencia . \u2013 mexico forestal 8 ( 8 ) , 179 - 181 .\nde freina , j . j . : see freina , j . j . de\n[ denis , m . & schifferm\u00fcller , i . ] ( 1775 ) : ank\u00fcndung eines systematischen werkes von den schmetterlingen der wienergegend [ sic ] , 323 pp . \u2013 wien . ( 30 , 44 , 305 - 306 )\ndiakonoff , a . n . ( 1954 ) : microlepidoptera of new guinea . results of the third archibold expedition ( american - netherlands indian expedition 1938 - 1939 ) . part iv . \u2013 verhandelingen / koninklijke nederlandse akademie van wetenschappen , afdeeling natuurkunde . reeks 2 50 ( 1 ) ( 1952 - 1955 ) , 1 - 191 . ( 180 - 190 )\ndiakonoff , a . n . ( [ 1968 ] ) : microlepidoptera of the philippine islands . \u2013 united states national museum bulletin 257 ( 1967 ) , 1 - 484 . ( 218 - 235 )\ndonovan , e . ( 1795 ) : the natural history of british insects : explainig them in their several states , the periods of their transformations , their food , oeconomy & c . , together with the history of such minute insects as require investigation by the microscope 4 , 96 + 6 pp , pls 109 - 144 . ( 21 )\ndonovan , e . ( 1797 ) : the natural history of british insects : explainig them in their several states . . . 6 , 86 + 6 pp , pls 181 - 216 . ( 35 , pl . 195 )\ndruce , h . ( 1881 - 1900 ) : lepidoptera - heterocera . \u2013 in godman , f . d . & salvin , o . ( eds . ) : biologia 39 / 1 , 490 pp ; 40 / 2 , 622 pp ; 41 / 3 , pls 1 - 101 . \u2013 london . { vol . 39 / 1 : 1 - 24 ( 1881 ) , 25 - 32 ( 1883 ) , 33 - 112 ( 1884 ) ; vol . 2 : 273 - 336 ( 1896 ) , 337 - 440 ( 1897 ) , 441 - 536 ( 1898 ) , 537 - 592 ( 1899 ) , 593 - 622 ( 1900 ) } ( 39 / 1 : 28 - 34 , 1883 - 1884 ; 40 / 2 : 321 - 326 , 1896 ; 41 / 3 : pls 5 , 68 - 69 )\ndruce , h . ( 1882 ) : descriptions of new species of aegeriidae and sphingidae . \u2013 the entomologist ' s monthly magazine 19 , 15 - 18 . ( 15 )\ndruce , h . ( 1889 ) : descriptions of new species of lepidoptera , chiefly from central america . \u2013 the annals and magazine of natural history ( sixth series ) 4 , 77 - 94 . ( 78 - 82 )\ndruce , h . ( 1892 ) : description of a new genus and some new species of heterocera from central america . \u2013 the annals and magazine of natural history ( sixth series ) 9 , 275 - 279 . ( 275 - 276 )\ndruce , h . ( 1893 ) : descriptions of new species of lepidoptera heterocera from central and south america . \u2013 proceedings of the zoological society of london , 280 - 311 , [ pls xix - xxi ] . ( 280 )\ndruce , h . ( 1898 ) : descriptions of some new species of heterocera . \u2013 the annals and magazine of natural history ( seventh series ) 1 , 207 - 215 . ( 207 )\ndruce , h . ( 1899 ) : descriptions of some new species of heterocera . \u2013 the annals and magazine of natural history ( seventh series ) 4 , 200 - 205 . ( 201 - 205 )\ndruce , h . ( 1910a ) : descriptions of some new species of heterocera from tropical africa . \u2013 the annals and magazine of natural history ( eighth series ) 5 , 393 - 402 . ( 401 )\ndruce , h . ( 1910b ) : descriptions of some new species of heterocera from east and west africa and tropical south america . \u2013 the annals and magazine of natural history ( eighth series ) 6 , 168 - 183 ( 180 - 181 ) .\ndruce , h . ( 1911 ) : descriptions of some new species of heterocera from tropical south america , and two new species of geometridae from west africa . \u2013 the annals and magazine of natural history ( eighth series ) 7 , 287 - 294 . ( 292 )\ndrury , d . ( 1773 ) : illustrations of natural history , wherein are exhibited upwards of two hundred and forty figures of exotic insects , according to their different genera . . . 2 , 9 + 90 pp , 50 pls . \u2013 london . ( 49 )\ndrury , d . ( 1782 ) : illustrations of natural history . . . exotic insects . . . 3 , 15 + 76 pp , 50 pls . \u2013 london . ( 3 , pl . 2 ) .\nduckworth , w . d . ( 1969 ) : a new species of aegeriidae from venezuela predaceous on scale insects ( lepidoptera : yponomeutoidea ) . \u2013 proceedings of the entomological society of washington 71 ( 4 ) , 487 - 490 .\nduckworth , w . d . & eichlin , t . d . ( 1973a ) : the type - material of north american clearwing moths ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 smithsonian contributions to zoology 148 , 1 - 34 .\nduckworth , w . d . & eichlin , t . d . ( 1973b ) : new species of clearwing moths ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) from north america . \u2013 proceedings of the entomological society of washington 75 ( 2 ) , 150 - 159 .\nduckworth , w . d . & eichlin , t . d . ( 1974 ) : clearwing moths of australia and new zealand ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 smithsonian contributions to zoology 180 , 1 - 45 .\nduckworth , w . d . & eichlin , t . d . ( 1976 ) : a new species of clearwing moth ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) from northern mexico and southeastern arizona . \u2013 proceedings of the entomological society of washington 78 ( 3 ) , 304 - 308 .\nduckworth , w . d . & eichlin , t . d . ( 1977a ) : two new species of clearwing moths ( sesiidae ) from eastern north america clarified by sex pheromones . \u2013 journal of the lepidopterists ' society 31 ( 3 ) , 191 - 196 .\nduckworth , w . d . & eichlin , t . d . ( 1977b ) : a new species of clearwing moth from southcentral texas ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 the pan - pacific entomologist 53 ( 3 ) , 175 - 178 .\nduckworth , w . d . & eichlin , t . d . ( 1977c ) : a classification of the sesiidae of america north of mexico ( lepidoptera , sesioidea ) . \u2013 occasional papers in entomology 26 , 1 - 54 .\nduckworth , w . d . & eichlin , t . d . ( 1978 ) : the type - material of central and south american clearwing moths ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 smithsonian contributions to zoology 261 , 1 - 28 .\nduckworth , w . d . & eichlin , t . d . ( 1983 ) : revision of the clearwing moth genus osminia ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 smithsonian contributions to zoology 361 , 1 - 15 .\ndumont , c . ( 1922 ) : diagnoses de l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res nouveaux du nord de l ' afrique . \u2013 bulletin de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 entomologique de france ( 15 ) , 215 - 220 . ( 215 - 217 )\nduponchel , p . a . j . ( 1835 ) : cr\u00e9pusculaires . \u2013 supplement a l ' histoire naturelle 2 , 197 pp , 12 pls . ( 108 , 112 - 116 , 129 , 167 , pl . 9 )\ndurrant , j . h . ( 1914 ) : descriptions of two new tineina ( lep . ) from the lagos district . \u2013 the transactions of the entomological society of london ( 4\ndurrant , j . h . ( 1915 ) : microlepidoptera ( pterophorina and tineina ) collected by the british ornithologists ' union and wollaston expeditions in the snow mountains , southern dutch new guinea . \u2013 lepidoptera of the british ornithologists ' union and wollaston expeditions in the snow mountains , southern dutch new guinea 2 ( 15 ) , 149 - 168 . ( 166 )\ndurrant , j . h . ( 1919 ) : three new genera of tineina resembling aegeriadae [ sic ] . \u2013 novitates zoologicae 26 ( 1 ) , 120 - 122 .\ndurrant , j . h . ( 1924 ) : in : examples of the mimicry of hymenoptera by other insects . \u2013 proceedings of the entomological society of london ( 1923 - 1924 ) , lxxv - lxxvi .\ndyar , h . g . ( [ 1903 ] ) : a list of north american lepidoptera and key to the literature of this order of insects . \u2013 bulletin of the united states national museum 52 ( 1902 ) , 1 - 723 . ( 364 - 371 )\ndyar , h . g . ( 1904 ) : additions to the list of north american lepidoptera , no . 2 . \u2013 proceedings of the entomological society of washington 6 ( 2 ) , 103 - 119 . ( 106 )\neda , k . , arita , y . , kallies , a . & wang , m . ( 2015 ) : a new long - legged clearwing moth species of the genus teinotarsina felder & felder , 1874 ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from guangdong , china . \u2013 tinea 23 ( 3 ) , 128 - 130 . eda , k . & arita , y . ( 2015 ) : see eda , k . , arita , y . , kallies , a . & wang , m . ( 2015 ) .\nedwards , h . ( 1880 ) : descriptions of some new forms of aegeriidae . \u2013 bulletin of the brooklyn entomological society 3 ( 8 ) , 71 - 72 .\nedwards , h . ( 1881 ) : new genera and species of the family aegeridae . \u2013 papilio 1 ( 10 ) , 179 - 208 , pl . 4 .\nedwards , h . ( 1882a ) : notes on n . american aegeridae , with descriptions of new forms . \u2013 papilio 2 ( 4 ) , 52 - 57 .\nedwards , h . ( 1882b ) : further notes and descriptions of north american aegeriadae . \u2013 papilio 2 ( 6 ) , 96 - 99 .\nedwards , h . ( 1882c ) : descriptions of new species of n . am . heterocera . \u2013 papilio 2 ( 8 ) , 123 - 130 . ( 123 - 124 )\nedwards , h . ( 1883 ) : new species of aegeriadae . \u2013 papilio 3 ( 7 - 10 ) , 155 - 157 .\nedwards , h . ( 1885 ) : new species of californian moths . \u2013 entomologica americana 1 ( 3 ) , 49 - 50 . ( 49 )\nedwards , h . ( 1887 ) : descriptions of new species of north american heterocera , with notes . \u2013 the canadian entomologist 19 ( 8 ) , 145 - 147 .\nedwards , h . ( 1888 ) : catalogue of species of the higher families of the north american heterocera , described since grote ' s\nnew check list\n( 1872 ) , with those omitted from that publication . \u2013 entomologica americana 3 ( 12 ) , 221 - 232 . ( 223 - 224 )\nedwards , h . ( 1891 ) : [ contribution ] . in lugger , o . : two new lepidopterous borers . \u2013 psyche 6 , 108 - 109 .\neichlin , t . d . ( 1986 ) : western hemisphere clearwing moths of the subfamily tinthiinae ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 entomography 4 , 315 - 378 .\neichlin , t . d . ( 1987 ) : three new western hemisphere clearwing moths ( lepidoptera : sesiidae : sesiinae ) . \u2013 entomography 5 , 531 - 540 .\neichlin , t . d . ( 1989 ) : western hemisphere clear wing moths of the subfamily paranthreninae ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 entomography 6 , 159 - 212 .\neichlin , t . d . ( 1992 ) : clearwing moths of baja california , mexico ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) . \u2013 tropical lepidoptera 3 ( 2 ) , 135 - 150 .\neichlin , t . d . ( [ 1993 ] ) : a new texas clearwing moth ( sesiidae : sesiinae ) . \u2013 journal of the lepidopterists ' society 46 ( 4 ) ( 1992 ) , 265 - 268 .\neichlin , t . d . ( 1995a ) : a new panamanian clearwing moth ( sesiidae : sesiinae ) . \u2013 journal of the lepidopterists ' society 49 ( 1 ) , 39 - 42 .\na new north american clearwing moth and notes on a rare species ( sesiidae ) . \u2013 journal of the lepidopterists ' society 49 ( 2 ) , 114 - 118 .\neichlin , t . d . ( 1995c ) : 65 . sesiidae . in heppner , j . ( ed . ) : atlas of neotropical lepidoptera . checklist : part 2 . hyblaeoidea - pyraloidea - tortricoidea 3 , 17 - 18 , 109 - 113 . eichlin , t . d . ( 1998 ) : western hemisphere clearwing moths of the tribe osminiini ( lepidoptera : sesiidae : sesiinae ) . \u2013 holarctic lepidoptera 5 ( 1 ) , 23 - 33 . eichlin , t . d . ( 2002 ) : in eichlin , t . d . & kinnee , s . a . : brazilian sesiidae in the collection of the universit\u00e4t des saarlandes , saarbr\u00fccken , germany ( lepidoptera ) . \u2013 zootaxa 108 , 1 - 15 . eichlin , t . d . ( 2003a ) : carmenta munroei , a new clearwing moth from costa rica ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 tropical lepidoptera 11 ( 1 - 2 ) , 42 - 43 . eichlin , t . d . ( 2003b ) : carmenta guayaba , a new clearwing moth from peru ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 tropical lepidoptera 11 ( 1 - 2 ) , 44 - 45 .\neichlin , t . d . , delgado , o . s . , strathie , l . w . , zachariades , c . & clavijo , j . ( 2009 ) : carmenta chromolaenae eichlin , a new species ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) for the biological control of chromolaena odorata ( l . ) king & robinson ( asteraceae ) . \u2013 zootaxa 2288 , 42 - 50 .\neichlin , t . d . & duckworth , w . d . ( 1988 ) : the moths of america north of mexico . fascicle 5 . 1 . sesioidea , sesiidae , 176 pp . \u2013 washington .\n. \u2013 journal of the lepidopterists ' society 37 ( 3 ) ( 1983 ) , 193 - 206 .\nclearwing moth from michigan ( sesiidae ) . \u2013 journal of the lepidopterists ' society 42 ( 3 ) , 231 - 235 .\nemich von em\u00f6ke , g . ( 1872 ) : descriptions de l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res de transcaucasie . \u2013 revue et magasin de zoologie pure et appliqu\u00e9e , series 2 , 23 ( 2 ) ( 1871 - 1872 ) , 63 - 64 .\nengelhardt , g . p . ( 1925a ) : studies in north american aegeriidae ( lepidoptera ) . i . descriptions and corrections of species from long island , new york . ii . descriptions of two new western species . \u2013 bulletin of the brooklyn entomological society ( n . s . ) 20 ( 2 ) , 61 - 69 .\nengelhardt , g . p . ( 1925b ) : studies of north american aegeriidae ( lepidoptera ) . iii .\nroot borers of america north of mexico . \u2013 bulletin of the brooklyn entomological society ( n . s . ) 20 ( 4 ) , 153 - 158 .\nengelhardt , g . p . ( 1946 ) : the north american clear - wing moths of the family aegeriidae . \u2013 bulletin of the united states national museum 190 , iv + 222 pp .\nerschoff , n . g . ( 1874 ) : cheshuyekriliya ( lepidoptera ) . \u2013 travels in turkestan ( fedtchenko ) 2 ( 5 ) , 128 pp . ( 26 - 27 , pl . 5 ) [ in russian ]\nerschoff , n . g . ( 1874 ) : lepidopteren von turkestan . \u2013 stettiner entomologische zeitung 35 ( 10 - 12 ) , 386 - 417 . ( 393 )\nesper , e . j . c . ( 1778 - 1786 ) : die schmetterlinge in abbildungen nach der natur mit beschreibungen 2 , 234 pp , pls 1 - 36 . \u2013 erlangen . { title page : 1779 ; 1778 : pls 1 - 6 ; 1779 : 1 - 80 , pls 7 - 18 ; 1780 : 81 - 196 , pls 19 - 25 ; 1782 : 197 - 212 , pls 26 - 31 ; 1783 : 213 - 228 , pls 32 - 35 ; 1786 : 229 - 234 , pl . 36 } ( 122 , 131 - 135 , 205 - 217 , 230 - 232 , 234 , pls 14 - 15 , 23 , 29 - 32 , 36 )\nesper , e . j . c . ( 1789 - [ 1804 ] ) : fortsetzung der europ\u00e4ischen schmetterlinge . \u2013 die schmetterlinge in abbildungen nach der natur mit beschreibungen 2 ( suppl . ) , 52 pp , pls 37 - 47 . \u2013 erlangen . { [ 1789 ] : 5 - 12 , pls [ 38 - 40 ] ; 1800 : 21 - 40 , pls 42 - 46 ; [ 1803 - 1804 ] : 41 - 52 , pl . 47 } ( 5 , 9 , 25 , 29 - 30 , 44 - 47 , pls 37 - 38 , 42 , 44 , 47 )\neversmann , e . ( 1844 ) : fauna lepidoperologica volgo - uralensis exhibens lepidopterorum species quas per viginti quinque annos in provinciis volgam fluvium inter et montes uralenses sitis observavit et descripsit , 633 pp . \u2013 casan . ( 100 - 105 )\nfabricius , j . c . ( 1775 ) : systema entomologiae , sistens insectorum classes , ordines , genera , species , adiectis synonymis , locis , descriptionibus , observationibus , 30 + 832 pp . \u2013 flensburg u . leipzig . ( 547 - 549 )\nfabricius , j . c . ( 1787 ) : mantissa insectorum sistens species nuper detectas adiectis synonymis , observationibus , descriptionibus , emendationibus 2 , 382 pp . \u2013 hafniae . ( 98 - 101 )\nfabricius , j . c . ( 1793 ) : entomologica systematica emendata et aucta : secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , adiectis synonymis , locis , observationibus , descriptionibus 3 ( 1 ) , 4 + 487 pp . \u2013 hafniae . ( 379 - 385 , 404 )\n[ fabricius , j . c . ] ( 1807 ) : in illiger , j . c . : die neueste gattungs - eintheilung der schmetterlinge aus den linn\u00e9ischen gattungen\n. \u2013 magazin f\u00fcr insektenkunde ( illiger ) 6 , 277 - 295 . ( 288 , 294 )\nfailla - tedaldi , l . ( 1883 ) : caccia di lepidotteri rari . \u2013 il naturalista siciliano 2 ( 11 ) , 249 - 250 .\nfailla - tedaldi , l . ( 1890 ) : contribuzione alla fauna lepidotterologica della sicilia . descrizione di alcune nuove specie . \u2013 il naturalista siciliano 10 ( 2 - 3 ) , 25 - 31 , pl i .\nfawcett , j . m . ( 1916 ) : notes on a collection of heterocera made by mr . w . feather in british east africa , 1911 - 13 . \u2013 proceedings of the zoological society of london ( 2 ) , 707 - 737 . ( 736 - 737 , pl . i )\nfelder , c . ( 1861 ) : lepidopterorum amboinensium a dre . l . doleschall annis 1856 - 58 collectorum species novae diagnosibus collustratae a dre . c . felder , ii heterocera . \u2013 sitzungsberichte der kaiserlichen akademie der wissenschaften , abt . 1 , 43 ( i ) , 25 - 44 .\nfelder , r . ( 1874 ) : lepidoptera : atlas . in felder , c . , felder , r . & rogenhofer , a . f . : reise der \u00f6sterreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859 unter den befehlen des commodore b . von w\u00fcllerstorf - urbair . zoologischer theil . zweiter band . zweite abtheilung ( fasc . 4 ) , 10 pp , pls 75 - 107 . ( 2 - 9 , pls 75 , 82 )\nfelder , r . & rogenhofer , a . f . ( 1875 ) : lepidoptera : atlas . in felder , c . , felder , r . & rogenhofer , a . f . : reise der \u00f6sterreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859 unter den befehlen des commodore b . von w\u00fcllerstorf - urbair . zoologischer theil . zweiter band . zweite abtheilung ( fasc . 5 ) , 20 pp , pls 108 - 140 . ( 9 )\nfilipjev , n . ( 1931 ) : lepidoptera . \u2013 trudy pamirskoj expedicii 1928 ( abhandlungen der pamir - expedition 1928 ) 8 , 143 - 174 . ( 161 - 163 )\nsp . nov . , eine neue glasfl\u00fcglerart aus den cameron highlands in malaysia ( lepidoptera : sesiidae , sesiinae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 112 ( 5 ) , 141 - 143 .\nsp . nov . , eine neue glasfl\u00fcglerart aus den cameron highlands in malaysia ( lepidoptera : sesiidae , sesiinae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 113 ( 5 ) , 139 - 141 .\nsp . nov . , eine neue glasfl\u00fcglerart aus sumatra ( lepidoptera : sesiidae , sesiinae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 115 ( 2 ) , 91 - 93 .\nsp . n . , a new clearwing moth species from the cameron highlands in west malaysia ( lepidoptera : sesiidae , sesiinae ) . \u2013 nachrichten des entomologischen vereins apollo , n . f . 27 ( 1 / 2 ) , 53 - 54 .\nfischer , h . ( 2006b ) : a new tribe , genus and species of clearwing moths from the afrotropical region ( lepidoptera , sesiidae , sesiinae ) . \u2013 atalanta 37 ( 1 / 2 ) , 219 - 224 .\nfischer , h . ( 2006c ) : corrigendum zur publikation\na new tribe , genus and species of clearwing moths from the afrotropical region\nin atalanta 37 . band , heft 1 / 2 ( lepidoptera , sesiidae , sesiinae ) . \u2013 atalanta 37 ( 3 / 4 ) , 328 .\n, h . ( 2007 ) : eine neue gattung mit einer neuen art , rubukona svetlanae gen . et spec . nov . , in der tribus paranthrenin\n, 1964 aus der afrotropischen region ( lepidoptera , sesiidae , paranthrenini ) . \u2013 atalanta 38 ( 3 / 4 ) , 361 - 364 .\nfischer , h . ( 2011 ) : adixoa pyromacula sp . n . , eine neue sesiide aus thailand ( lepidoptera : sesiidae , paranthrenini ) . \u2013 nachrichten des entomologischen vereins apollo , n . f . 31 ( 4 ) , 207 - 209 . fitzsimons , v . , codd , l . e . , janse , a . j . t . , munro , h . k . , pringle , j . a . & vari , l . ( 1958 ) : a list of zoological and botanical types preserved in collections in southern and east africa . volume i \u2013 zoology 1 ( 1 ) , 147 pp .\nfixsen , c . ( 1887 ) : lepidoptera aus korea . \u2013 in romanoff , n . m . ( ed . ) : m\u00e9moires sur les l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res 3 , 233 - 356 , pl . 15 . ( 323 - 324 )\nist ein femininum , kein neutrum ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 nachrichten des entomologischen vereins apollo , n . f . 17 ( 2 ) , 190 .\nfletcher , t . b . ( 1929 ) : a list of the generic names used for microlepidoptera . \u2013 memoirs of the department of agriculture in india , entomological series 11 , 1 - 244 .\nfletcher , t . b . ( 1940 ) : new generic names for microlepidoptera . \u2013 the entomologist ' s record and journal of variation 52 ( 1 ) , 17 - 19 . ( 18 )\nfletcher , d . s . ( 1982 ) : in fletcher , d . s . & nye , i . w . b . : the generic names of moths of the world . volume 4 . bombycoidea , castnioidea , cossoidea , mimallonoidea . sesioidea , sphingoidea , zygaenoidea . \u2013 british museum ( natural history ) publication no . 848 , 192 pp . \u2013 london .\nfreina , j . j . de ( 1983 ) : 4 . beitrag zur systematischen erfassung der bombyces - und sphinges - fauna kleinasiens . neue kenntnisse \u00fcber artenspektrum , systematik und nomenklatur sowie beschreibung neuer taxa . \u2013 mitteilungen der m\u00fcnchner entomologischen gesellschaft 72 ( 1982 ) , 57 - 127 . ( 72 - 76 )\nfreina , j . j . de ( 2007 ) : eine neue art der gattung melittia h\u00fcbner , 1819 aus dem dhofar , s\u00fcdoman ( sesiidae : sesiinae : melittiini ) . \u2013 nota lepidopterologica 30 ( 1 ) , 51 - 57 .\nfreina , j . j . de ( 2008 ) : beschreibung von cabomina gen . n . , cabomina monicae sp . n . und cabomina dracomontana sp . n . aus s\u00fcdafrika ( lepidoptera : sesiidae , sesiinae , osminiini ) . \u2013 nachrichten des entomologischen vereins apollo , n . f . 29 ( 3 ) , 163 - 169 .\n( 2011a ) : vier neue sesiiden und eine unbestimmte homogyna - art aus dem s\u00fcdlichen afrika ( lepidoptera , sesiidae : osminiini , sesiini ) . \u2013 nachrichten des entomologischen vereins apollo , n . f . 31 ( 4 ) , 211 - 218 . freina , j . j .\n( 2011b ) : noctusphecia puchneri gen . et sp . n . , eine neue gattung und nachtaktive glasfl\u00fcglerart aus tansania ( lepidoptera : sesiidae , sesiinae , osminiini ) . \u2013 nachrichten des entomologischen vereins apollo , n . f . 32 ( 1 / 2 ) , 48 - 50 . freina , j . j .\n( 2011c ) : neue arten der gattung thyranthrene hampson , 1919 aus s\u00fcdafrika ( lepidoptera : sesiidae , paranthrenini ) . \u2013 nachrichten des entomologischen vereins apollo , n . f . 32 ( 1 / 2 ) , 51 - 56 .\n( 2013 ) : synanthedon angolana sp . n . , eine neue glasfl\u00fcglerart aus angola ( lepidoptera : sesiidae : sesiinae , synanthedonini ) . - nachrichten des entomologischen vereins apollo , n . f . 34 ( 3 ) , 125 - 126 .\nfreina , j . j . de & lingenh\u00f6le , a . ( 2000 ) : beitrag zur sesiidae - fauna israels und pal\u00e4stinas ( insecta , lepidoptera , sesiidae ) . \u2013 mitteilungen der m\u00fcnchner entomologischen gesellschaft 90 , 75 - 84 .\nfreyer , c . f . ( 1836 ) : neuere beitr\u00e4ge zur schmetterlingskunde mit abbildungen nach der natur 2 , 162 pp , pls 97 - 192 . \u2013 augsburg . ( 140 - 142 , pl . 182 )\nfreyer , c . f . ( 1842 ) : neuere beitr\u00e4ge zur schmetterlingskunde mit abbildungen nach der natur 4 , 167 pp , pls 289 - 384 . \u2013 augsburg . ( 129 - 131 , pl . 362 )\nfreyer , c . f . ( 1843 ) : neuere beitr\u00e4ge zur schmetterlingskunde mit abbildungen nach der natur 5 , 166 pp , pls 385 - 480 . \u2013 augsburg . ( 35 - 36 , pl . 404 )\nfriedlander , t . p . ( 1986 ) : a new squash borer from mexico ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 the journal of research on the lepidoptera 24 ( 4 ) ( 1985 ) , 277 - 288 .\nnov . spec . \u2013 internationale entomologische zeitschrift 2 ( 5 ) , 33 .\ngaede , m . ( 1929 ) : aegeriidae . \u2013 in seitz , a . ( ed . ) : die gro\u00dfschmetterlinge der erde 14 , 515 - 538 , pl . 77 .\ngaede , m . ( 1933 ) : aegeriidae . \u2013 in seitz , a . ( ed . ) : die gro\u00dfschmetterlinge der erde , suppl . 2 , 229 - 240 , pl . 16 .\ngarrevoet , t . , bartsch , d . & lingenh\u00f6le , a . ( 2013 ) : on the knowledge of bembecia rushana gorbunov , 1992 and some related species ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . - nota lepidopterologica 36 ( 2 ) , 95 - 108 .\ngarrevoet , t . & garrevoet , w . ( 2011 ) : bembecia lingenhoelei , a new clearwing moth from tajikistan ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 phegea 39 ( 2 ) , 73 - 79 .\ngarrevoet , t . & garrevoet , w . ( 2016 ) : on the status of bembecia zebo \u0161patenka & gorbunov , 1992 ; bembecia pamira \u0161patenka , 1992 ; bembecia kreuzbergi \u0161patenka & bartsch , 2010 and bembecia martensi gorbunov , 1994 ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) .\ngarrevoet , t . & lingenh\u00f6le , a . ( 2011 ) : bembecia bartschi , a new clearwing moth from tajikistan ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 121 ( 4 ) , 157 - 161 .\ngarrevoet , t . , garrevoet , w . & \u00f6zbek , h . ( 2007 ) : data on the geographic distribution of sesiidae ( lepidoptera ) in turkey . \u2013 linzer biologische beitr\u00e4ge 39 ( 2 ) , 929 - 953 .\ngeoffroy , e . l . ( 1785 ) : [ contribution ] . in fourcroy , a . f . : entomologia parisiensis ; sive catalogus insectorum quae in agro parisiensi reperiuntur . . . cui addita sunt nomina trivialia & fere trecentae novae species 2 , 544 pp . ( 252 )\ngermadius , p . ( 1874 ) : a new aegerian maple borer . \u2013 the american naturalist 8 , 57 - 58 .\nghiliani , v . ( 1852 ) : materiali per servire alla compilazione della fauna entomologica italiana ossia elenco delle specie di lepidotteri riconosciuti esistenti negli stati sardi . \u2013 memorie della reale accademia della scienze di torino ( serie 2 ) 14 , 20 , 85 , 131 - 247 . ( 216 )\ngiacomelli , e . ( 1911 ) : lepid\u00f3pteros riojanos nuevos \u00f3 poco conocidos . \u2013 anales de la sociedad cientifica argentina 72 , 19 - 40 . ( 29 - 30 )\ngmelin , j . f . ( 1790 ) : caroli a linn\u00e9 systema naturae . per regna tria naturae secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis 1 ( 5 ) ( ed . 13 ) . \u2013 leipzig . ( 2388 - 2390 )\ngodart , m . j . - b . ( 1822 ) : cr\u00e9pusculaires . \u2013 histoire naturelle des l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res ou papillons de france 3 . ( 6 , 74 - 121 , pl . xxi )\n( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from azerbaijan . \u2013 zoologichesky zhurnal 65 ( 6 ) , 938 - 940 . [ in russian ]\n( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from talysh . \u2013 vestnik zoologii 1987 ( 3 ) , 12 - 18 . [ in russian ]\n( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from talysh . \u2013 vestnik zoologii 1987 ( 2 ) , 14 - 20 . [ in russian ]\ngorbunov , o . ( 1988a ) : a new contribution to the knowledge of clearwing moths ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) of vietnam . \u2013 in medvedev , l . n . & striganova , b . r . ( eds ) : fauna i ekologiya nasekomykh vetnama [ the fauna and ecology of insects of vietnam ] , 192 - 198 . [ in russian ]\ngorbunov , o . ( 1988b ) : a new species and genus of the clearwing moths ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) of the subfamily tinthiinae from the primorsky kray ( far east ) . \u2013 biologiyeckie nauki 7 , 45 - 47 . [ in russian with english summary ]\ngorbunov , o . ( 1989 ) : two new species of lepidoptera ( sesiidae ) from the kopet - dag . \u2013 zoologichesky zhurnal 68 ( 10 ) , 141 - 145 . [ in russian with english summary ]\nh\u00fcbner , 1819 from the caucasus , usssr ( lep . , sesiidae ) . \u2013 atalanta 20 ( 1 / 4 ) ( 1989 ) , 119 - 123 .\ngorbunov , o . ( 1991a ) : six new species of the clearwing moths from the caucasus , ussr ( lep . , sesiidae ) . \u2013 atalanta 22 ( 2 / 4 ) , 125 - 143 , 378 - 379 .\nh\u00fcbner , 1819 from middle asia ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) . \u2013 atalanta 23 ( 1 / 2 ) , 249 - 253 .\ngorbunov , o . ( 1992b ) : revision of the types of the sesiidae ( lepidoptera ) , preserved in the collection of the zoological museum of kiev state university . \u2013 entomologitscheskoje obozrenie 71 ( 1 ) , 121 - 133 . [ in russian ] ( english translation in entomological review )"]}
{"id": 1685, "summary": [{"text": "crombrugghia tristis is a moth of the pterophoridae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in most of europe , except the benelux , great britain , ireland and scandinavia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it is also known from southern siberia , asia minor and central asia .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the habitat consists of sandy areas overgrown with hieracium .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the wingspan is 16 \u2013 17 millimetres ( 0.63 \u2013 0.67 in ) , making it the smallest species in the crombrugghia genus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is greyish , light-brown coloured .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the larvae feed on hieracium echioides , hieracium umbeliferum , hieracium dubium , hieracium cymosum , hieracium piloselloides , hieracium fallax , hieracium pilosella and hieracium amplexicaule . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "crombrugghia tristis", "paragraphs": ["crombrugghia tristis is a moth of the pterophoridae family . it is found in most of europe , except the benelux , great britain , ireland and scandinavia . it is also known from southern siberia , asia minor and central asia . the habitat consists of sandy areas overgrown with hieracium .\nthe wingspan is 16\u201317 millimetres ( 0 . 63\u20130 . 67 in ) , making it the smallest species in the crombrugghia genus . it is greyish , light - brown coloured .\npterophorus tristis zeller , 1841 : zeller ( 1841 ) : 788 . [ description originale ] zeller , p . c . 1841 . vorl\u00e4ufer einer vollst\u00e4ndigen naturgeschichte den pterophoriden , einer nachtfalterfamilie . isis von oken , 10 : 756 - 794 . [ urltoken ]\non the systematics and origin of the generic group oxyptilus zeller ( lep . alucitidae )\nbiostor is built by @ rdmpage , code on github . page images from the biodiversity heritage library .\nenter the name or part of a name you wish to search for . the asterisk character * can be used as wildcard . e . g . ' papilio * ' . keep in mind that the search is only based on the full taxon name .\nwe are still having problems with the search feature . unfortunately we cannot give a timeline when the advanced search will be fixed .\nthe id resolving service for stable taxon ids is currently under maintenance . meanwhile , please use the name search in order to find the taxon page .\nmuseum f\u00fcr naturkunde leibniz - institut f\u00fcr evolutions - und biodiversit\u00e4tsforschung invalidenstr . 43 10115 berlin germany e - mail : fauna - eu ( at ) mfn - berlin . de website : urltoken\nin continuing your browsing of this site , you accept the use of cookies to offer you suitable content and services and realize visits statistics . learn more about cookies .\n: angiospermivora regier , c . mitter , kristensen , davis , van nieukerken , rota , simonsen , k . t . mitte , kawahara , yen , cummings & zwick , 2015\n: euheteroneura regier , c . mitter , kristensen , davis , van nieukerken , rota , simonsen , k . t . mitte , kawahara , yen , cummings & zwick , 2015\nnational inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .\neu , asia minor , north africa , canary islands . see [ maps ]\nlarva on crepis capillaris , c . tectorum , hieracium pilosella , hieracium amplexicaule , crepis succifolia , c . conyzaefolia , c . albida , c . capillaris , sonchus asper , s . arvensis , cichorium intybus , picris hieracioides [ me1 ]\nlarva on hieracium echioides , h . umbeliferum , h . dubium , h . cymosum , h . piloselloides , h . fallax , h . pilosella , h . amplexicaule [ me1 ]\npterophorus kollari stainton , 1851 ; suppl . cat . br . tineidae and pteroph . : 28\nseu , north africa , canary islands , asia minor , iraq . see [ maps ]\noxyptilus lantoscanus milli\u00e8re , 1883 ; ann . soc . linn . lyon ( n . s . ) 29 : 176\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\na natural history of the british lepidoptera . a text - book for students and collectors\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nbuggallery v . 1 . 3 \u00a9 2007 - 2018 by boris loboda . php v . 5 . 3 . 3 - 7 + squeeze19 . mysql v . 5 . 5 . 44 - 0 + deb7u1 .\n2011 - 01 - 26 by & van nieukerken , dr erik j . karsholt , dr ole & by dr . cees gielis\nthis work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - share alike 3 . 0 license\npesi is funded by the european union 7th framework programme within the research infrastructures programme . contract no . ri - 223806 . activity area : capacities . period 2008 - 2011 - website hosted & developed by vliz banner picture : gannet ( morus bassanus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) by karl van ginderdeuren - contact pesi\nthe larvae feed on hieracium echioides , hieracium umbeliferum , hieracium dubium , hieracium cymosum , hieracium piloselloides , hieracium fallax , hieracium pilosella and hieracium amplexicaule ."]}
{"id": 1697, "summary": [{"text": "rhyacionia bushnelli , the western pine tip moth , is a moth of the tortricidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in the united states , including alabama , nebraska , north dakota and montana .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 13 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are mottled with yellowish gray and reddish brown .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are gray .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is usually one generation per year .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the larvae feed on the tips of pinus species , including pinus ponderosa .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "young larvae feed between needles or mine them , while later instars feed inside needle sheaths or buds , then enter new shoots , and mine within developing shoots .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the species overwinters in the pupal stage . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "rhyacionia bushnelli", "paragraphs": ["bushnelli busck , 1914 ( evetria ) , proc . ent . soc . wash . 16 : 144 . tl : usa , new mexico , fort bayard . holotype : usnm . female .\nbuolina neugebauer , 1950 ( rhyacionia ) , verh . dtsch . ges . angev . entomol 11 : 106 . no type\nsimutata issiki , in esaki et al . , 1957 ( rhyacionia ) , icones heterocerorum japonicorum in coloribus naturalibus 1 : 58 . no type\npseudostrobana amsel , 1962 ( rhyacionia ) , z . angew . ent . 49 : 396 . tl : guatemala . holotype : lnk . unknown .\nsonia miller , 1967 ( rhyacionia ) , can . ent . 99 : 592 . tl : canada , ontario , burwash . holotype : cnc . female .\nnearctic pine tip moths of the genus rhyacionia : biosystematic review ( lepidoptera : tortricidae , olethreutinae ) powell , jerry a . 1978 . united states department of agriculture .\ndolichotubula liu & bai , 1984 ( rhyacionia ) , entomotaxonomia 6 : 155 . tl : china , yunnan province , lijiang co . . holotype : izas . female .\nleptotubula liu & bai , 1984 ( rhyacionia ) , entomotaxonomia 6 : 155 . tl : china , yunnan province , huize co . . holotype : izas . female .\nmaritimana prse , 1981 ( rhyacionia ) , atalanta 12 : 78 . tl : corsica , corsica ( val restonica ) ( france ) . holotype : prosc . male .\nrubigifasciola miller , 1988 ( rhyacionia ) , j . lepid . soc . 42 : 238 . tl : mexico , sinaloa , santa lucia . holotype : eme . male .\ncibriani miller , 1988 ( rhyacionia ) , j . lepid . soc . 42 : 236 . tl : mexico , mexico , paso de cortes . holotype : usnm . male .\ngranti miller , 1985 ( rhyacionia ) , great lakes ent . 18 : 120 . tl : canada , ontario , iron bridge , algoma district . holotype : cnc . male .\ninsulariana liu , in liu & bai , 1985 ( rhyacionia ) , entomotaxonomia 3 : 99 . tl : china , sichuan province , yuexi co . holotype : izas . male .\nlogaea durrant , 1911 ( rhyacionia ) , ent . mon . mag . 47 : 251 . tl : united kingdom , great britain ( scotland ) . holotype : bmnh . unknown .\nmilleri agenjo , 1963 ( rhyacionia buoliana ssp . ) , boln . serv . plag . forest . ( 6 ) 12 : 150 . tl : spain . holotype : mncnm . unknown .\nriesgoi agenjo , 1963 ( rhyacionia buoliana ssp . ) , bol . serv . plag . forest . ( 6 ) 12 : 150 . tl : spain . holotype : mncnm . unknown .\nrobredoi agenjo , 1963 ( rhyacionia buoliana ssp . ) , bol . serv . plag . forest . ( 6 ) 12 : 150 . tl : spain . holotype : unknown . unknown .\nsubtropica miller , 1961 ( rhyacionia ) , j . lepid . soc . 14 : 231 . tl : usa , florida , okaloosa co . , valparaiso . holotype : usnm . female .\ndativa heinrich , 1928 ( rhyacionia ) , proc . ent . soc . wash . 30 : 61 . tl : japan , honshu , kanagawa prefecture , yokohama . holotype : usnm . male .\nsimulata heinrich , 1928 ( rhyacionia ) , proc . ent . soc . wash . 30 : 62 . tl : japan , honshu , kanagawa prefecture , yokohama . holotype : usnm . female .\nvernalis nasu & kawahara , 2004 ( rhyacionia ) , trans . lepid . soc . japan 55 : 211 . tl : japan , hokkaido , koshimizu - cho , miwa . holotype : opu . male .\nbusckana heinrich , 1923 ( rhyacionia ) , bull . u . s . natn . mus . 123 : 17 . tl : usa , new york , long island , bellmore . holotype : usnm . male .\nadana heinrich , 1923 ( rhyacionia ) , bull . u . s . natn . mus . 123 : 18 . tl : usa , massachusetts , essex co . , forest hills . holotype : usnm . male .\npallidicosta razowski , 1999 ( rhyacionia ) , acta zool . cracov . 41 : 313 tl : dominican republic , dominican republic ( pedernales , 9 . 7 km ne los arroyos ) . holotype : cmnh . female .\nblanchardi miller , in powell & miller , 1978 ( rhyacionia ) , u . s . dept . agric . handbook 514 : 19 . tl : usa , texas , montgomery co . , conroe . holotype : usnm . male .\nflammicolor powell , in powell & miller , 1978 ( rhyacionia ) , u . s . dept . agric . handbook 514 : 31 . tl : mexico , durango , 16 km w el salto . holotype : cas . female .\naktita miller , in powell & miller , 1978 ( rhyacionia ) , u . s . dept . agric . handbook 514 : 24 . tl : usa , new jersey , ocean co . , lakehurst . holotype : usnm . male .\naureola powell , in powell & miller , 1978 ( rhyacionia ) , u . s . dept . agric . handbook 514 : 29 . tl : mexico , sinaloa , 13 rd km w el palmito . holotype : cas . male .\njenningsi powell , in powell & miller , 1978 ( rhyacionia ) , u . s . dept . agric . handbook 514 : 17 . tl : usa , arizona , coconino co . , sitgreaves national forest . holotype : usnm . male .\nmartinana powell , in powell & miller , 1978 ( rhyacionia ) , u . s . dept . agric . handbook 514 : 16 . tl : usa , arizona , yavapai co . , 8 mi n prescott . holotype : lacm . male .\nmultilineata powell , in powell & miller , 1978 ( rhyacionia ) , u . s . dept . agric . handbook 514 : 11 . tl : usa , california , modoc co . , buck creek ranger station . holotype : cas . male .\nsalmonicolor powell , in powell & miller , 1978 ( rhyacionia ) , u . s . dept . agric . handbook 514 : 15 . tl : usa , texas , jeff davis co . , davis mountains , mt locke . holotype : usnm . male .\nfumosana powell , in powell & miller , 1978 ( rhyacionia ) , u . s . dept . agric . handbook 514 : 21 . tl : usa , colorado , el paso co . , colorado springs , rock creek canyon . holotype : usnm . male .\npallifasciata powell , in powell & miller , 1978 ( rhyacionia ) , u . s . dept . agric . handbook 514 : 28 . tl : usa , arizona , coconino co . , fort valley , 25 mi nw flagstaff . holotype : usnm . male .\nversicolor powell , in powell & miller , 1978 ( rhyacionia ) , u . s . dept . agric . handbook 514 : 30 . tl : usa , arizona , coconino co . , fort valley , 75 mi nw flagstaff . holotype : usnm . male .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nbuoliana [ denis & schiffermuller ] , 1775 ( tortrix ) , syst . verz . schmett . wienergegend : 28 . tl : austria , vienna . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nbouliana frolich , 1828 ( tortrix ) , enum . tortr . wrtemberg : 72 . no type\nbouoliana herrich - schaffer , 1847 ( uninomial ) , syst . bearbeitung schmett . eur . 4 : pl . 7 , fig . 49 . no type\ngemmana hubner , [ 1818 - 1819 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 43fig . 269 . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\ngemmatella panzer , 1804 ( phalaena ( tinea ) ) , syst . nomen . schaeffers : 195 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nherbstella goeze , 1783 ( phalaena ( tinea ) ) , ent . beitr . ritter linn 3 ( 4 ) : 167 . tl : france . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\npallasana sodoffsky , 1830 ( tortrix ) , bull . soc . imp . nat . moscou 2 : 72 . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nplumbaea geoffroy , in fourcroy , 1785 ( phalaena ) , ent . paris . 2 : 334 . tl : france . syntype ( s ) : mnhn . unknown .\nrelictana lecerf , 1932 ( evetria buoliana ssp . ) , bull . soc . ent . fr . 37 : 164 . tl : morocco . moyen atlas , berkine . syntypes : mnhn . male , female .\nthurificana lederer , 1855 ( retinia ) , verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 5 : 224 . syntype ( s ) : mnhu . unknown .\njaponiella matsumura , 1917 ( evertia ) , y konchgaku : 516 . tl : japan . holotype : unknown . unknown .\nduplana hubner , [ 1811 - 1813 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 36 figs . 229 , 230 . tl : europe , syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\ncoruscana frolich , 1828 ( tortrix ) , enum . tortr . wrtemberg : 58 . tl : germany . wrtemburg . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nspadiceana duponchel , in godart , 1835 ( coccyx ) , hist . nat . lpid . papillons fr . 9 : 232 . no type\nspadiceana duponchel , in godart , 1836 ( coccyx ) , hist . nat . lpid . papillons fr . 9 : 524 . tl : france . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nfrustrana scudder , in comstock , 1880 ( retinia ) , ann . rep . dept . agric . 1879 : 236 . tl : usa , virginia , near washington , district of columbia . lectotype : usnm . female .\nhafneri rebel , 1937 ( evetria ) , z . st . ent . verz . 22 : 41 . tl : croatia , dalmatia [ croatia ] ( knin ) . holotype : nhmv . male .\nmalgassana saalmuller , 1880 ( retinia ) , ber . senckenb . naturf . ges . 1879 - 80 : 309 . tl : madagascar , madagascar . holotype : smfl . unknown .\nminiatana staudinger , 1871 ( retinia ) , berl . ent . z . 14 ( 1870 ) : 281 . tl : france , lyon . syntype ( s ) : mnhu . unknown .\nmonophylliana kearfott , 1907 ( petrova ) , trans . am . ent . soc . 33 : 1 . tl : usa , california , kern co . , coso valley . lectotype : amnh . male .\nneomexicana dyar , 1903 ( evetria ) , proc . ent . soc . wash . 5 : 286 . tl : usa , new mexico , san miguel co . , las vegas . holotype : usnm . male .\npasadenana kearfott , 1907 ( evetria ) , trans . am . ent . soc . 33 : 3 . tl : usa , california , alameda co . . lectotype : amnh . male .\npinicolana doubleday , 1850 ( spilonota ) , zoologist 8 ( appendix ) : cvi tl : united kingdom , great britain . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\ncocinnana vives moreno , 1991 ( rhyacinia ) , cat . sist . sinon . lepid . penin . iberica baleares : 181 . no type\nconcinnana lederer , 1859 ( retinia buoliana var . ) , wien . ent . monatschr . 3 : 282 . tl : united kingdom . great britain . syntype ( s ) : mnhu . unknown .\npinicola bodenheimer , 1927 ( evetria ) , z . angew . ent . 12 : 473 . no type\npinivorana lienig & zeller , 1846 ( coccyx ) , isis von oken ( leipzig ) 1846 ( 3 ) : 225 . tl : germany , syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nalbionana doubleday , 1850 ( ? retinia ) , synon . list br . lepid . : 24 . tl : united kingdom . great britain . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\npudendana herrich - schaffer , 1848 ( uninomial ) , syst . bearbeitung schmett . eur . 4 : pl . 21 , figs . 149 , 150 . no type\npudendana herrich - schaffer , 1851 ( tortrix ( coccyx ) ) , syst . bearbeitung schmett . eur . 4 : 122 . tl : austria / germany . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nrhaeticana thomann , in thomann , standfuss & muller - rutz , 1914 ( evetria pinivorana var . ) , jber . naturf . ges . graubndens ( n . f . ) 55 : 20 . tl : switzerland . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nsciurana tengstrom , 1848 ( coccyx ) , notis sllsk . fauna flora fenn . frh 1 : 159 . tl : finland . syntype ( s ) : zmh . unknown .\nrigidana fernald , in comstock , 1880 ( retinia ) , ann . rep . dept . agric 1879 : 237 . tl : usa , new york , tompkins co . , ithaca . lectotype : usnm . female .\nsubcervinana walsingham , 1879 ( retinia ) , illust . typical specimens lepid . heterocera colln . br . mus 4 : 25 . tl : usa , oregon , josephine co . , rogue river . lectotype : bmnh . female .\nwalsinghami rebel , 1896 ( retinia ) , ann . naturhist . hofmus . 11 : 119 . tl : canary islands , canary islands ( tenerife , orotava ) . lectotype : mgab . male .\nwashiyai kono & sawamoto , 1940 ( evetria ) , insecta matsum . 14 : 149 . tl : japan , hokkaido , yoichi . holotype : nsmt . male .\nzozana kearfott , 1907 ( evetria ) , trans . am . ent . soc . 33 : 2 . tl : usa , california , placer co . . holotype : amnh . female .\nmatutina meyrick , 1912 ( evetria ) , ent . mon . mag . 48 : 35 no type\nmontana busck , 1914 ( evetria ) , proc . ent . soc . wash . 16 : 147 . tl : usa . montana , elliston . holotype : usnm . male .\nunless noted , all images on these pages are copyright \u00a9 2003 - 14 by todd gilligan . please do not download , copy , print , or otherwise distribute any images from these pages without the permission of the author . contact form .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\n( 1853 - 1924 )\nto whom is due credit to all the information we have on its biology .\nrecords from montana , north dakota , kansas , missouri , arizona , new mexico , oklahoma , alabama and maryland .\ntype locality : fort bayard , new mexico ( g . e . bushnell ) .\ndescriptions of new microlepidoptera of forest trees august busck . 1914 . proceedings of the entomological society of washington 16 : 143 - 150 .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nuse of images featured on maryland biodiversity project is only permitted with express permission of the photographer ."]}
{"id": 1709, "summary": [{"text": "leucobrephos brephoides , the scarce infant moth , is a moth of the family geometridae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found from yukon to labrador and south to new york and southern alberta and british columbia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of open mixed wood forests of the boreal and mountain region .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 29 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on wing from march to may with a peak in mid to late april in alberta .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "generally , the flight period begins when snow patches are still on the ground .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on populus tremuloides , betula papyrifera and alnus , but have also been recorded on salix and populus balsamifera .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "all these species produce catkins early in spring , which may be important food sources prior to leave flush . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "leucobrephos brephoides", "paragraphs": ["found flying / sunning along dirt road in deciduous forest . among 9 infants counted in approx . 1 km stretch of road , 8 were archiearis infans and just the single leucobrephos brephoides .\non apple osx , or right click on the text above to copy the link .\nadults in alberta from march into may , peaking in mid to late april .\nwas originally described in this genus ! ) . no similar species are on the wing as early as\n. the forewing is black and dusted with grey and a white - bordered black pm line , the am black line lacks a white border . hindwing white with and even black margin and basal black scaling . sexes are similar but can be separated by the pectinate ( feathery ) antennae of the males ; females have filiform ( thread - like ) antennae .\nthe early stages are described in mcguffin ( 1988 ) . habits of the adults are similar to those of archiearis infans , and the flight period often begins when snow patches are still on the ground . although the larval hosts are common and widespread , this species is usually rare , and not often encountered because of its early spring flight .\n) . these species all produce catkins early in the spring , which may be important food sources prior to leave flush .\nyukon to labrador south to new york and southern alberta / bc ( prentice 1963 ) .\ncomments are published according to our submission guidelines . the eh strickland entomological museum does not necessarily endorse the views expressed .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\npowell , j . a . & p . a . opler , moths of western north america , pl . 27 . 16m , 27 . 17f ; p . 204 . book review and ordering\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nopen mixedwood forests of the boreal and mountain region .\n- - u . alberta entomology page\ncontributed by john f . carr on 28 march , 2009 - 8 : 07pm additional contributions by marcie oconnor last updated 3 april , 2017 - 8 : 21am\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nthanks , john , i still have no idea how to move pages around on bugguide ( if i even can ) . i believe it is a male , yes ; this u of alberta entomology collection page indicates males have pectinate antennae , and females have filiform . that page has useful info on the species .\nselect your preferred way to display the comments and click ' save settings ' to activate your changes .\nthe information below is based on images submitted and identified by contributors . range and date information may be incomplete , overinclusive , or just plain wrong .\nhover over black occurrence boxes to see number of images submitted . log in to make states , months and boxes clickable .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nonline list of [ . . . ] the geometridae of the world ( dec 2007 ) , website ( version 01 / 12 / 2007 )\nmaintained by malcolm j . scoble and axel hausmann . online list of valid and available names of the geometridae of the world , urltoken last update december 2007\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhodges , r . w . et al . , eds . 1983 . check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . e . w . classey limited and the wedge entomological research foundation , london . 284 pp .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\ndistribution data for u . s . states and canadian provinces is known to be incomplete or has not been reviewed for this taxon .\na location where the species occurs or has occurred and where there is potential for persistence or regular recurrence . for most species minimally verification of an adult or larva in association with suitable habitat including larval foodplant . minimum verification standards vary by species from genitalia dissection to decent photographs , but specimens are strongly recommended . it is usually advisable to rear larvae to the adult stage for positive identification .\nmost of these species are more or less landscape level moths that occupy a variety of wooded habitats and often adjacent shrublands and thickets . in the context of habitat separation , suitable habitat includes marginal habitat and unsuitable means sparsely wooded to treeless places without suitable larval foodplant . for the relatively few included species that are specialized feeders forest or woodland where the foodplant is absent or nearly so can be treated as unsuitable habitats . in particular for the obligate conifer feeders , forest tracts in which suitable ( for that species ) pines , spruces , firs , etc . comprise fewer than 4 canopy trees per hectare may be regarded as unsuitable . see habitat and food comments fields for species - specific information on what constitutes habitat when mapping occurrences .\nthis figure is arbitrary but a circle of two kilometers radius would define a habitat clearly smaller than most , but well above the smallest ones . it is probably unrealistically low in extensively forested areas . this figure should not be used however if forests are reduced to small woodlots and the landscape is more than 50 % agricultural or otherwise essentially devoid of native tree cover . in such cases the inferred extent is simply the woodlot in which the collection was made . in general with habitats under 1000 hectares assume full occupancy .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nscoble , m . j . ( ed . ) , m . s . parsons , m . r . honey , l . m . pitkin , and b . r . pitkin . 1999 . geometrid moths of the world : a catalogue . volumes 1 and 2 : 1016 pp . + index 129 pp . csiro publishing , collingwood , victoria , australia .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\nall documents and related graphics provided by this server and any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server are provided\nas is\nwithout warranty as to the currentness , completeness , or accuracy of any specific data . natureserve hereby disclaims all warranties and conditions with regard to any documents provided by this server or any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , including but not limited to all implied warranties and conditions of merchantibility , fitness for a particular purpose , and non - infringement . natureserve makes no representations about the suitability of the information delivered from this server or any other documents that are referenced to or linked to this server . in no event shall natureserve be liable for any special , indirect , incidental , consequential damages , or for damages of any kind arising out of or in connection with the use or performance of information contained in any documents provided by this server or in any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , under any theory of liability used . natureserve may update or make changes to the documents provided by this server at any time without notice ; however , natureserve makes no commitment to update the information contained herein . since the data in the central databases are continually being updated , it is advisable to refresh data retrieved at least once a year after its receipt . the data provided is for planning , assessment , and informational purposes . site specific projects or activities should be reviewed for potential environmental impacts with appropriate regulatory agencies . if ground - disturbing activities are proposed on a site , the appropriate state natural heritage program ( s ) or conservation data center can be contacted for a site - specific review of the project area ( see visit local programs ) .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users ."]}
{"id": 1710, "summary": [{"text": "the salamandroidea are a suborder of salamanders , referred to as advanced salamanders .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "the members of the suborder are found worldwide except for antarctica , sub-saharan africa , and oceania .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "they differ from suborder cryptobranchoidea as the angular and prearticular bones in their lower jaws are fused , and all members use internal fertilization .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the female is fertilized by means of a spermatophore , a sperm-containing cap placed by the male in her cloaca .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the sperm is stored in spermathecae on the roof of the cloaca until it is needed at the time of oviposition .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "the earliest known salamandroid fossils are specimens of the species beiyanerpeton jianpingensis from the tiaojishan formation , dated to the late jurassic period about 157 ( plus or minus 3 ) million years ago . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "salamandroidea", "paragraphs": ["fossils , molecules , divergence times , and the origin of salamandroidea . - pubmed - ncbi\nsalamandroidea is known as the salamander family , and first appeared about 160 million years ago .\nwhat made you want to look up salamandroidea ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\nsuborder salamandroidea fertilization internal ; angular bone fused with prearticular bone in lower jaw ; 2 pairs of limbs ; external gills in a few species that remain permanently aquatic ; aquatic , semiaquatic , and terrestrial . family ambystomatidae ( mole salamanders ) small to moderate size , to 35 cm ; usually with well - developed lungs ; \u2026\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nproc natl acad sci u s a . 2012 apr 10 ; 109 ( 15 ) : 5557 - 8 . doi : 10 . 1073 / pnas . 1202491109 . epub 2012 mar 28 .\ndepartment of comparative biology and experimental medicine , university of calgary , calgary , ab , canada t2n 4n1 . janders @ urltoken\npmid : 22460794 pmcid : pmc3326514 doi : 10 . 1073 / pnas . 1202491109\nstratigraphic column from the mid - mesozoic to recent , showing the impact of the new fossil salamander published in pnas ( ) . the blue bar represents the estimate of salamandroid divergence from yang and rannala ( ) , and the red bar represents that from zhang et al . ( ) . \u201ca\u201d is the stratigraphic placement of the stem salamander kokartus ; \u201cb1\u201d the age of chunerpeton used in reisz and m\u00fcller ( ) and roelants ( ) ; \u201cb2\u201d the age of chunerpeton used by zhang et al . ( ) ; \u201cc\u201d the new fossil salamandroid ; and \u201cd\u201d the previously oldest known salamandroid valdotriton . the new salamandroid extends their known range by 40 myr ( dashed red line ) , placing it older than an estimate made from the fossil record ( ) . the impact of changing hypotheses of taxonomic or stratigraphic placement is also demonstrated ; the different age interpretations for chunerpeton has a 17 - myr impact on the divergence estimate as read from the fossil record ( dashed line ) .\nproc natl acad sci u s a . 2012 apr 10 ; 109 ( 15 ) : 5557 - 5558 .\nwe paleontologists can sometimes suffer from envy when we look at the sheer amount of data that a molecular systematist can bring to bear on a question of evolutionary relationship between species . our fossils are often fragmentary , and the fossil record can be stingy , especially failing to produce small , fragile taxa such as amphibians over periods of tens of millions of years . nevertheless , paleontologists have exclusive access to some information from deep time , primarily the combination of primitive and derived states that can tell the story of character transformation within a lineage , assuming the taxon is sufficiently well represented in the fossil record . we also used to claim exclusive access to information on the timing of events of evolution , but because of the development of molecular clock techniques we now have to share this stage . molecular divergence estimates are highly sensitive to the number , location , and topological distribution of calibration points (\n) , and fossils , being constraints on the younger end of cladogenesis , necessarily underestimate divergence timing . the result of these sets of potential biases is a frequent mismatch in the ages estimated by using either set of data . this discrepancy has certainly been evident with respect to the evolution of extant amphibians ( frogs , salamanders , and caecilians ; collectively lissamphibia ) , with molecular estimates being much older ( as much as 100 myr ) than the fossil record suggests (\nsalamanders are the morphologically most generalized of the three extant groups , not having the locomotor specializations of their sister taxa frogs ( i . e . , jumping ) or caecilians ( i . e . , burrowing ) . there is an important divergence near the base of the salamander phylogenetic tree ( fig . 1 ) between the cryptobranchoids ( cryptobranchidae and hynobiidae ) , and salamandroids ( all other salamanders , excepting sirenidae , whose placement remains controversial ) . until the pnas study ( 12 ) , the oldest known salamandroid was from the cretaceous of spain ( 13 ) . gao and shubin ' s new species extends this range by 40 myr , with important implications for our understanding of salamander evolution .\nstratigraphic column from the mid - mesozoic to recent , showing the impact of the new fossil salamander published in pnas ( 12 ) . the blue bar represents the estimate of salamandroid divergence from yang and rannala ( 1 ) , and the red bar represents that from zhang et al . ( 6 ) . \u201ca\u201d is the stratigraphic placement of the stem salamander kokartus ; \u201cb1\u201d the age of chunerpeton used in reisz and m\u00fcller ( 3 ) and roelants ( 9 ) ; \u201cb2\u201d the age of chunerpeton used by zhang et al . ( 6 ) ; \u201cc\u201d the new fossil salamandroid ; and \u201cd\u201d the previously oldest known salamandroid valdotriton . the new salamandroid extends their known range by 40 myr ( dashed red line ) , placing it older than an estimate made from the fossil record ( 6 ) . the impact of changing hypotheses of taxonomic or stratigraphic placement is also demonstrated ; the different age interpretations for chunerpeton has a 17 - myr impact on the divergence estimate as read from the fossil record ( dashed line ) .\nit is the 40 - myr age range extension that has the most exciting implications . a number of estimates for the divergence of cryptobranchoids and salamandroids have been made in the past several years (\n) has become more commonplace . however , these estimates are still much older than suggested by a direct reading of the fossil record . one recent attempt to infer divergence by using just fossils (\n) estimated this split to be at approximately 143 mya , which is more than 30 myr more recent than the youngest of the molecular estimates , and 80 myr younger than the average of the molecular estimates .\nthis discrepancy results from a few issues with the fossil data that skew this estimate toward younger ages , and biases in the molecular data that skew estimates in the older direction . the first , and probably greatest , effect with respect to this particular fossil - based estimate is the incompleteness of the fossil record for lissamphibians . there are enormous periods of nonrepresentation during which we know there must have been fossils . approximately 80 myr span between triadobatrachus ( the first frog ) and the stem salamanders karaurus and kokartus . similarly , there are approximately 55 myr between triadobatrachus and the first caecilian eocaecilia , and the next caecilian fossil does not occur for another 45 myr ( 20 ) . the fossil record improves as it gets progressively younger , but not evenly or even predictably . this incompleteness makes what is already an underestimate biased toward even younger ages . a second issue is a methodological decision made by marjanovi\u0107 and laurin ( 10 ) to use \u201chard\u201d maximal constraints , i . e . , making the statement that a clade can definitely not be older than a particular lower bound ( in stratigraphic terms , older is toward the bottom and younger to the top of a stacked time series ) . however , we already know that the fossil record is an underestimate of true age of divergence , so those bounds themselves are just as prone to these same systematic biases , and most of the molecular studies have not used maximal constraints as a result . finally , there is a disagreement over the age of the earliest cryptobranchoid chunerpeton ( 21 ) , which underscores the need for explicitness when using stratigraphic and fossil data to constrain divergence estimates ( 4 ) .\nthis discrepancy is where the new fossil salamandroid fits into the picture . gao and shubin ' s new salamander extends the known range of salamandroids by 40 myr , or 17 myr older than the time that had been estimated by the fossils alone . this starkly underscores the caution we must take when making statements about evolutionary trends from a direct reading of the fossil record . however , the new fossil salamander is still much younger than most estimates from molecular clocks .\ngao and shubin ' s new salamander extends the known range of salamandroids by 40 myr .\nthis may be a result of a fragmentary fossil record ; fossils await discovery that will create more range extensions into deep time , eventually to approach the dates suggested by the molecular clocks . alternatively , it might point toward systematic biases within the chosen calibration method ( 1 ) or the molecular data themselves ( 22 ) .\none recent molecular study estimated a time of divergence that fits very well with this new fossil ( 5 ) . the authors used fossil data in a number of innovative ways . first , they used a number of external and internal calibration points from the fossil record as hard minimal constraints ( i . e . , the clade must have diverged by this point ) . they then took the suggestion of using maxima ( 10 ) , but instead of using these as absolute or hard constraints , used them as \u201csoft\u201d constraints by creating a distribution of possible ages for these events . the result of their method , depending on the exact parameters used , places the basal salamander divergence slightly ( 3 myr ) to reasonably ( 13 myr ) older than this first salamandroid ( fig . 1 ) . not using any maximal constraint increased the age of estimation for the divergence by 20 to 30 myr , and using hard maxima made the estimate 10 myr younger than the soft maxima . the preference for using the soft maxima withstood this test from the fossil record well , and may point the direction for future molecular clock work ( 1 ) , but further analytical work will be necessary to ensure these results are repeatable and consistent before they become standard practice . however , notwithstanding the caution with which fossil data should be used , they appear to increase the accuracy of estimates of divergence made by molecular clock models , and should be incorporated ( with appropriate provisos ) whenever possible .\ni thank a . jaszlics for the image of notophthalmus ; and brian gratwicke for the image of cryptobranchus .\nnote : we only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it , and that it is not junk mail . we do not capture any email address .\nmessage body ( your name ) thought you would like to see the pnas web site .\nresearchers used field data from 2012 to 2015 to study mortality and allele frequency changes in the sea star pisaster ochraceus during a mass mortality event in northcentral california , and found that surviving adult and juvenile sea stars experienced 81 % mortality and allele shifts , according to the authors .\na survey of more than 4 , 600 american adults conducted in 1995 - 1996 and in 2011 - 2014 suggests that among individuals of low socioeconomic status , negative affect increased significantly between the two survey waves , whereas life satisfaction and psychological well - being decreased .\na study of cognitive ability in norwegian males born from 1962 to 1991 suggests that environmental factors rather than changing genetic composition of families likely account for most of the change in norwegian population iq .\nthe mathematical tools behind recent gerrymandering cases have brought a modicum of precision into the political arena\u2014but this rigor hasn\u2019t always been enough to spur policy changes .\nthis is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .\nhorse , ( equus caballus ) , a hoofed , herbivorous mammal of the family equidae . it comprises a single species , \u2026\nlove words ? you must \u2014 there are over 200 , 000 words in our free online dictionary , but you are looking for one that\u2019s only in the merriam - webster unabridged dictionary .\nthe story of an imaginary word that managed to sneak past our editors and enter the dictionary .\ntake this quiz and discover 12 words for things you didn ' t know had words .\nchris taklis added an association between\nbrief summary\nand\ntriturus macedonicus\n.\nchris taklis added an association between\nbrief summary\nand\ntriturus macedonicus ( karaman , 1922 )\n.\nchris taklis added text to\nbrief summary\non\ntriturus macedonicus ( karaman , 1922 )\n.\nchris taklis added the greek common name\n\u03b4\u03c5\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2 \u03c7\u03c4\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c4\u03c1\u03af\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd\u03b1\u03c2\nto\ntriturus macedonicus ( karaman , 1922 )\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthis page was last edited on 8 december 2017 , at 20 : 09 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\n( zool . ) a division of amphibia including the salamanders and allied groups ; the urodela .\nall content on this website , including dictionary , thesaurus , literature , geography , and other reference data is for informational purposes only . this information should not be considered complete , up to date , and is not intended to be used in place of a visit , consultation , or advice of a legal , medical , or any other professional .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nplease set a username for yourself . people will see it as author name with your public flash cards ."]}
{"id": 1713, "summary": [{"text": "the slaty spinetail or slaty castlebuilder , ( synallaxis brachyura ) , is a passerine bird which breeds in the tropical new world from northern honduras to western ecuador and east-central brazil .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is a member of the south american bird family furnariidae , a group in which many species build elaborate clay nests , giving rise to the english name for the family of \" ovenbirds \" .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "however , the slaty spinetail constructs a bulky spherical stick nest 36x43 cm in size , with a long tubular entrance , 0.4 \u2013 4.5 m high in a shrub or vine covered tree .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "it lays two or three greenish white eggs .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "this species is a widespread and common resident breeder in lowlands and up to 1500 m altitude in a range of scrubby habitats , including second growth , road and river edges , and overgrown pasture .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the slaty spinetail is typically 15 cm long , and weighs 18.5 g .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it is a slender bird with a long , pointed wispy tail .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the plumage is mainly dark grey-brown becoming dark grey on the head .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the crown and shoulder patches are rich rufous .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "sexes are similar , but young birds are duller and browner with a yellowish chin .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the slaty spinetail is an insectivore which is difficult to see as it forages for beetles , caterpillars and other prey deep in tangled thickets , but may be located by its hard chu-chu-chrrrr call . ", "topic": 12}], "title": "slaty spinetail", "paragraphs": ["remsen , j . v . , jr ( 2018 ) . slaty spinetail ( synallaxis brachyura ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe slaty spinetail is common in a variety of open woodland and shrubby habitats in the tropical and subtropical zones ( 200 - 3300m ) , ranging from the northern coast of honduras to southwest ecuador . it is often found foraging in family groups or pairs in low , dense vegetation . it has a uniformly dark gray body with deep rufous wing coverts and a rufous crown , extending from behind the forehead to the nape . the four subspecies recognized are separated both geographically and altitudinally . brachyura is found in northern colombia ( mostly below 300m ) and has a deep chestnut crown and a paler gray supercilium . caucae is found mostly above 1 , 000m central colombia is paler overall . griseonucha of southwest ecuador is darker overall with a silvery throat and some white in the belly . nigrofumosa is found primarily above 1 , 000m in western ecuador and western colombia , and is similar to griseonucha but with a dark throat .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' common ' ( stotz et al . ( 1996 ) . trend justification : this population is suspected to be increasing as ongoing habitat degradation is creating new areas of suitable habitat ( del hoyo et al . 2003 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nphylogenetic study # r found this species to be sister to s . subpudica . proposed race chapmani ( colombia ) described as like nigrifumosa but with rump slightly browner and crown , wings and underparts slightly paler , but variation apparently clinal , and individual specimens not diagnosable . named taxon jaraguana ( goi\u00e1s , in e brazil ) , described as race of present species , was based on misidentified specimens of s . hypospodia . race nigrifumosa often ( as in hbw ) misspelt nigrofumosa # r . four subspecies tentatively recognized .\nlawrence , 1865 \u2013 nc honduras s to panama and nw colombia s to nw ecuador ( s to n guayas ) .\nchapman , 1923 \u2013 sw ecuador ( s from guayas and azuay ) s to extreme nw peru ( tumbes ) .\n14\u201316 cm ; 16\u201321 g . one of the darkest species in genus . nominate race has deep rufous - chestnut crown and nape , greyish supercilium , darker grey rest of head , dark . . .\nsong a low \u201cch - ch - ch - churrr - r - r - r\u201d , \u201cje - ch - ch - chrrrrr\u201d or \u201cchut - chut - . . .\nsecond - growth scrub , riparian thickets , and undergrowth at edges of montane evergreen forest and . . .\ndietary items recorded are coleoptera , hemiptera , larval diptera and lepidoptera , spiders , spider eggs , and seeds . usually in pairs , . . .\neggs in jan\u2013feb and apr\u2013oct in costa rica . monogamous ; paired throughout year . nest a bulky mass c . 20\u201340 cm high and 40 . . .\nnot globally threatened . fairly common to common in most of range . occurs in la planada nature reserve and r\u00edo \u00f1amb\u00ed natural reserve , in colombia . tolerant of moderate . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nrecent phylogenetic work supports subdivision into 5\u20136 clades ( herein tribes ) , depending on inclusion or exclusion of xenopini # r .\nincorporates poecilurus , siptornopsis and gyalophylax , all of which have been found to be morphologically and genetically # r inseparable from synallaxis . see also mazaria ( above ) .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nan individual briefly appearing at the edge of a bush before moving back into cover .\ncall given by a bird in a pasture beside the forest ; form chapmani .\nrichard garrigues , josep del hoyo , keith blomerley , pere sugranyes , greg baker .\nmanuel retana , juanfran herrera cueva , juan d , mauricio rueda , megan , lars petersson , orlando jarqu\u00edn g . , fred werner , greg griffith , joe tobias , marc fasol .\nthis species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : synallaxis brachyura . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\n12 - 15 april 2014 for many known birding destinations in costa rica , we don\u2019t have great earth - shattering news to share . the destinations are well documented ( in barrett lawson\u2019s excellent costa rican birdfinding guide as well as online ) and the expected species are well documented . that said , we can still share our experiences , tag on a few [ . . . ]\n5 july 2012 \u2013 el sendero los quetzales ( boquete side ) expectations were high for the los quetzales trail , and it did not disappoint . we parked at the anam ranger station and hiked the 4wd road in and the first few kilometers of the trail . quite close to the ranger station we had our first of many mixed species flocks and found the beautiful [ . . . ]\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy"]}
{"id": 1714, "summary": [{"text": "the st kilda house mouse ( mus musculus muralis ) is an extinct subspecies of the house mouse found only on the islands of the st kilda archipelago of northwest scotland .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is uncertain when they first arrived on the islands , but it is possible that they unwittingly were transported there during the norse period .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "isolated on the islands , the st kilda house mouse diverged from relatives .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it became larger than the mainland varieties , although it had a number of traits in common with a subspecies found on mykines in the faroe islands , mus musculus mykinessiensis .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "when the last st kildans were evacuated in 1930 , the endemic house mouse became extinct very quickly , as it was associated strictly with human settlement .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "some specimens exist in museums .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the st kilda field mouse ( apodemus sylvaticus hirtensis ) is still present . ", "topic": 29}], "title": "st kilda house mouse", "paragraphs": ["mouse in the house . . - review of summer house backpackers , st kilda , australia - tripadvisor\nthe last mammal to go extinct in britain was the st kilda house mouse .\nbut the st . kilda house mouse needed the warm houses , farms , and dropped food crumbs of its human neighbors to survive . within three years of the humans evacuating , all the st . kilda house mice had died off . in contrast , the field mice survived and are still living on st . kilda today .\ntwo kinds of mice used to be found on st kilda . both were varieties ( subspecies ) of the mainland house mouse and wood mouse respectively . they were probably brought to st kilda by norsemen . like many animals which have become isolated , they evolved to be different from their ancestors , in this case larger .\nthe reasons for this are not precisely known but may be the result of field mice having invaded house mouse habitat and , through some form of competition , preventing the house mouse from breeding .\nscientists believe that as early as 500 bc , norse settlers arrived in st . kilda and brought along a few unwanted stowaways\u2013european house mice . isolated from their mainland relatives , these house mice evolved over time into a distinct species , larger and shaped differently from their ancestors . st . kilda is also home to a unique subspecies of field mouse , that probably also arrived as stowaways and evolved into a new species .\nfollowing the evacuation of the human population from st kilda , field mice migrated from the hills to the abandoned homes and buildings .\nthe house mouse of mykines is considered to be a race of its own with special and significant characteristics . of these one must mention that the tale is very long and the hind legs are especial long and powerful probably giving the mouse extra power for jumping . the color is also different from its ancestor , the common house mouse , as it is more brownish and have a lighter tinted bellow . likewise it is interesting , that their inner nose openings are more conical than on other house mice , a trait it has in common with the mice of st . kilda , the most western , isolated island in the hebrides ! it is assumed , that the mykines and st . kilda house mice are the representatives of the eldest of europe ' s house mice .\nit was probably the vikings that got the house mouse to st kilda . the mice lived exclusively in the human settlements , feeding exclusively off of the detritus that humans tend to leave about them . for a thousand years , no one really bothered about them .\nwe often hear about how human activity and expansion can endanger wildlife habitats . but can you think of any animals that might be threatened by the disappearance of humans ? after careful consideration , the story of the extinct st . kilda house mouse came to my mind .\nthe islands of st kilda , which lie 41 miles ( 66km ) west of benbecula in the outer hebrides , were abandoned by humans in 1930 .\nthe st kilda house mouse was dependent on the presence of people , as it fed on grain and other human commodities . with the evacuation of the people in 1930 , its source of food was lost and it died out . it is now extinct and only exists as specimens in museum collections .\na shame it\u2019s gone then . but the good news is that another \u2018man - made\u2019 rodent subspecies , the st kilda field mouse , is currently thriving . by all accounts it has developed a taste for mars bars .\ntoo . the relationship between the two species where they occur together has been the subject of much research . house mice used to occur on st kilda before the human population of that island was evacuated in 1930 after which they rapidly declined to extinction .\nthe st kilda field mouse is still common on hirta and is also present on dun . it was never so dependent on people , so it did not die out like the house mouse . it feeds on snails , insects , moss and seeds , but will also feed on the carcasses of dead sheep , birds and any apples , mars bars or other delicacies foolishly left around by work party members !\naltogether there are only a few hundred pairs , making it a great rarity . specimens of the adult birds and their eggs were highly prized . the st kildans used to collect eggs for selling to collectors . today it is fully protected on st kilda .\nthe house mouse can be divided in two different races , western mouse and eastern mouse . the eastern mouse comes from norway while the western mouse comes from germany and england and now a days can be found in mykines , on nolsoy , hestur and fugloy , while the rest og the faroese mouse are mixtures of western mouse and eastern mouse . if it is true , what landt writes , it is interesting , that the mykines mouse in just 200 years have developed to a race of its own with it own name , mus musculus mykinessiensis . but more probably , it is a development , which have taken closer to 1000 years . the mykines house mouse is nowadays seen all around the island in an unknown number . it can be seen in the houses , in the houses for drying the sheep meat and in the open nature , the puffins lands and at least in a considerable number in borgardalur .\nst . kilda is a small group of islands about one - hundred miles off the west coast of scotland . the isolated archipelago was inhabited by humans for more than two thousand years , from the bronze age until 1930 . in 1930 the few remaining residents of st . kilda were permanently evacuated because of sickness , crop failure , and casualties of world war i .\nthe st kilda wren is a sub - species of the mainland wren and has only been found on hirta , dun , soay and boreray . it is larger than those from the mainland .\nif nothing else , the st kilda house mouse shows us the limitations of the words and ideas that we use to frame the great ecological debates of our age . it blurs the distinctions between wild and domestic , natural and man - made , history and natural history , anthropology and ecology , even between vermin and endangered animal . as such , it can help us to frame fundamental questions about conservation , what we are trying to achieve and why we are trying to achieve it . the st kilda house mouse should be a rallying call for the curiosity of conservationists ; we need to question perceived wisdom , distinctions and definitions and to measure worth and value and meaning . to care for the planet , or even to care about it at all , we need to be curious .\nsuggested routes of colonisation of the field mouse ( from a poster in the observatory ) .\nthere are only 2 wild species of terrestrial mammals on mykines . it is the house mouse and the hare . apart from that , there are the domestic mammals , sheep , cow , horse , dog and cat .\nit is not known for how long there have been house mouses on mykines . the vicar landt in his\nfors\u00f8g til en beskrivelse over f\u00e6r\u00f8erne\n( a trial to a description of the faroes ) from 1800 states , that there were no house mice on mykines at that time . whether this is true , is not possibly to say anything about now , but it dosn\u00b4t seem probably . modern dna technologies , have shown interesting result . the distribution of house mouse can be taken as a proof of the way the faroes have been colonised , as the house mouse have followed man . genetical investigation of faroese people have shown , that the men came from norway while the faroese women came from ireland .\nberry , r . j . & tricker , b . j . k . 1969 . competition and extinction : the mice of foula with notes on those on fair isle and st . kilda . journal of zoology 158 : 247 - 265 .\nisolated from their mainland relatives , these house mice evolved over time into a distinct species , larger and shaped differently from their ancestors .\n' fair isle field mouse ' , observatory , 2014 . \u00a9 ian andrews . although previously recognised as a subspecies of the field mouse or even a separate species in its own right , current thoughts are that is should be treated as an island form .\ndespite the field mice thriving , the change and lack of food resulted in extinction for the island ' s house mice , who took only two years to die out .\nit is a curious story , and a curious creature , and one that i personally feel entirely ambiguous about . should it have been saved ? is its extinction a great loss for biodiversity ? was there a moral obligation to save the subspecies ? would there have been a moral obligation to save them had they not been classed as a subspecies ? is it a subspecies or a cultural relic or even just a cruel mistake ? a wild animal , or a pet , or vermin ? people worry about the loss of subspecies of tigers \u2013 should they have worried about the loss of the st kilda house mouse ? does this story belong in the annals of ecology , or history ?\n' fair isle field mouse ' , observatory , 2013 . \u00a9 david parnaby . field mice are dark brown above and white below ; when compared to house mice , they have larger , more protruding eyes , larger ears and a longer tail . on fair isle , they are larger and darker ( less sandy brown ) than their mainland counterparts .\nin recent years the islands ' summer warden has been plotting the distribution of st kilda wrens . the most recent census was done on hirta in 1993 . a total of 113 - 117 pairs were recorded . a map showing apparent occupied territories was produced . territories were based on areas where males were recorded singing at least three times , a nest or young were found , or where a bird was giving an alarm call .\nst kilda is not the most hospitable of places . in fact , it is probably most famous for being decidedly inhospitable . by 1930 things had gotten so bad for the islanders that the whole community asked to be relocated to the mainland , and so the island was deserted . as is often the case with decidedly inhospitable places , the only people who currently bother to go there regularly are the military and a small group of conservationists .\n' fair isle field mouse ' , observatory , 2014 . \u00a9 ian andrews . these mice are most readily seen at dusk under the bird feeders from the observatory ' s lounge window .\nst kilda is an archipelago on the wrong side , as it were , of the outer hebrides , making it the most remote place in the british isles . this did not stop it from being inhabited by humans from the bronze age right up until the twentieth century . in that time , the islanders developed their own remarkable culture , which i wholeheartedly advise you to research . it is a place where culture and nature bleed into each other . indeed , it is the uk\u2019s only unesco world heritage site for both nature and culture , and hosts britain\u2019s largest seabird colony .\nwilson , k . , eady , p . & del nevo , a . j . 1998 . origin of an insular population of the wood mouse based on parasitological evidence . journal of wildlife diseases 34 ( 1 ) : 150 - 154 .\nin any case by 1932 , within two years of humans leaving , the mouse was extinct . they were not hardy enough to leave the abandoned buildings , and without human food available to pilfer there was nothing for the fat little rodents to eat .\ndelany , m . j . & davis , p . e . 1961 . observations on the ecology and life history of the fair isle field - mouse apodemus sylvaticus fridariensis . proceedings of the zoological society of london 136 ( 3 ) : 439 - 452 .\nflowerdew , j . r . & tattersall , f . h . 2008 . wood mouse . in : harris , s . & yalden , d . w . ( eds ) mammals of the british isles : handbook , 4th edition . the mammal society , southampton .\nnormally one don ' t see much to them , but they can be seen in cellars and drying houses for sheep meat , where an ongoing fight against both the mouse and the starlings takes place . the mice can pass through the smallest openings , a hole of only 16 millimeters diameter it said to be enough .\nthe hares live at quite high altitudes in the outfield , in 400 to 500 meters hight and are most often seen around knukur in the great slope of rocks and stones , where the radio and antenna house is situated . but they can also be seen in the lower parts of the outfield . normally only one is seen at a time , running quickly from its hiding place behind or under a stone , trying to come to a more secure distance from one .\nevolutionarily speaking , a thousand years isn\u2019t a lot , if you are a human . if you are a mouse , however , it is enough time to create the pitter - patter of 5 , 000 generations of little feet . as is often the case with animals on islands with little competition , it got bigger , because bigger animals are generally more efficient at conserving heat and energy . not massively so , but big enough to eventually become a subspecies . a human - made subspecies , completely dependant on human food to survive . little more than a parasite .\nit was once thought that the various races of field mice on scottish islands may have been glacial relicts , in other words they had survived the ice age in these localities . however , it is now thought that all the island field mice have been introduced by humans . work by prof . r . j . ( sam ) berry , based on skeletal characteristics , has indicated that the mice were inadvertently introduced by the vikings from norway , the route by which these introductions occurred being shown on the map ( right ) . there is not a total agreement about this , however , and one more recent piece of work , based on the parasites carried by the mice , suggests that the ' fair isle field mouse ' , in contrast to most other island populations , may have come from the british mainland .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nall most daily one see the 2 species of seals , which are seen around the faroes , spotted seal and grey seal .\none can also be so fortunate to see whales . killer whales , pilot pilot whales , porpoises and , more seldom , fin whales , sperm whales and humpback whales .\nthe hares on mykines are found in a little but apparently stable number . they probably live on the margins as the number is not increasing and they have never been hunted .\nthe hares on mykines stem from the same hares that one sees an the other faroese islands and which were brought to the faroes from the norwegian island krager\u00f8 in the 1850 ' ies . it was snow hares , who in the beginning also became white in the winter , but they now only are grey in the winter , because of many years of natural selection .\nif one goes to the holm , then on the narrow land before the stair down to lamba , one often hear and see the seals on the small skerries north of the holm . and that at all seasons . just outside the landingplace , just outside the holmgjogv with the little skerry one often can see them quite close and one get the impression , especially if one is in a bout , that they are quite curious . one see their head with the big black eyes looking directly at one and if one whistle , they seem to be even more curious .\nin former time they were systematically hunted and the hunters were paid for the number of jaws they presented , as the seal were thought to be a danger for the fishery . the hunt was performed by killing the cubs in the caves in which they were brought up in the first time of their life . now they are occasionally hunted by rifle and their meat tastes quite good .\nif one is lucky , it is possible to see around 300 seals at one time on the skerries north and west of mykines holm , where they are lying to dry , rest and sleep . all though they can be quite noisy . it can be a beautifully sight in calm and sunny weather to see them swim in the clear water west of the holm , north of uti a b\u00f8li\u00f0 in the little bay below the lighthouse .\nalmost every year there is reported sights of whales in the sea around mykines .\nfor some years ago 16 pilot whales were killed in lendingergjogv . in the late 90 ' ies , sulan departing from mykines met a group of pilot whales just outside lendingergjogv , from where they were driven to b\u00f8ur in s\u00f8rvags fjor\u00f0ur , where they were killed .\nseveral times in the late years , there have been seen killer whales very close to the shoreline of mykines . once some men gathering sheep saw five killer whales swimming along the coast and in between the skerries on the south cost just east of the village .\nin the late 90 ' ies some fin whales and a sperm whale were seen in the waters just south of mykines . there was at least 2 fins swimming westward while the sperm whale was more far out , but not longer than it could be seen , how the the blast was directed sideways as the sperm whales blast is .\nit is sobering to think that humans can have such a dramatic effect on the genetics of a population of animals as to create a new subspecies . that is , until you look at a dog . or a cow .\nwhewell\u2019s gazette : year 2 , vol . # 41 | whewell ' s ghost\nresearchers have begun a study into a remote island archipelagos super - sized field mice , which can grow up to twice the size of their mainland cousins .\na team from the university of edinburgh university wants to know why the mice came to be so big .\nthe mice weigh up to 50g and have pale - coloured hair on their underbellies .\nhe said :\nthey are cute and a little bit different from mainland mice .\nmr black added :\nthe theory is that because they ' re here with very little competition or predation , that allows them to get bigger and being bigger allows them to cope better with the extreme conditions out here , the cold and the weather .\nthe foreign secretary quits , telling theresa may\nneedless self - doubt\nis leading to\nsemi - brexit\n.\nwhat is rss ? rss makes it possible to subscribe to a website ' s updates instead of visiting it by delivering new posts to your rss reader automatically . choose to receive some or all of the updates from a moment of science :\na moment of science is a daily audio podcast , public radio program and video series providing the scientific story behind some of life ' s most perplexing mysteries . learn more \u00bb\nindiana public media is the home of wfiu public radio & wtiu public television , including your favorite programming from npr and pbs . learn more \u00bb\n) . like most of the island forms , both are distinctly larger than mainland field mice .\ntext based largely on research by simon and richard aspinall and prof . r . j . berry\nberry , r . j . 1985 . the natural history of orkney . collins , london .\n\u00a9 fibo 2018 . fair isle bird observatory is run by an independent charity , fair isle bird observatory trust ( a registered scottish charity sco 11160 ) .\nwe noticed that you ' re using an unsupported browser . the tripadvisor website may not display properly . we support the following browsers :\nprices above are provided by partners for one room , with variable occupancy rules as provided by the property , and do not include all taxes and fees . please see our partners for full details .\ni stayed here for 2 weeks . . apart from it been very noisy . . there is a family of mice running about in the rooms . . avoid\nsorry you didnt enjoy your stay with us . during the period you stayed with us we did experience some extremely bad weather and had pest control out immediately to rectify the problem , this was quickly resolved and we have had no further issues since then .\nthe price you found is 29 % lower than this hotel ' s average rate of us $ 70 / night .\nwe analyze rates over a 60 day period , and compare your selection to the average rate of comparable stays to ensure you ' re getting the best possible deal .\nbooked into the beachhouse for a week ending up staying longer , had loads of fun free breakfast , ensuited bathrooms , kitchen is a little small but you work with it . $ 4 . 00 pizzas cheap drinks and the best backpacker night on fridays pashing pop on the rooftop bar . staff are so friendly in reception help you with everything and so close to the beach . would recommend it to fellow travellers .\ni stayed here for a few days as i was backpacking through australia . there a few good things about this hostel . i met a lot of really nice people , most people are working or looking for work in australia . the staff are on the whole pretty friendly and helpful . the en suite bathrooms are really clean and modern . free breakfast was great . there are a few things that would make this hostel a lot better in my opinion . for starters they should put enough lockers in the room for every bedspace because if you are just staying a few days all the lockers are taken up by the long term residents . also if someone is using the en suite bathroom there are no alternative toilet facilities in the whole hostel unless you go down to the bar . i also don ' t like the fact you can ' t drink alcohol in your room , it wouldn ' t be a problem but the bar downstairs is too overpriced to be aimed at backpackers . also at one point a guy working for the hostel claiming to be\nsecurity\nwalked straight into a girl only dorm to make sure we weren ' t drinking alcohol , just as well no - one had just got out of the shower ! ! there is also a lot of noise from the upstairs bar at weekends which sucks cos most of the time the events there aren ' t even really marketed at the guests in the hostel . finally by far the worst thing in this hostel was the kitchen , it was soooo dirty . i know this is mostly the fault of people staying in the hostel but it was very small meaning that it didn ' t much for it to get dirty . also its really badly equipped , when i stayed the only had two forks ! ! my review makes it sound pretty terrible but its not the worst place in the world to stay for a few days especially if you are on a tight budget and can put up with a horrible kitchen . it could just be a whole lot better thats all !\none of the night in this hostel , the bed bugs bite me so bad ! i went to the reception and told them about this . the rude girl told me that they gonna spray my bed and change my sheet . when i came back that night , they didn ' t spray the bed at all ! and during that night , the bed bugs start again to attack me ! ! now , my body is full of bites and they told me to change the bed because the bed bugs was only on this area . . . . ! good answer ! and if i wanted to change the room i have to wash my clothes . i left and they didn ' t give me the money back ! ! so , sleep in this hostel is an adventure and i don ' t recommended this hostel . . . the personnel is rude and now my body is cover of bed bugs bites\ni have no idea how places like this stay in business . not only did they capitalize on the f1 grand prix weekend by suddenly doubling their prices , we were generously allowed to make up our own beds and were not allowed our key deposit back the next day until we returned to our room to remove the sheets and take them to the laundry basket area . the bad : clouds of wine flies that breed in the bar carpet broken hand driers in all 3 toilets loud music until 3am from private rooftop function wine banned from our own room no dount to force us to buy their overpriced crap selection of spirits from $ 10 ( with discount ! ! ) ' continental ' breakfast turned out to be stale home brand bread , coffee and something that may have been jam . disgusting toilets in the bar being ignored every time i tried to ask for directions / borrow a pen / get more toilet paper / order a drink the good : do not stay here , there are many many alternatives even during busy season .\n* tripadvisor llc is not a booking agent and does not charge any service fees to users of our site . . . (\ntripadvisor llc is not responsible for content on external web sites . taxes , fees not included for deals content ."]}
{"id": 1719, "summary": [{"text": "dichomeris stipendiaria is a moth in the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by braun in 1925 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from southern british columbia to utah , washington , california and oregon .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 17-18 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on wing in july and august .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on solidago and erigeron species , as well as aster eatonii .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae are pale whitish , tinged with green or grey and with a shiny black head . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "dichomeris stipendiaria", "paragraphs": ["it came to uv light near pond in wooded area of a flood plain . it looks somewhat like 2304 - dichomeris stipendiaria here mpg .\ntrichotaphe stipendiaria braun , 1925 ; trans . am . ent . soc . 51 ( 3 ) : 196 ; tl : logan canyon , near logan , utah\ndichomeris stipendiaria ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 89 , pl . 2 , f . 23 - 24 ; [ nhm card ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 36\nd . vindex is similar , and hodges reports that they are easily confused . both are known from oklahoma . i ' m not sure that this specimen can be safely placed at the species level . d . stipendiaria is a far western species .\ndichomeris acmodeta ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 12\ndichomeris agorastis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13\ndichomeris albula ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13\ndichomeris apicispina ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris apludella ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris bifurca ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 15\ndichomeris bomiensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris bucinaria ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris consertella ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris cuprea ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris cuspis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris diffurca ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris fareasta ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris fuscahopa ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris fuscanella ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris gansuensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris hodgesi ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris jiangxiensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris lativalvata ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris lespedezae ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris lutilinea ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris manticopodina ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris menglana ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris millotella viette , 1956 ; nat . malgache 8 ( 2 ) : 212\ndichomeris minutia ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris mitteri ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 27\ndichomeris molybdoterma meyrick , 1933 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 12 ) : 353\ndichomeris ningshanensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 27\ndichomeris nivalis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 27\ndichomeris paulianella viette , 1956 ; nat . malgache 8 ( 2 ) : 213\ndichomeris polygona ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29\ndichomeris polypunctata ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29\ndichomeris qingchengshanensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30\ndichomeris quadratipalpa ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30\ndichomeris quadrifurca ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30\ndichomeris sexafurca ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 31\ndichomeris shenae ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 31\ndichomeris spicans ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris spuracuminata ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris stasimopa meyrick , 1937 ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 3 ) : 94\ndichomeris strictella ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris synergastis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris tersa ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris varifurca ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 34\ndichomeris violacula ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 34\ndichomeris wuyiensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 34\ndichomeris yuebana ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 34\ndichomeris yunnanensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 35\ndichomeris zymotella viette , 1956 ; nat . malgache 8 ( 2 ) : 215\ndichomeris junisonensis matsumura , 1931 ; 6000 illust . insects japan . - empire : 1082\ndichomeris acritopa meyrick , 1935 ; mat . microlep . fauna chin . prov . : 72\ndichomeris dolichaula meyrick , 1931 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 2 - 4 ) : 67\ndichomeris loxonoma meyrick , 1937 ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 4 - 5 ) : 123\ndichomeris nyingchiensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 254\ndichomeris fuscahopa li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 242\ndichomeris fuscusitis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 243\ndichomeris gansuensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 247\ndichomeris hodgesi li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 232\ndichomeris jiangxiensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 244\ndichomeris junisonis [ sic ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris yunnanensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 254\ndichomeris cuspis park , 1994 ; insecta koreana 11 : 19 ; tl : gangweon prov . , korea\ndichomeris derasella ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 19 ; [ fe ]\ndichomeris fareasta park , 1994 ; insecta koreana 11 : 15 ; tl : gangweon prov . , korea\ndichomeris lamprostoma ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23 ; [ fe ]\ndichomeris mitteri park , 1994 ; insecta koreana 11 : 17 ; tl : gangweon prov . , korea\ndichomeris praevacua ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 :\ndichomeris strictella park , 1994 ; insecta koreana 11 : 11 ; tl : gangweon prov . , korea\ndichomeris acritopa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 12\ndichomeris adelocentra ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13\ndichomeris albiscripta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13\ndichomeris allantopa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13\ndichomeris amphichlora ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13\ndichomeris ampliata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris anisospila ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris antiloxa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris antisticta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris asodes ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 15\ndichomeris barymochla ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 15\ndichomeris brachygrapha ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris brachyptila ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris caerulescens ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris cellaria ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris centracma ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris ceponoma ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris charonaea ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris chartaria ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris chinganella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris chlanidota ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris cinnabarina ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris citharista ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris clarescens ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris cocta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris contentella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris corniculata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris crepitatrix ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris deceptella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 19\ndichomeris deltoxyla ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 19\ndichomeris diacrita ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 19\ndichomeris dicausta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 19\ndichomeris doxarcha ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris eridantis ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris eucomopa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris excoriata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris ferrata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris ferruginosa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris frenigera ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris fungifera ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris geochrota ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris horoglypta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris ignorata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris illicita ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris illucescens ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris imbricata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris immerita ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris indiserta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris intensa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris isoclera ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris leptosaris ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris leucothicta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 24\ndichomeris levigata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 24\ndichomeris lissota ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 24\ndichomeris litoxyla ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 24\ndichomeris lupata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris macroxyla ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris malachias ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris malacodes ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris melanortha ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris melitura ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris mesoglena ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris metatoxa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris metuens ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris microdoxa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris microsphena meyrick , 1921 ; zool . meded . leyden 6 : 166 ; tl : java , buitenzorg\ndichomeris oceanis ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 27\ndichomeris olivescens ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 28\ndichomeris ostracodes ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 28\ndichomeris pelitis ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 28\ndichomeris petalodes ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 28\ndichomeris planata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29\ndichomeris polyaema ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29\ndichomeris praealbescens ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29\ndichomeris procrossa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29\ndichomeris pseudometra ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30\ndichomeris ptychosema ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30\ndichomeris sciodora ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 31\ndichomeris semnias ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 31\ndichomeris siranta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 31\ndichomeris summata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris synclepta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris tephroxesta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris testudinata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris tetraschema ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris thyrsicola ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris toxolyca ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris traumatias ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris uranopis ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris viridella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 34\ndichomeris indigna ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 54 ( note )\ndichomeris ceratomoxantha ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 63 ( note )\ndichomeris adelocentra meyrick , 1920 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 10 ) : 305 ; tl : java , butenzorg\ndichomeris albula park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 22 ; tl : taipei co . , taiwan\ndichomeris baccata meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 621 ; tl : brazil , teff\u00e9\n= dichomeris bisignella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris brachygrapha meyrick , 1920 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 10 ) : 305 ; tl : assam , khasis\ndichomeris bucinaria park , 1996 ; tinea 14 ( 4 ) : 230 ; tl : pintung co . , taiwan\ndichomeris chalcophaea meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 434 ; tl : queensland , brisbane\ndichomeris fida meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 620 ; tl : brazil , para\ndichomeris fusca park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 49 ; tl : taichung co . , taiwan\ndichomeris fuscalis park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 16 ; tl : taipei co . , taiwan\ndichomeris harmonias meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 16 ) : 504 ; tl : china , shanghai\ndichomeris horiodes meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 620 ; tl : brazil , parintins\ndichomeris horoglypta meyrick , 1932 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 7 ) : 202 ; tl : hasimoto , japan\ndichomeris ingloria meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 621 ; tl : peru , lima\ndichomeris leptosaris meyrick , 1932 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 7 ) : 202 ; tl : hokkaido , japan\ndichomeris leucothicta meyrick , 1919 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 8 ) : 235 ; tl : bombay , dharwar\ndichomeris lucrifuga meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 620 ; tl : brazil , para\ndichomeris lutivittata meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 434 ; tl : queensland , brisbane\ndichomeris mesoctenis meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 434 ; tl : queensland , brisbane\ndichomeris mesoglena meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 619 ; tl : coorg , pollibetta\ndichomeris metuens meyrick , 1932 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 7 ) : 201 ; tl : seneng , java\ndichomeris ochthophora meyrick , 1936 ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 2 ) : 46 ; tl : taihoku , formosa\ndichomeris orientis park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 36 ; tl : kaohsiung co . , taiwan\ndichomeris praevacua meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 16 ) : 504 ; tl : china , shanghai\ndichomeris quercicola meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 433 ; tl : punjab , kangra\ndichomeris saturata meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 621 ; tl : brazil , obidos\ndichomeris sciodora meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 16 ) : 504 ; tl : assam , khasis\ndichomeris symmetrica park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 20 ; tl : taitung co . , taiwan\ndichomeris syndias [ sic , recte syndyas ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris thermodryas meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 621 ; tl : peru , iquitos\ndichomeris trilobella park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 42 ; tl : pingtung co . , taiwan\ndichomeris anisospila meyrick , 1934 ; dt . ent . z . iris 48 : 34 ; tl : guangdong , china\ndichomeris argentaria meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 304 ; tl : barberton\ndichomeris cotifera meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 303 ; tl : barberton\ndichomeris cuprea li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 237 ; tl : shaanxi\ndichomeris exsecta meyrick , 1927 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 12 ) : 354 ; tl : rhodesia , mazoe\ndichomeris ignorata meyrick , 1921 ; zool . meded . leyden 6 : 165 ; tl : java , preangor , 5000ft\ndichomeris melanortha meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 16 ) : 510 ; tl : bombay , poona\ndichomeris monorbella viette , 1988 ; bull . soc . ent . fr . 93 ( 3 - 4 ) : 104\ndichomeris squalens meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 282 ; tl : british guiana\nresupina omelko , 1999 ; keys ins . russian far east 5 ( 2 ) : 107 ; ts : dichomeris okadai moriuti\ndichomeris tactica meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 5 ) : 152 ; tl : ecuador , huigra , 4500ft\ndichomeris acrolychna meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 112 ; tl : brazil , para\ndichomeris allantopa meyrick , 1934 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 16 - 17 ) : 512 ; tl : nilambur , madras\ndichomeris alogista meyrick , 1935 ; mat . microlep . fauna chin . prov . : 72 ; tl : hunan , china\ndichomeris brachymetra meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 620 ; tl : peru , chosica , 2800m\ndichomeris brachyptila meyrick , 1916 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 19 ) : 584 ; tl : upper burma , myitkyina\ndichomeris ceponoma meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 5 ) : 151 ; tl : coorg , dibidi , 3500ft\ndichomeris davisi park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 35 ; tl : taiwan , taipei co . , sirin\ndichomeris ellipsias meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 114 ; tl : peru , iquitos\ndichomeris lushanae park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 22 ; tl : taiwan , taipei co . , sozan\ndichomeris moriutii ; li , zhen , kendrick & sterling , 2010 , shilap revta lepid . 38 ( 149 ) : 73\ndichomeris physocoma meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 9 ) : 286 ; tl : sierra leone , mabang\ndichomeris procyphodes meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 115 ; tl : brazil , parintins\ndichomeris rhodophaea meyrick , 1920 ; in alluaud & jeannel , voyage afr . orientale , ins . l\u00e9p . 2 : 73\ndichomeris simaoensis ; li , zhen , kendrick & sterling , 2010 , shilap revta lepid . 38 ( 149 ) : 74\ndichomeris stratigera meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 111 ; tl : brazil , parintins\ndichomeris subdentata meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 113 ; tl : brazil , santarem\ndichomeris testudinata meyrick , , 1934 ; dt . ent . z . iris 48 : 34 ; tl : guangdong , china\ndichomeris thalamopa meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 112 ; tl : brail , t\u00e9ffe\ndichomeris xanthodeta meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 305 ; tl : three sisters\ndichomeris zonata ; li , zhen , kendrick & sterling , 2010 , shilap revta lepid . 38 ( 149 ) : 74\ndichomeris liui li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 234 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris qinlingensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 235 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris aequata meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 282 ; tl : british guiana , bartica\ndichomeris agathopa meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 85 ; tl : rhodesia , umtali\ndichomeris anisacuminata li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 231 ; tl : china , jiangxi\ndichomeris antizyga meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 303 ; tl : barberton , pretoria\ndichomeris aphanopa meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 83 ; tl : rhodesia , umtali\ndichomeris apicispina li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 241 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris asteropis meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 83 ; tl : rhodesia , umvuma\ndichomeris attenta meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 84 ; tl : rhodesia , umvuma\ndichomeris bifurca li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 251 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris bodenheimeri ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16 ; [ afromoths ]\ndichomeris bomiensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 238 ; tl : china , xizang\ndichomeris cachrydias meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 283 ; tl : british guiana , mallali\ndichomeris decusella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 19 ; [ afromoths ]\ndichomeris diffurca li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 253 ; tl : fujian , china\ndichomeris eustacta meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 84 ; tl : rhodesia , umtali\ndichomeris excepta meyrick , 1914 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 9 ) : 279 ; tl : nyassaland , mt . mlanje\ndichomeris hylurga meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 83 ; tl : rhodesia , salisbury\ndichomeris impigra meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 305 ; tl : barberton , haenertsburg\ndichomeris indiserta meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 9 ) : 285 ; tl : malay states , kuala lumpur\ndichomeris lativalvata li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 248 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris manticopodina li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 239 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris menglana li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 257 ; tl : yunnan , china\ndichomeris ningshanensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 245 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris nivalis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 249 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris opsonoma meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 281 ; tl : british guiana , bartica\ndichomeris pladarota meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 84 ; tl : rhodesia , umtali\ndichomeris polygona li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 243 ; tl : sichuan , china\ndichomeris qingchengshanensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 245 ; tl : sichuan , china\ndichomeris quadratipalpa li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 238 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris quadrifurca li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 252 ; tl : fujian , china\ndichomeris sexafurca li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 249 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris shenae li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 246 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris spicans li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 247 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris spuracuminata li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 230 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris stromatias meyrick , 1918 ; ann . transv . mus . 6 ( 2 ) : 23 ; tl : zululand , nkwaleni\ndichomeris tersa li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 241 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris varifurca li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 250 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris violacula li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 237 ; tl : gansu , china\ndichomeris wuyiensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 255 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris xestobyrsa meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 82 ; tl : rhodesia , salisbury\ndichomeris yuebana li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 236 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris obscura li & zheng , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 223 ; tl : fengxian , shaanxi , 1600m\ndichomeris angustiptera li & zheng , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 228 ; tl : fengxian , shaanxi , 1600m\ndichomeris acrogypsa turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 168 ; tl : queensland , rosewood\ndichomeris aculata ; ponomarenko & ueda , 2004 , trans . lepid . soc . japan 55 ( 3 ) : 147 ( note )\ndichomeris ampliata meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 175 ; tl : khasis\ndichomeris cirrhostola turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 169 ; tl : queensland , adavale\ndichomeris deltaspis ; ponomarenko & ueda , 2004 , trans . lepid . soc . japan 55 ( 3 ) : 155 ( note )\ndichomeris excoriata meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 174 ; tl : khasis\ndichomeris ferrata meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 174 ; tl : khasis\ndichomeris ferrogra li & wang , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 225 ; tl : mengla , yunnan , 630m\ndichomeris ferruginosa meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 173 ; tl : khasis\ndichomeris heteracma meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 622 ; tl : brazil , teff\u00e9 ; peru , iquitos\ndichomeris instans meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 619 ; tl : peru , iquitos ; brazil , teff\u00e9\ndichomeris lividula park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 57 ; tl : taiwan , hualien co . , pianau - col\ndichomeris oleata meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 305 ; tl : barberton , three sisters\ndichomeris ostracodes meyrick , 1916 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 19 ) : 583 ; tl : upper burma , lashio , 3000ft\ndichomeris petalodes meyrick , 1934 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 16 - 17 ) : 512 ; tl : nilambur , madras , india\ndichomeris pleuroleuca turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 169 ; tl : queensland , eidsvold\ndichomeris ptychosema meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 175 ; tl : khasis\ndichomeris rectifascia li & zheng , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 220 ; tl : kangxian , gansu , 800m\ndichomeris simaoensis li & wang , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 221 ; tl : simao , yunnan , 325m\ndichomeris summata meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 172 ; tl : khasis\ndichomeris varronia busck , 1913 ; ins . inscit . menstr . 1 ( 7 ) : 89 ; tl : kitty , british guiana\ndichomeris ventosa meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 304 ; tl : barberton , three sisters\ndichomeris zonata li & wang , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 222 ; tl : simao , yunnan , 325m\ndichomeris tostella ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 72 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ]\ndichomeris amphicoma meyrick , 1912 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1911 ( 4 ) : 695 ; tl : brazil , santos\ndichomeris antisticha meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 9 ) : 285 ; tl : costa rica , vulkan irazu , 4000ft\ndichomeris fluitans meyrick , 1920 ; ann . s . afr . mus . 17 ( 4 ) : 284 ; tl : natal , howick\ndichomeris litoxyla meyrick , 1937 ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 4 - 5 ) : 123 ; tl : yakovlevka , primorkii krai , russia\ndichomeris nessica walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 95 ; tl : panama , la chorrera\ndichomeris taiwana park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 48 ; tl : taiwan , nantou co . , sunmoon lake , 760m\ndichomeris zomias meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 283 ; tl : british guiana , bartica and mallali\ndichomeris hirculella busck , 1909 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 11 ( 2 ) : 89 ; tl : east river , connecticut\ndichomeris clarescens meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 174 ; tl : maskeliya , ceylon\ndichomeris dysorata turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 170 ; tl : new south wales , syndey\ndichomeris elegans park , 2001 ; insecta koreana 18 ( 4 ) : 308 ; tl : taiwan , pingtung co . , kenting park , 50m\ndichomeris jugata walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 97 ; tl : mexico , tabasco , teapa\ndichomeris mengdana li & zheng , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 227 ; tl : mengda , xunhua , qinghai , 2240m\ndichomeris miltophragma meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 115 ; tl : brazil , para , obidos , parintins\ndichomeris ptilocompa meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 113 ; tl : brazil , teff\u00e9 ; peru , jurimaguas\ndichomeris substratella walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 93 ; tl : mexico , tabasco , teapa\ndichomeris vadonella viette , 1955 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . 123 : 108 ; tl : ne . madagascar , maroantsetra , ambodivoangy\ndichomeris xerodes walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 100 ; tl : mexico , tabasco , teapa\n= dichomeris setosella ; sattler , 1973 , bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent . ) 28 ( 4 ) : 221\ndichomeris glenni clarke , 1947 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 49 ( 7 ) : 187 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris aomoriensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14 ; ponomarenko , 1998 , far east . ent . 67 : 12\ndichomeris ardesiella walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 96 ; tl : mexico , vera cruz , cordova\ndichomeris arotrosema walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 95 ; tl : mexico , vera cruz , atoyac\ndichomeris asodes meyrick , 1939 ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 89 ( 4 ) : 54 ; tl : telawa , java\ndichomeris erixantha ; meyrick , 1921 , ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 83 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ afromoths ]\ndichomeris eucomopa meyrick , 1939 ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 89 ( 4 ) : 54 ; tl : telawa , java\ndichomeris loxospila ; [ nhm card ] ; li , zhen , kendrick & sterling , 2010 , shilap revta lepid . 38 ( 149 ) : 77\ndichomeris lypetica walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 91 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft\ndichomeris crepitatrix meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 173 ; tl : n . coorg , 3500ft\ndichomeris dignella walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 91 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft\ndichomeris excavata busck , 1914 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 47 ( 2043 ) : 18 ; tl : porto bello , panama\ndichomeris hexasticta walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 94 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft\ndichomeris imbricata meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 175 ; tl : n . coorg , 3500ft\ndichomeris lutea park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 59 ; tl : taiwan , nantou co . , meifeng , 30km s tayuling , 2200m\ndichomeris lutilinea ponomarenko & park , 1996 ; korean j . appl . ent . 35 ( 2 ) : 118 ; tl : chuncheon , kangweon prov .\ndichomeris metrodes meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 172 ; tl : hambantota , ceylon ; bombay\ndichomeris olivescens meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 175 ; tl : kandy and maskeliya , ceylon\ndichomeris thalpodes meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 111 ; tl : brazil , para ; peru , r . napo\ndichomeris tristicta busck , 1914 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 47 ( 2043 ) : 17 ; tl : trinidad river , panama\ndichomeris melanophylla ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 114 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ]\ndichomeris angulata ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 14 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris bulawskii ponomarenko & park , 1996 ; korean j . appl . ent . 35 ( 2 ) : 114 ; tl : 27km sw slavjanka , primorskii krai\ndichomeris fusca ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 60 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 49\ndichomeris linealis ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 83 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 24\ndichomeris lividula ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 83 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 24\ndichomeris lushanae ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 86 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris lutea ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 86 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris ochreata ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 102 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 27\ndichomeris taiwana ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 135 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris trilobella ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 141 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris illusio hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 101 , pl . 2 , f . 38 ; tl : hastings , florida\ndichomeris imitata hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 104 , pl . 3 , f . 5 ; tl : devers , texas\ndichomeris angulata park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 43 ; tl : taiwan , nantou co . , leinhauchi forest station , 15km sw puli , 750m\ndichomeris aprica ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 15 ; li & sattler , 2012 , zootaxa 3373 : 57\ndichomeris enoptrias ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris hoplocrates ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris issikii ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris ochreata park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 32 ; tl : taiwan , nantou co . , mei - feng , 30km s tayuling , 2200m\ndichomeris pyrrhoschista ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30\ndichomeris sciritis ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 31 ; li & sattler , 2012 , zootaxa 3373 : 57\ndichomeris synergastis ponomarenko & park , 1996 ; korean j . appl . ent . 35 ( 2 ) : 116 ; tl : yong - in , kyunggi prov .\ndichomeris viridescens ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 34\ndichomeris offula hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 117 , pl . 3 , f . 21 ; tl : ithaca , new york\ndichomeris crepida hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 118 , pl . 3 , f . 22 ; tl : mcclellanville , south carolina\ndichomeris santarosensis hodges , 1985 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 87 ( 2 ) : 456 ; tl : santa rosa national park , guanacaste , costa rica\ndichomeris nenia hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 40 , pl . 4 , f . 2 ; tl : bandera co . , texas\ndichomeris hypochloa walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 102 , pl . 3 , f . 23 ; tl : mexico , sonora\ndichomeris caia hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 62 , pl . 4 , f . 7 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris laetitia hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 88 , pl . 2 , f . 22 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris aleatrix hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 91 , pl . 2 , f . 27 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris furia hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 93 , pl . 2 , f . 30 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris baxa hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 105 , pl . 3 , f . 10 ; tl : presidio of monterey , california\ndichomeris cinnamicostella ; walsingham , 1911 , biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 103 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris costalis busck , 1914 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 47 ( 2043 ) : 18 ; tl : tabogilla i . and porto bello , panama\ndichomeris habrochitona walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 102 , pl . 3 , f . 26 ; tl : panama , tabernilla\ndichomeris quercicola ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30 ; ponomarenko , 1998 , far east . ent . 67 : 13\ndichomeris carycina ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 43 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris caryophragma ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 43 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris diacnista ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 43 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris lypetica ; [ nhm card ] ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 54 ( note ) ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris tactica ; [ nhm card ] ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 60 ( note ) ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris latescens ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 63 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris siren hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 64 , pl . 4 , f . 9 ; tl : henson creek , oxon hill , maryland\ndichomeris vindex hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 83 , pl . 2 , f . 9 - 10 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris gleba hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 87 , pl . 2 , f . 18 - 20 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris legnotoa hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 101 , pl . 4 , f . 10 ; tl : largo , pinellas co . , florida\ndichomeris mimesis hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 101 , pl . 2 , f . 39 ; tl : salmon , anderson co . , texas\ndichomeris simulata hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 104 , pl . 3 , f . 4 ; tl : canadian , hemphill co . , texas\ndichomeris percnopolis walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 93 , pl . 3 , f . 11 ; tl : guatemala , zapote , 2000ft\ndichomeris renascens walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 96 , pl . 3 , f . 14 ; tl : mexico , tabasco , teapa\ndichomeris xuthostola walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 101 , pl . 3 , f . 18 ; tl : mexico , tabasco , teapa\ndichomeris sylphe hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 58 , pl . 1 , f . 22 ; tl : archbold biological staion , lake placid , florida\ndichomeris ardelia hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 62 , pl . 4 , f . 8 ; tl : archbold biological station , lake placid , florida\ndichomeris kimballi hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 71 , pl . 1 , f . 30 ; tl : archbold biological staion , lake placid , florida\ndichomeris aglaia hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 85 , pl . 2 , f . 15 ; tl : lake placid , florida , archbold biological station\ndichomeris anisacuminata ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14 ; li , zhen , kendrick & sterling , 2010 , shilap revta lepid . 38 ( 149 ) : 74\ndichomeris argigastra walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 99 , pl . 3 , f . 16 ; tl : mexico , vera cruz , atoyac\ndichomeris autometra ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 15 ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 )\ndichomeris crambaleas ; [ nhm card ] ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris melanota walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 94 , pl . 3 , f . 13 ; tl : mexico , vera cruz , cordova\ndichomeris okadai ; [ nhm card ] ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 28\ndichomeris prensans meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 111 ; tl : brazil , para , parintins , manaos ; peru , iquitos ; british guiana , bartica\ndichomeris sciastes walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 90 , pl . 3 , f . 10 ; tl : mexico , vera cruz , atoyac\ndichomeris gausapa hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : pl . 1 , f . 8 ; tl : madera canyon , 4880 ' , santa rita mts , arizona\n= dichomeris acuminata ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 34\ndichomeris solatrix hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 48 , pl . 1 , f . 15 ; tl : pe\u00f1a blanca canyon , santa cruz co . arizona\n= dichomeris punctidiscella ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 56 ; [ nhm card ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 36\ndichomeris copa hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 92 , pl . 2 , f . 28 ; tl : snyder heights 1100 ' , ithaca , new york\ndichomeris achne hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 87 , pl . 2 , f . 34 ; tl : parker is . , highlands co . , florida\ndichomeris euprepes hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 110 , pl . 4 , f . 11 ; tl : big black mnts , letcher co . , kentucky\ndichomeris carinella walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 99 , pl . 3 , f . 20 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft\ndichomeris fuscusitis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21 ; zhao , park , bae & li , 2017 , zootaxa 4273 ( 2 ) : ( 216 - 234 )\ndichomeris intensa meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 173 ; tl : maskeliya and puttalam , ceylon ; cuddapah , 4000ft , n . coorg\ndichomeris leucostena walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 94 , pl . 3 , f . 12 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft\ndichomeris blanchardorum hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 43 , pl . 1 , f . 10 - 11 ; tl : laguna atascosa , cameron co . , texas\ndichomeris gnoma hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 106 , pl . 3 , f . 11 ; tl : shingle creek road , keremeos , british columbia , canada\ndichomeris mercatrix hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 110 , pl . 3 , f . 15 ; tl : mclean bogs reserve , tompkins co . , new york\ndichomeris bulawskii ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16 ; ponomarenko & ueda , 2004 , trans . lepid . soc . japan 55 ( 3 ) : 151 ( note )\ndichomeris diva hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 57 , pl . 1 , f . 21 ; tl : 1 mi s patagonia , santa cruz co . , arizona\ndichomeris fistuca hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 68 , pl . 1 , f . 25 ; tl : wedge plantation , mccellanville , charleston co . , south carolina\ndichomeris atomogypsa ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 72 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 15\ndichomeris alphito hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 88 , pl . 2 , f . 21 ; tl : madera canyon , 4880 ' , santa rita mts , arizona\ndichomeris pelta hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 99 , pl . 2 , f . 36 ; tl : wedge plantation , mcclellanville , charleston co . , south carolina\ndichomeris acrochlora ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 112 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 12\ndichomeris sybilla hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 121 , pl . 3 , f . 24 ; tl : madera canyon , 4880 ' , santa rita mts , arizona\ndichomeris evitata walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 99 , pl . 3 , f . 15 ; tl : panama , volcan de chiriqui , 2000 - 3000ft\ndichomeris harmonias ; [ nhm card ] ; park , 1991 , ann . hist . - nat . mus . hung . 83 : 121 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris xanthoa hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 102 , pl . 3 , f . 2 ; tl : ft . niobrara national wildlife refuge , cherry co . , nebraska\ndichomeris bolize hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 100 , pl . 2 , f . 37 ; tl : hackberry lake , valentine national wildlife refuge , cherry co . , nebraska"]}
{"id": 1722, "summary": [{"text": "bucculatrix needhami is a moth in the bucculatricidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from florida , kentucky , illinois , maine , new york , ohio , south carolina and texas .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 13 \u2013 15 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are white marked with irrorated fuscous streaks .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are pale grey .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing from march to july .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on helianthus species .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they create a gall , which has the form of a thickening of the walls of the stem .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "it varies in form from oblong to almost round .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "galls mostly occur singly on the stems and are generally located somewhat below mid-height of the plant . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "bucculatrix needhami", "paragraphs": ["bucculatrix needhami is a moth in the bucculatricidae family . it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from florida , kentucky , illinois , maine , new york , ohio , south carolina and texas .\nbucculatrix needhami is a moth in the bucculatricidae family . it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from florida , kentucky , illinois , maine , new york , ohio , south carolina and texas . the wingspan is 13\u201315 mm . the forewings are white marked with irrorated fuscous streaks . the hindwings are pale grey . adults are on wing from mar . . .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\ncollected at the wedge plantation , charleston county south carolina by richard b . dominick 3 april 1970\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\nas part our commitment to scholarly and academic excellence , all articles receive editorial review .\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from world ebook library are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department ."]}
{"id": 1724, "summary": [{"text": "swainson 's thrush ( catharus ustulatus ) , also called olive-backed thrush , is a medium-sized thrush .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is a member of catharus genus and is typical of it in terms of its subdued coloration and beautiful voice .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "swainson 's thrush was named after william swainson , an english ornithologist .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the genus name catharus comes from the ancient greek katharos , \" pure or clean \" and refers to the plumage of the orange-billed nightingale-thrush c. aurantiirostris .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the specific ustuatus is latin for \" burnt \" , from urere , \" to burn \" .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the breeding habitat of swainson 's thrush is coniferous woods with dense undergrowth across canada , alaska , and the northern united states ; also , deciduous wooded areas on the pacific coast of north america .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "these birds migrate to southern mexico and as far south as argentina .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the coastal subspecies migrate down the pacific coast of north america and winter from mexico to costa rica , whereas the continental birds migrate eastwards within north america ( a substantial detour ) and then travel southwards via florida to winter from panama to bolivia .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "swainson 's thrush is a very rare vagrant to western europe .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it has also occurred as a vagrant in northeast asia .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this species may be displaced by the hermit thrush where their ranges overlap .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "possibly , the latter species adapts more readily to human encroachment upon its habitat .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "at least in the winter quarters , swainson 's thrush tends to keep away from areas of human construction and other activity . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "swainson ' s thrush", "paragraphs": ["the swainson ' s thrush is the only woodland thrush whose song goes up in pitch .\nthe swainson ' s thrush is a summer visitor along the coast of california .\nfigure 1 . distribution of swainson ' s thrush in north and middle america .\na swainson ' s thrush photographed at st . francis wildlife association in quincy , florida\nthanks for that shyloh\u2026so nice to hear the swainson\u2019s thrush song on a cold october morning .\nswainson\u2019s thrush has been observed to be steadily declining , but is currently labeled as \u2018least concern\u2019 .\nunlike most other forest dwelling thrushes , the swainson ' s thrush ' s song rises in pitch toward the end of the melody .\noften heard but difficult to spot . this video of a singing swainson ' s thrush is a cherished prize !\ninformation on the swainson ' s thrush ( catharus ustulatus ) is being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nthe swainson ' s thrush is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\ni often wonder what ' s behind the name when i come across a bird that has an unusual name like the swainson ' s thrush instead of a self explanatory name like the black - capped chickadee . the swainson ' s thrush was named after william john swainson , an english ornithologist ( among other things ) , who lived from 1789 to 1855 . numerous species of birds were named after william john swainson , including the swainson ' s hawk and swainson ' s warbler . the swainson ' s thrush was named after mr . swainson by thomas nuttall , another zoologist who was also a botanist . mr . nuttall also has plants as well as birds named after him , like the nuttall ' s woodpecker .\nflight : in flight , swainson\u2019s thrush appears entirely olive brown on the upperparts . it hovers while gleaning insects from foliage .\nregional differences in color and song occur within the swainson ' s thrush species . swainson ' s whose spring and summer range is the pacific northwest are more reddish brown in color than the olive color of the swainson ' s living within the rest of the species ' range . the swainson ' s of the pacific northwest also have a somewhat different song .\nswainson\u2019s thrushes are very common during migration across much of the u . s . , and they migrate at night\nswainson\u2019s thrush is shy and skulking , spending most of time on ground , under cover of undergrowth . it hops and will run in short bursts . swainson\u2019s thrush is highly migratory . migration is mostly at night , often found in mixed flocks with other thrushes .\nstefani ( 1996 ) reports that swainson\u2019s thrush has been proposed as a species of special concern by laymon ( pending fish and game approval ) and that the usda forest service identified the swainson\u2019s thrush as one of two priority landbird species for monitoring in the sierra nevada .\nstefani reports 1 . 8 swainson\u2019s thrushes / ha in plumas national forest , 1996 .\nthere are around 600 different species of birds in the thrush family . some of these like the wood thrush , varied thrush , hermit thrush , swainson ' s thrush and gray - cheeked thrush have their family name included in their individual names . others like the veery , american robin and western , mountain and eastern bluebirds are also thrushes but their family name is not a part of their common title .\nprotection / threats / status : swainson\u2019s thrush populations appear to be declining , but is a widespread breeding bird occupying much of forested north america . they are however still vulnerable to loss of habitat on breeding and wintering grounds . occasionally , swainson\u2019s thrush is a host of brown - headed cowbird .\ndensity of swainson ' s thrush by detailed ecological unit in yukon - charley rivers national preserve , alaska , avian inventory , june 1999 and 2000 .\nit was named after william swainson , an english ornithologist , and is also called the olive - backed thrush .\nthe distinct habitat requirements of the subspecies should be a major theme in conservation planning for the swainson\u2019s thrush . however , data on breeding requirements of the western russet - backed swainson\u2019s thrush , published or unpublished , is extremely sparse . although the majority of the swainson\u2019s thrush range in ca is occupied by the russet - backed subspecies , no distinctions are made in published ca wildlife habitat manuals between habitat requirements this and the more northern and eastern olive - backed subspecies .\ni could not find any legends about the swainson\u2019s thrush , though if i were writing about the hermit thrush i would have at least one myth for this part . this is a scottish poem by walter wingate .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - swainson ' s thrush ( catharus ustulatus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - swainson ' s thrush ( catharus ustulatus )\ntitle =\narkive species - swainson ' s thrush ( catharus ustulatus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\ndiet : swainson\u2019s thrush feeds on fruit , berries and insects . it also eats spiders and other invertebrates . young are fed insects , and possibly some fruits .\nthe swainson ' s thrush uses dense brushy areas along the coast of california . in the inland valleys it frequents oak woodlands as well as riparian pant communities .\nthe swainson ' s thrush occupies forested habitat at low to mid - elevations , overlapping with the veery below and the hermit thrush above . although it is found mostly in dense hardwood and mixed forests , young conifer forests , and forest openings , the swainson ' s thrush does not require as dense an understory as does the veery . they are attracted to salmonberry stands as nesting sites .\nthe longest - lived swainson\u2019s thrush on record was at least 12 years , 1 month old when it was recaught and rereleased during banding operations in montana in 2006 .\nthe diet of the swainson ' s thrush changes seasonally from insects to berries . berries are important year round , making up over one third of the summer diet .\nthe swainson ' s thrush ' s breeding range is from alaska and across much of canada , south to the western united states and the northern parts of new england . they winter in central and south america .\nnew research shows that swainson ' s thrushes use a\ngenetic map\nto pick their migration routes .\nmy favorite thrush songs besides the robin of course , are the swainson ' s and varied thrush ' s ~ we ' ve had the privilege of listening to both of them often . in addition to their superb singing abilities , there are many interesting things about this family of birds . in this months in scope , we ' ll be focusing our attention on the swainson ' s thrush ~ a wonderful spring and summer singer that frequents our neighborhood .\nthe song of the swainson ' s thrush is of a beautiful flute like quality with notes softly spiraling upward toward the end of the song . they also sing a simple whistled call note . a group of swainson ' s thrush males will often sing together in chorus in the early morning or evening , each singing from within his own territory .\nthe preferred habitat of the swainson ' s thrush is coniferous woodlands and forests and shrubby thickets . they enjoy berry bushes and will forage where they are well hidden . secretive by nature , swainson ' s thrushes are not always seen but their woodwind like songs echo for long distances .\nother thrushes like the varied thrush may enjoy a birdseed mix , although it is not usually a food swainson ' s like to eat . ground level feeders like a low tray feeder suits any thrush ' s foraging style best ~ so when trying to attract them to your feeding station , be sure to offer thrush foods on or near the ground .\nunlike the east where there are numerous species of thrushes , we have only the hermit and swainson ' s thrushes . separation of these two through binoculars in southern california is complicated because the local subspecies of swainson ' s thrush has a rufous rump . pyle has some very clear cut characteristics to separate the two species , fig . 228 for hermit thrush and fig . 227 for swainson ' s thrush . basically , p9 < p6 and p6 is emarginated in heth , while p9 > p6 and p6 is not emarginated in swth .\nif you live within the swainson\u2019s thrush\u2019s range , you can make your yard more enticing to this bird by providing tree and shrub cover and ground - level bird baths , avoiding chemical pesticides , and letting leaf litter accumulate undisturbed .\nthe swainson\u2019s thrush has olive to reddish - brown upperparts , head , and wings , buffy spectacles around the eyes , a buffy breast spotted with black , and a whitish belly .\nhabitat : swainson\u2019s thrush favours coniferous or mixed forest , with rather open undergrowths , and also woodland thickets especially near streams . it winters in mature tropical forest , and secondary forest .\nthrushes are excellent fliers and make use of this trait for short and long - distance migrations with species such as the veery and swainson ' s thrush wintering well south of the equator .\nthe swainson ' s thrush is a nocturnal migrant . at night this bird migrates up from mexico and central america in the summer . they just come to visit us in the summer .\nthe swainson\u2019s thrush\u2019s nest is a cup of twigs , leaves and grass , sometimes held together with mud , and lined with finer materials . it is often placed on a horizontal branch of a tree or shrub , either coniferous or deciduous .\nthey swainson ' s thrush enjoys toyon berries as well as the cover it provides . toyon is a large evergreen shrub with clusters of red berries . the swainson ' s thrush likes large and small shrubs for nesting and foraging as well as leaf litter for foraging . so don ' t rake up your leaf litter . it is a treasure trove of nutrition and organic matter .\nthe swainson\u2019s thrush\u2019s whirling song has a ventriloqual quality that can make it difficult to track . this may happen as the singer moves quickly from one perch to another between songs . it may also have to do with the sounds\u2019 reverberation in dense foliage . swainson\u2019s thrushes also sometimes sing quiet songs that create the illusion that its song emanates from a more distant location .\njohnson , m . d . and g . r . geupel . 1998 . the importance of productivity to the dynamics of a swainson\u2019s thrush population . the condor 98 : 134 - 142 .\nthere are three species of spot - breasted thrushes found in washington . all three - the swainson ' s thrush , the veery , and the hermit thrush - have solid brownish upperparts ( back , wings , and tail ) , light - colored bellies , whitish eye - rings , and varying degrees of spotting on their breasts . all are similar in shape to a robin , but smaller . males and females appear similar in most species . the spots on the swainson ' s thrush appear more faded than those of the hermit thrush , but more distinct than those of the veery . swainson ' s thrushes also have distinct buff - colored eye - rings .\nswainson\u2019s thrushes have been called \u201cmosquito thrushes\u201d for their flycatching habit of going after flying insects while feeding on their breeding grounds .\nthe swainson\u2019s thrush is a medium bird which may also be called the olive - backed thrush . it prefers to breed in coniferous woodlands with dense undergrowth throughout canada , alaska and the northern united states . it is also found in deciduous forests of the north american pacific coast . during winter months , this species will migrate to southern mexico and argentina , costa rica , panama , bolivia and occasionally western europe . the swainson\u2019s thrush forages for its food on the forest floor and gleans the surrounding vegetation . diets usually consist of insects and berries . nests are cup - shaped and placed on horizontal tree branches . the conservation rating for the swainson\u2019s thrush is least concern .\nalthough swainson ' s thrush is still considered one of the most common birds of northern spruce - fir forests , populations are declining even where abundant , particularly in alaska and the northeast . in california , the breeding range of this species has contracted during the last century , and\nthe disappearance of the swainson ' s thrush from yosemite valley is one of the unsolved mysteries of sierran ornithology\n(\nrange : swainson\u2019s thrush breeds from interior alaska throughout most of canada , southward to northern states in east , and through mountains in west and along pacific coasts . it winters in mexico and south america .\nthis month i have created for you a new coloring page featuring the swainson ' s thrush as well as a word search puzzle all about thrushes ! both activities are in a free downloadable pdf . just\nswainson\u2019s thrushes breed from alaska south to much of the western u . s . , as well as across southern canada to the northeastern u . s . they winter in mexico and central america . the population has declined in recent decades .\none other observation is timing . swainson ' s thrushes seem to pass south through southern california in late summer / early fall ( sep - oct ) and then north in late winter / early spring ( may ) . in between these two times , hermit thrushes are common ; we have never encountered a swainson ' s thrush in winter .\nin north america , aside from the american robin and bluebirds , most thrushes are birds of woodland and forest . the wood thrush shares the eastern deciduous forests with the veery while out west , the ethereal tones of the varied thrush vie with the songs of hermit and swainson ' s thrushes in the tall coastal rainforests . the gray - cheeked thrush breeds further north in the boreal zone and the townsend ' s solitaire sings from the mountain conifers .\nthe swainson ' s thrush utilizes the organism rich leaf litter . this leaf litter is filled with all kinds of organisms that break down plant material . this includes spiders , worms , fungi , insects and many other creatures .\n) . eight forms of swainson ' s thrush have been described based on geographical differences in coloration , with six currently recognized as subspecies . the confused historical taxonomy of this species and currently recognized differences may yet prompt further reclassification .\nthe scientific name of the swainson ' s thrush is catharus ustulatus . this thrush is smaller than the american robin at 6 1 / 2 to 7 3 / 4 inches long . the male and female of this species look alike . depending on where they live , both male and female are an olive or russet color on their upperparts and have a white and lightly buff underside heavily spotted with brown . they also have a creamy white eye ring around each eye . the swainson ' s thrush has the same basic body shape as the american robin .\nswainson ' s thrushes are not particularly common birds in the santa monica mountains at the zuma canyon bird banding station ( only 22 encounters in seven years ) . but since this bird can easily be mistaken for a hermit thrush , i thought the inclusion of its species account would be useful . swainson ' s and hermit thrushes have an almost sympatric breeding range , but swainson ' s thrushes do not winter in the u . s . but rather in southern mexico and into central america . there are six subspecies in two groups . the key problem along the west coast is that the local subspecies ,\nswainson\u2019s thrush flit their way into the yukon mainly from mid - may to the end of may , being one of the last songbirds to make it to the yukon in spring . these birds overwinter in southern - most mexico , and down through western ( and part of central ) south america . they leave the yukon for the winter usually from the second - half of august to early september . these thrush nest in a wide variety of habitats , from cottonwood stands to old - growth spruce forest . around our yard it is a mix of black spruce and lodgepole pine , and the swainson\u2019s thrush love it . swainson\u2019s thrush prefer coniferous forests , particularly spruce . they forage for a mixed diet of bugs ( basically any ) and berries . at teslin lake bird observatory , there is a thicket of high - bush cranberries and you often see the swainson\u2019s thrush in there stuffing themselves . they mostly forage on the ground , but also by hopping from low branch to low branch . they glean insects from plant foliage and will occasionally \u2018flycatch\u2019 in flight .\na characteristic also shown by the adults of the wood thrush and a few other species .\nswainson\u2019s thrush ( catharus ustulatus ) are smaller than a robin , averaging at about 7 inches in length . they are greyish brown , with a white throat , belly , and undertail . the breast is covered with large brown spots that extend and fade down to the belly . it has a white eyering with a pale , creamy lore stripe extending from the front of the eye to the base of the bill . if you get a good look , you can see that it looks as though the thrush is wearing eye glasses . that is one of the main characteristics that you use to identify a swainson\u2019s thrush . grey - cheeked thrush have no eyeglasses , though they do have a thin eyering . hermit thrush have a thick white eyering , but no eyeglasses . hermit thrush also have a rich , rufous tail and bigger / bolder breast spots .\nthe swainson ' s thrush ' s nest is made up of moss , lichens , sticks , leaves and grasses . it is usually constructed and well hidden in a shrub or tree in a woodland or forest setting . the female lays three or four very light bluish - green eggs with light brown speckles .\nthe swainson ' s thrush forages in the leaf litter for insects and spiders . they also glean them from shrubs . so make sure you have lots of mulch in your garden . it also helps retain moisture , and nutrients for your plants .\n2 . 9 hectares , on riparian woodland plot in san diego co . ( weaver 1989 ) . swainson\u2019s thrush density decreased yearly on this plot after 1989 , disappearing by 1992 and absent at least through 1994 . weaver reports drought in 1990 and spring floodwaters which scoured the plot in the years 1991 - 1993 . but by 1997 , swainson\u2019s thrushes had returned to the plot , with 3 males detected countersinging .\nalthough the swainson ' s thrush does much of its feeding on the ground , it spends more time foraging in trees than do the other spot - breasted thrushes in washington . they hover while gleaning insects from foliage , and also catch flying insects . in spring and summer , when they feed predominantly on insects and other invertebrates , they forage mostly on the ground . as the season progresses and they eat more berries , they forage farther off the ground . the song and call of the swainson ' s thrush are quite distinctive , and may help a birder to locate this thrush that usually stays under cover .\nreproduction : male establishes a territory and attracts a female by singing . swainson\u2019s thrush\u2019s nest is usually in a low conifer , sometimes in deciduous tree , at 2 to 10 feet above the ground . it\u2019s a bulky open cup on a horizontal tree branch , built by female in about 4 days . it\u2019s made of grasses , plants stems , moss , small twigs and mud . it is lined with skeletonised leaves , rootlets , lichens or moss , and animal hair .\nevery spring i look forward to the evenings and early hours of morning . i step outside into the cool , fresh air , and listen to one of the prettiest songs i have ever heard . one swainson\u2019s thrush sings its heavenward spiralling song close by ; more answer it throughout the forest . at times up to seven or more males are scattered in the thickest parts of the forest by our house , defending their territories and competing with each other to attract a females attention . to hear the swainson\u2019s thrush song and call , click here .\nwhen attempting to attract swainson ' s thrushes to your yard , you will have to rely much more on your plant choices and creating a habitat for them than filling the feeder with delicious goodies . since swainson ' s thrushes rarely visit feeders , you will need to offer them food and shelter in the form of good garden plantings instead .\nmack , diane evans and wang yong . 2000 . swainson ' s thrush ( catharus ustulatus ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto swainson\u2019s thrush is often silent . the most typical call is an emphatic , low , liquid \u201cwhit\u201d . we can hear also a soft \u201cwhup\u201d . song is an ascending spiral of varied whistles . at night , a peeping \u201cqueep\u201d is heard .\nwhen controlling for plot effect , two of the above variables were found to account for within - plot differences in nest success - - willow shrub cover , which negatively correlated with nest success , and western swordfern cover , which positively correlated with nest success . it is interesting to note the negative correlation of nest success with willow shrub cover ( defined as < 5m high and stem of < 8cm dbh ) , considering that bent describes russet - backed swainson\u2019s thrush as being attracted to willow - alder thickets . perhaps at the early stage of willow regeneration , some nest site requirement is not met for the swainson\u2019s thrush . therefore , the simultaneous presence of willows and breeding swainson\u2019s thrushes should not necessarily be taken to represent a healthy population .\nswainson\u2019s thrush is seasonally monogamous , but pairs often re - form in multiples seasons after repeating the pair - bonding process . this may facilitate rapid pairing . males arrive first ; initially tries to drive arriving females on its territory . after several days of female persistence , which may de strengthened by the male\u2019s defensive behaviour , male accepts female and mating occurs .\nswainson\u2019s thrush sings from a high perch . it may flick its wings and raise its crest when agitated . when is performing an agonistic display ( a behaviour used to threaten another bird ) the bird draws its head back , raises its bill while moving it slightly to the side .\nmarzluff and lyon ( 1983 ) found swainson\u2019s thrush abundance correlated with snag density , and 25 - 50 cm dbh live stems . they state that density of snags > 30 cm dbh reflect shrub cover and the occurrence of large stems . according to timossi ( 1990 ) the swainson\u2019s thrush is found in moist ecotones , such as tree / shrub , tree / grass , or shrub / grass , with water and dense understory being necessary elements . she suggests that a dense understory and canopy closure of 40 - 100 % provides both protection from predators and an ample food supply .\na very short breeding season , documented by bent ( 1949 ) , prbo nest and banding data ( 1996 - 97 ) , and rogers ( 1994 ) , means a very narrow window of opportunity for reproduction , and possibly a high sensitivity to disturbance of breeding grounds . therefore , swainson\u2019s thrushes are limited by production of young on the breeding grounds ( johnson and guepel 1995 ) . prolonged negative impacts on nest survivorship could be catastrophic to the swainson\u2019s thrush . unfortunately , we have a profound lack of knowledge of nest survivorship and nesting requirements of the swainson\u2019s thrushes breeding in california . this gap in knowledge could be distastrous for the conservation of the species , which appears to be extirpated from a large portion of its historic range .\nthe swainson\u2019s thrush is best known for its distinctive , fluting song , the upward - spiraling melody that breeding males use to defend nests and territory and also probably to attract mates . while this song varies somewhat from one individual bird to the next , its whistling , constantly ascending quality is always recognizable once you\u2019ve heard it .\ntwo subspecies of swainson ' s thrush occur in washington , the russet - backed form in western washington and the southeast cascades , and the olive - backed form found in eastern washington and the northeast cascades . swainson ' s thrushes appear to benefit from the extensive logging of low - elevation west - side forests because logging leaves brushy , early - successional habitat . they are currently the most abundant and widely distributed spot - breasted thrush in washington . they are , however , still vulnerable to loss of habitat on breeding and wintering grounds . the breeding bird survey shows a small , not statistically significant decline in the washington population between 1980 and 2002 .\noriginally classified in the genus turdus from specimens on the columbia river in washington and the saskatchewan river in canada , swainson ' s thrush is now included in the genus catharus with the veery ( c . fuscescens ) and hermit ( c . guttatus ) , gray - cheeked ( c . minimus ) , and bicknell ' s ( c . bicknelli ) thrushes . among these and other closely related , spotted north american thrushes , it forages higher off the ground than its relatives and uses more aerial , fly - catching techniques to obtain insect prey , a characteristic that earned it the name\nmosquito thrush\nin maine ( bent 1949 ) . eight forms of swainson ' s thrush have been described based on geographical differences in coloration , with six currently recognized as subspecies . the confused historical taxonomy of this species and currently recognized differences may yet prompt further reclassification .\nin new england spruce - fir forests , the nests of swainson\u2019s thrushes are often lined with root - like cords of horsehair fungus . the fungal filaments can have antibiotic effects and may help deter nest pathogens .\nswainson\u2019s thrush is a common species , but has been gradually declining across its range ; experiencing a loss of about 38 % between 1966 and 2014 , according to the north american breeding bird survey . partners in flight estimates a global breeding population of 100 million , with 28 % spending some part of the year in the u . s . , 72 % in canada , and 7 % in mexico . the species rates a 10 out of 20 on the continental concern score . swainson ' s thrush is not on the 2014 state of the birds watch list . this species ' short breeding season may render it sensitive to disturbance on nesting grounds . problems on breeding grounds include grazing , development , human activity , and invasions of nonnative plants . during spring and fall migration , significant numbers of swainson\u2019s thrushes die from collisions with windows , radio and cell - phone towers , and tall buildings . ( for more on the dangers of lights to migrating birds , visit the fatal light awareness program . ) studies of bird deaths at communications towers in minnesota , illinois , and west virginia revealed that swainson\u2019s thrushes were killed in greater numbers than any other bird species . back to top\nswainson ' s thrush : breeds from alaska east across canada to newfoundland , south to british columbia and along the west coast and rocky mountains , and also in northern new england . during migration , it may occur throughout north american and the caribbean . spends winters in tropics , from central mexico south . prefers coniferous forests and willow thickets .\nswainson\u2019s thrushes feed at higher levels than their relatives . they move in short hops along branches looking for food , gleaning from leaves of broad - leaved and coniferous trees . going after insects , they also lunge , hover , and flycatch . swainson\u2019s thrushes often perch on low twigs or branches to survey the litter below , then dive for prey . on the forest floor , they take long , springy hops from one hunting stop to the next . in addition to the male\u2019s haunting song , a peeping flight call , and other vocalizations , swainson\u2019s thrushes communicate aggression and other attitudes with a variety of silent body poses and displays , such as wing - flitting , leaf - tossing , and foot - quivering . on migration stopovers , swainson\u2019s thrushes may join multispecies foraging flocks . on breeding grounds , mating begins with the male chasing a fleeing female . as the courtship warms up , the pair progresses to slow flights and perching together . back to top\ndistribution : the swainson ' s thrush winters in from central mexico to guyana , western brazil , peru , bolivia , northwestern argentina and paraguay . their summer range stretches from interior alaska , across canada to the northeastern states and southward through the central pacific northwest and midwestern states . these birds were found in nearly all ecological units of yukon - charley rivers national preserve during the yukon - charley rivers national preserve bird inventory , june 1999 and 2000 . they occurred at highest density in the lower elevations of the yukon river valley ( yv ) ecological unit . swainson ' s thrush was the fourth most frequently detected bird on the bird inventory as their distinctive song is heard over long distances .\nhermit thrush is the only catharus thrush to winter widely in the lower 48 . they are told by their bold black spotted underparts , and chestnut tail that contrasts with browner upperparts . this bird is safely aged as a first - winter based on its retained juvenile upperwing coverts , which are tipped buff . view this photographer ' s galleries here : urltoken\nduring summer , look\u2014and especially listen\u2014for the swainson\u2019s thrush and its distinctive , spiraling song in closed forests of northern north america and the west . swainson\u2019s thrushes become numerous across most of forested north america during migration in spring and fall . though these birds can be hard to spot on the ground in a dim forest understory , they sing frequently in summer and call frequently during migration . in the breeding season , listen for the species\u2019 beautiful , flutelike song coming from rich forest . ( just remember that hermit thrushes have a similar song , though it usually includes a clear , level introductory note . ) swainson\u2019s thrush also gives its distinctive water - drip call quite frequently . once you get eyes on a candidate , check the face for that distinctive buffy - spectacled look . on winter grounds in central and northern south america , the species inhabits closed - canopy forest and can often be found attending army - ant swarms .\nthe family turdidae is a diverse group of birds including thrushes , townsend ' s solitaires , northern wheatears , bluebirds , and robins . members of this family are eloquent songsters and may be found in various habitats from woodlands to open areas . all have narrow , notched bills used to feed on insects and fruits and the young have spotted breast plumage . birds of the genus catharus include the swainson ' s , gray - cheeked , and hermit thrushes . the word thrush may be derived from the greek verb\nto twitter ,\nreflecting the active nature of these small birds . these\nspotted breasted\nthrushes closely resemble one another and prefer the forest understory . although swainson ' s thrush may be seen occasionally standing or running on the forest floor , these birds spend less time on the ground than other thrushes .\naccording to bbs data for 1966 - 1996 , declining , but not quite significantly ( p < 0 . 20 ) . prbo banding data for 1980 - 1992 at palomarin field station , marin co . also shows insignificant decline . manly and davidson ( 1993 ) report swainson\u2019s thrush declining in california but not in north america , from 26 years of bbs data .\nthe veery is redder above , and the gray - cheeked thrush lacks buffy tones in the face . hermit thrushes have a reddish tail .\nwinker , k . , d . w . warner , and a . r . weisbrod . 1989 . the northern waterthrush and swainson\u2019s thrush as transients at a temperate inland stopover site . in hagan , j . m . and d . w . johnston [ eds . ] , ecology and conservation of neotropical migrant landbirds . manomet bird observatory , woods hole , ma .\ntell congress and the department of the interior to uphold the country ' s most important bird protection law .\non one site in the sierra region , disturbance to riparian habitat during breeding season may have caused disruption or displacement of swainson\u2019s thrushes in 1995 and 1996 . stefani ( 1996 ) discovered that swainson\u2019s thrush productivity declined between the period 1989 - 91 and 1996 at a site where a waterfowl habitat creation project had commenced in fall 1995 . restoration activities continued through the breeding season of 1996 , possibly contributing to the population decline on the site . she recommends avoiding such activities during future breeding seasons . also , two active swainson\u2019s thrrush nests were destroyed in marin co . in 1997 , as a direct result of summer fish habitat restoration activities ; the nest was inadvertantly knocked from its supporting shrub during fence - building ( prbo data 1997 ) . these examples serve merely to illustrate that timing of riparian restoration activites is critical , particularly when considering productivity of a species with a very short breeding season . predators\ndescription : swainson\u2019s thrush is rather warm olive brown above , and whitish below , with a distinct warm buff wash to the face , throat and breast , and a distinct buffish eye ring . underparts show more restricted spotting than in song thrush , being only weakly marked on lower breast and flanks . both sexes are alike . eyes are dusk . legs and feet are flesh coloured . bill is yellow with black tip . immature is similar to adults . birds in the east are more olive brown above ; western birds are more reddish - brown .\ndescriptions : swainson ' s thrush inhabits boreal coniferous woodlands and forest margins . favoring damp habitats , they may be found in the moist forest understory or near riparian thickets . their most distinctive traits are their buffy\nspectacles\n( eye rings joined by a band across the bill ) . these 18cm birds are brown above contrasted by a bright buffy breast with dark spots . sides and flanks are grayish brown .\nbehaviour : swainson\u2019s thrush forages near ground , but higher than other thrushes . it may occasionally fly - catch insects . in winter , it follows army - ants swarms . it gleans insects from vegetation , and also forages for other invertebrates on the ground . in late summer , they feed on berries . it hovers while gleaning insects from foliage , and also catches flying insects , sometimes even in the canopy .\nswainson\u2019s thrushes eat largely insects and arthropods during the breeding season ; they also eat fruits , particularly in fall and winter . they tend to reject yellow fruits and favor red ones , going after elderberries , blackberries , raspberries , twinberries , huckleberries , and other wild fruits including those of brier , false solomon\u2019s seal , and sumac . insect prey items include beetles , caterpillars , flies , grasshoppers , and bugs . swainson\u2019s thrushes also feed on ants\u2014a dietary item more commonly associated with some woodpeckers and unusual among temperate songbirds . nestlings are fed mostly insects , including especially caterpillars , beetles , moths , and flies . back to top\nthis species may be displaced by the hermit thrush where their ranges overlap . possibly , the latter species adapts more readily to human encroachment upon its habitat .\nof the american robin , orange and gray of the varied thrush , and the earthy tones of other forest species . all juvenile thrushes are spotted on the\nalthough swainson ' s thrush is still considered one of the most common birds of northern spruce - fir forests , populations are declining even where abundant , particularly in alaska and the northeast . in california , the breeding range of this species has contracted during the last century , and\nthe disappearance of the swainson ' s thrush from yosemite valley is one of the unsolved mysteries of sierran ornithology\n( marshall 1988 : 367 , citing beedy and granholm 1985 ) . the trend is clear , but the reasons are not . nests are not besieged by cowbirds , but predation rates are high , resulting in low nest - success rates overall , critically low in some locales . loss of breeding habitat may be a contributing factor , including loss of mature conifer forest and forest fragmentation , but swainson ' s thrushes are relatively abundant in some early - successional habitats , such as conifer plantations ; this fact clouds the forest - management issue . on the pacific coast , loss of riparian habitat to development and grazing have likely contributed to declines . the impact of habitat changes on wintering grounds is unclear .\nduring the peak of migration , swainson ' s thrushes are often very common in woodlots and parks , lurking in the thickets , slipping into fruiting trees to pluck berries . although they tend to stay out of sight , the patient birder eventually can see them well enough to discern the bold buffy eye - rings that give these birds their alert or startled look . like the other brown thrushes , swainson ' s migrate mostly at night , and their distinctive callnotes can be heard from overhead on clear nights during spring and fall .\n, seattle audubon ' s on - line breeding bird atlas of island , king , kitsap , and kittitas counties .\nthis species account is dedicated in honor of carol sisler , member of the cornell lab of ornithology ' s administrative board .\nthe more i learn about god and his creation , the more in awe and humbled i am at his greatness , his beauty and his love . the fact that god allows man to discover new things about his creation and learn more about the world he made is a humbling thought , especially when we , as humans don ' t always give him the praise or credit he is due . god ' s wisdom is shown in his varied and wondrous works . the swainson ' s thrush ' s song is one of the many voices in creation that praises their creator . we should do the same and humble ourselves before him because , after all , who are we in comparison to god himself ?\nno published nest data exists for swainson\u2019s thrush in california , and little exists for the russet - backed subspecies overall . data has been reported for seven nests located near juneau , ak ( rogers 1994 ) . according to diane evans , compiler of swth bna species account , very little nest data , published or unpublished , exists for the pacific coast region besides prbo and krrc nest data collected between 1995 and 1997 in marin county ( pers . comm . ) .\nthrushes are well represented in north america with sixty species in thirteen genera ( including the extinct grand cayman thrush and amahui of hawaii ) . this family includes well known birds such as the american robin and bluebirds , and lesser known birds such as the townsend ' s solitaire of western mountain forests .\ndilger , w . c . 1956a . adaptive modifications and ecological isolating mechanisms in the thrush genera catharus and hylocichla . wilson bull . no . 68 : 171 - 199 . close\nthey nest from early june to late july , building cups out of grasses , stems , small twigs , and moss in trees and shrubs . their nests can be found up to 6 metres high , but the average height is usually around 2 . 5 metres high . i found one , possibly two swainson\u2019s thrush nests during our years here in tagish . the first was about two meters high in a small spruce tree with three brown - speckled blue eggs in it . the female seemed to only incubate at night , as i saw her once at 5 : 30 am , and not once during the day . unfortunately , the nest was found by a squirrel , and all of the eggs were destroyed . the second nest was just this past summer . i don\u2019t know for sure if it was a swainson\u2019s thrush , but it was being built on a ledge just under the eves of our outdoor shower . it was a cup nest of grass . we did have a swainson\u2019s thrush nesting in there the year we moved here , but a weasel ate the eggs . this nest remained incomplete ; i guess the couple didn\u2019t like their view . usually one to five eggs are laid , and are incubated by the female for about twelve to thirteen days . the female will only begin incubation after she has laid the third egg . when the eggs hatch , the hatchlings are fed by both parents and usually fledge after ten to twelve days .\nnone of the thrushes of mainland north america are considered threatened although populations of the wood thrush have declined in many areas possibly due to deforestation on its breeding and central american wintering grounds . most hawaiian solitaries , though , have become critically endangered or have gone extinct because of changes to their fragile habitat and susceptibility to avian malaria . ornithologists are also concerned about the future of some species , such as the bicknell ' s thrush , due to destruction and development of their small wintering habitat areas .\nstanwood , c . j . 1913 . the olive - backed thrush ( hylocichla ustulata swainsoni ) at his summer home . wilson bull . no . 25 : 118 - 137 . close\ndunne , p . ( 2006 ) . pete dunne ' s essential field guide companion . houghton mifflin harcourt , new york , usa .\nswainson\u2019s thrushes nest in shady sites in the forest understory\u2014especially in thickets of deciduous shrubs or conifer saplings , mostly 3\u201310 feet off the ground . they build their nests on plants such as willow , fir , spruce , blackberry , alder , aspen , birch , maple , oak , briers , gooseberry , rose , and sumac .\nyou can also add more appeal to your yard for swainson ' s thrushes by adding coniferous evergreens for cover . since insects also make up a large part of a thrush ' s diet , ceasing the use of pesticides will make your yard even more bird pleasing and therefore , they will spend more time in your yard where you can enjoy them . of course , since thrushes dwell primarily on forest floors , having a forest or woodland nearby your home is key to enjoying these fabulous singing birds . if you don ' t have a woodland , forest or densely treed area nearby your home , chances are that you will have to go elsewhere to enjoy thrushes .\nwith spotted breast and reddish tail , the hermit thrush lives up to its name . although celebrated for its ethereal song , it is mostly a quiet and unobtrusive bird that spends much of its time in the lower branches of the undergrowth or on the forest floor , often seen flicking its wings while perched and quickly raising and slowly lowering its tail . a highly variable species in color and size , the hermit thrush ' s morphological characteristics and plumage have been well studied , with 12 - 13 subspecies now recognized ( see systematics ) .\nswainson ' s thrushes are highly migratory , and none winter in washington . they arrive late in spring , and migration is spread out , with spring migrants appearing in late may in eastern washington . fall migration takes place during august and september . migration is mostly at night . the birds migrate to tropical forests for the winter .\njohnson and geupel ( 1996 ) suggest that habitat specificity on their breeding grounds may be the basis for swainson\u2019s thrushes being limited in the summer . they outline degree of habitat specificity by season : in breeding season swainson\u2019s thrushes are riparian woodland specialists ( grinnell and miller 1944 , bent 1949 , verner and boss 1980 ) , on migration they use a range of habitats ( winker et al 1992 ) , and in winter they are possibly nomadic ( ramos and warner 1980 , rappole and warner 1980 ) , although there are arguments against this\nwinter nomad\ninterpretation ( marshall 1988 ) . they report a high hy return rate of 18 . 3 % at the palomarin field station in marin county , ca and hypothesize that\nscarcity of habitat may limit dispersal possibilities .\nbent ( 1949 ) describes a contrast in habitat preference between the two subspecies , stating that the western russet - backed subspecies most typically nests in willow - alder thickets , while the eastern olive - backed subspecies prefers young conifers . verner and boss ( 1980 ) state that in the western sierra , swainson\u2019s thrushes prefer dense thickets near streams or wet meadows . swainson\u2019s thrushes were found to be more abundant in riparian habitats than upland habitats on mixed - conifer study sites in the cascade mountains , lane county , oregon ( anthony et al 1996 ) .\nthrushes are most well known for their beautiful flute - like songs ; an attribute shared by many north american thrush species . the caroling song of the american robin is often viewed as a harbinger of spring .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nin a study of avian abundance in riparian habitat of the cascade mountains , lane county , oregon , breeding densities differed by seral stage . plots were characterized as old - growth ( 400 - 450 yrs ) , mature ( 130 - 200 yrs ) , and young ( 25 - 35 yrs ) . young plots had been clearcut ; mature , even - aged plots had burned in a fire in the 1850s ; and old - growth were natural , unlogged forests . swainson\u2019s thrush was least abundant in old - growth ( 6 . 50 / 40 ha ,\none of the most beautiful sounds on a spring or summer evening is the soft fluting calls of thrushes , making music in their woodland home . when i think of that family of birds it makes me think of their beautiful reedy like songs , softly lulling the day to sleep at sunset . its such a wonderful experience to witness these nightly concerts and its one of my favorite things about spring and summer . well known for their delightful songs , thrushes are truly virtuosos when it comes to their singing abilities . no matter where you live in the united states , with the proper habitat , you are sure to have one or more species from this family of birds to serenade you with a morning and evening song . here in the pacific northwest we have a few different types of thrushes , the varied thrush and american robin are year round residents here . we also have the hermit thrush in the winter and the western bluebird and swainson ' s thrush in the spring and summer . yes , the robin and bluebird are thrushes ! their young ' s spotted plumage ( especially on their chests ) is a clue to their family heritage .\npeople have developed different instruments over the years to play various types of music . some musical instruments like the flute , clarinet and saxophone are called woodwinds . they play beautiful music and are often used in orchestras and bands . but did you know that god created some thrushes with a woodwind - like song ? that ' s right , god thought of it first ! thrushes like the swainson ' s produce reedy flute - like calls which they sing in chorus in spring and summer at dawn and dusk .\nswainson\u2019s thrushes breed mainly in coniferous forests , except in coastal california where they are found primarily in deciduous streamside woodlands , alder or willow thickets , and occasionally in coastal scrub . these birds range from sea level up to about 8 , 500 feet in elevation . in coastal california , where their habitat may depend on the presence of fog , they tend to stay below about 500 feet . during migration , swainson\u2019s thrushes occupy a wide variety of habitats , seeking mainly areas with dense undergrowth . look for migrants especially in forests , canyon bottoms , young woodland , swamp forests , lake edges , and parks . winter habitat includes primary and old second - growth tropical forest and forest - pasture edges . back to top\nverner , j . and a . s . boss . 1980 . california wildlife and their habitats : western sierra nevada . gen . tech . rep . psw - 37 . pacific southwest forest and range exp . stn . , usfs , u . s . dept . agric . , berkeley , ca .\nswainson\u2019s thrushes declined and eventually disappeared over a 5 year period ( 1989 - 1994 ) from a 11 . 7 ha bbc plot in san diego county , after heavy spring flooding scoured the understory in the years 1991 - 93 ( weaver 1989 - 1994 ) . they have since returned , with three males detected countersinging in 1997 ( weaver , pers . comm ) ."]}
{"id": 1729, "summary": [{"text": "chlamydogobius is a genus of gobies from australia .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "all but one coastal species ( c. ranunculus ) are found in inland waters , such as springs , pools , creeks and streams .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "most species live in extreme environments ; for example , several species of chlamydogobius are found in the water that emerges from geothermal springs , such as the dalhousie goby , found in the waters around dalhousie springs .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "these fish can live in water with a wide range of temperatures , ph , salinity , and oxygen levels ; for example they are found in water with a ph between 6.8 and 9.0 , and temperatures between 3 and 43 \u00b0c ( 37 \u2013 109 \u00b0f ) .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "they can tolerate salinity as high as 60 parts per thousand ( almost twice that of sea water ) .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "they have been found in water with extremely low oxygen levels ( as low as 0.8 ppm ) .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "their water habitats often exhibit oxygen levels below 5 milligrams of oxygen per litre .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "to cope with extremely low oxygen levels , they will emerge from the water to \" gulp \" air ( known as aerial respiration ) .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "they also will position themselves over beds of algae to capture the produced oxygen .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "they will hide in the mud and silt at the bottom of a stream , or in a plant or under a rock to avoid more extreme water temperatures .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "sometimes they will emerge from very hot water for brief periods to take advantage of evaporative cooling .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "they can survive even if there are drought conditions that reduce the size of their habitat .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "if there is a flood that results in drastically increased water flow , they anchor themselves to rocks with their pelvic fins .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "chlamydogobius fish are able to change their colours to blend in with their environments .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "human drilling activities in australia have often reduced the pressure of the aquifers that feed the australian hot springs that chlamydogobius rely on , so some species are endangered . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "chlamydogobius", "paragraphs": ["the desert goby differs from all other chlamydogobius species in lacking scales on the head a breast .\nunmack , p . j . ( 2003a ) . chlamydogobius micropterus larson 1995 elizabeth springs goby . available from : urltoken .\nthe genus chlamydogobius currently contains 6 described species , of which the relatively widespread c . ranunculus is also known in the aquarium hobby .\na male desert goby , chlamydogobius eremius , courting a female . source : t . k . lehtonen . license : cc by attribution\ndepartment of the environment and heritage ( 2006aba ) . chlamydogobius micropterus in species profile and threats ( sprat ) database . canberra : deh . available from : urltoken .\nglover , c . j . m . 1971 . the taxonomy and biology of chlamydogobius eremius ( zietz , 1896 ) : masters thesis , department of zoology , university of adelaide .\nunmack , p . j . & r . wager ( 2006 ) . threatened fishes of the world : chlamydogobius micropterus larson , 1995 ( gobiidae ) . environmental biology of fishes . available from : urltoken .\nmiller , p . j . 1987 . affinities , origin and adaptive features of the australian desert goby chlamydogobius eremius ( zietz , 1896 ) ( teleostei : gobiidae ) . journal of natural history 21 ( 3 ) : 687 - 705 .\ncitation : department of the environment ( 2018 ) . chlamydogobius micropterus in species profile and threats database , department of the environment , canberra . available from : urltoken . accessed tue , 10 jul 2018 05 : 39 : 50 + 1000 .\nthompson , g . g . , and p . c . withers , 2002 - comparative biochemistry and physiology part a : molecular & integrative physiology 131 ( 4 ) : 8717 - 879 aerial and aquatic respiration of the australian desert goby , chlamydogobius eremius .\nlarson , h . k ( 1995 ) . a review of the australian endemic gobiid fish genus chlamydogobius , with description of five new species . the beagle , records of the museums and art galleries of the northern territory . 12 : 19 - 51 .\nlarson , h . k . 1995 . a review of the australian endemic gobiid fish genus chlamydogobius with descriptions of five new species . the beagle , records of the museums and art galleries of the northern territory 12 : 19 - 51 figs 1 - 14 pls 1 - 2\nthe following is an abbreviated summary of the extent of impacts largely drawn from summaries by harris ( 1992 ) and ponder ( 1986 ) .\nthe water in the great artesian basin ( gab ) was first tapped in the late 1870 ' s when the first bores or wells were sunk . this caused an initial period of drawdown or loss of pressure in the aquifer which resulted in a decline in spring discharge . this probably affected most springs within the gab to some degree . virtually all springs in the bogan and bourke supergroups are extinct or nearly so ( pickard 1992 ) , many in the eulo supergroup are extinct ( ponder 1986 ) , and only 1 spring , elizabeth springs ( which flows at < 95 % of its original rate ) remains active in the springvale supergroup ( habermehl 1982 ) . many of the lake eyre supergroup springs are also reduced in flow based on comparisons between descriptions by early explorers . today , the gab is in equilibrium between recharge and discharge ; that is , no further decrease in spring flow is expected providing no new developments occur . in an effort to reduce the wastage of water , there is an active program underway to control or cap flowing bores . this should hopefully improve the situation somewhat and may actually enhance spring flows . one development that threatens the lake eyre supergroup is the olympic dam mining venture . presently , the mine with draws 15 megalitres ( 4 , 000 , 000 gal ) per day , however , it is planned to expand this to 33 megalitres ( 8 , 700 , 000 gal ) per day ( harris 1992 ) . present levels of extraction has impacted several nearby springs , the impacts of increased extraction are difficult to accurately predict . further , there is a proposal to establish an iron smelting plant near coober pedy . this will presumably use artesian water in considerable amounts , if not for industrial processes then certainly for the proposed township . there is also another mining proposal at cloncurry ( near julia creek , queensland ) that hopes to use gab water ( r . wager pers . comm . ) .\nvirtually every spring has cattle or sheep grazing on it except those at dalhousie springs where grazing ceased in 1985 ( harris 1989 ) . a few of the lake eyre springs were fenced in 1986 - 1988 ( harris 1992 ) , and a few springs are protected within carnarvon gorge national park ( ponder & clark 1990 ) . due to the lack of water and fodder , stock tend to congregate around springs . this results in considerable trampling of the surrounding area as well as disturbance to the spring itself . faeces tend to pollute springs by causing high ammonia concentrations . occasionally , stock get trapped in soft mud and die , or they just happen to be in a spring when they die . in very small springs this results in the complete loss of fauna , in larger springs the total biomass tends to be reduced .\nmany springs in queensland have been dug out by pastoralists to improve water supply for stock ( ponder & clarke 1990 ; r . wager pers . comm . ) . why primarily in queensland ? this is probably because many of the springs there are fairly small and it has a higher density of people and pastoral properties ( ranches ) . none of the springs have been channelised or diverted primarily because of their small size , no irrigation has occurred in central australia , and the springs were generally easily accessible to stock .\nthe only recorded introduced species is damnbusia , which occurs in a few springs in the neales river and frome creek portions of the lake eyre supergroup , and a few scattered queensland springs . they are gradually expanding their range primarily through flood dispersal . they are a major problem at edgbaston springs where they threaten redfinned blue eye and edgbaston goby ( unmack & brumley 1991 ; wager & unmack in prep . ) . no efforts have yet been made to eradicate damnbusia from any spring . fortunately , due to its isolation , dalhousie springs remains free of exotic fish . however , this could easily change with increased tourist numbers , and the large warm pools ( 32 - 38\u00b0c ) ( 90 - 100\u00b0f ) may make ideal environments for some tropical fish species .\nthere is considerable debate as to whether fencing springs to prevent animal grazing is threatening or protecting them . the few lake eyre supergroup springs which have been fenced have become overgrown with phragmites australis . this may result in a change to the plant and animal communities of unknown proportions . if the springs are not fenced , then they risk being destroyed by cattle trampling and pollution . there is also disagreement as to how much grazing occurred on the springs prior to european settlement . did the spring flora and fauna ever experience grazing ? have the springs had time to come into equilibrium with cattle grazing ? have the springs changed to the point where they are dependent upon grazing to maintain aquatic habitats ? for example , p . australis tends to decrease water depth by collecting sediment , but they were present before cattle grazing . also , what was the water depth then ? ( although the flow rate was higher then too ) . we also don ' t know how the aborigines managed the springs . it is thought that they may have used fire to maintain access to the springs or to catch game , etc . another historical question is , what where the springs like when the mega - fauna roamed around the springs before their extinction around 10 , 000 years ago ? these are challenging management questions , which no one has attempted to answer yet .\nhabermehl , m . a . 1982 . springs in the great artesian basin , australia - their origin and nature . bureau of mineral resources , geology & geophysics , australia report no . 235 .\nharris , c . 1989 . dalhousie springs - an introduction . in , natural history of dalhousie springs . eds . zeidler , w . & ponder , w . f . south australian museum , adelaide . pp 1 - 4 .\nharris , c . 1992 . mound springs : south australian conservation initiatives . the rangeland journal . 14 ( 2 ) : 157 - 173 .\npickard , j . 1992 . artesian springs in the western division of new south wales . the graduate school of environment working papers series , macquarie university . paper no . 9202 . pp 123 .\nponder , w . f . 1986 . mound springs of the great artesian basin . in , limnology of australia . eds . dedeckker , p . & williams , w . d . csiro , australia and w . junk , the hague . pp 403 - 420 .\nponder , w . f . & clark , g . a . 1990 . a radiation of hydrobiid snails in threatened artesian springs in western queensland . records of the australia museum . 42 ( 3 ) : 301 - 363 .\nunmack , p . & brumley , c . 1991 . initial observations on the spawning and conservation status of the redfinned blue - eye , ( scaturiginichthys vermeilipinnis ) . fishes of sahul . 6 ( 4 ) : 282 - 284 . ( journal of the australian new guinea fishes association , australia ) .\nwager , r . n . e . & unmack , p . j . ( in prep ) threatened fishes of the world , scaturiginichthys vermeilipinnis .\nthe background to these pages . please don ' t reuse this image without her permission .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n, select family and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the family .\n, select country and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the country .\n, select ecosystem and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the ecosystem .\ncfm script by eagbayani , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by cmilitante , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by cmilitante , 14 / 03 / 2013\ngreek , chlamys , - idos = cloak , cape + latin , gobius = gudgeon ( ref . 45335 )\nfreshwater ; demersal ; ph range : 7 . 0 - 8 . 0 ; dh range : 9 - 19 . temperate ; 10\u00b0c - 35\u00b0c ( ref . 2060 ) , 136\u00b0e - 137\u00b0e\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 6 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5259 )\noccurs in pools and streams associated with artesian springs and bores ( ref . 5259 , 44894 ) . lives in shaded areas around plants or rocks ( ref . 44894 ) . found in harsh environment characterized by rapid fluctuations in temperature and salinity ( ref . 5259 , 44894 ) . field observations and laboratory experimentation indicate that it can withstand wide ranges of temperature ( 5\u00b0 - 41\u00b0c ) , salinity ( 0 - 60 p . p . t . ) , ph ( 6 . 8 - 11 . 0 ) and very low dissolved oxygen level ( ref . 44894 ) . feeds on insects , crustaceans , filamentous algae and detritus ( ref . 5259 ) .\nfemale deposits eggs on the ceiling of a rocky crevice . male guards the nest until hatching , which requires 10 to 17 days at temperatures ranging from 27\u00b0 - 30\u00b0 c .\nlarson , h . k . , 2001 . a revision of the gobiid fish genus mugilogobius ( teleostei : gobioidei ) , and its systematic placement . rec . west . aust . mus . ( suppl . no . 62 ) : 1 - 233 . ( ref . 43716 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5156 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00724 ( 0 . 00323 - 0 . 01625 ) , b = 3 . 00 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 19 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 7 \u00b10 . 31 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( tm = 0 . 5 ; fec = 20 - 250 ; assuming multiple spawning ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 13 of 100 ) .\n' the bubbler ' is an artesian mound spring located near the type locality of c . eremius . a population of gobies inhabits the overflow channel of the spring .\nunlike many gobies the fry do not undergo a pelagic stage as part of the life cycle . . .\n. . . rather they settle directly onto the substrate and begin to forage almost immediately .\nthis slightly older juvenile has recently had a meal of artemia , visible as an orange mass inside the stomach .\nanother view of ' the bubbler ' . the overflow channel where the fish are found is visible in the top right of the image .\ndespite lacking a swim bladder this species does make forays away from the substrate at times .\ntype locality is \u2018coward spring , in a small pool of water around an artesian well , central australia\u2019 , and this species is endemic to the lake eyre drainage basin , south australia .\nit\u2019s quite widely - distributed in southern and western parts of the basin , with a range extending southwards from the neales river to clayton bore , west of the small town of marree .\nlake eyre is a vast endorheic basin within which lies the lowest point in australia at some 15 m bmsl . it only fills with water occasionally and when it does so forms the country\u2019s largest salt lake .\nc . eremius does not occur in the lake itself since no fishes are able to survive there , rather it inhabits isolated freshwater springs , flowing artesian bores ( wells ) , and ephemeral waterholes where it tends to be associated with rocks and other submerged cover .\nit\u2019s capable of withstanding extreme variations in temperature ( 5 - 41\u00b0c / 41 - 105 - . 8\u00b0f ) , ph ( 6 . 5 - 11 . 0 ) , salinity ( 1 - 37 . 5 ppy ) and dissolved oxygen ( down to 0 . 8 ppm o2 ) .\nalthough not an amphibious species , it can also survive in hypoxic conditions via a method of aerial respiration in which a bubble of air known as a buccal bubble is held against the roof of the mouth .\none example of a natural habitat is \u2018the bubbler\u2019 , an artesian mound spring comprising a central pool measuring a few metres across , plus a short overflow . it\u2019s located a few kilometres away from the type locality in the wabma kadarbu conservation park and c . eremius is restricted to the overflow channel where it can be found among algae and marginal vegetation .\na sandy substrate is ideal though fine - grade gravel will also work , and in soft water areas coral sand or gravel may be required in order to maintain ph and hardness .\nother d\u00e9cor should consist of rocky structures and / or terracotta pipes or plant pots forming a network of crevices and caves .\nfiltration should not be too strong but a degree of water movement is appreciated .\nmarine salt can also be added at a rate of around 1 teaspoon per litre should you wish , though the fish will survive and breed in pure freshwater provided it isn\u2019t too soft or acidic .\ntemperature : a value between 20 \u2013 28 \u00b0c seems best for general care .\nthis species is an opportunistic omnivore by nature and an unfussy feeder in captivity . it will accept most dried foods but for best colour and condition should be offered meals of small live and frozen invertebrates such as artemia , daphnia , bloodworm , etc .\nit also has a long , elaborately - coiled intestine suggesting a natural predilection for algae and other herbivorous matter , so we suggest offering greenstuffs on a regular basis .\nnot an ideal community fish and in most cases is best maintained alone . if you do want to keep it with other fishes choose robust but peaceful species that dwell in the upper part of the water column and enjoy similar water conditions .\nmales can be aggressive when in spawning condition and should be observed closely , especially in smaller aquaria , as they may attack and even kill conspecifics . for this reason it\u2019s essential to provide sufficient cover ( see \u2018maintenance and decor\u2019 ) so that subdominant or non - breeding individuals can seek shelter .\nadult males have have relatively larger jaws than females and are much more colourful when in good condition , with a yellow to brownish body and bands of blue , black , and white pigment in the dorsal , caudal , anal and ventral fins .\nmales can , however , change colour to a surprising extent and may appear very similar to females when newly - introduced to an aquarium , or in the presence of a dominant male or other stressor . if in doubt the fish can easily be sexed by examining the urogenital papillae , which in males is longer and more slender than in females .\nthis species deposits its eggs in crevices or caves and they\u2019re defended aggressively by the male until hatching . in nature it\u2019s been recorded to spawn when water levels are highest , between november and march , but in captivity will breed year - round .\nin a well - structured set - up you may find a few fry survive alongside the parents but in most cases it\u2019s best to spawn the fish in a separate tank , or have somewhere else to move the adults to once eggs have been laid .\nonce in spawning condition males attempt to attract passing females via a courtship display involving jerky body movements and flaring of the dorsal and anal fins . a receptive female will eventually enter the spawning site and deposit the eggs on the roof , after which she is ejected .\nat this point the female ( s ) are best - removed for their own safety while the male can be left in place to tend the eggs . incubation is temperature - dependant to an extent but normally 10 - 17 days , and once the eggs have hatched the male can also be removed as he will prey on fry given the opportunity .\nthe fry settle directly onto the substrate with no pelagic larval phase as in some other gobies , and are large enough to accept artemia nauplii or similarly - sized live foods immediately .\nthis species is sometimes traded as c . eremius \u2018gold\u2019 or \u2018gold desert goby\u2019 , but both names appear to refer to the natural form of the species .\nthe grouping is often included in the subfamily gobionellinae alongside genera such as brachygobius , mugilogobius , pseudogobiopsis , rhinogobius , schismatogobius , and stigmatogobius .\nallen , g . r . , h . midgley , and m . allen , 2002 - csiro : i - xiv + 1 - 394 field guide to the freshwater fishes of australia .\nsymons , n . , p . a . svensson , and b . b . m . wong , 2011 - plos one 6 ( 6 ) : e20576 do male desert gobies compromise offspring care to attract additional mating opportunities ?\ni currently have 3 remaining female gobies from a batch of eggs hatched dec 2013 , originally it was only 4 females and 1 male that grew to adulthood but a the male and a female died a few weeks ago . sine then i have noticed 1 of the remaining females has gradually changed in colour and has taken on the appearance of a male and is now darker in the fins but not quite as vibrant blue as a male would be and without the white trim . she looks very different to the other two females who are still of a pale mottled sandy colour . i\u2019m sure she is still physiologically a female but is it possible for a female goby can transform to \u2018appear\u2019 like a male ? . . and has there been any record of this happening ? can supply photo if needed .\na small sexually dimorphic goby found in the lake eyre catchment in south australia . desert gobies are greyish - brown with 7 - 8 darker saddles along the back , and marbled brown markings on the upper sides . the first dorsal fin has a bright blue median band and a yellow submarginal band , and the underside of the head is yellow .\nthe brightly - coloured breeding males have vivid yellow and blue markings on the first dorsal fin , and white margins on the second dorsal , anal and caudal fins .\nthese little gobies are remarkably well adapted to life in the desert . they occur in a wide range of habitats \u2013 from permanent desert springs to ephemeral rivers and streams where water temperatures and dissolved oxygen levels fluctuate greatly . when oxygen levels in the water are low , they survive by gulping air at the water surface .\nendemic to the western and southern parts of the lake eyre drainage basin , south australia , from north of the flinders ranges to the neales river .\ndesert gobies inhabit both permanent and ephemeral water bodies , including spring - fed pools and bores , and desert streams . they live on the bottom , preferring shaded areas around plants or rocks . during the day , they mostly shelter under rocks and in crevices .\nindividuals can tolerate extreme variations in temperature ( 5 - 41\u00b0c ) , ph , salinity and dissolved oxygen levels .\ndorsal fin iv - vi + i , 6 - 8 ; anal fin i , 5 - 8 ; pectoral fin 12 - 15 ; caudal fin ( segmented rays ) 16 - 17 ( branched rays ) 14 - 16 ; pelvic fin i , 5 ; vertebrae 10 - 11 + 16 - 18 = 27 - 29 ; gill rakers 2 - 3 + 5 - 10 = 7 - 13 ; horizontal scale rows 13 - 19 ; midlateral scales 32 - 57 ( usually 40 - 51 ) .\nbody cylindrical anteriorly , compressed posteriorly . head short , somewhat rounded , length 2 . 8 - 3 . 5 in sl . snout rounded to rather flattened . anterior nostril in short tube , placed on edge of preorbital , tube oriented down and forward , preorbital sometimes curved forward slightly to accommodate nostril . posterior nostril small , oval , placed halfway between front centre margin of eye and edge of preorbital .\neyes lateral , high on head , top usually part of dorsal profile , 2 . 6 - 5 . 6 in hl . interorbital broad , flat to very slightly convex ; top of head , from rear of interorbital space up to snout tip , with scattering of very fine villi . lips usually fleshy , smooth , lower lip free at sides , fused across front .\nmouth terminal to subterminal , slightly oblique , upper jaw slightly overhanging lower jaw ; generally reaching to below mid - eye in males and front half of eye in females ; teeth of upper jaw in 4 - 6 rows , outermost usually larger than others , stout and curved or almost upright , others slightly smaller ; teeth of lower jaw in 5 - 6 rows ; teeth not differing much between males and females ; tongue thick and fleshy , usually blunt to rounded . gill opening restricted to pectoral base ; inner edge of shoulder girdle either smooth and fleshy , or hard - edged . ctenoid scales on side of body at least as scattered scales on caudal peduncle and patch behind pectoral fin . predorsal scales usually absent , when present , midline of nape naked with scales extending forward at sides to above opercle , or 0 - 10 small scales immediately before first dorsal fin or scattered unevenly over nape ; operculum generally naked , occasionally a few dorsally ; cheek naked ; pectoral fin base naked ; prepelvic area usually naked ; belly sometimes with naked mid - line , otherwise covered with cycloid scales and isolated patch under pelvics of weakly ctenoid scales . lateral line absent ; lateral scale series 33 - 57 . head pores absent . two dorsal fins , first low , rounded , spines not reaching second dorsal when depressed ; second dorsal and anal fins low , last rays barely reaching caudal fin in largest males . pectoral fin broad , rounded . pelvic fins united into complete disc , small , rounded to oval , occasionally reaching half distance to anus . caudal fin oval to rounded or nearly truncate .\nhead and body greyish - brown with 7 - 8 brown clearly defined square saddles or highly marbled patches across the back , saddles not extending past the mid - side , replaced below by marbled blotches , square blotches or irregular spots merging ventrally with background ; caudal fin base with 1 - 3 dark brown to greyish brown spots , sometimes forming y - shape or vertical bar , with yellowish brown background surrounding spots ; silvery white peritoneum usually evident through body wall .\ntop and sides of head marbled and spotted with brown , sometimes 1 - 2 dark brown bars from eye to upper lip ; lips bluish grey ; iris deep golden , with dark brown margin .\nfirst dorsal fin greyish brown with deep yellowish submarginal band , above narrow blue line that widens posteriorly to form bright blue spot ; second dorsal fin with pale greyish brown membrane , dark brown fin rays and darker brown blotches along base .\ncaudal fin pale greyish brown with irregular , vertically oriented rows of fine brown spots . pectoral fin pale greyish brown to hyaline , fin base with brown blotch on upper half .\nbreeding males with diffuse markings ; first dorsal fin very dark grey , with vivid yellow and blue ; second dorsal and anal fins dark grey to blackish with broad bright white margin ; fins speckled basally with blue ; caudal fin dark grey with narrow dull whitish fin margin .\ndesert gobies are omnivores and feed on insect larvae , crustaceans , fish eggs , algae and detritus . larvae consume zooplankton .\nthe territorial males establish nests beneath rocky crevices , and attract females with conspicuous courtship displays . during the breeding season from november to march , females lay 150 - 300 demersal eggs onto the underside of the rock in the nest . males aggressively guard and constantly fan the eggs until they hatch after 10 - 17 days . the larvae measure 5 . 7 mm tl at hatching , and settle directly onto the bottom with no pelagic larval phase .\na number of behavioural studies on desert gobies have been undertaken in recent years - see references below .\ngobius eremius zietz , a . h . c . ( 1896 ) . pisces . pp . 176\u2013180 pl . 16 in spencer , b . ( ed . ) report on the work of the horn scientific expedition to central australia . part 2 . zoology . london [ 180 , pl . 16 ( 5 ) ] . central australia .\nallen , g . r . 1989 . freshwater fishes of australia . neptune , new jersey : t . f . h . publications 240 pp . , 63 pls .\nallen , g . r . , midgley , s . h . & allen , m . 2002 . field guide to the freshwater fishes of australia . perth : western australian museum 394 pp .\nglover , c . j . m . 1973 . adaptations of a central australian gobiid fish . bulletin of the australian society for limnology 5 : 8 - 10\nhammer , m . p . & walker , k . f . 2004 . a catalogue of south australian freshwater fishes , including new records , range extensions and translocations . transactions of the royal society of south australia 128 ( 2 ) : 85 - 97\nlarson , h . k . 2001 . a revision of the gobiid fish genus mugilogobius ( teleostei : gobioidei ) , and its systematic placement . records of the western australian museum , supplement 62 : 1 - 233 .\nlehtonen , t . k . , svensson , p . a . & wong , b . b . m . 2011 . both male and female identity influence variation in male signalling effort . bmc evolutionary biology 11 : 233 . doi : 10 . 1186 / 1471 - 2148 - 11 - 233 pdf\nlehtonen , t . k . , svensson , p . a . & wong , b . b . m . 2016 . the influence of recent social experience and physical environment on courtship and male aggression . bmc evolutionary biology 16 ( 1 ) : 1 - 10 . doi : 10 . 1186 / s12862 - 016 - 0584 - 5 pdf open access\nmerrick , j . r . & schmida , g . e . 1984 . australian freshwater fishes biology and management . sydney : j . r . merrick 409 pp . figs 280 col . figs .\nmichelangeli , m . , tuomainen , u . , candolin , u . & wong , b . b . m . 2015 . habitat alteration influences male signalling effort in the australian desert goby . behavioral ecology 26 ( 4 ) : 1164 - 1169 . doi : 10 . 1093 / beheco / arv060 pdf open access\nmichelangeli , m . & wong , b . b . m . 2014 . a recent predatory encounter influences male courtship in a desert - dwelling fish . behavioral ecology 25 ( 4 ) : 928 - 932 . doi : 10 . 1093 / beheco / aru056 pdf open access\nmossop kd , adams m , unmack pj , smith date kl , wong bbm , and chapple dg ( 2015 ) dispersal in the desert : ephemeral water drives connectivity and phylogeography of an arid - adapted fish . journal of biogeography . doi : 10 . 1111 / jbi . 12596 abstract\nscott , t . d . , glover , c . j . m . & southcott , r . v . 1974 . the marine and freshwater fishes of south australia . adelaide : government printer 392 pp . figs .\nsvensson , p . a . , lehtonen , t . k . & wong , b . b . m . 2010 . the interval between sexual encounters affects male courtship tactics in a desert - dwelling fish . behavioral ecology and sociobiology 64 : 1967 - 1970 . abstract pdf\nsvensson , p . , lehtonen , t . k . & wong , b . b . m . 2010 . the interval between sexual encounters affects male courtship tactics in a desert - dwelling fish . behavioral ecology and sociobiology 64 ( 12 ) : 1967 - 1970 . doi : 10 . 1007 / s00265 - 010 - 1007 - z abstract\nsvensson , p . a . , lehtonen , t . k . , wong , b . b . m . 2012 . a high aggression strategy for smaller males . plos one 7 ( 8 ) : e43121 . pdf\nsymons n , svensson pa , wong bbm ( 2011 ) do male desert gobies compromise offspring care to attract additional mating opportunities ? plos one 6 ( 6 ) : e20576 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0020576 pdf open access\nwong , b . b . m . & svensson , p . a . 2009 . strategic male signalling effort in a desert - dwelling fish . behavioral ecology and sociobiology 63 : 543\u2013549 . abstract\nunmack , p . j . 2001 . biogeography of australian freshwater fishes . journal of biogeography 28 : 1053 - 1089 .\nvan lieshout , e . , svensson , p . a . , wong , b . b . m . 2013 . consequences of paternal care on pectoral fin allometry in a desert - dwelling fish . behavioral ecology and sociobiology 67 ) 3 ) : 513 - 518 . doi : 10 . 1007 / s00265 - 012 - 1470 - 9 abstract\nzietz , a . h . c . 1896 . pisces . pp . 176\u2013180 pl . 16 in spencer , b . ( ed . ) report on the work of the horn scientific expedition to central australia . part 2 . zoology . london .\noccurs in pools and streams associated with artesian springs and bores ( ref . 5259 , 44894 ) . lives in shaded areas around plants or rocks ( ref . 44894 ) . found in harsh environment characterized by rapid fluctuations in temperature and salinity ( ref . 5259 , 44894 ) . field observations and laboratory experimentation indicate that it can withstand wide ranges of temperature ( 5\u00b0 - 41\u00b0c ) , salinity ( 0 - 60 p . p . t . ) , ph ( 6 . 8 - 11 . 0 ) and very low dissolved oxygen level ( ref . 44894 ) . feeds on insects , crustaceans , filamentous algae and detritus ( ref . 5259 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhey guys , new pair i recently got about a week and half ago . already settled and have their own cave , female has already layed eggs , but the bristlenose and loaches got to them : (\ntopfin 5 gallon aquarium fish tank from pet smart . 39 . 99 . neon tetras , bumblebee goby , guppies\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 3 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 44894 )\ninhabits marshy , vegetated shallow pools ( 1 - 10 centimeters in depth ) fed by mound springs . captive breeding populations have been established to ensure its survival ( ref . 44894 ) .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00912 ( 0 . 00312 - 0 . 02670 ) , b = 2 . 95 ( 2 . 71 - 3 . 19 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 0 \u00b10 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 10 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\neschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nfor information to assist regulatory considerations , refer to policy statements and guidelines , the conservation advice , the listing advice and / or the recovery plan .\nrecovery plan required , included on the commenced list ( 1 / 11 / 2009 ) .\n. report to department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts , canberra . queensland department of environment and resource management , brisbane . available from :\nsurvey guidelines for australia ' s threatened fish . epbc act survey guidelines 6 . 4\n( department of sustainability , environment , water , population and communities ( dsewpac ) , 2011 ) [ admin guideline ] .\nelizabeth springs goby ( department of environment and heritage protection ( dehp ) , 2013s ) [ database ] .\nenhancing biodiversity hotspots along western queensland stock routes ( queensland department of environment and resource management ( qld derm ) , 2009a ) [ management plan ] .\nlisted as critically endangered ( global status : iucn red list of threatened species : 2017 . 1 list )\nthe distribution shown is generalised from the departments species of national environmental significance dataset . this is an indicative distribution map of the present distribution of the species based on best available knowledge . some species information is withheld in line with sensitive species polices . see map caveat for more information .\nthe elizabeth springs goby is a freshwater fish growing to 6 . 2 cm ( unmack 2003a ) .\nformerly distributed throughout the elizabeth springs complex and the outflow stream , spring ck ( wager & jackson 1993 ) . now only found in elizabeth springs and associated pools on springvale station , 80 km se of boulia in sw qld in the great artesian basin ( wager & jackson 1993 ; larson 1995 ; unmack & wager in prep . ) . it occurs in an area 1600 m by 600 m alongside spring ck ( unmack & wager in prep . ) . population size based on area of suitable habitat has been estimated at between 1000 and 2000 individuals ( unmack & wager in prep . ) .\nelizabeth springs is a group of about 40 low freshwater mound springs associated with the great artesian basin ( unmack & wager in prep ) . the springs consist of dry or non - flowing mounds with little or no vegetation ; vegetated marshy soaks with no surface water ; springs with small outflows among marshy vegetated areas ; and well - vegetated springs with many short , well - defined outflows . the wetted area of the springs range in diameter up to about 140 m . maximum water depth is 100 mm . this species only occurs in some of the larger springs . during daylight they shelter in or near emergent vegetation , while at night they can be observed some distance from cover and are apparently foraging ( unmack & wager in prep ) .\nthis species appears to be omnivorous ( unmack & wager in prep . ) .\nreproductive information is only available for captive populations . spawning sites have not been found in the wild . spawning and hatching has been recorded at temperatures over 26\u00b0c ( unmack & wager in prep ) . males select a site , often a cave beneath a rock . male display involves extension of all fins and jerky swimming movements around the site . the male guides an attracted female to the site . spawning usually occurs at nights and lasts about one hour . 40 - 100 eggs are attached to the ceiling of the cave . elongate , water - hardened eggs are between 2 . 5 - 3 mm in length and hatch after 10 days . newly hatched larvae are 5 - 6 mm in length ( unmack & wager in prep ) .\naustralian fish collection records ( undated ) . collation of records from australian fish collections .\nwager , r . & p . jackson ( 1993 ) . the action plan for australian freshwater fishes . canberra , act : australian nature conservation agency .\ncommonwealth of australia ( 2000 ) . declaration under s178 , s181 , and s183 of the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 - list of threatened species , list of threatened ecological communities and list of threatening processes . f2005b02653 . canberra : federal register of legislative instruments . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 16 - jul - 2000 .\nepbc act email updates can be received via the communities for communities newsletter and the epbc act newsletter .\nthis database is designed to provide statutory , biological and ecological information on species and ecological communities , migratory species , marine species , and species and species products subject to international trade and commercial use protected under the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 ( the epbc act ) . it has been compiled from a range of sources including listing advice , recovery plans , published literature and individual experts . while reasonable efforts have been made to ensure the accuracy of the information , no guarantee is given , nor responsibility taken , by the commonwealth for its accuracy , currency or completeness . the commonwealth does not accept any responsibility for any loss or damage that may be occasioned directly or indirectly through the use of , or reliance on , the information contained in this database . the information contained in this database does not necessarily represent the views of the commonwealth . this database is not intended to be a complete source of information on the matters it deals with . individuals and organisations should consider all the available information , including that available from other sources , in deciding whether there is a need to make a referral or apply for a permit or exemption under the epbc act .\nthe desert goby occurs in the western and southern lake eyre drainage in australia , in freshwaters fed by artesian springs . it can withstand large fluctuations in temperature , salinity , ph and dissolved oxygen .\nthe desert goby is brown - grey to yellowish with darker mottling and sometimes 7 or 8 darker saddles across the back . the head is yellow below . the first dorsal fin of males is black with blue and yellow bands .\nthe desert goby occurs in the western and southern lake eyre drainage , australia .\nthe map below shows the australian distribution of the species based on public sightings and specimens in australian museums . click on the map for detailed information . source : atlas of living australia .\nthe desert goby can withstand large fluctuations in temperature , salinity , ph and dissolved oxygen .\nallen , g . r . 1989 . freshwater fishes of australia . t . f . h . publications . pp . 240 .\nallen , g . r . , midgley , s . h . & m . allen . 2002 . field guide to the freshwater fishes of australia . western australian museum . pp . 394 .\nmerrick , j . r . & g . e . schmida . 1984 . australian freshwater fishes . biology and management . john r . merrick . pp . 409 .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nyearsley , g . k . , last , p . r . & morris , g . b . 1997 ,\ncodes for australian aquatic biota ( caab ) : an upgraded and expanded species coding system for australian fisheries databases\n, pp . 15 pp . + appendices\nfennah , r . g . 1969 ,\nfulgoroidea ( homoptera ) from new caledonia and the loyalty islands\n, pacific insects monographs , vol . 21 , pp . 1 - 116\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 0fab53f8 - 02e0 - 4459 - 83a5 - a506933e1a3f\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 5ff273fe - b41d - 4328 - a099 - f644ad2f214f\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 409283\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : a4363ed7 - 34fd - 4760 - a4d5 - 581a5ca1e53e\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 336aa15c - 682f - 4798 - 92fb - 53556a1ab4f1\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 2583572e - f56c - 453a - 85cc - ab9974dd748d\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 409281\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]"]}
{"id": 1733, "summary": [{"text": "gopherus is a genus of fossorial tortoises commonly referred to as gopher tortoises .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the gopher tortoise is grouped with land tortoises that originated 60 million years ago , in north america .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "a genetic study has shown that their closest relatives are in the asian genus manouria .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the gopher tortoises live in the southern united states from california 's mojave desert across to florida , and in parts of northern mexico .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "gopher tortoises are so named because of their ability to dig large , deep burrows ; those of the gopher tortoise can be up to 40 feet ( 12 m ) in length and 10 feet ( 3.0 m ) in depth .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "these burrows are used by a variety of other species , including mammals , other reptiles , amphibians , and birds .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "gopher tortoises are 20 \u2013 50 cm ( 7.9 \u2013 19.7 in ) in length , depending on the species .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "all five species are found in xeric habitats . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "gopherus", "paragraphs": ["gopherus agassizii can hybridize with gopherus berlandieri ( edwards et al . 2010 ) .\ns1 fig . divergence summary of repetitive elements in the genome of gopherus agassizii .\nconservative estimate of the distribution of gopherus evgoodei in mexico indicated by diagonal lines . desert tortoise range limit , modified based on our field sampling , from . squares indicate museum and literature records of occurrence of gopherus spp . circles are sample locations from for both gopherus morafkai ( black ) and gopherus evgoodei ( white ) . localities in the sinaloan thornscrub - sonoran desertscrub ecotone indicated by split circles , which indicate the occurrence of both gopherus evgoodei and gopherus morafkai genotypes and / or hybrids .\ndetailed view of the anal scutes of the holotype of gopherus morafkai , cas 33867 .\ncontributions of private landowners to the conservation of the gopher tortoise ( gopherus polyphemus ) .\nparentage assignment among breeding adult bolson tortoises ( gopherus flavomarginatus ) for yearly cohorts of hatchlings .\ns6 table . enriched go categories using unique , fixed variants per taxon for gopherus agassizii .\ns7 table . enriched go categories using unique , fixed variants per taxon for gopherus morafkai .\ns8 table . enriched go categories using unique , fixed variants per taxon for gopherus evgoodei .\nventral surface of the right rear foot of the holotype of gopherus evgoodei , amnh r64160 .\nright , lateral view of the head of the holotype of gopherus morafkai , cas 33867 .\ngopherus agassizii ( cooper 1861 ) ( partim ) . generic reassignment by stejneger ( 1893 )\nlongevity and growth strategies of the desert tortoise ( gopherus agassizii ) in two american deserts .\nwhat ' s in a name ? gopherus by mary cohen & michael j . connor - cttc\ndorsal view of the lectotype of gopherus agassizii , usnm 7888 . black bar is 3 cm .\nventral view of the holotype of gopherus agassizii , usnm 7888 . black bar is 3 cm .\nanterior view of the holotype of gopherus agassizii , usnm 7888 . black bar is 3 cm .\nimplications of anthropogenic landscape change on inter - population movements of the desert tortoise ( gopherus agassizii ) .\nmojave population of the desert tortoise ( gopherus agassizii ) . 5 - year review : summary and evaluation\nregional - scale estimation of density and habitat use of the desert tortoise ( gopherus agassizii ) in arizona .\ngenetic and morphological assessment of an unusual tortoise ( gopherus agassizii ) population in the black mountains of arizona .\ncontributions of private landowners to the conservation of the gopher tortoise ( gopherus polyphemus ) . - pubmed - ncbi\ndorsal view of the holotype of gopherus evgoodei , amnh r64160 . scale bar 50 mm in 10 mm increments .\nventral view of the holotype of gopherus evgoodei , amnh r64160 . scale bar 50 mm in 10 mm increments .\nhabitat use by desert tortoises ( gopherus agassizii ) on alluvial fans in the sonoran desert , south - central arizona .\nthe desert tortoise trichotomy : mexico hosts a third , new sister - species of tortoise in the gopherus morafkai\u2013g . agassizii group\ns3 dataset . assigned 1 : 1 orthologs between agassiz\u2019s desert tortoise ( gopherus agassizii ) and chicken ( gallus gallus ) .\ns5 dataset . assigned 1 : 1 orthologs between agassiz\u2019s desert tortoise ( gopherus agassizii ) and human ( homo sapiens ) .\nphysical characteristics and patterns of utilization of cover sites used by gopherus agassizi in southern nevada . desert tortoise council , proc . symp\nclass : reptilia order : chelonia suborder : cryptodira super family : testudinoidea family : testudinidae genus : gopherus species : g . agassizii\ns4 dataset . assigned 1 : 1 orthologs between agassiz\u2019s desert tortoise ( gopherus agassizii ) and green anole ( anolis carolinensis ) .\nmertens and wermuth ( 1955 ) and wermuth and mertens ( 1961 ) were unimpressed by the extent of morphological differentiation among north american gopherus and impressed by the reports of hybrids . while recognizing long - term isolation , they recognized only one species , gopherus polyphemus , stating \u201cda sich die einzelnen formen der gopherschildkr\u00f6ten \u00e4u\u00dfberlich nur wenig unterscheiden , deutlich geographisch vikariieren und mehreren ver\u00f6ffentlichungen zufolge auch zu verbastardieren scheinen , sind sie hier als unterarten aufgef\u00fchrt\u201d ( wermuth and mertens 1961 : 172 ) . in doing so , they considered gopherus agassizii to be a subspecies of gopherus polyphemus , gopherus polyphemus agassizii ( cooper ) . their taxonomic arrangement was rarely , if ever , followed .\ngopherus evgoodei edwards , karl , vaughn , rosen , mel\u00e9ndez - torres & murphy 2016 xerobates agassizii cooper 1861 ( partim ) gopherus agassizii \u2014 stejneger 1893 ( partim ) scaptochelys agassizii \u2014 bramble 1982 ( partim ) xerobates lepidocephalus \u2014 ottley & vel\u00e1zques - solis 1989 ( in error ) xerobates lepidocephalus \u2014 crumly & grismer 1994 ( in error ) gopherus morafkai \u2014 murphy et al . 2011 ( partim )\ns2 dataset . assigned 1 : 1 orthologs between agassiz\u2019s desert tortoise ( gopherus agassizii ) and chinese softshell turtle ( pelodiscus sinensis ) .\nto evaluate the validity of gopherus lepidocephalus and to confirm the geographic origin of gopherus agassizii , we obtained mitochondrial dna sequences from both type specimens . this kind of analysis could not detect hybrids because the mitochondrial genome is inherited only maternally . however , if gopherus lepidocephalus has its origin in the mojave desert , then the name will persist as a junior synonym of gopherus agassizii regardless of whether it is a hybrid or not . alternatively , if the maternal lineage is from a sonoran desert tortoise , then the possible hybrid state would create another problem to be solved . finally , if the lineage was new and divergent , then perhaps gopherus lepidocephalus was native to the peninsula .\nmushinsky , h . , d . wilson , e . mccoy . 1994 . growth and sexual dimorphism of gopherus polyphemus in central florida .\ns1 dataset . assigned 1 : 1 orthologs between agassiz\u2019s desert tortoise ( gopherus agassizii ) and western painted turtle ( chrysemys picta bellii ) .\nthe desert tortoise trichotomy : mexico hosts a third , new sister - species of tortoise in the gopherus morafkai - g . agassizii group .\ndistribution : see map in murphy et al . 2016 : 133 . hybridization : gopherus evgoodei hybridizes with g . morafkai in c sonora .\nin terms of generic allocation , crumly ( 1994 ) aptly notes that the genus xerobates cannot be diagnosed morphologically owing to intraspecific variation . thus , he refers xerobates agassizii back to gopherus agassizii ( cooper , 1861 ) . symplesiomorphies are used by bramble ( 1982 ) to define scaptochelys , a practice that contravenes the principles of phylogenetic systematics . although morphological evidence does not unite gopherus agassizii and gopherus berlandieri , molecular evidence does ( lamb and lydeard 1994 ) . and although it is possible to recognize xerobates for the extant species gopherus agassizii and gopherus berlandieri , the phylogenetic relationships among extinct species ( reynoso and montellano - ballesteros 2004 ) preclude monophyly of the two genera . thus , xerobates should not be recognized .\nwirt , b . 2011 . desert tortoise - gopherus agassizii . sonoran herpetologist 24 ( 6 ) : 56 - 58 . - get paper here\nstitt , e . , c . schwalbe , d . swann . 2004 . gopherus agassizii ( desert tortoise ) . association with africanized bees .\ngene diversity ( a ) and allelic richness ( b ) per locus and population of bolson tortoises ( gopherus flavomarginatus ) for 11 str loci .\nvan dijk pp , flores - villela o ( 2007 ) gopherus flavomarginatus iucn 2013 : iucn red list of threatened species . urltoken : iucn .\nedwards , t . , e . stitt , c . schwalbe , d . swann . 2004 . gopherus agassizii ( desert tortoise ) . movement .\nthe genus name gopherus was coined by the naturalist c . s . rafinesque in 1816 but first published in 1832 to describe the north american tortoises . gopherus is derived from the word gopher , which was already in common use in the us to describe burrowing animals such as the gopher tortoise at the time .\nwoodbury , angus munn ; hardy , ross 1948 . studies of the desert tortoise , gopherus agassizii . ecological monographs 18 ( 2 ) : 146 - 200\n2013 .\ngopher tortoise : gopherus polyphemus\n( on - line ) . florida fish and wildlife conservation commission . accessed november 29 , 2013 at urltoken .\nthe desert tortoise trichotomy : mexico hosts a third , new sister - species of tortoise in the gopherus morafkai - g . agassizii group . - pubmed - ncbi\negg size and annual egg production by female desert tortoises ( gopherus agassizii ) : the importance of food abundance , body size , and date of egg shelling .\nauffenberg , w . , and r . franz . 1978 . gopherus flavomarginatus . catalogue of american amphibians and reptiles 214 : 1 - 2 . - get paper here\nmiller , loye 1955 . further observations on the desert tortoise , gopherus agassizi , of california . copeia 1955 ( 2 ) : 113 - 118 - get paper here\nsullivan , brian k . and elizabeth sulivan . 2014 . gopherus morafkai ( sonoran desert tortoise ) drinking behavior . herpetological review 45 ( 3 ) : 483 - 484\nsullivan , brian k . and elizabeth sullivan . 2016 . gopherus morafkai ( sonoran desert tortoise ) drinking behavior . herpetological review 47 ( 1 ) : 123 - 124\ns4 fig . representation of gene ontology terms for biological processes shared by genes with ka / ks > 1 in the pairwise comparison of gopherus agassizii and gallus gallus .\ndesert tortoises ( testudines ; testudinidae ; gopherus agassizii group ) have an extensive distribution throughout the mojave , colorado , and sonoran desert regions . not surprisingly , they exhibit a tremendous amount of ecological , behavioral , morphological and genetic variation . gopherus agassizii was considered a single species for almost 150 years but recently the species was split into the nominate form and morafka ' s desert tortoise , gopherus morafkai , the latter occurring south and east of the colorado river . whereas a large body of literature focuses on tortoises in the united states , a dearth of investigations exists for mexican animals . notwithstanding , mexican populations of desert tortoises in the southern part of the range of gopherus morafkai are distinct , particularly where the tortoises occur in tropical thornscrub and tropical deciduous forest . recent studies have shed light on the ecology , morphology and genetics of these southern ' desert ' tortoises . all evidence warrants recognition of this clade as a distinctive taxon and herein we describe it as gopherus evgoodei sp . n . the description of the new species significantly reduces and limits the distribution of gopherus morafkai to desertscrub habitat only . by contrast , gopherus evgoodei sp . n . occurs in thornscrub and tropical deciduous forests only and this leaves it with the smallest range of the three sister species . we present conservation implications for the newly described gopherus evgoodei , which already faces impending threats .\nour investigation of the taxonomy of agassiz\u2019s land tortoise resolved many issues . the publication date has been given in error as 1863 since its first citation . the type series was likely collected by cooper from near soda lake , california , and not elsewhere . only one of the three original cotypes exists , usnm 7888 , and it was designated as the lectotype . our mtdna sequence data from the lectotype confirmed that it was from california , not arizona . further , mtdna sequence data from the holotype of gopherus lepidocephalus placed its origin to the mojavian population , rather than the sonoran desert of either arizona or mexico . genetic , morphological and ecological data confirmed the existence of at least two species contained within gopherus agassizii . the sonoran population is named as a new species , gopherus morafkai , morafka ` s desert tortoise . the recognition of gopherus morafkai reduces the range of gopherus agassizii to occupying about 30 % of its former range . given drastic population declines in gopherus agassizii during the past few decades , it might be endangered .\n2012 .\nanage entry for gopherus polyphemus\n( on - line ) . anage : the animal ageing and longevity database . accessed december 01 , 2013 at urltoken .\nto cite this page : lazzari , a . 2017 .\ngopherus polyphemus\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nauffenberg w ; franz r 1978 . gopherus agassizii ( cooper ) . desert tortoise . catalogue of american amphibians and reptiles ( 212 : 1 - 2 - get paper here\nto cite this page : crozier , g . 1999 .\ngopherus agassizii\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndiversity indices for 11 microsatellite loci in 3 sample populations of bolson tortoises , gopherus flavomarginatus ; appleton ranch , durango mexico , and hybrid population at the el paso zoo .\ninnes , r . 2009 .\ngopherus polyphemus\n( on - line ) . usda forest service : fire effects information system . accessed december 02 , 2013 at urltoken .\nwinchell , s . 2006 . tortoises of north america - an overview of the genus gopherus . reptilia ( gb ) ( 49 ) : 9 - 15 - get paper here\nbruekers , jaco 2004 . in der sporen van de amerikaanse woestijnschildpad , gopherus agassizii ( cooper 1863 ) . lacerta 62 ( 5 ) : 198 - 2005 - get paper here\ncrumly , c . r . 1994 . phylogenetic systematics of north american tortoises ( genus gopherus ) : evidence for their classification . fish and wildlife research 13 : 7 - 32\ndna was extracted a minimum of three times for the lectotype of gopherus agassizii and once for the holotype of gopherus lepidocephalus . to avoid any possibility of cross contamination , final extractions were done in isolation of one another . amplification and sequencing were also done independently for both strands . desert tortoise sequences were confirmed using a blast search of the ncbi database .\nphylogenetic systematics of north american tortoises ( genus gopherus ) : evidence for their classification . in : bury rb , germano dj ( eds ) , biology of north american tortoises .\na new giant turtle of the genus gopherus ( chelonia : testudinidae ) from the pleistocene of tamaulipas , m\u00e9xico , and a review of the phylogeny and biogeography of gopher tortoises .\ngonz\u00e1lez tr\u00e1paga , r . & aguirre l\u00e9on , g . 2006 . gopherus flavomarginatus - the bolson tortoise . reptilia ( gb ) ( 49 ) : 22 - 27 - get paper here\npeterson , charles c . 1994 . different rates and causes of high mortality in two populations of the threatened desert tortoise gopherus agassizii . biological conservation 70 ( 2 ) : 101 - 108\naverill - murray , r . , a . averill - murray . 2005 . regional - scale estimation of density and habitat use of the desert tortoise ( gopherus agassizii ) in arizona .\nnomenclatural stability for gopherus agassizii was maintained until bramble ( 1982 ) revised the genus using both extant and extinct species . he discovered two groups and erected the genus scaptochelys for gopherus agassizii and gopherus berlandieri . the type species was designated as xerobates agassizii cooper , 1863 [ sic ] . thus , gopherus agassizii was referred to as scaptochelys agassizii . shortly thereafter , bour and dubois ( 1984 ) reported that scaptochelys was a junior synonym of genus xerobates agassiz , 1857 , whose type species was xerobates berlandieri agassiz , 1857 , by subsequent designation ( brown 1908 ) . because bramble ( 1982 ) resolved scaptochelys agassizii as the sister group of xerobates berlandieri , bour and dubois ( 1984 ) referred scaptochelys agassizii back to xerobates agassizii cooper , 1863 [ sic ] .\nfemale gopherus morafkai mature at larger sizes ( 220 mm carapace length ) ( averill - murray 2002 ) than does gopherus agassizii ( 176\u2013190 mm carapace length ) ( turner et al . 1986 ; germano 1994a ; karl 1998 ) . clutch sizes between the two species are similar ( averill - murray 2002 ) , but gopherus morafkai only produces 1 clutch every 1\u20132 yr ( averill - murray 2002 ) while gopherus agassizii may produce 1\u20133 clutches every year ( turner et al . 1986 ; wallis et al . 1999 ) . harsher , more arid climates in the mojave desert may have led to increased female reproductive investment to offset hatchling and juvenile mortality ( heppell 1998 ; hellgren et al . 2000 ) , but information is limited for juvenile tortoises of both species .\nburke , r . , m . ewert , j . mclemore , d . jackson . 1996 . temperature - dependent sex determination and hatching success in the gopher tortoise ( gopherus polyphemus ) .\ngonz\u00e1lez tr\u00e1paga , r . & aguirre le\u00f3n , g . 2006 . gopherus flavomarginatus , die mexikanische gopherschildkr\u00f6te . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 11 ( 62 ) : 28 - 34 - get paper here\nspencely , ashley , jeremy mack and kristin h . berry . 2015 . gopherus agassizii ( agassiz ' s desert tortoise ) attempted predation . herpetological review 46 ( 3 ) : 422 - 423\n( a ) estimated divergence of gopherus agassizii and chrysemys picta bellii without constraint . ( b ) fixed age of node 9 ( see s2 fig . ) at 74 . 2 million years .\nlegler , john m . ; webb , robert g . 1961 . remarks on a collection of bolson tortoises , gopherus flavomarginatus . herpetologica 17 ( 1 ) : 26 - 37 - get paper here\nmorafka , d . j . 1982 . the status and distribution of the bolson tortoise ( gopherus flavomarginatus ) . u . s . fish and wildlife service research report 12 : 71 - 94 .\nberry , kristin h . , shields , tim and jacobson , elliott r . 2016 . gopherus agassizii ( mohave desert tortoise ) probable rattlesnake envenomation herpetological review 47 ( 4 ) : 652 - 653\nmartin , b . 1996 . the desert tortoise ( gopherus agassizii ) in a desert grassland community in southern arizona . sonoran herpetologist 9 ( 4 ) : 31 - 35 . - get paper here\nthe generic allocation of the agassiz land - tortoise , the desert tortoise , has occasionally changed . cope ( 1875 ) transferred xerobates agassizii to the genus testudo , as testudo agassizii , in his checklist of north american amphibians and reptiles but without comment or justification . presumably , this determination followed the generic allocation of gray ( 1870 ) and certainly this was not an oversight as cope ( 1880 ) repeated the generic allocation for gopherus berlandieri . the next taxonomic change was made by stejneger ( 1893 ) in his discussion of the fauna of death valley . he considered the californian tortoise to be distinct from gopherus berlandieri and to belong to the north american genus gopherus rafinesque 1832 , as \u201c gopherus agassizii ( cooper ) \u201d ( stejneger 1893 : 160 ) . this generic allocation was stable for almost 100 years .\nwinchell , s . & love , b . 2006 . die landschildkr\u00f6ten nordamerikas . ein \u00fcberblick \u00fcber die gattung gopherus . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 11 ( 62 ) : 20 - 27 - get paper here\nlovich , jeffrey e . 2011 . gopherus agassizii ( desert tortoise ) and crotalus ruber ( red diamond rattlesnake ) burrow co - occupancy . herpetological review 42 ( 3 ) : 421 - get paper here\nwalde , andrew d . , angela m . walde and a . peter woodman . 2016 . gopherus agassizii ( mojave desert tortoise ) burrow associate . herpetological review 47 ( 1 ) : 121 - 122\nvaughn sl ( 1984 ) home range and habitat use of the desert tortoise ( gopherus agassizii ) in the picacho mountains , pinal county , arizona . m . sc . thesis , arizona state university .\nmartin be ( 1995 ) ecology of the desert tortoise ( gopherus agassizii ) in a desert - grassland community in southern arizona . m . sc . thesis , university of arizona , tucson , az .\nto determine gopherus evgoodei was in fact a new species , edwards sampled 233 wild desert tortoises of both the sonoran and sinaloan lineage and performed dna analysis on these reptiles and compared dna with that of the gopherus evgoodei and found distinct differences in the dna . edwards said that the tortoise species changes with the vegetation . those to the north are the sonoran desert tortoises while the south holds the thornscrub tortoise .\nzylstra , e . 2007 . the bolson tortoise ( gopherus flavomarginatus ) : king of the ( re - ) wild frontier . sonoran herpetologist 20 ( 5 ) : 50 - 54 . - get paper here\n(\nanage entry for gopherus polyphemus\n, 2012 ;\ngopher tortoise management plan\n, 2012 ; conant and collins , 1998 ; ernst and lovich , 2009 ; mushinsky , et al . , 1994 )\nmoll , e . o . 2004 . gopherus agassizi ( cooper , 1863 ) \u2013 desert tortoise . patronyms of the pioneer west . sonoran herpetologist 17 ( 5 ) : 50 - 53 . - get paper here\nsmith , amanda l . , laura a . tennant and terence r . arundal . 2015 . gopherus agassizii ( agassiz ' s desert tortoise ) mechanical injury . herpetological review 46 ( 3 ) : 423 - 424\nhenderson , r . a . , s . r . puffer and j . e . lovich 2016 . gopherus agassizii ( mohave desert tortoise ) nest depredation . herpetological review 47 ( 3 ) : 446 - 447 .\nwalde , andrew d . , meagan l . harless , david k . delaney and larry l . pater . 2006 . gopherus agassizii diet . herpetological review 37 ( 1 ) : 77 - 78 - get paper here\nwalde , angela m . , andrew d . walde and charlie jones . 2014 . gopherus agassizii ( mohave desert tortoise ) and crotalus mitchelli ( speckled rattlesnake ) burrow associate . herpetological review 45 ( 4 ) : 688\nwebster , timothy h . ; greer a . dolby , melissa wilson sayres , kenro kusumi 2017 . improved draft of the mojave desert tortoise genome , gopherus agassizii , version 1 . 1 peerj preprints - get paper here\nseveral observations suggested the absence of dna contamination . first , amplification of dna from the two type specimens resulted in differing fragment lengths . primers used for the lectotype of gopherus agassizii did not amplify dna from the holotype of gopherus lepidocephalus . thus , it is exceptionally unlikely that contamination occurred between these two species . neither type specimen had dna extracted along with other samples of gopherus ; all comparative samples were downloaded from genbank . thus , cross - contamination outside of this project was not possible . finally , dna extracted in isolation of the other type precluded the possibility of contamination . consequently , all evidence suggested that the sequence data were obtained from the respective specimens .\nberry et al . ( 2002 ) summarize data suggesting that the desert tortoise , gopherus agassizii ( cooper ) , of the southern united states and northwestern mainland mexico is a composite of at least two and possibly four species . they note that much work remains to be accomplished before formally recognizing any new species . this task is more complex than originally imagined , in part because of a convoluted taxonomy plagued with uncertainties and problems . our reviews of several conundrums obtain the background data required to untangle a knot of confusion and make some decisions and recommendations . the greatest problem concerns the identities of true gopherus agassizii and the enigmatic gopherus lepidocephalus ( ottley et vel\u00e1zques solis ) .\nlegler , j . m . 1959 . a new tortoise , genus gopherus , from north - central mexico . univ . kansas publ . mus . nat . hist . 11 : 335 - 343 . - get paper here\nwalde , andrew d . ; andrea currylow 2015 . gopherus agassizii ( mojave desert tortoise ) and coleonyx variegatus variegatus ( desert banded gecko ) . spring burrow cohabitation . herpetology notes 8 : 501 - 502 - get paper here\nsullivan , b . k . , and e . a . sullivan . 2015 . winter basking by hatchling sonoran desert tortoises , gopherus morafkai . sonoran herpetologist 28 ( 1 ) : 10 - 11 . - get paper here\ncurrylow , andrea , andrew d . walde and angela m . walde . 2016 . gopherus agassizii ( mojave desert tortoise ) and coluber flagellum piceus ( red racer ) burrow associates . herpetological review 47 ( 1 ) : 122 - 123\ncurtin , a . j . ; g . r . zug ; j . r . spotila 2009 . longevity and growth strategies of the desert tortoise ( gopherus agassizii ) in two american deserts . journal of arid environments 73 : 463\u2013471\nthe questioned identity of gopherus lepidocephalus has now been sufficiently answered to address its taxonomic status . the name is a junior synonym of gopherus agassizii . whether the holotype is a hybrid or not is taxonomically irrelevant because the maternal lineage had an origin in the mojave desert population . nevertheless , three questions remain . first , is the holotype of gopherus lepidocephalus a hybrid individual ? this could explain its uniqueness ( ottley and vel\u00e1zques solis 1989 ) as well as it association with sonora , mexico ( crumly and grismer 1994 ) . second , the question remains as to whether gopherus morafkai consists of two forms that warrant recognition at the species level : morafka\u2019s desert tortoise and a potentially new sinaloan thornscrub tortoise ( lamb et al . 1989 ) . currently , we are examining the spatial overlap of several genotypes at the eastern and southern boundaries of sonoran desert scrub in sonora , mexico to better understand the evolutionary drivers responsible for shaping the genetic diversity of gopherus morafkai , and to evaluate the possibility that the species is a composite of two cryptic species . finally , it is critical to evaluate ontogenetic development in both species . this may vary geographically within species as well as with nutrition and other environmental parameters .\nwe investigate a cornucopia of problems associated with the identity of the desert tortoise , gopherus agassizii ( cooper ) . the date of publication is found to be 1861 , rather than 1863 . only one of the three original cotypes exists , and it is designated as the lectotype of the species . another cotype is found to have been destroyed in the 1906 san francisco earthquake and subsequent fire . the third is lost . the lectotype is genetically confirmed to be from california , and not arizona , usa as sometimes reported . maternally , the holotype of gopherus lepidocephalus ( ottley & vel\u00e1zques solis . 1989 ) from the cape region of baja california sur , mexico is also from the mojavian population of the desert tortoise , and not from tiburon island , sonora , mexico as previously proposed . a suite of characters serve to diagnose tortoises west and north of the colorado river , the mojavian population , from those east and south of the river in arizona , usa , and sonora and sinaloa , mexico , the sonoran population . species recognition is warranted and because gopherus lepidocephalus is from the mojavian population , no names are available for the sonoran species . thus , a new species , gopherus morafkai sp . n . , is named and this action reduces the distribution of gopherus agassizii to only 30 % of its former range . this reduction has important implications for the conservation and protection of gopherus agassizii , which may deserve a higher level of protection .\nauffenberg , w . , & franz , r . 1978 . gopherus rafinesque : gopher tortoises . catalogue of american amphibians and reptiles ( 211 ) : 1 - 2 [ species accounts in nos . 212 - 215 ] - get paper here\nure\u00f1a - aranda , cinthya alejandra ; de los monteros , alejandro espinosa 2012 . the genetic crisis of the mexican bolson tortoise ( gopherus flavomarginatus : testudinidae ) . amphibia - reptilia 33 ( 1 ) : 45 - 53 - get paper here\nthe new species is a patronym for the late professor david joseph morafka in recognition of his many contributions to the biology and conservation of the species of gopherus and his unsurpassed way of facilitating research , even among researchers with very different perspectives .\ngray , k . m . , and r . steidl . 2014 . effects of buffelgrass invasion on density and condition of sonoran desert tortoises ( gopherus morafkai ) . sonoran herpetologist 27 ( 4 ) : 91 - 95 . - get paper here\narizona - sonora desert museum ' s tortoise adoption program , 2003 .\nthe desert tortoise ( gopherus agassizii ) : a natural history\n( on - line ) . arizona - sonora desert museum . accessed september 27 , 2005 at urltoken .\n( a ) commands used for the various steps in the genome assembly process . ( b ) commands used to filter the variant file ( . vcf ) from freebayes using snpsft , and to intersect it with the gopherus agassizii annotation using bedtools .\nus fish and wildlife service . range - wide monitoring of the mojave desert tortoise ( gopherus agassizii ) : 2013 and 2014 annual reports . report by the desert tortoise recovery office , us fish and wildlife service , reno , nevada . 2015 .\ncommon names do not enjoy precedence and they can create much unnecessary confusion . historically , the species of gopherus were commonly referred to simply as gophers , a word that normally refers to mammals . now that gopherus morafkai is recognized , the desert tortoise requires two common names . gopherus agassizii could be referred to as the mojavian desert tortoise , yet this is inaccurate because the species also occurs within the sonoran desert of california . therefore , we prefer to call it agassiz\u00b4s desert tortoise . this name also serves to retain the original designation of cooper ( 1861 ) . similarly , gopherus morafkai occurs in the mojave desert of arizona , the sonoran desert of arizona , usa and sonora , mexico and in sinaloan thornscrub , but not in the mojave and sonoran deserts of california . therefore , the term sonoran desert tortoise is inaccurate . consequently , we prefer to call this species morafka\u00b4s desert tortoise . these common names will serve to exclude the species from other desert tortoises in the genus testudo .\nhowever , when the texas and desert tortoises were first described in the nineteenth century they had been given the genus name xerobates ( from the greek xero meaning\ndry\nand bates meaning\none who walks or haunts\n) . under the rules used in assigning scientific names xerobates took priority over scaptochelys because it had been used first . so , the\nnew\nname of the texas tortoise became xerobates berlandieri and the desert tortoise became xerobates agassizii . the florida gopher tortoise and the closely related mexican bolson tortoise remained in the genus gopherus . however , not all authorities accept the new genus ( it took 100 years or so before even gopherus was widely recognized as valid ! ) . this confusion explains why the desert tortoise is sometimes listed as gopherus ( xerobates ) agassizii , a technically\nuntidy\nmoniker because it suggests that xerobates is a sub - genus of gopherus and not a separate genus . no doubt this will be clarified in the future when more is known about these tortoises .\nhagerty , b . e . ; peacock , m . m . ; kirchoff , v . s . & tracy , c . r . 2008 . polymorphic microsatellite markers for the mojave desert tortoise , gopherus agassizii . molecular ecology resources 8 : 1149\u20131151\nllamas , macario ; christina la croix , elizabeth williams , and william perry baker 2017 . hematological values in captive desert tortoises ( gopherus agassizii ) from maricopa county , arizona . ircf reptiles & amphibians 24 ( 3 ) : 187\u2013190 - get paper here\nmoll , d . 2008 . dietary characteristics and seed germination influences of desert tortoises ( gopherus agassizii ) in a very wet year ( 1998 ) in northeastern sonoran desert . sonoran herpetologist 21 ( 8 ) : 86 - 89 . - get paper here\nbabb , randall d . , thomas c . brennan , david d . kandiyeli , christina m . akins and thomas r . jones . 2013 . geographic distribution : gopherus morafkai ( sonoran desert tortoise ) . herpetological review 44 ( 4 ) : 623\ndistribution of the desert tortoises aligned with gopherus agassizii . the locality of byu 39706 from baja california sur is shown as a black dot . the location of the hybrid population described in mcluckie et al . ( 1999 ) is shown as a star .\nthe evolutionary species concept ( simpson 1961 ; wiley 1978 ) suggests that the sonoran population of the desert tortoise should be recognized as a new taxon . frost and hillis ( 1990 ) effectively argue that subspecies should not be recognized for continuously distributed species ; we agree . given these two observations , at least two species of desert tortoise should be recognized . the dna sequence data exclude application of the available name gopherus lepidocephalus for the sonoran desert population of gopherus that occurs west and south of the colorado river and they confirm that the lectotype of gopherus agassizii is from the mojave desert , and not arizona . because no names are available for the tortoise population occurring in the sonoran desert south and east of the colorado river , we describe it as a new species .\ncurtin , amanda j . ; , george r . zug , , philip a . medica , james r . spotila 2008 . assessing age in the desert tortoise gopherus agassizii : testing skeletochronology with individuals of known age . endang species res 5 : 21 - 27\ngopherus evgoodei differs from other species of desert tortoises in often having yellow / orange integument ( skin ) and shell . i rancho el divisadero ii\u2013iii rancho las cabras ; and iv\u2013v rancho la sierrita near alamos , sonora , mexico ( in tropical deciduous forest ) .\nmorafka dj , adest ga , aguirre g , recht m ( 1981 ) the ecology of the bolson tortoise gopherus flavomarginatus . in : barbault r , halffter g , editors . ecology of the chihuahuan desert : mexico df : instituto de ecolog\u00eda . pp . 35\u201378 .\nadest , g . a . ; aguirre , g . ; morafka , d . j . ; jarchow , j . v . 1989 . bolson tortoise ( gopherus flavomarginatus ) conservation : i . life history . vida sylvestre neotropical 2 ( 1 ) : 7 - 13\nwalde , andrew d . ; andrea currylow , angela m . walde 2015 . discovery of a new burrow associate of the desert tortoise ( gopherus agassizii ) , the long - nosed leopard lizard ( gambelia wislizenii ) herpetology notes 8 : 107 - 109 - get paper here\njamie c . moon , earl d . mccoy , henry r . mushinsky , stephen a . karl ; multiple paternity and breeding system in the gopher tortoise , gopherus polyphemus , journal of heredity , volume 97 , issue 2 , 1 march 2006 , pages 150\u2013157 , urltoken\naverill - murray , roy c . and bridgette e . hagerty 2014 . translocation relative to spatial genetic structure of the mojave desert tortoise , gopherus agassizii . chelonian conservation and biology jul 2014 , vol . 13 , no . 1 : 35 - 41 . - get paper here\ncitation : edwards t , cox ec , buzzard v , wiese c , hillard ls , murphy rw ( 2014 ) genetic assessments and parentage analysis of captive bolson tortoises ( gopherus flavomarginatus ) inform their \u201crewilding\u201d in new mexico . plos one 9 ( 7 ) : e102787 . urltoken\nthe flat shell profile / shape of carapace generally distinguishes gopherus evgoodei from other species of desert tortoises . live , wild - caught individuals from ( i\u2013iv ) rancho las cabras and ( v\u2013vi ) rancho la sierrita near alamos , sonora , mexico ( in tropical deciduous forest ) .\ngopherus evgoodei differs from other species of desert tortoises in having a very short tail . i rancho el chupadero east of guaymas ( in thornscrub habitat ) ; ii rancho las cabras ; and iii\u2013i rancho la sierrita near alamos , sonora , mexico ( in tropical deciduous forest ) .\ntortoises are any of the land - dwelling turtles of the family testudinidae . the desert tortoise is one of four species of the genus gopherus , known collectively as gopher tortoises . gopher tortoises are characterized by brown shells 8 - 15 inches long with flattened front limbs adapted for burrowing .\nmurphy , r . w . 2011 . the dazed and confused identity of agassiz\u2019s land tortoise , gopherus agassizii ( testudines : testudinidae ) with the description of a new species , and its consequences for conservation . sonoran herpetologist 24 ( 7 ) : 71 - 72 . - get paper here\nbridges , andy ; heather l . bateman , audrey k . owens , cristina a . jones and william miller 2016 . microhabitat selection of juvenile sonoran desert tortoises ( gopherus morafkai ) in central arizona . chelonian conservation and biology 15 ( 2 ) : 219 - 230 - get paper here\ns8 dataset . output from ka / ks analysis for all genes compared between agassiz\u2019s desert tortoise ( gopherus agassizii ) and western painted turtle ( chrysemys picta bellii ) , chinese softshell turtle ( pelodiscus sinensis ) , green sea turtle ( chelonia mydas ) , and chicken ( gallus gallus ) .\ntake the desert tortoise , known to many of us as gopherus agassizii . gopherus is a uniquely north american genus consisting of tortoises that are structurally adapted to a burrowing and digging lifestyle . three other species of gopher tortoise are alive today - the texas tortoise ( berlandieri ) , the mexican bolson tortoise ( flavomarginatus ) , and the florida gopher tortoise ( polyphemus ) . over the years , experts in the field came to realize that the genus gopherus includes two sorts of tortoise , separable on the basis of differences in their bone and shell structure . the desert and texas tortoises fall in one group and the gopher and bolson tortoise in the other . in 1982 , john bramble suggested that these differences were great enough to warrant recognition of two separate genera and proposed the genus scaptochelys ( from the greek meaning digger - tortoise ) that would include the desert and texas tortoises .\nhazard , lisa c . ; danielle r . shemanski , and kenneth a . nagy 2010 . nutritional quality of natural foods of juvenile and adult desert tortoises ( gopherus agassizii ) : calcium , phosphorus , and magnesium digestibility . journal of herpetology 44 ( 1 ) : 135\u2013147 - get paper here\na desert tortoise ( gopherus agassizii ) diet is comprised mainly of safe grasses and weeds , leafy greens , with small amounts of hard vegetables and moist fruits . a good basic salad can be prepared a week in advance and fed daily with selections from the following served in addition to it .\nberry , kristin h . ; lisa m . lyren , julie l . yee , and tracy y . bailey 2014 . protection benefits desert tortoise ( gopherus agassizii ) abundance : the influence of three management strategies on a threatened species . herpetological monographs , 28 : 66 - 92 - get paper here\nmedica , philip a . ; kenneth e . nussear , todd c . esque , and mary b . saethre 2012 . long - term growth of desert tortoises ( gopherus agassizii ) in a southern nevada population . journal of herpetology 46 ( 2 ) : 213 - 220 . - get paper here\nmorafka dj ( 1988 ) part iii . historical biogeography of the bolson tortoise . in : morafka dj , mccoy cj , editors . the ecogeography of the mexican bolson tortoise ( gopherus flavomarginatus ) : derivation of its endangered status and recommendations for its conservation : annals of carnegie museum . pp . 47\u201372 .\ns6 dataset . ortholog groups shared between agassiz\u2019s desert tortoise ( gopherus agassizii ) , western painted turtle ( chrysemys picta bellii ) , chinese softshell turtle ( pelodiscus sinensis ) , chicken ( gallus gallus ) , alligator ( alligator mississippiensis ) , green anole ( anolis carolinensis ) and human ( homo sapiens ) .\nmcluckie , ann m . ; lamb , trip ; schwalbe , cecil r . ; mccord , robert d . 1999 . genetic and morphometric assessment of an unusual tortoise ( gopherus agassizii ) population in the black mountains of arizona . journal of herpetology 33 ( 1 ) : 36 - 44 - get paper here\ngopherus morafkai occurs naturally east and south of the colorado river in arizona , as well as in sonora , including tiburon island , and sinaloa on the west side of the sierra madre occidental , mexico ( berry et al . 2002 ) . the species appears to have been recently introduced from sonora into at least one home in la paz , baja california sur , mexico as pets , where it successfully reproduced ( patricia galina , personal communication to rwm ) . it likely occurs as introduced individuals or populations in north america and possibly elsewhere , although in this case many individuals are likely hybrids of gopherus morafkai x agassizii .\nmurray , roy c . ; schwalbe , cecil r . ; bailey , scott j . ; cuneo , s . peder ; hart , scott d . 1996 . reproduction in a population of the desert tortoise , gopherus agassizii , in the sonoran desert . herpetological natural history 4 ( 1 ) : 83 - 88\nennen , joshua r . ; jeffrey e . lovich , katherin p . meyer , curtis bjurlin , and terence r . arundel 2012 . nesting ecology of a population of gopherus agassizii at a utility - scale wind energy facility in southern california . copeia 2012 ( 2 ) : 222 - 228 . - get paper here\nriedle , j . daren , roy c . averill - murray , clayton l . lutz and darren k . bolen . 2008 . habitat use by desert tortoises ( gopherus agassizii ) on alluvial fans in the sonoran desert , south - central arizona . copeia 2008 ( 2 ) : 414 - 420 - get paper here\nlovich , jeffrey e . ; roy c . averill - murray , mickey agha , joshua r . ennen , and meaghan austin 2017 . variation in annual clutch phenology of sonoran desert tortoises ( gopherus morafkai ) in central arizona herpetologica dec 2017 , vol . 73 , no . 4 : 313 - 322 . - get paper here\ntissue samples ( leg muscle ) were dissected from the lectotype of gopherus agassizii ( cooper , 1861 ) ( usnm 7888 ) and the holotype of gopherus lepidocephalus ( ottley & vel\u00e1zques solis , 1989 ) ( brigham young university [ byu ] 39706 ) . genomic dna was extracted from approximately 10 mg of tissue . the lectotype of gopherus agassizii was likely preserved in ethanol yet the holotype of gopherus lepidocephalus was initially well - preserved in formalin . subsequently , both specimens were stored in 70 % ethanol . to remove fixatives , tissues were washed twice in pbs , ph 7 . 2 ( 50 mm potassium phosphate , 150 mm nacl ) as recommended in the dna easy extraction kit ( qaigen ) for tissue exposed to formalin . subsequently , higher yields of dna were achieved using our standard extraction method , rather than the dna easy extraction kit , as follows : digestion of the tissue was carried out at 52 \u00b0c in a lysis buffer ( tris 6 . 06g , na2edta 0 . 93g , nacl 5 . 85g and sds 1 . 0g , 500ml ddh2o , ph 8 . 5 ) and spiked daily with 12 . 5 \u00b5l of proteinase k ( roche ) until the tissue sample was completely digested ( 5\u20137 days ) . purification used two washes with phenol : chloroform : isoamyl alcohol followed by a final wash of chloroform : isoamyl alcohol .\nberry , kristin h . ; julie l . yee , ashley a . coble , william m . perry , and timothy a . shields 2013 . multiple factors affect a population of agassiz ' s desert tortoise ( gopherus agassizii ) in the northwestern mojave desert . herpetological monographs 27 ( 1 ) : 87 - 109 - get paper here\n( a ) phylogenetic relationships and divergence times of three desert tortoise species . total rna was sequenced for three individuals per taxon and mapped to the gopherus agassizii assembly . ( b ) representation of gene ontology terms shared by genes with fixed unique single nucleotide polymorphisms in each species of desert tortoise . treemap boxes are sized according to uniqueness .\ns9 dataset . biomart results for human ensembl gene id and gene ontology categories for accelerated genes with ka / ks > 1 between agassiz\u2019s desert tortoise ( gopherus agassizii ) and western painted turtle ( chrysemys picta bellii ) , chinese softshell turtle ( pelodiscus sinensis ) , green sea turtle ( chelonia mydas ) , and chicken ( gallus gallus ) .\nedwards t , karl ae , vaughn m , rosen pc , torres cm , murphy rw 2016 . the desert tortoise trichotomy : mexico hosts a third , new sister - species of tortoise in the gopherus morafkai\u2013g . agassizii group . zookeys 562 : 131 - 158 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 562 . 6124 - get paper here\naguirre g , morafka dj , adest ga ( 1997 ) conservation strategies for the bolson tortoise , gopherus flavomarginatus , in the chihuahuan desert . in : abbema jv , pritchard pch , editors . proceedings : conservation , restoration , and management of tortoises and turtles\u2013an international conference . new york : new york turtle & tortoise society . pp . 333\u2013338 .\nthe rounded ventral surface of the rear feet ( i\u2013ii ) and multiple enlarged , raised scales present on surface of forelegs generally ( iii\u2013iv ) diagnose gopherus evgoodei in relation to other species of desert tortoises . i\u2013ii same individual in figure from rancho las cabras near alamos , sonora , mexico ( in tropical deciduous forest ) iii\u2013iv two individuals from rancho las cabras .\nscientific names consist of the genus ( generic name ) followed by a specific or species name . occasionally a third name is added to designate so - called sub - species , populations of the species with distinct characteristics . for more precision , the scientific name is often followed by the name of the person who first assigned the name and description . for example , the desert tortoise may be referred to as xerobates agassizii cooper . if the scientific name has undergone changes since the original description , then the describer ' s name is placed in parenthesis . for example , if the desert tortoise is in the genus gopherus then the name becomes gopherus agassizii ( cooper ) because cooper designated it as xerobates in his original description .\ngopherus morafkai occurs in upland habitats in the sonoran desert scrub ( brown et al . 1979 ) with rocky outcrops and palo verde - saguaro cactus communities and ecotonal desert grasslands ( van devender 2002 ) . within these habitats , gopherus morafkai is generally found along rocky slopes , or bajadas , of desert mountain ranges , with breeding populations occurring as high as 1 , 420 m elevation and individual observation records occurring to 2 , 380 m ( flesch et al . 2010 ) . the species typically occupies excavated or eroded burrows underneath rocks or boulders . consequently , geology and resultant burrow availability among mountain ranges is an important determinant in regulating population density ( averill - murray et al . 2002a , b ) . low density populations of gopherus morafkai also occur along alluvial fans and in intermountain valleys , where individuals utilize desert washes and associated caliche caves as shelter sites ( riedle et al . 2008 ; grandmaison et al . 2010 ) . these peripheral populations provide important genetic linkages between disjunct mountain ranges ( edwards 2003 ; edwards et al . 2004 ; averill - murray and averill - murray 2005 ) .\nsullivan , brian k . ; roy averill - murray , keith o . sullivan , justin r . sullivan , elizabeth a . sullivan , and j . daren riedle 2014 . winter activity of the sonoran desert tortoise ( gopherus morafkai ) in central arizona . chelonian conservation and biology jul 2014 , vol . 13 , no . 1 : 114 - 119 . - get paper here\nmack , jeremy s . ; kristin h . berry , david m . miller , and andrea s . carlson 2015 . factors affecting the thermal environment of agassiz ' s desert tortoise ( gopherus agassizii ) cover sites in the central mojave desert during periods of temperature extremes journal of herpetology sep 2015 , vol . 49 , no . 3 : 405 - 414 . - get paper here\ni ask because as soon as i announced having adopted a male gopherus , a guy i know through work connections posted on my facebook saying his family has a female\nif i ever wanted to breed them\n. i kinda wanted to slap the guy for suggesting it , what with so many existing gopherus in ca needing homes and the fact that captive hatchlings can ' t be returned to the wild . i want to say the adoption cttc adoption agent who helped us told me breeding them is illegal , but now i can ' t recall exactly . i already told the\nmatch maker\nno thanks , but i wondered if breeding them is frowned upon if i should tell him so he isn ' t throwing that offer around to anyone else and creating more homeless tortoises .\nrepresentation of gene ontology terms for biological processes shared by genes with pairwise ka / ks > 1 in comparisons of gopherus agassizii to ( a ) chrysemys picta bellii and ( b ) chelonia mydas . treemap boxes are both sized and colored by uniqueness . abbreviations in ( a ) : rb , receptor biosynthesis , lcfacb , long chain fatty acyl - coa biosynthesis , mtmd , membrane to membrane docking .\nedwards , taylor ; mercy vaughn , philip c . rosen , cristina mel\u00e9ndez torres , alice e . karl , melanie culver and robert w . murphy 2016 . shaping species with ephemeral boundaries : the distribution and genetic structure of desert tortoise ( gopherus morafkai ) in the sonoran desert region . journal of biogeography43 ( 3 ) : 484\u2013497 , doi : 10 . 1111 / jbi . 12664 - get paper here\nmurphy , robert w . ; kristin h . berry , taylor edwards , alan e . leviton , amy lathrop , j . daren riedle 2011 . the dazed and confused identity of agassiz\u2019s land tortoise , gopherus agassizii ( testudines , testudinidae ) with the description of a new species , and its consequences for conservation . zookeys 113 : 39\u201371 ; doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 113 . 1353 - get paper here\nusing the alignment of murphy et al . ( 2007 ) , primers were designed for a 423 bp fragment that was diagnostic for haplotypes of gopherus agassizii . the forward primer gocytl ( 5\u2019 - caattcgattcttcctagtagc - 3\u2019 ) was located in the nadh3 gene and reverse primer gocyth ( 5\u2019 - ggctgagaaggatagtattagtattgg - 3\u2019 ) located on nd4 . attempts to amplify the holotype sample of gopherus lepidocephalus ( byu 39706 ) failed after numerous attempts using these two primers . because dna exposed to formalin is prone to degradation and fragmentation ( bucklin and allen 2004 ) , several internal primers were designed and used in various combinations until amplification was successful . eventually we amplified a 225 bp fragment using the original gocytl forward primer and a new internal reverse primer ( lepidond3h3 : 5\u2019 - ttggtgtcattttgatagccgtgaag - 3\u2019 ) that straddles the trnaarg and nd4l genes ; one bp was not confidently resolved .\na new species of desert tortoise has been discovered and described by a conservation geneticist with the university of arizona . the turtle , called the goode ' s thornscrub tortoise ( gopherus evgoodei ) was discovered in sinaloa , mexico , in thorn scrub and tropical deciduous forests . it is only found in these areas , according to ua geneticist taylor edwards and because of this , it has the smallest range of the three other known desert tortoises .\nottley and vel\u00e1zques solis ( 1989 ) described a new species , xerobates lepidocephalus , from the cape region of baja california sur , mexico . ecologically , the species occurs on sloped or hillside areas and it is not reported to live in burrows . this habitat choice closely resembles that of tortoises living in the sonoran desert , specifically those tortoises occurring east and south of the colorado river . these tortoises , called sonoran desert tortoises ( van devender 2002 ) , differ substantially from tortoises in the mojave desert . in general , sonoran tortoises live in rock crevices on steep slopes and hill tops ( riedle et al . 2008 ) and mojave desert tortoises live in burrows in valleys and on alluvial fans ( berry et al . 2002 ) . morphologically , gopherus lepidocephalus is most similar to tortoises on tiburon island off the coast of sonora , mexico and the species was considered to be a junior synonym of gopherus agassizii by crumly and grismer ( 1994 ) ."]}
{"id": 1736, "summary": [{"text": "the pygmy hippopotamus ( choeropsis liberiensis or hexaprotodon liberiensis ) is a small hippopotamid which is native to the forests and swamps of west africa , primarily in liberia , with small populations in sierra leone , guinea , and ivory coast .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the pygmy hippo is reclusive and nocturnal .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it is one of only two extant species in the family hippopotamidae , the other being its much larger relative , the common hippopotamus ( hippopotamus amphibius ) .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the pygmy hippopotamus displays many terrestrial adaptations , but like the hippo , it is semiaquatic and relies on water to keep its skin moist and its body temperature cool .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "behaviors such as mating and giving birth may occur in water or on land .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the pygmy hippo is herbivorous , feeding on ferns , broad-leaved plants , grasses , and fruits it finds in the forests .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "a rare nocturnal forest creature , the pygmy hippopotamus is a difficult animal to study in the wild .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "pygmy hippos were unknown outside west africa until the 19th century .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "introduced to zoos in the early 20th century , they breed well in captivity and the vast majority of research is derived from zoo specimens .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the survival of the species in captivity is more assured than in the wild ; the world conservation union estimates that fewer than 3,000 pygmy hippos remain in the wild .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "pygmy hippos are primarily threatened by loss of habitat , as forests are logged and converted to farm land , and are also vulnerable to poaching , hunting for bushmeat , natural predators , and war .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "pygmy hippos are among the species illegally hunted for food in liberia . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "pygmy hippopotamus", "paragraphs": ["pygmy hippopotamus | pygmy hippopotamus classification and evolution the pygmy hippopotamus . . . | hip hippos | pinterest | hippopotamus and animal\nsubject pygmy hippopotamus . pygmy hippopotamus > research . pygmy hippopotamus > conservation . rare mammals > africa , west .\ncommon hippopotamus , river hippopotamus , or nile hippopotamus ; in afrikaan : seekoei ( sea cow ) .\nthe pygmy hippopotamus is one of only two extant hippopotamus species in the world . here are a few facts about the lesser known pygmy hippopotamus , the cousin of a much larger common hippopotamus .\nimage caption : pygmy hippo / pygmy hippopotamus . credit : tomasz sienicki / wikipedia ( cc by 2 . 5 )\nleidy , 1991 . pygmy hippopotamus . pp . 1350 - 1351 in r nowak , ed .\nmillburn , naomi .\nfacts on the pygmy hippopotamus\naccessed july 09 , 2018 . urltoken\nmillburn , naomi .\nfacts on the pygmy hippopotamus .\nanimals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / pygmy - hippopotamus - 2204 . html . accessed 09 july 2018 .\nmillburn , naomi . ( n . d . ) . facts on the pygmy hippopotamus . animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / pygmy - hippopotamus - 2204 . html\nwhen it was decided to separate the dwarfed cypriote hippopotamus from the genus hippopotamus , the word phanourios was chosen as the new genus after the saint whose name is frequently connected with cypriote hippopotamus fossils .\nthe cerebral cortex of the pygmy hippopotamus , hexaprotodon liberiensis ( cetartiodactyla , hippopotamidae ) : mri , cytoarchitecture , and neuronal morphology .\nalthough they superficially look like the well - known common hippopotamus ( hippopotamus amphibius ) , pygmy hippos ( choeropsis liberiensis ) differ in ecology , behavior , and most conspicuously , body size . the common hippopotamus can reach upwards of 3 , 000 kg , whereas the diminutive pygmy hippopotamus rarely tops 300 kg . the hippos are so distinct that the species are two different genera . while common hippos congregate in large social groups , the pygmy hippopotamus is rare , solitary and nocturnal ; traits that make direct observation nearly impossible and survey methods more complex .\nsource / reference article learn how you can use or cite the pygmy hippopotamus article in your website content , school work and other projects .\nthe bone he believed to be a human long bone , which he pictures , is in fact a humerus of the cypriote pygmy hippopotamus .\nfor further information about this species , see 10103 _ hippopotamus _ amphibius . pdf .\nhippopotamus es are also found in the upper and lower stretches of the zambezi . \u2026\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - pygmy hippopotamus ( choeropsis liberiensis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - pygmy hippopotamus ( choeropsis liberiensis )\ntitle =\narkive species - pygmy hippopotamus ( choeropsis liberiensis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe cerebral cortex of the pygmy hippopotamus , hexaprotodon liberiensis ( cetartiodactyla , hippopotamidae ) : mri , cytoarchitecture , and neuronal morp . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nthe pygmy hippopotamus shares the barrel - shaped body form of the closely related common hippopotamus ( hippopotamus amphibius ) , but is considerably smaller . other physical differences between the two hippopotamus species include the placing of the eyes , which are more towards the side of the head in the pygmy hippopotamus , feet that are not as webbed as in the common hippopotamus ( 2 ) , and the pygmy ' s sloping smooth , greenish - black back ( 7 ) . the sexes are similar in appearance ; as males do not have a scrotum , males and females are very difficult to tell apart ( 7 ) . the name hippopotamus derives from the greek for ' river horse ' ( 2 ) . genetic studies have revealed that hippopotami share a common ancestor with whales ( 2 ) , while recent fossil evidence alludes to a close relationship between whales and all ungulates ( 7 ) .\nthere were many species of smaller hippos that once inhabited the mediterranean , but these are now extinct . among these species are the sicilian hippopotamus , the maltese hippopotamus , the cretan dwarf hippopotamus , and the cyprus dwarf hippopotamus . these species are considered to be dwarf hippos , because they were larger than pygmy hippos but smaller than hippopotamuses . it is thought that their small size occurred due to living on islands , a frequent occurrence among island dwelling animals .\nthe pygmy hippopotamus is found in western africa , mainly in liberia but also in sierra leone , guinea , and the ivory coast ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .\nthe pygmy hippopotamus is a herbivorous species . its diet consists of various vegetation including succulents , tender shoots , leaves , roots , grasses , aquatic plants and fallen fruit .\nthe hippopotamus can be found in all kinds of ancient african folklore with its name in greek actually meaning\nwater horse\n. despite this fascination with the hippopotamus , hunting of them for their meat and\nthe pygmy hippopotamus , or pygmy hippo , choeropsis liberiensis , is an endangered mammal of high conservation concern endemic to the threatened upper guinea forest hotspot of west africa . zsl is working in the field and in our zoos to protect the remaining populations .\ni arrived that rainy night on tiwai island armed with 20 remote - sensing camera traps to capture pygmy hippos in digital pictures . i was also exploring methods to safely capture a pygmy hippopotamus and attach a radio tracking device . since locally pygmy hippos are known to be delicious and they routinely destroy farmer\u2019s crops ( see video below ) , i also created questionnaires to learn about local knowledge of pygmy hippos and conservation perceptions .\nmueller , jennifer .\nhow are endangered hippopotamus being protected in africa ?\naccessed july 09 , 2018 . urltoken\nthe hippopotamus has an enormous grey barrel - shaped body that can measure up to five meters in length and weigh more than four tonnes , and which is held up by short and stocky legs . one of the hippopotamus ' s most\nat first glance , the pygmy hippopotamus looks like a mini version of its larger relative , the hippopotamus ( also known as the river or common hippopotamus ) . but it differs in behavior and physical characteristics . the pygmy hippo has adaptations for spending time in the water but is much less aquatic than the hippo . its nose and ears close underwater just like a hippo ' s do , but its head is rounder and narrower , its neck is proportionally longer , and its eyes are not on the top of its head .\nfor example , the african pygmy hippopotamus and the south american capybara are both semiaquatic residents of swampy tropical forest habitats . although they belong to entirely separate orders , they have converged upon comparable sizes . furthermore , they have done so from opposite ends of their normal size ranges\u2014the african pygmy hippo\u2026\nof the two species of hippopotamus , only one , the pygmy hippopotamus ( choeropsis liberiensis ) is classified as endangered . a pygmy hippo looks much like the better - known common hippo , but smaller , with eyes on the side of a more rounded head . although little is known about this nocturnal species , a 1993 international union for conservation of nature study , the most recent of its kind , estimated between 2 , 000 and 3 , 000 individuals live in the west african countries of liberia , sierra leone , guinea and the ivory coast . conservation biologists consider a nigerian pygmy hippopotamus subspecies to be extinct .\na common or river hippo weighs about 10 times as much as a pygmy hippo .\nand consumes a wide range a plants and plant material throughout the forest . the pygmy\nmueller , jennifer .\nhow are endangered hippopotamus being protected in africa ?\nanimals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / endangered - hippopotamus - being - protected - africa - 7405 . html . accessed 09 july 2018 .\nwhich can weigh up to 3kg each . due to the way that the skin of the hippopotamus is made up , the\nthe pygmy hippo is classified in the genus choeropsis that means , \u201cresembling a hog\u201d . it is thought that the malagasy pygmy hippopotamus , which is now among the three extinct species that inhabited madagascar , was a sister species to the pygmy hippo , deriving from the same ancestor . samuel g . morton once classified the pygmy hippo as hippopotamus minor , but studies showed that it was unique enough to hold its own genus , choeropsis . coryndon suggested that the pygmy hippo was a close relative of prehistoric hippos that were native to asia , called hexaprotodon . after coryndon made this assumption in 1977 , it was majorly accepted until 2005 , when boisserie claimed that it was too distinct from hexaprotodon , and so the pygmy hippo was re - classified into its genus choeropsis .\nthe pygmy hippopotamus ( choeropsis liberiensis ) is a herbivorous creature that exists predominantly in western africa ' s liberia , although to a much lesser degree in nearby nations such as nigeria , ivory coast , guinea and sierra leone . the moderate - sized animals are considered to be significantly more timid than their larger counterparts , the common hippopotamus .\nmueller , jennifer . ( n . d . ) . how are endangered hippopotamus being protected in africa ? animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / endangered - hippopotamus - being - protected - africa - 7405 . html\nbecause the pygmy hippo is smaller than the common hippopotamus , its bones are thinner , which give it a better level of gracefulness . the pygmy hippo\u2019s spine differs from that of the hippopotamus , curving forward at a sloping angel , and it is thought that this aids its movement through dense vegetation . the pygmy hippo spends less time in the water than its larger relative , and so its nostrils and eye sockets are less adapted to keeping water out . the toes are also adapted for moving through forest vegetation , bearing toes that are more spread out and with less webbing than the toes of the common hippopotamus . despite these adaptations that aid on land , the pygmy hippo is the most aquatic of all even - toed ungulates .\nthe rare pygmy hippopotamus ( hexaprotodon liberiensis , also known as choeropsis liberiensis ) , the other living species of the family hippopotamidae , is about the size of a domestic pig . the pygmy hippo is less aquatic than its larger relative , although , when pursued , it hides in water . less gregarious , it\u2026\n. when startled , pygmy hippos flee a short distance into vegetation , where they hide .\noil pollution in estuaries by the sea further threaten pygmy hippo populations . ( oliver 1993 )\n. despite its appearance , the hippopotamus is actually thought to be most closely related to whales as the two are thought to have had a common ancestor that existed roughly 54 million years ago . also known as the common hippopotamus , it is one of two hippo\nthe pygmy hippopotamus , choeropsis liberiensis is a shy inhabitant of the upper guinea forest ecosystem of liberia , sierra leone , guinea and c\u00f4te d\u2019ivoire . with only about 2000 - 3000 individuals remaining , the pygmy hippo is classified as endangered on the 2010 iucn red list , as well as being an evolutionarily distinct species .\na hippopotamus . photograph by william & marcia levy . the national audubon society collection / photo researchers , inc . reproduced by permission .\nsource / reference article learn how you can use or cite the hippopotamus article in your website content , school work and other projects .\ncomments : first described as hippopotamus minor morton , 1844 ( proc . acad . nat . sci . phila . , 2 : 14 )\nthe biggest threat to the pygmy hippopotamus ' continued survival is loss of habitat due to logging and deforestation to clear the way for agricultural development and human settlements . because of this , the species ' largest populations are found on protected nature preserves . a large population lives in the sapo national park in liberia , the country ' s only national preserve . the park ' s 509 square miles are the most effectively protected pygmy hippopotamus habitat according to the iucn . pygmy hippo populations also live in tai national park in the ivory coast and the gola forest reserve in sierra leone .\ntire mogul harvey firestone , who owned a rubber plantation in liberia , gave president calvin coolidge a pygmy hippo named billy . billy is an ancestor of almost all pygmy hippos living in american zoos .\nhippopotamus madagascariensis retains low orbits and a relatively short muzzle . stuenes ( 1989 ) used these features to propose a more terrestrial way of life for this species than in hippopotamus amphibius . similarly , stuenes ( 1989 ) indicated a cranio - mandibular morphology closer to that of choeropsis liberiensis , the extant pigmy hippo from western africa . she further noted that hippopotamus madagascariensis exhibited teeth generally more worn than in hippopotamus lemerlei . these characters both suggest a diet differing from that of the other madagascan dwarf hippopotamid . the ecology of hippopotamus madagascariensis may have been close to that of mediterranean extinct dwarf hippopotamids , but further investigation of this question is required , notably on postcranial anatomy , stable isotope enamel / bone contents , and dental wear .\n, they have a number of adaptations that aid them when in the dense forest . although the pygmy\npygmy hippos are classified as endangered by the iucn and are on appendix ii of cites . threats to\nthe hippopotamus spends up to 18 hours a day in the water to keep cool but when darkness falls , they venture out onto land and follow well - trodden paths to their feeding grounds , before returning to the water in the morning . the hippopotamus is one of the largest and most feared\nwe soon began our first pit trap attempts to capture a pygmy hippopotamus . if the pit traps were successful in catching a pygmy hippopotamus , we would bring a wildlife veterinarian to sierra leone to help us anesthetize a hippo . when the hippo was asleep , we would place a radio collar to track the hippo\u2019s movements through the forest . we were interested in learning more about hippo habitat to identify what pygmy hippos need to survive . using local hunter knowledge and maybe a little bit of \u201cjuju\u201d , we dug several holes and covered them with rattan mats and debris . then it was time to wait .\nthe pygmy hippopotamus , hexaprotodon liberiensis , is a solitary and nocturnal species belonging to the hippopotamidae family . these semi - aquatic creatures are herbivores in nature , and are believed to be more timid and calm than their larger cousins . the pygmy hippopotamus is native to west africa , predominantly to liberia , however , some of them are also found in guinea , sierra leone , and ivory coast . interestingly , this creature was not known until the middle of the 19th century . in 1844 , dr . samuel morton of the academy of natural sciences , philadelphia described it scientifically for the first time , on the basis of the skulls that he had found when he was living in monrovia , the capital of liberia . he found that this species of hippopotamus was much smaller than the common hippopotamus , and so he named it as hippopotamus minor . however , in 1849 , with more research conducted on the species and its distinctive characteristics recognized , it was renamed as choeropsis liberiensis . more researches were carried out on the pygmy hippo , and in 1977 , it was found that it bore some striking similarities with the extinct species of the hexaprotodon , some fossils of which have been discovered . owing to this , it is now renamed as hexaprotodon liberiensis . we , at buzzle , have collected some facts about the pygmy hippopotamus .\nand even rest in burrows in the vegetation on river banks . unlike its larger cousin though , the pygmy\ngives birth to a single calf either in a den in the dense vegetation or in the water . pygmy\nforests within the pygmy hippo\u2019s historical range have been steadily logged , farmed and settled . human development activities have caused the retreat of pygmy hippo into diminishing parcels of forest , which are becoming increasingly fragmented and insular .\nspecific ecosystem roles of pygmy hippos are unknown but their herbivorous diet probably has an effect on plant populations .\nlang , e . 1990 . pygmy hippoptamuses . pp . 58 - 64 in b grzimek , ed .\nzsl london zoo ' s two pygmy hippos , thug and nicky , have a plush pad to enjoy .\ndeforestation is the main threat facing the pygmy hippopotamus ( 2 ) . hunting is also known to occur , but the extent of this has not been determined ( 2 ) . the subspecies c . l . heslopi in nigeria may already be extinct ( 2 ) .\npygmy hippos use scent marking with their feces to alert other hippos to their presence . like other mammals , they may use scent cues to advertise reproductive status as well . pygmy hippos are typically silent , but do make snorts , grunts , hisses , and squeaks occasionally . otherwise , little is known about how pygmy hippos communicate .\nedinburgh zoo currently has two pygmy hippos : an adult male , called otto and an adult female called gloria .\npygmy hippos often spend time resting and feeding on land . their behavior in the wild is still largely unknown .\nas of 2004 , 290 captive - born pygmy hippos in 135 zoos . ( hlavacek et al . 2005 )\nsolitary pygmy hippos in captivity may experience undue stress when pairs of females or male / female pairs housed together .\nin 2007 zsl\u2019s edge of existence programme recognised pygmy hippos as a priority for conservation . since then , zsl has been working in liberia and sierra leone , trying to work towards protecting what remains of the wild pygmy hippo population .\n, but also from hunting . the hippopotamus has been hunted by people for both its meat and its teeth which are made of ivory . since the ban on trading\nthe pygmy hippopotamus , or pygmy hippo , was discovered only recently - in the mid 1800s . a shy and solitary animal , it lives in swamps and forests . it is smaller than the common hippo but not an exact copy . for its size the pygmy hippo has longer legs , a smaller head and narrower mouth . hiding in dense forests it eats leaves , herbs , fallen fruits and grasses . to reach higher branches it stands on its hind legs and leans on the tree with its front legs .\nlang , e . m . , k . hentschel , and w . bulow . 1990 . pygmy hippopotamuses ( genus\npygmy hippo distribution . adapted from urltoken according to iucn fact sheet . click here or on map for detailed inset .\nit was thought that both the pygmy hippopotamus and its larger relative , the common hippopotamus , were most closely related to hogs or pigs in the suidae family , or peccaries . due to research done in the past ten years , it is now commonly thought that hippos are more closely related to dolphins or whales . it is thought that hippos originated from africa , and although they moved through europe and asia , no native specimens have been found in the americas .\nnow that we knew the traps could successfully and safely capture a pygmy hippopotamus , my major professor , dr . john carroll and a wildlife veterinarian , dr . michele miller , flew to sierra leone to help me capture and radio - collar a pygmy hippopotamus . my advisor , dr . sonia hernandez , would coordinate everything from the united . i added 2 more field assistants ( alusine and lahai ) who could read and write to help . unfortunately we did not successfully capture a hippo during this time , although we had several near - captures ( the pygmy hippos fell halfway in but were able to escape ) . we hope to travel for another attempt later this year if we can raise the funds .\n. the pygmy hippo is less aquatic than its larger relative , although , when pursued , it hides in water . less\nof the hippopotamus , particularly of the young or sick individuals . it is because of this that females are thought to congregate in herds as larger numbers are more intimidating to hungry\nthe international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has included the pygmy hippopotamus in their list of endangered species . according to the iucn estimates , there are less than 3 , 000 pygmy hippos surviving in the wild today . loss of habitat , due to the shrinking of forests , is one of the major causes of concern with respect to the endangerment of these animals . moreover , they are hunted on a largely for bush meat , which is considered to be of a very superior quality . pygmy hippopotamus is also likely to fall prey to animals such as crocodiles , pythons , and leopards , which further dwindles their population . however , fortunately enough , their population has been increasing in captivity since the past few years .\n, the hippopotamus only eats around 40kg of food a night as it uses very little energy whilst floating in the water for most of the day . in areas that are close to\nto find food , they are seen as pests by farmers who not only fear for their livelihood , but also for their lives themselves . the hippopotamus is known to be an aggressive\nthe island sweepstakes why did pygmy elephants , dwarf deer , and large mice once populate the mediterranean ? by paul y . sondaar\nincluding four webbed toes on each foot that help with swimming and walking on slippery banks , and the eyes , ears and nostrils of the hippopotamus are situated on the top of its head . this means that when the hippopotamus ' s body is immersed in the water , they are still able to see , hear and breath whilst keeping cool in the hot sun .\n\u27a6 the average age of maturity of a pygmy hippopotamus lies between three to five years . \u27a6 not much is known about their breeding behavior in the wild . however , a considerable number of studies have been conducted on the ones in captivity . \u27a6 in captivity , pygmy hippos mate as monogamous pairs , one to four times during an estrous period . also , they mate during any time of the year . \u27a6 the gestation period ranges anywhere between 190 to 210 days , and generally , a single calf is born . there have been some rare instances of twins as well . \u27a6 the pygmy hippopotamus can mate and give birth , both in water and on land , unlike their greater cousins , who mate only in water . \u27a6 the young pygmy hippos usually wean by the age of six to eight months , only after which they accompany their mother for foraging into the forest .\nthe pygmy hippopotamus resembles its large relative closely , with short legs and a stout body , however , this species is about half as small as its cousin is . the pygmy hippo reaches an average body length of 5 . 8 feet , a height of 2 . 6 feet at the shoulders , and an average weight between four hundred and six hundred pounds . its skin can be green - black in color , or brown , with a light creamy colored underbelly . like the large hippopotamus , the pygmy hippo secretes a pinkish colored substance , known as \u201cblood - sweat\u201d , although it is neither sweat nor blood . it is thought that this secretion holds a mixture of sun screening and antiseptic properties . this aids the hippos in keeping their dry skin moist .\nthug and nicky will be joining up with the other animals in into africa . just like the giraffes , okapi , and warthogs , pygmy hippos hail from africa . in fact , pygmy hippos are very rare animals and can only be found in west africa .\nand forages in the forest at night for a wide variety of plant matter and fallen fruits . like their larger cousin , the pygmy\npygmy hippos are distributed across west africa , more specifically , in sierra leone , guinea , c\u00f4te d ' ivoire , and liberia .\nsome zoologists replace the genus hexaprotodon with choeropsis . more pig - like than its larger relative , the pygmy hippo ' s scientific status has been quite varied - when it was first described , many dismissed it as a stunted freak , a dwarf subspecies or a juvenile specimen of the common hippopotamus . after its initial description , when no more news of the pygmy hippo reached the west , many scientists wrote it off - whatever it was - as extinct . however , its true status - as a distinct and existent species - was proven by schomburgk in 1911 , when he captured five live specimens and brought them back to europe . the name hippopotamus is from hippos ( greek ) a horse , and potamos ( greek ) a river - although\nriver - pig\nwould be much more appropriate ! while this ungulate is large in comparison to most others , it gets its name ' pygmy ' from the fact that it is much smaller than the river hippopotamus . .\nin captivity , the populations of pygmy hippos are increasing , causing the survival of the species in in zoos to be higher than the chances of wild pygmy hippos surviving . the number of births in zoos doubled between the years of 1970 and 1991 , but only nineteen percent of births in captivity since 1919 have been males . the zoo basel , located in switzerland , oversees the breeding of pygmy hippos around the world , holding the international studbook of breeding males . there are some wild populations that can be found in protected areas , and the species was listed as a \u201cfocal species\u201d by the evolutionarily distinct and globally endangered ( edge ) project in 2007 . the pygmy hippopotamus appears on the iucn red list with a conservation status of \u201cendangered\u201d .\npart i . discovery , history and capture . what is a pygmy hippopotamus ? the small details that define them / gabriella l . flacke ; hippos in popular culture and folklore / gabriella l . flacke ; looking for enigmas in the fores : a chronicle of travelers , trappers , and researchers / phillip t . robinson ; the use and abuse of hippos in nature : no peace treaty in sight / phillip t . robinson ; heslop ' s pygmy hippopotamus : the nigerian extinction / phillip t . robinson ; hans schomburgk : hunter , trapper , bush bicyclist / phillip t . robinson ; frans van den brink : the master hippo catcher / phillip t . robinson\nat the san diego zoo , our pygmy hippos are fed a super high - fiber pellet , a bit of hay , and greens .\ntwo hippo species are found in africa . the large hippo , found in east africa , occurs south of the sahara . the other , much smaller ( 440 to 605 pounds ) species of hippo is the pygmy hippopotamus . limited to very restricted ranges in west africa , it is a shy , solitary forest dweller and is now rare .\nbilly , a pygmy hippo , the common ancestor of most pygmy hippos in u . s . zoos , was presented to the u . s . president calvin coolidge by an american businessman in 1927 . it was then donated to the national zoo , washington , d . c .\nthat are becoming more and more isolated . although hippopotamus populations are considered stable in a number of countries in the south and the east of the continent , they are declining in many others and are particularly\nthe pygmy hippopotamus ( choeropsis liberiensis or hexaprotodon liberiensis ) , also known as the pygmy hippo , is native to western areas of africa . its range includes liberia , with smaller populations occurring in ivory coast , sierra leone , and guinea . it prefers a habitat in swamps and forests , where a body of water is available to keep its skin moisturized . it is a semi - aquatic creature , and can perform tasks such as breeding or giving birth in the water or on land .\nhas a long barrel - shaped body that is covered in slate - grey skin , which lightens towards the underside . the head of the pygmy\nand along with its narrower mouth , makes it easier for them to run through the forest at speed . due to the fact that the pygmy\nsuch as pythons , that are able easily ambush the unprotected young calf whilst its mother is out foraging . the biggest threat to the remaining pygmy\nat taronga zoo we currently have two pygmy hippos , a male named fergus and a female named kambiri ( dob : 26 june 2010 ) .\nwant to know the key differences between pygmy hippos and their large cousins ? here are some ways to sort between your common hippos and pygmys .\nit is estimated that there could be less that 2000 pygmy hippos left in the wild , with a nigerian subspecies already believed to be extinct . in the wild , pygmy hippos come under threat from hunting and habitat loss . many populations of hippos have become fragmented due to logging , mining , farming and other human activity . as pygmy hippos are forced to engage with local communities , they come under more and more danger from extinction .\npart iii . biology and natural history . the flora and fauna of pygmy hippo country : meet the neighbors / gabriella l . flacke ; pygmy hippo feeding behavior and nutrition / knut m . hentschel ; the pygmy hippo hunters : our guides in the forest / phillip t . robinson ; common ground for hippos in west africa : their overlapping occurrence in nature / phillip t . robinson ; sly , shy or focused ? the origins of elusiveness / phillip t . robinson ; husbandry , health , and pathology of pygmy hippos : optimizing well - being in captivity / gabriella l . flacke .\nzsl has pioneered in situ conservation of pygmy hippos in liberia since 2008 , in collaboration with fauna and flora international ( ffi ) and liberia\u2019s forestry development authority ( fda ) . because the pygmy hippo is so poorly known , we have carried out surveys of where they exist and threats to their populations , using methods such as camera trapping . in 2008 zsl and our partners obtained the first photos of pygmy hippos in the country . in november 2010 , zsl held the first \u2018international pygmy hippo conservation strategy planning workshop\u2019 in liberia and produced a regional conservation strategy under the umbrella of the iucn ssc hippo specialist group . the strategy articulated the vision , goal , objectives and actions required for in situ conservation of pygmy hippos . also in 2010 zsl began working with a team from njala university in sierra leone to research and protect a population of pygmy hippos around loma mountain in northern sierra leone .\nbirth weight : common hippo 25 - 55 kg ( 55 - 121 lb ) ; pygmy hippos 5 . 73 kg ( 12 . 7 lb )\n\u27a6 the pygmy hippopotamus is found mainly in the forests and swamps of west africa . \u27a6 though the creature is adapted to terrestrial life in many ways , its semi - aquatic characteristics requires it to dwell in the vicinity of water bodies , to help moisten its skin and maintain proper level of its body temperature . owing to this , it makes its burrow close to a freshwater body . \u27a6 it is interesting to note that the range of habitat of the pygmy hippo , in spite of being so closely related to the common hippo , does not overlap with it . the common hippo is usually found in grasslands , whereas the pygmy hippo is an inhabitant of the forests .\nthe pygmy hippo ' s feet are less webbed and its toes more free than those of the hippo , and its legs are longer than its huge cousin ' s . the pygmy hippo ' s teeth are also different : it only has one pair of incisors , while the hippo has two or three .\nhippos display tusk - like canines sharpened by wear against their upper teeth . to the front of a pygmy hippo jaw are a single pair of incisors .\norigin of name and closest relatives : the name hippopotamus comes from the greek word meaning \u2018river horse\u2019 , although hippos are not related to horses . hippos are actually related to cetaceans i . e . whales , dolphins and porpoises\npygmy hippos are different than common hippos in more ways than just their much smaller physiques . the birthing practices are also very different between the two creatures . while common hippos welcome their young to the world in the winter , pygmy hippos do so on land . the youngsters are capable of swimming immediately after birth .\nso far the response to our project has been excellent . residents are proud that their island is an important habitat for this rare animal , as demonstrated during the ambassador\u2019s visit , and they believe this project will help advertise tourism and research on tiwai island . when people view pygmy hippos and other wildlife as more than protein or pests , they are more willing to help in conservation efforts . our hope is that one day the pygmy hippo can be seen as the diamond of sierra leone . as kenewa once said \u201cwe shall never again eat pygmy hippo meat . we have tasted pygmy hippo benefits , and they are sweeter . \u201d\nthe pygmy hippopotamus usually lives in swamp and river settings that are in the midst of thick and damp tropical lowland forests . these nocturnal hippos often like to stay in burrows closely surrounding rivers . since they are semi - aquatic , it ' s important for them to never be far from water . h20 is vital for these hippos as it both cools their bodies and hydrates their skin .\nforages under the cover of night eating grasses , ferns , leaves , shrubs and fruits that have fallen onto the forest floor from the branches above . the pygmy\nthe pygmy hippo population is currently decreasing , being assessed as an endangered species by the iucn red list ( retrieved 23 . 02 . 16 from urltoken ) .\nin the field , zsl carries out vital research into pygmy hippo ecology , distribution and behaviour . we also work with local communities and government wildlife authorities to protect them . alongside this , zsl london zoo and whipsnade zoo are part of a captive breeding program and in 2010 produced the iucn ssc regional pygmy hippo conservation strategy .\nbaby pygmy hippos weigh between 9 . 9\u201313 . 7 pounds at birth , and are able to swim almost immediately after birth . instead of following the mother out of the water , the baby pygmy hippo will remain hidden in the water for safety as she forages for food . the baby will nurse up to three times a day and is weaned at six to eight months of age . the average age at which the pygmy hippo reaches sexual maturity is between three and five years of age .\na 1993 population estimate suggested that only 2000 - 3000 pygmy hippo individuals still existed , and their numbers are likely to have declined since then . they are classified as endangered on the 2010 iucn red list of threatened species . a distinct pygmy hippo subspecies ( c . liberiensis heslopi ) that once existed in nigeria has most probably gone extinct . these declines result from habitat loss and hunting . the fragmentation and destruction of the pygmy hippo ' s forest habitat due to logging , mining , agrobusiness expansion and farming activities have brought pygmy hippos into closer contact with humans and as a result they are at much greater risk of being hunted and disturbed by human activities .\nunlike the common hippopotamus , the pygmy hippo was not known outside of its range until the 19th century . in liberia , it was known as the water cow . early reports of this species described it as a wild hog . the first captured individual , from sierra leone , was taken to europe by a british colonial service member , but it did not live long after its arrival . it was not until 1911 that the pygmy hippo was successfully introduced into europe . some of these european individuals were shipped to germany and to the bronx zoo in new york after that .\nunlike many animals , pygmy hippos breed easily in captivity , and international captive breeding programs for the species have been successful . as of 2004 , the most recent count , 303 pygmy hippos lived in captivity , 209 of which were captive - born . this represented more than twice the number of captive - born pygmy hippos since 1970 . many of these were born from parents who also had been bred in captivity . captive breeding faces challenges because much of pygmy hippo behavior in the wild is unknown , causing some to die in captivity . for example , although wild individuals live in solitude , coming together only to mate , many captives are kept in pairs , causing hostility .\ninhabits areas of dense , lowland tropical forest and swampland , where it spends the majority of its time foraging for food and resting on land . despite the fact that pygmy\nresearchers can help generate more direct funds by providing employment for local residents , introducing capital directly into the local economy . in countries with few educational opportunities , any sharing of knowledge between researcher and resident is beneficial . field assistants often bring the scientific knowledge they learn during their employment to their families and friends . my field assistants became ambassadors for the pygmy hippopotamus , and helped to disseminate new findings to the communities .\nzsl ' s edge of existence programme identified pygmy hippos as a priority for conservation in 2007 , and since then , zsl have worked to conserve them in liberia\u2019s sapo national park and loma mountains in sierra leone . we carry out research to understand pygmy hippo ecology , distribution and behaviour and work with local communities and government wildlife authorities to protect them . zsl london zoo and whipsnade zoo also carry out captive breeding of these animals . zsl led the production of the iucn ssc regional pygmy hippo conservation strategy in 2010 .\nas a result of habitat loss , the pygmy hippopotamus population is dropping and the species is considered to be endangered by the iucn red list of threatened species as of 2008 . some of the causes for the habitat loss and ruination are pollution in their water environments , poaching , logging and human development within the forests that serve as their homes . hunting is also associated with the drop in population . according to bristol zoo , there may be fewer than 2 , 000 free - roaming pygmy hippopotamuses remaining . however , captive reproduction efforts are in full swing , including one in the united kingdom .\nwhen my peace corps tenure ended in 2007 , i returned to the university of georgia to obtain a doctorate in forest resources . at the end of my first year of classes , i received an email about an endangered , elusive creature - the pygmy hippopotamus . i was intrigued . there was a possibility for funding field research to study pygmy hippos on a river island in sierra leone . i searched the scientific literature , and did not find much information . with the help of my advisors , i wrote a proposal to conservation international , who agreed to fund me for my first field season .\ndedication foreword - david . p . mallon , manchester metropolitan university preface - phillip . t . robinson authors ' introduction - the authors i . discovery , history and capture 1 . what is a pygmy hippopotamus - gabriella l . flacke 2 . hippos in popular culture and folklore - gabriella l . flacke 3 . looking for enigmas in the forest - phillip t . robinson 4 . the use and abuse of hippos in nature - phillip t . robinson 5 . heslop ' s pygmy hippopotamus - phillip t . robinson 6 . hans schomburgk - hunter , trapper , bush bicyclist - phillip t . robinson 7 . frans van den brink - master hippo catcher - phillip t . robinson ii . working in pygmy hippo country phillip t . robinson 8 . arriving in west africa 9 . just getting there is most of the journey 10 . wrestling the town chief in pygmy hippo country 11 . journeys without destinations 12 . going bush in sierra leone 13 . traveling hammocks and piggyback rides 14 . a six to six walk 15 . small planes 16 . navigating pygmy hippo country co - authors and contributors 17 . pygmy hippo research on tiwai island - april l . conway 18 . living the dream - gabriella l . flacke 19 . pygmy hippo research in the ivory coast - knut m . hentschel 20 . the hippo hotel of ivory coast - waldemar b\u00fclow iii . biology and natural history 21 . the flora and fauna of pygmy hippo country - gabriella l . flacke 22 . the feeding behavior of pygmy hippos in the wild - knut m . hentschel 23 . the pygmy hippo hunters - phillip t . robinson 24 . common ground for hippos in west africa - phillip t . robinson 25 . sly , shy or focused ? the origins of elusiveness - phillip t . robinson 26 . husbandry , health and pathology of pygmy hippos - gabriella l . flacke iv . conservation during wartime 27 . staying alive during the war - phillip t . robinson 28 the disruptions and setbacks of civil war - phillip t . robinson and henk dop 29 . the shortcut from master sergeant to president - phillip t . robinson v . conservation and the future 30 . a very sad story of greed - knut m . hentschel 31 . conservation genetics and fragmented populations - gabriela l . flacke and phillip t . robinson 32 . distribution and population estimates - gabriella l . flacke 33 . conservation planning and priorities - gabriella l . flacke afterword - the authors image credits index\nformerly included in the genus hexaprotodon but a review of the taxonomy and phylogeny of the hippopotamids has restricted the definition of hexaprotodon to extinct indian and southeast asian hippos and revalidated choeropsis for the extant pygmy hippo ( boisserie 2005 ) . two subspecies are recognized . the nominate subspecies c . l . liberiensis occurs in c\u00f4te d\u2019ivoire , guinea , liberia and sierra leone . the subspecies c . l . heslopi ( heslop\u2019s pygmy hippopotamus ) is known only from the niger delta , nigeria . it was considered a distinct subspecies by corbet ( 1969 ) and coryndon ( 1977 ) , based on variations in cranial anatomy .\nthat lasts for around eight months , the female hippopotamus gives birth to a single calf generally during the rainy season . although like many other activities ( including mating ) the hippopotamus often gives birth in the water , it is not actually that uncommon for their young to be born on land . the female protects her calf fiercely and it rides on her back to keep it safe . hippopotamus calves are fully weaned by the time they are 18 months old but tend to remain with their mother until they are fully grown , often not leaving her until they are 7 or 8 years old . although young males will become more independent and find their own patch of bank to patrol , females will join a herd of other females and young but despite this seemingly sociable\npygmy hippos ( hexaprotodon liberiensis ) are native to west africa , with the largest population in liberia . they live in dense forests near rivers and streams . they are good swimmers and have muscular valves that close their ears and nostrils when submerged . as the name suggests , the pygmy hippo is far smaller than the common hippopotamus ( hippopotamus amphibiou s ) , and are either solitary or live in small family units . they have large and extremely sharp teeth , which they use for protection . hippopotami have extremely high rates of water loss ( three to five times the rate in man ) which is due to their unique skin structure ; this explains why they must spend the day in water . pygmy hippos are herbivores . they uproot swamp plants which they bite with their lips and crush hard fruit with their teeth and strip leaves from shrubs and trees . they also eat leaves and grasses . after a gestation period of around 6 months , the female hippo will give birth to a single calf . for the first few weeks , the calf is hidden in bushes as it cannot walk very far . pygmy hippo calves do not instinctively know how to swim \u2013 their mother teaches them how to do this . mothers defend their calf aggressively and they stay together for at least two years . pygmy hippos are facing very serious threats in the wild . populations are declining rapidly due to habitat destruction caused by logging , farming and human settlement . pressures from wars in the hippos\u2019 native range are another dire threat . sadly , pygmy hippos are also increasingly being threatened by bushmeat hunters .\nthere is much more to learn about the pygmy hippo ' s herbivorous diet . researchers believe that they most likely feed on leaves , roots , ferns , and fruits near rivers and streams . pygmy hippos search for food on the forest floor or in swamps but can stand on their hind legs to reach food higher up in trees if they need to .\ntthe pygmy hippopotamus ( choeropsis liberiensis ) is a unique and endangered species endemic to the upper guinea forests of west africa . sierra leone , one of four countries home to these animals , recently ended a decade - long war that left the country devastated . the iucn / scc pigs , peccaries , and hippos specialist group has set forth several objectives , including identification of populations at risk , establishment of distributions and abundance estimates , and dissemination of information ( eltringham 1993 ) . the recent pygmy hippo conservation strategy workshop in monrovia , liberia , pulled together stakeholders from across the range states to accumulate current knowledge of the status of pygmy hippos , and identified current threats , mainly habitat degradation and poaching . in sierra leone , the forests are rapidly shrinking and bush meat is a common source of protein .\nlittle is known about the behavior of pygmy hippos in the wild , but they are usually found by themselves or in pairs . with their cavernous mouth and formidable teeth and tusks , the hippos need only \u201cyawn\u201d at potential enemies to send them packing . other ways to stay safe include rearing , lunging , scooping water with the mouth , and head shaking . unlike their larger relative , pygmy hippos are shy and would prefer to flee rather than stay and fight . leopards seem to be the only natural predator able to successfully attack pygmy hippos .\nfollows well - trodden and marked paths between its feeding and resting grounds and can dart through these tunnels at a remarkable pace if it feels in danger . although pygmy hippopotamuses roam individual\nis hunted for both its teeth and its meat , which despite not being closely related , is said to taste like pork . people however , have also had devastating affects on pygmy\nof grasses are the main source of food for the hippopotamus that are found growing on plains relatively close to water . when they come onto land at night , hippo ' s may travel up to 5km during the night to get to their feeding grounds which they do by following paths that are marked with dung . oddly enough , the hippopotamus doesn ' t even use its large canines for eating at all but instead has strong lips that are used to clip the grasses and cheek teeth which then grind them up . despite its large"]}
{"id": 1740, "summary": [{"text": "cavariella konoi is a species of aphid in the family aphididae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is a small , soft-bodied insect growing to about 2.5 mm ( 0.1 in ) long .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the body is oval , pale yellowish green , sometimes with a pair of darker green , longitudinal bands .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "wingless females are found on the leaves of willow salix spp. during the summer where they reproduce parthogenetically and form large populations .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it also feeds on the perennial plant great angelica ( angelica atropurpurea ) .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "this species has a holarctic distribution . ", "topic": 21}], "title": "cavariella konoi", "paragraphs": ["html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nthis perennial wildflower is 3 - 8 ' tall , branching sparingly . the large hollow stems are pale purple to dark purple , terete , glabrous , and often glaucous . alternate compound leaves occur along the stems , primarily along the lower - half of each plant . the compound leaves are \u00bd - 2 ' long , \u00bd - 2 ' across , and widest at their bases . the structure of the compound leaves is bipinnate with 3 - 5 leaflets or subleaflets per division . the subleaflets are \u00be - 4\u00bd\nlong and \u00bd - 2\u00bd\nacross ; they are more or less ovate in shape and their margins are serrated . some subleaflets are shallowly to deeply cleft into lobes . the upper surface of the subleaflets is medium to dark green and glabrous , while the lower surface is pale or whitish green and glabrous . the subleaflets are either sessile or they have short petioles ; they often have winged extensions at their bases that join the branches of the rachis . the petioles are long , stout , and conspicuously sheathed at their bases ; both the petioles and their sheaths are green to light purple to dark purple , glabrous , and often glaucous .\nthe upper stems terminate in one or more compound umbels of flowers spanning 3 - 9\nacross ; they are globoid in shape . sometimes the peduncle of a compound umbel will branch and terminate in another compound umbel . each compound umbel has 15 - 40 rays ( floral branches ) that terminate in small umbellets . each umbellet has numerous greenish white to pale yellow flowers on pedicels about \u00bd\nin length . each flower is up to \u00bc\nacross , consisting of 5 petals with incurved tips , a light green calyx without significant lobes , 5 stamens , and a pistil with a divided style . the blooming period occurs from late spring to early summer and lasts about 3 weeks . afterwards , the flowers are replaced by dry seed - like fruits ( consisting of double achenes ) . the fruits are 5 - 8 mm . in length , oblongoid - ovoid in shape , and slightly flattened ; each side of the fruit has 3 longitudinal ridges . immature fruits are greenish yellow , turning brown at maturity . each achene has a pair of lateral wings along its main body ; it is convex and ridged on one side , while the other side is flat . the root system consists of a short stout taproot .\nthe preference is full or partial sun , consistently wet to moist conditions , and loamy or sandy soil with decaying organic matter . soil ph should be mildly acidic to alkaline . standing water is well - tolerated . individual plants can vary considerably in size depending on environmental conditions .\n) . habitats include openings in bottomland woodlands , swamps , soggy thickets , edges of woodlands adjoining wetlands , marshes , fens , and seeps , including the lower slopes of hillside seeps . this robust wildflower is typically found in calcareous habitats with a stable supply of moisture .\nthe flowers attract syrphid flies , bee flies , andrenid bees , and other small bees . these visitors are attracted primarily to the nectar of the flowers . a relatively small number of insects are known to feed on great angelica . these species include the aphids\na woodland border near a fen at the indiana dunes national lakeshore in nw indiana .\ngreat angelica can be distinguished from similar species in the carrot family by its large size , hollow purplish stems , and spherical compound umbels . sometimes an aromatic eurasia species ,\n( garden angelica ) , is cultivated in gardens . it differs from great angelica by its biennial habit and greenish stems . so far , there are no records of garden angelica naturalizing in illinois . a native perennial species ,\n( wood angelica ) , is found in southern illinois , where it occurs in dry rocky habitats . wood angelica has more narrow sheaths at the bases of its petioles than great angelica , and their are fine hairs on its fruits . another common name of\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\nthis work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - share alike 3 . 0 license\npesi is funded by the european union 7th framework programme within the research infrastructures programme . contract no . ri - 223806 . activity area : capacities . period 2008 - 2011 - website hosted & developed by vliz banner picture : gannet ( morus bassanus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) by karl van ginderdeuren - contact pesi\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nnote : the language you choose must correspond to the language of the term you have entered . for example , if you enter a french term , choose an option under \u201cfrench . \u201d\naccess a collection of canadian resources on all aspects of english and french , including quizzes .\na collection of writing tools that cover the many facets of english and french grammar , style and usage .\nbiokids is sponsored in part by the interagency education research initiative . it is a partnership of the university of michigan school of education , university of michigan museum of zoology , and the detroit public schools . this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation under grant drl - 0628151 . copyright \u00a9 2002 - 2018 , the regents of the university of michigan . all rights reserved .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice ."]}
{"id": 1745, "summary": [{"text": "cyanoramphus is a genus of parakeets native to new zealand and islands of the southern pacific ocean .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the new zealand forms are often referred to as k\u0101k\u0101riki .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "they are small to medium-sized parakeets with long tails and predominately green plumage .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "most species are forest species , although several of the subantarctic species live in open grassland .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the genus formerly had a disjunct distribution , with two species found in the society islands and the majority of the genus ranging from new caledonia to macquarie island , but absent from the 4100 km in between .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "despite many fossil birds being found in the islands between these two areas being found none of these were of undescribed cyanoramphus species .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "like many other species of birds the cyanoramphus parakeets have suffered from changes brought about by humans .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the two species from the society islands , the black-fronted parakeet and the society parakeet , have become extinct as have the subspecies from lord howe island and macquarie island , as well as an undescribed form from campbell island .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "one species , the malherbe 's parakeet ( c. malherbi ) , is critically endangered while most other species are endangered or vulnerable .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "habitat loss and introduced species are considered responsible for the declines and extinctions . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "cyanoramphus", "paragraphs": ["cyanoramphus novaezelandiae novaezelandiae : north i . , south i . , stewart i . and auckland is . ( new zealand )\nvoice : characteristic parakeet chatter , with variety of softer tur - tur - tur calls . calls are similar to other cyanoramphus species of similar size .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - antipodes island parakeet ( cyanoramphus unicolor )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - antipodes island parakeet ( cyanoramphus unicolor )\ntitle =\narkive species - antipodes island parakeet ( cyanoramphus unicolor )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - red - fronted parakeet ( cyanoramphus novaezelandiae )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - red - fronted parakeet ( cyanoramphus novaezelandiae )\ntitle =\narkive species - red - fronted parakeet ( cyanoramphus novaezelandiae )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\ntaylor , r . h . 1985 . status , habits and conservation of cyanoramphus parakeets in the new zealand region . icbp tech . publ . 3 : 195 - 211 .\nit has been treated variously ; either as a distinct species ( birdlife australia 2013 ; christidis & boles 2008 ; juniper & parr 1998 ; mcallan & bruce 1988 ; sibley & monroe 1990 ) or as cyanoramphus novaezelandiae cookii , a subspecies of the red - crowned parakeet ( cyanoramphus novaezelandiae ) ( christidis & boles 1994 ; del hoyo & collar 2014 ; higgins 1999 ; schodde & mason 1997 ) . a phylogenetic study reported a high degree of genetic divergence between it and other cyanoramphus , thus warranting its treatment as a distinct species ( boon et al . 2001 ) .\noritz - catedral , l . ( 2013 ) . the population and status of green parrot ( tasman parakeet ) cyanoramphus cookii on norfolk island . unpublished report to the director of national parks .\nit has been suggested that the lord howe island parakeet ( cyanoramphus novaezelandiae subflavescens ) be included with the norfolk island green parrot ( christidis & boles 2008 ) , however , further taxonomic investigation is required .\nwest , r . , tisdall , c . and aviss , m . ( 1995 ) captive management plan antipodes island parakeet ( cyanoramphus unicolor ) . threatened species occasional publication , 7 : 1 - 6 .\nmotte , k . & e . hall ( 1988 ) . report and recommendations on the green parrot cyanoramphus novaezealandiae cookii captive breeding program . report to the australian parks and wildlife service . sydney : taronga zoo .\nboon , w . m . , j . c . kearvell , c . h . daugherty , & g . k . chambers ( 2001 ) . molecular systematics and conservation of kakariki ( cyanoramphus spp . ) .\ngreene , t . c . ( 2003 ) breeding biology of red - crowned parakeets ( cyanoramphus novaezelandiae ) on little barrier island , hauraki gulf , new zealand . notornis , 50 ( 2 ) : 83 - 99 .\ncitation : department of the environment ( 2018 ) . cyanoramphus cookii in species profile and threats database , department of the environment , canberra . available from : urltoken . accessed tue , 10 jul 2018 06 : 01 : 36 + 1000 .\ngreene , t . c . 1999 . aspects of the ecology of antipodes island parakeet ( cyanoramphus unicolor ) and reischek\u2019s parakeet ( c . novaezelandiae hochstetteri ) on antipodes island , october - november 1995 . notornis 46 : 301 - 310 .\noritz - catedral , l . & d . h . brunton ( 2008 ) . clutch parameters and reproductive success of a translocated population of red - crowned parakeet ( cyanoramphus novaezelandiae ) . australian journal of zoology . 56 : 389 - 393 .\nlane , b . a . , m . r . bezuijen , d . greenwood , g . w . carr & r . ward ( 1998 ) . 1998 recovery plan for norfolk island parrot ( cyanoramphus novaezelandiae cookii ) . melbourne : ecology australia pty ltd .\nreischek\u2019s parakeets are more abundant than antipodes island parakeets in most habitats . significant differences in diet between the two parakeet species have been observed . strong seasonal and annual dietary differences related to food availability are also apparent . reischek\u2019s parakeets are strong fliers and have been observed flying between islands within the antipodes group . social behaviour is similar to other species of cyanoramphus parakeets , but they have been noted spending considerable periods basking and preening in sheltered areas . like other cyanoramphus species they are strongly territorial around nests , and call loudly and chase intruders from immediate vicinity .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : cyanoramphus malherbi . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nboon , w . m . ; kearvell , j . c . ; daugherty , c . h . ; chambers , g . k . 2000 . molecular systematics of new zealand cyanoramphus parakeets : conservation of orange - fronted and forbes ' parakeets . bird conservation international 10 : 211 - 239 .\nother synonyms catalan : cotorra front - roja czech : kakariki rudo\u010del\u00fd danish : gedeparakit german : ziegensittich english : red - crowned parakeet , red - fronted parakeet , red - fronted , macquarie or lord howe parakeet spanish : perico maor\u00ed cabecirrojo , perico maor\u00ed rojo estonian : suur - maooripapagoi finnish : uudenseelanninviherkaija french : perruche de sparrman , perruche de sparrman , p . de macquarie ou p . de lord howe hungarian : piroshomlok\u00fa kecskepapag\u00e1j italian : kakariki fronterossa , parrocchetto fronterossa japanese : aohashiinko japanese : \u30a2\u30aa\u30cf\u30b7\u30a4\u30f3\u30b3 latin : cyanoramphus [ novaezelandiae , erythrotis , subflavescens ] , cyanoramphus novaezelandiae , cyanoramphus novaezelandiae novaezelandiae , psittacus novae zelandiae lithuanian : raudonkakt\u0117 \u0161oklioji pap\u016bga maori : kakariki , ka - ka - riki dutch : roodvoorhoofdkakariki , roodvoorhoofdkarakiri norwegian : r\u00f8dkroneparakitt polish : modrolotka czerwonoczelna portuguese : kakariki - fronte - vermelha russian : \u043a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0437\u043e\u0431\u044b\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u044b\u0433\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043f\u0443\u0433\u0430\u0439 , \u043a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0431\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u044b\u0433\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u043f\u0443\u0433\u0430\u0439 slovak : kakariki cervenocel\u00fd , kakariki \u010derveno\u010del\u00fd swedish : r\u00f6dpannad parakit chinese : \u7ea2\u989d\u9e66\u9e49 chinese ( traditional ) : \u7d05\u984d\u9e1a\u9d61\nrelatively little is known about breeding for reischek\u2019s parakeets . they appear to nest from october to march within tunnels modified or constructed within the bases of clumps of tussocks or ferns . clutch size in the wild is unknown . it is likely that their breeding ecology and behavior are similar to those of other cyanoramphus parakeets .\nhill , r . ( 2002 ) . non - current recovery plan for the norfolk island green parrot cyanoramphus novaezelandiae cookii - may 2002 . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 13 - oct - 2003 . ceased to be in effect under the epbc act from 18 - aug - 2010 .\ntaylor , j . ( 2014 ) . archived 2014 discussion : red - fronted parakeet ( cyanoramphus novaezelandiae ) , norfolk island parakeet ( c . cookii ) and new caledonian parakeet ( c . saisseti ) are being lumped as c . novaezelandiae : list as near threatened ? . birdlife ' s globally threatened bird forums . birdlife international . available from : urltoken .\ncyanoramphus auriceps is found throughout much of the north , south , stewart and auckland islands , new zealand , and on several offshore islands . it is generally considered uncommon throughout its range ( heather and robertson 2015 ) , however , it may become abundant on offshore islands and in mainland forests during periods of heavy seed production ( elliott 2013 ) . the population is estimated as being in the tens of thousands ( elliott 2013 ) but trends are unclear ( higgins 1999 ) .\nalso known as the antipodes green parakeet , this parakeet is a plump bird with a green head and body , but with purplish - blue wing - coverts and some flight feathers ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the forehead and face are a bright emerald green , while the rest of the plumage is a more olive colour , being yellower below ( 4 ) . this bird is the largest of its genus ( 5 ) , and produces a wide range of chattering calls , lower - pitched than other cyanoramphus species ( 2 ) .\nreischek\u2019s parakeet is one of two cyanoramphus parakeet species that inhabit the remote antipodes islands . it is a medium - sized , brightly coloured , green parrot with a red crown , that looks very similar to other \u2018red - crowned\u2019 parakeets ( e . g . c . novaezelandiae ) . but appearances can be deceiving . genetic studies reveal that crown colour may not be a good indicator of parakeet taxonomy , and that the diminutive orange - fronted parakeet may be the closest relative of reischek\u2019s parakeet . it is common throughout the antipodes islands , particularly in more open areas and coastal fringes close to penguin colonies .\nwhile building and maintaining a resilient population on norfolk island is seen as the priority , to reduce the risk of a single event wiping out the species , it is planned to establish an insurance population of green parrots . phillip island is a small island six kilometres off the southern coast of norfolk island which is part of norfolk island national park and is free of introduced mammalian predators . an initial assessment of the island as a suitable site has established that , due to almost 20 years of rehabilitation work , the green parrot\u2019s former range has sufficient feed trees to accommodate a small population ( a . smith 2014 ) . a plan for the translocation of a small founder population is currently being developed . numerous translocations of closely related cyanoramphus species to predator - free islands have been undertaken in new zealand and have largely been successful ( a . smith 2014 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\n23 cm . bright blue - green parrot with diagnostic orange frontal band and orange patch on sides of rump . also has pale lemon - yellow forecrown . female slightly smaller with proportionally smaller bill .\ngreene , t . , hitchmough , r . , kearvell , j . & van hal , j .\nthis species is listed as critically endangered because , subsequent to serious declines since the 1800s , it underwent a population crash following rat invasions in 1990 - 2000 , and it now has a very small population that has declined during the last decade .\nspp . ) forest valleys in the south island : the hawdon and poulter valleys in arthur\u2019s pass national park and the south branch of the hurunui valley in lake sumner forest park . they are patchily distributed within these valleys ; absent in many parts but in some places can be quite common ( kearvell 2013 ) . they have been translocated to four islands : maud and blumine islands in the marlborough sounds , chalky island in fiordland , and tuhua / mayor island in the bay of plenty . releases of captive - raised birds to the south branch of the hurunui to augment the population in 2015 and 2016 appear to have been successful with released birds having successfully paired and 9 - 10 nests located in 2016 ( j . kearvell\n. the population appeared to stabilise at low levels since then , and it is likely that in 2016 the mainland populations remain at an extremely low level of around 100 birds in total ( j . kearvell\ntranslocations to islands began in 2005 , with 46 birds now released onto chalky , 61 on blumine , 68 on maud and 95 on tuhua ( j . c kearvell\n2016 ) . these releases all appeared highly successful at first with positive signs of breeding and population establishment - however , population growth has now slowed on all islands and the persistence of these populations appears to still be tenuous ( a . grant\nalthough the population numbered several hundreds prior to 2000 , a prolific increase in the population of rats and stoats within its restricted south island range induced a rapid population decline and the total population has remained well below its previous levels . successful translocations on four islands have boosted the population of this species , but decreases may have continued on the mainland . overall , the global population was estimated at\n290 - 690 individuals in early 2013 , with the mainland populations estimated to total 130 - 270 individuals and the island populations totalling 160 - 420 individuals ( j . c . kearvell\n2013 ) . obtaining accurate population estimates is extremely challenging for the species , but recent counts indicate that the mainland population may have declined to around 100 birds , and the offshore island populations to around 250 birds in total ( j . c . kearvell\n2016 ) . the population has a skewed sex ratio of males to females , probably due to higher predation on incubating females ( kearvell and farley 2016 ) .\nthe population fell from 500 - 700 birds prior to 2000 , to 100 - 200 by 2004 . increased conservation efforts ( especially predator control ) in its small south island range and a successful translocation of birds to four islands suggest its rapid decline has ceased and some recovery has taken place . however , 2013 estimates suggest further declines on the mainland , and during a three generation ( 14 year ) period the species has still experienced a reduction in the number of mature individuals , which is precautionarily estimated to have been extremely rapid , as latest population estimates include an unknown but potentially significant proportion of non - mature individuals ( translocated birds yet to have bred ) .\nit is restricted to nothofagus beech forest , although it may not have been so historically . on maud island it uses areas with a high canopy cover and low understory and ground cover ( ortiz - catedral 2012 ) . it requires mature trees with natural hollows or cavities for nesting . monitoring has revealed that 80 % of nests are in mature living trees , with the remaining 20 % in dead trees ( j . c . kearvell in litt . 2012 ) . of those nests found in mature trees , 68 % are in red beech nothofagus fusca . breeding is linked with the irregular seeding of nothofagus when numbers can increase substantially , and it seems that populations may fluctuate significantly in line with breeding / seeding events ( t . greene in litt . 2016 ) . in mast years , many pairs will lay a second clutch , and some may lay a third clutch , with breeding continuing through the austral winter . first clutches may average more than eight eggs , with second clutches averaging over seven in 2011 . a study on maud island has shown that birds form pairs at around seven years of age , and nest in a variety of natural cavities where beech is unavailable ( j . kearvell in litt . 2011 , 2012 ) . it feeds on seeds , fruits , leaves , flowers , buds and invertebrates ( kearvell 1999 , kearvell 2013 ) .\n, with recent population crashes being due to rat irruptions . the species ' s hole - nesting behaviour leads to a reduced ratio of females in the population due to predation of birds on the nest ( elliott\n. 2011 ) and in time , this problem may affect other island populations . population growth in island populations , especially on maud island , may also be limited through predation by falcons ( falconidae ) , and displacement of two nesting pairs by introduced common starlings\nhas now been documented ; the overall impact of this recently - identified threat is uncertain , but may be minimal ( j . c . kearvell\non little barrier island were suffering from psittacine beak and feather disease ( pbfd ) . the virus has been sequenced and appears very similar to the strain found in crimson rosella\n, in which the disease is known to be endemic within the captive population . in 2009 , some individuals of\non maud island were showing some symptoms consistent with pbfd . in reaction , testing of the entire captive population has been undertaken , as well as more limited sampling of individuals in all three island populations , as well as other parrot species . results indicate that antibodies for pbfd were detected in\n. 2012 , 2013 ) . monitoring for the disease in the captive population continues and the main captive breeding unit has now been declared disease - free ( t . greene\nimmunosuppression may also be involved , either because of small population size and / or because of post pbfd issues ( j . c . kearvell in litt . 2013 ) .\ncites appendix ii ( 1981 ) . hawdon and poulter valleys are located within arthur ' s pass national park and the hurunui south branch is in lake sumner conservation park (\n. monitoring of nests will verify whether this is allowing numbers to stabilise and expand . the hawdon population received\ncontrol only during plague years , which occur , on average , every four years ( j . c . kearvell\n. all three valleys are now part of the\nbattle for our birds\ninitiative targeting rats and stoats in south island beech forest sites . the control of\nis now continuous , whereas control measures against rats are implemented when populations reach trigger points ( j . c . kearvell\n2008 , 2009 ) , and since 2003 only one nest out of 153 has been lost to invasive predators ( j . c . kearvell\nsince 2003 , the captive facility at isaacs construction wildlife centre , peacock springs ( christchurch ) , has released , in conjunction with department of conservation , a total of over 250 individuals ( j . c . kearvell\n. the reintroduction of birds to maud island has been underway since 2007 , and wild - bred birds are now nesting on the island . translocations to tuhua island have been taking place since december 2009 , and in early 2011 it was expected that all birds produced in the next captive breeding season would be released there to provide a sufficient founder population ( j . c . kearvell\n. translocations have also been carried out on blumine island ( j . c . kearvell\n. 2012 ) . a second captive - breeding group was being set up at mount bruce but has been discontinued due to a lack of capacity ( j . c . kearvell\n. 2013 ) . another attempt to set up a second captive breeding population has been initiated with the auckland zoo with the hope that a 5th island population will be started on rotoroa island ( t . greene\n2016 ) . a study to assess the genetic diversity of the remnant mainland population , with the aim of ensuring that any new founder populations on islands are as genetically diverse as possible , has been completed ( j . c . kearvell\n2013 ) . an analysis of breeding data is also due to be started . a comprehensive testing programme for psittacine beak and feather disease ( pbfd ) in parrots throughout new zealand was initiated ( t . greene\ndevelop a technique to accurately monitor numbers . continue to study the species ' s breeding biology and ecology . stabilise and increase numbers in the mainland valley populations through predator control , and monitor effectiveness . train people in the identification of the species ( j . c . kearvell\n. establish further populations on predator - free offshore islands and develop captive breeding programmes to assist with this . closely monitor the threat from pbfd ( j . c . kearvell\n. continue research into methods of controlling introduced predators ( j . c . kearvell\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n25 cm . small bright green parakeet . yellow - green body ; yellow crown ; red band from forehead to billl ; red patches on flanks ; violet - blue on wing coverts .\nthis species is thought to have suffered declines in the past to the point that it now has a moderately small population , and as a result it is listed as near threatened . if predator control continues within parts of its range , habitat recovers and remaining forests are protected , it may warrant downlisting in the future .\nthe population has decreased in numbers in the past and the species is generally uncommon throughout its range , although it may be common on offshore islands and in some mainland forests ( elliott 2013 ) . the population is estimated as being in the tens of thousands ( elliott 2013 ) but trends are unclear ( higgins 1999 ) . trend justification : this species is thought to have been adversely affected by forest clearance , introduced predators and hybridisation . consequently , slow to moderate declines are suspected in the past .\n, or , where the two occur sympatrically on small islands it is found in denser unbroken forest .\n. breeding occurs mainly in october - december . it feeds on seeds , berries , flowers , and roots . insects taken from trees are a significant part of its diet ( greene 1998 ) . in predator - free areas , the species will often feed on the ground .\nand roots . insects taken from trees are a significant part of its diet ( greene 1998 ) . in predator - free areas the species will often feed on the ground .\non solander island . on auckland island , there is an unnaturally high rate of hybridisation between the two species . beak and feather disease virus ( bfdv ) has been identified from birds in the eglinton valley , fiordland ( massaro\ncites appendix ii . this species occurs within a number of national parks and reserves where forest habitat is protected , but predators still pose a threat . it is benefiting from efforts to eradicate introduced predators from mainland forests and offshore islands . successful translocations to offshore islands ( mana , long island and motuara island in queen charlotte sound ) have taken place and translocations to mainland sites ( maungatautari , boundary stream ) are underway ( elliott 2013 ) .\nensure that remaining primary forest is not logged . re - vegetate islands that have historically been overgrazed . maintain and / or increase control of invasive predators within mainland forests .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 299 , 366 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nthe red - fronted parakeet is immediately recognisable by its distinctive , brightly coloured plumage . vivid crimson feathers appear on the forehead , crown and behind the eye , earning this bird its alternative common name of \u2018red - crowned parakeet\u2019 ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . this conspicuous red marking on the head contrasts with the predominantly green colour of the rest of the body , though yellow mutations are occasionally found in the wild ( 5 ) . the underside of the wings are blue - violet , the beak is grey - blue , getting darker at the tip , and the eyes are orange ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . this bird has a unique and unusual voice , which is sometimes likened to the bleating of a goat ( 5 ) .\nthe omnivorous red - fronted parakeet feeds mainly on plant material , including seeds , fruits , flowers , nectar , leaves and shoots , but also on invertebrates and will occasionally scavenge animal carrion ( 6 ) ( 7 ) .\nthese parakeets live in permanent pairs that frequently join with other pairs and their young , and have been observed to form small flocks in the autumn and winter ( 8 ) . in studies on little barrier island , breeding activity was recorded from november to march , with peak egg - laying in december ( 9 ) . clutches were usually large , ranging from four to nine ( average of seven ) eggs , and female parakeets took total responsibility for their incubation , which lasts from 19 to 23 days ( 5 ) ( 9 ) . hatchlings are covered with a white down that changes to grey within a few days ( 5 ) . fledglings leave the nest after 32 to 49 days ( 9 ) .\nhistorically abundant in mainland new zealand , the red - fronted parakeet is now effectively extinct in this area ( recent sightings are now believed to be cage escapes or releases or vagrants from offshore island populations ) . populations currently remain on offshore islands , including the kermadec islands , three kings , some hauraki gulf islands , kapiti island , stewart island and surrounding islands , chatham islands , snares , antipodes islands , auckland islands , and norfolk island ( self - governing australian territory ) . now extinct on lord howe island and macquarie islands ( 6 ) .\nfound in a wide variety of habitats , including dense temperate rainforests , coastal forest , scrubland , forest edges and open areas . this bird prefers nesting in hollow limbs , holes or stumps of trees , but , where suitable trees are lacking , will also use holes , burrows and tunnels in the ground , cliffs and tussock grass ( 6 ) .\nclassified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list 2006 ( 1 ) . listed under appendix i of cites ( 3 ) .\nthe red - fronted parakeet has been upgraded from least concern to vulnerable on the iucn red list due to its apparent extinction from the mainland , leaving only fragmented populations across off - shore islands . european settlement and conversion of forest to farmland probably contributed significantly to this bird\u2019s decline , with clear - felling , logging and burning of forests drastically reducing available habitat . the disappearance of this species from the mainland is also attributed to nest predation from introduced predators , such as rats , cats , stoats and weasels , in addition to competition for food and breeding sites from introduced birds . formerly persecuted for damaging crops and gardens ( 6 ) .\nthe red - fronted parakeet is fully protected from trade across international boarders by its listing on appendix i of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) ( 3 ) . a captive breeding programme has also been established on norfolk island for this bird . the ability of this species to breed well in captivity , and its popularity in aviculture collections , is likely to prevent this bird from ever becoming completely extinct . future priorities advocated in the conservation of the red - fronted parakeet include preserving important habitat of remaining populations , carrying out research to determine current population size and trends , and performing predator control measures if found to be appropriate ( 6 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nnature picture library 5a great george street bristol bs1 5rr united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 911 4675 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 911 4699 info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nforbes , h . o . & robinson , h . c . 1897 ,\ncatalogue of the parrots ( psittaci ) in the derby museum\n, bulletin of the liverpool museum , vol . 1 , pp . 5 - 22\ngray , g . r . 1862 ,\na list of the birds of new zealand and the adjacent islands\n, ibis , vol . 4 , no . 15 , pp . 214 - 252\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 21c4d485 - 7561 - 44d4 - 96f2 - 8036b253a9a5\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 5006e1ba - 0db4 - 43f7 - b005 - 8c89eb725421\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : ed4140e1 - 1524 - 4941 - 9ced - 4eb26f6b543b\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : c7a65f65 - b704 - 495f - 844f - c31f7a06a7c7\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 358761\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\na fully searchable database of articles published in notornis and birds new zealand is provided on the publications page .\nnew issues ( < 1 year old ) are password protected . each member of birds new zealand has been sent a password . institutional subscribers have been contacted for their ip address to give their computers direct access . please contact roger sharp to update your information or if you experience any problems accessing the articles .\nthe society ' s quarterly scientific journal . this peer - reviewed journal has been publishing ornithological research relevant to new zealand and the south pacific since 1943 ( originally as new zealand bird notes ) . all birds new zealand members are encouraged to submit original papers or short notes on their bird observations or studies to the notornis editor : dr craig symes .\nnotornis has a wide circulation within new zealand and overseas , and is provided to all members of birds new zealand . pdfs for each volume will be made available online as close as practicable to the standard publication dates ( last day in march , june , september , december ) . .\nthe society offers 2 notornis awards : a\nnotornis - student award\nand a\nnotornis - new author award\n.\nthe society ' s quarterly news magazine . this magazine provides a forum for members to report back on trips , society schemes , interesting bird sightings and to advertise coming trips , meetings and events . to submit an article or item for publication in birds new zealand , please contact the birds new zealand editor : michael szabo .\nthis entry needs a photograph or drawing for illustration . please try to find a suitable image on wikimedia commons or upload one there yourself !\nthis entry lacks etymological information . if you are familiar with the origin of this term , please add it to the page per etymology instructions . you can also discuss it at the etymology scriptorium .\ngill , f . and wright , m . ( 2006 ) birds of the world : recommended english names , princeton university press , \u2192isbn\nthis page was last edited on 4 may 2016 , at 21 : 46 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nzoonomen - zoological nomenclature resource , 2006 . 12 . 13 , website ( version 13 - dec - 06 )\nzoonomen - zoological nomenclature resource\nmaintained by alan p . peterson at urltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nfor information to assist regulatory considerations , refer to policy statements and guidelines , the conservation advice , the listing advice and / or the recovery plan .\nrecovery plan required , this species had a recovery plan in force at the time the legislation provided for the minister to decide whether or not to have a recovery plan ( 19 / 2 / 2007 ) .\n. department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts , canberra . available from :\ndepartment of the environment , water , heritage and the arts ( 2009 ) .\n. department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts . available from :\nsurvey guidelines for australia ' s threatened birds . epbc act survey guidelines 6 . 2\n( department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts ( dewha ) , 2010 ) [ admin guideline ] .\nthe action plan for australian birds 2010 ( garnett , s . , j . szabo & g . dutson , 2011 ) .\nthe distribution shown is generalised from the departments species of national environmental significance dataset . this is an indicative distribution map of the present distribution of the species based on best available knowledge . some species information is withheld in line with sensitive species polices . see map caveat for more information .\nthe norfolk island green parrot is one of 20 birds that the australian government has prioritised resource allocation to support the species recovery effort . this species was prioritisied because it is important to the people of nortfolk island . recovery of the species is achievable ; actions to protect breeding sites have proven successful in the past and will aid its recovery . zoos victoria is actively involved in the recovery of the parrot , as are the norfolk island national park staff and the community . expertise is in place and the australian government and others have committed financial support . management of feral predators like feral cats and rats will not only help the green parrot , but all of the native animals on the island . reducing the impact of feral cats is a key area of focus in the bird action plan , as well as creating safe havens for threatened species .\nthe threatened species strategy webpage includes information on other projects that may be supporting the species .\nthe norfolk island green parrot is bright green with a red forehead and forecrown , a red stripe across each eye , a dark blue region on the leading edge of each wing and a small patch of red on either side of the rump . the sexes are similar in appearance , but the female can be distinguished by her smaller size , smaller red forehead and forecrown patches , and a smaller , narrower bill . juveniles are similar to the adults , but green colouring is duller and red colouring is less extensive ( forshaw 1981 ; higgins 1999 ) .\nthe norfolk island green parrot is confined to norfolk island . its distribution is concentrated in the north - western region of the island around mount pitt , which lies in norfolk island national park . it is believed that breeding is largely confined to suitable habitat in the national park ( hill 2002 ; moore 1985 ; schodde et al . 1983 ; smith 2014 ) .\nthe extent of occurrence of the norfolk island green parrot is estimated , with high reliability , to be 35 km\u00b2 ( garnett et al . 2011 ) . the species was probably widespread on norfolk island , and present on the nearby phillip island , and perhaps nepean island , before the arrival of european settlers and subsequent clearing of endemic forest ( hill 2002 ; schodde et al . 1983 ) .\nthe area of occupancy of the norfolk island green parrot is estimated , with medium reliability , to be 8 km\u00b2 ( garnett et al . 2011 ) . the area of occupancy declined following the arrival of european settlers and the species distribution had become concentrated around the mount pitt area by 1908 ( hull 1909 ) .\na captive breeding program implemented from the 1980s ended in 2009 when remaining birds were released ( garnett et al . 2011 ) .\nthe norfolk island green parrot population was surveyed intensively during 2013 and 2014 and from 1977to 1997 . surveys included ( hermes et al . 1986 ; hill 2002 ; lane et al . 1998 ; oritz - catedral 2013 ; schodde et al . 1983 ) :\nthis species occurs as a single , contiguous breeding population ( garnett et al . 2011 ) . the abundance of green parrots has undergone episodic fluctuation since human settlement on norfolk island . surveys conducted in winter 2013 confirmed a dramatic decline in the population , with an estimated population of between 46 and 92 individuals compared to an estimated 240 birds in 2010 . however , as the methodologies employed in these two surveys differ , comparison of results is problematic . there were only 10 confirmed records of adult females in winter 2013 with the maximum number of breeding pairs estimated to be unlikely to exceed 23 ( ortiz - catedral 2013 ) .\nsince the 2013 winter survey an intensive recovery program has been implemented throughout the national park which resulted in 58 chicks successfully fledging in the 2014 calendar year , of which 27 were female ( a . smith 2014 , pers . comm . ) .\nthe population is estimated to have consisted of about 190 pairs before the arrival of european settlers ( hill 2002 ) . the population declined substantially between 1774 , when the species was first recorded ( hoare 1974 ) , and 1908 , when the distribution had become largely confined to suitable habitat around mount pitt ( hull 1909 ) . in 1937 , a large number of birds were collected by an expedition from the smithsonian institute , and when no individuals were recorded in the two years following the expedition , the species was feared extinct ( hill 2002 ) . however , by the 1950s residents of the island claimed that the species was reasonably common ( hicks & greenwood 1989 ) . the following population estimates have been published :\nin 1977\u201378 , three to five breeding pairs and 17\u201330 individuals in total ( forshaw 1981 ; schodde et al . 1983 )\nin 1988 , four breeding pairs and 32 individuals in total ( hill 2002 ; lane et al . 1998 )\nin 1989\u20131995 , three to ten breeding pairs , and 25 to 44 individuals in total ( hill 2002 ; lane et al . 1998 )\nin 2006\u201307 , a minimum six breeding pairs and more than 200\u2013400 individuals ( r . ward 2007 , pers . comm . )\nin 2013 , a population of between 46 and 92 individual birds with only 10 adult females ( oritz - catedral 2013 ) .\nhistorically , the decline in the number of breeding pairs has been attributed to successive years of dry ( and unfavourable ) conditions . only 10 young were produced from known nests in 2005\u201306 , but the reproductive output of known pairs doubled in the 2006\u201307 season following increased rainfall in the preceding year ( r . ward 2007 , pers . comm . ) . the recent decline can be attributed to predation by cats and rats , a lack of safe nesting hollows and competition for nesting hollows from the introduced crimson rosella ( platycercus elegans ) , common starling ( sturnus vulgaris ) and honeybee ( apis mellifera ) ( a . smith 2014 pers . obs . ) .\nnorfolk island national park contains most of the suitable foraging habitat and is thought to contain the entire suitable breeding habitat of the norfolk island green parrot ( hill 2002 ) with the exception of one nest site discovered in 2013 on private land adjoining the national park ( a . smith 2014 pers . comm . ) .\nthe norfolk island green parrot primarily occurs in remnant norfolk island pine ( araucaria heterophylla ) tall closed rainforest , as well as in other native vegetation , eucalypt plantations and adjacent to native forest in orchards and gardens ( garnett & crowley 2000 ; hicks & greenwood 1989 ; higgins 1999 ) .\nnorfolk island national park encompasses 465 ha ( 12 % of norfolk island land ) . this national park has been classified into five habitats : weed infested native forest ( 161 ha , 35 % ) ; dense african olive ( olea europaea subsp . cuspidata ) forest ( 129 ha , 28 % ) ; native forest ( 97 ha , 21 % ) ; dense red guava ( psidium cattleianum var . cattleianum ) forest ( 41 ha , 9 % ) ; and plantation forest ( 32 ha , 7 % ) . native vegetation consists of palm forest , hardwood forest and norfolk island pine forest .\nnesting and roosting habitat the norfolk island green parrot usually nests in a hollow or cavity in the limb , trunk or stump of living or dead trees , especially in larger native trees , including ironwood ( nestegis apetala ) , bloodwood ( corymbia spp . / eucalyptus spp . ) , cordyline and norfolk island pine , but now also using tree ferns ; nests are typically within 2 m of the ground ( garnett et al . 2011 ; hicks & greenwood 1989 ; higgins 1999 ; lane et al . 1998 ) .\nthe norfolk island green parrot generally roosts in concealed areas , including holes in trees , and thick vegetation such as epiphytes , tussocks , sedges and ferns . it often roosts in nesting sites ( higgins 1999 ) . inexperienced fledglings often roost in exposed sites ( higgins 1999 ) .\nthe norfolk island green parrot perches in trees when in forest , but may perch on the ground in open habitats , or when feeding on the ground ( higgins 1999 ; lane et al . 1998 ) .\nfemale norfolk island green parrots may begin laying eggs from 10\u201312 months of age , or even shortly after reaching independence . the age at which males become sexually mature is not known . longevity in the wild is expected to be 7 . 3 years ( garnett et al . 2011 ) . one wild breeding female was thought to be at least nine years old ( lane et al . 1998 ) , whilst the oldest known captive individual was 14 ( r . ward 2007 , pers . comm . ) . the generation length of this species is estimated , with low reliability , to be 4 . 6 years ( garnett et al . 2011 ) . the norfolk island green parrot is not known to cross - breed with any other species .\nreproduction the norfolk island green parrot breeds in all months of the year with a notable increase in breeding late summer and autumn ( a . smith 2014 pers . comm . ) . average age of first breeding is expected to be approximately 2 . 0 years ( garnett et al . 2011 ) . clutch size has been recorded between 1 - 9 eggs ( dnp 2010 ) however clutches are more commonly around 3 or 4 ( a . smith . 2014 pers . obs . ) . females do all the incubation whilst both males and females share in rearing the chicks . females spend a larger amount of time in the nest feeding , visit the nest site more frequently and stay for longer than males , making them more susceptible to predation ( a . smith 2014 pers . obs . ) .\nthe norfolk island green parrot exhibits double - clutching ( i . e . it has two nests concurrently at different stages of development ) . as the chicks reach around two weeks of age , the female parrot may leave the nest and commence a new nest , leaving the original nest to be tended by the male ( hicks & greenwood 1989 ; higgins 1999 ; lane et al . 1998 ) . thus , pairs can fledge up to four broods of young during a single year . eggs are laid at two - day intervals , and the incubation period ( 21 days ) commences after the second or third egg is laid ( hicks & greenwood 1989 ; higgins 1999 ; lane et al . 1998 ) . young birds leave the nest six to seven weeks after hatching , and generally become independent three to five weeks after fledging ( hicks & greenwood 1989 ; higgins 1999 ; lane et al . 1998 ) .\nin 1987\u20131998 , a mean of 13 wild nesting attempts per year ( range 1\u201327 , n = 12 years ) was recorded in norfolk island national park , from a total of 52 known nest hollows ( lane et al . 1998 ) . during this period a mean clutch size of 4 . 9 eggs ( range 1\u20139 , n = 161 clutches ) was recorded and a mean of 1 . 77 eggs ( range 0\u20136 , n = 161 clutches , or 35 . 5 % of clutch ) hatched per clutch . during this study , up to four chicks successfully fledged per nest with a total of 46 male and 44 female parrots fledged on the island . of fledged individuals , 18 ( 39 % ) males and eight ( 18 % ) females survived their first year ( hicks & greenwood 1989 ; lane et al . 1998 ) . the 1987\u20131998 figures equate to 4 . 6 males and 4 . 4 females fledging per year , and 1 . 8 males and 0 . 8 females surviving to their first year .\nfrom 2001\u201307 , a total of 213 young fledged from known nests ( r . ward 2007 , pers . comm . ) .\nthe norfolk island green parrot is adversely affected by competition for nesting sites with introduced species , such as common starling , crimson rosella and honeybee ( hill 2002 ) . while in the nest , females brooding eggs and birds tending chicks are vulnerable to predation by feral cats ( felis catus ) and black rats ( rattus rattus ) . inexperienced females may also select nest sites that are easily accessible to predators ( lane et al . 1998 ) .\nadult norfolk island green parrots primarily eat seeds , fruits , flowers and leaves of native and introduced trees and shrubs , including norfolk island pine , ironwood , norfolk island palm ( rhopalostylis bauerri ) , bloodwood , cordyline and white oak ( lagunaria patersonia ) ( garnett & crowley 2000 ; higgins 1999 ) . they are reported to prefer the blossum and seeds of bloodwood and wild maple ( elaeodendron curtipendulum ) , but also eat seeds , fruits and bark of introduced species including wild tobacco ( solanum mauritianum ) , red guava , african olive , peach ( prunus persica ) and lantana ( lantana camara ) ( forshaw & cooper 1978 ; lane et al . 1998 ) .\nnorfolk island green parrots forage in all vegetation strata , depending on the location of seasonally available food items ( higgins 1999 ) . adults prefer to feed in the canopy in forested areas . however , for three to five weeks after fledging , juveniles feed extensively on the ground eating fallen seeds of african olive , norfolk island pine and red guava ( garnett & crowley 2000 ; higgins 1999 ; lane et al . 1998 ) . during the summer months birds have been observed largely feeding in the canopy of trees , whilst in the winter months a large proportion of foraging time appears to be on the ground ( a . smith 2014 pers . obs . ) . they will also feed in modified habitat , disturbed habitat and on exotic plants ( fruit trees ) , especially where native vegetation has been removed ( forshaw & cooper 1989 ; higgins 1999 ) .\nthe norfolk island green parrot is regarded as sedentary or resident , and occurs in most habitat types throughout the year . adults display little movement before or after breeding ( higgins 1999 ) . this species descends to lower altitudes when fruit trees in orchards and gardens are fruiting ( hicks & greenwood 1989 ; higgins 1999 ) . this species is gregarious and it usually occurs in pairs , family parties or small groups ( higgins 1999 ) .\nthe majority of sightings of parrots outside of the national park are recorded during december and january . it has been suggested that some sightings may be excess males that are forced out of the park ( lane et al . 1998 ) .\ndistinctiveness there are no other species on norfolk island that are similar to the norfolk island green parrot .\nrecommended methods various techniques are employed to assess the status of the norfolk island green parrot population including nest inspections , visual and aural surveys , distance sampling and general observations ( a . smith 2014 pers . comm . ) .\nnest surveys are also undertaken in addition to the overall population census . predator - resistant nest sites constructed throughout the national park are monitored monthly for signs of nesting activity . active nests are monitored twice weekly ; motion sensor cameras are also used to both record activity and to detect possible interference from other species .\nthe clearance of suitable forest habitat , particularly hollow - bearing trees such as ironwood , to provide timber and land for agriculture and pine plantations was a major factor in the decline of the norfolk island green parrot ( garnett & crowley 2000 ; hicks & greenwood 1989 ; higgins 1999 ; hill 2002 ; lane et al . 1998 ; r . ward 2007 , pers . comm . ) . the widespread clearance of endemic forest has now ceased on norfolk island ( garnett et al . 2011 ) , and most of the remaining habitat is protected through its inclusion in norfolk island national park or through the listing of vegetation under local government legislation . however , patches of forest continue to be cleared on private land : this threat is being addressed through agreements between conservation bodies and landholders to conserve endemic forest ( hill 2002 ) ."]}
{"id": 1752, "summary": [{"text": "the chilean woodstar ( eulidia yarrellii ) is a small bird in the hummingbird family , trochilidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is restricted to northernmost chile with reports from southern peru .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "its natural habitats are dry shrubland and rural gardens .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss and is classed as a critically endangered species .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is usually classified in its own genus eulidia but is sometimes placed with the purple-collared woodstar in the genus myrtis .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "in 2013 it was classed as endangered but recently , it was classed as critically endangered by the iucn red list . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "chilean woodstar", "paragraphs": ["chilean woodstar ( eulidia yarrellii ) is a species of bird in the trochilidae family .\nthis entry was posted in americas , archive , south america and tagged chilean woodstar . bookmark the permalink .\nhabitat loss , the chilean woodstar lives primarily in the desert climate where it is also threatened by the use of insecticides . more\nthe chilean woodstar is classified as endangered ( en ) , considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - chilean woodstar ( eulidia yarrellii )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - chilean woodstar ( eulidia yarrellii )\ntitle =\narkive species - chilean woodstar ( eulidia yarrellii )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe chilean woodstar is a small hummingbird . it has iridescent olive - green plumage and white underparts . males are distinguished by their violet - red throat patch and both sexes possess short , black bills . . . more\nthe chilean woodstar is a small hummingbird . it has iridescent olive - green plumage and white underparts ( 2 ) . males are distinguished by their violet - red throat patch and both sexes possess short , black bills ( 2 ) .\nbased on available information , our preliminary proposal for the 2014 red list is to pend the decision on chilean woodstar eulidia yarrellii and keep this discussion open until early 2015 , while leaving the current red list category unchanged in the 2014 update .\nthe highly restricted range of the chilean woodstar represents a threat to its survival ; the species is confined to just two valleys in northern chile which are already heavily cultivated ( 2 ) . viable habitat for this species of hummingbird is therefore scarce .\nlisting three foreign bird species - andean flamingo ( phoenicoparrus andinus ) , the chilean woodstar ( eulidia yarrellii ) , and the st . lucia forest thrush ( cichlherminia lherminieri sanctaeluciae ) - from latin america and the caribbean as endangered throughout their range ; final rule\nfollowing further review , there has been a change to our preliminary proposal for the 2014 red list status of this species , and the recommended classification to be put forward to iucn is to treat chilean woodstar as critically endangered under criterion a2ac + 3c + 4ac .\nthe chilean woodstar , endemic to chile and peru , is a small hummingbird in the trochilidae family ( bli 2008 ) . no larger than the size of a moth ( johnson 1967 , p . 121 ) , the chilean woodstar is approximately 3 inches ( in ) ( 8 centimeters ( cm ) ) in length and has a short black bill ( bli 2008 ; del hoyo et al . 1999 , p . 674 ) . males have iridescent olive - green upperparts , white underparts , and a bright violet - red throat ( del hoyo et al . 1999 , p . 674 ; fjelds and krabbe 1990 , p . 296 ) . more\nestades , c . f . , aguirre , j . , escobar , m . a . h . , tomasevic , j . a . , vukasovic , m . a . and tala , c . ( 2007 ) conservation status of the chilean woodstar eulidia yarrellii . bird conservation international 17 ( 2 ) : 163 - 175 .\na color photo of the chilean woodstar birdyarrellii - of the yarrellii species - and lists its size , weight , and number in existence at the time of the advertisement . azapa and lluta river valleys in chile , peru are stated as the animal ' s habitat range . luiz claudio marigo is the photographer . price : $ 10 . more\nbenoit - c . , i . l . , editor . 1989 . red book on chilean terrestrial flora ( part one ) . corporaci\u00f3n nacional forestal ( conaf ) , santiago , chile .\ndescription : the chilean woodstar is a small hummingbird about the size of a moth . this beautiful bird is no larger than three inches long , with iridescent , olive - green upperparts . males also have while underparts , accented by a bright violet - red throat . habitat : this hummingbird has varied habitat needs , from riparian thickets to arid scrub , agricultural lands , and gardens . more\nthe tiny , beautiful chilean woodstar is a hummingbird endemic to chile and peru . while it has always had a limited population distribution , it was once locally abundant . the 1970s marked a steep decline for the species due to both habitat loss and potential poisoning by dimethoate , a potent insecticide used to control mediterranean fruit flies . pesticides are still being used in the habitat of this hummingbird and continue to affect its reproduction . more\nrest of day searching for chilean woodstar in azapa valley . in the evening return to tacna day 3 . mejia lagoons . drive to mejia lagoons and birding here . red - fronted coot is only found here in all peru , also good wetlands with many migrants . day 4 . mollendo pelagic . drive to arequipa . we will look out for raimondi\u0101\u201cs yellow - finch and grayish miner en route day 5 . chiguata and salinas . more\nschuchmann , k . l . , kirwan , g . m . & sharpe , c . j . ( 2018 ) . chilean woodstar ( eulidia yarrellii ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nchilean woodstar , peruvian sheartail , oasis hummingbird , tamarugo and cinereous conebills , vermillion flycatcher , peruvian meadowlark and the strange slender - billed finch . after our arrival we will visit the rocky coast where we expect to see a great array of its endemic seabirds including peruvian pelican , peruvian booby , guanay and red - legged cormorants , the stunning inca tern and band - tailed and gray gulls . along the desert coast we will look for flocks of willet , whimbrel , ruddy turnstone , surfbird , franklin ' s gull and elegant terns . more\nchilean woodstar eulidia yarrellii is only known to breed regularly in the azapa and vitor valleys , arica department , extreme north chile ( estades 2007 ) . it is currently listed as endangered under criterion b1ab ( i , ii , iii , v ) because it has a very small range ( estimated extent of occurrence [ eoo ] = 2 , 200 km 2 ) with all viable populations apparently confined to remnant habitat patches in two desert river valleys ( collar et al . 1992 ) . as these valleys are heavily cultivated , the extent , area and quality of suitable habitat ( and therefore the population ) are likely to be declining .\ncites appendix ii . all exports of hummingbirds from peru and chile are controlled . a ten - year species recovery plan was approved in 2004 and included plans for a public awareness campaign , a study of competition between the woodstar and peruvian sheartail , a permanent population monitoring programme , restoration of natural vegetation in the azupa and lluta valleys , incorporation of its conservation into the agenda of the local good agricultural practices committee , and a study of the feasibility of an\nestades ( in litt . 2007 ) estimated the population to number 650 individuals in azapa , and 550 in chaca . this totals 1 , 200 individuals , roughly equivalent to 800 mature individuals . previously , estades et al . ( 2007 ) had calculated a chilean population of 1 , 539 individuals in september 2003 . recent information , however , suggests that the population of this species has since declined to around 500 individuals ( d . lebbin in litt . 2012 ) . this estimate is assumed to equate to a population of c . 335 mature individuals , rounded here to c . 350 mature individuals . trend justification : evidence from surveys and anecdotal observations indicates that this species is undergoing an extremely rapid decline . population estimates have shown that the azapa and chaca populations have reduced by 15 . 6 % annually ( 81 . 6 % ) in 10 years ( c . f . estades in litt . 2013 ) .\nlike most websites we use cookies . if you\u2019re happy with that , just carry on as normal ( close this bar ) - otherwise click here to find out more .\nfor a while , it looked like they might actually be in recovery . but this year\u2019s census of the american subspecies , the rufa red knot , found that numbers have plummeted to an all - time low . the likely cause ? food shortages in delaware bay , a crucial feeding stopover site on their migration .\nclimate change and invasive species don\u2019t just impact birds \u2013 the latest update to the iucn red list of threatened species shows that they are a growing threat to australia\u2019s unique reptiles . however , the update also revealed good news for four south american amphibians assumed to be extinct .\nwe present the highlights of the latest issue of bird conservation international , our quarterly peer - reviewed journal promoting worldwide research and action for the conservation of birds and their habitats .\nwe\u2019ve selected crafts from across the world that will delight children and benefit birds . from ten - minute fruit kebabs to a summer spent birdhouse building , we\u2019ve got projects for every age and timespan : all you need to do is pick your skill level .\nhelp us to protect america ' s migratory birds on their epic journey across continents .\naround one in five of all the world\u2019s bird species migrate . and while every migration is an epic and often perilous feat of endurance , here\u2019s a selection of species that we feel go the extra mile .\nulcinj salina is a traditional salt pan whose shallow waters feed and support more than 250 bird species . however , recent proposals to build a large - scale tourism resort threaten to obliterate it .\njane alexander is an acclaimed actress , author and an impassioned birder who is also a member of birdlife\u2019s global advisory group . here , she talks to us about how acting got her into birding , and how the new generation gives her hope .\na new mode of farming is taking off in south america . the pampas is one the world\u2019s most important grassland biomes : but intensive farming is wearing it down . now , a scheme for sustainable , bird - friendly meat is getting prestigious recognition .\none in eight bird species is in danger of extinction \u2013 but what are the main factors driving their decline ? they might not be what you think . read about the five biggest threats to bird biodiversity , and what\u2019s being done to combat them .\nover the last 40 years , europe\u2019s skylarks have suffered a 50 % decline due to the intensification of agriculture . in sweden , this figure jumps to a staggering 75 % .\nwe interview katharine lowrie : part of a record - breaking couple who sailed the atlantic to begin an ultra - marathon through south america , all to raise money and awareness for wildlife and wild places .\nit\u2019s a first for burkina faso . . . a love story between environmental organization naturama ( birdlife - burkina faso ) and the private cement factory cimburkina . their common aim is to strengthen nature conservation and improve community livelihoods at the cement plant ' s operating sites .\nfollowing a tireless campaign by birdlife australia , which gained support from around the world , the australian government has decided to reject an application for phosphate mining on christmas island , a crucial wildlife haven in the indian ocean .\nwhile armed conflict in colombia may be over , an influx of illegal miners and loggers means our newest partner\u2019s collaborative approach to conservation has never been more important .\nwe are a global partnership of independent organisations working together as one for nature and people . read more about birdlife .\nwe create action through insight . through our expertise on birds we act for nature and people . through sharing local challenges we find lasting global solutions . read more about our programmes .\nwhen you get involved with birdlife you are helping us to go beyond today to impact the future . read about how you can support us .\nfrom the amazon to the zambezi , from the tundra to the tierra del fuego the birdlife partnership is active in more than 120 countries worldwide . read more about our regional work .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\n8 cm . small hummingbird with short black bill . iridescent olive - green upperparts . male has violet - red throat . rest of underparts white . strongly forked tail . short , green central rectrices . longer outer rectrices blackish . female white tinged buff below , tail unforked , and rectrices tipped white .\nestades , c . , fjelds\u00e5 , j . , gonzalez - gomez , p . l . , howell , s . , jaramillo , a . & lebbin , d .\nbenstead , p . , capper , d . , sharpe , c j , symes , a . , taylor , j . & ashpole , j\nthis species is classified as critically endangered based on evidence that it is undergoing an extremely rapid population decline . urgent research and targeted conservation actions are now required to understand , halt and reverse this decline .\n, and there is a historical record as far south as northern antofagasta province , but there are no recent records for peru ( estades 2007 ) . it was described as very common in the first half of the 20th century , with over 100 seen feeding together . in the late 1980s , the species was noted as common in gardens in arica and regular in the lluta valley ; however , it has since disappeared from these areas , and it is now rare in the azapa valley , where it was once regular and common ( estades 2007 , a . jaramillo\n, while in 2007 the total population was estimated at around 1 , 200 individuals ( 55 % in azapa and 45 % in chaca ) ( c .\n2007 ) . recent information , however , suggests that the population of this species has since declined to around 500 individuals ( d . lebbin\n. 2012 ) . population estimates have shown that the azapa and chaca populations have reduced by 15 . 6 % annually ( 81 . 6 % ) in 10 years ( c . f . estades\n. 2013 ) . monthly searches for the species in all tacna valleys ( southern peru ) during 2008 - 2009 did not yield any records of this species ( n . hidalgo\n. 2013 ) . it has been speculated that the species could be lost from the azapa valley within a decade , and that the species could face extinction within two decades ( a . jaramillo\nit inhabits small remnant patches of native scrub in desert river valleys up to 750 m , but birds are occasionally reported above 2 , 000 m and once as high as 3 , 000 m ( j . fjelds\u00e5\n. despite the large numbers formerly seen feeding in flowering trees , it is usually a solitary feeder . active nests have been found in april , may , late august and september and there appear to be two annual peaks in breeding activity ( estades 2007 , estades\n. 2007 ) . it is likely that males display at leks . courtship territories are placed above dense thickets which are now scarce in azapa and v\u00edtor ( clark\nremaining native habitat in the narrow and heavily cultivated valleys inhabited by the species is confined to small patches , and the indigenous plants favoured by the species may be severely threatened . dense thickets , possibly used as courtship territories , are now scarce due to the spread of agricultural activities in azapa and v\u00edtor ( clark\n. 2013 ) . although it has adapted to use introduced plants the presence of certain native species may still be a limiting factor ( estades 2007 ) . the ' cha\u00f1ar ' tree\nmay be an important food resource but is often destroyed by farmers who consider it invasive and believe it attracts mice ( estades 2007 ) . pesticides began to be heavily used in the azapa valley in the 1960s in order to control the mediterranean fruit fly and other crop pests , but the peruvian sheartail\nhas not suffered similar declines , suggesting that this may not be the primary cause of its decline ( estades 2007 ) . competition with peruvian sheartail has been suggested as a potential threat , although this has not been proven ( estades\n. 2013 ) . the various threats of habitat destruction , pesticide use and competition with other hummingbirds are likely to be synergistic in their impacts on the species ( p . l . gonzalez - gomez\nthrough their monopolisation of the new resource ( p . l . gonzalez - gomez\nresearch genetic structure of populations . begin a habitat restoration program in the lluta , chaca and azapa valleys , ensuring that species whose flowers are visited regularly by\n. 2014 ) . conduct an education campaign to emphasize the importance of native plants , and encourage the planting of appropriate trees and bushes . continue population monitoring , as detailed in species recovery plan . limit the amount of pesticides used in azapa and chaca valleys . as the vast majority of the species ' s range is now privately owned , it has been recommended that some of this land be purchased to create pesticide - free , native plant reserves , with perhaps one in each valley inhabited by the species ( a . jaramillo\n( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22688244a112392683 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : eulidia yarrellii . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nlittle is known about the natural ecology of this small hummingbird . it is a solitary feeder and has been observed in gardens feeding on flowers of lantana spp . and hibiscus spp . ( 2 ) . nests containing eggs and chicks have been recorded in late august ( 2 ) .\nthis bird is currently restricted to the extreme northern reaches of chile . it is thought to be confined to just two valleys that contain suitable habitat ( 2 ) .\nfound in scrub in desert river valleys up to 750 metres above sea level ( 2 ) .\nclassified as endangered ( en \u2013 b1 + 2abce ) on the iucn red list 2002 ( 1 ) , and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) .\nfurther research into the natural ecology of this species is urgently required in order to understand the nature of resources needed to sustain the population . exports of hummingbirds from peru and chile are controlled ( 2 ) and this species is listed on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) ( 3 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nbirdlife international ( 2003 ) birdlife\u0092s online world bird database : the site for bird conservation . version 2 . 0 . cambridge , uk . birdlife international . available at : urltoken\nbbc natural history unit c / o bbc motion gallery getty images 101 bayham street london nw1 0ag united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 20 3227 2579 bbc . motiongallerysales @ urltoken urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nrelationships unclear ; usually placed in monotypic genus , as here , but external morphology and behaviour support treatment within myrtis . possible hybridization with thaumastura cora indicated # r . monotypic .\nn chile in lluta , azapa and vitor valleys ( arica ) ; historical record as far s as n antofagasta . few sight records in s peru ( tacna and possibly moquegua ) # r .\n7\u00b75\u20138 cm ; 2\u00b73\u20132\u00b76 g . male has short black bill ; upperparts iridescent olive green ; throat shining violet - red , underparts white ; central tail . . .\ncultivated desert river valleys and gardens from 200 m to 750 m , commonest below 400 m , with a . . .\nlittle known . nesting records are available from may , aug and sept , while an immature was collected in nov , and juveniles and partially . . .\npresumably sedentary for the most part , occasionally straggling s into n antofagasta , chile , but . . .\ncritically endangered . cites ii . a little - known , restricted - range species : present in peru - chile pacific slope eba . until 2000 ranked as vulnerable , and only uplisted to . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nmolecular studies # r # r indicate that genera myrtis , eulidia , rhodopis , thaumastura and chaetocercus form a monophyletic group that includes also calypte , archilochus and selasphorus .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\n- - natureserve explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50 , 000 plants , animals and ecological communtities of the u . s and canada . natureserve explorer provides in - depth information on rare and endangered species , but includes common plants and animals too . natureserve explorer is a product of natureserve in collaboration with the natural heritage network .\nitis reports - - itis ( the integrated taxonomic information system ) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants , animals , fungi , and microbes of north america and the world .\nfws digital media library - - the u . s . fish and wildlife service ' s national digital library is a searchable collection of selected images , historical artifacts , audio clips , publications , and video .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 297 , 431 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe atacama desert is a narrow strip of desert along the northwest coast of chile . it extends nearly 1600 km and reaches a maximum width of 180 km . in many areas rainfall has never been recorded . consequently , an extremely arid , almost barren , landscape predominates . despite the aridity of this desert , some cacti ( eulychnia ) , perennials ( nolana ) and mesquite ( prosopis ) occur in basins where occasional water accumulation occurs . relatively few animal species have adapted to this arid environment and therefore , faunal diversity and density is extremely low . even bacteria are scarce , and in many portions of the desert insects and fungi are absent . the intrinsic value of the atacama desert ' s plant and animal communities lies in the unique nature of their composition , the high levels of endemism and some species ' remarkable adaptations for survival in some of the planet ' s most demanding conditions .\ndescription location and general description the atacama desert ecoregion occupies a continuous strip for nearly 1 , 600 km along the narrow coast of the northern third of chile from near arica ( 18\u00b024 ' s ) southward to near la serena ( 29\u00b055 ' s ) ( dillon and a . e . hoffmann - j 1997 ) . this desert is a sparsely populated virtually rainless plateau , running east from the pacific ocean to the andes mountains . the average width is less than 100 km . the xeric conditions extend up to1 , 500 masl on the drier slopes ( b\u00f6rgel 1973 ) . the faulted coastal mountains ( mostly 500 - 1000 m high ) are composed of cretaceous sediments ( limestone and sandstone ) over more ancient masses of crystalline rocks ( lustig 1970 ) .\nthe atacama desert is considered to be one of the driest coastal deserts in the world . vegetation must contend with an annual rainfall of 0 . 6 mm in arica and 2 . 1 mm in iquique . the atacama becomes slightly less arid as it moves southward . the average monthly temperatures in iquique range from 14 . 5 oc in september to 21 oc in march ( dillon and a . e . hoffmann - j 1997 ) .\ntopography and substrate combine to influence the patterns of moisture availability and areas of suitable habitat . where isolated mountains or steep coastal slopes intercept the clouds , a fog zone develops with a stratus layer concentrated against the hillsides . the moisture allows the development of fog - zone plant communities termed\nlomas\n( small hills ) near the coast and in lower portions of numerous gorges (\nquebradas\n) between sea level and 1 , 100 m . these plant formations also have been called the fertile belt , fog oases or meadows on the desert . plant communities of the lomas consist of mixtures of annual and short - lived perennial and woody scrub vegetation .\nthe northern coastal zone has almost no vegetation . among some of the few plant species found in this zone are cacti growing over 500 m - eulychnia iquiquensis and copiapoa sp . near iquique , there is large community of tillandsia landbeckii growing at 990 - 1 , 100 m ( dillon and a . e . hoffmann - j 1997 ) . the valleys along streams support plant communities that are composed of trees prosopis chilensis , p . tamarugo , salix humboldtiana , schinus aareira , acacia macrantha and caesalpinia tinctoria and other shrubby and herbaceous plants ( roig 1999 ) . on slopes moistened by drizzle during the winter , sparse strands of tillandsia spp . may exist in association with a few lichens .\nnear the town of antofagastsa , the region is practically devoid of vegetation except for eulychnia iquiquensis and copiapoa sp . only some brush plants occur along the coastal plateaus , dependent for survival on the moisture of persistent fog , they include heliotropium pycnophyllum , ephedra breana and lycium deserti ( dillon and a . e . hoffmann - j 1997 ) . in places away from the area of fog formation , the desert is almost lifeless . in these areas , even decomposition does not occur . dead vegetation may be thousands of years old ( roig 1999 ) .\nthe southern atacama desert has a fog - zone vegetation with approximately 230 species of vascular plants . euphorbia lactiflua and eulychnia iquiquensis are dominant species in the central area of this zone . other shrubby species in the zone include echinopsis coquimbana , oxalis gigantea , lycium stenophyllum , proustia cuneifolia , croton chilensis , balbisia penduncularis and tillandsia geissei . bromeliads are also present along the coastal flats in this southern part , and include deuterocohni chrysantha and puya boliviensis ( dillon and a . e . hoffmann - j 1997 ) .\nthe southernmost area in the ecoregion is near cha\u00f1aral . this area has communities of shrubs such as skytnathus acutus , encelia canescens , frankenia chilensis , and nolana rostrata . annuals and perennials include perityle emoryi , oenothera coquimbensis , ademia latistipula , atragalus coquimbensis , cruckshanksia verticillata , fagonia chilensis and tetragonia angustifolia ( dillon and a . e . hoffmann - j 1997 ) .\nbiodiversity features the intrinsic value of the atacama desert ' s plant and animal communities lies in the unique nature of their composition , the high levels of endemism and some species ' remarkable adaptations for survival in some of the planet ' s most demanding conditions . the highly endemic flora is of particular importance . there are some traditional uses of species by the local inhabitants ( aronson 1990 ; bittmann 1988 ) , e . g . food from oxalis spp . , medicinals from salvia tubiflora and ephedra spp .\nthere are approximately 550 species of vascular plants representing 225 genera and 80 families in the lomas formations . the most diverse families are the asteraceae , nolanaceae , cataceae , boraginaceae , and apiaceae . endemism can be very high ( over 60 % ) ( rundel et al . 1991 ) . most of the plant species mentioned earlier are endemic to the atacama desert . three cacti are endemic to the northern part of the atacama desert ; they are eulychnia iquiquensis , neoporteria sensu and copiapoa sp . endemic shurbs of the ecoregion include berberis litoralis , anisomeria littoralis , atriplex taltalensis , adesmia viscidissima , croton chilensis , balbisia peduncularis , nicotiana solanifolia , teucrium nudicaule , monttea chilensis , stevia hyssopifolia , senecio almeidae , gutierrezia taltalensis and haploppus desrticula . endemic plants near tocopilla are malesherbia tocopillana , mathewsia collina and nolana tocopillensis ( dillon and a . e . hoffmann - j 1997 ) .\nunderstandably , very few animals have adapted to successfully inhabit this extremely dry habitat . the few scorpions and insects are the prey of lizards ( tropidurus spp . ) and of a small passerine of the genus geositta . an occasional bird of prey or vulture can be found scavenging on the carrion of domestic animals . mammals are equally few with a mouse ( phyllotis darwini ) and a fox ( pseudalopex griseus ) encountered periodically . the growth of a few scattered shrubs and herbaceous plants such as lichens enables certain specialized insects and poisonous spiders to colonize these deserts .\ncurrent status the region has been moderately affected by roads and mining operations . the northern area of the ecoregion has been especially affected by overgrazing of domestic livestock , collection of firewood , and commercial gathering of rare plants , including cacti and bulbs .\nsome nearby areas have archaeological importance . the beauty and rarity of the lomas formations provide opportunities for tourism combined with scientific studies . if the impact on the delicate communities is controlled through supervision , lomas formations can be enjoyed by the public and preserved . environmental education on the importance , rarity and the unusual characteristics of these natural resources is desperately needed . for example , quebrada el le\u00f3n needs some recuperation from overuse and could become a lasting and informative oasis as a nature reserve for residents of caldera and copiap\u00f3 ( dillon and a . e . hoffmann - j 1997 ) .\nthree protected areas exist within the extreme desert region . pan de az\u00facar national park ( established in 1986 , iucn category ii ) covers 438 km\u00b2 . it has been recommended ( anderson et al . 1990 ) that this park be expanded northward to include quebrada esmeralda ( 25\u00b050 ' s ) and quebrada de las lozas ( 25\u00b041 ' s ) , which would protect areas very rich in cacti . la chimba national reserve ( iucn category iv ) of 30 km\u00b2 was recently established and lies approximately 15 km north of antofagasta . pampa del tamarugal national reserve ( iucn category iv ) , 1 , 023 km\u00b2 in size , is one of the key areas for the conservation of the threatened tamarugo conebill ( conirostrum tamarugense ) .\ntypes and severity of threats a few port towns exist in this desert . iquique , caldera , and antofagasta are located on precarious sea - eroded terraces at the base of coastal cliffs . these towns are the outlet for the numerous mining centers in the interior tectonic basins . the wealth of the region lies in its mineral resources ( copper , sodium chloride , sodium nitrate , iodine salts ) , not in its spare biotic resources ( roig 1999 ) .\nmost threats to this ecoregion are closely associated with the few human population centers . specifically , these include increased urbanization , pollution , road construction , livestock grazing \u2013 ( numerous goats ) , fuelwood gathering , commercial plant collecting , and erosion .\nsince many sites have become accessible by road only recently ( i . e . , within the past 12 years ) , atacama ' s specialized ecosystems remained well preserved until recent times . road construction in association with mining operations is increasing human occupation in the region . with the rise in copper prices during the 1980s , reactivation of mining activities utilizing large quantities of sulphuric acid has had an essentially undocumented impact on terrestrial and marine life ( anderson et al . 1990 ) .\njustification of ecoregion delineation the atacama desert is distinguished as being one of the driest places in the americas \u2013 and said to resemble a lunar landscape . inititial delineation\u2019s followed di castri ( 1968 ) , however for the linework we followed simmonetti and montenegro ( 1994 ) to draw the northern and southern boundaries . eastern delineations follow the unesco ( 1980 ) boundary for the neighoring puna ecoregion in the high andes , and the western delineation is the pacific ocean .\nreferences anderson , e . f . , m . bonilla - f . , a . e . hoffmann - j . , and n . p . taylor . 1990 . succulent plant conservation studies and training in chile . world wildlife fund - u . s . , washington , d . c .\naronson , j . 1990 . desert plants of use and charm from northern chile . desert plants 10 ( 2 ) : 79 - 86 .\nbittmann , b . 1988 . recursos y supervivencia en el desierto de atacama . in masuda , s . , editors , recursos naturales andinos . tokyo : university of tokyo .\nb\u00f6rgel , r . 1973 . the coastal desert of chile . pages 111 - 114 in d . h . k . amiran , and a . w . wilson , editors . coastal deserts : their natural and human environments . tucson : university of arizona press .\ndi castri , f . 1968 . esquisse ecologique du chili . biologique de l ' amerique australe 4 . cnrs , paris , france .\ndillon , m . o . , and a . e . hoffmann - j . 1997 . lomas formations of the atacama desert northern chile . in s . d . davis , v . h . heywood , o . herrera - macbryde , j . villa - lobos , and a . c . hamilton , editors . centres of plant diversity : a guide and strategy for their conservation . wwf , iucn , oxford , u . k .\ndorst j . 1967 . south america and central america : a natural history . hamish hamilton , london .\nlustig , l . k . 1970 . appraisal of research on geomorphology and surface hydrology of desert environments . in w . g . mcginnies , b . j . goldman , and p . paylore , editors . deserts of the world : an appraisal of research into their physical and biological environments . university of arizona press , tucson .\nroig , v . 1999 . atacama desert . page 54 in m . e . mares , editor , encyclopedia of deserts . university of oklahoma press , norman .\nrundel , p . w . 1981 . the matorral zone of central chile . pages 175 - 201 in f . di castri , d . w . goodall , and r . l . specht , editors . ecosystems of the world vol . 11 . elsevier , amsterdam .\nsimmonetti , j . a . and g . montenegro . 1994 . conservation and use of biodiversity of the arid and semiarid zones of chile . presented at the international workshop\nconservaci\u00f3n y uso sostenible de la biodiversidad en zonas \u00e1ridas y semi\u00e1ridas de am\u00e9rica latina\n, march 1994 , guadalajara , mexico . unpublished document .\nworld wildlife fund 1250 24th street , n . w . washington , dc 20037\nthis discussion was first published as part of the 2013 red list update , but remains open for comment to enable reassessment in 2014 .\nfurther information is requested on the population trends , size and distribution of this species . comments on the proposed uplisting are welcome .\ncollar , n . j . , gonzaga , l . p . , krabbe , n . , madro\u00f1o nieto , a . , naranjo , l . g . , parker , t . a . and wege , d . c . ( 1992 ) threatened birds of the americas : the icbp / iucn red data book . international council for bird preservation : cambridge , u . k .\nwe have conducted monthly additional searches for the species in all tacna valleys ( south peru ) during 2008 - 2009 , this species was not recorded in any census . regards .\nthere is now a period for further comments until the final deadline of 31 march , after which recommended categorisations will be put forward to iucn .\nthe final red list categories will be published on the birdlife and iucn websites in mid - 2014 , following further checking of information relevant to the assessments by both birdlife and iucn .\nthe final categorisation will be published later in 2014 , following further checking of information relevant to the assessment by birdlife and iucn .\nwith stark cliff walls over 1 , 600 meters high , the chicamocha canyon is the deepest in colombia . unfortunately for biologists , its difficult terrain houses a number of endemic species . it was in order to confirm the presence of one of these species \u2013 nic\u00e9foro\u2019s wren thryophilus nicefori \u2013 that four biologists from calidris ( birdlife in colombia ) [ \u2026 ]\nmost businesses want to minimise their impact on the natural world \u2013 but it can be hard to know where to start . luckily , the process has just got a whole lot easier with the release of a new roadmap for companies operating in some of the most biologically significant places on the planet . the report , [ \u2026 ]\n\u201ca summit for the flyways\u201d united 100 different organisations from 70 different countries to address one problem : how to protect migratory birds on their incredible journey . and with millions of migratory birds passing through the middle east , it was the perfect opportunity to tackle regional issues , too . birdlife took advantage of the fact that conservation [ \u2026 ]\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it ."]}
{"id": 1769, "summary": [{"text": "thaumatopsis magnificus is a moth in the crambidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by fernald in 1891 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from new mexico , arizona and colorado .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 25 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are dull yellow with white stripes .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are uniform white .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing in june and july . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "thaumatopsis magnificus", "paragraphs": ["photographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nt . bolterellus forewing has dark gray lines between white stripes ; t . fernaldella and t . floridalis forewings have only one white stripe edged with black scales ; loxocrambus awemensis forewing has thin white lines , not thick stripes ( compare images of these and related species at mpg here and here )\ndistribution and dates ( frank haimbach , academy of natural sciences of philadelphia , archive . org )\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\nthis article was sourced from creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . world heritage encyclopedia content is assembled from numerous content providers , open access publishing , and in compliance with the fair access to science and technology research act ( fastr ) , wikimedia foundation , inc . , public library of science , the encyclopedia of life , open book publishers ( obp ) , pubmed , u . s . national library of medicine , national center for biotechnology information , u . s . national library of medicine , national institutes of health ( nih ) , u . s . department of health & human services , and urltoken , which sources content from all federal , state , local , tribal , and territorial government publication portals ( . gov , . mil , . edu ) . funding for urltoken and content contributors is made possible from the u . s . congress , e - government act of 2002 .\ncrowd sourced content that is contributed to world heritage encyclopedia is peer reviewed and edited by our editorial staff to ensure quality scholarly research articles .\nby using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy . world heritage encyclopedia\u2122 is a registered trademark of the world public library association , a non - profit organization .\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from project gutenberg are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department ."]}
{"id": 1772, "summary": [{"text": "stomopteryx gaesata is a moth of the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by meyrick in 1913 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in the taurus mountains in asia minor .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it has also been recorded from india .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 27 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are pale whitish-ochreous with the basal third of the costal edge dark fuscous .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the veins are tinged with brownish , on the posterior half of the wing marked with lines of scattered dark fuscous scales , towards the apex and upper part of the termen enlarged and connected by some suffused dark fuscous irroration .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is a strong black streak along the fold from near the base to near the middle of the wing , and one in the disc from above the apex of this to three-fourths , these representing the stigmata .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are grey . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "stomopteryx gaesata", "paragraphs": ["stomopteryx mongolica piskunov , 1975 ; ( ? preocc . stomopteryx mongolica povoln\u00fd , 1975 )\ninotica gaesata meyrick , 1913 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 3 ) : 66 ; tl : asia minor , taurus mts\nstomopteryx difficilis janse , 1951 ; moths s . afr . 5 ( 3 ) : 247\nstomopteryx flavipalpella j\u00e4ckh , 1959 ; boll . soc . ent . ital . 89 : 85\nstomopteryx ochrosema meyrick , 1932 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 80 : 131\nstomopteryx officiosa janse , 1951 ; moths s . afr . 5 ( 3 ) : 250\nstomopteryx pallidipes janse , 1951 ; moths s . afr . 5 ( 3 ) : 252\nstomopteryx trachyphylla janse , 1960 ; moths s . afr . 6 ( 2 ) : 223\nstomopteryx ( stomopteryx ) mongolica povoln\u00fd , 1975 ; ann . hist . - nat . mus . nat . hung . 67 : 177 ; tl : ch\u00f6vsg\u00f6l aimak , 4km nw m\u00f6r\u00f6n , 1500m\nstomopteryx nugatricella rebel , 1893 ; stettin ent . ztg 54 ( 1 - 3 ) : 50\nstomopteryx hungaricella gozm\u00e1ny , 1957 ; acta zool . hung . 3 ( 1 - 2 ) : 111\nstomopteryx maledicta meyrick , 1921 ; zool . meded . leyden 6 : 162 ; tl : java , pekalongan\nstomopteryx prolapsa meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 5 ) : 137 ; tl : ceylon , puttalam\nstomopteryx rastrifera meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 5 ) : 137 ; tl : ceylon , puttalam\nstomopteryx neftensis ; karsholt & rutten , 2005 , tijdschr . ent . 148 ( 1 ) : 80 ( note )\nstomopteryx subnigricella ; karsholt & rutten , 2005 , tijdschr . ent . 148 ( 1 ) : 80 ( note )\nstomopteryx bathrarcha meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 76 ; tl : rhodesia , sawmills\nstomopteryx kermella chr\u00e9tien , 1915 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . 84 : 328 ; tl : a\u00efn - kerma ( constantine )\nstomopteryx quadripunctella chr\u00e9tien , 1915 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . 84 : 327 ; tl : a\u00efn - sefra ( oran )\nstomopteryx basalis ; [ nhm card ] ; sumpich & skyva , 2012 , nota lepid . 35 ( 2 ) : 173 ; [ fe ]\nstomopteryx flavoclavella zerny , 1935 ; m\u00e9m . soc . sci . nat . maroc . 42 : 139 , pl . 2 , f . 21\nstomopteryx nigricella ; [ nhm card ] ; karsholt & rutten , 2005 , tijdschr . ent . 148 ( 1 ) : 80 ( note )\nstomopteryx orthogonella ; [ nhm card ] ; bidzilya & karsholt , 2013 , nota lepid . 36 ( 1 ) : 78 ; [ fe ]\nstomopteryx frivola meyrick , 1926 ; ann . s . afr . mus . 23 : 330 ; tl : cape province , sneeuw kop , wellington , 5000ft\nstomopteryx phaeopa meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 5 ) : 136 ; tl : peru , oroya ( 12200ft ) , huancayao ( 10650ft )\nstomopteryx praecipitata meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 5 ) : 137 ; tl : kanara , kumbarvada ; bombay , belgaum ; bengal , pusa\nstomopteryx biangulata meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 77 ; tl : british s . e . africa , bela vista\nstomopteryx radicalis falkovitsh & bidzilya , 2003 ; proc . zool . mus . kiev nat . taras shevchenko univ . 1 ( 1 ) : ( 113 - 147 )\nstomopteryx gaesata ( meyrick ) , little known species in van and bitlis provinces ( lepidoptera , gelechiidae ) . cesa news 104 : 1 - 4 , 5 figs . faunistical notes on the species of stizus latreille in south and east turkey ( hymenoptera , crabronidae ) . cesa news 104 : 5 - 7 , 4 figs . announcement of an unethical statement in the orthopterology . cesa news 104 : 8 , 2 figs . a preliminary list of the pterygota of mus province , based upon the info - system of the cesa ( east turkey ) . cesa news 104 : 9 - 69 , 1 fig . , 18 . . .\nparapsectris anxia meyrick , 1917 ; ann . s . afr . mus . 17 ( 1 ) : 4 ; tl : cape colony , prince albert\nargodoris ( meyrick , 1936 ) ( gelechia ) ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 2 ) : 43\nanacampsis bivittella chr\u00e9tien , 1915 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . 84 : 324 ; tl : gafsa ; tunisia\naristotelia bolschewickiella caradja , 1920 ; dt . ent . z . iris 34 ( 1 / 2 ) : 109\nanacampsis circaea meyrick , 1911 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 1 ) : 67 ; tl : haenertsburg\nanacampsis cirrhocoma meyrick , 1914 ; ann . transv . mus . 4 ( 4 ) : 193 ; tl : [ s . africa , ] new hanover\nleuronoma credula meyrick , 1927 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 11 ) : 343 ; tl : s . rhodesia , shangani\nacraeologa delotypa janse , 1963 ; moths s . afr . 6 ( 3 ) : 255 ; tl : transvaal\nacraeologa descarpentriesella viette , 1956 ; nat . malgache 8 ( 2 ) : 223\nlarva on deverra scoparia walsingham , 1905 , ent . mon . mag . 41 : 124\ndiscolorella turati , 1924 ; atti soc . ital . sci . nat . 63 : 164 , pl . 6 , f . 7\ngelechia elachistella stainton , 1859 ; ann . mag . nat . hist ( 3 ) 3 : 213 ; tl :\nnorthern dezerta\nanacampsis elaeocoma meyrick , 1918 ; ann . transv . mus . 6 ( 2 ) : 19 ; tl : transvaal , pretoria\nleuronoma eremopis meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 67 ; tl : transvaal , pretoria\nfalkovitshi piskunov , 1987 ; zool . zh . 65 ( 1 ) : 149\nanacampsis geryella chr\u00e9tien , 1915 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . 84 : 323 ; tl : g\u00e9ryville , oran\nacraeologa grandidierella viette , 1956 ; nat . malgache 8 ( 2 ) : 222\nunipunctella turati , 1924 ; atti soc . ital . sci . nat . 63 : 166 , pl . 6 , f . 10\nlita lineolella eversmann , 1844 ; fauna lep . volgo - uralensis . . . : 584\ngelechia luticoma meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 16 ) : 489 ; tl : bombay , kaira\nmaculatella ( lucas , 1956 ) ( deuterotinea ) ; bull . soc . sci . nat . maroc 35 : 258\nanacampsis maraschella caradja , 1920 ; dt . ent . z . iris 34 ( 1 / 2 ) : 107 ; tl : marasch\nsymmoca multilineatella lucas , 1932 ; bull . soc . ent . fr . 37 : 168 ; tl : a\u00efn - leuch\nbryotropha nigricella chr\u00e9tien , 1915 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . 84 : 316 ; tl : biskra\nanacampsis oncodes meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 285 ; tl : three sisters\ngelechia orthogonella staudinger , 1871 ; berl . ent . z . 14 ( 3 / 4 ) : 307\nplurivittella ( turati , 1930 ) ( kahelia ) ; atti soc . ital . sci . nat . 69 : 81\nyunusemrei ko\u00e7ak , 1986 ; priamus 4 ( 1 - 2 ) : 58 ( repl . gelechia submissella frey , 1880 )\ntelphusa schizogynae walsingham , [ 1908 ] ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1907 : 936 , pl . 51 , f . 12 ; tl : tenerife , puerto orotava\nlarva on ( in stem galls ) schizogyne sericea walsingham , [ 1908 ] , proc . zool . soc . lond . 1907 : 936\nsphenodoxa meyrick , 1931 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 2 - 4 ) : 63\nanacampsis splendens staudinger , 1881 ; horae soc . ent . ross . 16 : 90\nbryotropha subnigricella dufrane , 1955 ; mem . soc . ent . belg . 27 : 191\nsymplegadopa meyrick , 1936 ; dt . ent . z . iris 50 : 158 [ ? ]\ntenuisignella turati , 1924 ; atti soc . ital . sci . nat . 63 : 164 , pl . 6 , f . 8\ntesserapunctella ( amsel , 1935 ) ( gelechia ) ; mitt . zool . mus . berl . 20 ( 2 ) : 300\nanacampsis thoracica meyrick , 1911 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 1 ) : 67 ; tl : haenertsburg\nacraeologa xanthobasalis janse , 1963 ; moths s . afr . 6 ( 3 ) : 255 ; tl : transvaal\nacraeologa xerochroa meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 66 ; tl : transvaal , pretoria\nzanoni turati , 1922 ; atti soc . ital . sci . nat . 61 : 175\n[ afromoths ] de prins , j . & de prins , w . , 2013\nsangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\ndie schmetterlinge deutschlands und der schweiz . 2 . abteilung , kleinschmetterlinge . 2 . die motten und federmotten\nsystematische bearbeitung der schmetterlinge von europa , zugleich als text , revision und supplement zu j . h\u00fcbner ' s sammlung europ\u00e4ischer schmetterlinge , die schaben und federmotten , ( 1847 - ) 1853 - 1855 )\nnotes on lepidoptera collected in madeira by t . v . wollaston , esq . ; with descriptions of some new species\nzerny , 1935 ; zerny , 1936 die lepidopterenfauna des grossen atlas in marokko und seiner randgebiete m\u00e9m . soc . sci . nat . maroc . 42 : 1 - 163 , pl . 1 - 2\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nif you know the species , please , click on the picture and write the species name in comments section . also , you can go to the gallery page with all photos of anacampsini sp . ( large size ) .\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\npreliminary list of the lepidoptera of posof district ( ardahan province , ne turkey ) . cesa news 156 :\nshort notes on the vernal lepidoptera fauna of beyba\u011f\u0131 near darende ( malatya province , east turkey ) .\nobservations and notes on hymenoptera and coleoptera of bah\u00e7esaray district ( van province , east turkey ) .\nobservations and notes on planipennia , mecoptera and odonata of bah\u00e7esaray district ( van province , east turkey ) .\non the moths of mutki district ( bitlis province , east turkey ( lepidoptera ) .\npreliminary list of the moths recorded from erek mountain ( van province , east turkey ) .\n, a new species for the fauna of turkey ( lepidoptera , noctuidae ) .\nobservations and faunistic notes on some diptera of bah\u00e7esaray district ( van province , east turkey ) .\nobservations and faunistic notes on some hemiptera and homoptera of bah\u00e7esaray district ( van province , east turkey ) .\non the vernal lepidoptera fauna of nizip - birecik districts \u0096 euphrates region in south turkey .\nfirst list of the scientific names referring to the geographical entities based upon the info - system of the cesa ii . lepidoptera .\nfaunistic records of depressariidae ( lepidoptera , gelechioidea ) from turkey - a result of studies for \u0084microlepidoptera of europe : depressariinae\u0093 .\nsome vernal lepidoptera of se turkey , faunistical results of a short trip made in 2017 with some taxonomic and bionomic notes .\nnew and little known pyraloidea of turkey , with some faunistical notes ( lepidoptera ) .\nthe updated check list of dolichopodidae of morocco ( diptera ) . cesa news 128 : 1 - 8 .\nsecond contribution to the knowledge of the pterygota fauna of bah\u00e7esaray ( van province , east turkey ) .\nannotated list of the pterygota fauna of artos mountain ( van province , east turkey ) .\non the entomofauna of the eastern slopes of alacabuk mountain ( gevas district , van province , east turkey ) .\nnew and little known tortricidae for the fauna of east turkey ( lepidoptera ) .\ninterpretative notes on the species of the genus ennomos treitschke in turkey ( lepidoptera , geometridae ) .\nnew faunistical records of stygia mosulensis daniel in turkey and nomenclatural comment on the subfamily stygiinae ( lepidoptera , cossidae ) .\nwinter aspects of some classical localities of the lepidoptera between van and ankara ( turkey ) , with faunal lists based upon the info - system of the cesa .\n, notes on two species of geometridae from hatay province ( s . turkey ) ( lepidoptera ) .\nfirst list of the scientific names referring to the geographical entities based upon the info - system of the cesa i .\n( led . ) in south turkey ( lepidoptera , gelechioidea ) . cesa news 106 : 5 - 12 , 10 figs . 1 map .\npreliminary list of the pterygota of mu\u015f province , based upon the info - system of the cesa ( east turkey ) .\nnotes on platycleis ( squamiana ) irritans ramme in van province ( east turkey ) ( orthoptera , tettigoniidae ) . cesa news 102 : 1 - 4 , 8 figs .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : fc65455a - d6f1 - 483b - b0b9 - 9132d9509975\nfauna of the family dolichopodidae ( diptera ) of the vorona river basin . cesa news 102 : 5 - 12 .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 8aa65b0b - aced - 43f5 - 94b8 - 34b27c927495\nof hatay province ( s . turkey ) , based upon the info - system of the cesa .\nhampson , 1896 \u0096 a new genus and species for the palaearctic fauna ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) . cesa news 101 : 1 - 6 , 5 figs .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 0cf4e7a6 - 03ca - 4cb2 - ae03 - dadba388b2e9\n, an annotated list of the sarcophaginae ( sarcophagidae ) recorded in ukraine ( diptera ) . cesa news 101 : 7 - 81 .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 1a83780d - 37a9 - 4bef - 9e50 - 4d8c9d6a26ea\nshort entomo - faunistical visit to bey da\u011f\u0131 natural park , malatya province ( east turkey ) .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : a826e635 - 79c1 - 4320 - 8894 - 5a7cc116ddbc\ntogether with the recorded pterygots , based upon the info - system of the cesa .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 35e196f4 - 5696 - 445b - 800d - 73afdc64c44d\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : f1f3956d - 56bf - 42be - 9b2b - 8a4a2301731d\nplanned faunistical survey on the lepidoptera of erci\u015f district ( van province , east turkey ) .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : f9e880c0 - 524c - 4915 - 878f - d9fb86c39e03\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 7f18e360 - e697 - 4f93 - a4eb - 9111315ef6ca\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : a0fe9c6e - fcf1 - 44c9 - 98a6 - 980837aa220b\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 96c04d90 - 77d1 - 4c6d - 9179 - b5fad3a9fa08\nresults of the two entomological trips in summer around van lake ( east turkey ) .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 49c4031a - 07a4 - 44aa - b3a0 - 7ba8fc41b024\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 0d3e96a2 - 659b - 4c53 - b79b - 609d22c1bcda\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 77d11419 - 6b20 - 423d - b807 - cd13a4d823a2\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 6f16c9dd - 208f - 42c9 - 87d5 - 39dd607d947a\nof van lake basin ( east turkey ) i . on the species of the hemiptera of artos mountain .\nresults of the late summer entomological trip from van to ankara in 2013 ( insecta , pterygota ) .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 74ab0027 - bed2 - 4403 - ad0a - b2b831ee998d\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 429907e5 - cb6a - 4a91 - 895f - f1532e56290d\n) in van province ( east turkey ) with faunistical , ecological and taxonomical notes including accompanied species .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 6793f0bc - 5b72 - 4536 - 9429 - 9be4ee8ae9e9\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 35e8dc48 - 58e0 - 47af - 94ba - 6eee2cc73694\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 7fd42315 - 8674 - 4699 - bcaf - aa63bc4cb6bc\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : c798f0e2 - 2e63 - 470d - a43b - da2f6ed2eaf0\nre - description of male and first record of syntormon filiger verrall from mongolia ( diptera , dolichopodidae ) . cesa news 90 : 18 - 21 , 6 figs .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : a434ed1a - 4be8 - 4a8a - b47a - 5957a5de478c\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 687d12a4 - e09a - 483c - 890a - 983b6580cea8\nmongolia ( dolichopodidae , diptera ) . cesa news 89 : 3 - 6 , 5 figs .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : b0ac1107 - cd2b - 4e27 - 873e - a2ce8ea4268e\nin the palaearctic region and a new synonym ( diptera : dolichopodidae ) . cesa news 89 : 6 - 8 , figs .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : aad625c4 - a5d0 - 4975 - a9fc - ee186d76ce0d\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 34a5db12 - bd86 - 407b - b30f - d8c42b386092\nregrettable case for the lepidopterology caused by a dipterist \u0096 a report on an article , published in an university journal in turkey .\non two hibernating beetle species in van province ( east turkey ) ( coleoptera , malachiidae , elateridae ) .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : ad4d4534 - f906 - 403d - 80c5 - 790b17867a6c\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : d7a5e6f0 - f843 - 4ede - a34f - 1901b77a0ddc\non the dolichopodidae fauna of sierra leone ( diptera ) . cesa news 84 : 1 - 11 , 26 figs .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : b52deaf6 - 34f1 - 4515 - 86f4 - c2a39d6ed9a3\nrevised list of the scientific names referring to the persons based upon the info - system of the cesa 1 - lepidoptera .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 61133ca2 - 95de - 4125 - b41a - f8811682a160\n( f . ) in van province of east turkey ( crabronidae , hymenoptera ) .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : e7795a2c - e924 - 4162 - aa34 - bcc146dc5e9c\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 8b73299b - 2c5c - 49f0 - bca1 - 8969030253df\nnumber of the species of the lepidoptera fauna of the selected countries with sample lists of some classical localities in the old world .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : c3732dd8 - d448 - 4aa5 - 9b70 - 47cba54fb3bc\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 8937c6bd - 6157 - 49c0 - a355 - 3162b0f07fee\n, 2012 , nomenclatural correction in the family pentatomidae ( hemiptera ) . cesa news 82 : 14 .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 9740ddf6 - 2c77 - 4505 - 8378 - a7b541c438af\nlist of two thousand species of pterygot insects in van province ( east turkey ) ( results of the entomofauna project of turkey \u0096 7 ) .\nsynonymical and distributional checklist of african lepidoptera published recently in cent . ent . stud . , memoirs 5 : 1 -\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 90ab5b0a - 7f6e - 442e - be7d - 0a863eaab90a\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : c6f9646c - 955f - 406e - 9620 - a7f1f42ec1a2\na new species and subgenus of the lasiocampidae for the fauna of turkey ( lepidoptera ) . cesa news 76 :\noccurrence of stiphrometasia monialis in northern pakistan ( lepidoptera , pyralidae ) . cesa news 76 : 2 - 4 , 2 figs\ndescription of female and new records of shamshevia hoanibensis grichanov from namibia ( diptera , dolichopodidae ) - cesa news 75 : 6 - 7 , 2 figs .\ninsect life in turkey at night . i - upper dez valley , hakkari province , se turkey ( lepidoptera ) .\n2011 , notes on the insecta in the collection of the cesa lepidoptera of turkey - iii . cesa news 68 : 1 - 17 , 21 figs .\n2011 , notes on the insecta in the collection of the cesa lepidoptera of turkey - ii . cesa news 67 : 1 - 26 .\n2011 , notes on the insecta in the collection of the cesa lepidoptera of turkey - i . cesa news 66 : 1 - 37 .\n2011 , editorial letter about cesa activities and the van earthquake on 23 october 2011 .\n2011 , amorphoscelis pantherina roy ( amorphoscelidae , mantodea ) : new family , genus and species to the fauna of turkey . cesa news 63 : 8\u00969 , 2 figs .\non the nocturnal spring moths of kulp district ( diyarbak\u0131r prov . , se turkey ) ( lepidoptera ) .\n2011 , caryedon angeri ( semenov ) , new to siirt province ( s . e . turkey ) feeding on mesquit , prosopis farcta ( b . & s . ) macbride ( coleoptera , bruchidae ) . cesa news 63 : 20\u009625 , 9 figs .\nspring aspect of the pterygot insect fauna of mutki ( bitlis province , south east turkey ) .\nmiscellaneous notes on the pterygot insects of kato mountains with illustrations their spring aspects ( south east turkey ) .\non the synonymy of newly proposed two replacement names in the family limoniidae ( diptera ) . cesa news 54 : 36 .\nlist of the coleopteran genera and species recorded in turkey based upon the info - system of the cesa .\nlist of the hymenopteran genera and species recorded in turkey based upon the info - system of the cesa .\nrevised list of the species of the lepidoptera carrying vernacular names in turkish language .\nlist of the dipteran genera and species recorded in turkey based upon the info - system of the cesa .\n, the neotropical mantids ( insecta : dictyoptera : mantodea ) ( ehrmann \u0096 30 . v . 2009 ) .\n. , katbeh - bader , a . , otoom , m . a . & othman , y . , 2009 ,\nresults of the entomofauna projects of the cesa 6 - list of the 11132 pterygot insect species of turkey hitherto recorded in the database of the cesa .\nreport on the \u0093entomofauna of old world\u0094 2 - index of the recorded species of the pterygot insects in the continent africa .\n: occurence of a gynandromorph butterfy in i\u0307stanbul province ( n . w . turkey ) . -\nreport on the \u0093entomofauna of turkey\u0094 5 - revised and expanded index of the species of the pterygot insects of turkey . -\naudouin & brull\u00e9 in south east turkey ( coleoptera , cicindelidae ) \u0096 cesa news 41 : 1 - 4 , 5 figs .\nreport on the \u0093entomofauna of turkey\u0094 4 - revised and expanded index of the species of the pterygot insects of turkey . -\nreport on the \u0093entomofauna of turkey\u0094 3 - revised and expanded index of the recorded genera and species of the pterygot insects of turkey .\nreport on the \u0093entomofauna of turkey\u0094 2 - index of the recorded species of the pterygot insects of turkey .\ndancing behaviours of an unknown \u0093pith moth\u0094 species in north thailand ( lepidoptera , cosmopterigidae ) .\nbrief field notes on the insecta observed in south and east turkey in late august 2008 . cesa news 30 : 1 - 17 , 27 figs .\nillustration of choreutis muhabbet ko\u00e7ak , 2008 described in miscellaneous paper nr . 142 pages 6 - 7 of the cesa . cesa news 30 : 17 , 1 fig .\non the late summer butterflies of artos mountain ( van province , east turkey ) .\nlist of the butterflies of the k\u0131rklareli province ( n . w . turkey ) .\n2008 , illustrated notes on the entomological trips to various provinces of east turkey - ii . kop da\u011f\u0131 and vauk da\u011f\u0131 ( erzurum and g\u00fcm\u00fc\u015fhane provinces ) .\n2008 , illustrated notes on the entomological trips to various provinces of east turkey - i . tahir pass ( a\u011fr\u0131 province ) .\n2008 , notes on some rare planipennia species in east turkey ( neuroptera , myrmeleonidae , ascalaphidae , nemopteridae ) .\n2008 , list of the lepidoptera of mardin province ( south east turkey ) with some faunistical remarks .\nof kulp district with new faunal records ( diyarbak\u0131r province , east turkey ) .\nof \u015firvan with new faunal records to siirt province and turkey ( s . e . turkey ) .\nnew record of neurergus crocatus ( cope , 1862 ) in south east turkey ( salamandridae , caudata ) .\nspring aspect of the nocturnal lepidoptera fauna of \u015firvan district ( siirt province ) ( south east turkey ) .\nspring aspect of the diurnal lepidoptera fauna of \u015firvan district ( siirt province ) ( south east turkey ) .\nvan g\u00f6l\u00fc havzas\u0131nda kelebek \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fi [ diversity of the butterflies in van lake basin east turkey ] .\nfirst scientific trip to the south west van lake region ( 6 - 8 march , 2008 ) .\ninformation about the scientific activities of the cesa in africa . a short note on the studies of the lepidoptera on the soutpansberg mountains ( limpopo , south africa ) .\nillustrations concerning the activities in 2005 on research and education in chiang mai university north thailand . part ii - chiang mai university campus and educational activities ( chiang mai thailand ) .\ndiversity of the lepidoptera in the world ( dlw ) , a project supported by the cesa .\nscientific note : on the early stages of princeps demoleus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) in south east turkey ( lepidoptera , papilionidae ) .\nimages from the cesa expeditions and studies within the frame of the cesa project diversity of the lepidoptera in the world ( dlw ) .\ncontributions to the hemiptera fauna of van lake basin ( east turkey ) i . on the species of the hemiptera of artos mountain . cesa news 94 : 1 - 30 , 39 figs . this paper deals with the hemipteran species of artos mount in van province . this is the first part of the hemiptera fauna of van lake basin . totally , 61 taxa of 13 families are given . families and number of their species recorded are as follows ; gerridae ( 1 ) , reduviidae ( 3 ) , tingidae ( 1 ) , nabidae ( 1 ) , miridae ( 9 ) , scutelleridae ( 5 ) , . . .\ntopics : cotton - - diseases and pests - - arizona , hemiptera - - control - - arizona , insecticides .\ncesa , a scientific consortium , independent research centre , museum , library , as well as biological station and research laboratory ( bsrl ) . cesa news presents information about the scientific activities of the cesa , including announcements , general news , expeditions , publications , visitors , seminars , workshops etc . at irregular intervals .\nvol ser . 2 : no . 103 : the harlequin cabbage bug . ( murgantia histrionica hahn . )\nchittenden , f . h . ( frank hurlbut ) , 1858 - 1929 ; united states . bureau of entomology ; united states . dept . of agriculture\ntopics : hemiptera\n,\npertin _ nce\n,\npertin - nce _ show\n,\ntechno\n, . . .\nbritish museum ( natural history ) . dept . of zoology ; dallas , w . s . ( william sweetland ) , 1824 - 1890 ; gray , john edward , 1800 - 1875\ntopics : crithidia - - growth & development , trypanosoma - - growth & development , physiology , . . .\npterygot insects of afghanistan . a tentative synonymic list of the species known in afghanistan ( results of the entomofauna of the world , based upon infosystem of the cesa ) . priamus ( suppl . ) 19 : 1 - 98 . in this study , totally 2456 species are listed in two parts . synonymous names are arranged chronologically . range of each species is given as codes . selected orders with their number of species listed in this article are as follows : mantodea ( 17 ) , orthoptera ( 94 ) , hemiptera ( 42 ) , homoptera ( 158 ) , . . .\ntopics : mantodea , orthoptera , hemiptera , homoptera , planipennia , lepidoptera , diptera , hymenoptera , . . .\nour long format series reboots with a renewed focus on live experimentation . there couldn ' t be a better way to kick this off than a fresh session from hemiptera , a duo driven to explore textural techno and visceral sound design .\ntwo live set made by hemiptera during their trip in quebec canada summer 2009 .\ntopics : hemiptera\n,\nminimal\n,\ntechno\n,\npertin - nce\n, . . .\n' ' . . . five - track hemiptera ep created entirely on hardware during our winter in the desolate red rock area of arizona . ' ' label : pertin - nce cat . number : pertin - nce _ 042 artist : hemiptera title : indisposition track listing : 1 . analysis 2 . consciousness lost 3 . exploration 4 . indisposition 5 . return sounds like : minimal , experimental , techno , house\ntopics : minimal\n,\ntechno\n,\nexperimental\n,\nhouse\n, . . .\nvol v . 22 1913 - 14 : supplementum catalogi hemipterorum bruxellensis . ii . coreidae , pyrrhocoridae , colobathristidae , neididae\ntopics : neididae , colobathristidae , pyrrhocoridae , coreidae , heteroptera , hemiptera , insecta , insect , . . .\ntopics : aerial spraying and dusting in agriculture - - arizona , cotton - - diseases and pests - - control - - arizona , . . .\nkemal , m . , celikkaya , d . , bozaci , v . & a . o . kocak , 2009 , stray notes on the insects of the vicinity izmir ( west turkey ) . cesa news 47 : 1 - 42 , 71 figs . announcement of cesa publications - abstracts of the miscellaneous papers nr . 147 - 148 . cesa news 47 : 43 - 45 . announcement of cesa publications \u00e2 documentary films published by the cesa . cesa news 47 : 45 - 46 . kocak , a . o . & m . kemal , 2009 , results of the entomofauna projects of the cesa 6 - list of the 11132 pterygot insect species of turkey . . .\ntopics : orthoptera , mantodea , hemiptera , lepidoptera , diptera , hymenoptera , coleoptera , fauna , izmir , . . .\nrg e vol ix , 85 91 . nuevas citas de asopinae de la pen . ib\u00e9rica\nresumen : se dan a conocer nuevas citas para la pen\u00ednsula ib\u00e9rica de rhacognathus punctatus ( linnaeus 1758 ) , jalla dumosa ( linnaeus 1758 ) y picromerus nigridens ( fabricius 1803 ) , especies de las que constan pocos registros ib\u00e9ricos .\ntopics : hemiptera , pentatomidae , asopinae , nuevas citas , rhacognatus punctatus , picromerus nigridens , jalla . . .\nlabel : pertin - nce catalogue number : [ pertin - nce _ 046 ] artist : emmanuel buchanan title : resort vacations track listing : 1 - a year of weirds 2 - so low 3 - 67 castles 4 - got no tatoos 5 - so low part 2 6 - a year of weirds ( hemiptera remix ) 7 - so low ( extended version ) sounds like : techno , minimal support via bandcamp : urltoken note : pertin - nce\u2019s latest release by emmanuel buchanan offers less conceptual flavor compared to its usual repertoire , and veers into more crowd . . .\nlabel : pertin _ nce cat number : pertin _ 38 artist : hemiptera release title : nola head crack track listing : 1 - blowin through 2 - ilixr 3 - crackdown 4 - pas des beignets 5 - plessytone sounds like : techno , minimal , drums drums drums , weird note : this is a ' ' pay what you want ' ' release . if you want you can show your gratitude by making a donation right here : urltoken enjoy !\ntopics : nola\n,\nhead\n,\ncrack\n,\nhemiptera\n,\npertin _ 38\n, . . .\ntopics : hemiptera , lygaeidae , lepidoptera , papilionoidea , hesperiidae , noctuidae , agrochola , fauna , . . .\ntopics : georgia , caucasus , fauna , flora , lepidoptera , diptera , hymenoptera , coleoptera , homoptera , . . .\ntopics : pertin - nce _ 022\n,\npertin - nce\n,\npertin _ nce\n,\nhemiptera\n, . . .\nobservation on a klepto - parasitic species at posof ( diptera , milichiidae ; hymenoptera , apidae ; aranea , thomisidae ) ( ne turkey ) [ in turkish ] occurence of colotis fausta in south east turkey ( lepidoptera , pieridae ) two andricus species new to bitlis province ( se turkey ) ( hymenoptera , cynipidae ) [ in turkish ] . on the genera baizongia rond . and slavum mord . in se turkey ( hemiptera , aphididae ) [ in turkish ] . reminder by the editor .\ntopics : diptera , lepidoptera , hymenoptera , hemiptera , milichiidae , pieridae , cynipidae , aphididae , . . .\na short entomo - faunistical visit to bey dagi natural park , malatya province ( east turkey ) . cesa news 100 : 1 - 16 , 28 figs . this short paper deals with the results of a short faunistical visit to newly established natural park bey dagi in malatya province , east turkey . totally , 29 taxa of 19 families and 9 pterygot orders are evaluated faunistically . nine species are reported here as new records for malatya province . most of the species are also illustrated in nature .\ntopics : lepidoptera , odonata , mantodea , orthoptera , hemiptera , homoptera , diptera , hymenoptera , coleoptera , . . .\ninitial list of the pterygota of malatya province , based upon the info - system of the cesa ( east turkey ) . cesa news 105 : 1 - 150 , 30 figs . , 58 maps .\ntopics : pterygota , odonata , plecoptera , mantodea , dermaptera , orthoptera , homoptera , hemiptera , . . .\nresults of the late summer entomological trip from van to ankara in 2013 ( insecta , pterygota ) . cesa news 93 : 1 - 37 , figs . in the provinces of kirsehir , kayseri , sivas , bingol , some diurnal species were recorded or observed in august of the following nine pterygot orders , together with the numbers of their reported families : dermaptera ( 1 ) , orthoptera ( 1 ) , hemiptera ( 5 ) , homoptera ( 2 ) , planipennia ( 1 ) , lepidoptera ( 12 ) , diptera ( 4 ) , hymenoptera ( 10 ) , coleoptera ( 4 ) . among them , totally 35 . . .\ntopics : turkey , iran , fauna , lepidoptera , orthoptera , hemiptera , homoptera , planipennia , diptera , . . .\nvan duzee , edward p . ( edward payson ) , 1861 - 1940 ; canadian arctic expedition ( 1913 - 1918 )\noriginal issued in series : report of the canadian arctic expedition , 1913 - 1918 ; v . 3 . , pt . f\ntopics : canadian arctic expedition ( 1913 - 1918 ) , canadian arctic expedition ( 1913 - 1918 ) , insects , hemiptera , . . .\ntopics : insecta , hemiptera , heteroptera , taxonomy , systematics , biodiversity , new taxa , descriptions , new . . .\nkemal , m . , bakan , b . m . yalcin , 2013 , graphosoma ( graphosomella ) inexpectatum , a new record for the fauna of turkey ( hemiptera , pentatomidae , podopinae ) . cesa news 85 : 1 - 4 , 7 figs . urn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 0cf4d7c4 - c51d - 4503 - 9521 - 775e311edd65 kemal , m . a . o . kocak , 2013 , on two hibernating beetle species in van province ( east turkey ) ( coleoptera , malachiidae , elateridae ) . cesa news 85 : 5 - 10 , 8 figs . 1 map . urn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : ad4d4534 - f906 - 403d - 80c5 - 790b17867a6c kocak , a . o . m . kemal , 2013 , a . . .\ntopics : graphosoma , graphosomella , inexpectatum , pentatomidae , hemiptera , fauna , turkey , van , malachiidae , . . .\nhemiptera offers a richly creative narrative about creation , consequence , and a reptilian bloodline into a 4 track ep , along with remixes by revy , bleupulp , & piltdown sound .\ntopics : bleepsequence , blpsq , hemiptera , piltdown sound , bleupulp , revy , techno , minimal , experimental , . . .\nspecies and subspecies new to science described by prof . j . a . quartau\nprof . j . a . quartau main research interests have been studies on patterns of variation and adaptation in selected species of insects ( hemiptera , cicadomorpha ) with a view to a better understanding of their adaptive roles and strategies , as well as of the divergence process in closely related forms , the basis of speciation . he has used a multifactor approach involving mostly systematics , ecology , acoustic behaviour and genetics . on the purely taxonomical level he has found and described 129 . . .\ntopics : insectos , insectes , insects , insecta , hemiptera , hemipteros , homopteros , homoptera , cicadomorpha , . . .\nresumen : acanthosoma haemorrhoidale ( linnaeus 1758 ) y elasmucha grisea ( linnaeus 1758 ) , dos especies ib\u00e9ricas de acanthosomatidae signoret 1864 , son citadas por primera vez para arag\u00f3n . la primera especie procedente de tarazona , provincia de zaragoza y la segunda especie de biescas , provincia de huesca .\ntopics : hemiptera , acanthosomatidae , acanthosoma haemorrhoidale , elasmucha grisea , nuevas citas , zaragoza , . . .\ntopics : insecta , hemiptera , heteroptera , reduviidae , taxonomy , biodiversity , nomenclature , taxonomic acts , . . .\nbulletin of the chicago academy of sciences , vol . 11 , no . 1\ncitation : chicago academy of sciences . ( 1959 ) . bulletin of the chicago academy of sciences 11 ( 1 ) . chicago , il : chicago academy of sciences . articles in this issue : three new species of belostoma from mexico and central america ( hemiptera : belostomatidae ) , with a list of north american species ( lauck , david r . )\ntopics : belostoma , mexico , central america , hemiptera , belostomatidae , list , water bug new species , . . .\nmuhabbet kemal , ahmet o . kocak , m . halaybeh , a . katbeh - bader\nwinter trips to south van lake and the cynipid galls on oaks ( hymenoptera , cynipidae ) . the pink hibiscus mealybug , maconellicoccus hirsutus ( green ) , a new pest on guava trees in jordan ( hemiptera , sternorrhyncha , pseudococcidae ) . announcement : new publication of the cesa .\ntopics : hymenoptera , cynipidae , fauna , ecology , turkey , van , bitlis , hemiptera , sternorrhyncha , . . .\ncat # : [ pertin\u200b - \u200bnce _ 057 ] artists : hemiptera & bleupulp - title : we like it inscrutable track listing : 1 . hemiptera - siphon 09 : 18 2 . hemiptera - on the take 08 : 22 3 . bleupulp - peut - etre des vrais 08 : 07 4 . bleupulp - alone with your phone 06 : 56 free download on : urltoken urltoken urltoken cover by yanni ehm . more music on : urltoken\ntopics : techno , house , minimal , experimental , deep , electronic , montreal , quebec , canada , weird , groovy , . . .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 8937c6bd - 6157 - 49c0 - a355 - 3162b0f07fee on the dolichopodidae fauna of crimea ( diptera ) urn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 55d93f5b - 855c - 4652 - b56a - 20300835796f nomenclatural correction in the family pentatomidae ( hemiptera ) urn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : acb51008 - aed3 - 4839 - baa6 - 2153b4d54d03 a report on the mutualism between hemidactylus ( gekkonidae ) and laternaria ( fulgoridae ) in thailand urn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 9740ddf6 - 2c77 - 4505 - 8378 - a7b541c438af on the occurence of syncopacma . . .\ntopics : dolichopodidae , diptera , ukraine , crimea , pentatomidae , hemiptera , hemidactylus , gekkonidae , . . .\nlabel : pertin - nce cat . number : pertin - nce _ 041 title : akdleko artist : various track listing : 1 - arbee - version un 2 - bleupulp - version deux 3 - cmd - version trois 4 - naw - ver . 3 . 0 5 - hemiptera - smoke baby 6 - sarcastic - version six 7 - revy - immersion 8 - mike north - rip and tear sounds like : dub , techno , house , electronic , experimental , deep , free download on : urltoken\ntopics : pertin - nce _ 041\n,\npertin\n,\ndub\n,\ntechno\n,\nhouse\n, . . .\non the nomenclature of a pre - occupied generic name in the family ichneumonidae ( hymenoptera ) on the nomenclature of a pre - occupied generic name in the family braconidae from zaire ( hymenoptera ) on the nomenclature of two pre - occupied generic names in the family tephritidae in the afrotropical region ( diptera ) a generic replacement name in the family gerridae ( hemiptera ) from afrotropical region eurasicesa nom . n . , a replacement name in the family limoniidae in eurasia ( diptera ) nomenclatural . . .\ntopics : hymenoptera , diptera , hemiptera , orthoptera , ichneumonidae , braconidae , pteromalidae , eulophidae , . . .\ntopics : pterygota , odonata , dermaptera , orthoptera , homoptera , hemiptera , planipennia , diptera , . . .\nresults of the entomofauna of the world based upon info - system of the cesa . cent . ent . stud . , priamus suppl . 18 : 1 - 3186 , 2 figs , 1 map . editorial under this major title , totally 88 regional reports , a generic list of the pterygot insects and a bibliographical evaluation are published in this issue of the priamus ( supplement ) . the project entomofauna of the world ( except lepidoptera ) has been carrying out by the researchers of the cesa for some years . the temporary results of the reports . . .\ntopics : insecta , odonata , orthoptera , mantodea , dermaptera , hemiptera , homoptera , neuroptera , mecoptera , . . .\ntopics : life sciences - zoology - entomology , science , hemiptera , insects , juvenile literature , . . .\nsecond contribution to the knowledge of the pterygota fauna of bahcesaray ( van province , east turkey ) . cesa news 126 : 1 - 11 , 1 fig . this paper deals with the annotated faunistical list of 295 species of 57 families of 14 pterygota orders in bahcesaray district of van province ( east turkey ) .\ntopics : pterygota , lepidoptera , odonata , plecoptera , dermaptera , orthoptera , mantodea , homoptera , . . .\nko\u00e7ak , a . \u00f6 . & m . kemal , 2012 , list of two thousand species of pterygot insects in van province ( east turkey ) ( results of the entomofauna project of turkey \u2013 7 ) . cesa news 81 : 2 - 86 , 37 figs . urn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 943b741d - 0b4f - 494f - b93c - d2de91a301f1 in the year of 2008 , the project entomofauna of turkey was begun privately . the main aim was to compile the hitherto recorded taxa of pterygot insects in turkey . for this purpose , 24 pterygot orders in turkey , their family , genus and species . . .\ntopics : ephemeroptera , plecoptera , odonata , mantodea , dermaptera , phasmida , orthoptera , hemiptera , . . .\nlist of the hitherto recorded pterygot taxa of turkey ( insecta ) ( temporary report of the entomofauna project of turkey - 10 ) . cent . ent . stud . , memoirs 6 : 1 - 1649 , 1 fig . urn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 36761945 - 6130 - 4da8 - 9741 - a741d9e6359b in the first part of the specific list , totally 5282 lepidopteran species are classified under following 76 families : adelidae , agonoxenidae , alucitidae , arctiidae , argynnidae , autostichidae , blastobasidae , bombycidae , brachodidae , brahmaeidae , bucculatricidae , . . .\ntopics : pterygota , insecta , plecoptera , odonata , blattodea , mantodea , dermaptera , phasmida , orthoptera , . . .\nfaunal list of the lepidoptera of the provinces in turkey , together with the recorded pterygots . cesa news 97 : 1 - 3 . in this short note , provincial lists of the lepidoptera of turkey published by the authors are reminded . present numbers of the recorded species of the lepidoptera and other pterygots for 81 provinces of turkey are mentioned in a table . the reasons of the dissimilarity of the numbers among the provinces are explained . it is also apprised the planned future articles on this . . .\ntopics : odonata , orthoptera , mantodea , hemiptera , planipennia , lepidoptera , diptera , hymenoptera , . . ."]}
{"id": 1775, "summary": [{"text": "a prokaryote is a unicellular organism that lacks a membrane-bound nucleus ( karyon ) , mitochondria , or any other membrane-bound organelle .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the word prokaryote comes from the greek \u03c0\u03c1\u03cc ( pro ) \" before \" and \u03ba\u03ac\u03c1\u03c5\u03bf\u03bd ( karyon ) \" nut or kernel \" .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "prokaryotes can be divided into two domains , archaea and bacteria .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "in contrast , species with nuclei and organelles are placed in the domain eukaryota .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "in the prokaryotes , all the intracellular water-soluble components ( proteins , dna and metabolites ) are located together in the cytoplasm enclosed by the cell membrane , rather than in separate cellular compartments .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "bacteria , however , do possess protein-based bacterial microcompartments , which are thought to act as primitive organelles enclosed in protein shells .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "some prokaryotes , such as cyanobacteria may form large colonies .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "others , such as myxobacteria , have multicellular stages in their life cycles .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "molecular studies have provided insight into the evolution and interrelationships of the three domains of biological species .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "eukaryotes are organisms , including humans , whose cells have a well defined membrane-bound nucleus ( containing chromosomal dna ) and organelles .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the division between prokaryotes and eukaryotes reflects the existence of two very different levels of cellular organization .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "distinctive types of prokaryotes include extremophiles and methanogens ; these are common in some extreme environments . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "prokaryote", "paragraphs": ["a prokaryote is a single - celled organism that doesn ' t have a nucleus . bacteria are one familiar type of prokaryote .\nprokaryote - eukaryote relationship and the amino acid sequence of plastocyanin from anabaena variabilis .\nbrown jr , doolittle wf . archaea and the prokaryote - to - eukaryote transition .\n' candidatus magnetoglobus multicellularis ' , a multicellular , magnetotactic prokaryote from a hypersaline environment .\npoole am , phillips mj , penny d ( 2003 ) prokaryote and eukaryote evolvability .\ncell adhesion , multicellular morphology , and magnetosome distribution in the multicellular magnetotactic prokaryote candidatus magnetoglobus multicellularis .\na prokaryote is a cell without a distinct nucleus . bacteria and some other simple organisms are prokaryotic . the genome of a prokaryote is in the form of a single dna molecule , like a single chromosome .\n' candidatus magnetoglobus multicellularis ' , a multicellular , magnetotactic prokaryote from a hypersaline environment . - pubmed - ncbi\ndagan t , martin w . ancestral genome sizes specify the minimum rate of lateral gene transfer during prokaryote evolution .\ngenetic variation within prokaryotic organisms is accomplished through recombination . in recombination , genes from one prokaryote are incorporated into the genome of another prokaryote . recombination is accomplished in bacterial reproduction by the processes of conjugation , transformation , or transduction .\n) had counterpart segments with a significant level of sequence homology in the mt genomes of a minimum of nine of the ten examined green plants and one or both of the two prokaryote genomes , supporting the interpretation of their prokaryote origin .\nprokaryote . provided by : wikipedia . located at : urltoken . license : cc by - sa : attribution - sharealike\nprokaryote . provided by : wiktionary . located at : urltoken . license : cc by - sa : attribution - sharealike\n] - it is possible to constrain some nodes in the prokaryote timescale , but only in a coarse sense . however , most information on the timescale of prokaryote evolution has come from analysis of dna and amino acid sequence data with molecular clocks [\ncell adhesion , multicellular morphology , and magnetosome distribution in the multicellular magnetotactic prokaryote candidatus magnetoglobus multic . . . - pubmed - ncbi\ndagan t , artzy - randrup y , martin w . modular networks and cumulative impact of lateral transfer in prokaryote genome evolution .\n) branch basally in the tree . these groups and relationships are similar to those found previously with analyses of prokaryote genome sequences [\ndoolittle rf , feng df , anderson kl , alberro mr . a naturally occurring horizontal gene transfer from a eukaryote to a prokaryote .\ntransformation is a type of prokaryotic reproduction in which a prokaryote can take up dna found within the environment that has originated from other prokaryotes .\na ) five green plant and a prokaryote species were used in the analysis : oryza sativa ( monocotyledon ) , arabidopsis thaliana ( dicotyledon ) , cycas taitungensis ( gymnosperm ) , physcomitrella patens ( bryophyte ) , chlorokybus atmophyticus ( green alga ) , and prochlorococcus marinus ( prokaryote ) .\nwhat made you want to look up prokaryote ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\ntransduction is a type of prokaryotic reproduction in which a prokaryote is infected by a virus which injects short pieces of chromosomal dna from one bacterium to another .\nthe tnt score heat maps for different functional classes of gene from the 100 analyzed prokaryote species . the order of and numbering of the species are as in\nthree mechanisms for the origin of ctdna - homologous mtdna segments : ( 1 ) vertical transmission of a prokaryote dna segment ( orthology ) , ( 2 ) interorganellar dna transfer from the ct to mt genome ( xenology ) and ( 3 ) amplification of an orthologous or xenologous dna segment in the mitochondrion ( paralogy ) . circle : prokaryote genome and plant organellar genome . thick arc on dna molecule : homologous dna segment descended from the prokaryote genome or by xenology or paralogy .\n] . the detection of evolutionary patterns in metabolic innovations , as a consequence of a phylogeny not dominated by hgt events , allows more detailed constraints on a prokaryote timescale .\nslesarev ai , stetter ko , lake ja , gellert m , krah r , kozyavkin sa . dna topoisomerase v is a relative of eukaryotic topoisomerase i from a hyperthermophilic prokaryote .\nbinary fission is a type of reproduction in which the chromosome is replicated and the resultant prokaryote is an exact copy of the parental prokaryate , thus leaving no opportunity for genetic diversity .\nall prokaryote and eukaryote cells also have cytoplasm ( or cytosol ) , a semiliquid substance that composes the volume of a cell . essentially , cytoplasm is the gel - like material enclosed by the plasma membrane .\n. we assume that present day bacteria were derived from a single ancestral prokaryote . in addition , the diagram assumes that the ct and mt genomes of green plants originated from a cyanobacterium and an \u03b1 - proteobacterium , respectively .\ntemporal information concerning prokaryote evolution has come from diverse sources . for eukaryotes , the fossil record provides an abundant source of such data , but this has not been true for prokaryotes , which are difficult to identify as fossils [\ndion p . ( 2008 ) extreme views on prokaryote evolution . in : dion p . , nautiyal c . s . ( eds ) microbiology of extreme soils . soil biology , vol 13 . springer , berlin , heidelberg\nthese example sentences are selected automatically from various online news sources to reflect current usage of the word ' prokaryote . ' views expressed in the examples do not represent the opinion of merriam - webster or its editors . send us feedback .\ndoolittle rf , anderson kl , feng d - f ( 1989 ) estimating the prokaryote - eukaryote divergence time from protein sequences . in : fernholm b , bremer k , jornvall h ( eds ) the hierarchy of life . elsevier , amsterdam , pp 73\u201385\na search of the distribution of ctdna - homologous mtdna sequences among the mt genomes of a wide range of green plants , including the reference prokaryote genomes , will provide insights into the phylogenetic origin of ctdna transfer in plant evolution . for this purpose , the mtdnas of 10 green plant species of diverse taxa and the two prokaryote reference genomes were blast searched for sequences with homology to the 52 wheat mtdna segments of orthologous or xenologous origin . to confirm the validity of the present method , the presence of homologous sequences to the wheat ct -\nreproduction in prokaryotes is asexual and usually takes place by binary fission . the dna of a prokaryote exists as as a single , circular chromosome . prokaryotes do not undergo mitosis ; rather the chromosome is replicated and the two resulting copies separate from one another , due to the growth of the cell . the prokaryote , now enlarged , is pinched inward at its equator and the two resulting cells , which are clones , separate . binary fission does not provide an opportunity for genetic recombination or genetic diversity , but prokaryotes can share genes by three other mechanisms .\nthe genome fluidity statistic \u03d5 as a function of synonymous core genome nucleotide variation \u03c0 for 90 free - living prokaryote species on a ln - ln scale . white dots : proteobacteria , black dots : terrabacteria ( actinobacteria , firmicutes and cyanobacteria ) , grey dots : other taxa .\nprokaryote , any organism that lacks a distinct nucleus and other organelles due to the absence of internal membranes . bacteria are among the best - known prokaryotic organisms . the lack of internal membranes in prokaryotes distinguishes them from eukaryotes . the prokaryotic cell membrane is made up of phospholipids and constitutes\u2026\n] . the following settings were used : numsamp ( 10 , 000 ) , burnin ( 100 , 000 ) , and sampfreq ( 100 ) . this method permitted rates to vary on different branches , which was necessary given the known rate variation among prokaryote and eukaryote nuclear protein sequences [\nmodes of prokaryote reproduction : besides binary fission , there are three other mechanisms by which prokaryotes can exchange dna . in ( a ) transformation , the cell takes up prokaryotic dna directly from the environment . the dna may remain separate as plasmid dna or be incorporated into the host genome . in ( b ) transduction , a bacteriophage injects dna into the cell that contains a small fragment of dna from a different prokaryote . in ( c ) conjugation , dna is transferred from one cell to another via a mating bridge that connects the two cells after the pilus draws the two bacteria close enough to form the bridge .\nbacteria and radiation tolerance : deinococcus radiodurans , visualized in this false color transmission electron micrograph , is a prokaryote that can tolerate very high doses of ionizing radiation . it has developed dna repair mechanisms that allow it to reconstruct its chromosome even if it has been broken into hundreds of pieces by radiation or heat .\ngenes , respectively ; both genes encode an nadh dehydrogenase subunit . neither of the two prokaryote genomes had sequences with significant homology to the no . 22 segment , indicating the non - orthologous origin of these segments in the mt and ct genomes . homologues of the no . 22 mtdna segment were found only in the monocotyledon species ( ref . table\nthe evolution of the eukaryote cell was probably spurred by the benefits that the engulfed bacteria provided . if an anaerobic prokaryote engulfed an aerobic bacteria , it would have acquired the ability to generate energy from nutrients and oxygen . a prokaryote that took up a cyanobacteria would acquire the ability to make energy utilizing sunlight . the engulfed aerobic bacteria and cyanobacteria would benefit from the protection and nutrients supplied by the host cell . the extra energy produced by the bacteria may have allowed the primitive eukaryotic cell to enlarge and acquire other bacteria , resulting in a more complex cell . without the extra energy provided by the bacterial organelles , the primitive eukaryotic cell may not have been able to develop into a multicellular organism .\na timescale of prokaryote evolution . letters indicate nodes discussed in the text . the last common ancestor was arbitrarily placed at 4 . 25 ga in the tree , although this placement was not part of the analyses . the grey rectangle shows the time prior to the initial rise in oxygen ( presumably anaerobic conditions ) . mtb : methanothermobacter , tab : thermoanaerobacter , tsc : thermosynechococcus .\nin transformation , the prokaryote takes in dna found in its environment that is shed by other prokaryotes . if a nonpathogenic bacterium takes up dna for a toxin gene from a pathogen and incorporates the new dna into its own chromosome , it , too , may become pathogenic . in transduction , bacteriophages , the viruses that infect bacteria , sometimes also move short pieces of chromosomal dna from one bacterium to another . transduction results in a recombinant organism . archaea are not affected by bacteriophages , but instead have their own viruses that translocate genetic material from one individual to another . in conjugation , dna is transferred from one prokaryote to another by means of a pilus , which brings the organisms into contact with one another . the dna transferred can be in the form of a plasmid or as a hybrid , containing both plasmid and chromosomal dna .\nif you take a biology class , you ' re likely to learn about prokaryotes , tiny organisms without a distinct nucleus bound by a membrane , like most other living things . prokaryotes are often contrasted with the single - celled or multicellular eukaryotes , which do have a nucleus . the word prokaryote is rooted in greek \u2014 it combines the word pro ,\nbefore ,\nwith karyon ,\nnut or kernel .\nthank you for submitting your article\nmembranes , energetics , and evolution across the prokaryote - eukaryote divide\nfor consideration by elife . your article has been reviewed by two peer reviewers , and the evaluation has been overseen by paul falkowski as the reviewing editor and patricia wittkopp as the senior editor . the following individual involved in review of your submission has agreed to reveal his identity : ron milo ( reviewer # 2 ) .\nphylogenetic trees of individual genes of prokaryotes ( archaea and bacteria ) generally have different topologies , largely owing to extensive horizontal gene transfer ( hgt ) , suggesting that the tree of life ( tol ) should be replaced by a \u201cnet of life\u201d as the paradigm of prokaryote evolution . however , trees remain the natural representation of the histories of individual genes given the fundamentally bifurcating process of gene replication . therefore , although no single tree can fully represent the evolution of prokaryote genomes , the complete picture of evolution will necessarily combine trees and nets . a quantitative measure of the signals of tree and net evolution is derived from an analysis of all quartets of species in all trees of the \u201cforest of life\u201d ( fol ) , which consists of approximately 7 , 000 phylogenetic trees for prokaryote genes including approximately 100 nearly universal trees ( nuts ) . although diverse routes of net - like evolution collectively dominate the fol , the pattern of tree - like evolution that reflects the consistent topologies of the nuts is the most prominent coherent trend . we show that the contributions of tree - like and net - like evolutionary processes substantially differ across bacterial and archaeal lineages and between functional classes of genes . evolutionary simulations indicate that the central tree - like signal cannot be realistically explained by a self - reinforcing pattern of biased hgt .\nthe concept of evolvability covers a broad spectrum of , often contradictory , ideas . at one end of the spectrum it is equivalent to the statement that evolution is possible , at the other end are untestable post hoc explanations , such as the suggestion that current evolutionary theory cannot explain the evolution of evolvability . we examine similarities and differences in eukaryote and prokaryote evolvability , and look for explanations that are compatible with a wide range of observations . differences in genome organisation between eukaryotes and prokaryotes meets this criterion . the single origin of replication in prokaryote chromosomes ( versus multiple origins in eukaryotes ) accounts for many differences because the time to replicate a prokaryote genome limits its size ( and the accumulation of junk dna ) . both prokaryotes and eukaryotes appear to switch from genetic stability to genetic change in response to stress . we examine a range of stress responses , and discuss how these impact on evolvability , particularly in unicellular organisms versus complex multicellular ones . evolvability is also limited by environmental interactions ( including competition ) and we describe a model that places limits on potential evolvability . examples are given of its application to predator competition and limits to lateral gene transfer . we suggest that unicellular organisms evolve largely through a process of metabolic change , resulting in biochemical diversity . multicellular organisms evolve largely through morphological changes , not through extensive changes to cellular biochemistry .\none of the mechanisms that produced homology between the ct and mtdna segments is the vertical transmission of an ancestral prokaryote dna segment ( or gene ) to both the ct and mt genomes via a cyanobacterium or an \u03b1 - proteobacterium , respectively ( \u201corthology\u201d ) . the second mechanism is interorganellar dna transfer between the ct and mt genomes ( \u201cxenology\u201d ) . 32 ) the third mechanism is amplification of a dna segment of orthologous or xenologous origin in an organelle ( \u201cparalogy\u201d ) .\nrecently , we reported a comparative analysis of approximately 7 , 000 phylogenetic trees for prokaryote genes that jointly constitute the \u201cforest of life\u201d ( fol ) and showed that the fol does gravitate to a single - tree topology . this statistically significant trend was particularly prominent among nearly universal trees ( nuts ) , that is , trees for highly conserved genes that are represented in all or almost all prokaryote genomes ( puigbo et al . 2009 ) . here , we describe a quantitative measure of the tree and net signals in evolution that is derived from an analysis of all quartets of species in all trees of the fol . we find that , although diverse routes of net - like evolution jointly dominate the fol , the pattern of tree - like evolution that recapitulates the consensus topology of the nuts is the single most prominent coherent trend . evolutionary simulations suggest that the central tree - like signal cannot be realistically explained by a self - reinforcing pattern of biased hgt .\n) . these observations support my conclusion on the orthology of the 16 wheat mtdna segments and their ctdna counterparts . orthology of two other mtdna segments , nos . 24 and 31 , was not supported by the presence of orthologous gene sequences . however , they did show high sequence homology to the wheat ct genome and to one or other of the prokaryote genomes . they also had significant and high sequence homology to the mtdnas of the 10 green plant species examined later ( ref . table\nthe timescale of prokaryote evolution has been difficult to reconstruct because of a limited fossil record and complexities associated with molecular clocks and deep divergences . however , the relatively large number of genome sequences currently available has provided a better opportunity to control for potential biases such as horizontal gene transfer and rate differences among lineages . we assembled a data set of sequences from 32 proteins ( ~ 7600 amino acids ) common to 72 species and estimated phylogenetic relationships and divergence times with a local clock method .\ncertain prokaryotes move independently by using flagella , long structures that rotate in a propeller - like fashion . prokaryotic flagella consist of intertwined fibrils ( small fibers ) of the protein flagellin . a prokaryote may have a single flagellum , a group of flagella at one or both poles of the cell , or may be covered with flagella . many species of prokaryotes also have pili ( singular , pilus ) \u0096slender , hairlike extensions used for attachment to soil , rocks , teeth , or other structures .\ncocci ( the plural of coccus , from the greek kokkus = berry ) are round bacteria . spherical is a safe shape since it gives the maximum surface area for a given volume . however , spherical doesn\u2019t necessarily mean small . thiomargarita namibiensis is a spherical bacterium , but it is the second largest prokaryote we know of . if an e . coli cell was the size of a tic tac , t . namibiensis would have a diameter a bit larger than the barringer meteor crater in arizona ( see picture above ) .\neleven mtdna segments showed high sequence homology ( ca . 70 % or higher ) to sequences in all genomes of wheat ct , pm and pu . additionally , five mtdna segments , nos . 2 , 18 , 28 , 40 and 51 , showed high sequence homologies ( ca . 60 % or higher ) to ct sequences and also to either pm or pu sequences . in addition to their high sequence homologies , most of the wheat mtdna segments and their corresponding wheat ct and prokaryote dna segments included complete or partial sequences of orthologous genes ( table\nall prokaryote and eukaryote cells have plasma membranes . the plasma membrane ( also known as the cell membrane ) is the outermost cell surface , which separates the cell from the external environment . the plasma membrane is composed primarily of proteins and lipids , especially phospholipids . the lipids occur in two layers ( a bilayer ) . proteins embedded in the bilayer appear to float within the lipid , so the membrane is constantly in flux . the membrane is therefore referred to as a fluid mosaic structure . within the fluid mosaic structure , proteins carry out most of the membrane\u2019s functions .\nthe aims and materials of the present investigation were very similar to those of wang et al . 41 ) with the following exceptions : ( 1 ) i surveyed sequence homologies between all the ct and mtdna segments , irrespective of the presence / absence of genes , to obtain an entire picture of ctdna transfers ; ( 2 ) the ctdna - homologous mtdna segments were classified with respect to origin as orthologous ( prokaryote origin ) , xenologous ( ctdna origin ) and paralogous ( amplification of orthologs or xenologs ) using prokaryotic genome sequences as a reference ; ( 3 ) the dynamics of recurrent ct - to - mt transfers were analyzed in detail with respect to the transfer of ctdna segments in the same ct genome region to different sites of the mt genome , in order to assess directionality of the transfer ; and ( 4 ) the evolutionary timing of transfer of most of the xenologs to the mt genome was estimated , based on the results of a homology search between the ctdna - derived wheat mtdna segments and the mt genomes of ten green plant species and two reference prokaryote genomes . these analyses identified new aspects of the dynamics and phylogenetic origins of interorganellar dna transfers .\nthe analyses presented here are based on the assumption , still under debate , that historical information ( phylogenies and divergence times ) can be retrieved from genes in the prokaryote genome that have not been affected by horizontal gene transfer . our prokaryotic timeline shows deep divergences within both the eubacterial and archaebacterial domains indicating a long evolutionary history . the early evolution of life ( > 4 . 1 ga ) and early origin of several important metabolic pathways ( phototrophy , methanogenesis ; but not oxygenic photosynthesis ) suggests that organisms have influenced the earth ' s environment since early in the history of the planet ( fig .\nin contrast , the dna of prokaryotic cells is distributed loosely around the cytoplasm , along with the protein synthesis machinery . this closeness allows prokaryotic cells to rapidly respond to environmental change by quickly altering the types and amount of proteins they manufacture . note that eukaryotic cells likely evolved from a symbiotic relationship between two prokaryotic cells , whereby one set of prokaryotic dna eventually became separated by a nuclear envelope and formed a nucleus . over time , portions of the dna from the other prokaryote remaining in the cytoplasmic part of the cell may or may not have been incoporated into the new eukaryotic nucleus ( figure 3 ) .\ndifferences in the mechanisms of inheritance across the prokaryote\u2013eukaryote divide generate , over long time frames , different patterns of variation . in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes , there are clonally propagating species that seem never to undergo recombination . because mutation is inevitable ( 45 ) , prokaryotic or eukaryotic species that never undergo recombination will continuously accumulate sublethal mutations , which they cannot purge from their genomes . this process continuously increases genetic load , for which reason they will eventually go extinct , a process known as muller ' s ratchet ( 46 \u2013 49 ) . recombination has an important role in evolution in that it rescues genomes from muller\u2019s ratchet .\nnotwithstanding the ubiquity of hgt , trees remain the natural representation of the histories of individual genes given the fundamentally bifurcating character of gene replication and the low frequency of intragenic recombination compared with intergenic recombination at long evolutionary distances ( koonin and wolf 2009 ; koonin , wolf , and puigbo 2009 ) . therefore , although no single tree can fully represent the evolution of prokaryote genomes , the complete picture of evolution will necessarily combine trees and nets ( gogarten et al . 2002 ; koonin and wolf 2008 ) . taken together , the results of the present analysis reveal a complex landscape of tree - like and net - like evolution of prokaryotes . the signals from these two types of evolution are distributed in a highly nonrandom fashion among lineages of archaea and bacteria and among functional classes of genes . overall , within the fol , the net - like signal is quantitatively dominant , vindicating the concepts of \u201clateral genomics\u201d or net of life ( hilario and gogarten 1993 ; doolittle 1999a , 2009 ; gogarten et al . 2002 ; gogarten and townsend 2005 ; doolittle and bapteste 2007 ; koonin and wolf 2008 ) . by no account , are these results compatible with the representation of prokaryote evolution as a tol adorned with thin , random \u201ccobwebs\u201d of hgt ( kurland et al . 2003 ; ge et al . 2005 ; kunin et al . 2005 ) . however , the tree - like signal compatible with the consensus topology of the nuts is also unmistakably detectable and strong as by our measurement up to 40 % of the evolution in the prokaryote world conforms with the \u201cstatistical tol . \u201d the reality of prokaryote evolution appears to be that , although net - like processes are quantitatively dominant , the single strongest trend is the tree - like evolution characteristic of the nuts that also partially recapitulates the rrna tree ( pace 1997 ; puigbo et al . 2009 ) . of course , the tree - like and net - like processes of evolution are entangled : when we consider a \u201ctree - like\u201d signal , we actually mean the topology of the supertree of the nuts that is affected not only by the coherent central trend but also biased routes of hgt . however , the strong coherence between the topologies of the nuts , the quasi - random distribution of hgt events in this set of trees , and the substantial topological similarity between the nuts and a large fraction of the trees in the fol , taken together , seem to justify the use of the supertree as the best available standard of tree - like evolution .\nthe early eukaryote cell evolved more than a billion years ago . the endosymbiosis theory of the evolution of eukaryotes was first proposed by biologist lynn margulis in the 1960s . over the years , many scientists have gathered evidence in support of endosymbiosis . the endosymbiosis theory states that the eukaryotic cell developed from a larger prokaryotic cell engulfing a smaller prokaryotic cell without digesting it . the smaller prokaryotic cell or bacteria lived on in the larger prokaryote , providing it with extra energy , while the larger cell protected the small bacteria , allowing it to survive . engulfed aerobic bacteria eventually developed into mitochondria , while photosynthetic bacteria became the chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells .\nthe majority ( 81 % ) of the 32 proteins that were used are classified in the\ninformation storage and processes\nfunctional category of the cog . the other categories represented are\ncellular processes\n( 10 % ) ,\nmetabolism\n( 3 % ) , and\ninformation storage and processing\n+\nmetabolism\n( proteins with combined functions ; 6 % ) . other studies that have analyzed prokaryote genome sequence data for phylogeny have found a similar high proportion of proteins in the\ninformation storage and processes\nfunctional category , presumably because hgt is more difficult with such genes that are vital for the survival of the cell [\nin principle , the fol encompasses the complete set of phylogenetic trees for all genes from all genomes . however , a comprehensive analysis of the entire fol is computationally prohibitive , so a representative subset of the trees needs to be selected and analyzed . previously ( puigbo , wolf , and koonin 2009 ) , we defined such a subset by selecting 100 archaeal and bacterial genomes representative of all major prokaryote groups and building 6 , 901 ml trees for all sufficiently conserved genes in this set of genomes ; for brevity , we refer to this set of trees as the fol ( see details in supplementary materials and methods and supplementary fig . s1 , supplementary material online ) .\nmany prokaryote species are known to have fluid genomes , with different strains varying markedly in accessory gene content through the combined action of gene loss , gene gain via lateral transfer , as well as gene duplication . however , the evolutionary forces determining genome fluidity are not yet well understood . we here for the first time systematically analyse the degree to which this distinctive genomic feature differs between bacterial species . we find that genome fluidity is positively correlated with synonymous nucleotide diversity of the core genome , a measure of effective population size n e . no effects of genome size , phylogeny or homologous recombination rate on genome fluidity were found . our findings are consistent with a scenario where accessory gene content turnover is for a large part dictated by neutral evolution .\na prokaryotic host cell incorporates another prokaryotic cell . each prokaryote has its own set of dna molecules ( a genome ) . the genome of the incorporated cell remains separate ( curved blue line ) from the host cell genome ( curved purple line ) . the incorporated cell may continue to replicate as it exists within the host cell . over time , during errors of replication or perhaps when the incorporated cell lyses and loses its membrane separation from the host , genetic material becomes separated from the incorporated cell and merges with the host cell genome . eventually , the host genome becomes a mixture of both genomes , and it ultimately becomes enclosed in an endomembrane , a membrane within the cell that creates a separate compartment . this compartment eventually evolves into a nucleus .\nthe tnt score heatmaps for the 100 analyzed prokaryote species . ( a ) the 102 nuts . ( b ) the fol without the nuts ( 6 , 799 trees ) . the tnt increases from red ( slow tnt score , close to random , an indication of net - like evolution ) to green ( high tnt score , close to the supertree topology , an indication of tree - like evolution ) . the species are ordered in accord with the topology of the supertree of the 102 nuts . in ( a ) , the major groups of archaea and bacteria are denoted . the complete species names are given in the supplementary table s1 ( supplementary material online ) . for additional tnt heatmaps , see supplementary figs . s12 , s13 , and s24 ( supplementary material online ) .\nmany bacterial species have been shown to exhibit extensive variation in gene repertoires , where a set of core genes shared by all strains are supplemented with a set of accessory genes that are only present in a subset of strains ( ochman et al . , 2000 ; gogarten et al . , 2002 ; tettelin et al . , 2005 ) . although accessory genome analyses are routinely performed in prokaryote genomics studies , whether certain genome characteristics are associated with particularly low or high genome fluidity has not been systematically tested . we here make use of the increasing availability of whole - genome sequences to , for the first time , perform a meta - analysis to ( 1 ) gauge the extent to which genome fluidity varies among different species and ( 2 ) test which genome characteristics best explain genome fluidity .\nnaturally occurring horizontal gene transfers between nonviral organisms are difficult to prove . only with the availability of sequence data from a wide variety of organisms can a convincing case be made . in the case of putative gene transfers between prokaryotes and eukaryotes , the minimum requirements for inferring such an event include ( 1 ) sequences of the transferred gene or its product from several appropriately divergent eukaryotes and several prokaryotes , and ( 2 ) a similar set of sequences from the same ( or closely related organisms ) for another gene or genes . given these criteria , we believe that a strong case can be made for escherichia coli having acquired a second glyceraldehyde - 3 - phosphate dehydrogenase gene from some eukaryotic host . ancillary observations on the general rate of change and the time of the prokaryote - eukaryote divergence support the notion .\nsince there are no fossil records on the evolution of eukaryotes , most of the evidence is based on the study of present - day cells . evidence for endosymbiosis comes from dna sequencing and the comparison of bacterial , mitochondrial and chloroplast characteristics . dna analysis reveals that eukaryotes contain many bacterial genes . mitochondria and chloroplasts are similar to bacteria in size and divide independently of the eukaryote host cell by a process called binary fission . bacteria also replicate by binary fission , while eukaryotes multiply by mitosis or meiosis . mitochondria and chloroplasts inside the eukaryotic cell have single , circular dna molecules just like bacteria . the inner membrane of bacteria , mitochondria and chloroplasts contains the electron transport chain , which provides chemical energy . mitochondria and chloroplasts also have a second membrane surrounding their inner membrane , which is thought to have arisen from the host cell membrane indenting and surrounding the early prokaryote to take it up .\nphylogenetic analysis and phenotypic characterization were used to assign a multicellular magnetotactic prokaryote the name ' candidatus magnetoglobus multicellularis ' . ' candidatus magnetoglobus multicellularis ' lives in a large hypersaline coastal lagoon from brazil and has properties that are unique among prokaryotes . it consists of a compact assembly or aggregate of flagellated bacterial cells , highly organized in a sphere , that swim in either helical or straight trajectories . the life cycle of ' candidatus magnetoglobus multicellularis ' is completely multicellular , in which one aggregate grows by enlarging the size of its cells and approximately doubling the volume of the whole organism . cells then divide synchronously , maintaining the spherical arrangement ; finally the cells separate into two identical aggregates . phylogenetic 16s rrna gene sequence analysis showed that ' candidatus magnetoglobus multicellularis ' is related to the dissimilatory sulfate - reducing bacteria within the deltaproteobacteria and to other previously described , but not yet well characterized , multicellular magnetotactic prokaryotes .\nalthough a few basic trends stand out ( e . g . , that motile cells are usually rods ) , we know exceedingly few morphological rules . this means that , except for the simplest cases , it is difficult or impossible to answer the question , \u201cwhy does a bacterium have a particular shape ? \u201d consider , for example , the bacterium pelagibacter ubique , which constitutes ~ 25 % of all ocean microorganisms and is possibly the most successful , most numerous single prokaryote on earth [ 49 ] . even for such a plain bacterium in a relatively uncomplicated environment , we have no clue as to why it is a tiny curved rod instead of a small straight rod ; and beyond this , everything else is even more uncertain . in short , at our present level of understanding , when given an organism\u2019s environment we cannot predict its shape , nor when given its shape can we confidently infer the characteristics of its environment [ 5 ] .\nbiology of termites : a modern synthesis ( bignell de , roisin y , lo n , ( editors ) , springer , dordrecht , 576pp , isbn 978 - 90 - 481 - 3976 - 7 , e - isbn 978 - 90 - 481 - 3977 - 4 , doi 10 . 1007 / 978 - 90 - 481 - 3977 - 4 ) was published in 2011 . with the agreement of the publishers , we give a taxonomic index of the book comprising 494 termite entries , 103 entries of other multicellular animal species mentioned as associates or predators of termites , with 9 fungal , 60 protist , and 64 prokaryote identities , which are listed as termite symbionts ( sensu stricto ) . in addition , we add descriptive authorities for living ( and some fossil ) termite genera and species . higher taxonomic groupings for termites are indicated by 25 code numbers . microorganisms ( prokaryotes , protists , and fungi ) are listed separately , using broad modern taxonomic affiliations from the contemporary literature of bacteriology , protozoology , and mycology .\ncandidatus magnetoglobus multicellularis is an uncultured magnetotactic multicellular prokaryote composed of 17 - 40 gram - negative cells that are capable of synthesizing organelles known as magnetosomes . the magnetosomes of ca . m . multicellularis are composed of greigite and are organized in chains that are responsible for the microorganism ' s orientation along magnetic field lines . the characteristics of the microorganism , including its multicellular life cycle , magnetic field orientation , and swimming behavior , and the lack of viability of individual cells detached from the whole assembly , are considered strong evidence for the existence of a unique multicellular life cycle among prokaryotes . it has been proposed that the position of each cell within the aggregate is fundamental for the maintenance of its distinctive morphology and magnetic field orientation . however , the cellular organization of the whole organism has never been studied in detail . here , we investigated the magnetosome organization within a cell , its distribution within the microorganism , and the intercellular relationships that might be responsible for maintaining the cells in the proper position within the microorganism , which is essential for determining the magnetic properties of ca . m . multicellularis during its life cycle . the results indicate that cellular interactions are essential for the determination of individual cell shape and the magnetic properties of the organism and are likely directly associated with the morphological changes that occur during the multicellular life cycle of this species .\nwhen these endosymbiotic events occured is subject to much debate , but it must have been early in life ' s history , perhaps as early as the archean eon more than 2500 million years ago . the heterotrophic prokaryote used cellular respiration to intake oxygen and convert organic molecules to energy . the prokaryotic cells that were too small to be digested continued to live inside the host eukaryote , eventually becoming dependent on the host cell for organic molecules and inorganic compounds . importantly , the host cell could have acquired , by the addition of the aerobic function , an increased output of atp for cellular activities , leading to its improved selective advantage . was the\nengulfer\na eubacteria or an archaean - yes - it depends on which of competing theories you choose ? other theories hold that the prokaryotes that gave rise to early eukaryotes were probably from the domain archaea , both because of several key characteristics and because dna sequence comparison suggest that archaeans are more closely related to the eukaryotes than are eubacteria . this is the so - called serial endosymbiosis theory of a monophyletic origin of the mitochondrion from a eubacterial ancestor . that fact that mitochondria have their own dna , rna , and ribosomes , supports the endosymbiosis theory , as does the existence of the amoeba , a eukaryotic organism that lacks mitochondria and therefore requires a symbiotic relationship with an aerobic bacterium .\na second development is the recognition that the origin of the roughly 2 , 000 gene families that underpinned the origin of eukaryotic - specific traits in the eukaryote ancestor required the biochemical power of internalized bioenergetic membranes that mitochondria provided ( 3 ) . mitochondria , not oxygen , made the energetic difference that separates eukaryotes from prokaryotes . that is because anaerobic mitochondria generate about five atp per glucose and fermentations in eukaryotes generate two to four atp per glucose ( 11 ) , such that the meager 5 - to 10 - fold increase in atp yield per glucose conferred by oxygen respiration is dwarfed by the 10 4 to 10 5 increase in atp yield per gene manifest in cells with mitochondria ( 3 ) . the key to the orders of magnitude increase in energy available for evolutionary invention that mitochondria conferred is the eukaryotic configuration of internal , compartmentalized bioenergetic membranes relative to genes ( 3 , 5 ) . after all , had oxygen been the key to eukaryote complexity , escherichia coli would have become eukaryotic for the same reason . furthermore , eukaryotic aerobes and anaerobes interleave across eukaryote phylogeny ( 11 ) , and bioenergetics point to a mitochondrion ancestor with a facultatively anaerobic lifestyle ( 12 ) . only those cells became complex that experienced the increased energy per gene afforded by mitochondria , and the long puzzling lack of true intermediates in the prokaryote\u2013eukaryote transition has a bioenergetic cause ( 3 ) .\nthe \u03d5 estimate only provides a general indication of genome fluidity as it ignores genome rearrangements or plasmids , and we cannot exclude the fact that elevated or decreased levels of genome fluidity are associated with some of the many phyla that could not be included in this analysis due to a lack of data . these caveats aside , the positive relationship of genome fluidity with synonymous diversity is highly significant . the synonymous nucleotide diversity equals two times the product of the mutation rate \u03bc and effective population size n e for haploid species . as variation in prokaryote mutation rate is believed to be relatively small ( lynch , 2010 ) , \u03c0 syn can be taken as a proxy for n e . large effective population size is expected to result in generally higher levels of genetic diversity due to neutral evolution ( kimura , 1984 ) . the result of our cross - species meta - analysis is therefore consistent with the expectation that large n e species exhibit greater accessory genome variation . a variety of studies have suggested that many gene content changes have only minor effects on fitness and are effectively neutral ( gogarten and townsend , 2005 ; baumdicker et al . , 2012 ; haegeman and weitz , 2012 ; kn\u00f6ppel et al . , 2014 ) , although it is clear that a proportion of gene gains and losses will be significantly deleterious or beneficial . to gain a full understanding of selection on the accessory genome , it will be vital to collect data on the distribution of fitness effects of gene content changes ( vos et al . , 2015 ) .\ntwo mtdna segments , nos . 52 and 53a , maintained a high level of sequence homology to the mtdna segments of all 10 green plants , with no or a low level of homology to prokaryote genomes . this finding indicated that these two mtdna segments were transferred from the ct genome at an early stage of green plant evolution . four wheat mtdna segments , nos . 16 , 29 , 36 and 37 , appeared to have been transferred at an early stage of angiosperm evolution , because their homologues were found in almost all of the monocotyledons and dicotyledons examined , but not in the lower plant taxa , including the gymnosperm . three other mtdna segments , nos . 17 , 22 and 34 , showed highly significant sequence homology to all monocotyledons examined , but not to other plant taxa , suggesting they were transferred at an early stage of monocotyledon evolution . nine mtdna segments , nos . 3 , 4 , 21 , 33 , 35 , 38 , 39 , 42 and 49 , showed highly significant homology to the mtdnas in various combinations of two or three monocotyledons , including wheat , suggesting their transfer occurred during divergence of the cereal species . our previous phylogenetic studies on the organellar genomes indicated that genetic distances between the organellar genomes of wheat , rice and maize were similar , suggesting that the phylogenetic divergence of their organellar genomes occurred at almost the same time . 31 ) as a result , i could not conclude with any certainty whether the observed ctdna transfer occurred in a common ancestor of the two to three cereal species or if it occurred independently in these species . transfer of eight mtdna segments , nos . 5 , 6 , 7 , 9 , 15 , 32 , 50 and 54 , undoubtedly occurred only once in the wheat lineage .\nusing the logic germane to supernumerary phylobiont inference , the findings in dataset s1 and figs . s2 and s3 would be interpreted as evidence that neither the mitochondrion nor the plastid arose via endosymbiosis ; rather , each would be the product of 43 and 124 independent gene transfers , respectively , from different donors , thus one at a time , to the eukaryotic ancestor and the archaeplastidan ancestor , but the transfers would have to be directed to some kind of preexisting compartment , not dissimilar to gray ' s premitochondrion , where rrna operons and trnas also became donated , enabling the result of such transfer to morph into a bioenergetic organelle , but only mimicking a bona fide endosymbiotic origin , the real mechanism being lgt : so say the single - gene trees . we say : that scenario cannot possibly be true . however , why can it not be true ? it cannot be true because exactly the same kinds of transfers\u2014one at a time and from independent donors\u2014for exactly the right kinds of genes to support the function of the bioenergetic membrane in mitochondria and the bioenergetic membrane in plastids ( in addition to the other biochemical and physiological functions of the organelles ) would have to be going on to the nucleus as well , the crux being that , until the whole organelle is assembled through such imaginary lgt , none of the transferred genes have a selectable function . without selection for function , they would all become pseudogenes , and no organelle would emerge at all . a free - living prokaryote brings along the complete and selectable functional unit , which can then be transferred a chunk at a time to the host , but from a continuously selected and replicating functional source . there is something very wrong with the supernumerary phylobiont stories , and the core of the problem is rooted in trees .\nlike eukaryotes , the origin of sex also counts as one of the major evolutionary transitions ( 1 ) and remains one of evolutionary biology\u2019s toughest problems . existing theories seek the origin of sex in a haploid cell with fully fledged eukaryotic mitosis ( 104 ) , but it is more likely that mitosis and sex arose in a cell that had a mitochondrion ( 3 , 5 ) . during the prokaryote - to - eukaryote transition , eukaryotes seem to have lost the standard mechanisms that prokaryotes use to escape muller\u2019s ratchet\u2014transduction , transformation , and conjugation\u2014because they are lacking in all eukaryotic groups . had eukaryotes retained one or all three of those mechanisms , it seems unlikely that they would have evolved sex on top of them , and , indeed , cells that never had mitochondria ( prokaryotes ) never evolved sex . the machinery involved in eukaryotic recombination was surely present at the time of mitochondrial symbiosis because the main enzymes involved are homologous to their prokaryotic counterparts : spo11 , mre11 , dmc1 , rad51 , mlh1 , and pms1 ( 105 , 106 ) . did a simple form of eukaryotic recombination , catalyzed by enzymes that are homologous to the enzymes of prokaryotic recombination , rescue nascent eukaryotes from muller\u2019s ratchet ? the basic machinery required might have been a property of the host . it is a curiously underpublicized observation that various archaea can fuse their cells ( 55 , 107 ) and that , in some haloarchaea , fusion is accompanied by recombination ( 108 ) whereas , in others , only recombination is observed ( 109 ) . one needs to be careful not to ( over - ) state that \u201carchaea have sex , \u201d but , in some rare documented examples , they do undergo outright cell fusion ( an otherwise curious property of gametes ) and , in some rarer cases , recombination and fusion are observed ( 108 ) .\n1 center for biofilm engineering , montana state university , bozeman , mt 59717 , usa .\n2 department of microbiology , university of iowa , iowa city , ia 52242 , usa .\nscience 21 may 1999 : vol . 284 , issue 5418 , pp . 1318 - 1322 doi : 10 . 1126 / science . 284 . 5418 . 1318\ncenter for biofilm engineering , montana state university , bozeman , mt 59717 , usa .\ndepartment of microbiology , university of iowa , iowa city , ia 52242 , usa .\naaas login provides access to science for aaas members , and access to other journals in the science family to users who have purchased individual subscriptions .\ndownload and print this article for your personal scholarly , research , and educational use .\nbacteria that attach to surfaces aggregate in a hydrated polymeric matrix of their own synthesis to form biofilms . formation of these sessile communities and their inherent resistance to antimicrobial agents are at the root of many persistent and chronic bacterial infections . studies of biofilms have revealed differentiated , structured groups of cells with community properties . recent advances in our understanding of the genetic and molecular basis of bacterial community behavior point to therapeutic targets that may provide a means for the control of biofilm infections .\nnote : we only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it , and that it is not junk mail . we do not capture any email address .\nmessage body ( your name ) thought you would like to see this page from the science web site .\n\u00a9 2018 american association for the advancement of science . all rights reserved . aaas is a partner of hinari , agora , oare , chorus , clockss , crossref and counter . science issn 1095 - 9203 ."]}
{"id": 1787, "summary": [{"text": "the two-barred crossbill ( loxia leucoptera ) , known as the white-winged crossbill in north america , is a small passerine bird in the finch family fringillidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it has two subspecies , white-winged crossbill loxia leucoptera leucoptera in north america , and two-barred crossbill loxia leucoptera bifasciata in ne europe and n asia .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the scientific name is from ancient greek .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "loxia is from loxos , \" crosswise \" , and leucoptera means \" white-winged \" from leukos , \" white \" and pteron , \" wing \" .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "this bird breeds in the coniferous forests of alaska , canada , northernmost united states and across asia extending into northeast europe .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it nests in conifers , laying 3 \u2013 5 eggs .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "this crossbill is mainly resident , but will irregularly irrupt south if its food source fails .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the american race seems to wander more frequently than the eurasian subspecies .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "this species will form flocks outside the breeding season , often mixed with other crossbills .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "it is a rare visitor to western europe , usually arriving with an irruption of red crossbills .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the crossbills are characterised by the mandibles crossing at their tips , which gives the group its english name .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they are specialist feeders on conifer cones , and the unusual bill shape is an adaptation to assist the extraction of the seeds from the cone .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "two-barred crossbill has a strong preference for larch ( larix ) , in eurasia using siberian larch ( larix sibirica ) and dahurian larch ( l. gmelinii ) , and in north america tamarack larch ( l. laricina ) .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it will also take rowan sorbus berries , and in north america , also eastern hemlock ( tsuga canadensis ) and white spruce ( picea glauca ) cones .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "adult males tend to be red or pinkish in colour , and females green or yellow , but there is much variation .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "two-barred is easier to identify than other crossbills , especially in north america , where only red crossbill and this species occur , but some care is still needed .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "within its eurasian range , this species is smaller-headed and smaller-billed than parrot crossbill and scottish crossbill , so the main confusion species both there and in north america is common or red crossbill .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the main plumage distinction from common crossbills is the white wingbars which give this species its english and scientific names .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "there are also white tips to the tertials .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the adult male is also a somewhat brighter ( pinker ) red than other male crossbills .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "some common crossbills occasionally show weak white wingbars , so care is needed with the correct identification of this species .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the chip call is weaker and higher than that of common crossbill .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "another crossbill on hispaniola was previously treated as a subspecies , loxia leucoptera megaplaga , but is now treated as a distinct species , hispaniolan crossbill , loxia megaplaga .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is associated with the hispaniolan pine pinus occidentalis , and differs from two-barred crossbill in darker plumage and a stouter bill . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "two - barred crossbill", "paragraphs": ["the latest sighting details and map for two - barred crossbill are only available to our birdguides ultimate or our birdguides pro subscribers .\ntwo - barred crossbill , lynford , norfolk , march 2014 ( \u00a9 keith bilverstone ) . this bird is not the controversial one and clearly is a genuine two - barred . it has replaced most of its greater coverts , resulting in a much better marked wingbar than the controversial bird . however , its tertials similarly lack obvious white spots , and this is perfectly consistent with a 1st winter two - barred crossbill at this time of year .\nit isn ' t impossible for the two barred seen in the area to be a misidentification . has happened locally recently .\nharrop , a . h . j . , mcgowan , r . y . & knox , a . j . , 2007 . britain\u2019s first two - barred crossbill . british birds 100 : 650 - 657 .\nuppertail coverts \u2013 one feature which may prove to be diagnostic in the identification of two - barred crossbill is the colour and pattern of the uppertail coverts . svensson states \u201cother features to note which separate l . leucoptera from l . curvirostra are darker , blackish centres to the upperparts ( esp . scap . , mantle and longest upper tc\u2026 ) \u2026 . and fine whitish tips to upper tc . \u201d bwp also describes adult male two - barred as having \u201cblack upper tail - coverts tipped pink - white\u201d . in contrast , common crossbill appears to have greyer uppertail coverts , with rather diffuse paler fringes , either similar to the colour of the upperparts or rather dull buffy . the upper tail coverts also appear to me to be slightly longer in two - barred crossbill than common crossbill , perhaps corresponding to the longer tail overall of two - barred . the lynford bird appears consistent with two - barred crossbill in this regard \u2013 the uppertail coverts are distinctly blackish with comparatively broad , contrasting paler tips ; some of the shorter feathers have rather reddish tips , but the longer feathers are tipped rather strikingly just off white .\ntwo - barred crossbill , finland , dec 2008 \u00a9robert pekkarinen . rather like the controversial crossbill , this bird has retained most of its juvenile greater coverts , and shows only a small number of more extensively white - tipped replaced inner feathers . the tertials are also all worn retained juvenile feathers lacking large white tips .\ncontroversial crossbill , lynford , norfolk , december 2013 ( \u00a9 jonathan theobald ) . in this photo at least , the bird looks rather small - billed and round - headed . however , there is actually a large degree of overlap in biometrics between two - barred and common crossbill , so size and structure may be little help .\nhybrid two - barred x common crossbill \u2013 this is perhaps the most convenient place to park the lynford bird , as has undoubtedly been the case for other controversial individuals in the past . these difficult birds often seem to occur in invasion years , alongside other two - barred crossbills . however , though hybrids have been reported in captivity , there is no documented instance of hybridisation in the wild . if they do occur very rarely , what is the likelihood of one arriving with such a small invasion of two - barreds ? as discussed above , there is not necessarily any need to invoke the hybrid option to explain the plumage of the lynford bird , which is consistent with a 1st winter two - barred crossbill after a more limited post - juvenile wing moult .\ncontroversial crossbill , lynford , norfolk , november 2013 ( \u00a9 dave astins ) . again , the uppertail coverts are long and conspicuously pale - tipped , with redder tones to the shorter feathers and whiter tips to the longer ones . the pattern of the tertial tips / edges is perfectly consistent with the pattern of worn juvenile two - barred crossbill feathers .\ntertial tips \u2013 the lynford crossbill lacks the obvious pale tips to the tertials usually quoted as diagnostic of two - barred , and this has led some to condemn it out of hand . however , it appears these are only rarely replaced in the post - juvenile moult , so a 1st winter two - barred would most likely have retained all its juvenile tertials . the white tips of juvenile two - barred tertials are also much smaller than the equivalent adult feathers or just a thin white fringe round the end of the feather and , by this time of year , these would be heavily abraded . indeed , the other three two - barred crossbills at lynford recently have also lacked white tertial tips and both the controversial bird and those three show very worn feathers . in addition , in photographs taken of the controversial bird back in november , it appears to show slightly more white here . so the lack of white tertial tips is entirely consistent with a 1st winter two - barred .\nfischer , s . , g . mauersberger , h . schielzeth & k . witt ( 1992 ) : first breeding record of two - barred crossbill ( loxia leucoptera ) in central europe . j . ornithol . 133 : 197 - 202 . ( in germ . )\ni have quite a few crossbill pictures and there is a variance between those showing a white fringe and those not . i was quite lucky to catch a two barred male in 2013 and they are clearly bars , not fringes . light was awful but you can see the difference\ntwo - barred crossbills and controversial crossbill , lynford , norfolk , march 2014 ( \u00a9 sean nixon ) . the uppermost bird in this photo is the one which has caused all the debate . here , it doesn\u2019t appear to be particularly larger than the other two - barred crossbills . the only question is why it has not chosen to remain with these birds , rather than return to the group of common crossbills with which it has probably been associating all winter .\nlewis thomson had a bit of a shock when he sparked the discovery of the third - largest flock of two - barred crossbills ever recorded in britain on his forest of dean patch .\ncongeners \u2013 the lynford crossbill seems to associate most closely with a small group of common crossbills . partly , this may have been forced upon it \u2013 over the winter , there were no other two - barred crossbills on site . however , in recent weeks , the lynford bird has remained faithful to its small group , despite other two - barreds being present . indeed , on at least one occasion it has even been seen in the same tree as the other two - barreds , and i have seen it in a neighbouring larch . if it is a two - barred , why has it not decided to join other members of the same species ?\nit would perhaps be too ambitious for me to state categorically that the lynford bird is a 1st winter two - barred crossbill , but it does show a number of features which appear to point strongly towards that species . all the apparently anomalous plumage features can be explained in terms of age and moult . certainly , it seems difficult to argue that it is just a wing - barred common . it could perhaps be a hybrid , which might explain the lack of diagnostic vocalisations or its choice of flock , but would this be any more likely than a silent two - barred ? there is also nothing specific about it which points to a hybrid origin rather than a relatively retarded 1st winter two - barred . unless it actually calls , we may never know for sure . in the meantime , together with the other 1st winter two - barred crossbills at lynford , it can potentially teach us a lot about the variation in post - juvenile moult and appearance of 1st year birds .\nbiometrics \u2013 two - barred crossbill is generally deemed to be a bit smaller than common crossbills and with a slightly smaller bill . van duivendijk ( 2010 ) states \u201cgenerally more slender and less strongly curved mandibles than other crossbills , making bill look longer ( but variable as in all crossbills ) \u201d . some observers have suggested that the controversial bird is as big as a common and that the bill looks too heavy . to my eye , the bill of this bird did look slim or weak compared to a common bill . whilst i didn\u2019t see it together with the other two - barred crossbills , photographs of all the birds together suggest that it is similar in size . however , looking at published biometrics , there is actually a very large amount of overlap both in size and bill size between two - barred and common , suggesting that these are not diagnostic . harrop et al . ( 2007 ) also states that \u201cthe bill of bifasciata [ the eurasian race of two - barred crossbill ] is heavy and often indistinguishable from that of common crossbill\u201d . measurements from svensson are shown in the table below .\nwing - barred common crossbill \u2013 these were historically considered to be a separate form , \u2018rubrifasciata\u2019 ( latin for red banded or barred ) . as the name suggests , these often have red or pink colour bleeding into the wing bar , which is not as well defined as in two - barred . the wingbar of the controversial bird appears consistently to be pure white . the width of the wingbar in \u2018rubrifasciata\u2019 is \u201cclosely similar\u201d to juvenile two - barred , according to bwp . however , 1st year male common crossbill has \u201corange but rarely any pure red tones\u201d to the body plumage \u201cuntil the first complete moult\u201d . so the reddish body plumage of the lynford bird would be at odds with a 1st winter common crossbill . as well as this , the pattern of the uppertail coverts and the apparently moulted inner greater covert would not be consistent with that species either . this seems like the least likely explanation for the identity of the lynford bird .\nif you ' ve got collins birdguide 2nd edition take a look at page 387 . under the two - barred illustrations you will see it shows a common crossbill variant with similar white fringing to the wings on your bird . admittedly , the example shown is a female but perhaps it can also occur in males .\nbody plumage / colour \u2013 male two - barred crossbill is generally assumed to have pinkier - red body tones than the more brick - red of common . in the field , the lynford bird appeared to me to have some raspberry red tones , especially to crown and flanks . however , other observers have questioned that it is not pink enough and it is true that it looks rather red overall . again , this may not be the issue it first appears . bwp actually states \u201chead and body of advanced 1st adult male orange - or rosy - red , less bright and less deep rosy than in adult male\u201d . in addition , two - barred crossbill has scapulars and some mantle feathers with very dark bases , and this certainly seems to be the case with the lynford bird . bwp also states that male two - barred shows \u201cdusky grey cast on mantle & round shoulder\u201d and this is shows well in the attached photos of the bird in question . so the body plumage of the lynford bird is actually more consistent with a 1st winter male two - barred .\nexcited trumpet calls when two birds flew in and joined the feeding flock . ( 6 + birds altogether ) .\nprobably the most important thing to do with a bird such as this , is to establish its correct age . on close examination , the lynford crossbill shows an apparent moult contrast in the greater coverts and retained juvenile tertials , both discussed in more detail below . the colour of crossbill body plumage can vary with diet , more particularly lacking red colour if it is deficient in certain carotenoid pigments , but the majority of birds still show particular colours or combinations which are related to age and sex . for example , van duivendijk ( 2010 ) states about 1st winter two - barred crossbill \u201csome 1w male completely orange , others nearly still complete juv at same time with mix of green - yellow and red - orange underparts and upperparts\u201d and even for 1st summer \u201crest of plumage very variable , some males already entirely red\u201d which implies that some are not yet totally red . the lynford crossbill shows a mixture of red - toned adult body plumage mixed with patches of yellow , particularly around the face and upper breast , as well as more strikingly in a band across the lower rump , which would seem to be most consistent with a 1st winter two - barred crossbill . interestingly , the other two 1st winter male two - barred crossbills currently at lynford also show a similar mix of red and yellow body feathering , to a greater or lesser extent . this all points to the controversial crossbill being a 1st winter . once correctly aged , it is then important to look at the individual features in more detail .\npreviously treated as conspecific with l . megaplaga , but differs in plumage details ; recent genetic analysis indicates that the two are better treated as separate species . furthermore , vocal and genetic differences have been employed to suggest that present species might be separated into two , eurasian and north american , species # r # r # r . two subspecies recognized .\ni ' ll confess i ' ve never seen a two - barred although i remember trying ( unsuccessfully ) to see them in lynford arboretum , norfolk a few years ago when they turned up there . they are pretty rare in the uk .\ncontroversial crossbill , lynford , norfolk , february 2014 ( \u00a9 neil rendall ) . this photo shows all the features which suggest that this bird may in fact be a two - barred crossbill \u2013 the distinctive uppertail coverts , the moulted inner greater coverts with well defined white tips , the extensively dark - centred scapulars and upper mantle and some pinkish tones to the red body feathers . interestingly , the tertial tips appear more worn than in the picture taken by dave astins 3 months earlier , above .\nsame bird as on xc89063 , later being joined by more two - barreds and commons that came flying in from the baltic .\nclement , p . ( 2018 ) . two - barred crossbill ( loxia leucoptera ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\non first glance , it looks distinctly underwhelming . initially reported as a male two - barred crossbill , it has subsequently been put down variously as either a wing - barred common , 1st year two - barred or even a hybrid . unfortunately , it has been rather elusive through much of its stay , being reported at lynford only sporadically . given questions over its identity and the difficulty over seeing it , i had made no effort to find it myself over the winter . as better photos emerged , i became more and more intrigued . it appeared to be a very interesting bird and potentially rather educational , and i wondered whether it was being dismissed unfairly . however , despite trying several times to see it , i had failed consistently . on 23rd march , another group of three more obvious two - barred crossbills appeared at lynford , and this prompted me to try again . whilst we failed to see the obvious birds , those present on 25th were rewarded with prolonged and at times very close views of the controversial bird , as it fed in deciduous trees and came down to drink . i returned again on 27th , and this time saw the three clear - cut 1st winter two - barred crossbills ( 2 males & 1 female ) as well as the bird in question . following discussion with those around me , particularly james mccallum and dick filby , i was prompted to put pen to paper to try to dispel a few myths and narrow down the debate .\nwingbars \u2013 the other feature which immediately seems at odds with two - barred is the greater covert wingbar , which is rather thin and does not appear to bulge significantly towards the innerwing . however , as with the tertial tips , all may not be as simple as it seems . two - barred crossbill has a very protracted breeding season and therefore very variable timing , and correspondingly also extent , of the post - juvenile moult . consequently , the appearance of 1st winter birds can vary substantially between individuals . bwp ( cramp et al , 1998 ) states \u201cadvanced birds similar to adult , but juvenile flight feathers , tail , usually all tertials and often at least outer greater upper - wing coverts retained . in more retarded birds , many juvenile wing coverts retained , as well as scattered juvenile feathering on body . \u201d this is evident on the other 1st winter two - barred crossbills currently at lynford \u2013 one male has seemingly replaced all its greater coverts , whereas the other appears to have retained a number of outer greater coverts , resulting in a clear moult contrast and a \u2018step\u2019 in the greater covert wingbar . bwp goes on to say \u201cin 1st adults\u2026 when coverts and tertials all juvenile , white tips partly wear off\u201d , suggesting that it is not impossible to find some 1st winter two - barred crossbills with completely retained juvenile greater coverts .\ntwo - barred crossbill , cley , norfolk , july 2013 ( \u00a9 julian bhalerao ) . this bird has a similarly poorly - marked greater covert wingbar , with a large number of very worn juvenile feathers . the pattern of some of these feathers is similar to the older greater coverts on the controversial lynford bird , with the small white tip bleeding up the outer edge . thankfully , this bird showed white tertial tips and was heard to call .\ncalls \u2013 the trumpet call of two - barred crossbill is generally deemed to be diagnostic . in addition , the flight call is slightly more clipped , even \u2018clicky\u2019 than common\u2019s \u2018glip\u2019 , though the difference is subtle . as far as i am aware , the lynford bird has not been conclusively heard to call . however , at no point has the distinctive \u2018toot\u2019 been heard from the group it hangs out with . in addition , we didn\u2019t hear two - barred flight calls from that group , despite listening hard . the other group of two - barred has generally been very vocal . even watching a lone juvenile in north norfolk last summer , it would regularly \u2018toot\u2019 , particularly on take - off or when coming in to land , despite no other members of the species being present . could the lynford bird just be a silent individual ? i have struggled to tell whether any single birds seen previously in the uk have been silent , but it is interesting that many observers report never having heard the trumpet call in this country prior to this most recent invasion .\ndetails , including photos and sound recordings , of the western palearctic ' s first ' white - winged crossbill ' , found in south - west iceland .\ni profess not to be an expert so you might want to wait for someone more knowledgeable than me but at the moment i would go for common crossbill .\n) . this photo shows the uppertail coverts particularly well , with deep blackish centres and very contrasting and rather wide pale tips . it appears that this feature alone may exclude common crossbill\ncontroversial crossbill , lynford , norfolk , march 2014 ( \u00a9 sean nixon ) . in this photo , the inner two greater coverts on the left wing are more spread out , given the way the wing is held , particularly highlighting the moult contrast . the more extensive white tips to these feathers are clearly shown , contrasting with the much narrower white tips to the outer greater coverts . the retained yellow in the lower rump also stands out here .\nplease if someone can help me , i saw 7 common crossbills last week and this one in the photo was the only one that had white on the wings . . . . could it be a juvenile 2 - barred ? thank you\non close examination of the controversial bird , it would indeed appear that most of the greater coverts are actually retained juvenile feathers , with a very restricted white tip and slightly more white extending a short way up the outer web , consistent with the illustration in svensson ( 1992 ) . in addition , when seen well , it would appear that one or two of the innermost greater coverts have a much more extensive white tip , with a more squared off border to the dark base , consistent with adult - type feathers . this is visible in some photographs as a slight bulge in the greater covert wingbar where it meets the tertials , but can be difficult to see in the field , especially when viewing from below . this would appear to be entirely consistent with a 1st winter two - barred crossbill which has retained the majority of its juvenile greater coverts . a similar bird with substantially retained juvenile greater coverts was photographed in helsinki , finland in december 2008 and is shown below .\nlynford arboretum , in the norfolk brecks , seems particularly attractive to two - barred crossbill . i remember seeing my first there , a female , way back in 1990 . admittedly , none were reported there from then until february 2012 , when a pair appeared briefly one morning . however , as the latest invasion started last summer , a group very quickly appeared at lynford , with up to 4 birds reported from 21st july until 29th . whether it was any of these same birds which remained in the area is unclear , but a juvenile was reported erratically through august and the first half of september , then up to 4 birds again through the second half of the month and october . at some point during this period , a rather controversial bird turned up at the site . certainly seen from november 2013 , it has remained throughout the winter .\ncontroversial crossbill , lynford , norfolk , march 2014 ( \u00a9 keith bilverstone ) . the first impression of this bird is always rather underwhelming , given a rather narrow greater covert wingbar and no white tertial tips . however , there are clues here to its age and state of moult and on closer examination there are some much more encouraging signs .\ncontroversial crossbill , lynford , norfolk , march 2014 ( \u00a9 jake gearty ) . raspberry - red tones are visible in the crown / face , mantle and flanks . the blackish - centred feathers to the scapulars , upper mantle and across the shoulders also stand out . the tertials are clearly worn , retained juvenile feathers and the squared - off white tips to the new inner greater coverts are very different pattern of the older outer feathers\nthank you tony , thank you robbo , crossbills are difficult as of the 7 i saw , there were no 2 alike . . . . . . . all different colours . . . . . this one was the only one with white fringing . another reason why i questioned it is because 2 - barred had been seen in the same area . i shall go back over the weekend to see if i see one . many thanks again .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\naerc tac . 2003 . aerc tac checklist of bird taxa occurring in western palearctic region , 15th draft . available at : urltoken _ the _ wp15 . xls # .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe european population is estimated at 1 , 500 , 000 - 4 , 260 , 000 pairs , which equates to 3 , 000 , 000 - 8 , 510 , 000 mature individuals ( birdlife international 2015 ) . europe forms approximately 10 % of the global range , so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 30 , 000 , 000 - 85 , 100 , 000 mature individuals , although further validation of this estimate is needed . trend justification : this species has undergone a large and statistically significant decrease over the last 40 years in north america ( - 67 . 8 % decline over 40 years , equating to a - 24 . 7 % decline per decade ; data from breeding bird survey and / or christmas bird count : butcher and niven 2007 ) . the european population size is estimated to be fluctuating ( birdlife international 2015 ) .\nthis species occupies dense conifer forests and plantations , mainly larch and larch - pine ( larix - pinus ) forests . it is found predominantly with siberian pine ( pinus sibirica ) in central siberia and also uses fir ( abies ) and spruce ( picea ) , and occasionally resorts to deciduous trees in absence of preferred conifers . in eastern russia it is mostly found in larches and mainly in spruce and in north - west russia and scandinavia mostly in spruce ( clement 2016 ) . the breeding season is from february to mid - may in years of a good seed crop of pine and spruce , but in poor crop years it is delayed to from june to august ( snow and perrins 1998 ) . it breeds from january to august in north america with timing largely determined by availability of seed crop ( clement 2016 ) . the nest is constructed mostly of conifer twigs , plant stalks , grass stems , lichens , moss , plant fibres and down , animal hair or fur and feathers . it is set 2\u201320 m above ground against the trunk of a conifer , typically spruce . on occasion it is placed at the end of a branch . clutches are three to four eggs . the diet consists mainly of conifer seeds , buds , berries and shoots , chiefly of larch and spruce but it also takes a range of invertebrates and larvae ( clement 2016 ) . the species is resident and dispersive but also irruptive in years of poor seed crops ( snow and perrins 1998 ) .\nconservation actions underway bern convention appendix ii . conservation actions proposed no conservation measures are currently needed for this species within its european range .\n( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22728944a111144194 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nsecond male featured in xc192150 singing from the top of a tree . habitat : mature coniferous forest .\nfirst male featured in xc192150 singing from the top of a tree . habitat : mature coniferous forest .\none adult male calling from different perches with a female nearby . habitat : mature coniferous forest .\none adult male calling with a female nearby . habitat : mature coniferous forest .\nduring a spell of unusually warm weather ( 8 to 9\u00b0 c in january . ) these birds were foraging on white spruce , especially in sunny spots .\none juvenile calling from the top of a black spruce tree in the first part , then flying ( 1 : 15 ) and perching much closer in a young white birch tree .\nfemale - type bird , giving excitement calls non - stop ( with a few flight calls at the very end of the recording ) . it seemed to interact vocally with the trumpet - calling bullfinch that can be heard in the background . note that towards the end , there are a few calls that are clearly higher - pitched than most of the calls .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\na front view of a female extracting seed from a berry then eating it .\n\u00e9ric roualet , mkennewell , robert schaefer , erkki lehtovirta , bruce steger , dani\u00eal jimenez , ken simonite , malcolmmarkswan .\nmarvinhyett , \u00e9ric roualet , lars petersson , tom dudones , david cooper , hal and kirsten snyder , morten venas , guy poisson , brian kuebel , manakin , will hayward , ken havard , guenther karmann , erkki lehtovirta , laurent demongin , ahvenainen , ken simonite , pascal christe , ivan sj\u00f6gren .\n\u2013 n fennoscandia , nw & n russia ( kola peninsula e in broad band through siberia to sea of okhotsk , s to c urals , l baikal area , yablonovy mts and w amurland ) , probably also extreme ne china ( n heilongjiang ) ; winters also s to ne europe ( irregular ) , ne china ( liaoning and hebei ) and s siberia .\n\u2013 alaska and c & s canada e to c & e quebec , newfoundland and nova scotia , s in usa to n washington , n wisconsin and s maine ; also c oregon and rocky mts s to w wyoming , n utah and even s colorado and n new mexico ; in winter also s to s minnesota , n ohio , pennsylvania and massachusetts , occasionally further south .\n14\u00b75\u201317 cm ; 25\u201340 g . medium - large , short - legged and fork - tailed finch with broad white wingbars and distinctive crossed mandibles . male nominate race has . . .\nsong , usually from treetop or in display - flight , in north america a long , rapid series of rich and . . .\nseason feb to mid - may or jun\u2013aug in europe and russia , jan\u2013aug in north america , timing largely determined by availability of . . .\nresident , migratory and irruptively nomadic . occasionally present throughout entire winter n to . . .\nnot globally threatened . common to locally abundant . estimated european breeding population between 1000 and 10 , 000 pairs , and up to a further 100 , 000 pairs in russia . in se . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nforms three well - defined subfamilies # r , including euphoniinae , previously placed in thraupidae . also includes drepanidini , sometimes treated as a separate family ( as in hbw ) , but here considered merely a tribe of carduelinae . extensive phylogenetic data available , and comparatively few species remain wholly unscreened ; nonetheless , study of internal relationships has been confounded by recurring plumage patterns and use of similar feeding niches by taxa that prove to be far from closely related .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nwe ' re about more than just birds ( though obviously we like them a lot ) .\nyou have posted to a forum that requires a moderator to approve posts before they are publicly available .\nmy understanding is that the bars are much more prominent than the white shown on the bird in your photo . i think it ' s way too early for any juveniles to be about .\npaul , i was told by birding experts on a recent trip to mallorca where we saw crossbills that the males get redder as they mature . they were high up in the canopy so didn ' t really get a view of their wing plumage . my photo isn ' t as good as yours but there was no evidence of white fringing on the wings as far as i could see .\nthe opinion was that this was a young ( ish ) male so i guess there ' s a good deal of colour variation . good luck in seeking them out a again . you never know your luck .\n\u00a9 the royal society for the protection of birds . charity registered in england and wales no 207076 , in scotland no sc037654 . contact us terms & conditions\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ni would like to thank james mccallum and dick filby in particular , for the interesting discussion about this bird before , during and after we saw it , and for their help in the preparation of this article . i would also like to thank all those photographers who very kindly allowed me to use their images .\ncramp , s . , ( ed . ) , 1998 . handbook of the birds of europe , the middle east and north africa .\nsvensson , l . , 1992 . identification guide to european passerines , 4th edition .\njon dunn brings you a comprehensive roundup of the week ' s best birds from around britain , ireland and the western palearctic , including pacific golden plover and squacco heron . more here >\nhen harrier has bred on the national trust ' s high peak moors , in the peak district national park , for the first time in four years . more here >\nresearch has found that young turtle doves raised on a diet of seeds foraged from arable plants rather than food provided in people ' s gardens are more likely to survive after fledging . more here >\ncopyright rare bird alert 2018 . rare bird alert - 17 keswick close , norwich , norfolk nr4 6uw enquiries : admin @ urltoken or call 01603 457016"]}
{"id": 1790, "summary": [{"text": "the spotted lanternfly or lycorma delicatula ( order hemiptera , family fulgoridae ) is a planthopper native to china , india , and vietnam .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "although it has two pairs of wings , it jumps more than it flies .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "its host plants are grapes , pines , stone fruits , and malus spp .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "in its native habitat it is kept in check by natural predators or pathogens .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it was accidentally introduced in korea in 2006 and is since considered a pest .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "in september 2014 , it was first spotted in the u.s. . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "spotted lanternfly", "paragraphs": ["spotted lanternfly nymphs collected on tree band . tree banding is both an effective detection method and control strategy for spotted lanternfly\nfor more information you can search spotted lanternfly pda for the pennsylvania department of agriculture , or spotted lanternfly psu for penn state university .\nthe quarantine of the dangerously invasive spotted lanternfly has again expanded into bucks county .\nquarantine extended for invasive spotted lanternfly in s . e . pa . - philly\npennsylvania department of agriculture ( 2015 ) . spotted lanternfly . accessed june 2015 at\nspotted lanternfly fourth ( final ) instar nymph ( immature ) . credit : itchydogimages\nthe spotted lanternfly is an invasive insect that was first found in pennsylvania in 2014 .\nlateral view of an adult spotted lanternfly . photo by lawrence barringer , pennsylvania department of agriculture\nlateral view of an adult spotted lanternfly . photo by lawrence barringer , pennsylvania department of agriculture\nthe spotted lanternfly is a new invasive insect that was first found in pennsylvania in 2014 .\nthe spotted lanternfly does not bite people , which is something that people often ask about .\nspotted lanternfly is regarded as a poisonous insect in chinese medicine and used for relief from swelling .\nright now , the fight against the invasive spotted lanternfly involves trying to keep them from reproducing .\nfind more information , including a one - minute video about the spotted lanternfly , visit urltoken .\nspotted lanternfly is an invasive insect in pennsylvania that has the potential to threaten several important agricultural commodities .\nif spotted lanternfly did become established in minnesota , it could impact grape , apple and nursery production .\nparasitic wasp , anastatus orientalis is reported to parasitize up to 69 percent of spotted lanternfly eggs in china . this egg parasitoid is considered a potential biocontrol agent for release against the spotted lanternfly in south korea .\nthe pennsylvania department of agriculture issued a quarantine to restrict the movement of the spotted lanternfly on november 1 , 2014 . a small area of pennsylvania is regulated to prevent spotted lanternfly from spreading to new areas .\nthere are some native insects that could be confused with a spotted lanternfly , especially tiger moths and underwing moths which also can have red hind wings . however , moths are much better fliers compared to a spotted lanternfly . moths also do not jump while a spotted lanternfly ( and other planthoppers ) are good jumpers .\nadult spotted lanternfly with wings spread showing colorful hind wing . photo by holly raguza , pennsylvania department of agriculture\n. this will increase the likelihood of early detection and control of the spotted lanternfly if it arrives here .\nfor more information on damage , life cycles and descriptions , and where to look , see the spotted lanternfly pest alert . also , from the pennsylvania department of agriculture : guidelines for the control of spotted lanternfly .\nthe spotted lanternfly has no known effects on human health , according to horticulture experts at penn state extension .\nspotted lanternfly egg mass on tree - of - heaven . photo by holly raguza , bugwood . org .\nif you live outside of the current ( quarantine area ) in pennsylvania and find a spotted lanternfly , report it ! use this interactive plant pest quarantine search to see if you ' re in the spotted lanternfly quarantine area .\nspotted lanternfly covered egg mass ( bottom ) , adult ( center ) , uncovered egg mass ( top ) .\nthe spotted lanternfly is a threat to many fruit crops and trees . learn to spot it and report it .\ncontact the minnesota department of agriculture via arrest the pest if you suspect an infestation of spotted lanternfly in minnesota .\nmore information about the biology of the spotted lanternfly , most current distribution , volunteer opportunities , quarantine regulations and compliance .\nbuild - up of honeydew secretions at the base of a tree , a sign of a heavy spotted lanternfly infestation .\npenn state college of agricultural sciences ( 2015 ) . host plants used by the spotted lanternfly . accessed july 2015 at\nphoto 1 : spotted lanternfly . note spots on most of the wing and the lacey pattern on the wing tips .\nspotted lanternfly younger nymphs without red coloration . photo by lawrence barringer , pennsylvania department of agriculture , bugwood . org .\nspotted lanternfly older nymph with red coloration . photo by lawrence barringer , pennsylvania department of agriculture , bugwood . org .\nlimit the spread of spotted lanternfly : you can take steps personally to limit the chance you may spread spotted lanternfly . you can use the \u201cspotted lanternfly quarantine checklist\u201d to make sure items on and around your home are pest free before moving them . you can also check your vehicle for hitch hiking lanternflies if you plan on leaving the quarantine area . taking steps to not park or leave items under tree lines will also reduce the risk of spotted lanternfly becoming an unwelcome hitch hiker .\nspotted lanternfly egg masses can be hard to spot making it easy to unknowingly transport them on vehicles and other outdoor items .\nan adult spotted lanternfly , with wings spread , showing its colorful hind wing . photo by holly raguza , pennsylvania department of agriculture\nthe spotted lanternfly is just the most recent invasive bug species from overseas to show up in pennsylvania by way of international commerce .\nsouth korea is approximately similar in size to pennsylvania and we know that the spotted lanternfly has been here longer than three years .\nthe spotted lanternfly was first discovered in berks county in 2014 . the fight against them involves trying to keep them from reproducing .\nadult spotted lanternfly on tree - of - heaven . photo by lawrence barringer , pennsylvania department of agriculture , bugwood . org .\ndownload a spotted lanternfly kit \u00bb the kit contains useful information regarding identification , handling yard waste , a time of year management chart and what to do if you find spotted lanternflies on your property .\nthis map is from the pennsylvania department of agriculture and so far the spotted lanternfly has been found in the southeastern part of pennsylvania .\nan adult spotted lanternfly is seen , its wings spread to show a colorful hind wing . the invasive pest has sparked a quarantine in pennsylvania .\ndarvin levengood walks the grounds of his berks county winery . the spotted lanternfly arrived in berks in 2014 and has spread to five other counties .\nthis is a picture of a stand of younger ailanthus trees , tree of heaven , that sustained heavy populations of spotted lanternfly for two years .\nany living stage of the spotted lanternfly , lyc o r m a delica tu la . this includes egg masses , nymphs , and adults .\nif spotted lanternfly is discovered in minnesota , actions may be taken to prevent its spread to new areas and to eradicate or control any infestations .\nin the late summer and fall , the spotted lanternfly prefers feeding on ailanthus altissima , commonly known as the\ntree of heaven .\nthey can be found feeding on other plants and trees , but if you have ailanthus altissima , you should start searching for spotted lanternfly on those trees .\nthe spotted lanternfly ( slf ) , lycorma delicatula , ( hemiptera : fulgoridae ) was unintentionally introduced into korea in 2006 where it is a pest .\na gypsy moth egg mass ( right ) next to an egg mass of the spotted lanternfly ( left ) on a willow , salix sp . trunk\nthe spotted lanternfly quarantine has expanded into nine additional municipalities in southeastern pennsylvania , including some in bucks county , the pennsylvania department of agriculture announced recently .\nredding is talking about the spotted lanternfly , just the most recent invasive bug species from overseas to show up in pennsylvania by way of international commerce .\nas a nymph , the spotted lanternfly feeds on a wide range of plants and trees . over 65 potential host species have been recorded , including :\nbarringer , l . 2014 . pest alert : spotted lanternfly , lycorma delicatula ( white ) ( hemiptera : fulgoridae ) . pennsylvania department of agriculture .\nit is important for landowners in the affected area to avoid spreading the spotted lanternfly . one good practice is to avoid parking your vehicle under trees because spotted lanternflies that are living in trees will lay eggs on the cars underneath .\nafter being detected most recently in northampton and lehigh counties , the spotted lanternfly has now been discovered in berks , montgomery , bucks , and chester counties .\nprofile of spotted lanternfly adult at rest . note the wings are held tent - like over the back of the insect . credit : pennsylvania department of agriculture\nthe spotted lanternfly is not known to occur in minnesota . it was detected in pennsylvania in september 2014 which is the only known occurrence in north america .\nresidents in and around the quarantine areas are encouraged to inspect their properties for spotted lanternfly . additional townships may be added to the quarantine , but with the identification of each infestation , we come one step closer to controlling spotted lanternfly and the damage it might cause our economy and our environment , agriculture officials said .\nprevious experience with other invasive insect species \u2014 including the brown marmorated stink bug and gypsy moths \u2014 is helpful to state agriculture officials dealing with the spotted lanternfly .\nwhere spotted lanternfly has been detected in pennsylvania , several control options are available . these methods are used in combination on a site - by - site basis .\nsince its detection in 2014 in pennsylvania , research on spotted lanternfly has been rapidly expanding . currently , researchers from government and academia are investigating topics such as :\ni ' m going to talk about the invasive insect , the spotted lanternfly , how to identify it , and why we ' re so concerned about it .\nwe ' ve found spotted lanternfly on herbaceous plants including day lilies , basil , cucumbers , but primarily we think of them as a pest on woody plants .\nefforts to put a crimp in the growing risk of the spotted lanternfly to pennsylvania ' s fruit and hardwood industry have gotten a boost from the federal government .\nspotted lanternfly first instar nymph ( immature ) . note that the nymph is black with white spots . this coloration persists through the third instar . credit : itchydogimages\nspotted lanternfly was first discovered in berks county , pennsylvania in september of 2014 . it has since spread to 13 counties in pennsylvania and is under a quarantine in that state . it was also found in both delaware and new york in late 2017 . as of january 2018 , spotted lanternfly has not been found in massachusetts .\nspotted lanternfly is native to china and found in southeast asia . it was first reported in south korea in 2006 and rapidly spread to different parts of the country .\npennsylvania department of agriculture spotted lanternfly information , including a copy of the slf order of quarantine , a powerpoint on lycorma inspection tips , and the slf pest alert .\nthe pennsylvania department of agriculture has extended the area placed under quarantine for an invasion of spotted lanternfly to include nine additional municipalities in the southeastern part of the state .\nwhen you see the spotted lanternfly in the media , you often see this image at the upper left with the wings displayed and you can see the red underwings .\nspotted lanternfly was discovered in berks county in september of 2014 and we estimate that it arrived in pennsylvania during 2012 based on the condition of old weathered egg masses .\nthere really weren ' t very many spotted lanternfly in this orchard until september and then when the adults took to flight they flew into the orchard in large numbers .\nif you find an insect that you suspect is the spotted lanternfly , please contact your local extension office or state plant regulatory official to have the specimen identified properly .\npeople are asking about the longterm health of trees that are fed upon my lanternfly .\naccording to dara\u2019s information compilation , the spotted lanternfly is actually not a fly , but a planthopper referred to as \u201cspot clothing wax cicada\u201d or \u201cchinese blistering cicada\u201d in literature .\nthe spotted lanternfly is native to southern asia , including china , india , japan , and vietnam . recently , it has become a problematic invasive pest in south korea .\nso this orchard , producer , could use an insecticide that was labeled for his fruit crops and the spotted lanternfly have not been particularly difficult to kill with traditional insecticides .\nthis tree was red from a distance of about 50 feet i could just see that the whole stem of this tree was red from the high numbers of spotted lanternfly .\nthe spotted lanternfly is native to china , india , japan , and vietnam and has been detected for the first time in the united states in eastern berks county , pennsylvania .\nthe spotted lanternfly is not known to do any structural damage , it won ' t get into the wall space of your home and try to over - winter as adults .\nmanagement neonicotinoids , pyrethrins , and organophosphates are among the chemical insecticides effective against spotted lanternfly . adults and 2 nd - 4 th instar nymphs appear to be attracted to spearmint oil which could be used in their control . using sticky traps at the base of the tree trunks also appears to be a good management strategy . parasitic wasp , anastatus orientalis is reported to parasitize up to 69 % of spotted lanternfly eggs in china . this egg parasitoid is considered a potential biocontrol agent for release against the spotted lanternfly in south korea .\nanyone finding the spotted lanternfly on their property is encouraged to contact the pennsylvania department of agriculture at : badbug @ pa . gov , 1 - 866 - 253 - 7189 .\ngreig , g . 2014 . notices : order of quarantine ; spotted lanternfly . 44 pa . b . 6947 . pages 6947 . the pennsylvania bulletin , harrisburg , pa .\naphis administrator kevin shea points to the sticky bands being placed around the trunks of host trees , such as tree of heaven , to identify the range of spotted lanternfly nymphs .\nthe spotted lanternfly is not known to bite humans . you can kill spotted lanternflies mechanically , by swatting or crushing them . however , when you threaten them , they are able to quickly jump far away from you , so mechanical control is not easy to achieve .\n\u201cyou can help stop its spread . keep a watchful eye out for signs of the spotted lanternfly : the nymphs in the spring , and right now the brown / grey mud like egg masses and bright black and white and red spotted adults , \u201d nichols said .\nadults are weak flyers , but good hoppers . the head is black with piercing and sucking mouthparts . life cycle is typically one generation per year . spotted lanternfly overwinters as eggs .\nmost natural enemies of the spotted lanternfly are not effective enough for controlling them , according to dr . dara , nor are generalist predators . parasitic controls are few , although a few that are native to asia may work there . a parasitic wasp called anastatus orientalis may have potential because it is reported to parasitize up to 69 percent of spotted lanternfly eggs in china .\nto control spotted lanternflies , applying a system of insecticide will help to kill off adults .\nspotted lanternfly was first found in berks county , pennsylvania in 2014 and is a major threat to our agriculture industry . this video , updated in march 2018 , discusses how to identify this invasive pest and describes its lifecycle and behavior . you will also learn about current conditions and quarantine areas , the research being conducted , and where you can learn more about spotted lanternfly .\norigin and distribution spotted lanternfly is native to china and is present in southeast asia . it was first reported in south korea in 2006 and rapidly spread to different parts of the country .\npesticides are currently the most effective way of killing the spotted lanternfly , but it\u2019s important that you contact a professional or follow the instructions on the pdofag\u2019s website to report the infestation appropriately .\n\u201cif the spotted lanternfly continues to spread it will attack more grapes , apples , pines , and stone fruits and could become a major pest to the united states , \u201d nichols said .\na spotted lanternfly , seen on a leaf . they feed on the leaf , then leave behind a waste product that leads to the development of what ' s called a sooty mold .\nthe spotted lanternfly , which attacks tree trunks and other woody parts of plants , is a weak flyer but a strong and quick jumper . credit : lawrence barringer , pa . department of agriculture\nan adult spotted lanternfly is seen , its wings spread to show a colorful hind wing . the invasive pest has sparked a quarantine in pennsylvania . holly raguza / pennsylvania department of agriculture hide caption\nas an adult , the spotted lanternfly mainly feeds on the ailanthus ( tree of heaven ) , although has also been observed on a few other species , including salix ( weeping willow ) .\na spotted lanternfly , seen on a leaf . they feed on the leaf , then leave behind a waste product that leads to the development of what ' s called a sooty mold . (\npinned spotted lanternfly adult with wings open . note the bright red coloration now visible on the hindwings . this cannot be seen when the insect is at rest . credit : pennsylvania department of agriculture\nthe spotted lanternfly attacks many important agricultural trees and plants , including the grapevine . if this invasive species were to establish in ontario , it would threaten the $ 3 . 3 billion wine industry .\nthe spotted lanternfly feeds on various host plants throughout its development . nymphs feed on a wide range of plant species , while adults prefer to feed and lay eggs on tree - of - heaven (\nan ongoing de - limiting survey being conducted at the local and state level to rid areas of the spotted lanternfly has led to the quarantine of several municipalities \u2014 including in northampton and lehigh counties .\nadditionally , it is good if residents of surrounding areas are aware of the spotted lanternfly , know how to identify it in all its life stages and are watching out for it , swackhamer said .\nin the late summer and fall , the spotted lanternfly prefers feeding on ailanthus altissima , commonly known as the \u201ctree of heaven . \u201d they can be found feeding on other plants and trees , but if you have ailanthus altissima , you should start searching for spotted lanternfly on those trees . for information on how to identify ailanthus altissima and how to control it , see this fact sheet : urltoken .\nthe spotted lanternfly doesn ' t make any kind of a cocoon or pupi , goes directly from that fourth instar stage , the skin of that life stage will crack open and the adult crawls out .\nthe invasive spotted lanternfly has been found in southeastern counties in pennsylvania . we are trying to eradicate this potential pest . there is a quarantine order in place that prohibits movement of any living life stage of this insect to areas outside of the quarantine area . to find information about identifying the spotted lanternfly , current information about where it is known to exist , quarantine order , and compliance go to : urltoken\nthe spotted lanternfly ( lycorma delicatula ) is native to china and was first detected in pennsylvania in september 2014 . spotted lanternfly feeds on a wide range of fruit , ornamental and woody trees , with tree - of - heaven being one of the preferred hosts . spotted lanternflies are invasive and can be spread long distances by people who move infested material or items containing egg masses . if allowed to spread in the united states , this pest could seriously impact the country\u2019s grape , orchard , and logging industries .\nan exotic pest known as the spotted lanternfly , lycorma delicatula ( white ) was recently detected in berks county , pa . spotted lanternfly , which is actually not a fly , but a planthopper is also referred to as \u201cspot clothing wax cicada\u201d or \u201cchinese blistering cicada\u201d in the literature . it belongs to the family fulgoridae in the order hemiptera . fulgorids or members of the family fulgoridae are moderate to large planthoppers generally referred to as lanternflies because of the inflated front portion of the head that was thought to be luminous . spotted lanternfly is regarded as a poisonous insect in chinese medicine and used for relief from swelling .\nthe infestation in berks county most likely originated from one of several asian countries , including china , india , japan , south korea and vietnam , where the spotted lanternfly is endemic . despite its distinctive red and black - spotted wings , the lanternfly can only walk , jump or fly short distances . its long - distance spread is made possible by people who unknowingly move infested material or vehicles containing egg masses .\ninvasive bug prompts quarantine in pennsylvania townships : the two - way the spotted lanternfly has officially arrived in the u . s . , and leaders in pennsylvania are hoping it won ' t be staying long .\nosama el - lissy , aphis\u2019 deputy administrator for plant protection and quarantine , looks for spotted lanternfly nymphs emerging from host tree material in research barrels to show aphis administrator kevin shea and associate administrator mike gregoire .\nsurveys are currently underway to determine the complete spread of this pest in berks county and the surrounding counties . efforts are also underway to ensure the spotted lanternfly is not present in other parts of the commonwealth .\nfor the lanternfly , current research is focused on the insect\u2019s anatomy in the hopes that a weakness in the pest can be found and manipulated . scientists are working with various pesticides , predators , and parasitoids , spichiger said , including a parasitic wasp that \u201cmight infest a spotted lanternfly and cause it not to reproduce . \u201d\nneonicotinoids , pyrethrins , and organophosphates are among the chemical insecticides effective against spotted lanternfly . adults and 2 nd - 4 th instar nymphs appear to be attracted to spearmint oil which could be used in their control .\noccurrence data : we have used the csv file of the distribution of spotted lanternfly from the literatures ( in china , korea and japan ) . this file contains the occurrence points of the species in the naive region\nhorticultural experts across pennsylvania say the spotted lanternfly is of particular concern here because they feast on grapevines , apple trees , stone fruit trees , and pine trees , all of which are big business in the keystone state .\nfor now , the spotted lanternfly remains confined to a small area of pennsylvania , but according to dr . dara , all appropriate interests should stand by , keep watch , and - - especially - - be ready .\nbecause the pest is so new , experts are working on quarantining and eradicating new infestations in order to keep it under control . currently , the spotted lanternfly is detected in several counties , including our own lehigh county .\ndarvin levengood walks the grounds of his winery , keeping an eye out for the spotted lanternfly , but does not see any , in amityville , berks county , pa . , wednesday , aug . 9 , 2017 . the nets on the trees are to keep birds away from the grapes ; they would not prevent a lanternfly infestation .\nu . s . department of agriculture \u2013 animal and plant health inspection service ( 2015 ) . spotted lanternfly eradication program in berks , lehigh , and montgomery counties , pennsylvania \u2013 environmental assessment may 2015 . accessed july 2015 at\nthe spotted lanternfly was first discovered in berks county in 2014 . it is an economic threat because it can destroy vineyards , fruit trees and forest products and associated businesses . sven spichiger , of the pennsylvania department of agriculture , said three vineyards in the quarantine area were negatively impacted this year . \u201cright now the spotted lanternfly is laying eggs and they lay them anywhere and hides them , \u201d he said . each egg mass contains 30 to 50 eggs .\nlikewise , if you collect an adult or nymph , place the specimen in 70 percent rubbing alcohol or hand sanitizer in a leak - proof container . never take a live specimen of the spotted lanternfly from the area under quarantine .\n\u201csocial media is a powerful tool for helping visually identify this pest , \u201d explained redding . \u201cwe encourage citizens to watch and share our spotted lanternfly video . anyone can join us to help protect pennsylvania from this bad bug . \u201d\nwhen disturbed , the lanternfly will hop or fly away , revealing bright red and white hindwings . ( figure 2 )\nan average lanternfly life cycle lasts about a year , during which time they can lay between 30 and 50 eggs .\nthe spotted lanternfly is an inch - long black , red and white spotted insect native to southeast asia . it is an invasive species in korea , where it has attacked 25 plant species that also grow in pennsylvania . the pest had not been found in the united states prior to its initial detection in berks county in the fall of 2014 .\neveryone is encouraged to report the spotted lanternfly if they find it outside the quarantine area , learn about the pest\u2019s lifecycle , try to kill it in all stages and don\u2019t move material that could be harboring any stage of the pest .\nsetliff encouraged everyone to report the spotted lanternfly if they find it outside the quarantine area , learn about the pest\u2019s lifecycle , try to kill it in all stages and don\u2019t move material that could be harboring any stage of the pest .\npeople seeing the spotted lanternfly for the first time are struck by its sometimes - flashy appearance . but don ' t let its colorful , butterfly - like veneer fool you , caution entomologists in penn state ' s college of agricultural sciences .\nthe spotted lanternfly threatens many species of orchard trees . in addition to threatening the industry , there are potential social impacts including impacts on summer activities such as apple picking , enjoying fresh produce from farmer\u2019s markets , or wine tasting at local vineyards\nnative to northern china , the spotted lanternfly has spread to korea and japan , where it has caused considerable damage . last year authorities in berks county , pennsylvania quarantined five townships and issued an alert document to help people identify the pest .\nthe estimated number of spotted lanternfly killed by egg mass scraping based off of reported efforts . this number comes from the \u201creporting scraped egg masses instructions\u201d page . this number will be periodically updated to reflect the efforts of pda and the community .\nthe invasive pest \u2013 spotted lanternfly , lycorma delicatula - has been found for the first time in the u . s . ( pennsylvania ) , and western - state growers should be aware of the insect and its host range which includes grapes and stone fruit . sugar content from lanternfly excretion can harbor mold growth which can result in stunted plant growth or even death .\nthe spotted lanternfly , which recently was discovered for the first time in the united states in berks county , poses a threat to many economically important species of trees and woody ornamentals in pennsylvania . credit : holly raguza , pa . department of agriculture\nhost plants and impact - the primary hosts of spotted lanternfly are tree of heaven and grapes . however , in korea , it has been recorded attacking 65 different species ; many of these same genera occur in minnesota including apple , grape , willow , oak , walnut , silver maple , common lilac , poplar , eastern white pine , and rose . tree of heaven is not widely present in minnesota , and it is possible that spotted lanternfly would not thrive in minnesota without this important host .\nthe first north american detection occurred in october 2014 in pennsylvania , u . s . a . as of march 2017 , quarantined areas exist within counties in pennsylvania ( see map ) . in november 2017 , the spotted lanternfly is confirmed in delaware .\nwe investigated the potential distribution of spotted lanternfly in the us using maxent model . our study found the potential risky places in the us are the midwest and mid - atlantic regions based on the climatic factors that are favourable for the species to thrive .\nin pennsylvania , the spotted lanternfly overwinters in egg masses laid on smooth bark , stone , and other vertical surfaces . the first of four immature stages , or instars , began emerging from the egg masses in mid - may , with a few individuals that had molted to second instar nymphs by the end of may . the first instar nymph is black with white spots and wingless . as it grows , the spotted lanternfly develops red patches in addition to the white spots . nymphs spread from the initial site by crawling or jumping up any woody or non - woody plant it comes across to feed . in korea , the spotted lanternfly is known to gradually prefer tree - of - heaven / paradise tree ( ailanthus altissima ) as it nears the adult stage .\nkelly murman , a graduate student in biology at east stroudsburg university , volunteers with a collaborative effort by the u . s . and state departments of agriculture to study plants that the spotted lanternfly feeds on , according to a story last month on urltoken .\nthe spotted lanternfly begins laying eggs in masses of 30 to 50 eggs , covered in a brown , mud - like substance , in late september or early october . egg masses may be found on adult host trees , especially tree of heaven ( ailanthus alitissima ) , moderately - sized stones and other smooth surfaced outdoor items , such as lawn furniture , stone and brick work , and outdoor recreational vehicles . the egg mass poses , perhaps , the greatest risk for accidental transport of the spotted lanternfly to new areas .\nthe spotted lanternfly is known to attack about 65 different plant hosts in korea , especially tree of heaven and grapes . it is also known to attack plants in the same genera as apple , willow , oak , lilac , rose , maple , poplar , and pine . spotted lanternflies ( like other planthoppers ) damages plants by using its needle - like mouthparts to feed on plant sap .\nberks county is the front line in the war against spotted lanternfly ,\nagriculture secretary george greig said in a news release .\nwe are taking every measure possible to learn more , educate the public and ourselves and eliminate this threat to agriculture .\nin boyertown , steven frecon , the owner and orchard manager of frecons farm , was not in the quarantine area until this year . his farm grows apples , peaches , cherries , and berries . he saw his first spotted lanternfly this spring in nymph form .\nadults and nymphs feed on sap that they suck from leaves and stems of host plants . this causes sap to excrete from wounds ( ' weeping ' wounds ) , which appear grey or black and can occur along the stems , branches or trunk of the tree . weeping wounds are also caused by debris ( frass ) and honeydew buildup from the spotted lanternfly . this can attract other insects to feed on the tree . the spotted lanternfly was first discovered in pennsylvania because of bees that had been attracted to the honeydew .\none of a group of insects sometimes referred to as planthoppers , the lanternfly is a weak flyer but a strong and quick jumper .\nand in this picture you can see a yellow jacket that is collecting honeydew right out of the back end of the adult lanternfly .\nlocate ailianthus altissima trees on the site . for reasons not understood , spotted lanternfly seem to prefer some individual ailanthus altissima trees over others . try to identify the specific ailanthus trees that are most attractive to the insects , based on how many are feeding on them .\n\u201cthis is our third season of combating the spotted lanternfly , and despite extensive work that has helped slow the spread of this potentially devastating invasive pest , the addition of these new municipalities illustrates just how challenging a task that is , \u201d said agriculture secretary russell redding .\n\u201cin south korea , where spotted lanternfly was introduced more than 10 years ago , they damaged vineyards and the quality of grapes and stone fruit , for example , peaches , \u201d said emelie swackhamer , a horticulture extension educator at the penn state extension in montgomery county .\nthe spotted lanternfly threatens vineyards and fruit orchards , which can result in significant social impacts if the insect becomes established . for example , popular summer activities could be impacted , such as apple picking , enjoying fresh produce from farmer\u2019s markets , or wine tasting at local vineyards .\non september 22 , 2014 , the pennsylvania department of agriculture , in cooperation with the pennsylvania game commission , confirmed the presence the spotted lanternfly ( lycorma delicatula ) , in berks county , pennsylvania , the first detection of this non - native species in the united states .\nthe spotted lanternfly , or lycorma delicatula , is native to parts of china and eastern asia . it attacks trees by feeding on sap and harms them further by excreting large amounts of a fluid that coats leaves and stems and encourages the growth of mold , according to researchers .\n\u201cspotted lanternfly has proven to be a tremendously destructive pest that spreads rapidly and can be devastating to our valuable grapes , hardwoods and hops , \u201d said agriculture secretary russell redding in a statement . he urged anyone seeing the insects to report sightings to badbug @ pa . gov .\nprovide the file containing the presence locations . to do this , use the \u201cbrowse\u201d button in the \u201csamples\u201d section of the maxent screen and locate the spotted lanternfly location _ rarely _ occur [ slf _ spatial _ occ . csv ] generated from the data preparation \u2013 > step 3\nfreshly laid egg masses have a grey waxy mud - like coating , while hatched eggs appear as brownish seed - like deposits in four to seven columns about an inch long . trees attacked by the spotted lanternfly will show a grey or black trail of sap down the trunk .\n1 . locate ailianthus altissima trees on the site . for reasons not understood , spotted lanternfly seem to prefer some individual ailanthus altissima trees over others . try to identify the specific ailanthus trees that are most attractive to the insects , based on how many are feeding on them .\nthe spotted lanternfly is a plant hopper native to china , india and vietnam . it has also been introduced in south korea and japan . in the u . s . , the spotted lanternfly has the potential to greatly impact the grape , tree fruit , plant nursery and timber industries . in pennsylvania , this pest poses a significant threat to the state\u2019s more than $ 20 . 5 million grape , $ 134 million apple , and more than $ 24 million stone fruit industries , as well as the hardwood industry which accounts for $ 12 billion in sales .\nalthough grape vine does not have toxic metabolites like other hosts , spotted lanternfly showed a strong preference in studies conducted in south korea . the sugar content of the host plant also appears to play a role in their choice with a preference for hosts containing high sucrose and fructose content .\nsaunders has submitted a proposal for research funding under the federal farm bill to conduct efficacy tests for spotted lanternfly chemical control . he noted that synthetic pyrethroid insecticides appear to show promise . hoover also is seeking farm bill funding to develop extension educational materials for growers , arborists and the public .\nthis is our third season of combatting the spotted lanternfly , and despite extensive work that has helped slow the spread of this potentially devastating invasive pest , the addition of these new municipalities illustrates just how challenging a task that is ,\nagriculture secretary russell redding said in a statement .\nspotted lanternfly nymphs and adults cause damage when they feed , sucking sap from stems and leaves . adults prefer to feed and lay eggs on the tree of heaven ( ailanthus altissima ) . if allowed to spread in the united states , this pest could seriously harm the country\u2019s grape , orchard , and logging industries . we have reached out to researchers in korea to learn more about this destructive pest , and pda is conducting research on the ground to see if removing ailanthus host trees , which also happen to be invasive , and chipping the wood effectively kills spotted lanternfly nymphs .\nto get rid of spotted lanternflies in their nymphal stages , banding these trees have proven quite effective . this can be done with adhesive tapes .\nthe brilliant colors\u2013\u2013 red , black , and white \u2014 of the spotted lanternfly reveal one of the reasons why it is difficult to control by using natural enemies . its hues are warning colors that alert predators to the fact that the lanternfly is toxic due to poisons called cytotoxic alkaloids , which it metabolizes from some of its host plants . while the coloration of the forewings helps camouflage the lanternfly against a tree trunk , dr . dara says , the sudden flash of its vivid hindwings , when opened , startles predators and scares them away . some birds have been seen vomiting after ingesting the insect . although it is also toxic to humans , the lanternfly has been used in low quantities by practitioners of traditional chinese medicine to treat consumption and swelling .\nspotted lanternfly is new to north america . though a good deal of information is available , there are still a number of unknowns . in 2015 , efforts by pda and the other cooperating partners , researchers , and volunteers will need to be evaluated . egg mass scraping and the tree banding programs will remove many insects from the population and reduce the size of the current population , but these activities will also help to better characterize how the pest is behaving in this new environment . evaluation of methodology will lead to a stronger program as pda and its partners continue to battle the spotted lanternfly .\na new invasive pest \u2013 spotted lanternfly , lycorma delicatula - has been found for the first time in the u . s . ( pennsylvania ) , and western - state growers should be aware of the insect and its host range which includes grapes and stone fruit in case the insect marches west .\ndamage adults and nymphs feed on phloem tissues of foliage and young stems with their piercing and sucking mouthparts and excrete large quantities of liquid . due to the sugar content of the liquid , plant parts covered with spotted lanternfly excretion harbor mold growth which could hinder plant growth or even result in death .\ndamage adults and nymphs feed on phloem tissues of foliage and young stems with their piercing and sucking mouthparts and excrete large quantities of liquid . due to the sugar content of the liquid , plant parts covered with spotted lanternfly excretion harbor mold growth , which could hinder plant growth or even cause death .\nbut rich blair , owner of blair vineyards in kutztown , says the spotted lanternflies he first discovered on his property two years ago have multiplied exponentially .\nrefer to the spotted lantern fact sheet and if found on your property , call the bad bug hotline at 1 - 866 - 253 - 7189 .\nobservations in south korea suggests that spotted lanternfly appears to have a wider host range early in life as young nymphs , and a narrow range as they grow older , especially before egg laying . choosing plants with toxic metabolites for egg laying is thought to be a mechanism of defense to protect from natural enemies .\nas the spotted lanternfly was only recently introduced to north america , little is known about the extent of damage that it will cause . although it is too early to make accurate predictions on actual economic impacts , the wine and grape , tender fruit , apple , and forestry industries are at the greatest risk .\ncall seitz brothers of course ! we have been dealing with the spotted lanternfly for over a year now ! with a free estimate and inspection our trained technicians will be able to help you design a plan to kill these pests . call or text today to set up a free estimate 888 - 467 - 1008\nharrisburg , pa - the pennsylvania department of agriculture has added 21 municipalities in berks , bucks , lehigh , montgomery and northampton counties to the areas quarantined due to the presence of the invasive insect spotted lanternfly . the quarantine was already in effect for parts of those five counties , as well as chester county .\nthe spotted lanternfly is a plant hopper native to china , india and vietnam , and has been introduced in south korea and japan . in korea , where it was first detected in 2004 , the spotted lanternfly is known utilize more than 70 species , 25 of which also occur in pennsylvania , including cultivated grapes , fruit trees , and hardwood species . this pest poses a significant threat to the state\u2019s more than $ 20 . 5 million grape , nearly $ 134 million apple , and more than $ 24 million stone fruit industries , as well as the hardwood industry in pennsylvania which accounts for $ 12 billion in sales .\nthe article says \u201cat least three different forms of pesticide are currently known to be useful against the adult lanternfly\u201d . what are those three different forms of pesticides ?\nthe spotted lanternfly has officially arrived in the u . s . , and leaders in pennsylvania are hoping it won ' t be staying long . the invasive pest poses a threat to fruit orchards and grape vines , along with forests and the timber industry . it was detected in berks county , northwest of philadelphia .\nin addition , through the efforts of the technical working group , several important questions are being investigated . these include testing the effects of chipping woody material on spotted lanternfly egg mass survivorship , the effects of various existing pesticides on immature life stages , and the attractiveness of certain plant volatiles for use in trapping programs .\nmontgomery county : douglass township , upper hanover township , new hanover township , west pottsgrove township , lower pottsgrove township , marlborough township , and upper frederick township , upper pottsgrove township , limerick township , upper providence township , lower frederick township , upper salford township , east greenville borough , pennsburg borough , red hill borough , royersford borough , pottstown borough , and telford borough . the quarantine may be expanded to new areas as further detections of the spotted lanternfly are detected and confirmed . intentional movement of the spotted lanternfly is expressly prohibited and is a serious offense . violations could result in criminal or civil penalties and / or fines .\nnative to northern china , the spotted lanternfly has spread to other parts of asia , notably korea and japan . it has caused considerable damage in those countries , which is why state authorities in berks county , pennsylvania quarantined five townships and issued an alert document to help people identify the pest . the pennsylvania department of agriculture removed more than 100 , 000 of the insects in 2015 alone , according to dr . dara\u2019s paper . the adults are easy to catch because they seldom fly off when approached , preferring to hop away . based in california , dr . dara\u2019s focus on the spotted lanternfly is partly motivated by its potential threat to vineyards .\nand it ' s feeding , see it ' s ( mumbles ) right into the abdomen of this lanternfly it has killed and it ' s eating the content .\nspotted lanternfly is native to northern china ( liu 1939 ) . it was first detected as an exotic species in south korea in 2004 , and has since rapidly spread to different parts of that country ( kim and kim 2005 ) . more recently , individuals have been detected in japan ( kim et al . 2013 ) .\nlast year , an invasive pest known as the spotted lanternfly was found in the united states for the first time ever in berks county , pennsylvania . tucked away in pennsylvania dutch country , berks county may seem an unlikely location to find a foreign pest , but with today\u2019s global economy unwanted pests can show up almost anywhere .\nadults can be seen as early as the middle of july and take on a much different appearance . adults at rest have a black head and grayish wings with black spots . the tips of the wings are a combination of black rectangular blocks with grey outlines . when startled or flying the spotted lanternfly will display hind wings that are red at the base and black at the tip with a white stripe dividing them . the red portion of the wing is also adorned with black spots . the abdomen is bright to pale yellow with bands of black on the top and bottom surfaces . while a poor flyer , the spotted lanternfly is a strong jumper .\ni live near ground zero for lantern fly introduction and am seeing an explosion of preying mantis and have observed them eating lanternfly\u2026 . . just one more avenue of research\u2026 .\nspotted lanternfly feeds on a variety of host plants including vines , fruit trees , ornamental trees , and woody trees . apples , birch , cherry , dogwood , grapes , korean evodia , lilac , maple , poplar , stone fruits , and tree - of - heaven are among more than 70 species of hosts attacked by the pest .\nthe scout motto is the best advice for pest managers who want to establish a first line of defense against problematic invasive insects even before they become established , according to dr . surendra dara , an ipm and crop advisor at the university of california . \u201cbe prepared , \u201d is what he and his co - authors suggest in a paper published in the journal of integrated pest management on possible tactics to manage the invasive spotted lanternfly ( lycorma delicatula ) , which was detected last year in pennsylvania . pest managers who ignore reports of a new invasive species such as the spotted lanternfly because it is not yet established in their locale do so at their own peril , he said .\nthe scout motto is the best advice for pest managers who want to establish a first line of defense against problematic invasive insects even before they become established , according to dr . surendra dara , an ipm and crop advisor at the university of california . \u201cbe prepared , \u201d is what he and his co - authors suggest in a paper published in the journal of integrated pest management on possible tactics to manage the invasive spotted lanternfly ( lycorma delicatula ) , which was detected last year in pennsylvania . pest managers who ignore reports of a new invasive species such as the spotted lanternfly because it is not yet established in their locale do so at their own peril , he said .\nin korea , where the spotted lanternfly is an introduced pest , the insect has been found to attack at least 65 plant species , 25 of which are known to grow in pennsylvania . state agriculture officials say it has been observed in berks county both feeding and mating and has been found on willow , maple , aspen and tulip poplar ."]}
{"id": 1793, "summary": [{"text": "cotana joiceyi is a moth in the eupterotidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by rothschild in 1917 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in new guinea .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 48 mm for males and 60 mm for females .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "males are similar to cotana unistrigata , but the basal half of the forewings has a buffish cream-colour , and the outer half is buffish grey .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "furthermore , the median band is more oblique and brown ( not black ) and there is no stigma .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "females differ from unistrigata in being smaller and the white patch and postdiscal bands are much larger and pure white .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "furthermore , the nervures and margins are deep bright yellow and the thorax and costal area are rufous orange . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "cotana joiceyi", "paragraphs": ["coscinocera hercules neodiphthera joiceyi bouveir syntherata janetta syntherata sp . 1 syntherata sp . 2 syntherata sp . 3\nbiostor is built by @ rdmpage , code on github . page images from the biodiversity heritage library .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nlunulata ( bethune - baker , 1904 ) borealis rothschild , 1932 ab . unicolor rothschild , 1932 [ infraspecific ] montium rothschild , 1932 occidentalis rothschild , 1917 satisbona rothschild , 1917\npallidipascia rothschild , 1917 pallidifascia ( sic sensu auct . ) postpallida ( rothschild , 1917 )\nrubrescens walker , 1865 ssp . kapaura rothschild , 1917 [ male ] ssp . oetakwensis rothschild , 1917 [ male ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnb : the taxon name search is for single names only . for example , to locate dysodia vitrina flammata warren , 1904 you should enter flammata only .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a fact about cotapos ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for cotapos ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .\naegus platyodon cyclommatus imperator cyclommatus pulchellus cyclomnatus sumptuosus dorkas arfakianeus dorkas sp . 1 dorkas sp . 2 dorkas sp . 3 neolamprima adolphinae prosopocoelus cinctus\ncetoniinae sp . 1 cetoniinae sp . 2 cetoniinae sp . 3 cetoniinae sp . 4 cetoniinae sp . 5 cetoniinae sp . 6 cetoniinae sp . 7 cetoniinae sp . 8 cetoniinae sp . 9 cetoniinae sp . 10 cetoniinae sp . 11 dilochrosis balteata chalcopharis grandis ischiosopha hyla ischiosopha jamesi ischiosopha sp . lomaptera anae lomaptera sp . trichaulax rayneri\nagrilus opulentus agrilus viridissimus buprestidae sp 1 buprestidae sp . 2 buprestidae sp . 3 buprestidae sp . 4 buprestidae sp . 5 calodema ribbei calodema regale cyphogastra sp . 1 cyphogastra sp . 2 cyphogastra sp . 3 metaxymorpha meeki metaxymorpha nigrosuturalis metaxymorpha sp . paracupta sp .\neupatorus beccarii orycetes sp . papuana sp . scapanes australis scarab sp . 1 scarab sp . 2 scarab sp . 3 xylotrupes gideon\nagrianome loriae batocera kibleri batocera laena batocera nebulosa batocera wallacei cerambycidae sp . 1 cerambycidae sp . 2 cerambycidae sp . 3 cerambycidae sp . 4 cerambycidae sp . 5 cerambycidae sp . 6 cornuscoparia sp . epepeotes rarus glenea sp . hyplocerambyx severus hyplocerambyx sp . potemnemus detzneri potemnemus scabrosus potemnemus sp . 3 potemnemus sp . 4 prioninae sp . 1 prioninae sp . 2 rosenbergia denserugata rosenbergia hlaveki rosenbergia hlaveki hoyoisi rosenbergia hoyoisi rosenbergia mandibularis rosenbergia sp . 1 rosenbergia straussi rosenbergia vestuta rosenbergia weiskei sphingnotus albertisi sphingnotus dunningi gazellus sphingnotus insignis sphingnotus mirabilis sphingnotus sp . 1 sphingnotus sp . 2 xixuthrus microcerus\ncurculionidae sp . 1 curculionidae sp . 2 curculionidae sp . 3 curculionidae sp . 4 curculionidae sp . 5 curculionidae sp . 6 curculionidae sp . 7 curculionidae sp . 8 eupholus bennetti eupholus nickerlii eupholus sp . 1 eupholus sp . 2 eupholus sp . 3 eupholus sp . 4 eupholus sp . 5 eupholus sp . 6 eupholus sp . 7 eupholus sp . 8 eupholus sp . 9 gymnopholus lichenifer gymnopholus nodusus gressit pantorhytes lichenifer pantorhytes sp . 2 pantorhytes sp . 3 rhinoscapha richteri rhinoscapha tricolor rhyncophorus sp . rhynoscapha chlora vanapa oberthuri ( pouillaude )\ncoreidae sp . leptoglossus australis mictis ambionensis mictis boinensis mictis limbativentris mictis profana mictis sp . 5 pternistria macromera pternistria sp .\nallora major major arrhenes marnas affinis ? arrhenes sp . badamia exclamationis borbo impar lavinia chaetocneme callixenus erionota thrax hasora discolor hasora khoda hesperiidae sp . 1 hesperiidae sp . 2 hesperiidae sp . 3 mimene atropatene notocrypta sp . ocybatistes walkeri ? sothis sabera caesina albifascia tagiades japetus tagiades ? japetus telicota mesoptis ? mesoptis\namplypodia annetta anthene seltuttus seltuttus arhopala acron arhopala alkisthenes arhopala hercules droa arhopala philander leander arhopala thamryas thamryas bindahara phocides chromis candalides helenita dimorpha candalides neurapacuna castalius mindarus curetis thetis danis danis philocrates danis perpheres perpheres danis phroso danis schaeffera caesius danis schaeffera esme dicalleneura ribbei diantha epimastidia inops pilumna erysichton lineata eupsychellus dionisius hypochlorosis lorquinii hypochrysops apelles hypochrysops plotinus hypochrysops polycletus rex hypochrysops pythias hypolycaena danis hypolycaena danis turneri hypolycaena phorbas phorbas ? hypolycaena sp . jamides aleuas nitidus jamides aratus caerulina jamides coridus pseudeuchylas jamides reverdini lampides boeticus liphyra castnia luthrodes cleotas cleotas lycaenidae sp . 1 lycaenidae sp . 2 lycaenidae sp . 3 megisba malaya monacha philiris griseldis pistoria nigropunctata nigropunctata pretaxila satraps pretaxila segecia pretaxila weiskei salentara cycinna terinos alguris upolampes evena false eyes on lycaenidae\nacraea meyeri kirsch apaturina erminea papuana argyreus hyperbius inconstans argyreus hyperbius niugini cethosia chrysippe alkmene cethosia cydippe cethosia obscura cethosia obscura antippe bros / smith cethosia obscura obscura guerin charaxes latona cirrochroa regina sophene cupha prosope cyrestis achates cyrestis acilia cyrestis acilia gades danaus chrysippus danaus chrysippus feeding on nectar danaus plexippus doleschallia dascylus doleschallia hexophtalmos elymnias agondas elymnias agondas bioculatus elymnias agondas melagondas elymnias thryallis erycinidia virgo euploea batesii euploea callithoe euploea leucostictos swierstae euploea phaenareta euploea phaenareta unibrunnea euploea sp . 1 euploea sp . 2 euploea stephensii salpinxoides euploea wallacei euthaliopsis aetion philomena helcyra chionippe thyada hypolimnas alimena hypolimnas bolina hypolimnas bolina drinking nectar hypolimnas deois divina hypolimnas pithoeka junonia hedonia junonia villida lamprolenis nitida libythea geoffroyi geoffroyi melanitis amabilis valentina melanitis constantia melanitis leda miyana meyeri morphopsis albertisi morphopsis meeki morphotaenaris schoenbergi morphotenaris schoenbergi littoralis mycalesis barbara mycalesis evara mycalesis phidon mycalesis sp . mynes geffroyi ogulina mynes halli mynes websteri pantoporia consimilis pantoporia venilia parantica schenkii parantica weiskei parthenos aspila ( honrath ) parthenos sylvia parthenos sylvia guineensis ( fruhstorfer ) parthenos sylvia therekrates ( fruhstorfer ) parthenos tigrina ( fruhstorfer ) pieridopsis virgo platypthima decolor polyura jupiter precis orithya novaguineae hagen prothoe australis hewitsoni walace prothoe australis mafalda ( fruhstorfer ) prothoe australis schulzi ridde p . nigita symbrenthia hyppoclus hipocrates staud . taeneris alocus taenaris bioculatus taenaris catops taeneris gorgo gorgophone taeneris honrathi taeneris mailua mailua taenaris onolaus taeneris onolaus ida taeneris phorcus phorcus taenaris schoenbergi tellervo zoilus tirumala hamata vindula arsinoe yoma algina yoma algina , drinking nectar\natrophaneura polydorus atrophaneura polydorus aiganaus graphium agamemnon graphium aristeus parmatus gray graphium cordus medon graphium cordus segonax graphium eurypylus graphium macfarlanei graphium sarpedon graphium weiskei papilio aegeus form amanga papilio ambrax papilio bridgei papilio sp . 1 caterpillar papilio sp . 2 caterpillars papilio sp . girdle pupa papilio euchenor papilio fuscus hasterti papilio fuscus indicatus papilio fuscus lamponius papilio ulysses ambiguus papilio ulysses telemachus papilio woodfordi\nblattodea sp . 1 blattodea sp . 2 blattodea sp . 3 blattodea sp . 4 blattodea sp . 5 blattodea sp . 6 periplaneta americanus platyzosteria sp . salganea papua\nantlered fly achias spp . diptera sp . 1 formosia glorificans laglaizia spp . laphria sp . 1 laphria sp . 2 ligyra doryca ligyra satyrus machimus sp . maira sp . 1 maira sp . 2 nemestrinus sp . paramenia ? divitiosa ( walker ) paramenia macularis ( walker ) ? philonicus sp . phytalmia alcicornis saunders phytalmia antilocapra mcalpine & schneider phytalmia cervicornis gestaecker phytalmia robertsi schneider phytalmia sp . platytropesa ? simulans promachus sp . 1 promachus sp . 2 stalk - eyed flies tabanus aurivittatus tabanus denticulatus\nacrididae sp . 1 acrididae sp . 2 austracis guttulosa valanga sp . valanga irregularis\nbaeturia sp . birdantis obscura var . distanti cicadas desudaba aulica fulgoroidae spp . homoptera sp . ibiceps ansatus leptataspis discolor peggioga formosa ricania sp . ricania villica sawda sp . tarundia glaucescenus\ncryptothelia sp . larval case metura oceanica viette oiketikus elongatus oiketikus elongatus larval bag psychidae sp . 1 psychidae bag sp . 1 psychidae bag sp . 2 pteroma plagiophleps\nagrioglypta sp . cirrhochrista sp . hypsipyla robusta margarosticha sp . pyralidae sp . 1 pyralidae sp . 2 pyralidae sp . 3 vitessa sp .\naeolochroma viridicata agathia parasinaspis alcis papuensis alex sp . automolodes goldiei borbacha sp . bursadopsis sp . callidula sp . celerena sp . chlorocoma sp . cleora repetita cleora sp . 1 cleora sp . 2 cleora sp . 3 cleora sp . 4 cleosiris sp . craspedosis aurigutta dysphania fenestrata eubordata hypocala eumelea rosalia geometridae sp . 1 geometridae sp . 2 geometridae sp . 3 geometridae sp . 4 geometridae sp . 5 geometridae sp . 6 geometridae sp . 7 geometridae sp . 8 geometridae sp . 9 geometridae sp . 10 geometridae sp . 11 geometridae sp . 12 geometridae sp . 13 geometridae sp . 14 geometridae sp . 15 geometridae sp . 16 geometridae sp . 17 geometridae sp . 18 geometridae sp . 19 geometridae sp . 20 ? geometridae sp . 21 geometridae sp . 22 geometridae sp . 23 geometridae sp . 24 geometridae sp . 25 geometridae sp . 26 geometridae sp . 27 geometridae sp . 28 geometridae sp . 29 geometridae sp . 30 geometridae sp . 31 geometridae sp . 32 geometridae sp . 33 geometridae sp . 34 geometridae sp . 35 geometridae sp . 36 geometridae sp . 37 geometridae sp . 38 camouflaged geometridae 1 camouflaged geometridae 2 camouflaged geometridae 3 camouflaged geometridae 4 haemabasis calodesma medastina trixaria milionia ? aglaia milionia aroensis milionia basilis milionia callima meek . milionia diva milionia doherty milionia grandis milionia isodoxa milionia mediofasciata milionia metazosta milionia paradisea milionia sp . 13 milionia ? ventralis parotis marginata parotis punctiferalis pingasa cinera pingasa sp . 2 plutodes sp . praesos sp . pseudeusemia longimacula camouflaged tepna sp . tepna sp . tigridoptera sp . 1 tigridoptera sp . 2 thalassodes sp . uliocnemis partita\nalcides agathrysus ? cyphura sp . lyssa patroclus micronia caudiferaria micronia justaria nyctalemon toxopensi uraniidae sp . 1\nacherontia lachesis acosmeryx sp . agrius godarti agonyx testacea papuana ambulyx dohertyi ambulyx phalaris ambulyx sp . cephonodes hylas daphnis dohertyi dohertyi daphnis hypothous pallescens daphnis palacida daphnis protrudens gnathothlibus erotus eras gnathothlibus heliodes hippotion boerhaviae hippotion brennus brennus hippotion brennus form rubibrenna hippotion celerio hippotion velox hippotion sp . macroglossum hirundo errans megacorma obliqua oxambulyx dohertyi oxambulyx phalaris oxambulyx sp . panacra spendens psilogramma increta psilogramma menephron theretra indistincta form bismarcki theretra latreilei latreilei theretra melops theretra nessus theretra radiosa theretra sp .\namata marella amata sp . amerila ( = rhodogastria ) crokeri creatonotos gangis euchromia sp . 1 euchromia sp . 2 oeonistis sp . ( rhodogastria = ) amerila crokeri spilosoma curvata spilosoma sp . utetheisa sp .\nasota caricae asota heliconia dama asota heliconia doryca asota orbona queenslandica asota versicolor nyctemera baulus nyctemera sp .\ncalliteara queenslandica calliteara sp . 2 . calliteara sp . 3 dasychira mendosa dasychira wandammena euproctis sp . lymantria ninayi adults lymantria ninayi caterpillars lymantria novaguinensis lymantria rosa lymantriidae sp . 1 lymantriidae sp . 2 lymantriidae sp . 3 lymantriidae sp . 4 lymantriidae caterpillar camouflaged lymantriidae\nachaea janata achaea sp . 2 achaea sp . 3 achaea sp . 4 anomis sp . arcte coerulea ( guen\u00e9e ) belciana sp . calograma picta carea sp . cyclodes sp . ? donda sp . dyrzela sp . episparis sp . erebus ephesperis ephesperis erebus sp . 2 erebus sp . 3 eudocima salaminia eupatula macfarlanei fodina sp . goniophila sp . grammodes cooma hulodes caranea ( male ) hulodes caranea ( female ) camouflaged hulodes caranea ( female ) hulodes sp . lygniodes sp . 1 lygniodes sp . 2 mocis trifasciata noctuidae sp . 1 noctuidae sp . 2 noctuidae sp . 3 noctuidae sp . 4 noctuidae sp . 5 noctuidae sp . 6 noctuidae sp . 7 noctuidae sp . 8 noctuidae sp . 9 ? noctuidae sp . 10 noctuidae sp . 11 noctuidae sp . 12 noctuidae sp . 13 noctuidae sp . 14 noctuidae sp . 15 noctuidae sp . 16 noctuidae sp . 17 noctuidae sp . 18 noctuidae sp . 19 noctuidae sp . 20 noctuidae sp . 21 noctuidae sp . 22 noctuidae sp . 23 noctuidae sp . 24 noctuidae sp . 25 noctuidae sp . 26 noctuidae sp . 27 noctuidae sp . 28 noctuidae sp . 29 noctuidae sp . 30 noctuidae sp . 31 noctuidae sp . 32 noctuidae sp . 33 noctuidae sp . 34 noctuidae sp . 35 noctuidae sp . 36 noctuidae sp . 37 noctuidae sp . 38 noctuidae sp . 39 noctuidae sp . 40 noctuidae sp . 41 noctuidae sp . 42 noctuidae sp . 43 noctuidae sp . 44 noctuidae sp . 45 noctuidae sp . 46 noctuidae sp . 47 noctuidae sp . 48 noctuidae sp . 49 noctuidae sp . 50 noctuidae sp . 51 noctuidae sp . 52 noctuidae sp . 53 noctuidae sp . 54 noctuidae sp . 55 noctuidae sp . 56 noctuidae sp . 57 noctuidae sp . 58 noctuidae sp . 59 noctuidae sp . 60 noctuidae sp . 61 noctuidae sp . 62 noctuidae sp . 63 noctuidae sp . 64 noctuidae sp . 65 ophiusa sp . 1 ophiusa sp . 2 ophiusa sp . 3 ophiusa sp . 4 ophiusa sp . 5 ophiusa sp . 6 ophiusa sp . 7 ophiusa sp . 8 othreis fullonia othreis jordani othreis sp . 3 othreis sp . 4 othreis sp . 5 oxyodes sp . paracrama sp . parallelia sp . phyllodes imperialis phyllodes sp . wing details pindara sp . platyja sp . 1 platyja sp . 2 scrobigera sp . serrodes sp . spirama revolvens sympis rufibasis trigonodes sp . xanthodes sp .\ncamouflaged spider jumping spider 1 jumping spider 2 nephila maculata nephila maculata underside nephila maculata seizing the uraniidae moth lyssa patroclus pseudoscorpion scorpions selencosmis crassipes spider sp . 1 spider sp . 2 spider sp . 3 spider sp . 4\neurycantha horrida eurycantha sp . eurycnema goliath extatosoma sp . 1 extatosoma sp . 2 phasma gigas sasima sp . stick insect sp . 1 stick insect sp . 2\nabispa splendida anthophora cingulata austroscolia nitida nitida bembix papua campsomeris formosa campsomeris loriae campsomeris papuana certonotus sp . chalicodoma ? clotho chalicodoma preteosa ( friese ) coelioxys weinlandi creightonella frontalis ( fab . ) delta latreillei petiolaris schulz eumenes arcuatus arcuatus exeirus sp . hemipepsis ichneimonea heterodontonyx eurythroura hymenoptera sp . 1 hymenoptera sp . 2 hymenoptera sp . 3 megachile sp . megastigmus sp . polistes tepidus tepidus sceliphron laetum sigalphogastra sp . sphex cognatus sphex fumipennis ssp . antennata smith sphex luctuosus sphex subtruncatus ( nigripes ) stilbum cynurum thyreus nitidulus trisciloa saussurei trisciloa sp . vespa tropica leafmansi wasp nest xylocopa aruana xylocopa karnyi maindl . xylocopa perkinsi cameron\nfull text of\ncentre for entomological studies ankara , cesa news nr . 84\nfull text of\ncentre for entomological studies ankara , cesa news nr . 84"]}
{"id": 1804, "summary": [{"text": "oreta carnea is a moth in the drepanidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by butler in 1892 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in malaysia , singapore and on sumatra , java and borneo .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 35 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are sericeous pale brownish flesh-colour , sparsely irrorated with blackish atoms .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the forewings are crossed by two very indistinct oblique darker lines and there is a submarginal series of rosy spots on the veins .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings have two whitish stigmata on the discocellulars .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on uncaria species . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "oreta carnea", "paragraphs": ["oreta carnea ( butler , 1892 ) = agnidra carnea butler , 1892 = drepana berenica swinhoe , 1893 = cobanilla hepaticata warren , 1897 = cobanilla cardinalis warren , 1897 = drepana berenica swinhoe , 1893 = oreta hepatica warren 1897 = oreta cardinalis warren 1897 .\noreta carnea is a moth in the drepanidae family . it was described by butler in 1892 . it is found in malaysia , singapore and on sumatra , java and borneo .\nthis is by far the commonest bornean oreta , occurring from the lowlands to about 1600m , mostly in forest but including secondary forest .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnb : the taxon name search is for single names only . for example , to locate dysodia vitrina flammata warren , 1904 you should enter flammata only .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\nwarren , cobanilla cardinalis warren , 1897 , novit . zool . , 4 : 13 .\nthis is one of the smallest bornean species , variable , with fasciation diffusely darker on dull medium to dark red forewings . there are usually two blackish submarginal spots at the forewing tornus . the antennae are narrowly bipectinate .\nthe species has been reared from uncaria ( rubiaceae ) in malaysia ( yunus & ho , 1980 ; zhang , 1994 ) .\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c1faa - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c25e1 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c277b - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322dd07d - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 3250132a - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 32502161 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 33433df2 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nbeccaloni g . , scoble m . , kitching i . , simonsen t . , robinson g . , pitkin b . , hine a . & lyal c . ( 2018 ) . lepindex : the global lepidoptera names index ( version 12 . 3 , jan 2012 ) . in : roskov y . , abucay l . , orrell t . , nicolson d . , bailly n . , kirk p . m . , bourgoin t . , dewalt r . e . , decock w . , de wever a . , nieukerken e . van , zarucchi j . , penev l . , eds . ( 2018 ) . species 2000 & itis catalogue of life , 30th june 2018 . digital resource at urltoken species 2000 : naturalis , leiden , the netherlands . issn 2405 - 8858 .\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 49b85d6b - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\n. if you continue to use the site we will assume that you agree with this .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\nthe wingspan is about 35 mm . adults are sericeous pale brownish flesh - colour , sparsely irrorated with blackish atoms . the forewings are crossed by two very indistinct oblique darker lines and there is a submarginal series of rosy spots on the veins . the hindwings have two whitish stigmata on the discocellulars .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services ."]}
{"id": 1808, "summary": [{"text": "dichomeris percnacma is a moth in the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by meyrick in 1923 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in brazil ( amazonas ) and peru .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 15 \u2013 16 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are whitish-ochreous more or less suffused with brown irroration and with the costal third pale or ochreous-whitish .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is an elongate dark grey mark along the costa beyond the middle and the veins on the costal area are sometimes marked with irregular slender dark fuscous streaks .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there are elongate dark brown marks towards the dorsum near the base , in the disc at one-fourth , and towards the costa in the middle .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the stigmata is dark fuscous , with the plical somewhat before the first discal .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "there is a rather elongate dark fuscous spot at the apex and an angulated and waved cloudy dark submargiual line more or less expressed .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there are also dark fuscous marginal marks around the apex and termen .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are rather dark grey . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "dichomeris percnacma", "paragraphs": ["vazugada percnacma meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 623 ; tl : brazil , obidos , manaos ; peru , iquitos\ndichomeris acmodeta ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 12\ndichomeris agorastis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13\ndichomeris albula ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13\ndichomeris apicispina ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris apludella ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris bifurca ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 15\ndichomeris bomiensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris bucinaria ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris consertella ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris cuprea ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris cuspis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris diffurca ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris fareasta ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris fuscahopa ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris fuscanella ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris gansuensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris hodgesi ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris jiangxiensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris lativalvata ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris lespedezae ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris lutilinea ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris manticopodina ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris menglana ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris millotella viette , 1956 ; nat . malgache 8 ( 2 ) : 212\ndichomeris minutia ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris mitteri ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 27\ndichomeris molybdoterma meyrick , 1933 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 12 ) : 353\ndichomeris ningshanensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 27\ndichomeris nivalis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 27\ndichomeris paulianella viette , 1956 ; nat . malgache 8 ( 2 ) : 213\ndichomeris polygona ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29\ndichomeris polypunctata ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29\ndichomeris qingchengshanensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30\ndichomeris quadratipalpa ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30\ndichomeris quadrifurca ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30\ndichomeris sexafurca ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 31\ndichomeris shenae ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 31\ndichomeris spicans ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris spuracuminata ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris stasimopa meyrick , 1937 ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 3 ) : 94\ndichomeris strictella ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris synergastis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris tersa ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris varifurca ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 34\ndichomeris violacula ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 34\ndichomeris wuyiensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 34\ndichomeris yuebana ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 34\ndichomeris yunnanensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 35\ndichomeris zymotella viette , 1956 ; nat . malgache 8 ( 2 ) : 215\ndichomeris junisonensis matsumura , 1931 ; 6000 illust . insects japan . - empire : 1082\ndichomeris acritopa meyrick , 1935 ; mat . microlep . fauna chin . prov . : 72\ndichomeris dolichaula meyrick , 1931 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 2 - 4 ) : 67\ndichomeris loxonoma meyrick , 1937 ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 4 - 5 ) : 123\ndichomeris nyingchiensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 254\ndichomeris fuscahopa li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 242\ndichomeris fuscusitis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 243\ndichomeris gansuensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 247\ndichomeris hodgesi li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 232\ndichomeris jiangxiensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 244\ndichomeris junisonis [ sic ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris yunnanensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 254\ndichomeris cuspis park , 1994 ; insecta koreana 11 : 19 ; tl : gangweon prov . , korea\ndichomeris derasella ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 19 ; [ fe ]\ndichomeris fareasta park , 1994 ; insecta koreana 11 : 15 ; tl : gangweon prov . , korea\ndichomeris lamprostoma ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23 ; [ fe ]\ndichomeris mitteri park , 1994 ; insecta koreana 11 : 17 ; tl : gangweon prov . , korea\ndichomeris praevacua ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 :\ndichomeris strictella park , 1994 ; insecta koreana 11 : 11 ; tl : gangweon prov . , korea\ndichomeris acritopa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 12\ndichomeris adelocentra ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13\ndichomeris albiscripta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13\ndichomeris allantopa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13\ndichomeris amphichlora ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13\ndichomeris ampliata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris anisospila ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris antiloxa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris antisticta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris asodes ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 15\ndichomeris barymochla ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 15\ndichomeris brachygrapha ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris brachyptila ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris caerulescens ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris cellaria ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris centracma ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris ceponoma ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris charonaea ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris chartaria ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris chinganella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris chlanidota ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris cinnabarina ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris citharista ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris clarescens ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris cocta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 17\ndichomeris contentella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris corniculata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris crepitatrix ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris deceptella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 19\ndichomeris deltoxyla ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 19\ndichomeris diacrita ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 19\ndichomeris dicausta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 19\ndichomeris doxarcha ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris eridantis ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris eucomopa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris excoriata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris ferrata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris ferruginosa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris frenigera ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris fungifera ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris geochrota ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris horoglypta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris ignorata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris illicita ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris illucescens ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris imbricata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris immerita ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris indiserta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris intensa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris isoclera ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris leptosaris ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris leucothicta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 24\ndichomeris levigata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 24\ndichomeris lissota ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 24\ndichomeris litoxyla ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 24\ndichomeris lupata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris macroxyla ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris malachias ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris malacodes ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris melanortha ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris melitura ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris mesoglena ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris metatoxa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris metuens ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris microdoxa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 26\ndichomeris microsphena meyrick , 1921 ; zool . meded . leyden 6 : 166 ; tl : java , buitenzorg\ndichomeris oceanis ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 27\ndichomeris olivescens ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 28\ndichomeris ostracodes ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 28\ndichomeris pelitis ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 28\ndichomeris petalodes ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 28\ndichomeris planata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29\ndichomeris polyaema ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29\ndichomeris praealbescens ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29\ndichomeris procrossa ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 29\ndichomeris pseudometra ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30\ndichomeris ptychosema ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30\ndichomeris sciodora ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 31\ndichomeris semnias ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 31\ndichomeris siranta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 31\ndichomeris summata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris synclepta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris tephroxesta ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris testudinata ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris tetraschema ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris thyrsicola ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris toxolyca ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris traumatias ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris uranopis ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris viridella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 34\ndichomeris indigna ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 54 ( note )\ndichomeris ceratomoxantha ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 63 ( note )\ndichomeris adelocentra meyrick , 1920 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 10 ) : 305 ; tl : java , butenzorg\ndichomeris albula park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 22 ; tl : taipei co . , taiwan\ndichomeris baccata meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 621 ; tl : brazil , teff\u00e9\n= dichomeris bisignella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16\ndichomeris brachygrapha meyrick , 1920 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 10 ) : 305 ; tl : assam , khasis\ndichomeris bucinaria park , 1996 ; tinea 14 ( 4 ) : 230 ; tl : pintung co . , taiwan\ndichomeris chalcophaea meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 434 ; tl : queensland , brisbane\ndichomeris fida meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 620 ; tl : brazil , para\ndichomeris fusca park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 49 ; tl : taichung co . , taiwan\ndichomeris fuscalis park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 16 ; tl : taipei co . , taiwan\ndichomeris harmonias meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 16 ) : 504 ; tl : china , shanghai\ndichomeris horiodes meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 620 ; tl : brazil , parintins\ndichomeris horoglypta meyrick , 1932 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 7 ) : 202 ; tl : hasimoto , japan\ndichomeris ingloria meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 621 ; tl : peru , lima\ndichomeris leptosaris meyrick , 1932 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 7 ) : 202 ; tl : hokkaido , japan\ndichomeris leucothicta meyrick , 1919 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 8 ) : 235 ; tl : bombay , dharwar\ndichomeris lucrifuga meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 620 ; tl : brazil , para\ndichomeris lutivittata meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 434 ; tl : queensland , brisbane\ndichomeris mesoctenis meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 434 ; tl : queensland , brisbane\ndichomeris mesoglena meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 619 ; tl : coorg , pollibetta\ndichomeris metuens meyrick , 1932 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 7 ) : 201 ; tl : seneng , java\ndichomeris ochthophora meyrick , 1936 ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 2 ) : 46 ; tl : taihoku , formosa\ndichomeris orientis park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 36 ; tl : kaohsiung co . , taiwan\ndichomeris praevacua meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 16 ) : 504 ; tl : china , shanghai\ndichomeris quercicola meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 433 ; tl : punjab , kangra\ndichomeris saturata meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 621 ; tl : brazil , obidos\ndichomeris sciodora meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 16 ) : 504 ; tl : assam , khasis\ndichomeris symmetrica park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 20 ; tl : taitung co . , taiwan\ndichomeris syndias [ sic , recte syndyas ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris thermodryas meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 621 ; tl : peru , iquitos\ndichomeris trilobella park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 42 ; tl : pingtung co . , taiwan\ndichomeris anisospila meyrick , 1934 ; dt . ent . z . iris 48 : 34 ; tl : guangdong , china\ndichomeris argentaria meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 304 ; tl : barberton\ndichomeris cotifera meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 303 ; tl : barberton\ndichomeris cuprea li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 237 ; tl : shaanxi\ndichomeris exsecta meyrick , 1927 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 12 ) : 354 ; tl : rhodesia , mazoe\ndichomeris ignorata meyrick , 1921 ; zool . meded . leyden 6 : 165 ; tl : java , preangor , 5000ft\ndichomeris melanortha meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 16 ) : 510 ; tl : bombay , poona\ndichomeris monorbella viette , 1988 ; bull . soc . ent . fr . 93 ( 3 - 4 ) : 104\ndichomeris squalens meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 282 ; tl : british guiana\nresupina omelko , 1999 ; keys ins . russian far east 5 ( 2 ) : 107 ; ts : dichomeris okadai moriuti\ndichomeris tactica meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 5 ) : 152 ; tl : ecuador , huigra , 4500ft\ndichomeris acrolychna meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 112 ; tl : brazil , para\ndichomeris allantopa meyrick , 1934 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 16 - 17 ) : 512 ; tl : nilambur , madras\ndichomeris alogista meyrick , 1935 ; mat . microlep . fauna chin . prov . : 72 ; tl : hunan , china\ndichomeris brachymetra meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 620 ; tl : peru , chosica , 2800m\ndichomeris brachyptila meyrick , 1916 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 19 ) : 584 ; tl : upper burma , myitkyina\ndichomeris ceponoma meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 5 ) : 151 ; tl : coorg , dibidi , 3500ft\ndichomeris davisi park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 35 ; tl : taiwan , taipei co . , sirin\ndichomeris ellipsias meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 114 ; tl : peru , iquitos\ndichomeris lushanae park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 22 ; tl : taiwan , taipei co . , sozan\ndichomeris moriutii ; li , zhen , kendrick & sterling , 2010 , shilap revta lepid . 38 ( 149 ) : 73\ndichomeris physocoma meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 9 ) : 286 ; tl : sierra leone , mabang\ndichomeris procyphodes meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 115 ; tl : brazil , parintins\ndichomeris rhodophaea meyrick , 1920 ; in alluaud & jeannel , voyage afr . orientale , ins . l\u00e9p . 2 : 73\ndichomeris simaoensis ; li , zhen , kendrick & sterling , 2010 , shilap revta lepid . 38 ( 149 ) : 74\ndichomeris stratigera meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 111 ; tl : brazil , parintins\ndichomeris subdentata meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 113 ; tl : brazil , santarem\ndichomeris testudinata meyrick , , 1934 ; dt . ent . z . iris 48 : 34 ; tl : guangdong , china\ndichomeris thalamopa meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 112 ; tl : brail , t\u00e9ffe\ndichomeris xanthodeta meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 305 ; tl : three sisters\ndichomeris zonata ; li , zhen , kendrick & sterling , 2010 , shilap revta lepid . 38 ( 149 ) : 74\ndichomeris liui li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 234 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris qinlingensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 235 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris aequata meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 282 ; tl : british guiana , bartica\ndichomeris agathopa meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 85 ; tl : rhodesia , umtali\ndichomeris anisacuminata li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 231 ; tl : china , jiangxi\ndichomeris antizyga meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 303 ; tl : barberton , pretoria\ndichomeris aphanopa meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 83 ; tl : rhodesia , umtali\ndichomeris apicispina li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 241 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris asteropis meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 83 ; tl : rhodesia , umvuma\ndichomeris attenta meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 84 ; tl : rhodesia , umvuma\ndichomeris bifurca li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 251 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris bodenheimeri ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16 ; [ afromoths ]\ndichomeris bomiensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 238 ; tl : china , xizang\ndichomeris cachrydias meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 283 ; tl : british guiana , mallali\ndichomeris decusella ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 19 ; [ afromoths ]\ndichomeris diffurca li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 253 ; tl : fujian , china\ndichomeris eustacta meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 84 ; tl : rhodesia , umtali\ndichomeris excepta meyrick , 1914 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 9 ) : 279 ; tl : nyassaland , mt . mlanje\ndichomeris hylurga meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 83 ; tl : rhodesia , salisbury\ndichomeris impigra meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 305 ; tl : barberton , haenertsburg\ndichomeris indiserta meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 9 ) : 285 ; tl : malay states , kuala lumpur\ndichomeris lativalvata li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 248 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris manticopodina li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 239 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris menglana li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 257 ; tl : yunnan , china\ndichomeris ningshanensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 245 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris nivalis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 249 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris opsonoma meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 281 ; tl : british guiana , bartica\ndichomeris pladarota meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 84 ; tl : rhodesia , umtali\ndichomeris polygona li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 243 ; tl : sichuan , china\ndichomeris qingchengshanensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 245 ; tl : sichuan , china\ndichomeris quadratipalpa li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 238 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris quadrifurca li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 252 ; tl : fujian , china\ndichomeris sexafurca li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 249 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris shenae li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 246 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris spicans li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 247 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris spuracuminata li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 230 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris stromatias meyrick , 1918 ; ann . transv . mus . 6 ( 2 ) : 23 ; tl : zululand , nkwaleni\ndichomeris tersa li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 241 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris varifurca li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 250 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris violacula li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 237 ; tl : gansu , china\ndichomeris wuyiensis li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 255 ; tl : jiangxi , china\ndichomeris xestobyrsa meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 82 ; tl : rhodesia , salisbury\ndichomeris yuebana li & zheng , 1996 ; shilap revta lepid . 24 ( 95 ) : 236 ; tl : shaanxi , china\ndichomeris obscura li & zheng , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 223 ; tl : fengxian , shaanxi , 1600m\ndichomeris angustiptera li & zheng , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 228 ; tl : fengxian , shaanxi , 1600m\ndichomeris acrogypsa turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 168 ; tl : queensland , rosewood\ndichomeris aculata ; ponomarenko & ueda , 2004 , trans . lepid . soc . japan 55 ( 3 ) : 147 ( note )\ndichomeris ampliata meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 175 ; tl : khasis\ndichomeris cirrhostola turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 169 ; tl : queensland , adavale\ndichomeris deltaspis ; ponomarenko & ueda , 2004 , trans . lepid . soc . japan 55 ( 3 ) : 155 ( note )\ndichomeris excoriata meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 174 ; tl : khasis\ndichomeris ferrata meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 174 ; tl : khasis\ndichomeris ferrogra li & wang , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 225 ; tl : mengla , yunnan , 630m\ndichomeris ferruginosa meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 173 ; tl : khasis\ndichomeris heteracma meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 622 ; tl : brazil , teff\u00e9 ; peru , iquitos\ndichomeris instans meyrick , 1923 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 20 ) : 619 ; tl : peru , iquitos ; brazil , teff\u00e9\ndichomeris lividula park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 57 ; tl : taiwan , hualien co . , pianau - col\ndichomeris oleata meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 305 ; tl : barberton , three sisters\ndichomeris ostracodes meyrick , 1916 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 19 ) : 583 ; tl : upper burma , lashio , 3000ft\ndichomeris petalodes meyrick , 1934 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 16 - 17 ) : 512 ; tl : nilambur , madras , india\ndichomeris pleuroleuca turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 169 ; tl : queensland , eidsvold\ndichomeris ptychosema meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 175 ; tl : khasis\ndichomeris rectifascia li & zheng , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 220 ; tl : kangxian , gansu , 800m\ndichomeris simaoensis li & wang , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 221 ; tl : simao , yunnan , 325m\ndichomeris summata meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 172 ; tl : khasis\ndichomeris varronia busck , 1913 ; ins . inscit . menstr . 1 ( 7 ) : 89 ; tl : kitty , british guiana\ndichomeris ventosa meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 304 ; tl : barberton , three sisters\ndichomeris zonata li & wang , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 222 ; tl : simao , yunnan , 325m\ndichomeris tostella ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 72 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ]\ndichomeris amphicoma meyrick , 1912 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1911 ( 4 ) : 695 ; tl : brazil , santos\ndichomeris antisticha meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 9 ) : 285 ; tl : costa rica , vulkan irazu , 4000ft\ndichomeris fluitans meyrick , 1920 ; ann . s . afr . mus . 17 ( 4 ) : 284 ; tl : natal , howick\ndichomeris litoxyla meyrick , 1937 ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 4 - 5 ) : 123 ; tl : yakovlevka , primorkii krai , russia\ndichomeris nessica walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 95 ; tl : panama , la chorrera\ndichomeris taiwana park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 48 ; tl : taiwan , nantou co . , sunmoon lake , 760m\ndichomeris zomias meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 283 ; tl : british guiana , bartica and mallali\ndichomeris hirculella busck , 1909 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 11 ( 2 ) : 89 ; tl : east river , connecticut\ndichomeris clarescens meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 174 ; tl : maskeliya , ceylon\ndichomeris dysorata turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 170 ; tl : new south wales , syndey\ndichomeris elegans park , 2001 ; insecta koreana 18 ( 4 ) : 308 ; tl : taiwan , pingtung co . , kenting park , 50m\ndichomeris jugata walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 97 ; tl : mexico , tabasco , teapa\ndichomeris mengdana li & zheng , 1997 ; entomologia sin . 4 ( 3 ) : 227 ; tl : mengda , xunhua , qinghai , 2240m\ndichomeris miltophragma meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 115 ; tl : brazil , para , obidos , parintins\ndichomeris ptilocompa meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 113 ; tl : brazil , teff\u00e9 ; peru , jurimaguas\ndichomeris substratella walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 93 ; tl : mexico , tabasco , teapa\ndichomeris vadonella viette , 1955 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . 123 : 108 ; tl : ne . madagascar , maroantsetra , ambodivoangy\ndichomeris xerodes walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 100 ; tl : mexico , tabasco , teapa\n= dichomeris setosella ; sattler , 1973 , bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent . ) 28 ( 4 ) : 221\ndichomeris glenni clarke , 1947 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 49 ( 7 ) : 187 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris aomoriensis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14 ; ponomarenko , 1998 , far east . ent . 67 : 12\ndichomeris ardesiella walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 96 ; tl : mexico , vera cruz , cordova\ndichomeris arotrosema walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 95 ; tl : mexico , vera cruz , atoyac\ndichomeris asodes meyrick , 1939 ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 89 ( 4 ) : 54 ; tl : telawa , java\ndichomeris erixantha ; meyrick , 1921 , ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 83 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ afromoths ]\ndichomeris eucomopa meyrick , 1939 ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 89 ( 4 ) : 54 ; tl : telawa , java\ndichomeris loxospila ; [ nhm card ] ; li , zhen , kendrick & sterling , 2010 , shilap revta lepid . 38 ( 149 ) : 77\ndichomeris lypetica walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 91 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft\ndichomeris crepitatrix meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 173 ; tl : n . coorg , 3500ft\ndichomeris dignella walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 91 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft\ndichomeris excavata busck , 1914 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 47 ( 2043 ) : 18 ; tl : porto bello , panama\ndichomeris hexasticta walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 94 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft\ndichomeris imbricata meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 175 ; tl : n . coorg , 3500ft\ndichomeris lutea park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 59 ; tl : taiwan , nantou co . , meifeng , 30km s tayuling , 2200m\ndichomeris lutilinea ponomarenko & park , 1996 ; korean j . appl . ent . 35 ( 2 ) : 118 ; tl : chuncheon , kangweon prov .\ndichomeris metrodes meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 172 ; tl : hambantota , ceylon ; bombay\ndichomeris olivescens meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 175 ; tl : kandy and maskeliya , ceylon\ndichomeris thalpodes meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 111 ; tl : brazil , para ; peru , r . napo\ndichomeris tristicta busck , 1914 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 47 ( 2043 ) : 17 ; tl : trinidad river , panama\ndichomeris melanophylla ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 114 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ]\ndichomeris angulata ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 14 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14\ndichomeris bulawskii ponomarenko & park , 1996 ; korean j . appl . ent . 35 ( 2 ) : 114 ; tl : 27km sw slavjanka , primorskii krai\ndichomeris fusca ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 60 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 49\ndichomeris linealis ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 83 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 24\ndichomeris lividula ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 83 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 24\ndichomeris lushanae ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 86 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris lutea ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 86 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 25\ndichomeris ochreata ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 102 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 27\ndichomeris taiwana ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 135 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 32\ndichomeris trilobella ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 141 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 33\ndichomeris illusio hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 101 , pl . 2 , f . 38 ; tl : hastings , florida\ndichomeris imitata hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 104 , pl . 3 , f . 5 ; tl : devers , texas\ndichomeris angulata park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 43 ; tl : taiwan , nantou co . , leinhauchi forest station , 15km sw puli , 750m\ndichomeris aprica ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 15 ; li & sattler , 2012 , zootaxa 3373 : 57\ndichomeris enoptrias ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 20\ndichomeris hoplocrates ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 22\ndichomeris issikii ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 23\ndichomeris ochreata park & hodges , 1995 ; insecta koreana 12 : 32 ; tl : taiwan , nantou co . , mei - feng , 30km s tayuling , 2200m\ndichomeris pyrrhoschista ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30\ndichomeris sciritis ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 31 ; li & sattler , 2012 , zootaxa 3373 : 57\ndichomeris synergastis ponomarenko & park , 1996 ; korean j . appl . ent . 35 ( 2 ) : 116 ; tl : yong - in , kyunggi prov .\ndichomeris viridescens ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 34\ndichomeris offula hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 117 , pl . 3 , f . 21 ; tl : ithaca , new york\ndichomeris crepida hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 118 , pl . 3 , f . 22 ; tl : mcclellanville , south carolina\ndichomeris santarosensis hodges , 1985 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 87 ( 2 ) : 456 ; tl : santa rosa national park , guanacaste , costa rica\ndichomeris nenia hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 40 , pl . 4 , f . 2 ; tl : bandera co . , texas\ndichomeris hypochloa walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 102 , pl . 3 , f . 23 ; tl : mexico , sonora\ndichomeris caia hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 62 , pl . 4 , f . 7 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris laetitia hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 88 , pl . 2 , f . 22 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris aleatrix hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 91 , pl . 2 , f . 27 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris furia hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 93 , pl . 2 , f . 30 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris baxa hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 105 , pl . 3 , f . 10 ; tl : presidio of monterey , california\ndichomeris cinnamicostella ; walsingham , 1911 , biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 103 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris costalis busck , 1914 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 47 ( 2043 ) : 18 ; tl : tabogilla i . and porto bello , panama\ndichomeris habrochitona walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 102 , pl . 3 , f . 26 ; tl : panama , tabernilla\ndichomeris quercicola ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 30 ; ponomarenko , 1998 , far east . ent . 67 : 13\ndichomeris carycina ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 43 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris caryophragma ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 43 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris diacnista ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 43 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris lypetica ; [ nhm card ] ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 54 ( note ) ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris tactica ; [ nhm card ] ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 60 ( note ) ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris latescens ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 63 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\ndichomeris siren hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 64 , pl . 4 , f . 9 ; tl : henson creek , oxon hill , maryland\ndichomeris vindex hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 83 , pl . 2 , f . 9 - 10 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris gleba hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 87 , pl . 2 , f . 18 - 20 ; tl : putnam co . , illinois\ndichomeris legnotoa hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 101 , pl . 4 , f . 10 ; tl : largo , pinellas co . , florida\ndichomeris mimesis hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 101 , pl . 2 , f . 39 ; tl : salmon , anderson co . , texas\ndichomeris simulata hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 104 , pl . 3 , f . 4 ; tl : canadian , hemphill co . , texas\ndichomeris percnopolis walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 93 , pl . 3 , f . 11 ; tl : guatemala , zapote , 2000ft\ndichomeris renascens walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 96 , pl . 3 , f . 14 ; tl : mexico , tabasco , teapa\ndichomeris xuthostola walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 101 , pl . 3 , f . 18 ; tl : mexico , tabasco , teapa\nhelcystogramma zeller , 1877 ceratophora heinemann , 1870 chambersella ( murtfeldt , 1874 ) ( gelechia ) subalusella ( chambers , 1874 ) ( gelechia ) parvipulvella ( chamber , 1874 ) ( gelechia ) inaequepulvella ( chambers , 1875 ) ( gelechia ) subalbella ( walsingham , 1911 ) ( dichomeris ) , emend . subalbella meyrick , 1925 , emend . convolvuli ( walsingham , 1908 ) ( trichotaphe ) crypsilychna meyrick , 1914 dryadopa meyrick , 1918 effera ( meyrick , 1918 ) ( lecithocera ) emigrans ( meyrick , 1921 ) ( lecithocera ) cornuta ( busck , 1914 ) ( dichomeris ) n . comb . luminosa ( busck , 1914 ) ( dichomeris ) n . comb . leucopleura meyrick , 1914 perceptella ( busck , 1914 ) ( dichomeris ) n . comb .\ndichomeris sylphe hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 58 , pl . 1 , f . 22 ; tl : archbold biological staion , lake placid , florida\ndichomeris ardelia hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 62 , pl . 4 , f . 8 ; tl : archbold biological station , lake placid , florida\ndichomeris kimballi hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 71 , pl . 1 , f . 30 ; tl : archbold biological staion , lake placid , florida\ndichomeris aglaia hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 85 , pl . 2 , f . 15 ; tl : lake placid , florida , archbold biological station\ndichomeris anisacuminata ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 14 ; li , zhen , kendrick & sterling , 2010 , shilap revta lepid . 38 ( 149 ) : 74\ndichomeris argigastra walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 99 , pl . 3 , f . 16 ; tl : mexico , vera cruz , atoyac\ndichomeris autometra ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 15 ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 )\ndichomeris crambaleas ; [ nhm card ] ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 18\ndichomeris melanota walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 94 , pl . 3 , f . 13 ; tl : mexico , vera cruz , cordova\ndichomeris okadai ; [ nhm card ] ; park & hodges , 1995 , insecta koreana 12 : ( 1 - 101 ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 28\ndichomeris prensans meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 111 ; tl : brazil , para , parintins , manaos ; peru , iquitos ; british guiana , bartica\ndichomeris sciastes walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 90 , pl . 3 , f . 10 ; tl : mexico , vera cruz , atoyac\ndichomeris gausapa hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : pl . 1 , f . 8 ; tl : madera canyon , 4880 ' , santa rita mts , arizona\n= dichomeris acuminata ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 13 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 34\ndichomeris solatrix hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 48 , pl . 1 , f . 15 ; tl : pe\u00f1a blanca canyon , santa cruz co . arizona\n= dichomeris punctidiscella ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 56 ; [ nhm card ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 36\ndichomeris copa hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 92 , pl . 2 , f . 28 ; tl : snyder heights 1100 ' , ithaca , new york\ndichomeris achne hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 87 , pl . 2 , f . 34 ; tl : parker is . , highlands co . , florida\ndichomeris euprepes hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 110 , pl . 4 , f . 11 ; tl : big black mnts , letcher co . , kentucky\ndichomeris carinella walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 99 , pl . 3 , f . 20 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft\ndichomeris fuscusitis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21 ; zhao , park , bae & li , 2017 , zootaxa 4273 ( 2 ) : ( 216 - 234 )\ndichomeris intensa meyrick , 1913 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 1 ) : 173 ; tl : maskeliya and puttalam , ceylon ; cuddapah , 4000ft , n . coorg\ndichomeris leucostena walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 94 , pl . 3 , f . 12 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft\ndichomeris blanchardorum hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 43 , pl . 1 , f . 10 - 11 ; tl : laguna atascosa , cameron co . , texas\ndichomeris gnoma hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 106 , pl . 3 , f . 11 ; tl : shingle creek road , keremeos , british columbia , canada\ndichomeris mercatrix hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 110 , pl . 3 , f . 15 ; tl : mclean bogs reserve , tompkins co . , new york\ndichomeris bulawskii ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 16 ; ponomarenko & ueda , 2004 , trans . lepid . soc . japan 55 ( 3 ) : 151 ( note )\ndichomeris diva hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 57 , pl . 1 , f . 21 ; tl : 1 mi s patagonia , santa cruz co . , arizona\ndichomeris fistuca hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 68 , pl . 1 , f . 25 ; tl : wedge plantation , mccellanville , charleston co . , south carolina\ndichomeris atomogypsa ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 72 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 15\ndichomeris alphito hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 88 , pl . 2 , f . 21 ; tl : madera canyon , 4880 ' , santa rita mts , arizona\ndichomeris pelta hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 99 , pl . 2 , f . 36 ; tl : wedge plantation , mcclellanville , charleston co . , south carolina\ndichomeris acrochlora ; hodges , 1986 , moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 112 ( note ) ; [ nhm card ] ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 12\ndichomeris sybilla hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 121 , pl . 3 , f . 24 ; tl : madera canyon , 4880 ' , santa rita mts , arizona\ndichomeris evitata walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 99 , pl . 3 , f . 15 ; tl : panama , volcan de chiriqui , 2000 - 3000ft\ndichomeris harmonias ; [ nhm card ] ; park , 1991 , ann . hist . - nat . mus . hung . 83 : 121 ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 21\ndichomeris xanthoa hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 102 , pl . 3 , f . 2 ; tl : ft . niobrara national wildlife refuge , cherry co . , nebraska\ndichomeris bolize hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 100 , pl . 2 , f . 37 ; tl : hackberry lake , valentine national wildlife refuge , cherry co . , nebraska\ndichomeris isa hodges , 1986 ; moths amer . n of mexico 7 . 1 : 103 , pl . 3 , f . 3 ; tl : tenkiller lake , 3 mi w blackgum , sequoyah co . , oklahoma"]}
{"id": 1814, "summary": [{"text": "hector 's dolphin ( cephalorhynchus hectori ) is the best-known of the four dolphins in the genus cephalorhynchus and is the only endemic cetacean to new zealand .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "at approximately 1.4 m in length , it is one of the smallest cetaceans .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "two subspecies occur : c. h. hectori , the more numerous subspecies , is found around the south island , and the critically endangered maui 's dolphin ( c. h. maui ) is found off the northwest coast of the north island .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "maui 's dolphin is one of the eight most endangered groups of cetaceans .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the hector 's dolphin is also the world 's smallest and rarest dolphin .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "a 2010/2011 survey of maui 's dolphin by the new zealand department of conservation estimated only 55 adults remain .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "hector \u2019s dolphin was named after sir james hector ( 1834 \u2013 1907 ) , who was the curator of the colonial museum in wellington ( now the museum of new zealand te papa tongarewa ) .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "he examined the first specimen found of the dolphin .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the species was scientifically described by belgian zoologist pierre-joseph van beneden in 1881 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "m\u0101ori names for hector 's and maui 's dolphin include tutumairekurai , tupoupou and popoto . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "hector ' s dolphin", "paragraphs": ["dawson , s . 1991 . incidental catch of hector\u2019s dolphin in inshore gillnets .\nbrager , s . 1999 . association patterns in three populations of hector\u2019s dolphin , cephalorhynchus hectori .\nwwf ' s objectives for hector ' s dolphin and its subspecies m\u0101ui dolphin are that threats have been reduced to a level that allows the species to begin increasing in abundance , extending the range of m\u0101ui s dolphin and reducing isolation of hector ' s dolphin populations .\nking , r . , s . brooks . 2004 . bayesian analysis of the hector\u2019s dolphin data .\nhector ' s dolphin is new zealand ' s smallest dolphin . these native dolphins are endangered in new zealand . find out how to behave when sharing the water with hector ' s .\nlocation : hector\u2019s dolphin is found only in the shallow waters around new zealand\u2019s south island . a subspecies of hector\u2019s dolphin , maui\u2019s dolphin , is even more endangered with only about 110 individuals left . this member of the family lives around north island .\nthe north island subpopulation of hector\u2019s dolphin was recognized recently as a subspecies , cephalorhynchus hectori maui ( baker et al . 2002 ) , and it has been assessed separately . this subspecies is sometimes referred to as maui\u2019s dolphin ( not maui\u2019s hector\u2019s dolphin ) .\nslooten , e . 1994 . behavior of hector\u2019s dolphin : classifying behavior by sequence analysis .\nview information about south island hector ' s dolphin surveys that doc has been involved with .\nhector\u2019s dolphin / author : dr . mridula srinivasan , noaa / nmfs / ost / amd .\ndawson , s . m . and slooten , e . 1996 . the downunder dolphin : the story of hector\u2019s dolphin . canterbury university press , christchurch . 60pp .\nslooten , e . , f . lad . 1991 . population biology and conservation of hector\u2019s dolphin .\nthe hector\u2019s dolphin , of which maui\u2019s is the north island sub - species , is also covered by the threat management plan .\nhector ' s and maui ' s dolphins are a protected species under the marine mammal protection act 1978 . the department of conservation ( doc ) threat classification system ranks maui dolphin as \u2018nationally critical\u2019 , and hector\u2019s dolphin as \u2018nationally endangered\u2019 .\nhector\u2019s dolphin is one of the smallest toothed cetaceans in the world and is endemic to new zealand . this dolphin got its name in honor of sir james hector , a scottish scientist who described this dolphin for the first time in the decade of 1870\u2019s .\nthe government has today announced its final threat management plan for dolphins which confirms additional protections for the maui\u2019s dolphin in taranaki and releases new promising population estimates for the hector\u2019s dolphin .\nthorpe , c . , r . bates , s . dawson . 1991 . intrinsic echolocation capability of hector\u2019s dolphin , cephalorhynchus hectori .\ntwo sub - species of hector\u2019s dolphins exist : the south island hector\u2019s dolphin which is found around the south island of new zealand , and the m\u0101ui dolphin which is found off the west coast of the north island .\nhector ' s dolphin leaps from ocean , akaroa harbour , new zealand . the most distinctive feature of hector ' s dolphins is the rounded dorsal fin , as seen here with the dolphin jumping out of the water .\nhector\u2019s and maui\u2019s dolphins only live in new zealand\u2019s shallow coastal waters . they are both at risk of becoming extinct .\nvisit the wwf - new zealand website for actions you can take to help save the hector ' s dolphin .\n\ufefflisten to the revealing and informative interview , ' unpicking the hector ' s dolphin report ' . leading expert on maui and hector ' s dolphins dr liz slooten discusses mpi ' s hector ' s dolphin report with and raglan community radio , new zealand . listen to the key information highlighted here . - august 23 , 2016\nbrager , s . , s . dawson , e . slooten , s . smith , g . stone , a . yoshinaga . 2002 . site fidelity and along - shore range in hector\u2019s dolphin , an endangered marine dolphin from new zealand .\ncawthron institute scientist deanna clement led the three - year survey to update the hector ' s dolphin population and distribution .\nblogs ahoy ! hear from hector ' s and maui dolphin expert \u200b dr liz slooten and world free - dive champion , maui dolphin ambassador , \u200b william trubridge .\nbrager , s . 1998 . feeding associations between white - fronted terns and hector\u2019s dolphins in new zealand .\nbejder , l . , s . dawson , j . harraway . 1999 . responses by hector\u2019s dolphin to boats and swimmers in porpoise bay , new zealand .\nburkhart , s . , e . slooten . 2003 . population viability analysis for hector\u2019s dolphin ( cephalorhynchus hectori ) : a stochastic population model for local populations .\nshow your love for dolphins ! add our beautiful hector ' s & maui ' s dolphin sos badge to your social media profiles on facebook and twitter today .\nbr\u00e4ger s , dawson sm , slooten e , smith s , stone gs , yoshinaga a ( 2002 ) site fidelity and along - shore range in hector ' s dolphin , an endangered marine dolphin from new zealand . biol conserv 108 : 281\u2013287\nmartien , k . , b . taylor , e . slooten , s . dawson . 1999 . a sensitivity analysis to guide research and management for hector\u2019s dolphin .\npichler , f . , s . dawson , e . slooten , c . baker . 1998 . geographic isolation of hector\u2019s dolphin populations described by mitochondrial dna sequences .\nyou can help by joining us - hector ' s & maui ' s dolphin sos . be part of the effort stopping the dolphins from being killed by human activity\ndawson , s . m . 1991 . clicks and communication : the behavioural and social contexts of hector\u2019s dolphin vocalisations . ethology 88 ( 4 ) : 265 - 276 .\nslooten , e . and dawson s . m . sustainable levels of human impact for hector\u2019s dolphin . the open conservation biology journal 2 , 37 - 43 . 2008 .\nslooten , e . 1994 . behavior of hector\u2019s dolphin : classifying behavior by sequence analysis . journal of mammalogy 75 : 956 - 964 .\nscientists agree that all of the necessary research has been done . maui and hector ' s dolphin numbers continue to decline at alarming rates .\nslooten , e . , s . dawson , h . whitehead . 1993 . associations among photographically identified hector\u2019s dolphins .\nbrager , s . , dawson , s . m . , slooten , e . , smith , s . , stone , g . s . and yoshinaga , a . 2002 . site fidelity and along - shore range in hector\u2019s dolphin , an endangered marine dolphin from new zealand . biological conservation 108 : 281 - 287 .\ndawson , s . m . & thorpe , c . w . 1990 . a quantitative analysis of the acoustic repertoire of hector\u2019s dolphin . ethology 86 : 131 - 145 .\ndawson , s . , e . slooten , f . pichler , k . russell , c . baker . 2001 . the north island hector\u2019s dolphin is vulnerable to extinction .\nmartien kk , taylor bl , slooten e , dawson s ( 1999 ) a sensitivity analysis to guide research and management for hector ' s dolphin . biol conserv 90 : 183\u2013191\nhector\u2019s dolphins are found around the coast of the south island but distribution is patchy .\nslooten , e . 1991 . age , growth , and reproduction in hector\u2019s dolphins .\nhector ' s dolphin ( cephalorhynchus hectori ) small pod in turbid coastal waters near river mouth , kaikoura penninsula , south island , new zealand .\nthis dolphin varies in size depending on its geographic location . its subspecies , the maui dolphin , is slightly larger .\nking , r . , s . brooks . 2004 . a classical study of catch - effort models for hector\u2019s dolphins .\nbecause hector ' s dolphin exists in several discrete populations , this increases the risk of local extinctions from bycatch or a single pollution or disease episode .\nthe new zealand whale and dolphin trust is dedicated to preserving nz ' s unique marine mammals .\nhector\u2019s dolphins are among the world\u2019s smallest marine dolphins . they are found only in the inshore waters of aotearoa / new zealand .\nslooten , e . and lad , f . 1991 . population biology and conservation of hector\u2019s dolphin . canadian journal of zoology 69 : 1701 - 1707 .\nbaker , a . , a . smith , f . pichler . 2002 . geographical variation in hector\u2019s dolphin : recognition of new subspecies of cephalorhynchus hectori .\n\u201cour greatest concern is for the critically - endangered maui\u2019s dolphin . it is the world\u2019s smallest and rarest dolphin with an estimated population of just 55 adults , \u201d conservation minister dr nick smith says .\nhector ' s dolphins are frequently caught in gill nets but rarely cause enough damage to prevent re - use . there are no known adverse affects of hector ' s dolphins on humans .\ndufresne , s . , dawson , s . m . & slooten . e . 2001 . hector\u2019s dolphin abundance : southern line - transect surveys and effect of attraction to survey vessel . doc science internal series 1 , 19pp .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - hector ' s dolphin ( cephalorhynchus hectori )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - hector ' s dolphin ( cephalorhynchus hectori )\ntitle =\narkive species - hector ' s dolphin ( cephalorhynchus hectori )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\n\u201cthe plan also includes the establishment of a maui\u2019s dolphin research advisory group to undertake research and work with stakeholders to maintain ongoing cooperation to ensure the survival of the maui\u2019s dolphin , \u201d mr guy says .\ndawson , s . m . & slooten , e . 1988 . hector\u2019s dolphin cephalorhynchus hectori : distribution and abundance . rep . int . whal . commn special issue 9 : 315 - 324 .\nmake a symbolic dolphin adoption to help save some of the world ' s most endangered animals from extinction and support wwf ' s conservation efforts .\nhector\u2019s and m\u0101ui dolphin are known to m\u0101ori by other names , including tutumairekurai , aihe , papakanua , upokohue , tukuperu , t\u016bpoupou , pahu , p\u014dpoto and hopuhopu .\nhector\u2019s dolphins are the smallest and rarest marine dolphins in the world . they have distinct black facial markings , short stocky bodies and a dorsal fin shaped like a mickey mouse ear . there is a subspecies of hector\u2019s dolphin known as maui\u2019s dolphin that is critically endangered and estimated to have a population of only 55 . they are found only in the shallow coastal waters along western shores of new zealand\u2019s north island .\nrayment , w . , dawson , s . , slooten , l . and childerhouse , s . ( 2006 ) offshore distribution of hector ' s dolphin at banks peninsula . doc research and development series 232 . department of conservation , wellington .\nrayment , w . , dawson , s . m . , slooten , e . and childerhouse , s . j . 2006 . offshore distribution of hector\u2019s dolphin at banks peninsula . department of conservation research and development series , 232 , 23p .\nslooten , e . and dawson , s . m . 1988 . studies on hector\u2019s dolphin cephalorhynchus hectori : a progress report . rep . int . whal . commn special issue 9 : 325 - 338 .\na rare and small cetacean , this dolphin is identified by a solidly built body with a gently sloping snout and a unique rounded ( mickey mouse ear shaped ) dorsal fin . hector ' s dolphin takes its name from new zealand zoologist sir james hector , who first collected the species in 1869 .\nscientists have discovered there are more hector ' s dolphins in new zealand than the previous population estimate .\nonly found in new zealand\u2019s waters , this distinctive grey dolphin with black and white markings and a round dorsal fin is the most easily recognised species of dolphin in new zealand .\nslooten , e . 2007 . conservation in the face of uncertainty : effectiveness of four options for managing hector\u2019s dolphin bycatch . endangered species research 3 : 169 - 179 .\nbuckland , s . j . , hannah , d . j . , taucher , j . a . , slooten , e . and dawson , s . m . 1990 . polychlorinated dibenzo - p - dioxins and dibenzofurans in new zealand\u2019s hector\u2019s dolphin . chemosphere 20 : 1035 - 1042 .\n7 , 500 hector ' s dolphins remain of 29 , 000 in the 1970 ' s and only 45 maui dolphins of 1 , 800 .\ngormley a . , dawson , s . m . , slooten , e . brager , s . 2005 mark - recapture estimates of hector\u2019s dolphin abundance at banks peninsula , new zealand . marine mammal science . 21 ( 2 ) : 204 - 216 .\npichler fb , dawson sm , slooten e , baker cs ( 1998 ) geographic isolation of hector ' s dolphin populations described by mitochondrial dna sequences . conserv biol 12 : 676\u2013682\ndo you know of or are you a part of an organisation that work to conserve the hector\u2019s dolphin , then please contact us to have it featured on our endangered world .\npichler , f . , baker , c . s . , dawson , s . m . & slooten , e . 1998 . mitochondrial differences between east and west coast populations of hector\u2019s dolphin . conservation biology . 12 ( 3 ) : 1 - 8 .\n) feed with hector\u2019s dolphins , likely as facultative commensalists , by capturing small fish being chased by dolphins .\nnabu international foundation for nature is committed to fighting for the survival of maui and hector ' s dolphins .\nthe majority of wwf ' s work on the protection of hector ' s and m\u0101ui dolphins is carried out by wwf - new zealand . visit the\nrayment , w . , s . dawson , e . slooten , s . brager , s . dufresne , t . webster . 2009 . kernel density estimates of alongshore home range of hector\u2019s dolphins at banks peninsula , new zealand .\nthe hector ' s and maui dolphin threat management plan has been in place since 2008 , it identifies human - induced threats to the populations and outlines strategies to mitigate those threats .\nwe need beachgoers and boaties to report sightings so we can better understand where these dolphins live . this will provide evidence to make the best decisions for m\u0101ui and hector\u2019s dolphin conservation .\nthorpe , c . w . & dawson , s . m . 1991 . automatic measurement of descriptive features of hector\u2019s dolphin vocalizations . j . acoust . soc . am . 89 ( 1 ) : 435 - 443 .\nclement , d . , slooten , e . , dawson , s . m . & dufresne , s . 2002 . line - transect survey of hector\u2019s dolphin abundance between farewell spit and motunau . doc science internal series 22 . 15pp . department of conservation , wellington .\na team from nelson ' s cawthron institute have discovered there are potentially twice the number of hector ' s dolphins in new zealand waters than previously realised .\ndawson , s . m . 1991 . incidental catch of hector\u2019s dolphins in inshore gillnets . marine mammal science 7 ( 3 ) : 283 - 295 .\nslooten , e . and dawson , s . m . assessing the effectiveness of conservation management decisions : likely effects of new protection measures for hector\u2019s dolphin . aquatic conservation : marine and freshwater ecosystems 20 : 334 - 347 . 2010\nslooten , e . , s . dawson , w . rayment , s . childerhouse . 2006 . a new abundance estimate for maui\u2019s dolphin : what does it mean for managing this critically endangered species ? .\na small isolated group of hector ' s dolphins remains on the west coast of new zealand ' s north island . they are a sub - species called m\u0101ui dolphin ( cephalorhynchus hectori maui ) , and in total number around 63 individuals . hector ' s and m\u0101ui dolphins are related to similar species in south africa and south america . read more\npichler fb , baker cs ( 2000 ) loss of genetic diversity in the endemic hector ' s dolphin due to fisheries - related mortality . proc r soc lond b biol sci 267 : 97\u2013102\nslooten , e . and dawson , s . m . 1994 . hector\u2019s dolphin . pp . 311 - 333 in \u201chandbook of marine mammals\u201d vol v , ( delphinidae and phocoenidae : s . h ridgway and r . harrison , eds . ) . academic press . new york .\nburkhart , s . m . and slooten , e . 2003 . population viability analysis for hector\u2019s dolphin ( cephalorhynchus hectori ) : a stochastic population model for local populations . new zealand journal of marine and freshwater research 37 : 553 - 566\n) are major predators of hector ' s dolphins . living in shallow inshore waters may help them avoid potential predators .\nsome dolphin species , including the hector\u2019s dolphin , are very rare . they are considered to be the smallest of all marine dolphins . the first person to notice them and research them was sir james hector , whom they are named after . he was a scientist from new zealand but even today we still don\u2019t have too much information about them .\nslooten , e . ( 2007 ) conservation management in the face of uncertainty : effectiveness of four options for managing hector ' s dolphin bycatch . endangered species research , 3 : 169 - 179 .\nnz dolphin is only found in new zealand and trust researchers have surveyed the entire population . there are about 60 maui dolphins , and about 10 , 000 hector\u2019s dolphins left in the world . the original population was about 50 , 000 hector\u2019s and 2 , 000 maui dolphins . these days , the population is fragmented into small local populations . maui dolphin is teetering on the brink of extinction .\nmartien , k . k . , taylor , b . l . , slooten , e . dawson , s . m . 1999 . a sensitivity analysis to guide research and management for hector\u2019s dolphin . biological conservation 90 : 183 - 191 .\ndawson , s . m . 1985 . the new zealand whale and dolphin digest . brick row publishing . auckland . 130pp .\nslooten , e . and dawson , s . m . ( 1994 ) hector ' s dolphin cephalorhynchus hectori . in : ridgway , s . h . and harrison , r . ( eds ) handbook of marine mammals . volume v ( delphinidae and phocoenidae ) . academic press , new york .\nrecreational boat users interact with hector ' s dolphins throughout their range . dolphin - watching tours are located at the center of the banks peninsula marine mammal sanctuary , and new operations are beginning in the lyttleton and timaru areas of canterbury . possible impacts of recreational boating and tourism on hector ' s dolphins are currently under study .\none of the smallest marine dolphins in the world , hector\u2019s dolphins grow no more than 1 . 5 m in length .\nthe hector\u2019s dolphins north and south of the kaikoura canyon form two local populations with low levels of individual exchange and interbreeding .\nwwf works to end gill net use and trawling in hector\u2019s and maui\u2019s dolphin habitat . after the 2012 international whaling commission meeting , new zealand agreed to ban gillnets in a portion of maui\u2019s dolphin habitat . this is a positive step , but a ban throughout the dolphin\u2019s entire range is needed to ensure their survival . wwf is urging new zealand prime minister john key to protect the last remaining maui\u2019s dolphins by prohibiting dangerous fishing gear from their habitat , safeguarding the region from sand mining and the threat of oil and gas exploration , and establishing a protected ocean corridor .\nthe results of the survey will be one consideration in the ongoing risk assessment for the species , and will factor into the hector ' s and maui ' s dolphin threat management plan which is due for full review in 2018 ,\nguy said .\nin 2016 , a hector\u2019s dolphin that washed up on a beach near kaikoura was found to have died from tuberculosis , a disease never before found in cetaceans . how the dolphin contracted tuberculosis is still unknown , but there are fears it could be related to domestic pets , or animal husbandry .\ndawson , s . , e . slooten , s . dufresne , p . wade , d . clement . 2004 . small - boat surveys for coastal dolphins : line transect surveys for hector\u2019s dolphins ( cephalorhynchus hectori ) .\nvery , very rarely you get sightings of hector ' s dolphins in hawke ' s bay . they have been seen off clifton , pourerere and bare island at waimarama .\ndawson , s . , e . slooten . 1993 . conservation of hector\u2019s dolphins : the case and process which led to the establishment of the banks peninsula marine mammal sanctuary .\nnew zealand\u2019s critically endangered maui ' s dolphin formed part of discussions held by 200 of the world\u2019s leading cetacean scientists who gathered for the annual meeting of the scientific committee of the international whaling commission . \u200bnabu international and the leading hector ' s and maui dolphin expert , professor liz slooten of the university of otago , presented the latest population figures . unless the level of fisheries protection is increased significantly , maui\u2019s dolphins could become extinct in 15 years or less . the iwc reports that not enough is\naround new zealand dolphins continue to die as a result of set - netting . in february 2018 a pod of five hector\u2019s dolphins died after being caught in a set net 6 nautical miles off banks peninsula . to ensure the survival of both hector\u2019s and maui\u2019s dolphins , deaths from fishing must be zero .\nhector\u2019s dolphin inhabits shallow coastal waters less than 100 m deep and is typically found within 7 km of the coast . however , it has been sighted up to 35 km offshore in certain areas ( 12 ) .\nhuman - made chemicals such as pcbs , ddts and dioxins accumulate in hector ' s dolphins which could potentially affect reproductive rates .\nthis map shows the area where hector\u2019s dolphins live ( red ) and the area where they are now protected ( green ) .\nthorpe , c . w . , bates , r . h . t . & dawson , s . m . 1991 . intrinsic echolocation capability of hector\u2019s dolphin cephalorhynchus hectori . j . acoust . soc . am . 90 ( 6 ) : 2931 - 2934 .\nhector ' s dolphins were previously thought to be a mainly inshore species , however clement ' s team found up to half the population in unprotected waters beyond four nautical miles offshore .\nfishing - related threats include entanglement in set nets , trawl nets , drift nets and crayfish pot lines . 188 hector\u2019s and maui\u2019s dolphins have been killed in set nets since 1973 .\ndawson , s . m . , du fresne , s . , slooten , e . & wade , p . r . 2000 . line - transect survey of hector\u2019s dolphin abundance between motunau and timaru . published client report on contract 3072 , funded by conservation services levy . department of conservation , wellington . 18pp .\nan alternative method of mark - recapture is using genetic tissue samples . this is the method used for m\u0101ui dolphin abundance estimates . read more about m\u0101ui dolphin genetic mark recapture .\n) are marine cetaceans endemic to the coastal waters of new zealand . there are 4 main regional populations of hector\u2019s dolphins , which are geographically and reproductively isolated from each other . of the 4 distinct populations of hector ' s dolphins , one is found along the west coast of north island , between dargaville and new plymouth . this particular population , referred to as maui ' s dolphin , is very small , containing approximately 111 individuals . their range has greatly declined over the last few decades . on the south island , there are three populations of hector ' s dolphin that are genetically distinct from one another . these populations reside along the west , east and south coasts , excluding fiordland . the total population of hector\u2019s dolphins around the south island was estimated at 7240 individuals in 2004 , with 5388 found on the west coast , mostly concentrated between 41\u00ba30\u2019s and 44\u00ba30\u2019s . hector\u2019s dolphins are most abundant between karamea and makawhio point on the west coast and around banks peninsula on the east coast .\nslooten , e . 1991 . age , growth and reproduction in hector\u2019s dolphins . canadian journal of zoology 69 : 1689 - 1700 .\nimportant note : due to the considerable difference in the methods between line - transect and mark - recapture surveys , the results do not indicate any trend such as an increase in the hector\u2019s dolphin population of te waewae bay .\nslooten , e . , dawson , s . m . and whitehead , h . 1993 . associations among photographically identified hector\u2019s dolphins . canadian journal of zoology 71 : 2311 - 2318 .\nslooten , e . , s . dawson , w . rayment . 2004 . aerial surveys for coastal dolphins : abundance of hector\u2019s dolphins off the south island west coast , new zealand .\nslooten , e . and dawson , s . m . 1989 . hector\u2019s dolphin : a case study for integrating conservation and fishing . in \u201cmanagement of new zealand\u2019s natural estate\u201d ( d . a . norton , ed . ) . occasional publication no . 1 , new zealand ecological society , christchurch . pp . 112 - 114 .\nin moreton bay , australia . in : leatherwood s , reeves rr ( eds ) the bottlenose dolphin . academic , san diego , pp 285\u2013293\nwwf - new zealand advocates increased protection of the dolphin through government fisheries and conservation decisions , and supports a community and schools awareness programmes . wwf also carries out research to inform management , including a public sightings network for m\u0101ui dolphin via a dedicated website and toll - free number ; aerial surveys for distribution and abundance ; genetic research ; and brings together organisations which are working to protect hector ' s dolphin .\nrayment , w . j . , dawson , s . m . and slooten , e . 2010 . seasonal changes in distribution of hector\u2019s dolphin at banks peninsula , new zealand : implications for protected area design . aquatic conservation : marine and freshwater ecosystems 20 : 106 - 116 .\nthere are four genetically distinct populations of hector ' s dolphin : off the west coast of north island , and the west , east and south coasts of south island . a current estimate puts the population at around 7000 individuals .\nif you are in the north island and think you\u2019ve seen a m\u0101ui or hector\u2019s dolphin , report it straight away to our emergency hotline 0800 doc hot ( 0800 362 468 ) . we are interested in all sightings of m\u0101ui or hector ' s dolphins around the north island , but especially south of raglan and around the south and east coasts of the north island .\nthe banks peninsula marine mammal sanctuary in canterbury was established in 1988 primarily to reduce set - net deaths of hector\u2019s dolphins in the area .\nthe majority of wwf ' s work on the protection of hector ' s and maui ' s dolphins is carried out by wwf - new zealand . visit the wwf - new zealand website for more extensive information on the species and wwf ' s efforts to bring them back from the brink of extinction .\nslooten , e . , fletcher , d . & taylor , b . l . 2000 . accounting for uncertainty in risk assessment : case study of hector\u2019s dolphin mortality due to gillnet entanglement . conservation biology 14 : 1264 - 1270 .\nthe north island hector\u2019s dolphin has been renamed \u2018maui\u2019s dolphin\u2019 after the maori god maui who legend has it fished up the north island from the sea ( the south island was his waka or canoe ) . a set net ban has also been put in place in the area where the dolphins live . maui\u2019s dolphins have an estimated population of 150 , where hector\u2019s dolphins are thought to number 7 , 000 around the south island . life may seem idyllic for hector\u2019s dolphins , but they do have natural predators . these are mainly sevengill sharks , blue sharks and orca . the biggest threat to the dolphins comes from the net fishing activity of humans . these unintentionally trap dolphins underwater so they cannot come up for air and drown\ndawson , s . m . 1988 . the high - frequency sounds of free - ranging hector\u2019s dolphins cephalorhynchus hectori . rep . int . whal . commn special issue 9 : 339 - 344 .\naccording to the iucn red list of threatened species , north island hector ' s dolphins are\ncritically endangered\nand south island hector ' s dolphins are\nendangered\n. hector\u2019s dolphins are regularly caught in gillnets , which is by far the greatest threat to their survival . small population size , segregated genetic groups , and low population growth rates ( maximum plausible annual growth rate = 1 . 8 % ) pose a significant threat to their persistence . trawl nets , pollution , tourism , boat strikes and possibly mining are also thought to affect hector ' s dolphins .\nnicola wheen is a senior lecturer at new zealand\u2019s university of otago\u2019s faculty of law . her latest paper , entitled\nridgway , sam . 1987 . the dolphin doctor . fawcett crest : new york , ny .\nset net fishing poses a major threat to hector\u2019s and m\u0101ui dolphin . like all marine mammals they need to come to the surface regularly to breathe . if they become tangled in set nets , they will hold their breath until they suffocate .\nhector ' s dolphins of all ages spend a lot of time playing . they surf a lot at beaches when seas are quite rough . in calmer weather a favourite game is playing with bits of seaweed . the dolphin will carry it until it falls off or until some other dolphin\nsteals it\n. they have even been seen playing with bits of floating sticks and leaves . hector ' s are very curious and people friendly which is why they like to visit boats .\nhector\u2019s dolphin is one of the smallest cetaceans , and new zealand\u2019s only endemic cetacean . this charming little dolphin is only 1 . 4 meters long at the most , with the males being slightly smaller than the females . at its heaviest , this dolphin does not weigh more than 50 kilograms . hector\u2019s dolphins do not have the beak usually associated with dolphins in general , but have instead a shorter face which makes them look more \u2018whale - like\u2019 . the back of this dolphin is light grey or white , with white extending down the front of the face . the throat and undersides are white , while black patches surround the eye region and extend to the rounded flippers . the round dorsal fin and the tail are also black .\nclement said policy makers had been provided with with robust scientific evidence so they could make effective decisions around protecting and managing hector ' s dolphins .\nnew information from new zealand\u2019s department of conservation reveals that a record six hector\u2019s dolphins were found dead last december . five of the deaths occurred along the east coast of the country\u2019s south island . the sustainable limit for this area is just one dolphin per year . another individual was washed up along the west coast . in 1988 new zealand\u2019s established its first marine mammals sanctuary to protect the hector\u2019s dolphins against harmful fishing practices , the primary cause of their decline . but sanctuary is failing in its task because it is simply too small . read more . . .\nslooten , e . , w . rayment , s . dawson . 2006 . offshore distribution of hector\u2019s dolphins at banks peninsula , new zealand : is the banks peninsula marine mammal sanctuary large enough ? .\nreynolds iii , j . e . , r . s . wells , and s . d . eide . 2000 . the bottlenose dolphin : biology and conservation . university press of florida : gainesville , fl .\nhector ' s dolphin is endemic to the coastal waters of new zealand , where it is threatened by fisheries bycatch , pollutants and boat disturbance . recent surveys estimate the total abundance at about 7000 animals , fragmented into three populations around the south island , and a sub - species ( m\u0101ui dolphin ) on the west coast of the north island .\nthe average lifespan of hector ' s dolphins has not been documented . however , the oldest recorded individual was 20 years old at time of capture .\nbanning the use of set netting . south australia , and several states in the us have already done so , and this is the only way to ensure no more hector\u2019s or maui\u2019s die in this way .\nthis species was once hunted for bait , but this has now stopped . due to the coastal habitat of hector ' s dolphin , the species is vulnerable to a large number of different threats such as chemical pollution , vessel traffic and habitat modification .\npryor , karen , and kenneth s . norris , eds . 1991 . dolphin societies : discoveries and puzzles . university of california press : berkeley , ca .\nnabu international foundation for nature seeks to influence fisheries legislation and the seafood industry for the long - term benefit of new zealand ' s native endangered maui dolphins and endangered hector ' s dolphins . as well as taking action to educate and inspire support , nabu collaborates with marine biologists and conservationists committed to fighting for the survival of maui and hector ' s dolphins .\nslooten , e . , dawson , s . , rayment , w . and childerhouse , s . ( 2010 ) a new abundance estimate for maui ' s dolphin : what does it mean for managing this critically endangered species ? . biological conservation , 128 : 576 - 581 .\nhector ' s dolphins are one of the world ' s rarest dolphins and at only 1 . 4 metres long and 50 kilograms they ' re also one of the smallest . the species is listed as endangered .\naction has been taken to protect the dolphin from fishing by closing part of the dolphin ' s range on the west coast north island to gillnetting , and by setting an allowable level of fishing - related mortality for part of the east coast of the south island .\ndawson , s . m . , slooten , e . pichler . f . , russell , k . & qmp ; baker , c . s . 2001 . north island hector\u2019s dolphins are threatened with extinction . marine mammal science 17 ( 2 ) : 366 - 371 .\nslooten , e . , dawson , s . m . , rayment , w . j . and childerhouse , s . j . 2006 . a new abundance estimate for maui\u2019s dolphin : what does it mean for managing this critically endangered species ? biological conservation 128 : 576 - 581 .\nvessel - based surveys were conducted in te waewae bay , southland during 2004 and 2005 ( green et al . 2007 ) . the aims of the study were to provide an abundance estimate and document the distribution of the hector\u2019s dolphin population that used the bay .\nrayment , w . , dawson , s . m . , slooten , e . , brager , s . , dufresne , s . and webster , t . 2009 . kernel density estimates of alongshore home range of hector\u2019s dolphins ( cephalorhynchus hectori ) at banks peninsula . marine mammal science . 25 ( 3 ) : 537 - 556 .\nthis dolphin tends to occur in groups of up to five individuals , which may aggregate temporarily . young are reported to play with seaweed , blow bubbles and are involved with other ' games ' which are considered to be important social behaviours . hector ' s dolphin emits sounds that are thought to be used for communication , notably the complex clicks produced in large groups .\nslooten , e . , dawson , s . m . , rayment , w . j . and childerhouse , s . j . 2005 . distribution of maui\u2019s dolphin , cephalorhynchus hectori maui . new zealand fisheries assessment report 2005 / 28 , 21p . published by ministry of fisheries , wellington .\nslooten , e . , dawson , s . m . and lad , f . 1992 . survival rates of photographically identified hector\u2019s dolphins from 1984 to 1988 . marine mammal science 8 ( 4 ) : 327 - 343 .\nthe society for marine mammalogy ( smm ) is urging the new zealand government to halt seismic testing in maui\u2019s dolphin habitat immediately . in a letter to new zealand\u2019s prime minister the smm expressed concerns about seismic surveys in the home of the little known maui\u2019s dolphin , the rarest dolphin species on earth . the president of the society prof . helen marsh said that allowing seismic testing in the dolphins\u2019 habitat may harm their hearing and push them into unprotected areas , where they are more exposed to fishing nets . the impact on the remaining maui\u2019s dolphins could be devastating . read more . . .\nhector ' s dolphins are members of the family ' delphinidae ' - there are about 32 species of dolphins found throughout the world . the hector ' s is the smallest oceanic dolphin with female adults only reaching about 1 . 2 to 1 . 4 metres long and weighing approx . 47 kilograms , while the males are slightly smaller and weigh about 10 kilograms less . by comparison the largest of all dolphins , the huge orca or killer whale is many times larger , and the bottle nose dolphin grow to the length of a small family car .\nbejder , l . and dawson , s . m . 2001 . abundance , residency and habitat utilisation of hector\u2019s dolphins in porpoise bay , new zealand . new zealand journal of marine and freshwater research 35 : 277 - 287 .\nwebster , t . , dawson , s . m . , and slooten , e . evidence for sex segregation in hector\u2019s dolphins ( cephalorhynchus hectori ) . aquatic mammals . 35 ( 2 ) : 212 - 219 . 2009 .\ndawson , s . m . , and slooten , e . 1993 . conservation of hector\u2019s dolphins : the case and process which led to establishment of the banks peninsula marine mammal sanctuary . aquatic conservation 3 : 207 - 221 .\nadult south island hector\u2019s dolphins don\u2019t often exceed 1 . 5 m in length and weigh between 40 and 60 kg . males are slightly smaller and lighter than females .\nthe total population of hector ' s dolphins is somewhere between 5 , 000 and 7 , 000 . around 900 dolphins make their home around banks peninsula and they often come into akaroa and lyttelton harbours . these two places are , without doubt , the best places to view these beautiful dolphins , however hector\u2019s dolphins range right around the south island with many being found off the south island\u2019s west coast .\nif you see a maui\u2019s dolphin , report it to to doc on 0800 doc hot - 0800 362 468 or wwf on 0800 4 mauis - 0800 462 847 . with a population estimate of less than 55 maui ' s every sighting is important\nslooten , e . , dawson , s . m . and rayment , w . 2002 . quantifying abundance of hector\u2019s dolphins between farewell spit and milford sound . doc science internal series 35 . 18pp . department of conservation , wellington .\ndawson , s . m . 2001 . fine - scale abundance estimates from the 2000 / 2001 aerial survey of hector\u2019s dolphins on the south island west coast . doc science internal series 21 . 9pp . department of conservation , wellington .\nrayment , w . , clement , d . , dawson , s . , slooten , e . , and secchi , e . 2011 . distribution of hector\u2019s dolphin ( cephalorhynchus hectori ) off the west coast , south island , new zealand , with implications for the management of bycatch . marine mammal science 27 ( 2 ) : 398 - 420 .\nrare sightings of hector ' s dolphins have been reported off the coast of chb at this time of year , and a pod of orcas are also often seen there .\nbejder , l . , dawson , s . m . & harraway , j . 1999 . responses of hector\u2019s dolphins to boats and swimmers in porpoise bay , new zealand . marine mammal science 15 ( 3 ) : 738 - 750 .\nthe last 40 years has seen a rapid decline in their numbers . in the 1970s their population sat at around 29 , 000 . today , this has shrunk to around 15 , 000 . the even rarer sub - species of hector\u2019s dolphin , the maui dolphin , is under even greater threat . their population is now estimated to be less than 80 individuals , with an adult population of just 55 .\nif you have spotted a m\u0101ui or hector\u2019s dolphin in taranaki , wellington , wairarapa , hawke ' s bay , bay of plenty , east coast auckland , or northland , our staff might contact you via phone or radio , and may attempt to collect a genetic sample on arrival . if you are unable to call , you can report the sighting online .\nhector\u2019s dolphins are near the top of the food chain and likely play an important role in regulating local fish populations . during the spring and summer , white - fronted terns (\nin 1988 new zealand established its first marine mammal sanctuary on the east coast of the country ' s south island to protect the resident hector ' s dolphin population against harmful fishing nets . but the so - called ' sanctuary ' is failing in its task because it is simply too small . what ' s more , the new zealand government has been aware of this fact since at least 2009 but is refusing to act . read more\ndawson , s . , slooten , e . , dufresne , s . d . , wade , p . and clement , d . ( 2004 ) small - boat surveys for coastal dolphins : line - transect surveys for hector ' s dolphins ( cephalorhynchus hectori ) . fisheries bulletin , 201 : 441 - 451 .\nboth subspecies are classified on the international union for the conservation of nature ( iucn ) red list . hector\u2019s are listed as \u2018endangered\u2019 , and maui\u2019s as \u2018critically endangered\u2019 . this means that both species face extinction in the wild . human induced threats are the main problem for both species . boat strike , mining , construction , coastal development , pollution , marine tourism , marine farming and climate change are all hugely dangerous for hector\u2019s and maui\u2019s . the biggest single known threat , however , is from fishing .\nif the dolphin is dead , either release the carcass at sea or preferably bring it to shore for us to recover .\nshane , susan h . 1988 . the bottlenose dolphin in the wild . hatcher trade press : san carlos , ca .\ndr _ liz _ slooten _ - _ unpicking _ the _ mpi _ hectors _ dolphin _ report _ 160823 . mp3\nrayment , w . dawson , s . , and slooten e . 2009 . acoustic monitoring of cephalorhynchus dolphins with the t - pod : a case study with hector\u2019s dolphins in a marine protected area . endangered species research . 10 : 333 - 339 .\nwebster , t . , dawson , s . m . , and slooten , e . a simple laser photogrammetry technique for measuring hector\u2019s dolphins ( cephalorhynchus hectori ) in the field . marine mammal science 26 ( 2 ) : 296 - 308 . 2010 .\nthe new zealand government has exposed its anti - conservation stance in the most spectacular way . at the recent iucn world conservation congress , new zealand was the only nation to cast a vote against a motion in favour of better protection of the last 55 or so maui ' s dolphins and their endangered cousins , the hector ' s dolphin . with about 6000 daily participants , the meeting is the world\u2019s largest conservation event and brings together professionals and governments to discuss the environment . the iucn ' s demands perfectly match those of our\ndawson , s . m . and lusseau , d . 2005 . pseudoreplication problems in studies of dolphin and porpoise reactions to pingers . marine mammal science 21 ( 1 ) . 175 - 176 .\ndawson , s . m . , and slooten , e . 1992 . conservation of hector\u2019s dolphins : a review of studies which led to the establishment of the banks peninsula marine mammal sanctuary . canterbury conservancy technical report series 4 . department of conservation , canterbury .\nconsumer power represents significant hope for the maui dolphin . mcdonald ' s buys new zealand fish which goes into their filet - o - fish and so supports the very industry driving maui to extinction . please\ncalista w . has opened her heart to the plight of new zealand maui\u2019s dolphins in a big way . just eight years old and about the size of a maui ' s dolphin , she is on a mission to tell the dolphins ' sad story and to touch your heart .\nthe reproduction rate of hector\u2019s dolphin is extremely low : barely 2 percent per year . they breed 2 - 4 times a year , and females can only have up to 7 offspring throughout its life . males reach sexual maturity at 5 - 9 years and females at 7 - 9 years of age . both are polygamous .\nslooten , e . dawson , s . m . and rayment , w . j . 2004 . aerial surveys for coastal dolphins : abundance of hector\u2019s dolphins off the south island west coast , new zealand . marine mammal science 20 ( 3 ) : 477 - 490 .\ndawson , s . m . , slooten , e . dufresne , s . d . , wade , p . r . and clement , d . m . 2004 . small - boat surveys for coastal dolphins : line - transect surveys of hector\u2019s dolphins ( cephalorhynchus hectori ) . fishery bulletin 102 ( 3 ) : 441 - 451 . m .\nheithaus mr , dill lm ( 2002 ) food availability and tiger shark predation risk influence bottlenose dolphin habitat use . ecology 83 : 480\u2013491\nthis dolphin tends to occur in small groups of two to ten individuals . these groups sometimes join together forming larger temporary aggregations . hector\u2019s dolphins undertake short dives for about 90 seconds and feed on a variety of small fish and squid . hector\u2019s dolphins reproduce slowly and without human impacts have a maximum population growth rate of about 2 percent per year . females reach maturity at around 7 to 9 years of age , and males between 5 and 9 years . courtship behaviour involves close contact , leaping , chasing and belly displays . each female has one calf every 2 - 4 years which tends to be born between late spring and summer ( 6 ) . a maximum age of about 20 - 25 years has been observed . hector\u2019s dolphins are unusual in that they only produce short , high frequency clicks , not whistles like many other species of dolphin ( 7 ) .\nthe findings of a three - year marine aerial survey to update the dolphin ' s population and distribution show there are between 12 , 000 and 18 , 500 dolphins , almost double the last estimation of 7000 .\n- through education , research and rescue , dolphin research center promotes peaceful coexistence , cooperation and communication between marine mammals , humans and the environment we share with the well being of drc ' s animals taking precedence .\nin 2008 , jim anderton ( then minister of fisheries ) put in place a comprehensive package of protection measures for maui\u2019s and hector\u2019s dolphins . again , the trust was at the forefront of this development , providing most of the research data and public education essential to reaching this goal .\nrayment , w . dawson , s . m . and slooten , e . 2009 . trialling an automated passive acoustic detector ( t - pod ) with hector\u2019s dolphins ( cephalorhynchus hectori ) . journal of the marine biological association . published online doi : 10 . 1017 / s0025315409003129 .\nhutton , j . , blair , d . , slooten , e . , and dawson , s . m . 1987 . case studies of fluke induced lesions in the mesenteric lymph node of hector\u2019s dolphins ( cephalorhynchus hectori ) . diseases of aquatic organisms 2 : 83 - 86 .\naggression in hector\u2019s dolphins is expressed via tail - splashing , chasing , biting , and bubble - blowing . breaching , which is often done when feeding , appears to be associated with a state of excitement . in addition , lobtailing is associated with excitement and sometimes aggression . dolphins often flex their body at the water surface and swim on their sides during feeding . hector\u2019s dolphins are slow swimmers relative to other delphinids and use an undulating motion to move through the water . dives usually last less than 3 minutes . hector\u2019s dolphins tend to swim closer together when in close proximity to boats , which may be an indication of stress .\ncameron , c . , barker , r . , fletcher , d . , slooten , e . and dawson , s . 1999 . modelling survival of hector\u2019s dolphins around banks peninsula , new zealand . journal of agricultural , biological and environmental statistics 4 ( 2 ) : 126 - 135 .\nstockin , k . , r . law , w . roe , l . meynier , e . martinez , p . duignan , p . bridgen , b . jones . 2010 . pcbs and organochlorine pesticides in hector\u2019s ( cephalorhynchus hectori hectori ) and maui\u2019s ( cephalorhynchus hectori maui ) dolphins .\n\u201cthe most contentious issue in this plan is how far to extend the set net ban . we are taking a cautious approach by banning set netting where there is clear evidence the maui\u2019s dolphin go while not unnecessarily banning fishing where they are not . there have been five reported maui\u2019s sightings in recent years in the area of the extension . there have been no sightings of maui\u2019s dolphin south of the set net ban area despite 91 days of fishing trips monitored by independent observers on vessels over the past year , \u201d dr smith says .\ncommercial fishing nets used to be a problem but that too is improving . the department of conservation created the banks peninsula marine mammal sanctuary in 1988 to help offer refuge to those hector\u2019s dolphins that had gotten injured .\nthe hector\u2019s dolphin only inhabits around the south island of new zealand and a small region of the north island . its distribution is the most limited of all extant cetaceans . for habitat , it prefers shallow coastal waters with depths less than 100 meters . it lives about 7 kilometers off the coasts and can reach estuaries , river mouths , and shallow bays .\nslooten , e . , dawson , s . m . and rayment , w . j . ( 2004 ) aerial surveys for coastal dolphins : abundance of hector ' s dolphins off the south island west coast , new zealand . marine mammal science , 20 ( 3 ) : 477 - 490 .\nslooten , e . , dawson , s . m . , and rayment , w . j . 2006 . offshore distribution of hector\u2019s dolphins at banks peninsula : is the banks peninsula marine mammal sanctuary large enough ? nz journal of marine and freshwater research 40 ( 2 ) : 333 - 343 .\nfirstly come for an akaroa harbour cruise with us to really appreciate how special the dolphins are . we ' ll tell you all about them too , but there is nothing like seeing them for yourself to get a full appreciation . part of your ticket price goes towards dolphin research and education . other things you can do to help the dolphins is support the department of conservation as they find new ways to protect the species , including more marine mammal sanctuaries , which will stop dolphins being killed in set nets . doc also opposes marine mussel farms which may impact the dolphin\u2019s habitat . if you own your own boat , and see the hector ' s dolphin , ask the driver to slow down to avoid turning suddenly . do not chase the dolphins . often , if you simply stop the boat , they will come and see you . avoid using set nets ( also called gillnets ) close to shore , where the dolphins are most common . if you ever see a hector ' s dolphin stranded on the beach , call the department of conservation , they would like to hear about it .\nmale hector\u2019s dolphins reach sexual maturity between ages 6 and 9 , and females reach sexual maturity between ages 7 and 9 . they mate in the summer , have a gestation period between 10 and 12 months , and parturition occurs from early november to mid february . hector\u2019s dolphins reproduce every 2 to 4 years and usually one calf is born at a time . females can give birth to a maximum of 7 calves during their lifetime .\nfeel free to remove post if of topic . my name is jurgen schwanecke . i ' m a year 12 student at rathkeale college in the wairarapa . me and a group of friends are part of a business group known as maui dolphin t - shirts . we are selling t - shirts that have critically endangered maui dolphin on them . we plan to donate 50 % of our profits to the nzwhale & dolphin trust . we would immensely appreciate the support for our cause to help protect the maui dolphin . you can learn more at maui tee project face book page thank you"]}
{"id": 1824, "summary": [{"text": "negera unispinosa is a moth in the drepanidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by watson in 1965 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in malawi .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is about 21.5 mm for males and 24.5 mm for females .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the colour-pattern of the wings is as for negera confusa .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the costa of the forewings is pale pinkish brown , with a brown apical costal marking , edged distally with white .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the remaining two costal markings are pink and the area between the medial fascia is pale yellowish brown enclosing a large paler area at the end of the cell .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the area distal to the postmedial fascia is pale yellowish brown and speckled with black at the anal margin between the postmedial fascia and the tornus .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are very pale buff proximal to the antemedial fascia , pinkish buff between the antemedial and medial fasciae and pale yellowish brown distal to medial fascia . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "negera unispinosa", "paragraphs": ["html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnb : the taxon name search is for single names only . for example , to locate dysodia vitrina flammata warren , 1904 you should enter flammata only .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\nbiostor is built by @ rdmpage , code on github . page images from the biodiversity heritage library .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nwatson a . 1965a . a revision of the ethiopian drepanidae ( lepidoptera ) . - bulletin of the british museum of natural history ( entomology ) supplement 3 : 1\u2013178 , pls . 1\u201318 .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 3 / 29 / 2015 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nwalker f . list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum . part v . \u2013 lepidoptera heterocera . \u2014 1855c\nnomenclator zoologicus . a list of the names of genera and subgenera in zoology from the tenth edition of linnaeus , 1758 to the end of 2004 . digitised by ubio from vols . 1 - 9 of neave ( ed . ) , 1939 - 1996 plus supplementary digital - only volume . urltoken ( as at 2006 ) .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more"]}
{"id": 1825, "summary": [{"text": "the masked duck ( nomonyx dominicus ) is a tiny stiff-tailed duck ranging through the tropical americas .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "they are found from mexico to south america and also in the caribbean .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "primarily not migratory , masked ducks are reported as very uncommon vagrants in the southernmost united states , along the mexican border and in florida .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "as of 2000 , the conservation status for masked ducks in texas is 3,800 birds .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "on april 1 , 1962 , it was recorded from lowndes county , georgia , where it was photographed by alexander wetmore .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the only member of the genus nomonyx , it is intermediate between the rather primitive black-headed duck ( heteronetta ) and the very apomorphic true stiff-tailed ducks .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is sometimes included with the latter in the genus oxyura , but apparently the masked ducks now are the descendants of a missing link in the oxyurinae evolution , having changed but little for millions of years .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "breeding adult males have a rust-colored body with a black face and mottled wings .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "adult females , winter males , and juveniles have a barred brownish gray body , with two horizontal , dark-colored stripes running through the buff-colored face .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "these ducks mainly feed on seeds , roots , and leaves of aquatic plants .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they also eat aquatic insects and crustaceans .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they feed by diving .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "masked ducks breed in any freshwater body with marsh vegetation and surrounded by heavy tree cover .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "they also occur in mangrove swamps .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "these ducks are usually very secretive , but they are not rare and not considered threatened by the iucn . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "masked duck", "paragraphs": ["the masked duck in the united states by paul a . johnsgard and dirk hagemeyer\nthe masked duck was first described in 1766 by carolus linnaeus , swedish botanist , physician and zoologist .\ndetails from captive populations of masked duck are particularly lacking . informed conservation of this species will depend on filling these gaps in knowledge .\nrange : the masked duck is found from s usa ( s texas ) , mexico and west indies , s to nw peru , and e of andes to ne argentina .\nthe masked duck male performs similar displays that the ruddy duck . it raises the stiff tail and lowers the bill onto its breast while giving soft calls \u201coo - oo - oo\u201d . it also performs short rushes across the water surface . the neck appears inflated when the male approaches the female , while uttering its soft calls . the female remains motionless with the bill raised and the neck outstretched . the masked duck is probably monogamous but with short - term pair bonds .\nintroduction : the masked duck is a very secretive duck that is uncommon throughout its wide range from mexico to south america and caribbean . it was formerly a member of the genus oxyura , but it has now its own genus nomonyx . it is a small , stiff - tailed duck , usually found in a variety of freshwater bodies with marshy vegetation and heavy tree cover on the shores . it feeds mainly on plant material , but it also consumes aquatic invertebrates . the masked duck is not globally threatened , but hunting and drainage of wetlands involve some decline of the population .\njohnsgard and carbonell\u2019s ( 1996 ) treatise on the stiff - tailed ducks , the most thorough treatment to date of this group , points out how little is known of the masked duck compared to other stifftails .\nthe masked duck has a large range , estimated globally at 8 , 400 , 000 square kilometers . native to the americas and nearby island nations , this bird prefers wetland and forest ecosystems . the global population of this bird has not been precisely determined , but does not show signs of decline that would necessitate inclusion on the iucn red list . for this reason , the current evaluation status of the masked duck is least concern .\nmasked duck : small stifftail duck with black - tipped blue bill and black mask with thin white eye - ring . body is rufous - brown with black streaks on the back and sides ; white wing patches are visible in flight . feeds on aquatic plants , insects and crustaceans . direct flight with rapid wing beats .\na tropical duck , periodically invading southern texas and florida . smaller than the ruddy duck and able to take flight from the water much more easily , the masked duck may colonize small and temporary bodies of water . it is generally easy to overlook , as it spends much time resting within dense marsh growth , and may clamber about through marsh like a rail . when on open water , however , it can be rather tame .\nprotection / threats / status : the masked duck is vulnerable to predation at nest by southern crested caracara ( c . plancus ) and rats . it is threatened by over hunting and drainage of wetlands , and also by human pressure . the population was estimated to number 50 , 000 / 499 , 999 individuals in 2008 , but a previous estimate in 2005 was 25 , 000 / 100 , 000 individuals . however , the population is suspected to be declining . but currently , the masked duck is evaluated as least concern .\nthe masked duck has direct flight with rapid wingbeats . it takes - off from water nearly vertical , like the dabbling ducks . it does not need to run over the surface to take flight . when it returns , it often drops quickly into the dense cover .\nthe masked duck is mostly sedentary but the species can be nomadic and dispersive , due , at least , to fluctuations of water levels . it may occur far beyond its breeding range , and is sometimes recorded in s florida and texas . it also reaches the coast of n peru .\nmasked duck : found primarily in the tropics and neotropics with populations throughout mexico . strays to texas where it has bred . multiple records for louisiana and florida , single records for several other eastern u . s . states . inhabits marshy ponds with heavy vegetation , often found in rice fields .\ncalls and songs : sounds by xeno - canto the masked duck male gives repeated , throaty \u201ckir - roo - kirroo - kiroo\u201d during the displays , and softer \u201coo - oo - oo\u201d similar to the cooing of a pigeon . the female produces a repeated hiss when disturbed , and clucking calls .\nthe masked duck is usually seen in pairs or in small groups of up to 20 or more , usually of its own species , but sometimes with the ruddy duck . it swims low in water or partially submerged with only head and neck above the surface . very secretive , it often escapes by diving or swimming and pushing into the dense marshy vegetation in which it clambers like a rail . this species may colonize small and temporary bodies of water .\nmasked duck inhabits ponds and small lakes covered with emergent vegetation from northern argentina north through south america ( east of the andes ) , central america , and the caribbean to north america . in the united states it is considered an irregular visitor to louisiana and florida and a resident of texas , the only state where nesting has been documented .\nthe masked duck adult male in breeding plumage has rufous - chestnut black - spotted plumage on flanks and upperparts . the wings and the stiff tail are blackish . on the upperwing , we can see a large , white patch , conspicuous in flight . on the underparts , breast and belly are buffy - white . the axillaries are white .\nhabitat : the masked duck frequents marshy ponds with emergent vegetation such as rushes . it is often seen on small freshwater bodies and roadside ditches . it favours the waters surrounded by dense tree cover . in venezuela , it can be seen in mangroves , swamps and ricefields . this species is visible between 880 and 1500 metres of elevation according to the range .\nas with other members of the tribe oxyurini , masked duck has elongated and pointed tail - feathers with stiffened shafts . it is distinguished from other stifftails by its large white wing - patch . grebelike and secretive in its behavior , it is sighted only rarely , usually as it slips into dense reeds or below water . often only the tip of its tail and head are visible , as it sinks noiselessly beneath the surface .\ncarboneras , c . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . masked duck ( nomonyx dominicus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nbehaviour in the wild : the masked duck feeds primarily on a variety of aquatic vegetation , taking mainly seeds , roots , tubers and parts of grasses and sedges . it also takes aquatic invertebrates such as insects and crustaceans . it feeds by diving among nymphaceae and other aquatic vegetation , usually in shallow water and during 20 - 30 seconds . it is rarely active by day , but it often emerges onto open water at night for feeding .\nthe white plumage of snow geese and tundra swans sometimes takes on a dirty , rusty - brown appearance . the birds aren ' t actually dirty but do show rust - colored highlights from foraging in the iron rich environments of the far north . regarding the well - known description of the sound made by a duck as a\nquack ,\nduck species in north america also variously whistle , squeak , click , and grunt .\nreproduction of this species : the masked duck probably breeds all year round throughout its range , with peak between june and october in venezuela , and between november and may in west indies . it nests in single pairs , usually among marsh vegetation in shallow water . the female builds a woven bowl near water in dense vegetation , with reeds and other aquatic plants , and she adds a sparse lining of down . the nest is sometimes covered by vegetal dome .\nthis species has a long breeding season : nests are found from october until august in texas , june until october in the west indies , and april to september in venezuela ( eitniear 2001 ) . the nest is a deep cup usually near water , sometimes roofed over ( basketball - like ) , containing 4 to 8 eggs . males are believed to play a minor role in rearing the young . masked duck numbers increase during the rainy season and following temperate wet cycles and hurricane rains that create new ponds with emergent vegetation .\nthe anatidae are represented in north america by sixty - nine species in twenty - three genera ( including the extinct labrador duck ) . members of this well known bird family include the graceful , long - necked swans , familiar geese of farm fields and golf courses , and the many species of ducks .\n4 - 10 . smaller and smoother than those of ruddy duck , whitish to pale buff . females sometimes lay eggs in each others ' nests . incubation is by female , about 4 weeks . young : not well known . probably leave nest shortly after hatching , are tended by female but feed themselves , as in other stifftails . age at first flight not known .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\npartners in flight estimate the total population to number 50 , 000 - 499 , 999 individuals ( a . panjabi in litt . 2008 ) . previously , kear ( 2005 ) estimated 25 , 000 - 100 , 000 individuals . trend justification : the population is suspected to be declining owing to over - hunting and human pressure ( del hoyo et al . 1992 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .\ndespite wide range in american tropics , seems not to be very common anywhere . secretive behavior and nomadic movements make it difficult to estimate total population or to provide protection for species .\nmarshes , ponds . in united states mainly found on ponds and impoundments with extensive marsh growth and some open water . in tropics also found on mangrove lagoons , swamps , rice plantations .\nnot well known . probably leave nest shortly after hatching , are tended by female but feed themselves , as in other stifftails . age at first flight not known .\nprobably mostly plant material . diet not well known . apparently eats mostly plant material , including seeds and roots of smartweeds , sedges , grasses , and various other aquatic and waterside plants . also eats some aquatic insects and crustaceans .\nbreeding behavior not well known . the few known texas nestings have been in fall . displays of male apparently include raising tail and lowering bill onto chest while making soft calls , also making short rushes across surface of water . nest site is among marsh vegetation in shallow water . nest ( built by female ) is a woven bowl of reeds and grasses , perhaps with sparse lining of down .\nmay travel mostly at night . apparently not truly migratory , but wanders unpredictably . seems to invade texas from eastern mexico after a series of unusually wet years has created much appropriate habitat . strays have wandered far outside normal range , reaching wisconsin , massachusetts , pennsylvania .\naudio \u00a9 lang elliott , bob mcguire , kevin colver , martyn stewart and others .\ntell congress to oppose a harmful rider that threatens sage - grouse and other wildlife .\ntell congress and the department of the interior to uphold the country ' s most important bird protection law .\npreviously placed in genus oxyura ; now returned to its previous , monotypic genus following phylogenetic study # r , a decision not countered by other studies # r . monotypic .\nfrom extreme s usa ( s texas ) , mexico and west indies s to nw peru and , e of andes , to ne argentina .\n30\u201336 cm ; male 359\u2013449 g , female 275\u2013445 g . most distinctive and smallest member of the oxyurinae and is more dependent on enclosed waterbodies with very . . .\nin display , male makes distinctive \u201ckirri - kirroo - kirri - kirroo kirroo kirroo kirroo\u201d and dull - . . .\nfreshwater lakes , pools , swamps , marshes and slow - flowing rivers with abundant emergent and . . .\nchiefly seeds , roots , tubers and vegetative parts of grasses , sedges and aquatic plants , apparently mainly smartweeds and wild millet , at . . .\nstarts nov / dec in some regions , especially in s of range , but breeding probably occurs year - round throughout distribution , with peak in jun . . .\nmostly sedentary , but subject to some wide - ranging dispersive or nomadic movements when it may . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . widespread and rather uncommon , with overall numbers estimated at 25 , 000\u2013100 , 000 individuals in late 1990s but no information . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\ngenus resurrected on basis chiefly of phylogenetic and ecological study which showed nomonyx to be sister to oxyura # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : nomonyx dominicus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\na group of ducks has many collective nouns , including a\nbrace\n,\nflush\n,\npaddling\n,\nraft\n, and\nteam\nof ducks .\nthe anseriformes ( pronounced an - ser - ih - for - meez ) , one of the oldest avian orders , is composed of three families and includes the bizarre and noisy screamers of south america , the odd magpie goose of australia , and the globally distributed swans , geese and ducks .\nthe swans , geese and ducks are grouped in the anatidae ( pronounced ah - nah - tih - dee ) ; a bird family with one hundred sixty - four species in forty - eight genera , various members of which can be found on all continents .\nwhile all species are known for their association with aquatic habitats , canada geese are also known for their aggressive behavior when guarding their nests and young . after the breeding season , canada geese become better known for the\nv\nshaped flocks they form during migration .\nswans , geese , and ducks are large birds with long necks ( longest in swans , shortest in ducks ) and short tails . all species have webbed feet suited to their aquatic environments and distinctive flat bills - except for the mergansers with their thin , serrated bills ideally suited for catching fish .\nalthough swans and geese are mostly white , brown , and black , many ducks showcase several shades of grays , browns , and blacks combined with fine barring and streaking to result in a variety of beautifully patterned plumages for which females of the species are well known . males in breeding plumage are more boldly patterned and often have iridescent blue or green on the head . both sexes usually show a spot of color in the wing known as a\nspeculum\n.\nswans , geese , and ducks occur throughout north america wherever aquatic habitats are found . while geese and some ducks are often found along the shoreline , species that feed on underwater vegetation such as swans and dabbling ducks prefer calm water with depths suited to the length of their necks . in deeper waters , the mergansers , scoters , and diving ducks occur . boldly - patterned harlequin ducks swim in the swift rivers and turbulent seashores of the pacific northwest and some areas of the northeastern u . s . and canada .\na highly migratory family , most species migrate to open , ice - free water in sheltered bays and marshes of the southern united states with some reaching mexico and central america .\nmembers of the anatidae flock together after breeding in large , multi - species groups at sites with good , safe foraging . at such sites , scoters , canvasbacks , and other diving ducks dive for mussels in the deep sections while dabblers such as gadwall and northern shovelers forage on the surface and in the shallows . on the shore , grazers such as geese and the american widgeon forage on grass .\npopulations of two alaskan diving ducks , the steller ' s and spectacled eiders , are threatened for reasons unknown ; possible causes include changes in their habitats , nest predation by ravens and gulls , hunting , and the on - going effects of lead poisoning . the reasons why the hawaiian goose , and the laysan and hawaiian ducks are endangered are much better understood ; however after nearly going extinct , populations have stabilized but unfortunately don ' t have much room for growth in the limited amount of available habitat .\n\u00a9 2002 - 2013 urltoken all rights reserved . mitch waite group . no part of this web site may be reproduced without written permission from mitch waite group . privacy policy\nestablecimiento uaranina ( ruta 39 ) , aprox . 8 km from w of san javier , santa fe\nsoft ' t r r r r r ' . typical from the oxyurini subfamily males ( = heteronetta atricapilla , oxyura ferruginea ) . also calls from chrysomus ruficapillus\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\na guide to the birds of mexico and northern central america by steve n . g . howell , sophie webb - oxford university press - isbn : 0198540124\na guide to the birds of colombia by steven l . hilty and william l . brown - princeton university press \u2013 isbn 069108372x\nbirds of peru by thomas s . schulenberg , douglas f . stotz , daniel f . lane , john p . o\u2019neill , theodore a . parker iii \u2013 princeton university press 2007 - isbn : 978 - 0 - 691 - 13023 - 1\non the head , a black face mask extends to the rear crown , but nape and neck are uniformly bright chestnut . the bill is bright blue with black nail . the eyes are dark brown , surrounded by whitish eyering . legs and webbed feet are grey - black .\nthe non - breeding male resembles female , but it has larger white wing patches . on the head , the pattern is less contrasted and the lower cheek stripe is broader .\nthe adult female has rufous - brown plumage , heavily streaked dark brown , mainly on the upperparts . wings and tail are blackish with smaller white wing patch . the buffy - white underparts are spotted and mottled dark brown . the axillaries are white .\nthe non - breeding female lacks the rufous tones and becomes mostly sandy - buff .\nthe juvenile resembles female , but with more uniform underparts . the crown is darker and the upperparts show paler barring .\nthe female lays 3 - 6 creamy - white eggs , but larger clutches are the result of the laying of several females in the same nest . she incubates alone during four weeks . the chicks probably leave the nest very soon after hatching . they are very similar to the female . they are able to feed themselves , but they are accompanied by the female , and sometimes by both parents . they fledge about 45 days after hatching ."]}
{"id": 1833, "summary": [{"text": "eupithecia nahuelbuta is a moth in the geometridae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in the region of araucania ( the province of malleco ) in chile .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of the northern valdivian forest biotic province .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is about 9 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are covered with mixture of greyish white , dark brown , brownish black , and reddish brown scales .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are greyish white , with scattered greyish brown and dark brown scales .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults have been recorded on wing in february . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "eupithecia nahuelbuta", "paragraphs": ["eupithecia lavicaria fuchs , 1902 ( syn : eupithecia lavicata prout , 1914 ) , described from norway .\nash pug ( angle - barred pug ) ( eupithecia innotata f . fraxinata )\nthe eupithecia ( lepidoptera , geometridae ) of chile . bulletin of the amnh ; v . 186 , article 3\neupithecia is a large genus of moths of the family geometridae . there are hundreds of described species , found in all parts of the world ( 45 in the british isles alone ) , and new species are discovered on a regular basis .\neupithecia species form the bulk of the group commonly known as pugs . they are generally small with muted colours and specific identification can be difficult . as a group they are easily identified by their narrow wings held flat at 90\u00b0 to the body with the hindwings almost hidden behind the forewings .\nthe larvae of many species feed on the flowers and seeds of their food plants rather than the foliage . many species have a very specific food plant . some hawaiian eupithecia are predators of other insects ( e . orichloris , e . staurophragma , e . scoriodes ) . they mimic twigs but when sensitive hairs on their backs are triggered , they quickly grab the insects touching them . the defensive behavior of snapping may have pre - adapted hawaii ' s ancestral eupithecia for shifting to predation from feeding on pollen . also , insect predators that behave in this way are lacking in hawaii ' s fauna .\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\njavascript is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .\nfull - text is provided in portable document format ( pdf ) . to view articles you must have the free adobe acrobat reader . click here to download the latest version . the . epub version displays best on an ipad , but may work on other devices that accept . epub format . download directly to your device\u2019s book reader ( e . g . , ibooks ) or drag into your e - books collection on your computer .\nbulletin of the american museum of natural history the bulletin , published continuously since 1881 , consists of longer monographic volumes in the field of natural sciences relating to zoology , paleontology , and geology . current numbers are published at irregular intervals . the bulletin was originally a place to publish short papers , while longer works appeared in the memoirs . however , in the 1920s , the memoirs ceased and the bulletin series began publishing longer papers . a new series , the novitates , published short papers describing new forms .\ndepartment of library services american museum of natural history central park west at 79th st . , new york , ny 10024 \u00a9 american museum of natural history , 2011\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nto date 683 species of macro - moth along with 1159 species of micro - moth have been recorded in norfolk since records began in victorian times . this site aims to provide full details of all the species that occur ( or once occurred ) in norfolk , with photographs , descriptions , flight graphs , latest records , distribution maps and more !\nif you have photos of any moths featured on this site , and would like them displayed along with your name and comments . . . please send them in ( any size . jpg images ) .\nplease consider helping with the running costs of norfolk moths . thank you : - )\nunderlying maps using digital map data \u00a9 norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola\u2122 2018 . \u00a9 james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data \u00a9 nola\u2122 2018\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nyou are currently seeing a feature reduced version of this site , please use a javascript enabled browser for full functionality to be unlocked .\nion contains the organism names related data gathered from the scientific literature for clarivate analytics ' zoological record \u00ae database . viruses , bacteria and plant names will be added from other clarivate databases such as biosis previews \u00ae .\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\nchinery , michael ( 1986 ) . collins guide to the insects of britain and western europe ( reprinted 1991 ) .\nskinner , bernard ( 1984 ) . colour identification guide to moths of the british isles .\nthis article was sourced from creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . world heritage encyclopedia content is assembled from numerous content providers , open access publishing , and in compliance with the fair access to science and technology research act ( fastr ) , wikimedia foundation , inc . , public library of science , the encyclopedia of life , open book publishers ( obp ) , pubmed , u . s . national library of medicine , national center for biotechnology information , u . s . national library of medicine , national institutes of health ( nih ) , u . s . department of health & human services , and urltoken , which sources content from all federal , state , local , tribal , and territorial government publication portals ( . gov , . mil , . edu ) . funding for urltoken and content contributors is made possible from the u . s . congress , e - government act of 2002 .\ncrowd sourced content that is contributed to world heritage encyclopedia is peer reviewed and edited by our editorial staff to ensure quality scholarly research articles .\nby using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy . world heritage encyclopedia\u2122 is a registered trademark of the world public library association , a non - profit organization .\n. \u201d on his return to spain he found his old regiment about to march fo . . . . . . t imitate that life of mine when i in lonely sadness on the great rock\nthere to pine ; thou , . . . . . . what thou dost ; touch it not unless thou wouldst lay down thy life as the\nof thy rashness . \u201d the car - rier gave no heed to these words ( and he . . . . . . be with you , and keep in mind what you have promised and sworn under those\nthat have been already declared to you . \u201d so saying , he gave rocin . . . . . . ut , as there might be some to be found among them that did not deserve the\nof fire . \u201cno , \u201d said the niece , \u201cthere is no reason for showing merc . . . . . . ou , master nicholas , i say let this and \u2018amadis of gaul\u2019 be remit - ted the\nof fire , and as for all the rest , let them perish with - out further . . . . . . never slept a day under a roof , went to their graves as much maids as the\nthat bore them . i say , then , that in these and other respects our g . . . . . . ar , hatred nor love , should make them swerve from the path of truth , whose\nis history , rival of time , storehouse of deeds , witness for the past . . . . . . ked plough had not dared to rend and pierce the tender bowels of our first\n, belonging to a genus that feeds on feathers ; a beetle ( quedius ) and * . . . . . . brating so rapidly as to be scarcely visible , i was reminded of the sphinx\n: their movements and habits are indeed in many respects very similar . . . . . . . than any other race of animals . i allude only to the butterflies ; for the\n, contrary to what might have been ex - pected from the rankness of the . . . . . . ads . nothing could be more interest - ing than some of the family groups . a\nwith one or two daughters would often come to our rancho , mounted on . . . . . . manner in which his laws were enforced . one of these was , that no man , on\nof being put into the stocks , should carry his knife on a sunday : t . . . . . . ate individual , but likewise used them , as old spain had done before for a\nsettlement . en - gland claimed her right an seized them . the english - . . . . . . yages of the adventure and beagle , is in lat . 46 degs . 50 ' , in the gulf of\n. it is 15 miles long , and in one part 7 broad and descends to the sea . . . . . . an rafael . the posi - tion of the glaciers at this place and in the gulf of\nmay be put even in a more striking point of view , for they descend to . . . . . . in charge of this same fortress . after we left south america , he paid the\nin the usual manner , by being con - quered , taken prisoner , and shot . . .\nthat 60 don quixote have been already declared to you . \u201d so sayin . . . . . . ut , as there might be some to be found among them that did not deserve the\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from project gutenberg are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department ."]}
{"id": 1846, "summary": [{"text": "ernietta plateauensis , the sole species of the genus ernietta , is a bag-shaped erniettomorph genus that lived half-buried in sediment , and probably fed by osmosis .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it had chambered walls .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "its fossils has been found in sandstones of the kanies and kliphoek members of the dabis formation , namibia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "this deposits have an age more than 548 myr .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the name has also been misspelled as ernettia in some papers .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "many species are now recognized as junior synonyms of ernietta plateauensis , including : ernietta tschanabis phlug , 1972 e. aarensis phlug , 1972 erniaster aportus phlug , 1972 e. patellus phlug , 1972 erniobaris baroides phlug , 1972 e. epistuta phlug , 1972 e. gula phlug , 1972 e. parietalis phlug , 1972 erniobeta forensis phlug , 1972 e. scapulosa phlug , 1972 erniocarpis sermo phlug , 1972 erntocentris centriformis phlug , 1972 erniodiscus clypeus phlug , 1972 e. rutilus phlug , 1972 erniofossa prognatha phlug , 1972 erniograndis paraglossa phlug , 1972 e. sandalix phlug , 1972 ernionorma abyssoides phlug , 1972 e. clausula phlug , 1972 e. peltis phlug , 1972 e. rector phlug , 1972 e. tribunalis phlug , 1972 erniopelta scruputa phlug , 1972 erniotaxls segmontrix phlug , 1972", "topic": 5}], "title": "ernietta", "paragraphs": ["ernietta aarensis : gsn 36 ( f407 - h ) ( pflug no 36 ) .\nthe view from ernietta hill on farm aar near aus , namibia taken by les kriesfeld and jay kaufman in summer 2014 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nproceedings of the national academy of sciences , volume 106 , issue 34 , 2009 , pp . 14438 - 14443\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nwe use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites . close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings .\nthis article has been cited by the following publications . this list is generated based on data provided by crossref .\ndunn , frances s . liu , alexander g . and donoghue , philip c . j . 2018 . ediacaran developmental biology . biological reviews , vol . 93 , issue . 2 , p . 914 .\nretallack , gregory j . 2017 . reassessment of the devonian problematicum protonympha as another post - ediacaran vendobiont . lethaia ,\npflug , 1966 is the type species of the erniettomorpha , an extinct clade of ediacaran life . it was likely a gregarious , partially infaunal organism . despite its ecological and taxonomic significance , there has not been an in - depth systematic description in the literature since the original description fell out of use . a newly discovered field site on farm aar in southern namibia has yielded dozens of specimens buried in original life position . mudstone and sandstone features associated with the fossils indicate that organisms were buried while still exposed to the water column rather than deposited in a flow event .\nwas a sac - shaped erniettomorph with a body wall constructed from a double layer of tubes . it possessed an equatorial seam lying perpendicular to the tubes . the body is asymmetrical on either side of this seam . the tubes change direction along the body length and appear to be constricted together in the dorsal part of the organism .\nrobinson , r . a . , and teichert , c . , eds . ,\nlipps , j . h . , and signor , p . w . , eds . ,\nzur fauna der nama - schichten in s\u00fcdwest - afrika ; iii . erniettomorpha , bau und systematik\nschopf j . w . , and klein , c . , eds . ,\ngradstein , f . , ogg , j . , schmitz , m . d . , and ogg , g . , eds . ,\nfedonkin , m . a . , gehling , j . g . , grey , k . , narbonne , g . m . , and vickers - rich , p . , eds . ,\nemail your librarian or administrator to recommend adding this journal to your organisation ' s collection .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nthe ediacaran was a period of wide soft - bodied biota development in marine siliciclastic environment . the reconstruction of palaeoecology , lifestyle and environment settings of these organisms are among the challenges in characterising the earliest metazoan life on earth . the biota colonised sea bottoms and were living as benthic communities occurring in a wide spectrum of environmental settings ( e . g . gehling 2000 ; waggoner 2003 ; narbonne 2005 ; grazhdankin 2004 ; droser et al . 2006 ) . in the classical localities ( e . g . newfoundland , namibia , white sea and australia ) , the fossils occur in rock successions with distinct depositional settings ranging from distributary mouth - bar of braid - delta systems to deep - water slope ( gehling 2000 ; grazhdankin 2004 ; narbonne 2005 ) .\nthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .\nthe authors are grateful to vw - foundation ( i / 78 706 ) and the g\u00f6ttingen courant center of geobiology ( german excellence initiative ) for financial support of fieldwork in namibia . the owners of hansburg and wegkruip farms are cordially thanked for their help in accessing the outcrops . our thanks extend also to people in konkiep lapa restcamp for the hospitality and help . o . elicki is thanked for his constructive review that improved the final manuscript , all comments and suggestions are gratefully acknowledged .\naigner t ( 1982 ) calcareous tempestites : storm - dominated stratification in upper muschelkalk limestones ( middle triassic , sw germany ) . in : einsele g , seilacher a ( eds ) cyclic and event stratification . springer - verlag , berlin , pp 180\u2013198\nbrenchly pj ( 1990 ) biofacies . in : briggs deg , crowther pr ( eds ) palaeobiology : a synthesis . blackwell scientific publication , oxford , pp 395\u2013400\nbridge js ( 2003 ) rivers and floodplains : forms , processes and sedimentary record . blackwell publishing , oxford , p 491\ncorsetti fa , hagadorn jw ( 2000 ) . precambrian - cambrian transition : death valley , united states . geology 28 : 299\u2013302\ndumas s , arnott rwc ( 2006 ) origin of hummocky and swaley cross - stratification \u2013 the controlling influence of unidirectional current strength and aggradation rate . geology 34 : 1073\u20131076\ndzik j ( 1999 ) organic membranous skeleton of the precambrian metazoans from namibia . geology 27 : 519\u2013522\neinsele g , seilacher a ( eds ) ( 1982 ) cyclic and event stratification . springer - verlag , berlin\ngehling j ( 2000 ) environmental interpretation and a sequence stratigraphic framework for the terminal proterozoic ediacara member within the rawnsley quartzite , south australia . precambrian research 100 : 65\u201395\ngerms gjb ( 1972 ) the stratigraphy and paleontology of the lower nama group , south west africa . university of cape town , department of geology , chamber of mines precambrian research unit , bulletin 12\ngerms gjb ( 1983 ) implications of a sedimentary facies and depositional environmental analysis of the nama group in south west africa . in : miller rm ( ed ) evolution of the damara orogen of south west africa . special publication , geological society of south africa 11 : 89\u2013114\ngerms gjb ( 1995 ) the neoproterozoic of southwestern africa , with emphasis on platform stratigraphy and paleontology . precambrian research 73 : 137\u2013151\ngerms gjb , gresse pg ( 1991 ) the foreland basin of the damara and gariep orogens in namaqualand and southern namibia : stratigraphic correlations and basin dynamics . south african journal of geology 94 : 159\u2013169\ngerms gjb , knoll ah , vidal g ( 1986 ) latest proterozoic microfossils from the nama group , namibia ( south west africa ) . precambrian research 32 : 45\u201362\ngrazhdankin d ( 2004 ) patterns of distribution in the ediacaran biotas : facies versus biogeography and evolution . paleobiology 30 : 203\u2013221\ngrazhdankin d , seilacher a ( 2002 ) underground vendobionta from namibia . palaeontology 45 : 57\u201378\ngrazhdankin d , seilacher a ( 2005 ) a re - examination of the nama type vendian organism rangea schneiderhoehni . geological magazine 142 : 571\u2013582\ngrotzinger jp , bowring sa , saylor bz , kaufman aj ( 1995 ) new biostratigraphic and geochronologic constraints on early animal evolution . science 270 : 598\u2013604\ngrotzinger jp , watters wa , knoll ah ( 2000 ) calcified metazoans in thrombolite - stromatolite reefs of the terminal proterozoic nama group , namibia . paleobiology 26 : 334\u2013359\nhagadorn jw , waggoner bm ( 2000 ) ediacaran fossils from the southwestern great basin , united states . journal of paleontology 74 : 349\u2013359\nhagadorn jw , fedo cm , waggoner bm ( 2000 ) early cambrian ediacaran - type fossils from california . journal of paleontology 74 : 731\u2013740\nhequette a , hill pr , 1995 response of the seabed to storm - generated combined flows on a sandy arctic shoreface , canadian beaufort sea . journal of sedimentary research a65 : 461\u2013471\nhofmann hj , o\u2019brien sj , king af ( 2008 ) ediacaran biota on bonavista peninsula , newfoundland , canada . journal of paleontology 82 : 1\u201336\nhorodyski rj , gehling jg , jensen s , runnegar b ( 1994 ) ediacara fauna and earliest cambrian trace fossils in a single parasequence set , southern nevada . geological society of america abstracts with programs 26 : 60\nivantsov ay , grazhdankin d ( 1997 ) a new representative of the petalonamae from the upper vendian of the arkhangelsk region . paleontological journal 31 : 1\u201316 ( english translation )\njenkins rjf ( 1985 ) the enigmatic ediacaran ( late precambrian ) genus rangea and related forms . paleobiology 11 : 336\u2013355\njenkins rjf ( 1992 ) functional and ecological aspects of ediacaran assemblages . in : lipps jh and signor pw ( eds ) origin and early evolution of the metazoa . plenum press , new york , pp 131\u2013176\njenkins rjf , plummer ps , moriarty kc ( 1981 ) late precambrian pseudofossils from the flinders ranges , south australia . transactions of the royal society of south australia 105 : 67\u201383\njohnson hd , baldwin ct ( 1986 ) shallow siliciclastic seas . in : reading hg ( ed ) sedimentary environments and facies . blackwell , boston , pp 229\u2013282\nkidwell sm ( 1991 ) the stratigraphy of shell concentrations . in : allison pa and briggs deg ( eds ) taphonomy : releasing the data locked in the fossil record . plenum press , new york , pp 211\u2013289\nkidwell sm , furish ft , aigner t ( 1986 ) conceptual framework for the analysis and classification of fossil concentrations . palaios 1 : 228\u2013238\nkreisa rd ( 1981 ) storm - generated sedimentary structures in subtidal marine facies with examples from the middle to upper ordovician of southwestern virginia . journal of sedimentary petrology 51 : 823\u2013848\nlaflamme m , narbonne gm ( 2008 ) ediacaran fronds . palaeogeography , palaeoclimatology , palaeoecology 258 : 162\u2013179\nmapstone nb , mcilroy d ( 2006 ) ediacaran fossil preservation : taphonomy and diagenesis of a discoid biota from the amedeus basin , central australia . precambrian research 149 : 126\u2013148\nmccall gjh ( 2006 ) the vendian ( ediacaran ) in the geological record : enigmas in geology\u2019s prelude to the cambrian explosion . earth science reviews 77 : 1\u2013229\nmiall ad ( 1985 ) architectural - element analysis : a new method of facies analysis applied to fluvial deposits . earth science reviews 22 : 261\u2013304\nmiall ad ( 1996 ) the geology of fluvial deposits : sedimentary facies , basin analysis and petroleum geology . springer - verlag , berlin , p 582\nnarbonne gm ( 2005 ) the ediacara biota : neoproterozoic origin of animals and their ecosystems . annual review in earth and planetary sciences 33 : 421\u2013442\nnarbonne gm , saylor bz , grotzinger jp ( 1997 ) the youngest ediacaran fossils from southern africa . journal of paleontology 71 : 953\u2013967\npasschier s , kleinhans mg ( 2005 ) observations of sand waves , megaripples , and hummocks in the dutch coastal area and their relation to currents and combined flow conditions . journal of geophysical research 110 : f04s15 , doi : 10 . 1029 / 2004jf000215\npflug hd ( 1966 ) neue fossilreste aus den nama - schichten in s\u00fcdwest - afrika . pal\u00e4ontologische zeitschrift 40 : 14\u201325\npfl\u00fcger f ( 1999 ) matground structures and redox facies . palaios 14 : 25\u201339\nporada h , chergut j , bouougri eh ( 2008 ) kinneyia - type wrinkle structures \u2013 critical review and model of formation . palaios 23 : 65\u201377\nr\u00f8e s - l , hermansen m ( 1993 ) processes and products of large , late precambrian sandy rivers in northern norway . in : marzo m , puigdef\u00e1breagas c ( eds ) , alluvial sedimentation . special publication , international association of sedimentologists 17 , pp 151\u2013166\nsambrook smith gh , ashworth pj , best jl , woodward j , simpson cj ( 2006 ) the sedimentology and alluvial architecture of the sandy braided south saskatchewan river , canada . sedimentology 53 : 413\u2013434\nsaylor bz ( 2003 ) sequence stratigraphy and carbonate - siliciclastic mixing in a terminal proterozoic foreland basin , urusis formation , nama group , namibia . journal of sedimentary research 73 : 264\u2013279\nsaylor bz , grotzinger jp , germs jbb ( 1995 ) sequence stratigraphy and sedimentology of the neoproterozoic kuibis and schwarzrand subgroups ( nama group ) , southwestern namibia . precambrian research 73 : 153\u2013171\nsaylor bz , kaufman aj , grotzinger jp , urban f ( 1998 ) a composite reference section for terminal proterozoic strata of southern namibia . journal of sedimentary research 68 : 1223\u20131235\nseilacher a ( 1992 ) vendobionta and psammocorallia : lost constructions of precambrian evolution . journal of the geological society 149 : 607\u2013613\nvis - star nc ( 2007 ) effect of wave - topography interactions on the formation of sand ridges on the shelf . journal of geophysical research 112 : c06012 , doi :\nwaggoner bm ( 2003 ) the ediacaran biotas in space and time . integrated comparative biology 43 : 104\u2013113\nwaggoner bm , hagadorn jw ( 1997 ) ediacaran fossils from western north america : stratigraphic and biogeographic implications . geological society of america abstracts with programs 29 : 30\nwalker rg , plint ag ( 1992 ) wave - and storm - dominated shallow marine systems . in : walker rg , james np ( eds ) facies models : response to sea level change . geological association of canada , st . john\u2019s , pp 219\u2013238\nzecchin m ( 2007 ) the architectural variability of small - scale cycles in shelf and ramp clastic systems : the controlling factors . earth - science reviews 84 : 21\u201325\nbearing ediacaran deposits in southern namibia : implications for infaunal vendobiont communities . in : advances in stromatolite geobiology . lecture notes in earth sciences , vol 131 . springer , berlin , heidelberg\nthis article needs expanding . you can help improve this article by adding additional content .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\nwe ' ve detected that javascript is disabled in your browser . would you like to proceed to legacy twitter ?\n' s tweets and complete profile . click the\nfollow\nbutton to send a follow request .\nyou can add location information to your tweets , such as your city or precise location , from the web and via third - 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{"id": 1861, "summary": [{"text": "myrmica rubra , also known as the european fire ant or common red ant , is a species of ant of the genus myrmica , found all over europe and in some parts of north america and asia .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "they are mainly red in colour , with slightly darker pigmentation on the head .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the ants live under stones , fallen trees , and in soil .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "they are aggressive ants , often attacking rather than running away , and are equipped with a sting , though lack the ability to spray formic acid like the genus formica .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "this is one of the most common and widespread myrmica species of the palaearctic .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "occurs in the region stretching from portugal to east siberia ( till transbaikalia ) , and from northern greece to the forest-tundra natural zone in the north .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is also currently invading japan and north america where they are considered a nuisance as it is an invasive species .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "their colonies have a polygyne form , and can have up to one hundred queens per nest .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "they are also polydomous , with many nest sites per individual colony .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "these queens will have gathered together after their nuptial flight and will have formed a nest and laid their eggs in it .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the queens can live up to fifteen years .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "nuptial flights take place normally in late july to mid-august in europe .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "hundreds of young queens and males take to the air to mate together .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "afterwards , the males die and the queens shed their wings to make a new colony .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "no nuptial flights have been witnessed yet from this species where it is living in north america .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "they are very common in europe and live in meadows and gardens .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "they live on a diet of honeydew excreted by aphids , and , being very aggressive like to eat many types of insect and other invertebrates .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they will attack any creature that disturbs their nest , but are not as aggressive as the red imported fire ant .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "they also consume pollen , a phenomenon rarely documented in ants of the temperal zone .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it is very similar to m. ruginodis , and the differences are very hard to tell .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "however , myrmica rubra is the commoner of the two .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae of the butterfly maculinea alcon ( alcon blue ) as well as maculinea teleius use myrmica rubra as their primary host . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "myrmica rubra", "paragraphs": ["myrmica laevinodis , ( nylander ) myrmica laevinodis , var . bruesi ( weber ) myrmica rubra r . champlaini , ( forel ) myrmica longiscapus , ( curtis ) myrmica rubra laevinodis , ( nylander ) myrmica levinodis , ( dalla torre ) myrmica rubra st . laevinodis , ( nylander ) atta rubra , ( linnaeus ) formica ( myrmecia ) rubra , ( linnaeus ) formica ( myrmica ) rubra , ( linnaeus ) formica rubra , ( linnaeus ) manica rubra , ( linnaeus )\nmyrmica rubra is a myrmicine ant , one of 116 species recorded in this genus . there are several species of myrmica in north america . among the most commonly reported are myrmica detritinodis , myrmica incompleta , myrmica emeryana , myrmica brevinodis , myrmica americana , myrmica fracticornus , and myrmica evaneda , which makes the morphological identification of myrmica rubra complicated . some of these species are not very common in the northeastern united states and most are rarely found in disturbed areas , which help us to recognize myrmica rubra in the field .\nthe above specimen data are provided by antweb . please see myrmica rubra for further details\nprincipal source : landcare research . 2006 . myrmica rubra information sheet , research , invasive ants .\nmyrmica rubra are scavengers and predators . they work around the clock from june to september obtaining food .\ninformations on myrmica rubra has been recorded for the following locations . click on the name for additional informations .\nlandcare research . 2006 . myrmica rubra information sheet , research , invasive ants . summary : this information sheet provides comprehensive information about the biology , impacts and control options for myrmica rubra . available from : urltoken [ 28 september 2006 ]\nthe life cycle in the united states is still being studied . myrmica rubra is polygynous ( many queens per colony ) and polydomous ( many nests per individual colony ) . this situation allows myrmica rubra to maintain very high densities of individuals and nests in some areas . myrmica rubra colonies are also extremely mobile and some colonies move their nests regularly throughout the summer .\nmyrmica rubra can be dispersed via the movement of infested potted plants , mulch and fill ( landcare research , 2006 ) .\njapanese ant database group . ( 2003 ) . myrmica rubra . summary : available from urltoken [ accessed 26 june , 2009 ]\nrecommended citation : global invasive species database ( 2018 ) species profile : myrmica rubra . downloaded from urltoken on 09 - 07 - 2018 .\nfigure 5 . symptoms of an individual sting by the european fire ant , myrmica rubra linnaeus . photograph by e . groden , university of maine .\nin addition to its nuisance impact , myrmica rubra is also having significant effects on natural ecosystems . myrmica rubra appears to be responsible for the reduction of the ant diversity , richness , and abundance in infested areas , and has also exacerbated populations of plant feeding hemipteran pests such as aphids and scales .\nordered 26 - 50 myrmica rubra . took only 3 days from germany too holland and received 2 queens and 40 - 50 workers ! thanks antstore !\nmyrmica rubra is native to the palearctic regions of europe and asia from ireland to western siberia ( czechowski et al . 2000 ) . in the old world , myrmica rubra is found from 25\u00b0 latitude north to the arctic circle ( 66\u00b0n ) ( elmes et al . 1999 ) . based on its native distribution , the potential invasive range of myrmica rubra in north america would span the southern - most inland part of florida to the north of hudson bay in canada .\ngroden e . ( 2003 ) . european imported red ant ( myrmica rubra ) in maine . entomology - university of maine . ( no longer available online )\nelmes , g . w . 1973 . miniature queens of the ant myrmica rubra l . ( hymenoptera , formicidae ) . entomologist 106 : 133 - 136 pdf\nthere are around 200 different known species of the red stinging ant \u2018myrmica sp\u2019 .\nfigure 6 . worker ants of the european fire ant , myrmica rubra linnaeus , attending aphids and other homopterans in maine . photograph by f . drummond , university of maine .\nchamplaini . myrmica rubra r . champlaini forel , 1901h : 80 ( w . ) canada . subspecies of laevinodis : weber , 1947 : 454 ; of rubra : creighton , 1950a : 103 . junior synonym of laevinodis : smith , m . r . 1951a : 789 .\nbertelsmeier et al . ( 2015 ) examined elements of interspecific aggression between this species and several other highly invasive ants . in laboratory assays myrmica rubra was adept at avoiding aggressive interactions . when confronted by workers of other invasive ant species m . rubra either acted indifferently or moved away .\neuropaea . myrmica laevinodis var . europaea finzi , 1926 : 84 ( w . ) norway . [ first available use of myrmica rubra subsp . champlaini var . europaea forel , 1911h : 457 ; unavailable name . ] santschi , 1931b : 339 ( m . ) . subspecies of laevinodis : stitz , 1939 : 83 ; of rubra : bolton , 1995b : 279 . junior synonym of rubra : radchenko , czechowski & czechowska , 1997 : 483 ; czechowski , radchenko & czechowska , 2002 : 17 .\nfigure 4 . workers of the european fire ant , myrmica rubra linnaeus , gathering and protecting various larval instars after the nest was disturbed . photograph by h . a . arevalo , university of maine .\nfedoseeva , e . b . 2015 . a technological approach to the description of group foraging in ant myrmica rubra . zoologichesky zhurnal . 94 : 1163 - 1178 . doi : 10 . 1134 / s0013873815080060\nsenior synonym of myrmica laevinodis ( and its junior synonyms myrmica bruesi , myrmica champlaini , myrmica longiscapus ) : yarrow , 1955c pdf : 114 ; arnol ' di , 1970b pdf : 1839 ; boven , 1977 pdf : 115 ; arnol ' di & dlussky , 1978 : 530 ; collingwood , 1979 pdf : 52 ; seifert , 1988b : 5 ; of myrmica europaea : radchenko , czechowski & czechowska , 1997 : 483 ; czechowski , radchenko & czechowska , 2002 pdf : 17 ; of myrmica microrubra : steiner , schlick - steiner , konrad , et al . 2006 : 777 .\nthe first reports of red ants stinging people in maine occurred from the late 1960s to the mid - 1970s , but it was not until 1986 that the species was confirmed as myrmica rubra . complaints received by the university of maine cooperative extension office have increased sharply since 1998 ( groden et al . 2005 ) . today myrmica rubra is considered a nuisance pest in most places where it is established in north america .\nbologna , a . and c . detrain . 2015 . steep decline and cessation in seed dispersal by myrmica rubra ants . plos one . 10 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0139365\ngroden e , drummond fa , garnas j , franceour a . 2005 . distribution of an invasive ant , myrmica rubra ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) , in maine . journal of economic entomology 98 : 1774 - 1784 .\nfigure 1 . adult worker of the european fire ant , myrmica rubra linnaeus . notice the sting , the two - segmented waist and the two spines on the propodeum . photograph by e . groden , university of maine .\nradchenko and elmes ( 2010 ) - from the latin word rubra = red , to describe its generally reddish colour .\nbruesi . myrmica laevinodis var . bruesi weber , 1947 : 453 ( w . q . m . ) u . s . a . [ first available use of myrmica rubra subsp . laevinodis var . bruesi wheeler , w . m . 1906a : 38 ; unavailable name . ] junior synonym of laevinodis : creighton , 1950a : 104 .\nplease see antweb : myrmica rubra for more images and assistance with identification . the antweb image comparison tool lets you compare images of ants at the subfamily , genus , species or specimen level . you may also specify which types of images you would like to compare : head , profile , dorsal , or label . there are several native species of myrmica in new england , and distinguishing them from m . rubra can be difficult ( landcare research , 2006 ) .\nweir , j . s . 1957 . effect of anaesthetics on workers of the ant myrmica . journal of experimental biology . 34 : 464 - 468 . summary : provides additional information on the use of anaesthetics with m . rubra .\nonoyama , k . 1989a . confirmation of the occurrence of myrmica rubra ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) in japan with taxonomic and ecological notes . jpn . j . entomol . 57 : 131 - 135 ( page 131 , see also )\nschar , s . & nash , d . r . 2014 . evidence that microgynes of myrmica rubra ants are social parasites that attack old host colonies . journal of evolutionary biology , doi : 10 . 1111 / jeb . 12482 .\nvepsalainen , k . , ebsen , j . r . , savolainen , r . , boomsma , j . j . 2009 . genetic differentiation between the ant myrmica rubra and its microgynous social parasite . insectes sociaux 56 : 425\u2013437 .\ngammans , n . r . , drummond , f . , gorden , e . and stock , p . 2006 . use of pheromones in bait stations to control the invasive european fire ant , myrmica rubra . summary : this article discusses the use of pheromones in attracting m . rubra to bait stations . available from : urltoken [ accessed 28 october 2006 ]\nbutterflies of the highly endangered genus maculinea are parasites of myrmica ants . a recent study by anton et al ( 2008 ) indicates that maculinea nausithous is limited by the density of its host ant , m . rubra . they suggest that habitat management to increase densities of this endangered butterfly should focus on the optimization of habitats that enable high densities of m . rubra .\nbell , d . a . , felse , j . , mescher , m . and holbrook , g . 2002 . potential supercolonialism in north american myrmica rubra . summary : this presentation suggested that there may be an approach towards supercolonialism in populations of m . rubra on mount desert island , maine , usa . available from : urltoken [ accessed 28 september 2006 ]\nnaumann and higgins ( 2015 ) examined the influence of this species on native insects . abstract : pitfall trapping revealed that the european fire ant , myrmica rubra ( linnaeus ) ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) , represents an unusual example of a temperate invasive ant species . in british columbia , canada , m . rubra populations are associated with a decreased incidence and abundance of other ant species in three different plant communities when compared with m . rubra - free control areas . m . rubra represented more than 99 . 99 % of the total ant fauna caught in the infested areas , and the numbers of m . rubra captured in the plant communities ranged from over 10 times to over 1300 times the total number of all ants collected in corresponding m . rubra - free areas . total numbers of some taxa of insects and non - insect arthropods , including those likely to be competitors or prey of m . rubra , were reduced where the invasive species was present . biodiversity indexes for the overall suite of captured arthropod species were lower where m . rubra was present in all three plant communities but most of this decrease can be attributed to the difference in the ant fauna .\nfigure 2 . distribution of the european fire ant , myrmica rubra linnaeus , in the unites states and canada . this information is based on the published literature and surveys conducted between 2002 and 2004 . illustration by h . alejandro arevalo , university of maine .\nleppanen , j . , vepsalainen , k . , savolainen , r . 2011 . phylogeography of the ant myrmica rubra and its inquiline social parasite . ecology and evolution 1 ( 1 ) : 46\u201362 ( doi 10 . 1002 / ece3 . 6 ) .\nmyrmica rubra infestations are particularly severe in many areas along the sea coast , lakes and streams . these are areas with high value for tourism . home and business owners are concerned about the impact of these ants on their activities , income , and value of their property\nczechowski , w . , radchenko , a . & czechowska , w . ( 2007 ) . mermithid infestation strikingly alters the morphology of myrmica rubra ( l . ) ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) : possible taxonomical involvements . annales zoologici 51 ( 2 ) : abstract .\nwardlaw , j . c . 1995 . the effect of carbon dioxide on egg production in myrmica rubra . ins . soc . . 42 : 325 - 328 . summary : this paper discusses the use of carbon dioxide as an anaesthetic for examining ants in a laboratory situation .\nfigure 3 . detail of the head of an adult worker of the european fire ant , myrmica rubra linnaeus . notice the bent scape , the frontal lobes with respect to the base of the antenna , and the sculptured head . photograph by e . groden , university of maine .\ngroden , e . , drummond , f . a . , garnas , j . , franceour , a . 2005 . distribution of an invasive ant , myrmica rubra ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) , in maine . journal of economic entomology 98 ( 6 ) , 1774 - 1784 .\nworkers of myrmica rubra are of a reddish - brown color , but the coloration greatly varies between individuals and colonies . workers are small ( 4 to 5 mm ) , their waist has two segments , the head and the mesosoma are heavily sculpted , but the abdomen is shiny . the worker ' s body is cover with fine hairs . the antennae are 12 - segmented with a four - segmented club and a bent scape . the propodeum ( the first abdominal segment fused anteriorly to the thorax ) has two spines pointing backwards , which is one of the main differences from other native ants ( not of the genus myrmica ) in the northeastern u . s . there are a few morphological differences that help to differentiate myrmica rubra from the other ants within the same genus . when viewed dorsally , the frontal lobes of myrmica rubra look thin and lamellar , laterally developed and do not cover the antennal base , and the propodeal lobes form a 90\u00b0 angle apically ( francoeur , unpublished data ) .\nle roux , a . m . , le roux , g . & thibout , e . ( 2002 ) . food experience on the predatory behavior of the ant myrmica rubra towards a specialist moth , acrolepiopsis assectella . journal of chemical ecology 28 ( 11 ) : 2307 - 2314 .\nwheeler wm . 1908 . a european ant ( myrmica laevinodis ) introduced into massachusetts . journal of economic entomology 1 : 336 - 339 .\nmyrmica rubra has become a significant pest in areas in the northeastern u . s . primarily because these aggressive , stinging ants interfere with people ' s use and enjoyment of their properties , gardens and parks . myrmica rubra ' s extremely high densities foraging both on herbaceous plants , shrubs and trees in combination with the cryptic nature of their nests , the probability of people and their pets inadvertently disrupting the ant ' s activities is very high . when disrupted , the ants will deliver a painful sting which has in a few cases produced severe allergic reactions to the venom including anaphylactic shock .\ngroden , e . and drummond , f . a . 2003 . management of the european fire ant in eastern maine . us environmental protection agency . summary : this paper provides information about management of myrmica rubra in eastern maine , usa . available from : urltoken [ accessed 28 september 2006 ]\ngroden , e . , drummond , f . a . , garnas , j . & franceour , a . ( 2005 ) . distribution of an invasive ant , myrmica rubra ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) , in maine . journal of economic entomology 98 ( 6 ) : 1774 - 1784 .\nbibliography bradley , g . .\nants - myrmica rubra - formicidae - uk safari .\nurltoken n . p . , n . d . web . 5 feb . 2011 . < urltoken > . eleanor , groden , drummond francis a . , garnas jefferey , and franceour andre .\ndistribution of an invasive ant , myrmica rubra ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) , in maine .\njournal of economic entomology 98 . 6 ( 2005 ) : n . pag . entomofaune du quebec . web . 23 may 2011 . groden , eleanor . email interview . 26 feb . 2011 groden , eleanor .\nnatural enemies of the invasive ant , myrmica rubra .\npowerpoint . school of biology and ecology , university of maine . may 4 2011 groden , eleanor , and h . alejandro arevalo .\neuropean fire ant - myrmica rubra linnaeus .\nuniversity of florida entomology and nematology department . version eeny - 410 . university of florida and university of maine , n . d . web . 2 feb . 2011 . < urltoken > .\nmyrmica rubra ( linnaeus , 1758 ) .\nurltoken n . p . , 29 sept . 2009 . web . 2 mar . 2011 . < urltoken > .\nmyrmica rubra , the common red ant .\nurltoken n . p . , n . d . web . 29 jan . 2011 . < urltoken > .\nresearchers try to squash fire ant population - wabi tv5 .\nurltoken community broadcasting service , 22 july 2010 . web . 17 mar . 2011 . < urltoken > .\nthe european fire ant ( myrmica rubra ) .\nurltoken university of maine , n . d . web . 6 mar . 2011 . < urltoken > .\nthe university of maine - cooperative extension publications - bulletin # 2550 , european fire ant : a new invasive insect in maine .\nurltoken maine agricultural center university of maine cooperative extension ornamental horticulture program leadership team , n . d . web . 2 may 2011 . < urltoken > . mla formatting by bibme . org .\nlepp\u00e4nen , j . , sepp\u00e4 , p . , veps\u00e4l\u00e4inen , k . , savolainen , r . 2016 . mating isolation between the ant myrmica rubra and its microgynous social parasite . insectes sociaux 63 : 79 - 86 ( doi 10 . 1007 / s00040 - 015 - 0438 - y ) .\nmyrmica rubra , commonly known as the european fire ant , is an aggressive ant species which has been introduced from its native eurasia to eastern north america , where it appears able to reach sizeable densities . it has a painful sting , and also impacts on native ants and other invertebrates , and reptiles .\ngarnas , j . r . , drummond , f . a . & groden , e . ( 2007 ) . intercolony aggression within and among local populations of the invasive ant , myrmica rubra ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) , in coastal maine . environmental entomology 36 ( 1 ) : 105 - 113 .\nleclerc , j . - b . , detrain , c . 2017 . loss of attraction for social cues leads to fungal - infected myrmica rubra ants withdrawing from the nest . animal behaviour 129 , 133 - 141 ( doi 10 . 1016 / j . anbehav . 2017 . 05 . 002 ) .\nhowever , in europe and northern asia , where these ants are native , ants in the genus myrmica are considered important for the conservation of rare maculinea butterflies that live in association with the ants . myrmica rubra in particular is considered to be a host for maculinea teleius , maculinea nausithous , and two cryptic species of maculinea alcon ( elmes et al . 1998 ) . these butterflies are an important research topic due to their social - parasitic relationship with myrmica ants and their importance as bioindicators of the health of paleartic , and moist - grassland ecosystems in europe ( mouquet et al . 2005 ) .\nmyrmica rubra linnaeus , often called the european fire or red ant , is an adventive species found mainly in the northeastern united states . it was first discovered in massachusetts in 1908 by wheeler ( 1908 ) . this stinging ant species is considered to be a potential health and ecological risk to the u . s .\nin north america , myrmica rubra has been reported in maine , massachusetts , new york , pennsylvania , new jersey , washington d . c . , rhode island , and new hampshire in the us , and in ontario , qu\u00e9bec , new brunswick , and nova scotia in canada ( groden et al . 2005 ) .\nalthough workers in supercolonies appear to be very tolerant towards their neighbouring colony members , they can be very aggressive towards other organisms , stinging people and other animals freely ( personal observations ) ; however , laboratory studies suggest that m . rubra workers do not have especially different aggressive responses compared to other members of the genus ( de vroey and pasteels 1978 ) . m . rubra have a well equipped sting apparatus ( billen 1986 ) and although some people react allergically to the venom , the sting and venom does not seem markedly different from that of other free - stinging myrmicines ( e . g . blum and herman 1978 ) . most people ( including one of us - ar ) think that m . rubra stings seem particularly painful compared to other myrmica species . however in the opinion of the other author ( gwe ) when individuals of other myrmica are provoked into stinging ( usually in hot conditions ) a single sting can be equally painfully as that of m . rubra , perhaps even more so if the specimen is large : m . rubra having acquired its reputation because colonies are corporately aggressive and individuals sting rapidly and frequently even when fairly cool .\nbrian , m . v . ; brian , a . d . 1949 . observations on the taxonomy of the ants myrmica rubra l . and m . laevinodis nylander . ( hymenoptera : formicidae . ) . trans . r . entomol . soc . lond . 100 : 393 - 409 pdf ( page 393 , see also )\nradchenko , a . g . & elmes , g . w . 2010 . myrmica ants of the old world . fauna mundi 3 : 1 - 789 .\nmicrorubra . myrmica microrubra seifert , 1993 : 10 , figs . 1 , 4 ( q . m . ) germany . junior synonym of rubra : steiner , schlick - steiner , konrad , et al . 2006 : 777 . see also : czechowski , radchenko & czechowska , 2002 : 19 ; radchenko & elmes , 2003a : 236 .\nthis ant is a small black stinging ant which reminds me of a cross between lasius niger and myrmica rubra , though are in the same genus as the latter . they are typically found along the coasts of southern and western england . they can have nests containing up to 30 , 000 ants , but the average is perhaps 10 , 000 .\nmyrmica rubra is a very interesting species . it was surprising to me that it came to the united states in potting soil and that they have a symbiotic relationship with aphids . when researching this topic , i found some sites that had solid information but , at times , it was very hard to find information because most information was on how to get m . rubra out of your yard or it was only repeating what other websites had already claimed . often many sites had little or no information that was usable . this species was so difficult to research that i had to email professor eleanor groden of the university of maine at orono . she was so helpful . it was very surprising to me that it was hard to find information because myrmica rubra came to the united states first in 1908 and , yet , there is not a lot of readily available information on this species .\nspecies of myrmica ruginodis ; one that has queens which are visibly larger than the workers , and the other has queens which are almost the same size as the worker .\ngenerally , the microhabitat favoured by m . rubra colonies living by rivers and wet meadows ranges from open grass ( about 10 - 20 cm tall ) in the north and west of europe to much longer grass and reeds ( 1 - 2 m tall ) in southern and eastern habitats . much less is known about its distribution in west siberia : m . rubra is one of the commonest ants in various habitats of west and east siberia ( reznikova 1983 ; dmitrienko , petrenko 1976 ) and is particularly common in rivers meadows in north - eastern kazakhstan ( m . woyciechowski , pers . comm . ) . the principal competitors of m . rubra are other myrmica species but in meadows it faces strong competition from lasius niger ( czechowski 1985 ) .\nelmes gw , wardlaw jc , nielsen mg , kipyatkov ve , lopatina eb , radchenko ag , barr b . 1999 . site latitude influences on the respiration rate , fat content and the ability of worker ants to rear larvae : a comparison of myrmica rubra ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) populations over their european range . european journal of entomology 96 : 117 - 123 .\nmyrmica rubra is an aggressive ant species which has a painful sting . it has become a significant pest in many parts of its introduced range in maine , usa . nest densities can reach 4 / m2 , and there are impacts on people , pets , native ants , other invertebrates and reptiles ( landcare research , 2006 ; gammans et al . 2006 ) . m . rubra appears to establish in sizeable colonies in its introduced range , in disturbed and natural areas around residences and commercial buildings . it aggressively defends its territory as well as dominating native species . ( usda - aphis , 2003 ) .\nantweb , 2006 . myrmica rubra summary : antweb illustrates ant diversity by providing information and high quality color images of many of the approximately 10 , 000 known species of ants . antweb currently focusses on the species of the nearctic and malagasy biogeographic regions , and the ant genera of the world . over time , the site is expected to grow to describe every species of ant known . antweb provides the following tools : search tools , regional lists , in - depth information , ant image comparision tool pdf field guides maps on antweb and google earth and ant genera of the world slide show . antweb is available from : urltoken [ accessed 26 september 2006 ] the species page is available from : urltoken ; = myrmica & name ; = rubra & project ; = [ accessed 26 september 2006 ]\nstanley , 2004 provides comprehensive information about the range of baits available for ant control and eradication . groden and stack , 2003 provide information on managing m . rubra in maine , as does usepa , 2003 .\nhauschteck , e . 1965 . halbe haploide chromosomenzahl im hoden von myrmica sulcinodis nyl . ( formicidae ) . experientia ( basel ) 21 : 323 - 325 ( page 325 , karyotype described )\nfrom egg hatch to egg production , queens take at least two years to start a colony . in europe , myrmica rubra produces two types of brood characterized by the time necessary to mature . rapid brood develops in the year that it is laid , but a slower brood will overwinter as third instar larvae and mature to adulthood the following year ( elmes et al . 1998 , elmes et al . 1999 ) .\nmyrmica rubra is \\\nnormally polygynous with some 1000 workers , but may develop large polydomous colonies covering up to 2 m2 and consisting of 100s of queens and over 10 000 workers ( saaristo , 1995 ) . unrelated queens have been found cohabiting ( pearson , 1983 ) . densities of m . rubra nests can be as high as 4 per m2 , with more than 5200 workers and 39 queens per nest ( drummond and garnas www57 ) . artificial nesting substrates set out in maine were readily used and were repeatedly vacated and recolonised , suggesting colony movement is high , or that m . rubra\u2019s large polydomous colonies are able to relocate nests in response to shifting optimal conditions for brood production on a short temporal scale ( garnas et al . www57 ) . in poland , mating swarms were present from august until mid - october ( woyciechowski , 1992 ) \\\n( from landcare research , 2006 ) . studies on populations of m . rubra on mount desert island ( maine , usa ) have suggested an approach towards supercolonialism ( bell et al . 2002 ) .\nthere are seven species of the myrmica family found in this country . these ants tend to be a deep red in colour and can deliver a painful sting . the most common of the seven species is\npearson , b . 1981 . the electrophoretic determination of myrmica rubra microgynes as a social parasite : possible significance in the evolution of ant social parasites . pp . 75 - 84 in : howse , p . e . , clement , j . - l . ( eds . ) biosystematics of social insects . systematics association special volume no . 19 . london : academic press , 346 pp . ( page 75 , see also )\nlongiscapus . myrmica longiscapus curtis , 1854 : 213 , pl . 23 , figs . 11 - 14 ( w . q . m . ) great britain . junior synonym of laevinodis : mayr , 1863 : 433 .\ndella santa , e . 2000 . l ' identification des esp\u00e8ces du genre myrmica latreille ( formicidae ) de suisse ; essai de pr\u00e9sentation synoptique . bull . romand entomol . 18 : 169 - 187 ( page 171 , status )\nelmes gw , thomas ja , wardlaw jc , hochberg me , clarke rt , simcox dj . 1998 . the ecology of myrmica ants in relation to the conservation of maculinea butterflies . journal of insect conservation 2 : 67 - 68 .\nnash , d . ( 2006 ) . coevolution of chemical mimicry of maculinea butterflies and their myrmica ant hosts : the importance of spatial scale and gene flow . the iussi 2006 congress symposium 21 : coevolution between social insects and their macroparasites\nmyrmica rubra are generalist scavengers and predators . workers also feed on honeydew of homoptera and exudates of plants , and tend aphids . workers forage around the clock from early june to september on mount desert island , maine . throughout the autumn months ( september to early november ) there was a significant sigmoidal relationship between temperature and foraging . foraging activity increased with temperature from about 6\u00b0c to 13\u201314\u00b0c . above these temperatures , foraging did not appear to increase in response to air temperature ( landcare research , 2006 ) .\nm . rubra is a generalist scavenger and predator hunting various small invertebrates ( e . g . petal 1967 ) , but also utilize honeydew and nectar ( flowers and extrafloral nectaries , e . g . felton 1959 ) , aphids and scale insects . they forage on trees and shrubs more frequently than any other myrmica species ( except perhaps m . ruginodis ) ; though in europe arboreal foraging is quite rare while in the supercolonies of maine , usa very many m . rubra workers can be seen foraging high into the canopy ( personal observations ) . m . rubra workers often forage in groups ( e . g . dlussky et al . 1978 ) and they lay and follow chemical foraging trails ( e . g . cammaerts - tricot and verhaeghe 1974 ; cammaerts - tricot et al . 1977 ) . single foragers ( weighing about 2 mg ) are able to exert pulling - forces of about 100 mg . developing a mean power of about 5 . 8 ergs / s ( sudd 1965 ) , a third to a quarter of the strength and power exerted by formica lugubris zett . workers .\nsee the general biology discussion above for an overview of diet and foraging . novgorodova ( 2015b ) investigated ant - aphid interactions of a dozen honeydew collecting ants in south - central russia . all of the ants studied had workers that showed high fidelity to attending particular aphid colonies , i . e , individual foragers that collect honeydew tend to return to the same location , and group of aphids , every time they leave the nest . myrmica rubra showed no specialization beyond this foraging site fidelity . foragers tended chaitophorus populeti ( panzer ) and aphis pomi de geer .\nhey guys , i took a walk in my back yard and rolled over a small log to find a large colony of myrmica rubra under it warming up under the warm log . i thought it was a good opportunity to start a small colony so i caught a few workers and was able to grab one of their queens . this species of ant has multiple queens so me taking one was not harmful at all . the small colony i have now is doing very well and producing a good amount of eggs . the colony is starting its life in a test tube . one of the best ways to raise young ant colonies .\nyarrow , i . h . h . 1955c . the type species of the ant genus myrmica latreille . proc . r . entomol . soc . lond . ser . b 24 : 113 - 115 ( page 114 , senior synonym of laevinodis ( and its junior synonyms bruesi , champlaini and longiscapus ) )\ncultural control . another tactic is to make the environment less hospitable for this ant . these ants prefer high humidity , moist soil , and reduced exposure to the sun ( lightly shaded habitats ) . reducing irrigation , mowing tall grasses and increasing sun exposure to the ground will decrease favorable nesting and foraging conditions for the ants . these ants build their nests under debris placed on the lawn , including rocks , boards , logs , and anything that maintains a moist environment underneath . reducing nesting sites will reduce the populations and force the ants to nest elsewhere . this method will not eliminate myrmica rubra , but may help to keep population densities low .\nin north america , myrmica rubra nests are cryptic and difficult to spot at first glance , as they do not construct obvious mounds from soil . nests are usually in places that maintain high humidity for the colony including in the soil along roots of trees or shrubs , under rocks , logs or other human or natural debris , and in decaying logs . their nest densities are extremely high in infested areas in the u . s . , averaging between 0 . 5 and 1 . 5 nests per square meter , compared with 0 . 02 to 0 . 3 nests per square meter in their native habitat in england ( groden et al . 2005 ) .\narnol ' di , k . v . 1970b . review of the ant genus myrmica ( hymenoptera , formicidae ) in the european part of the ussr . zool . zh . 4 49 : 1829 - 1844 ( page 1839 , senior synonym of laevinodis ( and its junior synonyms bruesi , champlaini and longiscapus ) )\nmechanical control . one of the best means to reduce the impact of myrmica rubra is to prevent its further spread . the public should be aware of the risk involved in transporting materials from infested areas . potted plants , soil , mulches , and similar materials should be inspected on site and again before transplanting or use . ant activity can be hard to detect if the colony is small and underground , so careful observation is necessary . if ants are found , it is necessary to avoid using the materials until they can be identified by a reliable source ( entomologist , local cooperative extension service office , or a university entomology identification program ) and / or destroyed .\nusda - aphis . 2003 . annual progress report for fy 2003 , usda - aphis cooperative agricultural pest survey for maine . cooperative agreement : 03 - 8223 - 0360 - ca . summary : this report provides up to date information on the status of m . rubra in maine , usa . available from : urltoken [ accessed 28 september 2006 ]\nlatreille , p . a . 1804 . tableau m\u00e9thodique des insectes . pp . 129 - 200 in : soci\u00e9t\u00e9 de naturalistes et d ' agriculteurs . nouveau dictionnaire d ' histoire naturelle . tome 24 . paris : d\u00e9terville , 84 + 85 + 238 + 18 + 34 pp . ( page 179 , combination in myrmica )\nseifert , b . 1988b . a taxonomic revision of the myrmica species of europe , asia minor , and caucasia ( hymenoptera , formicidae ) . abh . ber . naturkundemus . g\u00f6rlitz 62 ( 3 ) : 1 - 75 ( page 5 , senior synonym of laevinodis ( and its junior synonyms bruesi , champlaini and longiscapus ) )\nradchenko , a . g . ; czechowski , w . ; czechowska , w . 1997 . the genus myrmica latr . ( hymenoptera , formicidae ) in poland - a survey of species and a key for their identification . ann . zool . ( warsaw ) 47 : 481 - 500 ( page 483 , senior synonym of europaea )\nmorphologically m . rubra is comparatively stable over its very wide range ( unlike , for example , m . scabrinodis , which is probably undergoing current speciation in europe \u2013 see notes to that species ) , most of its local adaptation appears to have been physiological and perhaps behavioural . consequently , given its abundance , it would be an ideal candidate to attempt phylogeographical history of its invasion of europe using modern molecular analytical techniques . until this occurs we can only hypothesise from whence m . rubra spread . it seems probable to us , that it survived the last ice age in middle asia or maybe the balkans or southeast europe , on so - called \u201ctundra - steppes\u201d , and spread rapidly into europe along the great river margins as the ice melted . coinciding with man ' s deforestation of europe many new habitats were created in the oceanic part of europe , the forests of which would have been generally too cold for colonisation . thus in a sense m . rubra is pre - adapted to invade anthropogenic habitats ( gardens , agrocoenoses ) especially in areas of high rainfall . this might help explain why it has been a very successful invader of the eastern seaboard of usa and canada .\nnuptial flights occur from late july and have been reported as late as october . compared to many other myrmica species , m . rubra mating swarms can be quite large aggregations and they have frequently been reported flying quite long distances to join swarms on church towers , high trees and mountain - tops ( e . g . hubbard and nagell 1976 ; woyciechowski 1990b ; personal observations ) . we have on occasion observed nests having recruited a mixture of their own daughters and other young queens ( all fertilised ) , but we are not sure whether their daughters mated in or near to the nest prior to joining the parent colony or flew to a distant swarm , mated and found their way home again . while the latter seems improbable it is what happens in the case of honey bees .\na member of the rubra group . yellowish brown . sculpture dilute ; frontal triangle and subspinal areas smooth and shining . antennal scapes long and slender . petiole node with short indistinct dorsal area sloping evenly without definite break to its junction with the postpetiole . head index : 79 . 5 ; frons index : 49 . 4 ; frontal laminae index : 92 . 7 . length : 3 . 5 - 5 . 0 mm . ( collingwood 1979 )\nbologna and detrain ( 2015 ) examined foraging behavior in a laboratory experiment with m . rubra obtained from locations in belgium . they found that the ants became satiated and showed a large decline over time in retrieval of elaiosome bearing seeds of viola odorata . seeds were offered once a week for 5 consecutive weeks and again at week 12 . a similar experiment with dead fruit flies showed a consistent foraging response where the ants collected most of the offered fruit flies .\nlaevinodis . myrmica laevinodis nylander , 1846a : 927 , pl . 18 , figs . 5 , 31 ( w . q . m . ) finland . subspecies of rubra : forel , 1874 : 76 ; emery & forel , 1879 : 460 ; wheeler , w . m . 1906d : 315 ; emery , 1914d : 156 ; forel , 1915d : 28 ; menozzi , 1918 : 82 ; karavaiev , 1927c : 259 ; creighton , 1950a : 104 . status as species : saunders , e . 1880 : 215 ; andr\u00e9 , 1883a : 316 ; dalla torre , 1893 : 110 ; ruzsky , 1905b : 662 ; bondroit , 1912 : 351 ; donisthorpe , 1915d : 110 ; bondroit , 1918 : 104 ; m\u00fcller , 1923 : 40 ; finzi , 1926 : 83 ; stitz , 1939 : 78 ; holgersen , 1940 : 184 ; novak & sadil , 1941 : 76 ; weber , 1947 : 441 ; bernard , 1967 : 119 ; baroni urbani , 1971c : 22 ; kutter , 1977c : 65 . senior synonym of longiscapus : mayr , 1863 : 433 ; of champlaini : smith , m . r . 1951a : 789 ; of bruesi : creighton , 1950a : 104 . junior synonym of rubra : yarrow , 1955b : 114 ; arnol ' di , 1970b : 1839 ; arnol ' di & dlussky , 1978 : 530 ; collingwood , 1979 : 52 ; seifert , 1988b : 5 ; radchenko , 2007 : 30 .\nagosti , d . , and n . f . johnson . editors . 2005 . antbase . hymenoptera name server results for the species myrmica rubra ( linnaeus ) : world wide web electronic publication . antbase . org , version ( 05 / 2005 ) . summary : antbase is a collaborative effort between scientists from around the world , aiming at providing the best possible access to the wealth of information on ants , to fulfill the conservation needs of the international union for the study of social insects ( iussi ) , and the species survival commission of the world conservation union ( iucn ) . antbase , together with the hymenoptera on - line database , is the data provider for ants to the integrated taxonomic information system , itis . antbase is being built and maintained at the american museum of natural history ( donat agosti ) and the ohio state university ( norman f . johnson ) . antbase is available from : urltoken this page is available from : urltoken [ accessed 26 september 2006 ]\nm . rubra colonies do not need a long season of high temperatures to complete their life cycles , in most habitats the ants do not become active until the end of april and are entering a pre - hibernation state by late september ( elmes 1982 ) . they have an active basal physiology ( compared to many other myrmica species ) that has adapted to local environments in different parts of its range . habitat selection seems to be determined by a trade - off between sufficient insolation to complete their life cycle and maintaining a high humidity within the soil nest ( assuming other factors such as food availability and nest site suitability being equal ) . thus at sea level in the more oceanic climates of western europe , woodlands are too cold in summer while east - facing meadows get too hot and dry whereas in the much more continental climates of eastern europe , the hot summers enable them to live in woodlands which dessicate less rapidly than open meadows . mountains of course , make their own local climates so that for example , in the carpathians populations favour more open meadow habitats at higher altitudes that are ecologically very similar to the prime habitat in western europe .\ndiez et al . ( 2015 ) , a study examining pathogens and colony hygiene - abstract : ants have developed prophylactic and hygienic behaviours in order to limit risks of pathogenic outbreaks inside their nest , which are often called social immunity . here , we test whether ants can adapt the \u201csocial immune response\u201d to the level of pathogenic risk in the colony . we challenged myrmica rubra colonies with dead nestmates that had either died from being frozen or from infection by the fungus metarhizium anisopliae . ant survival was compromised by the presence of the fungus - bearing corpses : workers died faster with a significantly lower survival from the 4th day compared to workers challenged with freeze - killed corpses . when faced with fungus - bearing corpses , workers responded quickly by increasing hygienic behaviours : they spent more time cleaning the nest , moving the corpses , and self - grooming . ants in fungus - threatened colonies also decreased contact rates with other workers , and moved corpses further in the corners of the nest than in colonies in contact with non - infected corpses . these results show that ant colonies are able to assess the risk level associated with the presence of corpses in the nest , and adjust their investment in terms of hygienic behaviour .\nm . rubra is a eurytopic species distributed widely throughout europe and west siberia where it can dominate some habitats . it thrives in damp habitats , especially soils with high water tables or habitats in areas of high rainfall . however , it is seldom found living in tussocks on true bogs , in the manner of some populations of m . scabrinodis and m . ruginodis . in western europe it is considered to be a species of damp meadows and is rarely found in woods and forests , the largest populations usually occur on west - facing slopes with heavy clayey ( often limestone ) soils , where it builds nests in the soil and under flat stones . these sites often have high rainfall and the moisture is held in the heavy soils . in eastern europe ( russia , ukraine etc . ) it is considered to be more of a forest species inhabiting many different kinds of forests ( except those with light , dry soils ) , where it builds nests in the soil under moss and in or under rotten wood . in central europe m . rubra is often very abundant in grass on forest , woodland and hedgerow edges , and in germany , poland and france etc . it is particularly abundant in the longer vegetation at the edges of water meadows used for haymaking and grazing . throughout its entire range it is associated with meadows bordering rivers and lakes . in recent years it has become important in nature conservation as the primary ant host of the endangered butterfly species phengaris nausithous ( bergstrasser ) ( see papers in settele et a ! . 2005 ) .\nwinged sexuals ( gynes and males ) are produced in june and \u201cmature\u201d inside the nest until july . the ontogeny of larval development and caste determination has been extensively studied by m . v . brian using m . rubra as a model species and has been found to be very complex ; for example , the hormonal state of the queen influences larval hormone production and ontogeny ( brian 1959 , 1974 ) , trophic conditions are involved ( brian and abbott 1977 ) as are the age and numbers of workers ( brian and jones 1980 ) , seasonality has an effect ( pearson and raybould 1997 ) and even gut parasite load might have some impact ( pearson and raybould 1998 ) . a model based on these interactions show that gyne production might be periodic ( brian et al . 1981 ) and this may account for the observation that the mean size of workers and queens in nests is positively correlated with worker number and negatively correlated with queen number ( elmes 1974b ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nsince 2001 , entomologists at the university of maine have conducted periodic surveys to determine the movement of and the area colonized by the ant . in maine , the ant is restricted to humid places along the coast . however , colonies have been reported at inland locations and there is a concern that the ant is capable of establishing in these new areas .\nin europe , nuptial flights occur during mid - august to mid - september depending on the latitude . queens overwinter before laying eggs for the first time . some queens overwinter alone , others as groups of newly mated queens , and some join an existing colony . in the following spring , queens search for food to begin reproduction . queens that are part of a group have an advantage in foraging for food , and these queens will usually experience higher survival than solitary queens .\nin the united states , the situation is different . no nuptial flights have been reported , and new infestations appear to be caused by human - aided dispersal , particularly with the movement of infested soil , mulch , and potted plants . colonies that are already established spread to adjacent areas via budding . this occurs when one or more queens and a group of workers , frequently with brood , move from an existing colony to a new nest site to form a satellite colony . maine populations overwinter with slow brood ( third instars ) , but it is not certain whether colonies produce rapid as well as slow brood .\nchemical control . if chemical control is necessary , the label of an insecticide labeled for ants should be followed precisely . currently , the most effective materials to use are the food bait - based insecticides . unfortunately , none of the insecticides screened by the entomology program at the university of maine have successfully eliminated these ant populations . low concentrations ( less than 1 % ) of boric acid mixed with a sugar attractant have been successful in the laboratory ; however , results in the field have been inconsistent . other control tactics are currently under evaluation .\nfor more information about the management of european fire ants , or any other pestiferous ants in gardens , yards , landscapes , or parks , please contact the local cooperative extension service office .\nthis featured creature publication is a cooperative effort between entomologists at the university of maine and the university of florida ( uf ) . the senior author received his ph . d . at uf in fall 2006 . the research he and his colleagues are doing on this species of ant is important as its potential range includes florida .\nthe authors thank dr . frank drummond from the university of maine for his constructive comments to an earlier version of this manuscript , and to the university of maine ' s ant team for their collaboration with the project .\nbolton b , alpert g , ward ps , naskrecki p . 2006 . bolton ' s catalogue of ants of the world : 1758 - 2005 . harvard university press , cambridge , ma .\nczechowski w , radchenko a , czechowska w . 2000 . the ants ( hymenoptera , formicidae ) of poland . warszawa , poland . 200 p .\nmouquet n , belrose v , thomas ja , elmes gw , clarke rt , hochberg me . 2005 . conserving community modules : a case study of the endangered lycaenid butterfly maculinea alcon . ecology 86 : 3160 - 3173\nphotographs : e . groden , f drummond and h . a . arevalo , university of maine\n, the common black garden ant , it certainly is known by our gardeners and household owners due to its tendency to enter houses . it tends to nest under pavements , in soil , along the edges of lawns , in fact almost anywhere . it is a very quick , robust and prolific ant , using formic acid and its jaws as a means of attack / defence . its colonies can grow up to a size of 15 , 000 workers , though about 4000 to 7000 is perhaps the average . they eat insects , nectar , and even the bodies of their own dead , or ants from other colonies . they are also very fond of sugary substances but eats a variety of insects including flies , beetles , the larvae of various flies and beetles , fruit and honeydew .\nthey are perhaps one of the easiest ants to keep in captivity due to the fact that they are harmless and possess no sting . they are a very interesting and active ant .\n, the yellow meadow ant . these ants build small mounds in our lawns and are often mistaken for red ants due to their yellow -\nit is the most skilled nest builder found in the uk and can also be found in fields and meadows where they build much larger mounds ."]}
{"id": 1867, "summary": [{"text": "heliconius demeter , the demeter longwing , is a butterfly of the nymphalidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by otto staudinger in 1897 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in the amazon basin , from guyana to peru and bolivia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of sand forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the larvae are gregarious and feed on dilkea and mitostemma species .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "full-grown larvae have a yellow body with black spots or bands and a black head .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they reach a length of about 20 mm . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "heliconius demeter", "paragraphs": ["andrew brower marked\nfile : heliconius demeter bouqueti mhnt . jpg\nas trusted on the\nheliconius demeter staudinger , 1896\npage .\nandrew brower marked\nfile : heliconius demeter bouqueti mhnt ventre . jpg\nas trusted on the\nheliconius demeter staudinger , 1896\npage .\nandrew brower marked\nfile : heliconius demeter bouqueti mhnt dos . jpg\nas trusted on the\nheliconius demeter staudinger , 1896\npage .\nheliconius demeter , the demeter longwing , is a butterfly of the nymphalidae family . it was described by otto staudinger in 1897 . it is found in the amazon basin , from guyana to peru and bolivia . the habitat consists of sand forests .\nthe helicomans of brazil ( lepidoptera : nymphalidae ) part vi . aspects of the biology and ecology of heliconius demeter , with description of four new subspecies\nthe heliconians of brazil ( lepidoptera , nymphalidae ) . part iv . aspects of the biology and ecology of heliconius demeter , with description of four new subspecies\ndemeter .\nencyclopedia mythica from encyclopedia mythica online . urltoken [ accessed may 22 , 2008 ] .\nhost plant : h . demeter larvae feed primarily on plants from the genera dilkea and mitostemma ( brown , 1981 ) .\netymology : demeter is the greek earth goddess , who brings forth the fruits of the earth , particularly the various grains . she taught mankind the art of sowing and ploughing so they could end their nomadic existence . as such , demeter was also the goddess of planned society . she was very popular with the rural population . as a fertility goddess she is sometimes identified with rhea and gaia ( demeter ) .\nadaptive polymorphism associated with multiple m\u00fcllerian mimicry in heliconius numata ( lepid . nymph . )\nsemispecies relationships between heliconius erato cyrbia godt . and h . himera hew . in southwestern ecuador\nthe heliconians of brazil ( lepidoptera : nymphalidae ) . part iii . ecology and biology of heliconius nattereri , a key primitive species near extinction , and comments on the evolutionary development of heliconius and\nthe heliconians of brazil ( lepidoptera : nymphalidae ) . part iii . ecology and biology of heliconius nattereri , a key primitive species near extinction , and comments on the evolutionary development of heliconius and eueides\nheliconius demeter is distributed in the amazon basin . the map below shows an approximate representation of the geographic distribution of this species . the original data used to draw these maps is derived from brown ( 1979 ) which is available at keith s . brown jr . ( 1979 ) . ecological geography and evolution in neotropical forests .\nheliconius butterflies with proboscis bearing pollen collected from flowers . the diets of most lepidoptera are very limited in nitrogenous compounds , and pollen feeding is thought to increase longevity and egg production in heliconius butterflies . images \u00a9 mathieu joron\nthe heliconians of brazil ( lepidoptera nymphalidae ) . part vii . evolution in modern amazonian non - forest islands : heliconius hermathena\nbrown k . s . 1981 the biology of heliconius and related genera . annual review of entomology 26 , 427 - 456 .\nthe heliconius genome consortium . 2012 . butterfly genome reveals promiscuous exchange of mimicry adaptations among species . nature ( 2012 ) vol . 487 .\nheliconius sapho male sitting on a female pupa . mating takes place as the female begins to eclose , and females mate only once . \u00a9 jamie walters\nholzinger , h and holzinger , r , 1994 . heliconius and related genera . sciences nat , venette , pp . 1\u2013328 , pl . 1\u201351 [ 1 ]\nh . demeter occurs from sea level to 1 , 100 m in sand forest . the males sit on female pupae a day before emergence , and mating occurs the next morning , before the female has completely eclosed . adults roost at night in loose groups 2 - 10 m above ground and under leaves ( brown , 1981 ) .\na cryptic species discovered in heliconius ! it is not always the case that mtdna ' barcode ' differences correctly delimit separate species . however , we recently found two cryptic heliconius species that co - occur in sympatry in a narrow zone of overlap in amazonia , initially via barcoding . furthermore , the two taxa are co - mimics , so no mimicry switch led to speciation here , although we had thought that mimicry switches typically accompanied speciation in the genus heliconius . rosser et al . 2018 .\njoel smith and marcus r . kronforst . \u201cdo heliconius butterflies species exchange mimicry alleles ? \u201d bio . lett . 2013 9 , 20130503 , published 17 july 2013 .\ngilbert l . e . 1972 . feeding and reproductive biology of heliconius butterflies . proc . nat . acad . sci . 69 ( 6 ) : 1403 - 1407\nstaudinger o . 1897 . neue heliconius - arten und formen . deutsche entomologische zeitschrift\niris\n9 ( 2 ) : 284 - 317 , pls . 6 - 7 .\na widespread neotropical species . h . sara is a relatively small heliconius , and member of one of the few sister - taxon mimetic pairs ( with h . leucadia ) .\nthe heliconius butterflies are the most speciose genus within the heliconiini , displaying a dramatic diversity of colour patterns at species and sub - species level . they are also famous for m\u00fcllerian mimicry , with many species converging on a common wing pattern where they live together . heliconius communities commonly consist of several \u2018mimicry rings\u2019 , groups of species that share a common pattern .\nmavarez j , c salazar , e bermingham , c salcedo , c jiggins , m linares . 2006 . speciation by hybridization in the heliconius butterflies . nature 441 : 868 - 871\nsourakov , andrei . ( 2008 ) . pupal mating in zebra longwing ( heliconius charithonia ) : photographic evidence . news of the lepidopterists ' society 50 ( 1 ) : 26 - 32 .\nheliconius are recognized by their large eyes , long antennae , characteristic elongate wing - shape , teardrop - shaped hindwing discal cell , and distinctive colour patterns . the hostplants are all passifloreae , and there is some phylogenetic association between species groups of passiflora and the heliconius species that feed on them ( benson et al . , 1976 ; brower , 1997 ) ( see each species for more details ) .\nnahrstedt a , r . h . davis . 1980 . the occurrence of the cyanoglucosides linamarin and lotaustralin , in acraea and heliconius butterflies . comp . biochem . physiol . 68b : 575 - 577 .\nkronforst , m r , young , l g , blume , l m and gilbert , l e , 2006 . multilocus analyses of admixture and introgression among hybridizing heliconius butterflies . evolution , 60 , 1254\u201368 .\nmavarez , j , salazar , c a , bermingham , e , salcedo , c , jiggins , c d and linares , m , 2006 . speciation by hybridization in heliconius butterflies . nature 441 : 868\u201371 .\nbrower a v z ( 2011 ) .\nhybrid speciation in heliconius butterflies ? a review and critique of the evidence\n. genetica 139 ( 2 ) : 589\u2013609 . doi : 10 . 1007 / s10709 - 010 - 9530 - 4 .\nrosser n , freitas avl , huertas b , joron m , lamas g , m\u00e9rot c , simpson f , willmott k , mallet j , dasmahapatra kk . a new cryptic species of heliconius ( lepidoptera : nymphalidae ) . submitted . 2018 .\njoron , m , papa , r , beltran , m , chamberlain , n , mavarez , j , baxter , s and abanto , m , 2006 . a conserved supergene locus controls color pattern diversity in heliconius butterflies . plos biology 4 : 1831\u201340\nmallet , j . , gilbert , l . 1994 . why are there so many mimicry rings ? correlations between habitats , behaviour , and mimicry in heliconius butterlies . 1994 . biological journal of the linnean society ( 1995 ) , 55 : 159 - 180 .\nbaxter , s w , papa , r , chamberlain , n , humphray , j s , joron , m , morrison , c and ffrench - constant , r h , 2008 . convergent evolution in the genetic basis of m\u00fcllerian mimicry in heliconius butterflies . genetics 180 : 1567\u201377\nmavarez , j . ; salazar , c . a . ; bermingham , e . ; salcedo , c . ; jiggins , c . d . ; linares , m . ( 2006 ) .\nspeciation by hybridization in heliconius butterflies\n. nature 441 ( 7095 ) : 868\u201371\nfor discussion of the monophyly of the genus as presented here and relationships among heliconiine genera , see the heliconiini page . within heliconius the relationships presented here are based on molecular sequence data for 3 mtdna and 4 nuclear gene regions ( beltran et al . 2007 ) . there is also a highly supported monophyletic \u2018pupal - mating clade\u2019 suggesting that pupal mating behaviour evolved only once in the heliconiina ( see tree above ) . within heliconius , the absence of a signum on the female bursa copulatrix is a morphological character that defines the pupal - mating group ( penz , 1999 ) .\nwe generated a comprehensive gene orthology analyses spanning 23 genomes ( 21 species , but with two sets of genomes / gene - predictions for heliconius erato and plutella xylostella ) . rather than using the ensembl compara pipeline as is , we used current best practices in gene - tree reconstruction such as :\none puzzling thought with mullerian mimicry / convergence is it would be predicted the butterflies would all eventually converge on the same color and pattern for the highest predator education . instead heliconius butterflies are greatly diverse , and even form multiple \u2018mimicry rings\u2019 within the same geographical area . additional evolutionary forces are likely at work .\ncounterman , b a , araujo - perez , f , hines , h m , baxter , s w , morrison , c m , lindstrom , d p and papa , r , 2010 . genomic hotspots for adaptation : the population genetics of m\u00fcllerian mimicry in heliconius erato . plos genetics 6 : - .\ngilbert ( 1991 ) suggested that pupal - mating might play an important role in the radiation of heliconius as well as in the packing of heliconius species into local habitats . pupal - mating might enhance the possibility of intrageneric mimicry because in many cases , mimetic species pairs consist of a pupal - mating and a non pupal - mating species . the strikingly different mating tactics of these groups could allow phenotypically identical species to occupy the same habitats without mate recognition errors . second , this mating tactic may influence host - plant specialisation , as it has been suggested that pupal - mating species may displace other heliconiines from their hosts by interference competition ( gilbert , 1991 ) . males of these species sit on , attempt to mate with , and disrupt eclosion of other heliconius species of both mating types encountered on the host plant . this aggressive behaviour may prevent other heliconiine species from evolving preference for host plants used by pupal - mating species .\na second unusual trait found in some heliconius species is a unique mating behaviour known as pupal - mating . males of certain species search larval food plants for female pupae . the males then sit on the pupae a day before emergence , and mating occurs the next morning , before the female has completely eclosed ( gilbert , 1976 ; deinert et al . 1994 ) . various kinds of pupal - mating occur scattered across several insect orders ( thornhill & alcock , 1993 ) ; in passion - vine butterflies almost half the heliconius species ( 42 % ) are pupal - maters ( gilbert , 1991 , pupal mating clade marked in the cladogram above ) .\nheliconius sara is widespread throughout central america and south america . this map shows an approximate representation of the geographic distribution of this species . the original data used to draw these maps are derived from brown ( 1979 ) which is available at keith s . brown jr . ( 1979 ) . ecological geography and evolution in neotropical forests .\nthe heliconius genome consortium has released 24 new heliconiine genome assemblies using the w2 - wrap contigger and a - scaff tools , courtesy jim mallet and bernardo clavijo\u2019s group at earlham institute . some of the samples are species crosses or were contaminated , but we decided to host them as separate genome assemblies to make them easier to search against :\nheliconius female butterflies also disperse their eggs much slower than other species of butterflies . they obtain their nutrients for egg production through pollen in the adult stage rather than the larval stage . due to nutrient collection in the adult rather than larval stage , adult females have an extensively longer life compared to others species which allows them to better disperse their eggs for survival and speciation .\nsupple , m . , hines , h . , dasmahapatra , k . , lewis j . , nielsen d . , lavoie , c . , ray , d . , salavar , c . , mcmillan , o . , counterman , b . 2103 . genomic architecture of adaptive color pattern divergence and convergence in heliconius butterflies . genome research ( 2013 ) : gr - 150615 .\nheliconius comprises a colorful and widespread genus of brush - footed butterfly commonly known as the longwings or heliconians . this genus is distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the new world , from south america as far north as the southern united states . the larvae of these butterflies eat passion flower vines ( passifloraceae ) . adults exhibit bright wing color patterns to signal their distastefulness to potential predators .\nbrought to the forefront of scientific attention by victorian naturalists , these butterflies exhibit a striking diversity and mimicry , both amongst themselves and with species in other groups of butterflies and moths . the study of heliconius and other groups of mimetic butterflies allowed the english naturalist henry walter bates , following his return from brazil in 1859 , to lend support to charles darwin , who had found similar diversity amongst the galapagos finches .\nheliconius butterflies have been a subject of many studies , due partly to their abundance and the relative ease of breeding them under laboratory conditions , but also because of the extensive mimicry that occurs in this group . from the nineteenth century to the present - day , their study has helped scientists to understand how new species are formed and why nature is so diverse . in particular , the genus is suitable for the study of both batesian mimicry and m\u00fcllerian mimicry .\neach page contains information about a particular group , e . g . , salamanders , segmented worms , phlox flowers , tyrannosaurs , euglenids , heliconius butterflies , club fungi , or the vampire squid . tol pages are linked one to another hierarchically , in the form of the evolutionary tree of life . starting with the root of all life on earth and moving out along diverging branches to individual species , the structure of the tol project thus illustrates the genetic connections between all living things .\nheliconius butterflies have two unique , derived ecological traits that may have facilitated rapid adaptive radiation : pollen feeding and pupal - mating behaviour ( gilbert , 1972 ) . adult butterflies systematically collect pollen from flowers , which they masticate on the proboscis to dissolve out amino acids . this allows caterpillars to develop relatively rapidly ( since they do not need to store nutrients for egg and sperm production ) , and allows adults to have a greatly extended lifespan \u2013 up to 8 months \u2013 in the wild .\netymology : heliconius signifies dwellers on mount helicon ( turner , 1976 ) ( see each species for more information ) . helicon is a mountain in southern greece , in boeotia , regarded in ancient greece , as the source of poetry and inspiration . from it flowed the fountains of aganippe and hippocrene , associated with muses . the nine muses are daughters of zeus and mnemosyne , the goddess of memory . the muses sat near the throne of zeus , king of the gods , and sang of his greatness and of the origin of the world and its inhabitants and the glorious deeds of the great heroes . from their name words such as music , museum , mosaic are derived ( muses ) . the nine muses are :\nthe biology of heliconius butterflies has provided a rich source of data to test theories of ecological genetics , coevolution and community ecology . many putatively adaptive characters have been discussed with reference to a phylogenetic hypothesis based on a variety of morphological and life - history traits interpreted from an evolutionary taxonomic perspective . here , alternate interpretations of characters on the traditional tree and a more recent mitochondrial dna cladogram with a substantially different topology are compared and contrasted . it is shown that many characters ostensibly providing support for the traditional phylogenetic hypothesis are almost equally parsimoniously distributed and in some cases more parsimoniously distributed on the mtdna tree than on the tree inferred from those characters . discussion of alternate evolutionary scenarios based on the mdna - based topology is presented for pupal mating , pollen feeding , foodplant coevolution , and other ecologically significant features .\nthe process of adaptive radiation and convergence , usually regarded as a feature of macro - evolution , can be seen in the mimetic colour patterns of the butterflies within the confines of the south american genus heliconius . this can be shown by dividing the genus into subgroups on the basis of adult , pupal and larval morphology : the theory that the mimicry between species results solely from close systematic relationships is thereby refuted , as members of the same morphological group can display widely divergent mimetic patterns , and conversely mutual mimics may belong to several different morphological groups . various forms of parallel and convergent evolution are thought to account for the present pattern of mimicry , the process is known to start even before full speciation has taken place . a new subgenus ( neruda ) is created to contain three atypical members of the genus .\nheliconius butterflies show a continuum of geographic divergence and speciation ; they are unpalatable and exhibit inter - and intraspecific diversification of colour and patterns . bates\u2019 classic paper ( bates , 1862 ) , reflecting observations during his stay in the amazon , showed a geographical pattern for the different colour forms : similar between species within any one area of the amazon basin , but the mimetic colour patterns themselves changed every 100 - 200 miles . beside this geographic divergence , closely related species within an area often belonged to mimicry \u201crings\u201d ( groups of unpalatable species , together with some palatable species , that have converged on the same warning colour pattern ) ( brower et al . , 1964 ; mallet and gilbert , 1995 ) . bates\u2019 system has all the intermediate stages between local varieties , geographic races , and sympatric species that make it an excellent biological model to study selection , hybridization and gene flow at the species boundary . see maps attached to each species .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nearly stages : eggs are yellow and approximately 1 . 3 x 0 . 7 mm ( h x w ) . females usually place 1 to 15 eggs on growing shoots of the host plant . mature larvae have a yellow body with black spots or bands , and whit black scoli and head ; length is around 2 cm . caterpillars are gregarious ( brown , 1981 ) .\nthis media file is licensed under the creative commons attribution - noncommercial - sharealike license - version 3 . 0 .\n. note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own license , and they may or may not be available for reuse . click on an image or a media link to access the media data window , which provides the relevant licensing information . for the general terms and conditions of tol material reuse and redistribution , please see the\neach tol leaf page provides a synopsis of the characteristics of a group of organisms representing a leaf at the tip of the tree of life . the major distinction between a leaf and a branch of the tree of life is that a leaf cannot generally be further subdivided into subgroups representing distinct genetic lineages .\nfor a more detailed explanation of the different tol page types , have a look at the structure of the tree of life page .\ntree of life design and icons copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2004 tree of life project . all rights reserved .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nversion 4 of lepbase , the hub for lepidopteran genomes , not only includes several new genome assemblies and annotations , but also showcases a re - engineered infrastructure that will enable other groups to easily set up their own ensembl - based genome hubs in the future .\npreviously , lepbase v3 had hosted ncbi refseq annotations for papilio xuthus and papilio polytes . refseq annotations are independent gene predictions generated by the ncbi , but may include sequence data that are not present in the genome assemblies because they use additional information from independent transcripts . in lepbase v4 we have also included the original gene predictions from the fujiwara lab that sequenced these genomes :\npapilio xuthus pxut 1 . 0 papilio xuthus pxut 1 . 0 refseq papilio polytes ppol 1 . 0 papilio polytes ppol 1 . 0 refseq\ngenome assembly version remains the same ( hmel2 ) , but the annotation has now been updated to include braker 1 . 0\npredictions based on several independently sequenced rnaseq libraries , in collaboration with chris jiggins\u2019 lab . manual annotations and old gene names have been retained where the overlap is unambiguous .\nseveral new assembly - only species were also added to lepbase v4 . although no gene prediction sets are available for these species , you can download the genome fasta files at urltoken and do blast searches against them at urltoken .\nwe are also planning to make these assemblies more useful by running a comparative gene prediction across all the heliconiines . the first step towards this is to compute a whole - genome alignment using progressive cactus\nover 12 , 000 orthofinder clusters were processed into gene trees which can be accessed from their constituent gene pages in the lepbase ensembl browser .\nthe goal of this analysis was to provide a context for each gene . however , as with all automated analyses , it may contain artifacts due to differences in gene prediction methods or due to generic parameters used in the pipeline . if you are interested in a highly accurate reconstruction of a specific gene family , you can download all the sequence and alignment data for a given gene and its homologues , and redo the tree using your preferred phylogenetic pipeline . the specific steps and evaluations for each part of our gene - tree pipeline will be described in forthcoming technical notes .\none of the key features of lepbase is that we provide consistent analyses across all genomes using the same software and database versions and parameters . all genome sequences were masked using repeatmasker 4 . 0 . 6 with the built - in arthropod repeat database . previous lepbase releases used repeatmodeler to generate species - specific repeat libraries . however , we found that repeatmodeler risks masking recently expanded gene families , therefore we took a more conservative approach and did not use repeatmodeler for this v4 release .\nwe also provide functional annotations for protein - coding genes in all species with gene models using blastp against the swissprot database , and using all the tools provided by interproscan .\nurltoken previously ran on linux virtual machines because of the complex dependencies of the various software programs involved . for lepbase release v4 , we have successfully migrated all the services , including the import and annotation pipelines for new genomes , to a docker - based container infrastructure .\nnone of this affects how the service looks to the outside world , but it makes it much easier for us to upgrade the software as new versions of ensembl and other software are released . we will also be able to easily scale up individual services to meet the growing number of users .\nalthough all our code is public already ( see urltoken and urltoken ) , we plan to document it extensively in the coming weeks , so that other groups can rapidly and easily set up their own taxon - specific ensembl - based genome hubs using our docker infrastructure .\nthis entry lacks etymological information . if you are familiar with the origin of this term , please add it to the page per etymology instructions . you can also discuss it at the etymology scriptorium .\nthis page was last edited on 16 may 2017 , at 00 : 25 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nthe larvae are gregarious and feed on dilkea and mitostemma species . full - grown larvae have a yellow body with black spots or bands and a black head . they reach a length of about 20 mm .\ncolour pattern diversity of h . numata ( top two rows ) , and h . melpomene ( third row ) with its co - mimic h . erato ( bottom row ) .\nmechanitis polymnia ( l . ) , 1758 ( ithomiini ) ( a variant spelling of polyhymnia )\nmembers of the genus are found from the southern united states throughout central and south america and the west indies , with the greatest diversity of species in the amazon basin ( emsley , 1965 ; devries , 1987 ) .\nmany pairs or groups of co - mimetic species such as h . erato ( top ) and h . melpomene ( bottom ) have evolved a diversity of geographic races or subspecies . the two species look identical in any one locality but their patterns change in concert across their geographic range ; localities left to right : zamora , ecuador ; puyo , ecuador ; tarapoto , peru ; guayaquil , ecuador ; yurimaguas , peru . \u00a9 1999 james mallet\ncrenis\nredirects here . for another genus of brush - footed butterfly with the same ( invalid ) name , see sevenia .\ncaterpillars favor and the resulting poisons they store in their tissues , the adult butterflies are usually unpalatable to predators .\n, has revealed that homologous genomic regions in the species are responsible for the convergence in wing patterns .\nhaving no shared single nucleotide polymorphisms ( snps ) , which would be indicative of introgression , and hypothesized the same regulatory genes for color / pattern had comparably changed in response to the same selective forces .\nshares the same patterning homologues , but that these loci are locked into a wing patterning supergene that results in a lack of recombination and a finite set of wing pattern morphs .\n, it was found that gene sequences around mimicry loci were more recently diverged in comparison with the rest of the genome , providing evidence for speciation by hybridization over speciation by ancestral polymorphism .\n. results from supple and his team have revealed showed snp\u2019s being polymorphic mostly around hybrid zones of a genome , and they claimed this supported the mechanism of introgression over ancestral variation for genetic material exchange for certain species .\nselection factors can drive introgression to revolve around genes correlated with wing pattern and color .\nto see its mating habits in regards to preference between other hybrids and its parental species . the results showed\n, while the parental species were highly unlikely to reproduce with the backcrosses . this is significant , because hybrids\u2019 mating behavior would relatively quickly isolate itself from its parental species , and eventually form a species itself , as defined by lack of gene flow . his team also hypothesized that along with a mixed inheritance of color and pattern , the hybrids also obtained a mixed preference for mates from their parental species genes . the\nlikely had a genetic attraction for other hybrids , leading to its reproductive isolation and speciation .\nbutterflies are an example of homoploid hybrid speciation , i . e . hybridization without changing the number of chromosomes .\nin order for the aposematism and mimicry to be successful in the butterflies they must continually evolve their colors to warn predators of their unpalatability . sexual selection is important in maintaining the aposematism as it helps to select for specific shades of colors rather than general colors . a research team used techniques to determine some the color qualities of a set of butterflies . they found that color was more vivid on the dorsal side of the butterflies rather than on the ventral . also , for the comparison of sexes , females appeared to have differing brightness in specific spots .\nit is important to select for specific colors to avoid subtle shades in any of the species involved in the mimicry . if any colors are not successful in their warning it will negatively affect the success of the aposematism because it cannot warn predators as efficiently . in order to select for specific colors , neural receptors in the butterflies\u2019 brains give a disproportionate recognition and selection of those shades .\nin order to test the importance of these neural and visual cues in the butterflies , researchers conducted an experiment where they eliminated colors from butterflies\u2019 wings . when a color was eliminated , the butterfly was less successful in attracting mates and therefore did not reproduce as much as its counterparts\nhas evolved two forms of mating . the main form is general sexual reproduction . some species of\nhowever , have converged evolutionarily in regards to pupal mating . one such species to exhibit this behavior is\nfinds a female pupae and waits until a day before she is moulted before he mates . with this type of mating there is no sexual selection present .\nthis form of egg production is helpful because larva are much more vulnerable than adult stages , although they also utilize aposematism . because many of the nutrients needed to produce eggs are obtained in the adult stage the larval stage is much shorter and less susceptible to predation .\nbutterflies use cyanic characteristics , meaning they produce substances that have a cyanide group attached to them , ultimately making them harmful . research has found that the amino acids needed to make the cyanic compounds come from feeding on pollen .\nalthough feeding on pollen takes longer than nectar feeding , the aposematic characteristics help to warn predators away and give them more time for feeding .\nlarvae feed on the passifloraceae plant , which also has cyanic characteristics , the larvae have evolved the ability to neutralize the cyanic molecules to protect them from the negative effects of the plant .\nspecies . these are listed alphabetically here , according to gerardo lamas ' ( 2004 ) checklist .\nnote that the subspecific nomenclature is incomplete for many species ( there are over 2000 published names associated with the genus , many of which are subjective synonyms or infrasubspecific names ) .\njoron , m , frezal , l , jones , r t , chamberlain , n l ,\net al .\n2011 . chromosomal rearrangements maintain a polymorphic supergene controlling butterfly mimicry .\nnature\n477 : 203\u201308\nnadeau , n . , martin , s . , kozak , k . , salazar , c . , dasmahapatra , k . , davey , j . , baxter , s . , blaxter , m . , mallet , j . , jiggins c . 2012 . genome - wide patterns of divergence and gene flow across a butterfly radiation . molecular ecology ( 2013 ) 22 , 814 - 826 .\nmelo , m . , salazar , c . , jiggins , c . , and linares , m . 2008 . assortative mating preferences among hybrids offer a route to hybrid speciation . evolution 63 . 6 ( 2009 : 1660 - 1665 ) .\nprezeczek k , c . mueller , and s . m . vamosi . 2008 . the evolution of the aposematism is accompanied by increased diversification . integrative zoology . 3 : 149 - 156 .\nllaurens v , m joron , and m . thery . 2014 . cryptic differences in colour among mullerian mimics : how can the visual capacities of predators and prey shape the evolution of wingcolours ? . j . evol . biol . 27 : 531 - 540 .\nvane - wright r . i , p . r . ackery eds . 1984 . the biology of butterflies . symposium of the royal entomological society of london . number 11 . academic press , london , u . k .\nrosser n , phillimore ab , huertas b , willmott kr , & mallet j . 2012 . testing historical explanations for gradients in species richness in heliconiine butterflies of tropical america . biological journal of the linnean society 105 : 479 - 497 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1095 - 8312 . 2011 . 01814 . x\nprice p . w . , t . m . lewinsohn , g . w . fernandes , w . w . benson eds . 1991 . plant - animal interactions : evolutionary ecology in tropical and temperate regions . john wiley and sons , inc , new . york , united states .\nlamas , g ( ed ) , 2004 . atlas of neotropical lepidoptera . checklist : part 4a hesperioidea \u2013 papiionoidea . gainesville , scientific publishers / association of tropical lepidoptera .\nkapan , d d , 2001 . three - butterfly system provides a field test of m\u00fcllerian mimicry . nature , 409 , 338\u201340 .\nmallet , j , beltr\u00e1n , m , neukirchen , w , and linares , m , 2007 . natural hybridization in heliconiine butterflies : the species boundary as a continuum . bmc evol biol , 7 , 28 . abstract\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\nj\u00e4hrlich werden tausende tierarten und pflanzenarten , pilze und bakterien neu benannt und man geht davon aus , dass noch millionen auf ihre entdeckung und ihre taxonomische einordnung warten . da es sich bei zoologie , botanik , mykologie und bakteriologie um wissenschaften handelt , geht man davon aus , dass die wissenschaftler ihren entdeckungen immer seri\u00f6se namen geben , die vorwiegend aus dem griechischen oder lateinischen stammen . dies ist auch \u00fcberwiegend der fall . aber bei den vielen tausend benennungen bleibt immer noch genug spielraum , so dass sich einzelne junggebliebende wissenschafter bei der vergabe von kuriosen namen austoben k\u00f6nnen . da findet man namen von personen , g\u00f6ttern , aus der literatur , namen von orten und dingen , anz\u00fcgliches , akronyme , interjektionen , lautmalerische bezeichnungen , wortspiele , eigennamen , anagramme , isogramme , palindrome , reime , tautonyme , oxymorons . und zu den gew\u00e4hlten namen gibt es manchmal auch \u00e4u\u00dferst interessante erkl\u00e4rungen zum grund der namenswahl . manchmal nimmt ein artname bezug auf eine eigenschaft des bezeichneten tieres oder der pflanze . es gibt aber auch f\u00e4lle , da geht es dem namensgeber einzig und allein darum , aufzufallen , oder die aufmerksamkeit auf ein bestimmtes anliegen , wie etwa das artensterben , zu lenken .\nscientific names of organisms are not usually known for their entertainment value . they are indispensable for clarity in communication , but most people skip over them with barely a glance . here i collect those names that are worth a second look .\nsome names are interesting for what they are named after ( for example ,\narthurdactylus conandoylensis\n,\ngodzillius\n) , some are puns (\nla cucaracha\n,\nphthiria relativitae\n) , and some show other kinds of wordplay ( such as the palindromic\norizabus subaziro\n) . some have achieved notability through accident of history , and many show the sense of humor of taxonomists .\nrules\ngives a brief overview of the rules governing biological naming ( and , along the way , includes several curious examples ) .\netymology\nlists names that are notable for what they are named after .\nwordplay\nincludes all unusual features of names other than their meaning and pronunciation .\ngene names\nlists a few of the interesting names which have been given to genes .\nmisc .\nincludes things which do not fit elsewhere , including other curious biological terms , interesting stories about names , and some creative writing .\nreferences\nincludes also links , acknowledgements , and a list of the newest entries .\nfeedback\ngives directions and requests to those who want to contact me .\nthe names which are recent additions to this collection will be shown in a brighter shade of red . ( how recent depends on how often i update . i ' ll try to keep the newest names distinctive for about a month . ) the most recent additions are also listed separately , with links to the page each appears on .\nour knowledge of the many life - forms on earth - of animals , plants , fungi , protists and bacteria - is scattered around the world in books , journals , databases , websites , specimen collections , and in the minds of people everywhere . imagine what it would mean if this information could be gathered together and made available to everyone - anywhere - at a moment\u2019s notice .\nour mission : to increase awareness and understanding of living nature through an encyclopedia of life that gathers , generates , and shares knowledge in an open , freely accessible and trusted digital resource .\ngood managers of natural resources and policy - makers know that their best decisions are based on results from the most accurate scientific analyses . such analyses are based on solid , documentable data that have been recorded directly from the observation of nature . such records are called\nprimary\ndata .\nbiodiversity\nis a handy , one - word name for all the species on the earth , the genetic variety they possess , and the ecological systems in which they participate . another way of thinking about biodiversity is as the\nliving resources\nportion of\nnatural resources\n. a large part of the primary data on biodiversity are the 1 . 5 - 2 . 0 billion specimens held in natural history collections , as well as many geographical and ecological observations recorded by various means and stored in various media .\nin making living resource policy and management choices , decision - makers are often forced to rely on analyses that are not based on primary data . this is because the world ' s store of primary data about biodiversity is not at present readily and easily accessible .\nfuture generations depend on the efforts made today to develop methods for sustainably using biodiversity . one very important part of the solution is rapidly , openly and freely delivering primary data about biodiversity to everyone in the global community , using digital technologies . another part is ensuring that the primary data being collected today are stored in such a way that they will remain accessible to future generations .\nluca\nist so etwas wie\nadam und eva\n. es ist die abk\u00fcrzung f\u00fcr\nlast universal common ancester\n. man vermutet die entstehung dieser urzelle , aus der alle lebensformen abstammen vor etwa 3 mird . jahren .\nthe\ntree of life\nweb project (\ntol\n) is a collaborative effort of biologists and nature enthusiasts from around the world . on more than 10 , 000 world wide web pages , the project provides information about biodiversity , the characteristics of different groups of organisms , and their evolutionary history ( phylogeny ) .\nthe tree of life currently consists of more than 3000 pages with information about different groups of organisms . this part of the website is too extensive to present a full map here .\nthe tol glossary is still under construction . we expect to greatly expand it over the next few months . the current page contains a listing of all the available tol glossary terms .\nyou can set your preferences for browsing the tol web site so that words contained in the glossary list are highlighted on tol pages , and definitions are displayed when you move the cursor over a highlighted word . if you would like to try this now , click on the turn glossary on button below , and then go to a tol page that features some of the terms in the list below ( the eukaryotes page is a good one ) . note that you can turn the glossary function on and off on any tol branch page , leaf page , other article , note , or treehouse . open the preferences menu and select either show glossary entries or hide glossary entries .\nthese categories are explained in more detail on the structure of the tree of life page .\nchelomophrynus | rhinophrynus | rhinophrynus dorsalis | rhinophrynus sp . | ( i ) | ' pipids ' | cordicephalus | eoxenopoides | saltenia | shomronella | thoraciliacus | palaeobatrachidae | albionbatrachus | lithobatrachus | neusibatrachus | palaeobatrachus | pliobatrachus | pipidae\ncorydoras | corydoras garbei | etc . | brochis | brochis britskii | brochis multiradiatus | brochis splendens\nagaricophagus | allocolenisia | ansibaris | cainosternum | colenis | colenisia | dermatohomoeus | neohydnobius | perkovskius | pseudcolenis | zelodes | scotocryptini | aglyptinus | aglyptinus s . l . | creagrophorus | cyrtusiola | parabystus | popeus | scotocryptodes | scotocryptus | synaristus | termitoglobus | agathidiini | afroagathidium | agathidium | amphicyllis | anisotoma | besuchetionella | cyrtoplastus | decuria | gelae | liodopria | sphaeroliodes | stetholiodes | catopocerinae | catopocerus | glacicavicola\naleocharini | aleocharina | aleochara | aleochara ( heterochara ) | aleochara ( aleochara s . str . ) | aleochara ( aidochara ) | aleochara ( euryodma ) | aleochara ( ceranota ) | aleochara ( emplenota ) | aleochara obscurella | aleochara phycophila | aleochara albopila | aleochara fucicola | aleochara puetzi | aleochara pacifica | aleochara curtidens | aleochara ( triochara ) | aleochara trisulcata | aleochara zerchei | aleochara nubis | aleochara ( maseochara )\naleochara brunneipennis | aleochara ituriensis | aleochara horni | aleochara javana | aleochara argentina | aleochara comorensis | aleochara ( echochara ) | aleochara lobata | aleochara lucifuga | aleochara ocularis | aleochara fenyesi | aleochara ( calochara ) | aleochara ( mesochara ) | aleochara ( xenochara s . l . ) | aleochara ( rheochara ) | aleochara ( polystomota ) | aleochara grisea | aleochara punctatella | aleochara ( coprochara )\nceratoderina | ceratoderus | merismoderus | paussomorphus | leleupaussus | paussina | amphipaussus | apopaussus | bathypaussus | batillopaussus | bicornipaussus | cochliopaussus | crenatopaussus | curtispaussus | edaphopaussus | enneapaussus | falcopaussus | flagellopaussus | hylopaussus | hylotorus | idupaussus | katapaussus | klugipaussus | latipaussus | lineatopaussus | malgasipaussus | manicanopaussus | paussus | scaphipaussus | semipaussus | spinicoxipaussus | squamipaussus | trepopaussus | anapaussus | platyrhopalina | euplatyrhopalus | lebioderus | platyrhopalopsis | platyrhopalus | stenorhopalus | eopaussus baliticus | arthropterites klebesi | protocerapterus | protocerapterus primigenius | protocerapterus incola | succinarthropterus | succinarthropterus andreei | succinarthropterus antiquus | succinarthropterus aterrimus | succinarthropterus balticus | succinarthropterus fritschi | | succinarthropterus hermenaui | succinarthropterus kuntzeni | succinarthropterus schaufussi | succinarthropterus simoni | succinarthropterus skawarrae | succinarthropterus subtilis | protopaussini | protopaussus feae | protopaussus almorensis | protopaussus pristinus | protopaussus walkeri | protopaussus kaszabi | protopaussus jeanneli | protopaussus javanus | protopaussus bakeri | nototylus fryi | nebriitae | notiophilus | notiokasis chaudoiri | pelophilini | pelophila rudis | pelophila borealis | opisthiini | opisthius richardsoni | paropisthius | nebriini | leistus | nippononebria | nebria | etc . | carabitae | carabini | ceroglossus | ceroglossus buqueti | ceroglossus chilensis | ceroglossus darwini | ceroglossus guerini | ceroglossus magellanicus | ceroglossus ochsenii | ceroglossus speciosus | ceroglossus suturalis | pamborini | pamborus | maoripamborus | cychrini | cychrus | sphaeroderus | scaphinotus | cychropsis | cicindelitae | collyridini | megacephalini | ctenostomatini | manticorini | cicindelini | loricerini | loricera wollastoni\nd . chalybeus group | d . heydeni group | d . minutus group | d . bengalensis group | d . hessei group\nd . filiformis group | d . exochus group | d . integer group | dyschiriodes ( paradyschirius ) | aspidoglossa | scaritini | carabidae conjunctae | psydrini | psydrus piceus | nomius | laccocenus ambiguus | melaenus | cymbionotum | broscini\npercolaus | percolaus championi | percolaus guillermo | allotriopus | allotriopus ( s . str . ) | allotriopus ( s . str . ) brachypterus | allotriopus ( s . str . ) ashei | allotriopus ( s . str . ) hallbergi | allotriopus ( s . str . ) hemingi | allotriopus ( s . str . ) oscitans | allotriopus ( s . str . ) serratipes | allotriopus ( s . str . ) shpeleyi | allotriopus ( s . str . ) whiteheadi | allotriopus ( mayaferonia ) | allotriopus ( mayaferonia ) aeniola | allotriopus ( mayaferonia ) triunfo | pterostichus | pterostichus s . str . | hypherpes complex | hypherpes | hypherpes alamedae | hypherpes algidus | hypherpes amethystinus | hypherpes annosus | hypherpes baldwini | hypherpes barbarinus | hypherpes californicus | hypherpes canallatus | hypherpes castaneus | hypherpes castanipes | hypherpes congestus | hypherpes crenicollis | hypherpes cuneatulus | hypherpes diabolus | hypherpes ecarinatus | hypherpes esuriens | hypherpes gliscans | hypherpes gracilior | hypherpes gregalis | hypherpes herculaneus | hypherpes hornii | hypherpes humboldti | hypherpes illustris | hypherpes intectus | hypherpes isabellae | hypherpes jacobinus | hypherpes kansanus | hypherpes laborans | hypherpes lacertus | hypherpes lama | hypherpes lassulus | hypherpes mercedianus | hypherpes neobrunneus | hypherpes nigrocaeruleus | hypherpes obsidianus | hypherpes occultus | hypherpes ordinarius | hypherpes ovalipennis | hypherpes panticulatus | hypherpes parallelus | hypherpes parens | hypherpes pergracilis | hypherpes placerensis | hypherpes planctus | hypherpes plutonicus | hypherpes protensiformis | hypherpes protensipennis | hypherpes protractus | hypherpes restrictus | hypherpes scutellaris | hypherpes sejungendus | hypherpes serripes | hypherpes setosus | hypherpes sierranus | hypherpes sponsor | hypherpes spraguei | hypherpes suffusus | hypherpes tahoensis | hypherpes tarsalis | hypherpes tuberculofemoratus | hypherpes vandykei | hypherpes vicinus | hypherpes zunianus\neripus | eripidius franzi | eripus s . str . | eripus suturalis | eripus subcaecus | eripus microphthalmus | eripus nitidus | eripus scydmaenoides | eripus oaxacanus | eripus globipennis | eripus breedlovei\npelecium | pelecidium | pelecidium sulcatum | pelecidium sulcipenne | pelecidium laevigatum | pelecium s . str . | pelecium violaceum group | pelecium striatipenne | pelecium violaceum | pelecium drakei | pelecium tenellum | pelecium parallelum | pelecium punctatum | pelecium longicolle | pelecium brasiliense | pelecium cyanipes | pelecium renati group | pelecium renati | pelecium striatum | pelecium punctatostriatum group | pelecium bolivianum | pelecium atroviolaceum | pelecium semistriatum | pelecium punctatostriatum | pelecium rotundipenne group | pelecium paulae | pelecium helenae | pelecium purpureum | pelecium rotundipenne | pelecium refulgens group | pelecium refulgens | pelecium fulgidum | pelecium negrei | pelecium faldermanni group | pelecium foveicolle | pelecium obtusum | pelecium bisulcatum | pelecium besckii | pelecium faldermanni | pelecium laeve group | pelecium laeve | pelecium obscurum | pelecium nicki | stricteripus | stricteripus impressus | stricteripus peruvianus | stricteripus banningeri\ndyschiridium | dyschiridium concinnum | dyschiridium ebeninum | dyschiridium lasti | dyschiridium natalicum | dyschiridium subdepressum | disphaericus | disphaericus alluaudi | disphaericus benadirensis | disphaericus carinulatus | disphaericus clavicornis | disphaericus conradti | disphaericus deplanatus | disphaericus gambianus | disphaericus insulanus | disphaericus katangensis | disphaericus kolbei | disphaericus meneghettii | disphaericus multiporus | disphaericus quangoanus | disphaericus rhodesianus | disphaericus silvestrii | disphaericus tarsalis | disphaericus zavattarii | chaetogenyini | oodini | panagaeini | chlaeniini | dercylini | rhysodini | leoglymmius lignarius | sloanoglymmius planatus | medisores abditus | dhysorina | dhysores | dhysores thoreyi | dhysores basilewskyi | dhysores rhodesianus | dhysores quadriimpressus | dhysores pan | dhysores liber | dhysores biimpressus | neodhysores | neodhysores seximpressus | neodhysores schreiberi | tangarona pensus | rhysodina | rhysodes | rhysodes sulcatus | rhysodes comes | kupeus arcuatus | kaveinga | kaveinga ( angekiva ) | kaveinga frontalis | kaveinga stiletto | kaveinga walfordi | kaveinga ( ingevaka ) | kaveinga orbitosa | kaveinga bellorum | kaveinga ( vakeinga ) | kaveinga setosa | kaveinga lusca | kaveinga ( kaveinga s . str . ) | kaveinga abbreviata | kaveinga poggii | kaveinga waai | kaveinga fibulata | kaveinga pignoris | kaveinga kukum | kaveinga nudicornis | kaveinga ulteria | kaveinga parva | kaveinga cylindrica | kaveinga lupata | kaveinga okapa | kaveinga marifuanga | kaveinga occipitalis | kaveinga histrio | kaveinga strigiceps | clinidiina | grouvellina\nrhyzodiastes fairmairei | rhyzodiastes spissicornis | rhyzodiastes alveus | rhyzodiastes fossulatus | rhyzodiastes riedeli | rhyzodiastes mindoro | rhyzodiastes ( rhyzostrix ) | rhyzodiastes quadristriatus | rhyzodiastes davidsoni | rhyzodiastes nitidus | rhyzodiastes menieri | rhyzodiastes maderiensis | rhyzodiastes ( rhyzodiastes s . str . ) | rhyzodiastes pentacyclus | rhyzodiastes parumcostatus | rhyzodiastes liratus | rhyzodiastes costatus | rhyzodiastes suturalis | clinidium | clinidium ( mexiclinidium ) | clinidium mexicanum | clinidium balli | clinidium triplehorni | clinidium blomi | clinidium iviei | clinidium guatemalenum | clinidium newtoni | clinidium championi | clinidium halffteri | clinidium reyesi | clinidium extrarium | clinidium ( tainoa ) | clinidium curvicosta | clinidium chevrolati | clinidium darlingtoni | clinidium xenopodium | clinidium ( arctoclinidium )\nclinidium rosenbergi | clinidium sculptile | clinidium ( clinidium s . str . ) | clinidium impressum | clinidium hammondi | clinidium granatense | clinidium incudis | clinidium dubium | clinidium insigne | clinidium howdenorum | clinidium boroquense | clinidium integrum | clinidium pilosum | clinidium jolyi | clinidium oberthueri | clinidium alleni | clinidium whiteheadi | clinidium humboldti | clinidium trionyx | clinidium haitiense | clinidium corbis | clinidium jamaicense | clinidium chiolinoi | clinidium rossi | clinidium dormans | clinidium penicellatum | clinidium segne | clinidium kochalkai | clinidium guildingii | clinidium microfossatum | clinidium smithsonianum | clinidium planum | clinidium rojasi | clinidium bechyneorum | clinidium excavatum | clinidium pala | clinidium mathani | clinidium humile | clinidium curvatum | clinidium foveolatum | clinidium cavicolle | clinidium crater | clinidium centrale | clinidium validum | clinidium spatulatum | clinidium moldenkei | clinidium sulcigaster | clinidium argus | clinidium beccari | clinidium onorei | clinidium gilloglyi | omoglymmiina | xhosores figuratus | yamatosa | yamatosa kryzhanoskiji | yamatosa longior | yamatosa peninsularis | yamatosa niponensis | yamatosa kabakovi | yamatosa arrowi | yamatosa reitteri | yamatosa draco | yamatosa smetanorum | yamatosa boysi | yamatosa sinensis | shyrodes dohertyi | srimara planicollis | plesioglymmius | plesioglymmius ( plesioglymmius s . str . ) | plesioglymmius elegans | plesioglymmius silus | plesioglymmius compactus | plesioglymmius ( ameroglymmius ) | plesioglymmius meridionalis | plesioglymmius reichardti | plesioglymmius compactus | plesioglymmius ( juxtaglymmius ) | plesioglymmius jugatus | plesioglymmius negara | arrowina | arrowina rostrata | arrowina punctatolineata | arrowina taprobanae | arrowina pygmaea | arrowina nilgiriensis | arrowina anguliceps | omoglymmius | omoglymmius ( hemiglymmius ) | omoglymmius africanus | omoglymmius hemipunctatus | omoglymmius javanicus | omoglymmius germaini | omoglymmius occultus | omoglymmius ineditus | omoglymmius rimatus | omoglymmius inermis | omoglymmius ( boreoglymmius ) | omoglymmius lewisi | omoglymmius hamatus | omoglymmius americanus | omoglymmius ( pyxiglymmius )"]}
{"id": 1868, "summary": [{"text": "hellinsia sulphureodactylus is a moth of the family pterophoridae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in north america ( including colorado , california , iowa and alberta ) .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 25 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the head is ochreous .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the palpi are whitish yellow , streaked with ochreous and the antennae are long and yellowish tinged with fuscous .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the thorax and abdomen are sulphur yellow , streaked with ochreous scales .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the legs are whitish ochreous , streaked with brown .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the forewings are clear sulphur yellow , slightly tinged with brownish on the outer fourth of the costa .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is a minute brown dot before the base of the fissure .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the fringes are pale yellowish white , but cinereous on the hind margin .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are whitish , thickly dusted with cinereous .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the fringes are concolorous .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae have been recorded feeding on helianthus pumilus .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they web up the young heads of their host plant and feed within the spun mass . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "hellinsia sulphureodactylus", "paragraphs": ["if you are generating a pdf of a journal article or book chapter , please feel free to enter the title and author information . the information you enter here will be stored in the downloaded file to assist you in managing your downloaded pdfs locally .\nthank you for your request . please wait for an email containing a link to download the pdf .\nsign up to receive the latest bhl news , content highlights , and promotions .\nbhl relies on donations to provide free pdf downloads and other services . help keep bhl free and open !\nthere was an issue with the request . please try again and if the problem persists , please send us feedback .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nself published : pp . 1 - 66 , pl . 1 - 3 , 1880\nwalsingham , lord . 1880 . pterophoridae of california and oregon . 1 - 66 , pl . 1 - 3\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 11 june , 2018 - 10 : 34pm\ndognin ' s\nnew moths of south america\nwas published in french in two dozen fascicles over the period 1910 to 1923 . an online and downloadable volume of the original fascicles is available from biodiversity heritage library starting here . the higher taxonomy ( genera , families ) is long out of date and there is apparently no index to species .\nart . iii - descriptions of new tineina from texas , and others from more northern localities .\nchambers , v . t . , 1878 . art . iii - descriptions of new tineina from texas , and others from more northern localities . bulletin of the united states geological and geographical survey of the territories 4 : 79 - 106 .\nchambers , v . t . , 1877 . tineina from texas . the canadian entomologist 9 ( 2 ) : 22 - 26 . chambers , v . t . , 1877 . tineina from texas . the canadian entomologist 9 ( 4 ) : 71 - 74 .\nnotes and new species of microlepidoptera from the mineral springs region of adams county , ohio .\nbraun , a . f . , 1930 . notes and new species of microlepidoptera from the mineral springs region of adams county , ohio . transactions of the american entomological society 56 ( 1 ) : 1 - 17 . ( free access )\ncatalogue of the types specimens of microlepidoptera in the british museum described by edward meyrick , vol . 6 .\nkeifer , h . h . , 1933 . california microlepidoptera vi . bulletin of the department of agriculture , state of california , 22 ( 7 - 11 ) : 351 - 365 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\ngielis , c . 2003 . pterophoroidea and alucitoidea . in world catalogue of insects , vol . 4 . apollo books , stenstrup , denmark , 198 pp .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\ndistribution data for u . s . states and canadian provinces is known to be incomplete or has not been reviewed for this taxon .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nhodges , r . w . et al . , eds . 1983 . check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . e . w . classey limited and the wedge entomological research foundation , london . 284 pp .\npohl , g . r . , g . g . anweiler , b . c . schmidt , and n . g . kondla . 2010 . an annotated list of the lepidoptera of alberta , canada . zookeys 38 : 1 - 549 .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\n80x5 - 240x3 - 240x4 - 320x1 - 320x2 - 320x3 - 640x1 - 640x2 set display option above . click on image to enlarge .\na variety of organizations and individuals have contributed photographs to calphotos . please follow the usage guidelines provided with each image . use and copyright information , as well as other details about the photo such as the date and the location , are available by clicking on the\nusing this photo this photo and associated text may not be used except with express written permission from kipling will . to obtain permission for personal , academic , commercial , or other uses , or to inquire about high resolution images , prints , fees , or licensing , or if you have other questions , contact kipling will kipwill @ urltoken .\n7777 7777 0410 0827 copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 uc regents . all rights reserved .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nplume moths are easily recognized by their characteristic\nt\n- shaped resting posture and the lobed or divided wings of most species . while the family pterophoridae is easily identified , species determinations are more challenging , often requiring dissection and preparation of genitalia slides . there are currently 162 described species known from north america north of the mexican border . known species are listed below with links to photographs or additional information . synonyms are available in a world catalogue ( gielis 2003 ) . larval food plants are known for 76 of the described nearctic species ("]}
{"id": 1878, "summary": [{"text": "new world orioles are a group of birds in the genus icterus of the blackbird family .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "unrelated to old world orioles of the family oriolidae , they are strikingly similar in size , diet , behaviour , and strongly contrasting plumage , a good example of convergent evolution .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "as a result , the two have been given the same vernacular name .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "males are typically black and vibrant yellow or orange with white markings , females and immature birds duller .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they moult annually .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "new world orioles are generally slender with long tails and a pointed bill .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they mainly eat insects , but also enjoy nectar and fruit .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the nest is a woven , elongated pouch .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "species nesting in areas with cold winters are strongly migratory , while subtropical and tropical species are more sedentary .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the name \" oriole \" was first recorded ( in the latin form oriolus ) by albertus magnus in about 1250 , which he stated to be onomatopoeic , from the song of the european golden oriole .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the genus name icterus as used by classical authors , referred to a bird with yellow or green plumage .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "in modern times this has been identified as the golden oriole .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "brisson re-applied the name to the new world birds because of their similarity in appearance . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "new world oriole", "paragraphs": ["the remaining old world and new world species of caprimulgus represent two separate lineages . the new world species\nhere are all the possible meanings and translations of the word new world oriole .\nnew world oriole .\ndefinitions . net . stands4 llc , 2018 . web . 9 jul 2018 . < urltoken world oriole > .\nare we missing a good definition for new world oriole ? don ' t keep it to yourself . . .\nburu oriole ( oriolus bouroensis ) is split into two species , buru oriole ( oriolus bouroensis ) and tanimbar oriole ( oriolus decipiens ) , following rheindt and hutchinson ( 2007 ) .\nchange the english name of emberizidae from buntings , sparrows and allies to buntings and new world sparrows .\nnew zealand robin ( north island ) \u2013 > new zealand robin ( north i . )\nnew zealand robin ( south island ) \u2013 > new zealand robin ( south i . )\nbefore the discovery of the americas there was the known world of europe , africa and asia . then came the new world , with its promise , its riches , its plenty .\nare repositioned at the end of the sequence of caprimulgus , since the new world species are more closely related to other new world genera ( such as hydropsalis ) than they are to old world caprimulgus . future revisions to the nomenclature and to the sequence of genera and species of these nightjars are almost guaranteed .\nthe new world orioles occur naturally in the americas , from canada south to southern america ; as well as the caribbean islands .\nferguson - lees , j . and d . a . christie . 2001 . raptors of the world . houghton mifflin company , boston , massachusetts , and new york , new york .\ntaylor , p . b . 2006 . family muscicapidae ( old world flycatchers ) . pages 56 - 163 in j . del hoyo , a . elliott , and d . a . christie ( editors ) , handbook of the birds of the world . volume 11 . old world flycatchers to old world warblers . lynx edicions , barcelona .\nk\u00f6nig , c . , and f . weick . 2008 . owls of the world . second edition . yale university press , new haven , connecticut .\ncorrect the scientific name of the polytypic group hooded oriole ( eastern ) from icterus cucullatus [ cucullatus group ] to icterus cucullatus cucullatus / sennetti .\nonley , d . j . , and p . scofield . 2007 . albatrosses , petrels and shearwaters of the world . princeton university press , princeton , new jersey .\nappendix a . new subspecies groups as we mentioned above , a very large number of new subspecies groups were added this year , thanks to a global review of phenotypic characters conducted as part of the handbook of the birds of the world project .\nrevise the range statement from \u201cknown from 2 specimens ca 1900 from mts . of se new guinea\u201d to \u201cpatchily distributed in central and eastern new guinea . \u201d\ndickinson , e . c . ( editor ) . 2003 . the howard and moore complete checklist of the birds of the world . third edition . princeton university press , new jersey .\ndickinson , e . c . ( editor ) . 2003 . the howard and moore complete checklist of the birds of the world . third edition . princeton university press , new jersey .\nthe enigmatic ( and extinct ) piopio ( turnagra capensis ) long has defied classification . recent editions of clements checklist have included it in petroicidae ( australasian robins ) , but new research ( zuccon and ericson 2012 ) reveals that in fact piopio is an oriole ( oriolidae , old world orioles ) . position this species at the end of the oriolidae .\nsibley , c . g . , and b . l . monroe , jr . 1990 . distribution and taxonomy of birds of the world . yale university press , new haven , connecticut .\nthe brown - headed cowbird may lay its eggs in the oriole nest . this practice is commonly referred to as\nbrood parasitism .\nmany birds will raise those as their own ; however , the oriole will eject the eggs of the brown - headed cowbird from its nest ( sealy and neudorf 1995 , condor 97 : 369 - 375 ) .\nseparate the two species of ground - hornbills ( bucorvus ) into a new family , bucorvidae .\ngenetic evidence indicates that these two species are not embedded within old world buteo , but instead are sister to old world species . consequently we reposition ferruginous and rough - legged hawks between red - tailed hawk ( buteo jamaicensis ) and common buzzard ( buteo buteo ) .\ncoates , b . j . , g . c . l . dutson , and c . e . filardi . 2006 . family monarchidae ( monarch - flycatchers ) . pages 244 - 329 in j . del hoyo , a . elliott , and d . a . christie ( editors ) , handbook of the birds of the world . volume 11 . old world flycatchers to old world warblers . lynx edicions , barcelona .\nthe altamira oriole ( icterus gularis ) is a new world oriole . the bird is widespread in subtropical lowlands of the mexican gulf coast and northern central america , the pacific coast and inland . it also can be found in the extreme south of texas ( locally called the rio grande valley ) . at 25 cm ( 9 . 8 in ) and 56 g ( 2 . 0 oz ) , this is the largest oriole of the icterus genus . this bird nests in open woodlands . the nest is a very long woven pouch , attached to the end of a horizontal tree branch , sometimes to telephone wires . this bird forages high in trees , sometimes in the undergrowth . they mainly eat insects and berries . these birds are permanent residents , and unlike the migratory orioles that breed in the us , the species is sexually monomorphic\u2014both the males and the females have elaborate coloration and patterning .\nhorned parakaeet eunymphicus cornutus is split into two species , with horned parakeet eunymphicus cornutus occurring through most of the rage on new caledonia and ouvea parakeet eunymphicus uvaeensis being restricted to the island of ouvea off new caledonia\u2019s north coast .\nwe have harvested some of that bounty to create a distinctive and original range of cocktails that evoke a once - distant world just beyond the horizon .\ndelete subspecies melidectes fuscus gilliardi ; this is a synonym of melidectes fuscus fuscus . revise the range of subspecies fuscus from \u201cse new guinea ( scratchley and wharton mts . ) \u201d to \u201cmountains of central and southeastern new guinea . \u201d\ndelete subspecies melidectes rufocrissalis gilliardi ; this name is preoccupied , and is replaced by melidectes rufocrissalis thomasi . revise the range of thomasi from \u201cmts . of e new guinea\u201d to \u201csouthern slopes of the eastern highlands of new guinea . \u201d\nthey are often seen feeding at hummingbird feeders . oriole feeders are similar to hummingbird feeders , except they are orange instead of red and have larger perches since orioles perch while feeding , while hummingbirds mostly hover in front of it .\nrange : santa cruz is . and vanuatu ( including torres and banks is . ) , new caledonia and loyalty islands\nkemp , a . j . 1995 . the hornbills . bucerotiformes . oxford university press , oxford and new york .\nweller ( 2011 ) reviewed variation in purple - throated sunangel , and described a new species , brilliant sunangel ( heliangelus splendidus ) . he further proposed that there was an additional new subspecies , pyropus , in the new species . brilliant sunangel is very similar to purple - throated sunangel , and , although weller reported some apparent overlap between the two , we are not certain that this proposed new species will be accepted by sacc . provisionally we enter these two taxa as subspecies of purple - throated sunangel , and also as a new polytpic group , purple - throated sunangel ( brilliant ) ( heliangelus viola splendidus / pyropus ) .\ndutson , g . 2011 . birds of melanesia : bismarcks , solomons , vanuatu , and new caledonia . princeton university press .\nrobson , c . 2000 . a guide to the birds of southeast asia . princeton university press , princeton , new jersey .\nthe sequence of genera within thraupidae ( tanagers and allies ) is revised , to agree with that currently adopted by sacc . this sequence perhaps is provisional . thraupidae recently has been expanded considerably by the inclusion of many new genera previously classified in emberizidae ( buntings and new world sparrows ) ( see families ( composition ) ) , but the sequence adopted here does not yet completely reflect phylogenetic relationships within the expanded version of thraupidae .\nit signified a bird in the plumage of which yellow or green predominated , and hence brisson did not take an unhappy liberty when he applied it in a scientific sense to some birds of the new world of which the same could be said . these are now held to constitute a distinct family ,\nin view of the many changes in recent years to the composition of sylviidae , change the english name of the family from old world warblers to sylviids , parrotbills and allies .\ndutson , g . 2011 . birds of melanesia . the bismarks , solomons , vanuatu and new caledonia . christopher helm , london .\nto correct this , we add one new monotypic group , green - backed camaroptera ( green - tailed ) ( camaroptera brachyura harterti ) .\nrocamora , g . j . , and d . yeatman - berthelot . 2009 . family dicruridae ( drongos ) . pages 172 - 226 in j . del hoyo , a . elliott , and d . a . christie ( editors ) , handbook of the birds of the world . volume 14 . bush - shrikes to old world sparrows . lynx edicions , barcelona .\ngill , f . & donsker , d . ( eds ) . 2017 . ioc world bird list ( v 7 . 1 ) . available from urltoken ( accessed january 2017 ) .\nmurphy , r . c . 1936 . oceanic birds of south america [ page 754 ] . american museum of natural history , new york .\nholmes , d . , and k . phillipps . the birds of sulawesi . oxford university press , oxford , singapore , and new york .\nzuccon , d . 2011 . a new name for the monserrat forest thrush . bulletin of the british ornithologist\u2019s club 131 : 199 - 200 .\nfrith , c . b . , and d . w . frith . 2009 . family paradeisaeidae ( birds - of - paradise ) . pages 404 - 492 in j . del hoyo , a . elliott , and d . a . christie ( editors ) . handbook of the birds of the world . volume 14 . bush - shrikes to old world sparrows . lynx edicions , barcelona .\nnorth island robin is split from south island [ new zealand ] robin p . australis ( gill et al . 2010 , h & m4 ) .\nto download a copy of the irish list in pdf format click here . document will open in a new window . note : file size : 79kb\nthey are not related to the old world orioles which are in the family oriolidae , but are somewhat strikingly similar in plumage coloration ( yellow / orange and black ) , size , diet and behavior .\nlack , d . 1958 . a new race of the white - rumped swift . journal of the bombay natural history society 55 : 160 - 161 .\ndiamond , j . m . 1969 . preliminary results of an ornithological exploration of the north coastal range , new guinea . american museum novitates number 2362 .\ndeignan , h . g . 1957 . a new flycatcher from southeastern asia , with remarks on muscicapa latirostris raffles . ibis 99 : 340 - 344 .\nsinclair , i . , and p . ryan . 2003 . birds of africa south of the sahara . princeton university press , princeton , new jersey .\ncarduelis sp . : the genus carduelis has been slowly eroded , with first all new world species being moved to other genera ( mostly spinus ) and also old world taxa mostly being moved ( e . g . , greenfinches to chloris , linnet and twite to linaria , etc . ) . the only remaining species are now european goldfinch carduelis carduelis , citril finch carduelis citrinella , and corsican finch carduelis corsicana , which are not species that are particularly similar or sources of common confusion . because of this , the entry for carduelis sp . is removed . in the new world , records of carduelis sp . are moved to spinus sp . , but since it is not clear what is intended for european entries , most of these records are moved to finch sp . fringillidae sp . if you know , for example , that your records refer to linaria sp . , you can move your records to twite / eurasian linnet linaria flavirostris / cannabina .\nrevise the range of subspecies accipiter albogularis gilvus from \u201ccentral solomon islands\u201d to \u201ccentral solomon islands ( vella lavella , kolombangara , new georgia , and rendova ) \u201d .\nrevise the range statement for pachycephala caledonica littayei from \u201cnew caledonia and loyalty islands ( lifou and mar\u00e9 ) \u201d to \u201cloyalty islands ( lifou and mar\u00e9 ) . \u201d\nmagnificent riflebird ptiloris magnificus is split into two species , which differ primarily in vocalizations : magnificent riflebird ptiloris magnificus , which occurs in ne . australia ( n cape york peninsula ) and lowlands of w and w - central new guinea , and growling riflebird ptiloris intercedens , restricted to lowlands of central and se papua new guinea .\nnew species described on the basis of morphology and vocalizations from the island of rote in the lesser sundas ( eaton et al 2016 , prawiradilaga et al . 2017 )\nfry , c . h . , and k . fry . 1992 . kingfishers , bee - eaters , & rollers . princeton university press , princeton , new jersery .\nbaltimore oriole ( icterus galbula ) french : oriole de baltimore german : baltimoretrupial spanish : turpial de baltimore other common names : northern oriole ( when treated as conspecific with i . bullockii ) taxonomy : c . [ oracias ] galbula linnaeus , 1758 , america = virginia , usa . dna data indicate that this is sister - species of i . abeillei . formerly treated as conspecific with latter and with i . bullockii ; hybridizes extensively with i . bullockii in a belt from s canada ( alberta and saskatchewan ) s in great plains to s usa ( oklahoma and texas ) , but assortative mating ( or selection against hybrids ) evident at several locations . monotypic . distribution : breeds in s canada from ne british columbia and alberta e to s ontario , s quebec and nova scotia , s in c & e usa to c texas , c mississippi , nw georgia , w virginia and n delaware ; winters mostly in florida , coastal california , cuba and jamaica , and mexico s to n colombia and venezuela .\nthe three north american species of carpodacus are not closely related to old world species of carpodacus , and are transferred to the genus haemorhous . this action is based on nacc proposal 2011 - c - 12 , following arnaiz - villena et al . ( 2007 ) , lerner et al . ( 2011 ) and zuccon et al . ( 2012 ) . move haemorhous to a new position , immediately preceding carpodacus .\nlerner , h . r . l . , and d . p . mindell . 2005 . phylogeny of eagles , old world vultures , and other accipitridae based on nuclear and mitochondrial dna . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 37 : 327\u2013346 .\nsuperb bird - of - paradise is split into three species , including vogelkop superb bird - of - paradise lophorina niedda ( restricted to far western papua ) ; greater superb bird - of - paradise lophorina superba ( of central new guinea ) , and a lesser superb bird - of - paradise lophorina minor ( of easternmost papua new guinea ) . note also that the name superba , previously applied to the population in the mountains of the bird\u2019s head peninsula , instead should refer to the population of the central highlands of new guinea .\nsouza\u2019s shrike is closely related to the recently split southern fiscal ( lanius collaris ) , and is moved to a new position between southern fiscal and newton\u2019s fiscal ( lanius newtoni ) .\nthese two species of campephaga cuckooshrikes are transferred to the genus lobotos , following j\u00f8nsson et al . 2010 ( and note the change in the english name , from \u201ccuckoo - shrike\u201d to \u201ccuckooshrike\u201d ) . the species name changes from lobata to lobatus ( ghana cuckooshrike ) , and from oriolina to oriolinus ( oriole cuckooshrike ) , to match the gender of the genus .\nthe critically endangered and poorly known new zealand storm - petrel is not a member of the genus oceanites , but rather belongs with the genus fregetta . change the scientific name of new zealand storm - petrel to fregetta maoriana , and position this species between white - bellied storm - petrel ( fregetta grallaria ) and black - bellied storm - petrel ( fregetta tropica ) .\nthe order falconiformes is moved to a new position , immediately following cariamiformes and preceding psittaciformes ; all three of these orders occupy new positions , adjacent to each other and immediately preceding passeriformes . this rearrangement is based on recent phylogenetic analysis of dna sequence data , especially ericson et al . ( 2006 ) and hackett et al . ( 2008 ) , which is summarized in sacc proposal 491 .\nridgely , r . s . , and p . j . greenfield . 2001 . the birds of ecuador : status , distribution , and taxonomy . cornell university press , ithaca , new york .\nfry , c . h . , d . j . pearson , and p . b . taylor . 1992 . motacillidae , wagtails , pipits and longclaws . pages 197 - 263 in s . keith , e . k . urban , and c . h . fry ( editors ) , the birds of africa . volume iv . academic press , london and new york , new york .\noriginal file name : baltimore oriole , icterus galbula _ male . jpg resolution : 1158x1464 file size : 247160 bytes date : 2007 : 05 : 04 03 : 51 : 02 camera : nikon d50 ( nikon corporation ) f number : f / 5 . 7 exposure : 10 / 2000 sec focal length : 4000 / 10 upload time : 2007 : 09 : 27 03 : 30 : 28\na suite of subspecies ( whitneyi , bougainvillei , orioloides , cinnamomea , sanfordi , pavuvu , centralis , melanoptera , melanonota , and christophori ) , all previously classified as subspecies of golden whistler ( pachycephala pectoralis ) , are split as a separate species , oriole whistler ( pachycephala orioloides ) , following galbraith ( 1956 ) , dickinson ( 2003 ) , and j\u00f8nsson et al . ( 2010 ) .\nmayr , e . 1967 . family muscicapidae , subfamily pachycephalinae . pages 3 - 51 in r . a . paynter , jr . ( editor ) , check - list of birds of the world . volume xii . museum of comparative zoology , cambridge , massachusetts .\narnaiz - villena , a . , j . moscoso , v . ruiz - del - falle , j . gonzalez , r . reguera , m . wink , and j . i . serrano - vela . 2007 . bayesian phylogeny of fringillinae birds : status of the singular african oriole finch linurgus olivaceus and evolution and heterogeneity of the genus carpodacus . acta zoologia sinica 53 : 826 - 834 .\nreferences : hekstra , g . p . 1982 . description of twenty four new subspecies of american otus ( aves , strigidae ) . bulletin zoologisch museum , universiteit van amsterdam 9 : 49 - 63 .\nkrabbe , n . , and r . s . ridgely . 2010 . a new subspecies of amazilia hummingbird amazilia amazilia from southern ecuador . bulletin of the british ornithologists\u2019 club 130 : 3 - 7 .\nformerly considered one of the many call \u201ctypes\u201d of red crossbill loxia curvirostra , the recently described monotypic group , red crossbill ( south hills or type 9 ) loxia curvirostra sinesciuris is elevated to species rank as cassia crossbill loxia sinesciuris . this split is based on evidence for premating reproductive isolation in the face of sympatry with red crossbill and on genomic differences . this new species is endemic to just two counties in idaho ( its namesake cassia county , and also twin falls county ) and is already of high conservation concern . although this is the predominant crossbill in the south hills of idaho , other red crossbills occur there as well ( especially type 5 ) so any identifications should ideally include sound recordings of the flight call to confirm the species . it seems safe to say that more surprises can be expected in the red crossbill complex , which is just as diverse in call types and habitats in the old world as it is in the new world .\nthe order psittaciformes is moved to a new position , immediately following falconiformes and preceding passeriformes ; these two orders , as well as cariamiformes , occupy new positions , adjacent to each other and immediately preceding passeriformes . this rearrangement is based on recent phylogenetic analysis of dna sequence data , especially ericson et al . ( 2006 ) and hackett et al . ( 2008 ) , which is summarized in sacc proposal 491 .\nbretagnolle , v . , and h . shirihai . 2010 . a new taxon of collared petrel pterodroma brevipes from the banks islands , vanuatu . bulletin of the british ornithologists\u2019 club 130 : 286 - 301 .\ndonegan , t . m . 2012 . geographical variation in immaculate antbird myrmeciza immaculata , with a new subspecies from the central andes of colombia . bulletin of the british ornithologists\u2019 club 132 : 3 - 40 .\nmayr , e . 1967 . family zosteropidae , white - eyes . indo - australian taxa . pages 289 - 325 in r . a . paynter , jr . check - list of birds of the world . volume xii . museum of comparative zoology , cambridge , massachusetts .\nzuccon , d . , and p . g . p . ericson . 2102 . molecular and morphological evidences place the extinct new zealand endemic turnagra capensis in the oriolidae . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 62 : 414\u2013426 .\nthiollay , j . m . 1994 . family accipitridae ( hawks and eagles ) . pages 52 - 205 in j . del hoyo , a . elliott , and j . sargatal ( editors ) . handbook of the birds of the world . volume 2 . lynx edicions , barcelona .\npyle , p . , a . j . welch and r . c . fleischer . 2011 . a new species of shearwater ( puffinus ) recorded from midway atoll , northwestern hawaiian islands . condor 113 : 518\u2013527 .\nmay perhaps be named as the most remarkable . they are nearly all gregarious birds , many of them with loud and in most cases , where they have been observed , with melodious notes , rendering them favourites in captivity , for they readily learn to whistle simple tunes . some have a plumage wholly black , others are richly clad , as is the well - known baltimore oriole , golden robin or hangnest of the united states ,\nvan balen , s . 2008 . family zosteropidae ( white - eyes ) . pages 402 - 485 in j . del hoyo , a . elliott , and d . a . christie ( editors ) , handbook of the birds of the world . volume 13 . lynx edicions , barcelona .\ndeignan , h . g . 1964 . subfamily timaliinae , babblers . pages 240 - 427 in e . mayr and r . a . paynter , jr . ( editors ) , check - list of birds of the world . volume x . museum of comparative zoology , cambridge , massachusetts .\no\u2019neill , j . p . , d . f . lane , and l . n . naka . 2011 . a cryptic new species of thrush ( turdidae : turdus ) from western amazonia . condor 113 : 869\u2013880 .\nwoodall , p . f . 2001 . family alcedinidae ( kingfishers ) . pages 130 - 249 in j . del hoyo , a . elliott , and j . sargatal ( editors ) , handbook of the birds of the world . volume 6 . mousebirds to hornbills . lynx edicions , barcelona .\nfry , c . h . 2001 . family coraciidae ( rollers ) . pages 342 - 376 in j . del hoyo , a . elliott , and j . sargatal ( editors ) , handbook of the birds of the world . volume 6 . mousebirds to hornbills . lynx edicions , barcelona .\nremsen , j . v . , jr . 2003 . family furnariidae ( ovenbirds ) . pages 162 - 357 in j . del hoyo , a . elliott , and d . a . christie ( editors ) . handbook of the birds of the world . volume 8 . lynx edicions , barcelona .\npaynter , r . a . , jr . 1970 . subfamily emberizinae , buntings and american sparrows . pages 3 - 214 in r . a . paynter , jr . ( editor ) , check - list of birds of the world . volume xiii . museum of comparative zoology , cambridge , massachusetts .\nshiridai , h . , g . m . kirwan , and a . j . helbig . 2011 . a new taxon in the mourning wheatear oenanthe lugens complex . bulletin of the british ornithologists\u2019 club 131 : 270 - 291 .\nouvea parakeet , eunymphicus uvaeensis is a newly - split species that occurs on a small remote island ( ouvea ) off the north side of a larger , extremely remote island ( new caledonia ) . only a few intrepid ebirders have made the trek to find this species , but their efforts are now rewarded with an addition to their life list ( presuming they also saw the more widespread horned parakeet on new caledonia itself ) . photo tommy pedersen / macaulay library .\neach year , a few newly described species or populations newly recognized for their distinctiveness are named and added to the ebird / clements taxonomy . this just goes to show how much remains to be learned about the birds of the world ! full details for can be seen at the clements updates & corrections page .\ncarant\u00f3n - ayala , d . , and k . certuche - cubillos . 2010 . new species of antpitta ( grallariidae : grallaria ) from the northern sector of the western andes of colombia . ornitolog\u00eda colombiana 9 : 56 - 70 .\nbravo , g . a . , r . t . chesser , and r . t . brumfield . 2012 . isleria , a new genus of antwren ( aves : passeriformes : thamnophilidae ) . zootaxa 3195 : 61 - 67 .\nnote : this review list will be updated periodically as new species are added to the provincial and / or provisional lists , and as our understanding of annual occurrences increases . check the bcfo website to ensure you have the latest version .\nwithin ebird , we also have forms for taxa that are field identifiable ( or likely potential species ) and worth tracking , but are not formally described . these include undescribed species and undescribed subspecies groups ( both noted with \u201cundescribed form\u201d ) , slashes at a level between subspecies group and species ( e . g . , \u201cwhimbrel ( white - rumped ) \u201d below ) and miscellaneous other options . this year\u2019s update includes a number of unique birds from new guinea ( many illustrated in the new field guide ) , as well as new taxa for great cormorant and subalpine warbler which will be useful in eurasia and africa . forms are unique to the ebird taxonomy ; they are not found in the clements checklist .\ncollar , n . j . 2006 . family turdidae ( thrushes ) . pages 514 - 807 in j . del hoyo , a . elliott , and d . a . christie ( editors ) , handbook of the birds of the world . volume 10 . cuckoo - shrikes to thrushes . lynx edicions , barcelona .\nnorthern shrike lanius excubitor is split into two species . as with harriers , the familiar common names are retained for the new world and old world , with the species of europe and western asia referred to as great gray shrike lanius excubitor and also retaining the scientific name . the species of the new world , northern shrike lanius borealis has a scientific name change but shows no change in english name , retaining the preferred name in the americas . however , northern shrike is very much a species of the old world too , since it breeds west of central siberia and northern mongolia and winters widely in northern china , japan , and korea . exact movements of the two species are complex and not well known , and field identification is very challenging , so great gray / northern shrike lanius excubitor / borealis should be used liberally in siberia , eastern kazakhstan , and nearby areas . to add to the complexity , northern shrike has occurred as a trans - atlantic vagrant to western europe ( e . g . , the azores ) and also as a vagrant or rare winter visitor ( lanius borealis sibiricus ) to ukraine at least . [ note : for those that prefer \u201cgrey\u201d over \u201cgray\u201d , just change your ebird language to english ( malaysia ) , which shows the exact names from clements with this spelling conversion . other languages include other local modifications , but also spell it \u201cgrey\u201d , such as english ( india ) , english ( united kingdom ) , or english ( australia ) . see more in this story ) \u2014 if you make this change in your preferences , all bird names will be spelled in that way , including the below links . in this text story , we obviously use the american english names ( e . g . , great gray shrike ) .\nreference : weller , a . - a . 2011 . geographic and age - related variation in the violet - throated sunangel ( heliangelus viola , trochilidae ) : evidence for a new species and subspecies . ornitolog\u00eda neotropical 22 : 601 - 614 .\nadd the newly described subspecies myrmeciza immaculata concepcion donegan 2012 , with range \u201cboth slopes of the central andes of colombia\u201d . this subspecies is inserted immediately after myrmeciza immaculata immaculata , and also represents a new monotypic group , immaculate antbird ( concepcion ) .\ntaylor , p . b . 2005 . family campephagidae ( cuckoo - shrikes ) . pages 40 - 122 in j . del hoyo , a . elliott , and d . a . christie ( editors ) , handbook of the birds of the world . volume 10 . cuckoo - shrikes to thrushes . lynx edicions . barcelona .\ngregory , p . a . 2008 . family melanocharitidae ( berrypeckers and llongbills ) . pages 322 - 338 in j . del hoyo , a . elliott , and d . a . christie ( editors ) , handbook of the birds of the world . volume 13 . penduline - tits to shrikes . lynx edicions , barcelona .\ntaylor , p . b . 2005 . family campephagidae ( cuckoo - shrikes ) . pages 40 - 122 in j . del hoyo , a . elliott , and d . a . christie ( editors ) , handbook of the birds of the world . volume 10 . cuckoo - shrikes to thrushes . lynx edicions , barcelona .\nthe order cariamiformes is moved to a new position , immediately following picidae ( woodpeckers ) . this rearrangement is based on recent phylogenetic analysis of dna sequence data , especially ericson et al . ( 2006 ) , which is summarized in sacc proposal 491 .\nkrabbe , n . , and d . c . cadena . 2010 . a taxonomic revision of the paramo tapaculo scytalopus canus chapman ( aves : rhinocryptidae ) , with description of a new subspecies from ecuador and peru . zootaxa number 2354 : 56\u201366 .\ncollar , n . j . , and c . robson . 2007 . family timaliidae ( babblers ) . pages 70 - 291 in j . del hoyo , a . elliott , and d . a . christie ( editors ) , handbook of the birds of the world . volume12 . picathartes to tits and chickadees . lynx edicions , barcelona .\npeters , j . l . , e . mayr , and h . g . deignan . 1960 . family campephagidae . pages 167 - 221 in e . mayr and j . c . greenway , jr . ( editors ) , check - list of birds of the world . volume ix . museum of comparative zoology , cambridge , massachusetts .\ncollar , n . j . , and c . robson . 2007 . family timaliidae ( babblers ) . pages 70 - 291 in j . del hoyo , a . elliott , and d . a . christie ( editors ) , handbook of the birds of the world . volume12 . picathartes to tits and chickadees . lynx edicions , barcelona .\nebirders who do not speak english as their first language will see updated names to reflect the new taxonomy . remember that the language you choose for bird names needs to be selected separately from the language of the website ( read more about common name translations ) .\nnorman , j . a . , w . e . boles , l . christidis , l . 2009b . relationships of the new guinean songbird genera amalocichla and pachycare based on mitochondrial and nuclear dna sequences . journal of avian biology 40 : 640 - 645 .\ncollar , n . j . , and c . robson . 2007 . family timaliidae ( babblers ) . pages 70 - 291 in j . del hoyo , a . elliott , and d . a . christie ( editors ) , handbook of the birds of the world . volume 12 . picathartes to tits and chickadees . lynx edicions , barcelona .\nthe following new subspecies groups are now available for data entry . when you are certain you have seen representatives of these groups , and ideally have identified them critically based on their field marks , please report them to ebird . please do not guess based on the name , such as \u201cnorthern\u201d and \u201csouthern\u201d or \u201cafrican\u201d and \u201casian\u201d ; make sure you understand the differences being represented before reporting at so specific a level . many new subspecies groups were added this year , largely because we reviewed the work by nigel collar and the birdlife international team , who assessed a large number of avian taxa based on morphological and acoustic information and scored their relative distinctiveness ( also known as the tobias criteria ) . while we don\u2019t necessarily follow the species - level splits from handbook of the birds of the world , these were useful for helping identify distinctive subspecies groups , resulting in the large number of additions this year .\na suite of subspecies ( littayei , cucullata , chlorura , intacta , and vanikorensis ) , all previously classified as subspecies of golden whistler ( pachycephala pectoralis ) , are transferred to new caledonian whistler ( pachycephala caledonica ) , following galbraith ( 1956 ) and dickinson ( 2003 ) .\nthese two species are not members of the genus myrmotherula , as summarized in sacc proposal 518 ; they are classified in the newly described genus isleria , and moved to a new position between spiny - faced antshrike ( xenornis setifrons ) and spot - winged antshrike ( pygiptila stellaris ) .\nkennedy , r . s . , p c . gonzalez , e . c . dickinson , h . c . miranda , jr . , and t . h . fisher . 2000 . a guide to the birds of the philippines . oxford university press , oxford and new york .\nsubspecies balim , previously classified as a subspecies of black - tailed whistler ( pachycephala melanura ) , is transferred to golden whistler ( pachycephala pectoralis ) , following dickinson ( 2003 ) . this subspecies also forms a new monotypic group , golden whistler ( balim valley ) ( pachycephala pectoralis balim ) .\nshrike identification in the old world has never been easy , and recent taxonomic revisions have added to the challenge . great gray shrike used to be considered one widespread species , breeding as far south as northern africa , but now great gray shrike is restricted to northern areas of europe and western asia , with southern gray shrike being the species of southern europe , northern africa , and much of the middle east . a new challenge is the separation of northern shrike from great gray shrike . this adult great gray shrike in germany shows classic and crisp gray , black , and white plumage , without the buff or ochre tones usually present on northern shrike . photo by christoph moning / macaulay library .\nvaurie , c . h . , c . m . n . white , e . mayr , and j . c . greenway , jr . 1960 . family motacillidae . pages 129 - 167 in e . mayr and j . c . greenway , jr . ( editors ) , check - list of birds of the world . volume ix . museum of comparative zoology , cambridge , massachusetts .\nthe clements checklist 2017 updates & corrections provides details ( including references ) for all species splits and lumps , new species descriptions , revisions to subspecies groups ( issfs ) or subspecies , and other changes relevant to the clements checklist . we refer anyone wishing to learn more about these splits to that page .\ngray - headed whistler ( pachycephala griseiceps ) is lumped with gray whistler ( pachycephala simplex ) , following dickinson ( 2003 ) and christidis and boles ( 2008 ) . we continue to recognize this group of subspecies as a new polytypic group , gray whistler ( gray - headed ) pachycephala simplex [ griseiceps group ] .\nseeholzer , g . f . , b . m . winger , m . g . harvey , d . c\u00e1ceres a . , and j . d . weckstein . 2012 . a new species of barbet ( capitonidae : capito ) from the cerros del sira , ucayali , peru . auk 129 : 551 - 559 .\nunitt , p . , and a . m . rea . 1997 . taxonomy of the brown creeper in california . pages 177 - 185 in r . w . dickerman ( editor ) , the era of allan r . phillips : a festshrift . r . w . dickerman , privately printed , albuquerque , new mexico .\nlara , c . e . , a . m . cuervo , s . v . valderrama , d . calder\u00f3n - f . , and c . d . cadena . 2012 . a new species of wren ( troglodytidae : thryophilus ) from the dry cauca river canyon , northwestern colombia . auk 129 : 537 - 550 .\nurrao antpitta ( grallaria urraoensis ) is a newly described species , with range \u201cnorthern part of western andes of colombia ( antioquia ) . \u201d remarkably , this species was described in two different publications , by separate teams of investigators , so there are two competing names for this new species . this kind of complication has happened many times before in the history of ornithology , but is rare in the modern era . we follow sacc in adopting the names urrao antpitta ( grallaria urraoensis ) ; see sacc proposal 479 for one discussion of the nomenclatural issues . these names also were adopted by the ioc world bird list , but birdlife international uses a different name , antioquia antpitta grallaria fenwickorum . insert urrao antpitta between tawny antpitta ( grallaria quitensis ) and brown - banded antpitta ( grallaria milleri ) .\nthe ebird taxonomy update is essentially complete . all major changes have occurred , and we have only a small number of minor changes yet to make . this may affect the lists of a very small number of users as we implement these over the next few days . we do this update once each year , taking into account the past 12 months worth of recent taxonomic knowledge on splits , lumps , name changes , and changes in the sequence of the species lists as of this point , all ebird data will be reflecting the new taxonomy . this includes your my ebird lists , range maps , bar charts , region and hotspot lists , and data entry . ebird mobile should also be updated to the new taxonomy . if you see unfamiliar bird names in the list , please refer to the story below to understand the change and why it happened . in addition , we list a number of new options for data entry ( hybrids , spuhs , slashes , etc . ) , all of which are listed below .\ncarneiro , l . s . , l . p . gonzaga , p . s . r\u00eago , i . sampaio , h . schneider , and a . aleixo . 2012 . systematic revision of the spotted antpitta ( grallariidae : hylopezus macularius ) , with description of a cryptic new species from brazilian amazonia . auk 129 : 338 - 351 .\nkundu et al . ( 2012 ) demonstrated that the extinct mascarene parrot ( mascarinus mascarinus ) is embedded within the genus coracopsis ; since mascarinus is the older name , the scientific name for the combined genus is mascarinus . resequence mascarene parrot to a new position immediately following vasa parrot ( coracopsis vasa ; now greater vasa - parrot mascarinus vasa ) .\nrange : n moluccas , n sulawesi , sangihe , siau , talasea and talaud islands , central and southern sulawesi , banggai and sula islands , south moluccas ( to kai islands ) , and aru islands , salayar , bonerate , tanahjampea and kalao is . ( n flores sea ) , new guinea and adjacent islands , bismarck archipelago , and solomon islands\nthe sequence of genera within paradisaeidae ( birds - of - paradise ) is revised , following irestedt et al . ( 2009 ) . in some cases , the sequence of species within a genus also is revised , and one new genus ( drepanornis ) is recognized . the current sequence of genera within paradisaeidae ( birds - of - paradise ) is :\nebird\u2019s rarities alert together with narba and the facebook aba rare bird alert meant that i heard about rarities very quickly . perhaps the greatest advantage came with non - rarities . without ebird i could have spent days trying to track down gray vireo , american three - toed woodpecker , spot - breasted oriole , crissal thrasher , sprague\u2019s pipit\u2026 using ebird not only meant i could find birds faster , but i\u2019m sure also resulted in my not missing some . and that saved time also meant that i could be home for christmas . so \u2013 thank you ebird for giving me some time off last year and for putting me within sight of the record . maybe i should split my prize money with you guys ?\nthis year , for the first time , corrections are super easy to make with our new \u201c change species \u201d functionality . if we miss a correction , or you want to assign a record to a certain species , you can do this with a single button now . since it changes all media and notes , these changes are easier than ever before .\nan extinct species piopio turnagra capensis is split into two species , each of which was formerly an endemic to each of the two main islands of new zealand . the north island piopio turnagra tanagra was last seen 1902 and south island piopio turnagra capensis just three years later in 1905 . sadly , with both species extinct , the entire genus was also lost .\nall species of penelopoides formerly were included within a single species , tarictic hornbill ( penelopides panini ) . when tarictic hornbill was split into six species , most species took new english names but \u201ctarictic hornbill\u201d was retained for penelopides panini . to stem the inevitable confusion that this has caused , change the english name of penelopides panini from tarictic hornbill to visayan hornbill .\nnorthern fantail subspecies groups are revised : the polytypic group northern fantail ( plain ) rhipidura rufiventris [ rufiventris group ] , which included subspecies cinerea , assimilis , and gularis , is partitioned . subspecies assimilis and subspecies finitima , formerly included in the polytypic group northern fantail ( cream - bellied ) rhipidura rufiventris [ rufiventris group ] , form a new group , northern fantail ( kai ) rhipidura assimilis / finitima . subspecies gularis is transferred , with subspecies vidua ( formerly included in the polytypic group northern fantail ( slaty ) rhipidura rufiventris vidua / kordensis ) to the polytypic group northern fantail ( melanesian ) rhipidura rufiventris [ setosa group ] . subspecies cinerea is recognized as a new monotypic group , northern fantail ( seram ) rhipidura rufiventris cinerea .\ndumbacher et al . ( 2008 ) documented that the genus pitohui , formerly of the pachycephalidae ( whistlers and allies ) , contains several different , unrelated clades ( lineages ) . j\u00f8nsson et al . ( 2010 ) showed that the \u201ctrue\u201d pitohuis ( hooded pitohui , pitohui dichrous , and the type species for the genus , variable pitohui , pitohui kirhocephalus ) belong with the oriolidae ( old world orioles ) , not with the pachycephalidae . position these two species at the beginning of oriolidae .\nthe sequence of genera within maluridae ( fairywrens ) is revised , to bring the sequence closer in line with the results of recent genetic evidence on the phylogenetic relationships of these birds ( driskell et al . 2011 , lee et al . 2012 ) . the sequence of species within some genera ( amytornis , malurus ) also is revised . the new sequence of genera is\nincludes albicapilla , albiceps , atrata , sanghirensis , sedecima , balim ( ng et al . 2016 ) . \u201csultan\u2019s\u201d is proposed as a fitting name with a historic connection for a range of new splits from the northern moluccan archipelago , which has historically been known best as the seat of the powerful sultanate of ternate ( to the present day ) ( eaton & rheindt ) .\nmagnificent hummingbird eu genes fulgens is split into two allopatric species : rivoli\u2019s hummingbird eugenes fulgens occurs from arizona and new mexico to n . nicaragua , while talamanca hummingbird eugenes spectabilis is found in costa rica and western panama . talamanca hummingbird has also been known recently ( e . g . , by the ioc ) as admirable hummingbird . no overlap in their ranges is known .\nsharp - shinned hawk ( madrensis ) is a new subspecies group for ebird , with its very pale throat and upper breast and washed out underparts coloration establishing it as a unique and field - identifiable form , as compared to the \u201cnorthern\u201d group in sharp - shinned hawk , which has a uniform breast that is barred with reddish . photo by nigel voaden / macaulay library .\nbullfinches ( pyrrhula ) are sister to the genus pinicola and are moved to a new position between pinicola and haemorhous ( a newly recognized genus , the species of which formerly were included in carpodacus : see below ) . this action is based on nacc proposal 2011 - c - 13 , following lerner et al . ( 2011 ) and zuccon et al . ( 2012 ) .\nirestedt , m . , j . fuchs , k . a . j\u00f8nsson , j . i . ohlson , e . pasquet , and p . g . p . ericson . 2008 . the systematic affinity of the enigmatic lamprolia victoriae ( aves : passeriformes ) \u2014an example of avian dispersal between new guinea and fiji over miocene intermittent land bridges ? molecular phylogenetics and evolution 48 : 1218\u20131222 .\nthe genus buteogallus is expanded to include two species formerly classified in the genus leucopternis , and both species of harpyhaliaetus ; also , the sequence of species within buteogallus is revised slightly . these rearrangements follow nacc ( proposal 2011 - b - 5 ) and sacc ( proposal 492 ) , and are based primarily on raposo do amaral et al . ( 2009 ) . the new sequence of species within buteogallus is\nbefore this update , if you observed a northern harrier circus cyaneus from attu island , alaska , or other areas right at the contact zone , it would be considered in ebird as hen / northern harrier\u2013the only difference now is that the taxa involved are now considered species instead of subspecies . if you know which one you saw , we encourage you to update your records . if you are not sure ( and this is one of the tougher identification issues in the world , so don\u2019t feel bad ! ) , then your observation is best listed as the slash option .\nblack - billed thrush : we remove turdus ignobilis murinus from black - billed thrush ( drab ) turdus ignobilis [ ignobilis group ] and recognize it as a new monotypic group , the polytypic group black - billed thrush ( drab ) changes includes only black - billed thrush ( drab ) turdus ignobilis ignobilis / goodfellowi . thus , any reports from the range of murinus should be reported as that group , not as black - billed thrush ( drab ) .\nfollowing j\u00f8nsson et al . ( 2010 ) , new guinea cuckoo - shrike ( coracina melas ) is removed from coracina , and repositioned . j\u00f8nsson et al . ( 2010 ) proposed placing this species in the genus lalage , but that would result in a large and heterogenous assemblage . therefore , we place this species in the genus edolisoma , for which marescoti [ = melas ] is the type species ( peters et al . 1960 ) ; the species name changes from melas to melan .\nsubspecies chilensis originally was described by murphy ( 1936 ) , but long has been dismissed as a synonym of nominate oceanicus . recent authors regard chilensis as a valid subspecies , however , with range \u201crange incompletely known . breeds tierra del fuego ; ranges north to peru\u201d . this subspecies also constitutes a monotypic group , wilson\u2019s storm - petrel ( fuegian ) ( oceanites oceanicus chilensis ) . the two other subspecies form a new polytypic group , wilson\u2019s storm - petrel ( wilson\u2019s ) ( oceanites oceanicus oceanicus / exasperatus ) .\nthe bc bird records committee solicits information on the following 157 species on the review list , as well as species unrecorded in the province . in general , review species average two or fewer occurrences per year over the past ten year period . given that the committee is relatively new , some species exceed this threshold , but are included so that we can get a better idea of occurrence in the province . documentation should be sent to nathan hentze , brc chair , by email to bcbrc dot chair at gmail dot com\nthe irish list to the most recent irish rare bird report on 31st december 2015 is available to download as a pdf by following the link in the right - hand panel . the irish list consists of all species included in categories a , b & c ( see below for a description of the category system ) . the sequence and scientific nomenclature largely follows the ioc world list version 7 . 1 ( gill & donsker 2017 ) , replacing the previously referenced bou british list ( british ornithologists\u00e2\u20ac\u2122 union 2013 ) . new species are added to the irish list following their publication in the irish rare bird report . species may occasionally be removed from the list when the evidence no longer supports their inclusion . in addition , new data emerges from time to time which can recommend the splitting or lumping of existing species as well as revising the list order . details of any changes in the irish list are included in the announcement pages . please note that the list includes four records which are not specifically identified , i . e . madeiran , monteiro & apos ; s or cape verde storm - petrel , zino & apos ; s , fea & apos ; s or desertas petrel , frigatebird species and black or white - crowned wheatear . when known , the relevant subspecies is included in the list . monotypic species are indicated by a dash in the ' subspecies ' column . at sea records are those that are observed outside of 30 km ( approx . 16 . 2 nautical miles ) from the nearest point of land but within the exclusive economic zone which extends to approximately 370 km ( 200 nautical miles ) offshore or where relevant , the median point between ireland and great britain are assessed and published by the irbc in the irish rare bird report , but are excluded from the main list .\nbuff - vented bulbul iole olivacea was formerly considered monotypic , but recent studies show that the borneo form is unique and should be split . adding to confusion , the name iole olivacea was not valid , and the correct name before the split should have been iole charlottae . after the split , the name iole charlottae is applied to the borneo species , charlotte\u2019s bulbul iole charlottae and the species of the malay peninsula , sumatra , and adjacent islands retains its english name , but uses a new scientific name : buff - vented bulbul iole crypta\nalmost all south american subspecies of american kestrel now are included in a single polytypic group . consequently , the group american kestrel ( colombian ) ( falco sparverius ochraceus / caucae ) is expanded to also include subspecies isabellinus , aequatorialis , peruvianus , fernandensis , cinnamonimus , and cearae ; the english name for this group changes to american kestrel ( south american ) ; and the scientific name is revised to falco sparverius [ cinnamonimus group ] . the sole exception , fernandensis , forms a new monotypic group , american kestrel ( juan fernandez ) ( falco sparverius fernandensis ) .\nthe species below were split in ebird . to see a map of the new species , click \u201cmap\u201d . to see your personal lists in my ebird , just make sure you are logged in and click \u201cmy records\u201d . if you have seen the species but don\u2019t have any records shown , then please enter your sightings ! full details for all below accounts can be seen at the clements updates & corrections page . we encourage all birders to carefully review the below splits and check your personal records and to update them if you think we made an error . below are the splits for this update :"]}
{"id": 1880, "summary": [{"text": "the cumberland monkeyface pearly mussel or cumberland monkeyface , scientific name theliderma intermedia , is a species of freshwater mussel in the family unionidae , the river mussels .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "this aquatic bivalve mollusk is native to tennessee and virginia in the united states , where it occurs in the duck and powell rivers .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is a federally listed endangered species .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "this species is yellow-green or greenish yellow in color .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it can reach at least 35 years old .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "like other mussels , it has larvae called glochidia that lodge in the gills of fish to develop into juvenile mussels .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "hosts for this species include the streamlined chub ( erymystax dissimilis ) and blotched chub ( erymystax insignis ) .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "this mussel has been extirpated from the elk river .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "there is still a population in the powell river , and the population in the duck river appears to be viable . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "cumberland monkeyface pearly mussel", "paragraphs": ["cover title : recovery plan , cumberland monkeyface pearly mussel ( quadrula intermedia ) .\nrecovery plan for the cumberland monkeyface pearly mussel , quadrula intermedia ( conrad , 1836 ) / .\njul 9 1984\n- - stamped on t . p . cover title : recovery plan , cumberland monkeyface pearly mussel ( quadrula intermedia ) .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . 1982 .\ncumberland monkeyface pearly mussel recovery plan .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service , atlanta .\nrecovery plan for the cumberland monkeyface pearly mussel , quadrula intermedia ( conrad , 1836 ) / prepared by steven ahlstedt for the united states fish and wildlife service , southeast region .\ncatalog record : recovery plan for the cumberland monkeyface . . . | hathi trust digital library\nthe monkeyface pearlymussel was historically restricted to the headwaters of the tennessee river and probably the upper cumberland river . it is a cumberlandian species\ncumberland monkeyface .\nbeacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nu . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) ( ahlstedt , s . ) . 1984 . recovery plan for the cumberland monkeyface pearly mussel ; quadrula intermedia ( conrad , 1836 ) . u . s . fish and wildlife service , region 4 , atlanta , georgia . 35 pp .\ncumberland monkeyface .\nbeacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\nwas not present in the headwaters of the cumberland river ( parmalee and bogan 1998 ) .\nthe shell of the cumberland monkeyface pearly - mussel ( quadrula intermedia ) is medium in size ( 2 . 8 in [ 7 . 1 cm ] ) , triangular to quadrangular in outline , and marked with numerous tubercles or knobs . the valves are flat and display a deep beak cavity . the outer shell surface is greenish - yellow with green spots , chevrons , zigzags , and sometimes broken green rays . the inner shell surface is white , straw - colored , or salmon .\nand the cumberland plateau . of the 90 species of freshwater mussels found in the tennessee river , 37 are cumberlandian ; of 78 species found in the cumberland river , 27 are considered cumberlandian . together , these mussels represent the largest number of freshwater mussel species found in any of the world ' s rivers .\nsimpson , c . t . 1914 . a descriptive catalogue of the naiades or pearly fresh - water mussels . bryant walker : detroit , michigan . 1540 pp .\nsurveys conducted by the tva in 1988 and 1989 revealed that mussel populations in the duck river ( which flows into the tennessee river ) had stabilized . the status of mussel populations in the elk and powell rivers ( which flow into the tennessee and clinch rivers , respectively ) has not yet been determined . sections of the powell river appear eligible for\nscenic river\nstatus under the national wild and scenic rivers act . such a designation would provide additional protection for the cumberland monkeyface and its habitat .\nahlstedt , steven a . 1986 . activity 1 : mussel distribution surveys . cumberlandian mollusk conservation program . tva .\nfrom the cumberland river are therefore also included with historical records for q . sparsa ( usfws 1984 ) but if these are distinct species , then\nwas also reported there ( usfws 1984 ) . it is likely that ortmann ' s 1918 - 1925 records for the cumberland river system were probably\na list of synonyms for this species can be found on the mussel project web site ( graf and cummings 2011 ) .\na medium - size freshwater mussel or bivalve mollusk with a greenish - yellow to yellowish - green shell that darkens with age .\ncontact jay cordeiro ( jay _ cordeiro @ natureserve . org ) for a complete list of freshwater mussel taxa sorted by flow regime .\nif the columbia dam was completed , most of the cumberland monkeyface ' s habitat in the duck river would have been lost . the dam project was stalled by controversy . whenever the tva has expressed an opinion that the columbia dam should be abandoned , powerful local interests have continued to push for its completion . the dam was never completed . demolition started in june 1999 .\nwatson , s . n . , jr . 1998 . lillard mill mussel survey , 1997 . triannual unionid report , 14 : 7 - 8 .\ndennis , s . d . 1981 .\nmussel fauna of the powell river , tennessee and virginia .\nsterkiana 71 : 1 - 7 .\nto reproduce , males discharge sperm , which are dispersed by stream currents . in the process of feeding , females nearby or downstream take in sperm , which fertilizes eggs stored in their gills . the gills serve as brood pouches ( marsupia ) , where the glochidia hatch and begin to develop . after a time , these glochidia are released into the stream . a few mussels have inner parts that resemble a tiny minnow and can be manipulated to lure host fish . when a fish gets close to the shell , the mussel expels its glochidia . the fish hosts for this particular pearly - mussel are unknown .\na short - term ( or tachytictic ) breeder , this mussel produces glochidia in the spring and releases them by mid - to late summer of the same year .\nunaltered stream conditions , clean water , and an undisturbed stream bottom . the cycle also depends upon the abundance of suitable fish hosts to complete the mussel ' s larval development .\nthis mussel is typically found in shallow , fast - flowing water with a stable , clean substrate of sand or coarse gravel . it requires highly oxygenated water and , therefore , does not survive in still pools .\nstrayer , d . 1983 . the effects of surface geology and stream size on freshwater mussel ( bivalvia , unionidae ) distribution in southeastern michigan , u . s . a . freshwater biology 13 : 253 - 264 .\nisom , b . g . , and p . yokley , jr . 1968 .\nthe mussel fauna of duck river in tennessee , 1965 .\namerican midland naturalist 80 ( 1 ) : 34 - 42 .\nahlstedt , s . a . 1984 . twentieth century changes in the freshwater mussel fauna of the clinch river ( tennessee and virginia ) . m . s . thesis , the university of tennessee , knoxville , tennessee . 102 pp .\nhistorically , this species was widespread in the upper tennessee river system ( tennessee , elk , duck , holston , north and south fork holston , nolichucky , french broad , tellico , clinch , powell rivers ) ( simpson , 1914 ; ortmann , 1918 ) in tennessee , alabama , and virginia , and possibly in the cumberland river system ( cumberland , big south fork cumberland , caney fork ) where its former occurrence remains uncertain because the closely related quadrula tuberosa was also reported there ( usfws , 1984 ) . it is likely that ortmann ' s 1918 - 1925 records for the cumberland river system were probably quadrula tuberosa , here recognized as a synonym of quadrula intermedia ( usfws , 1984 ) . since 1960 , it has been found in large tributaries of the tennessee river including the duck , clinch , elk and powell rivers . since 1970 , it has been found only in the clinch , powell and tellico rivers ( usfws , 1984 ) . it was recently found alive in the duck river in tennessee ( louis levine , pers . comm . 10 / 7 / 1997 ) . it appears to be extirpated from alabama , although reintroduction efforts are underway ( mirarchi et al . , 2004 ) .\n( 1000 - 5000 square km ( about 400 - 2000 square miles ) ) historically , this species was widespread in the upper tennessee river system ( tennessee , elk , duck , holston , north and south fork holston , nolichucky , french broad , tellico , clinch , powell rivers ) ( simpson , 1914 ; ortmann , 1918 ) in tennessee , alabama , and virginia , and possibly in the cumberland river system ( cumberland , big south fork cumberland , caney fork ) where its former occurrence remains uncertain because the closely related quadrula tuberosa was also reported there ( usfws , 1984 ) . it is likely that ortmann ' s 1918 - 1925 records for the cumberland river system were probably quadrula tuberosa , here recognized as a synonym of quadrula intermedia ( usfws , 1984 ) . since 1960 , it has been found in large tributaries of the tennessee river including the duck , clinch , elk and powell rivers . since 1970 , it has been found only in the clinch , powell and tellico rivers ( usfws , 1984 ) . it was recently found alive in the duck river in tennessee ( louis levine , pers . comm . 10 / 7 / 1997 ) . it appears to be extirpated from alabama , although reintroduction efforts are underway ( mirarchi et al . , 2004 ) .\njohnson , m . s . 2011 . a quantitative survey of the freshwater mussel fauna in the powell river of virginia and tennessee , and life history study of two endangered species , quadrula sparsa and quadrula intermedia . m . s . thesis , virginia polytechnic institution . 171 pp .\nas part of a recovery program effort , on june 18 , 1997 , the u . s . fish and wildlife service proposed to reintroduce this mussel ( along with 15 other federally listed mussels and one snail ) to the free - flowing reach of the tennessee river below wilson dam in colbert and lauderdale counties in alabama .\nthis pearlymussel was apparently never abundant , and the reasons for its decline are not fully understood . impoundments , siltation , and pollution are presumed to be the major causes . the tennessee valley authority ( tva ) has constructed 36 dams in the tennessee river basin . these dams and reservoirs have inundated mussel shoals upstream , disrupted stream flow , and altered downstream habitat with sporadic cold - water discharges . siltation caused by strip - mining and poor agricultural practices often covers the substrates of gravel and sand and smothers mussel beds . because mussels must siphon gallons of water each day to feed , the effects of water pollutants such as herbicides and pesticides are intensified .\nglochidia have tiny bean - or spoon - shaped valves that attach to the gill filaments of host fish . glochidia can only progress to the juvenile stage while attached to the fish ' s gills . those that do not fortuitously encounter a host fish do not survive when released by the female mussel . they sink to the bottom and die .\nmost freshwater mussel species display seasonal variations in activity associated with water temperature and reproduction . metabolic rate is , in part , positively correlated with temperature . many ectothermic species have the capacity to adjust their metabolic rates in response to long - term changes in temperature . thus , metabolic rates do not continue to rise as temperatures rise in the summer , and they do not continue to fall during the winter as temperatures decline .\nquadrula intermedia has been synonymized in the past with quadrula tuberosa and quadrula sparsa ( ortmann , 1918 ) . the relationship to quadrula tuberosa , quadrula intermedia , and quadrula sparsa is questionable ; however , both q . tuberosa and q . sparsa have been found historically within the range of q . intermedia and no intergrade specimens have been found ( usfws , 1984 ) . q . tuberosa may be the form of q . intermedia occurring in big rivers , where a more obese form typically occurs in many unionid species . quadrula sparsa is currently recognized by turgeon et al . ( 1998 ) . distributional records became confused when ortmann ( 1914 ; 1918 ) lumped quadrula sparsa and quadrula tuberosa under quadrula intermedia ( bogan and parmalee , 1983 ; parmalee and bogan , 1998 ) . historical records for q . tuberosa from the cumberland river are therefore also included with historical records for q . sparsa ( usfws , 1984 ) but if these are distinct species , then q . sparsa was not present in the headwaters of the cumberland river ( parmalee and bogan , 1998 ) . at muscle shoals , morrison ( 1942 ) described a more inflated form as quadrula biangulata and shells similar to this form have been recovered from archaeological remains in the lower clinch river , tennessee , and identified as quadrula sparsa ( parmalee and bogan , 1986 ) . parmalee and bogan ( 1998 ) placed q . biangulata in the synonymy of quadrula quadrula . whether or not the biangulata form represents a valid species is unclear as it is conchologically different from typical q . intermedia but appears to represent one extreme in range of variation of the species . williams et al . ( 2008 ) tentatively place it in synonymy with q . sparsa .\nbased on the separation distances outlined herein , for freshwater mussels in standing water ( or backwater areas of flowing water such as oxbows and sloughs ) , all standing water bodies with either ( 1 ) greater than 2 km linear distance of unsuitable habitat between ( i . e . lotic connections ) , or ( 2 ) more than 10 km of apparently unoccupied though suitable habitat ( including lentic shoreline , linear distance across water bodies , and lentic water bodies with proper lotic connections ) , are considered separate element occurrences . only the largest standing water bodies ( with 20 km linear shoreline or greater ) may have greater than one element occurrence within each . multiple collection or observation locations in one lake , for example , would only constitute multiple occurrences in the largest lakes , and only then if there was some likelihood that unsurveyed areas between collections did not contain the element . for freshwater mussels in flowing water conditions , occurrences are separated by a distance of more than 2 stream km of unsuitable habitat , or a distance of more than 10 stream km of apparently unoccupied though suitable habitat . standing water between occurrences is considered suitable habitat when calculating separation distance for flowing water mussel species unless dispersal barriers ( see separation barriers ) are in place . several mussel species in north america occur in both standing and flowing water ( see specs notes ) . calculation of separation distance and determination of separation barriers for these taxa should take into account the environment in which the element was collected . juvenile mussels do not follow this pattern and juveniles are typically missed by most standard sampling methods ( hastie and cosgrove , 2002 ; neves and widlak , 1987 ) , therefore juvenile movement is not considered when calculating separation distance .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nturgeon , d . d . , j . f . quinn , jr . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , f . g . hochberg , w . g . lyons , p . m . mikkelsen , r . j . neves , c . f . e . roper , g . rosenberg , b . roth , a . scheltema , f . g . thompson , m . vecchione , and j . d . williams . 1998 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks . 2nd edition . american fisheries society special publication 26 , bethesda , maryland : 526 pp .\nthis species has been extirpated from nearly all of its former range . a few extant occurrences exist on the duck , elk , and powell rivers , and these do not appear to have healthy populations with possibly the only viable one left on the powell river ( a small 0 . 8 km linear stretch ) . the species is very close to global extinction and is continually threatened with habitat degradation and pollution .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\nlisted endangered throughout its range , except in the free - flowing reach of the tennessee river from the base of wilson dam downstream to the backwaters of pickwick reservoir and the lower 5 rm of all tributaries to this reach in colbert and lauderdale counties , alabama . here it is listed as an experimental , non - essential population . ( federal register , 14 june 2001 ) . the usfws , in cooperation with the state of tennessee and conservation fisheries , inc . , announced a final rule to reintroduce this species into its historical habitat in the free - flowing reach of the french broad river below douglas dam to its confluence with the holston river , knox county tennessee , and in the free - flowing reach of the holston river below cherokee dam to its confluence with the french broad river ( federal register , 12 september 2007 ) . the proposed rule for this action was published on june 13 , 2006 .\nextant populations are scattered and have typically supported low numbers ( bogan and parmalee , 1983 ) . an august 1997 survey of the duck river population in tennessee only found two very old individuals , previously one was found in 1995 , and none in 1993 and 1994 surveys ( watson , 1998 ) . a 210 km survey of the elk river from the alabama border through tennessee in 1980 found this species at a few sites in lincoln co . , tennessee ( only a few specimens total ) ( ahlstedt , 1983 ) .\nbarr et al . ( 1994 ) determined ( based on 1981 survey data ) that viable populations exist in powell river at buchanan ford ( pop . est . 115 ) and at fletcher fork ( pop . est . 90 ) . the only remaining viable population is likely that in the upper powell river but that population is declining ( parmalee and bogan , 1998 ) .\nthreats include impoundment ( for flood control , navigation , hydroelectric power production , and recreation ) including norris dam and columbia dam , siltation ( due to strip mining , coal washing , dredging , farming , logging , and road construction ) , and pollution ( municipal , agricultural , and industrial ) from sawdust ( logging ) , coal mine acids , toxic wastes , gravel dredging , fertilizers , pesticides , chemical spills and discharges ( usfws , 1984 ) .\nhubbs ( 2002 ) reported relict shells only in the elk river ( rm 105 . 4 ) , tennessee . it appears since 1989 , range in the powell river has expanded by 3 . 8 linear km and overall the species occurs in portions of a 100 km reach of the river , however age studies indicate little recruitment outside a small 0 . 8 km linear stretch of the river in recent years ( johnson , 2011 ) .\nthe range of this species was formerly restricted to the upper tennessee river system but was never abundant ( simpson , 1914 ; usfws , 1984 ) . it was reported from the upper elk river , tennessee ( isom et al . , 1973 ) . it is extirpated from the upper clinch , and north and south fork holston rivers ( usfws , 1984 ) and has not been seen in alabama in the tennessee river downstream of muscle shoals since the river was impounded in the early 1900s ( mirarchi , 2004 ; williams et al . , 2008 ) . still , it has declined significantly throughout its range now found in only 2 or 3 rivers ( most not viable ) .\nthis species inhabits shallow riffle and shoal areas of headwater streams and bigger rivers . it prefers clean , fast - flowing water in shoal conditions , and has never been found in the ponded stretches of rivers , nor is it known from small streams ( usfws , 1984 ) . it has been found living in a sand and gravel substrate in 6 inches to 2 feet of water ( bogan and parmalee , 1983 ) .\nglochidial hosts include streamlined chub ( erymystax dissimilis ) and blotched chub ( erymystax insignis ) ( hill , 1986 ; yeager and saylor , 1995 ) .\n1 . determine aspects of life history in regard to spawning period and fish host identification . 2 . determine if culturing is a viable means of conservation . 3 . determine if fish host is in need of similar culturing . 4 . assess potential sites for reintroduction should culturing prove successful .\noccurrences are based on some evidence of historical or current presence of single or multiple specimens , including live specimens or recently dead shells ( i . e . , soft tissue still attached and / or nacre still glossy and iridescent without signs of external weathering or staining ) , at a given location with potentially recurring existence . weathered shells constitute a historic occurrence . evidence is derived from reliable published observation or collection data ; unpublished , though documented ( i . e . government or agency reports , web sites , etc . ) observation or collection data ; or museum specimen information .\nseparation barriers within standing water bodies are based solely on separation distance ( see separation distance - suitable , below ) . separation barriers between standing water bodies and within flowing water systems include lack of lotic connections , natural barriers such as upland habitat , absence of appropriate species specific fish hosts , water depth greater than 10 meters ( cvancara , 1972 ; moyle and bacon , 1969 ) or anthropogenic barriers to water flow such as dams or other impoundments and high waterfalls .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\ncordeiro , j . ( 2011 ) ; shelton , douglas n . ( 1997 )\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nahlstedt , s . a . 1983 . the molluscan fauna of the elk river in tennessee and alabama . american malacological bulletin 1 : 43 - 50 .\nbogan , a . e . and p . w . parmalee . 1983 . tennessee ' s rare wildlife . vol . 2 : the mollusks . tennessee wildlife resources agency and the tennessee conservation department : nashville , tennessee . 123 pp .\nhill , d . m . 1986 . cumberlandian mollusk conservation program , activity 3 : identification of fish hosts . office of natural resources and economic development , tennessee valley authority , knoxville , tennessee . 55 pp .\nhoward , a . d . 1915 . some exceptional cases of breeding among the unionidae . the nautilus 29 : 4 - 11 .\nisom , b . g . , p . yokley , jr . , and c . h . gooch . 1973 . mussels of elk river basin in alabama and tennessee - 1965 - 1967 . american midland naturalist 89 ( 2 ) : 437 - 442 .\nlefevre , g . and w . t . curtis . 1912 . studies on the reproduction and artificial propogation of fresh - water mussels . bulletin of the bureau of fisheries 30 : 102 - 201 .\nmirarchi , r . e . , j . t . garner , m . f . mettee , and p . e . o ' neil . 2004b . alabama wildlife . volume 2 . imperiled aquatic mollusks and fishes . university of alabama press , tuscaloosa , alabama . xii + 255 pp .\nmirarchi , r . e . , et al . 2004a . alabama wildlife . volume one : a checklist of vertebrates and selected invertebrates : aquatic mollusks , fishes , amphibians , reptiles , birds , and mammals . university of alabama press : tuscaloosa , alabama . 209 pp .\nmorrison , j . p . e . 1942 . preliminary report on mollusks found in the shell mounds of the pickwidk landing basin in the tennessee river valley . bureau of american ethnology bulletin , 129 : 339 - 392 .\nmoyle , p . and j . bacon . 1969 . distribution and abundance of molluscs in a fresh water environment . journal of the minnesota academy of science 35 ( 2 / 3 ) : 82 - 85 .\nortmann , a . e . 1914 . studies in naiades ( in partim ) . the nautilus , 28 : 28 - 34 .\nortmann , a . e . 1918c . the nayades ( freshwater mussels ) of the upper tennessee drainage . with notes on synonymy and distribution . proceedings of the american philosophical society 57 : 521 - 626 .\nparmalee , p . w . and a . e . bogan . 1986 . molluscan remains from aboriginal middens at the clinch river breeder reactor plant site , roan county , tennessee . american malacological bulletin 4 ( 1 ) : 25 - 37 .\nparmalee , p . w . and a . e . bogan . 1998 . the freshwater mussels of tennessee . university of tennessee press : knoxville , tennessee . 328 pp .\nstrayer , d . l . 1999a . use of flow refuges by unionid mussels in rivers . journal of the north american benthological society 18 ( 4 ) : 468 - 476 .\nstrayer , d . l . and j . ralley . 1993 . microhabitat use by an assemblage of stream - dwelling unionaceans ( bivalvia ) including two rare species of alasmidonta . journal of the north american benthological society 12 ( 3 ) : 247 - 258 .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) . 2001 . endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; establishment of nonessential experimental population status for 16 freshwater mussels and 1 freshwater snail ( anthony ' s riversnail ) in the free - flowing reach of the tennessee river below the wilson dam , colbert and lauderdale counties , alabama . federal register , 66 ( 115 ) : 32250 - 32264 .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) . 2006 . endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; establishment of nonessential experimental population status for 15 freshwater mussels , 1 freshwater snail , and 5 fishes in the lower french broad river and in the lower holston river , tennessee ; proposed rule . federal register , 71 ( 113 ) : 34195 - 34230 .\nvan der schalie , h . 1938a . the naiad fauna of the huron river in southeastern michigan . miscellaneous publication of the museum of zoology , university of michigan 40 : 7 - 78 .\nwatters , g . t . 1992a . unionids , fishes , and the species - area curve . journal of biogeography 19 : 481 - 490 .\nwilliams , j . d . , a . e . bogan , and j . t garner . 2008 . freshwater mussels of alabama & the mobile basin in georgia , mississippi , & tennessee . university of alabama press , tuscaloosa , alabama . 908 pages .\nwilliams , j . d . , m . l . warren , jr . , k . s . cummings , j . l . harris , and r . j . neves . 1993b . conservation status of freshwater mussels of the united states and canada . fisheries 18 ( 9 ) : 6 - 22 .\nyeager , b . l . and c . f . saylor . 1995 . fish hosts for four species of freshwater mussels ( pelecypoda : unionidae ) in the upper tennessee river drainage . american midland naturalist , 133 ( 1 ) : 1 - 6 .\nbarr , w . c . , s . a . ahlstedt , g . d . hickman , and d . m . hill . 1993 - 1994 . cumberlandian mollusk conservation program . activity 8 : analysis of macrofauna factors . walkerana 7 ( 17 / 18 ) : 159 - 224 .\nhubbs , d . 2002 . monitoring and management of endangered mussels . 2001 - 02 annual report project 7365 , tennessee wildlife resources agency , nashville , tennessee . 3 pp .\nwilliams , j . d . , a . e . bogan , and j . t . garner . 2008 . freshwater mussels of alabama & the mobile basin in georgia , mississippi & tennessee . university of alabama press : tuscaloosa , alabama . 908 pp .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\nall documents and related graphics provided by this server and any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server are provided\nas is\nwithout warranty as to the currentness , completeness , or accuracy of any specific data . natureserve hereby disclaims all warranties and conditions with regard to any documents provided by this server or any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , including but not limited to all implied warranties and conditions of merchantibility , fitness for a particular purpose , and non - infringement . natureserve makes no representations about the suitability of the information delivered from this server or any other documents that are referenced to or linked to this server . in no event shall natureserve be liable for any special , indirect , incidental , consequential damages , or for damages of any kind arising out of or in connection with the use or performance of information contained in any documents provided by this server or in any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , under any theory of liability used . natureserve may update or make changes to the documents provided by this server at any time without notice ; however , natureserve makes no commitment to update the information contained herein . since the data in the central databases are continually being updated , it is advisable to refresh data retrieved at least once a year after its receipt . the data provided is for planning , assessment , and informational purposes . site specific projects or activities should be reviewed for potential environmental impacts with appropriate regulatory agencies . if ground - disturbing activities are proposed on a site , the appropriate state natural heritage program ( s ) or conservation data center can be contacted for a site - specific review of the project area ( see visit local programs ) .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\noccurring in big rivers , where a more obese form typically occurs in many unionid species .\n( bogan and parmalee 1983 , parmalee and bogan 1998 ) . historical records for\n. however , it is thought by some that further justification is needed before this change can be confirmed .\nendangered b1ab ( i , ii , iii , iv ) ver 3 . 1\ndyer , e . , soulsby , a . - m . , whitton , f . , kasthala , g . , mcguinness , s . , milligan , ht , de silva , r . , herdson , r . , thorley , j . , mcmillan , k . , collins , a . , offord , s . , duncan , c . & richman , n .\nhas been assessed as endangered under criterion b1ab ( i , ii , iii , iv ) as it has been extirpated from large parts of its former range . it has an extent of occurrence of between 2 , 000 - 5 , 000 km\n. extant populations exist on the duck , elk , and powell rivers ( equalling three locations ) , but it is questionable whether these have healthy populations ; the population in the powell river is likely to be viable . the species is continually threatened with habitat degradation and pollution .\n( usfws 1984 ) . since 1960 , it has been found in large tributaries of the tennessee river including the duck , clinch , elk and powell rivers . since 1970 , it has been found only in the clinch , powell and tellico rivers ( usfws 1984 ) . it was recently found alive in the duck river in tennessee ( l . levine pers . comm . 1997 ) . it appears to be extirpated from alabama , although reintroduction efforts are underway ( mirarchi\nthis species inhabits shallow riffle and shoal areas of headwater streams and bigger rivers . it prefers clean , fast - flowing water in shoal conditions , and has never been found in the ponded stretches of rivers , nor is it known from small streams ( usfws 1984 ) . it has been found living in a sand and gravel substrate in six inches to two feet of water ( bogan and parmalee 1983 ) .\nthreats include impoundment ( for flood control , navigation , hydroelectric power production , and recreation ) including norris dam and columbia dam , siltation ( due to strip mining , coal washing , dredging , farming , logging , and road construction ) , and pollution ( municipal , agricultural , and industrial ) from sawdust ( logging ) , coal mine acids , toxic wastes , gravel dredging , fertilisers , pesticides , chemical spills and discharges ( usfws 1984 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\njustification : reports from 1984 onwards suggest that populations from the powell river ( 31 miles ) are declining due to decreasing water quality . the duck river subpopulation has too few specimens to maintain a viable population .\nu . s . a . ( tn - specified portions of the french broad and holston rivers ; see 17 . 85 ( b ) ( 1 ) )\nu . s . a . ( al ; the free - flowing reach of the tennessee r . from the base of wilson dam downstream to the backwaters of pickwick reservoir [ about 12 rm ( 19 km ) ] and the lower 5 rm [ 8 km ] of all tributaries to this reach in colbert and lauderdale cos . , see 17 . 85 ( a ) )\n- - natureserve explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50 , 000 plants , animals and ecological communtities of the u . s and canada . natureserve explorer provides in - depth information on rare and endangered species , but includes common plants and animals too . natureserve explorer is a product of natureserve in collaboration with the natural heritage network .\nitis reports - - itis ( the integrated taxonomic information system ) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants , animals , fungi , and microbes of north america and the world .\nfws digital media library - - the u . s . fish and wildlife service ' s national digital library is a searchable collection of selected images , historical artifacts , audio clips , publications , and video .\nsorry , we just need to make sure you ' re not a robot . for best results , please make sure your browser is accepting cookies .\nmedium - sized , triangular to quadrangular , greenish - yellow shell with numerous markings .\nfemale stores sperm in gills ; glochidia ( larvae ) are released into streams after hatching .\nwhen the juvenile has developed a shell and is large enough to survive on its own , it detaches from the host fish and falls to the stream bottom , beginning a long association with a single stretch of stream . maturing mussels bury themselves in riffles and shoals with only the shell margins and feeding siphons exposed to the water . some mussels live as long as 50 years or more .\nfreshwater mussels feed by siphoning phytoplankton and other plant matter from the water . indigestible particles are expelled from the shell by reverse siphoning . silt in the water can kill mussels by clogging their feeding siphons .\nthere are no known interspecific differences in feeding among freshwater mussels . the glochidia are obligate parasites on the gills or fins of fish . adult mussels are filter - feeders and consume particulate matter in the water column . identifiable stomach contents almost invariably include desmids , di - atoms , algae , protozoa , and zooplankton .\nsome freshwater mussels also show diurnal changes in metabolic rates that indicate a tendency toward nocturnal activity patterns . mussels may move to the surface to feed at night and move deeper into the substrate during the day ; this is one way to avoid predators that hunt by visual contact .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service regional office , division of endangered species 1875 century blvd . , suite 200 atlanta , georgia 30345 telephone : ( 404 ) 679 - 4000 urltoken\nu . s . fish and wildlife service regional office , division of endangered species 300 westgate center dr . hadley , massachusetts 01035 - 9589 telephone : ( 413 ) 253 - 8200 fax : ( 413 ) 253 - 8308 urltoken\nprotest won ' t stop columbia dam ' s demise .\nin the tennessean , 3 june 1999 .\nurltoken gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the modern language association ( mla ) , the chicago manual of style , and the american psychological association ( apa ) .\nwithin the \u201ccite this article\u201d tool , pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style . then , copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list .\nbecause each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article , urltoken cannot guarantee each citation it generates . therefore , it\u2019s best to use urltoken citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publication\u2019s requirements and the most - recent information available at these sites :\nmost online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers . therefore , that information is unavailable for most urltoken content . however , the date of retrieval is often important . refer to each style\u2019s convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates .\nin addition to the mla , chicago , and apa styles , your school , university , publication , or institution may have its own requirements for citations . therefore , be sure to refer to those guidelines when editing your bibliography or works cited list .\nwe don ' t know when or if this item will be back in stock .\ninstantly receive a \u00a310 urltoken gift card if you\u2019re approved for the amazon platinum mastercard with instant spend . representative 21 . 9 % apr ( variable ) .\ncredit offered by newday ltd , over 18s only , subject to status . terms apply .\nenter your mobile number or email address below and we ' ll send you a link to download the free kindle app . then you can start reading kindle books on your smartphone , tablet , or computer - no kindle device required .\nprime members enjoy fast & free shipping , unlimited streaming of movies and tv shows with prime video and many more exclusive benefits .\nafter viewing product detail pages , look here to find an easy way to navigate back to pages you are interested in .\nby : u . s . fish and wildlife service . region 4 . published : ( 1989 )\nrecovery plan for the alabama beach mouse ( peromyscus polionotus ammobates ) , perdido key beach mouse ( p . p . trissyllepsis ) , and choctawhatchee beach mouse ( p . p . allophrys ) /\nby : u . s . fish and wildlife service . region 4 . published : ( 1987 )\ngo to public collections to browse other people ' s collections . items from these collections can be copied into your own private collection . create your own private collection by searching or browsing to find items of interest and then adding them to a collection .\nfull - text searching is available within public or private collections , and within individual items .\nuse quotes to search an exact phrase : e . g .\noccult fiction\nuse * or ? to search for alternate forms of a word . use * to stand for several characters , and ? for a single character : e . g . optim * will find optimal , optimize or optimum ; 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( heart or cardiac ) and surgery will find items about heart surgery or cardiac surgery . boolean terms must be in uppercase ."]}
{"id": 1881, "summary": [{"text": "zebras ( / \u02c8z\u025bbr\u0259 / zeb-r\u0259 or / \u02c8zi\u02d0br\u0259 / zee-br\u0259 ) are several species of african equids ( horse family ) united by their distinctive black and white striped coats .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "their stripes come in different patterns , unique to each individual .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they are generally social animals that live in small harems to large herds .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "unlike their closest relatives , horses and donkeys , zebras have never been truly domesticated .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "there are three species of zebras : the plains zebra , the mountain zebra and the gr\u00e9vy 's zebra .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "the plains zebra and the mountain zebra belong to the subgenus hippotigris , but gr\u00e9vy 's zebra is the sole species of subgenus dolichohippus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the latter resembles an ass , to which it is closely related , while the former two are more horse-like .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "all three belong to the genus equus , along with other living equids .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the unique stripes of zebras make them one of the animals most familiar to people .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "they occur in a variety of habitats , such as grasslands , savannas , woodlands , thorny scrublands , mountains , and coastal hills .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "however , various anthropogenic factors have had a severe impact on zebra populations , in particular hunting for skins and habitat destruction .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "gr\u00e9vy 's zebra and the mountain zebra are endangered .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "while plains zebras are much more plentiful , one subspecies , the quagga , became extinct in the late 19th century \u2013 though there is currently a plan , called the quagga project , that aims to breed zebras that are phenotypically similar to the quagga in a process called breeding back . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "zebra", "paragraphs": ["zebra love mating reproduction . zebra facts ( zebra information ) funny clip zebra love mating reproduction | zebra facts i african zebra facts | zebra mating\nsome experts say that there are three species of zebras \u2014 grevy ' s zebra , plains zebra and mountain zebra \u2014 and that hartmann ' s zebra is a subspecies of mountain zebra . other experts say hartmann ' s zebra is a separate species .\ns zebra is about 13 months , one month longer than other species of zebra .\nthis page features zebra paintings & zebra sculptures by leading nature artist members of artists for conservation .\nthis zebra art ( zebra paintings & zebra sculptures - wildlife art / nature art ) site by leading wildlife artists and zebra artists at artists for conservation , is optimized for java - enabled browsers .\nmale zebra finches have red bills ; female zebra finches have orange bills . male zebra finches also have more striking colors , like bright orange cheek patches\nzebra paintings & zebra sculptures ( zebra ) - wildlife art and nature art for sale by leading wildlife artists and nature artists . zebra - ( zebra ) wildlife paintings and wildlife sculptures for sale by wildlife artist and nature artist members of artists for conservation .\n, mountain zebra equus zebra , and grevy ' s zebra equus grevyi . they all have black and white stripes that set them apart from other equidaes .\nthe plains zebra , also known as the common zebra , is the most abundant of three species of zebra , inhabiting the grasslands of eastern and southern africa .\neach species of zebra has its own conservation status . according to the iucn ' s red list of threatened species , the plains zebra is not endangered , while the mountain zebra is considered vulnerable and the grevy ' s zebra is endangered . the red list also lists hartmann ' s zebra ( as a subspecies of mountain zebra ) as vulnerable .\nthe zebra has tapped kayak veteran keith melnick to run the insurance comparison company . ( photo credit : the zebra )\nthe grevy\u2019s zebra ( equus grevyi ) is also called the \u2018imperial zebra\u2019 . the grevy\u2019s zebra is the largest species of zebra and is found in kenya , somalia and ethiopia in eastern africa . in certain regions of kenya , the plains zebras and grevy\u2019s zebras coexist ( live together ) . the grevy\u2019s zebra was the first zebra to emerge as a species .\nzebras having narrower stripes and white undersides , while the common zebra has broad stripes that cover its entire body . the grevy ' s zebra is not only the largest of the zebra\nresembling the stripes of a zebra ; having stripes running along the sides : as , the zebra markings on certain spiders .\nzebra are found in increasingly isolated regions and their numbers continue to fall throughout their natural ranges . the common zebra is an\ns mountain zebra of namibia . the cape mountain zebra has a dewlap under the lower jaw , which other zebras do not have .\ns zebra and the cape mountain zebra are both endangered . as of 2003 , there were from 3 , 000 to 3 , 500 grevy\nall about zebra hybrids - this site from the american donkey and mule society ( adms ) contains information and pictures about zebras and zebra hybrids .\nseveral other species of zebra are threatened or endangered , such as grevy ' s zebra ( equus grevyi ) in kenya , ethiopia , and somalia ; hartmann ' s mountain zebra ( equus zebra hartmannae ) in angola and namibia ; and the mountain zebra ( equus zebra zebra ) in south africa . the cape mountain zebra has adapted to life on sheer mountain slopes and ravines where usually only wild goats and sheep can survive . in 1964 , only about 25 mountain zebra could be found in the area , but after two decades of protection , the population had increased to several hundred in cradock national park in the cape province ' s great karroo area .\nthe only data on plains zebra from rwanda are from a 2013 aerial survey that estimated 999 plains zebra in akagera national park ( african parks website ) . it is unlikely that there are many plains zebra outside this protected area .\nblack and white stripes make the zebra one of the most recognizable animals in the world . the plains zebra , also known as the common zebra , is the most abundant of three species of zebra , inhabiting the grasslands of eastern and southern africa . the other two species are grevy\u2019s zebras and mountain zebras .\ns zebra ( e . burchelli granti ) has wide rump stripes , the chapmann\ns zebra had reddish brown stripes , and became extinct in the early 1900s .\n3 before we can spray , we need to sand down the zebra stripes .\neach zebra has a unique stripe pattern , like a person ' s fingerprint .\nzebra in the grasslands of the serengeti at dawn in tanzania , east africa .\nzebra stripes and millions of other books are available for amazon kindle . learn more\nif you would like to help the plains zebra , you can donate to the african wildlife foundation , whose initiatives help preserve critical zebra habitat and wildlife corridors .\ni have to send data to a zebra printer ( gc420t ) using rs232 .\nplease share your feedback , favorite zebra facts and observations via the comments below .\nwhy is it so hard to tame the zebra ? survival of the fittest .\nfor grevy\u2019s zebra ( equus grevyi ) in kenya ( 2012 - 2016 ) .\nwith the headline : finding a way to put a zebra in your tank .\nzebra tattoo guy ( 2016 ) by cindy billingsley zebra guy 16 x 13 x 10 ( inches ) clay original available price : $ 2 , 000 . 00 usd\nsix races occur , including grants zebra ( serengeti - mara ) , burchell\u2019s zebra ( southern africa ) , and crawshay\u2019s zebra ( malawi and parts of zambia ) . adults stand up to 1 . 3m at the shoulder and weigh up to 350kg .\nso long as i am not called zebra , i really don ' t mind .\nfirst , zebra is able to detect and correct photometric offsets in the input catalogue .\ngrevy ' s zebra is the largest of the zebras and has the narrowest stripes .\nzebra stripes and over 2 million other books are available for amazon kindle . learn more\nin this post we will look at the world of the zebra in the wild .\nhelp our zebra find his stripes ! a whimsical song by little angel . subscribe for more videos : urltoken educational kids show . popular songs for children . lyrics : help me find my zebra stripes black and white zebra stripes ! help me find my zebra stripes , i ' ve lost my zebra stripes . are they here ? are they here ? help me find my zebra stripes black and white zebra stripes ! help me find my zebra stripes , i ' ve lost my zebra stripes . have you seen them ? oh my ! cheetah is so fast ! help me find my zebra stripes black and white zebra stripes ! help me find my zebra stripes , i ' ve lost my zebra stripes . mr turtle , have you seen them ? yes , yes , they went that way ! and mr skunk , have you . . ? oh my ! that ' s really stinky ! mr skunk that ' s really stinky ! will i ever find my stripes ? help me find my zebra stripes black and white zebra stripes ! help me find my zebra stripes , i ' ve lost my zebra stripes . i wonder if they are in this big puddle of water . . oh ! the water ' s washed off the mud ! there were my stripes all along ! i found them ! guys i found them ! ! ! animation by : lou rigoudy : urltoken music & lyrics by : ben rawles : urltoken jemma johnson : urltoken copyright 2016 valnet\ns zebra has only faint shadow stripes between the black stripes . a subspecies known as the\ns zebra is protected in a game reserve in kenya . there are about 1 , 200 cape mountain zebras , most of which live in mountain zebra national park in south africa .\nnot all wristbands are created equal . discover why the country\u2019s top hospitals use zebra wristbands .\n\u00a9 2018 insurance zebra . all rights reserved . use of insurance zebra insurance services ( dba thezebra . com ) is subject to our terms of service , privacy policy and licenses .\nonce a zebra got its leg broke in swinging one of the big poles in place .\nsisal is a sort of small oxen striped like a zebra and spotted like a leopard .\nto gain the nutrition that it needs to survive . the majority of the zebra ' s\nthe mountain zebra is considered vulnerable because its population is low and susceptible to decreasing . according to the iucn , the mountain zebra has a population of only around 9 , 000 adults .\nwhile attempts at domestication have failed , some individuals have had success training and even hybridizing zebras ! common zebra hybrids : zorse ( horse + zebra ) and zonkey ( donkey + zebra ) . zebra hybridization has actually been in existence at least a century . one of the pioneers in the field was j . c . ewart , author of the penycuik experiments in 1899 .\nif a zebra passes or attempts to pass another zebra that is more dominant than themselves then they will be bitten or kicked ferociously by the more dominant animal . passing is a challenge .\nthe sustained decline in grevy\u2019s zebra numbers and range has been a major concern to stakeholders in grevy\u2019s zebra conservation in kenya . it was recognised that the conservation of grevy\u2019s zebra and its semi - arid ecosystem in kenya and ethiopia will require commitment and coordination among all stakeholders to ensure the future survival of this species . this led to the formation of a grevy\u2019s zebra task force in 2004 chaired by the kenya wildlife service to coordinate grevy\u2019s zebra conservation efforts in kenya . a major output of its meetings was the need to develop a national grevy\u2019s zebra conservation strategy . the task force has since evolved into the grevy\u2019s zebra technical committee which provides guidance to ongoing and proposed grevy\u2019s zebra research and conservation efforts . the following organisations sit on the technical committee :\nzebra , in medical terminology , refers to a rare condition or situation . it can refer to either the patient with the condition or the condition itself . ( e . g . :\nthis guy has a real zebra\nor\nthis guy ' s a zebra\n)\nfeature facts : subtle variations in a zebra ' s stripes allow each individual to be recognized .\nwith our mobile computers , printers , scanners and services , zebra provides smart , visionary solutions that let you see the big picture . for unprecedented visibility into your enterprise , it is zebra .\nalways after , the colts of those mares bore the marks of the zebra on their skins .\nmark the zebra stripes round his legs , miss ; and the black stripe on his backbone .\nothers , such as the zebra , remain for a lifetime possessed of their original savage nature .\nbalakrishnan c , et al . gene duplication and fragmentation in the zebra finch major histocompatibility complex .\nthe grevy\u2019s zebra have long heads and necks and a bristly mane running from the top of its head , downwards to the top of its back . the grevy\u2019s zebra is tall compared to the other zebra species and also differs from the other species with its primitive characteristics and different behaviour .\nlearn how the saint louis zoo is conserving the grevy ' s zebra in kenya and ethiopia .\nbhoora , r . , buss , p . , guthrie , a . j . , penzhorn , b . l . , & collins , n . e . ( 2010 ) . genetic diversity of piroplasms in plains zebra ( equus quagga burchellii ) and cape mountain zebra ( equus zebra zebra ) in south africa . veterinary parasitology , 174 ( 1 ) , 145 - 149 . urltoken\nin order to get them to draw a carriage , rothschild must have realized something important about wild zebra behavior . zebra herds are made up of groups of females and young with one adult male .\npenzhorn , b . l .\nequus zebra .\nmammalian species no . 314 , 1988 .\nbut this doesn ' t mean the zebra stripes mystery has finally been solved , according to larison .\nthe plains zebra is the most abundant and the smallest of the three zebra species . some subspecies have a stripe pattern different from all others : brownish \u201cshadow\u201d stripes between the black stripes on their coat .\nthe lighthouse is striped with black and white bars , like a zebra , and we entered it .\nthis is very much like the zebra in size , shape , and in fact everything except colour .\nbut with the power and resilience of a zebra . as with other cross - breed offspring though ,\nrelationship between total expression levels and tissue specificity in expression ( \u03c4 ) for zebra finch immune genes .\nstapley j , birkhead tr , burke t , slate j . a linkage map of the zebra finch\nzebra\u2019s gk\u2122 series and gt800 desktop printers combine dependable printing with fast print speeds and network manageability . with their easy - to - use design , zebra\u2019s advanced desktop printers enable you to improve operational efficiencies .\nthe study , published in the journal plos one , found stripes are not used for camouflage , or a means of breaking up the outline of the zebra to make it less conspicuous , as at the point at which predators can see zebra stripes they will already have heard or smelled the zebra prey .\nmale grevy\u2019s zebra are highly territorial and mark their territories with urine and piles of dung called \u2018middens\u2019 . male grevy\u2019s zebra usually live solitary in their territories until females pass through during mating season . the male grevy\u2019s zebra differs from other zebras in mating behaviour as other zebra species form harems that remain in the males territory all year round . non - territorial males travel together in groups of 7 or 8 .\npenzhorn , b . 1982 . habitat selection by cape mountain zebras in the mountain zebra national park .\nzebra and other african game evolved characteristics to help them survive one of the harshest environments on earth .\nlearn more about the grevy ' s zebra and other endangered wildlife by visiting the saint louis zoo .\nzebra dung contains a special bacterium that is capable of breaking down cellulose and converting it to biofuel .\nthere are several subspecies of the common zebra , distinguishable by the pattern of stripes on the rump . grant\ncontrary to popular belief , zebra stripes are not for camouflage , a university of calgary study has found .\nunlike humans , animals don ' t see very well \u2014 including lions , hyenas and other zebra predators .\na zebra ' s eyesight at night is thought to be about as good as that of an owl .\nplains zebra were likely eradicated from south - western mozambique during 22 years of war ( 1964 - 1974 ; 1980 - 1992 ) . between 2002 and 2008 , 1361 zebra were ( re - ) introduced to the western section of the newly created limpopo national park ( lnp ) , from the adjoining kruger national park ( knp ) in south africa . subsequent aerial surveys ( 2010 , 2013 ) indicate a sharp reduction in zebra abundances in lnp and restriction of zebra distribution to the western boundary . recent ground surveys ( 2014 ) documented natural range expansion of zebra into central lnp . illegal hunting is widespread in lnp and may explain reduced zebra abundances . zebra were not detected in banhine national park during 2004 , 2007 , 2009 and 2014 surveys .\nohio sea grant . 1992 . boaters : take action against zebra mussels . ohsu - fs - 054 .\nzebra mussel information system ( zmis ) . 1996 . cd - rom version 3 . 0 , zebra mussel research program , u . s . army corps of engineers , waterways experiment station , vicksburg , ms .\nthree pelts \u2014 an impala , zebra and wildebeest \u2014 set up for nighttime observations . ( tim caro )\nlemon wc ( 1991 ) fitness consequences of foraging behaviour in the zebra finch . nature 352 : 153\u2013155 .\n, and is the largest of the wild horses , characterized by large ears , narrow stripes , and a thick neck . the third species is the mountain zebra ( e . zebra ) found in the hill country of\ngrevy\u2019s zebra usually mate in august , september and october and produce foals during the rainy seasons . grevy\u2019s zebra mate year - round . gestation of the female zebra lasts 350 \u2013 400 days , with a single foal being born . a newborn zebra will follow anything that moves and therefore , new mothers are highly aggressive towards other mares a few hours after they gave birth . this prevents the foal from acquiring another female as its mother .\ns zebra is quite different in both appearance and behavior from the common zebra . it stands about 5 ft ( 1 . 5 m ) tall at the shoulder and weighs about 990 lb ( 450 kg ) . its stripes are very narrow , do not cross over the lower back as they do in the cape mountain zebra .\nthough they all live in africa , each species of zebra has its own home area . plains zebras live in the treeless grasslands and woodlands of eastern and southern africa . the grevy ' s zebra lives in in the arid grasslands of ethiopia and northern kenya . the mountain zebra is found in south africa , namibia and angola .\ns large , rounded ears turn in every direction and are able to pick up the slightest sound . the zebra\nzebra ( ze - t & ze2 - t ) zebra ( zurich extragalactic bayesian redshift analyzer feldmann et al . 2006 ) is a freely available , open source photometric redshift code based on a sed template - \ufb01tting approach .\nand although the common zebra is more widespread and numerous , there have been sharp population declines in certain areas .\nlorenzen ed , arctander p , siegsismund hr . high variation and very low differentiation in wide ranging plains zebra (\ngriffith sc , buchanan kl . the zebra finch : the ultimate australian supermodel . emu . 2010 ; 110 .\nin low - nutrient lakes is associated with exotic zebra mussels . limnology and oceanography 49 : 482 - 487 .\nzann ra ( 1996 ) the zebra finch ; m . pc , editor . oxford : oxford university press .\nthroughout history there have been various attempts to domesticate zebra for a number of reasons , both wacky and serious .\nas with so many other african species , poaching is a large reason for the reduction . zebra hides can fetch big bucks , and both zebra fat and bone marrow have purported medicinal values in some traditional kenyan medicine practices .\neach species of zebra has a different general pattern of stripes . the grevy ' s zebra has very thin stripes . the mountain zebra has vertical stripes on its neck and torso , but horizontal stripes on its haunches . some subspecies of plains zebras have brownish\nshadow\nstripes between the black stripes , according to the san diego zoo .\n\u00a92018 zih corp and / or its affiliates . all rights reserved . zebra and the stylized zebra head are trademarks of zih corp . , registered in many jurisdictions worldwide . all other trademarks are the property of their respective owners .\n\u00a92018 zih corp and / or its affiliates . all rights reserved . zebra and the stylised zebra head are trademarks of zih corp . , registered in many jurisdictions worldwide . all other trademarks are the property of their respective owners .\ngrevy\u2019s zebra is listed as endangered on the world conservation union\u2019s ( iucn\u2019s ) red list of threatened animals partly due to hunting for its skin , which fetches a high price on the world market . the grevy\u2019s zebra also suffers habitat destruction , human disturbances at water holes and competition with domestic grazing animals . there are estimated to be 1 , 500 \u2013 2 , 000 grevy\u2019s zebra still living in the wild . the grevy\u2019s zebra is however , common in captivity .\nekblom r , balakrishnan cn , burke t , slate j . digital gene expression analysis of the zebra finch genome .\nharris , rob .\nhow much does a fully grown zebra weigh ?\naccessed july 09 , 2018 . urltoken\nwe can halter - train your zebra and / or train your horse to do just about anything you can imagine .\nthe social structure of the grevy\u2019s zebra is well - adapted for the dry and arid scrubland and plains that it primarily inhabits , less for the more lush habitats used by the other zebras . the grevy\u2019s zebra communicates over long distances .\nburley nt ( 2006 ) an eye for detail : selective sexual imprinting in zebra finches . evolution 60 : 1076\u20131085 .\nboth subspecies of mountain zebra are herbivorous . the primary diet consists of grass but also includes browse . in mznp ,\nbeyond conditioned - response by rick harper - there is a section on training zebras and zebra hybrids in this paper .\nthis vision and goal will be achieved through five strategic objectives that focus on mitigating the threats to grevy\u2019s zebra survival , increasing their numbers , and building a solid foundation upon which to sustain grevy\u2019s zebra conservation in the long - term .\nsmith , r . k . , marais , a . , chadwick , p . , lloyd , p . h . & hill , r . a . ( 2008 ) monitoring and management of the endangered cape mountain zebra equus zebra zebra in the western cape , south africa . african journal of ecology , 46 : 207 - 213 ( pdf )\nthough the population of the grevy ' s zebra is stable , it is considered endangered because its numbers are so small . the grevy ' s zebra has a population of just 1 , 966 to 2 , 447 , according to iucn .\nthe researchers collected the trapped flies every two days , and found that the zebra - striped horse model attracted the fewest .\nuniversity of calgary anthropologist amanda melin measures the luminance of zebra stripes at the calgary zoo . ( tim caro / ucdavis )\nin a paper called the function of zebra stripes , caro found striped animals were more common in areas with biting flies .\nthe new zebra ' s li3608 - er / li3678 - er scanners give your workers unstoppable performance in the toughest environments .\nand so rely heavily on the open plains for their survival . although the common zebra has been least affected , all three\na total of 144 chicken\u2013zebra finch immune genes orthologs were found using our manual annotation ( appendix 1 and 2 ) . pairwise\na total of 119 zebra finch\u2013chicken orthologs for immune genes were identified without using any a priori information from automated zebra finch gene predictions . for 95 of these zebra finch\u2013chicken orthologs , gene pairs had also been identified by the automated ensembl gene prediction pipeline . we found a very strong positive correlation between \u03c9 values obtained from the manual annotation and those from automated gene prediction (\nharris , rob .\nhow much does a fully grown zebra weigh ?\nanimals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / much - fully - grown - zebra - weigh - 2274 . html . accessed 09 july 2018 .\nto learn more about the secrets of zebra ' s stripes and other animals , visit the links on the next page .\ncaro in a zebra pelt ( top ) and a wildebeest pelt ( above ) . ( photo courtesy of tim caro )\nhow a stallion will choose his females and how they will mate as well as a few other zebra facts and trivia .\nlikewise , the iucn says a 2008 study of 17 plains zebra populations that represented five of the six subspecies found very little differentiation among them and concludes that the subspecies splits may be arbitrary . itis , however , lists six subspecies of plains zebra .\nharris , rob . ( n . d . ) . how much does a fully grown zebra weigh ? animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / much - fully - grown - zebra - weigh - 2274 . html\nplains zebra ( equus quagga ) is the commonest of africa\u2019s three zebra species and the one familiar to most safari goers . whether it is migrating in thousands across the serengeti , grazing the bushveld of the kruger or crowding the dusty waterholes of etosha .\nthe kick of a zebra can break a lion\u2019s jaw . they can be savage biters and possess a \u201cducking\u201d reflex that helps them avoid being caught by lasso . familiarity with human hunter gatherers may also have fostered a strong avoidance response in the zebra .\nin many ways , zebra appear very like horses ( or ponies , given their size ) . yet underlying differences in behaviour have meant that while horses and donkeys have been successfully domesticated , the zebra remains predominantly wild . so how did the zebra avoid the load bearing , farm working , fence jumping fate of its cousins ? and which animal ended up with the better deal ?\nbut the narrower ( and more zebra - like ) the stripes , the less attractive they were to the flies .\nis the smallest zebra , standing about 4 ft ( 1 . 2 m ) at the shoulder and weighing about 600 lb ( 272 kg ) . the stripes of the cape mountain zebra are slightly wider and shorter than those of the other subspecies , hartmann\ncontrary to popular belief , zebra stripes are not for camouflage , a study by scientists at the university of calgary has found .\nmelin conducted the study with university of california , davis professor tim caro , who has spent his entire career studying zebra stripes .\nzebra ' s manufacturing vision study reveals what global manufacturing executives report as key trends for ensuring quality in the next five years .\nhere , since zebra participates only in phat0 , it is run in its basic maximum likelihood mode and with the provided templates .\n, in contaminant cycling : ii . zebra mussel contaminant accumulation from algae and suspended particles , and transfer to the benthic invertebrate ,\nnel , p . j . , bertschinger , h . , williams , j . , & thompson , p . n . ( 2006 ) . descriptive study of an outbreak of equine sarcoid in a population of cape mountain zebra ( equus zebra zebra ) in the gariep nature reserve . journal of the south african veterinary association , 77 ( 4 ) , 184 - 190 . urltoken\nmate call as reward : acoustic communication signals can acquire positive reinforcing values during adulthood in female zebra finches ( taeniopygia guttata ) .\nprivacy policy | return policy | shipping policy | site map | related info able zebra communications \u00a9 2009 , all rights reserved .\nclayton ns ( 1990 ) mate choice and pair formation in timor and australian mainland zebra finches . anim behav 39 : 474\u2013480 .\nwitte k , caspers b ( 2006 ) sexual imprinting on a novel blue ornament in zebra finches . behaviour 143 : 969\u2013991 .\nriebel k ( 2009 ) song and female mate choice in zebra finches : a review . adv stud behav 40 : 197\u2013238 .\ngalton uses the zebra as an example of an unmanageable species , stating that the dutch boers repeatedly tried to break zebra to harness . although they had some success , the wild , mulish nature of the animals would frequently break out and thwart their efforts .\nultimately , crosses between any species of zebra and a horse , pony , donkey or ass , reffered to as\nzebroids\nare a preferred method of achieving a patient and willing ridable zebra , a cross - species creation made famous by queen charlotte .\nmountain zebras are loated in south western parts of south africa . classification of a zebra mountain zebras are herbivorses they are also consumers . zebras are worm - blooded . facts about zebras zebras are a single - toed hoofed animal . it helps them run faster on hard ground . 5 interesting facts about a mountin zebra in south america there is a project to bring back the qugga an extinct subspecies of the mountain zebra . odd fact zebra ' s kindom : animalia phylum : chordata class : mammalia order : perissodactyla family : equidae genus : equus species : equus zebra there stripes make it hard for a predetor to pick out one zebra to chase . zebras live up to 20 - 30 years old . in a zoo they live up to 40 years when chased , a zebra will zigzag from side to side it makes it more difficult for the predetor to catch them where are they at ? !\none is the\ncooling eddy\ntheory . when air hits a zebra , the currents are stronger and faster over the black parts ( since black absorbs more heat than white ) and slower over the white . at the juncture of these two opposing airflows , little eddies of air may swirl and serve to cool a zebra ' s skin . ( download zebra - stripes desktop wallpaper . )\nherds of the common zebra readily mix with herds of wildebeest , but cape mountain zebras tend to keep apart from other animals . hartmann\nnew applications in 2d imaging are enhancing productivity and efficiency across industries . zebra provides cutting - edge scanning technology for any size business .\nschoverling put down another oryx and a zebra , whose flesh the masai delighted in , though it was too tough for the others .\nfirst , there is the true zebra , perhaps the most beautiful of all quadrupeds , and of which no description need be given .\nthe \ufb01rst fasr prototype observation of the zebra pattern radio burst ( chen et al . , 2011 ) is a very promising result .\nsecond , zebra can use spectroscopic redshifts on a small fraction of the photometric sample to iteratively correct the original set of input templates .\nsource / reference article learn how you can use or cite the zebra article in your website content , school work and other projects .\nzann ra . the zebra finch : a synthesis of field and laboratory studies . oxford , uk : oxford university press ; 1996 .\nhowever , the common consensus that zebra stripes are used as camouflage to protect them from predators has been refuted in a new study .\nso the zebra became our symbol to mean , \u201csometimes when you hear hoofbeats , it really is a zebra . \u201d ehlers - danlos syndromes are unexpected because they\u2019re rare . hypermobile spectrum disorders are common , but are unexpected because they remain misdiagnosed or under - diagnosed .\nthe life span of mountain zebras in the wild is usually 20 or more years . the oldest documented mountain zebra in captivity is an\nthe quagga project - the quagga project committee is reintroducing the quagga ( an extinct zebra ) back into south africa using hybridization techniques .\nmaking alcohol from sugars is easy ; maybe the third oldest profession in the world . making butanol from zebra droppings is another story .\nthe manes and tails of zebra are in fact more similar to those of asses ( donkeys ) and reflect the evolutionary history of the genus equus . although horses , assess and zebra all evolved from a common ancestor ( hyracotherium ) which lived in europe and north america around 55m years ago , divergence meant that the zebra and donkey are more closely related to each other than either is to the horse .\nwith a wild population of about 25 , 000 , the mountain zebra is classified as threatened . the cape mountain zebra came very close to extinction as a result of hunting and competition with domestic cattle . in 1937 , mountain zebra national park was established in south africa , where only 47 cape mountain zebras remained . their numbers have now increased to several hundred , with the majority still in the national park .\nwhich live on rough , rocky highlands , but once also occurred in large numbers in the grassy lowland plains . the cape mountain zebra of\ncopyright terms of use privacy policy supply chain transparency \u00a92018 zih corp and / or its affiliates . all rights reserved . zebra and the stylized zebra head are trademarks of zih corp . , registered in many jurisdictions worldwide . all other trademarks are the property of their respective owners .\nthe zebra , which has always described itself as the kayak of car insurance , has hired a longtime kayak executive as its new ceo .\neach species having a characteristic pattern of black or dark - brown stripes on a whitish background : all zebra species are threatened or endangered .\n, zebra stallions are known to curl their top lips up which is thought to heighten their sense of smell . this so - called\niucn classification zones concord with , but underestimate , the population genetic structure of the zebra shark stegostoma fasciatum in the indo - west pacific .\neach zebra ' s stripes are unique . just as no two human fingerprints are alike , no two zebras have the same stripe pattern .\nthe grevy\u2019s zebra is considered an endangered species , mainly due to the hunting for its skin which fetches high prices on the world market .\ncopyright terms of use privacy policy supply chain transparency \u00a92018 zih corp and / or its affiliates . all rights reserved . zebra and the stylised zebra head are trademarks of zih corp . , registered in many jurisdictions worldwide . all other trademarks are the property of their respective owners .\nsimpson hb , vicario ds ( 1990 ) brain pathways for learned and unlearned vocalizations differ in zebra finches . j neurosci 10 : 1541\u20131556 .\ni know how to use the send _ ptp block , but i have some doubts about the zebra commands that i need to use .\nzann ra ( 1996 ) the zebra finch : a synthesis of field and laboratory studies . oxford , new york : oxford university press .\nhey , if you want some zebra poop , show up at the barn with yr boots and gloves . it\u2019s time for spring cleaning !\nit might seem like a zebra is a zebra , but there are three different species : plains , mountain , and grevy\u2019s zebras . different zebra species have different types of stripes , from narrow to wide . in fact , the farther south on the african plains you travel , the farther apart the stripes on the zebras get ! the basic form of zebras\u2014a large head , sturdy neck , long legs , a dorsal stripe along the spine and down a tasseled tail , and bristly mane\u2014is universal . no zebra , or other wild equid , has a forelock .\nall three species of zebra have bold black and white stripes that stand out among more drab - looking african grazers , like buffalo and antelope , especially against a plain savanna background . and standing out would seem to make a zebra more likely to become a lion ' s lunch .\nthe endangered grevy\u2019s zebra\u2019s population has been ravaged by anthrax outbreaks , dropping its ranks to an estimated wild population of 2 , 250 . san diego zoo global is a member of the grevy\u2019s zebra trust , an independent wildlife conservation organization in kenya , and our researchers are working with other conservation groups to help preserve the population . as of august 2012 , we ' d had 128 grevy ' s zebra births at our facilities .\nwith the support of the saint louis zoo and others , the grevy ' s zebra trust ( gzt ) was registered as an independent charitable wildlife conservation trust based in kenya in early 2007 . its mission is to conserve the endangered grevy ' s zebra and its fragile habitat in partnership with communities . it operates in the samburu and marsabit districts of northern kenya and provides technical support to grevy ' s zebra conservation in ethiopa .\nto evaluate the automatic gene annotation in ensembl , the \u03c9 values for zebra finch\u2013chicken comparisons of immune genes were compared with our manually calculated omega values for the same genes . for the zebra finch immune genes that were annotated without using a priori information from automated zebra finch gene predictions , we downloaded d n and d s values from the ensembl database ( release 54 ) using the biomart web interface ( urltoken ) . for genes with more than one zebra finch ortholog on ensembl , the pair with least sequence difference ( minimum d n + d s ) was selected .\nzebras lazy day . by david prescott young zebra . 16 x 20 acrylic / canvas original available price : $ 2 , 500 . 00 usd\nthe researchers then went a step further , using the two temperature variables to predict the striping patterns of zebra populations not included in the study .\nwhat made you want to look up zebra ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\nma jor predators of zebra , buf falo , kongoni , toki and thomson\u2019s gazelle are hyena , wild dog , lion , leopard and cheetas .\n2012 ) . plains zebra are the most abundant wildlife species in this area , yet like all wildlife are experiencing a decline since the 1980s .\nklerks , p . l . , p . c . fraleigh , and j . e . lawniczak . 1996 . effects of zebra mussels (\na zebra grazing on the grassy plains gazes at the researchers ' chart used for color - calibrating images . ( tim caro / uc davis )\nrutstein an , brazill - boast j , griffith sc ( 2007 ) evaluating mate choice in the zebra finch . anim behav 74 : 1277\u20131284 .\ndeerenberg c , overkamp gjf ( 1999 ) hard work impinges on fitness : an experimental study with zebra finches . anim behav 58 : 173\u2013179 .\nthe recently extinct zebra - like quagga ( e . quagga ) looked like a combination of wild ass and zebra and had a reddish coat and stripes only on the head , neck , and shoulders . the name quagga is derived from the odd bray of this species , which was described as\ntwo allopatric subspecies of mountain zebra have traditionally been recognized , the nominate race e . z . zebra ( cape mountain zebra ) and e . z . hartmannae ( hartmann ' s mountain zebra ) . groves and ryder ( 2000 ) proposed that the two be treated as distinct species , and groves and bell ( 2004 ) presented morphological evidence for separating the two subspecies as distinct species based on the diagnosability criterion of the phylogenetic species concept . recent genetic analyses indicate that the two populations have a high incidence of mitochondrial haplotype sharing ; the hypothesis that cape and hartmann ' s mountain zebra mitochondrial lineages were reciprocally monophyletic was not supported . however , the presence of private alleles at nuclear loci rendered the two subspecies genetically distinct evolutionary significant units ( moodley and hartley 2005 ) . we continue to recognize mountain zebra as a single species comprising two subspecies following penzhorn ( in press ) .\nclosely related to horses and donkeys , the zebra ( subgenuses hippotigris and dolichohippus ) is best known for its black and white striped body . in fact , zebra stripe patterns are unique to each individual . these stripes are believed to be camouflage devices that help zebras hide well in the grass .\nalthough it appears possible to tame individual zebra , this species was not a good candidate for domestication . in addition to the intractable nature of the zebra and its strong survival instinct , the fact that this species is \u201clion fodder\u201d may also have made them appear less attractive \u201cpartners\u201d to early humans .\nspeed and accuracy . you need them . zebra excels in them . any type of data . any condition . scan it right . scan it fast . the first time , every time . and that\u2019s just the start . zebra goes beyond the barcode and delivers an unparalleled overall scanning experience , from configuring to deploying , from managing and troubleshooting to utilization and insights . that\u2019s why zebra\u2019s barcode scanners and imagers have led the industry for years .\nyou can also help conserve grevy ' s zebra by supporting a kenyan boy or girl to attend secondary school . in kenya , the future of the grevy ' s zebra and other endangered wildlife depends on the attitudes of the local people , including the children\u2014the next generation of decision makers for their country . most kenyans cannot afford to attend secondary school ( grades 9 - 12 ) . to increase the education opportunities available and to reinforce the value of conserving grevy ' s zebra to kenyan children and their parents , we offer grevy ' s zebra bursaries , or scholarships . the grevy ' s zebra bursaries pay for the tuition , uniform and board for girls and boys to complete secondary school , thus offering them greater opportunities for their future .\ns , or plains zebra ( e . burchelli ) lives throughout much of eastern and southern africa , and is the best - studied species . grevy\na wild zebra in tanzania is photographed with a colorchecker card , used to calibrate image processing software used by researchers . ( tim caro / ucdavis )\n) used the large size of giant cape zebra fossils ( estimated 400 kg and 150 cm height at the withers ) to support conspecific status with grevy ' s zebra , the largest extant wild equid . however , skulls are considered to be the best taxonomic indicators for equids at the morphological level (\nfanslow , d . l . , t . f . nalepa , and g . a . lang . 1995 . filtration rates of zebra mussels (\ncaryl pg ( 1976 ) sexual - behavior in zebra finch taeniopygia - guttata - response to familiar and novel partners . animal behaviour 24 : 93\u2013107 .\nslater pjb , eales la , clayton ns ( 1988 ) song learning in zebra finches : progress and prospects . adv stud behav 18 : 1\u201334 .\n\u201cthe video above shows a pair of zebra ducks concentrating plankton by creating a water vortex . the typical head to tail position can be seen here .\nthe governments of kenya and ethiopia agreed last week to develop a new action plan to help protect the endangered grevy ' s zebra ( equus grevyi ) , the rarest zebra species and the largest equid species on the planet . the previous five - year conservation strategy for the species expired last year .\nthe goal is : to ensure increasing populations of grevy\u2019s zebra and work towards fostering ecological , socio - cultural and economic sustainability within their natural range .\ncontribute to the zoo ' s conservation programs in the horn of africa and help us save the rare zebra and other wildlife . protecting the people and the wildlife in the community areas of the horn of africa is essential to successful conservation . by helping to support the grevy ' s zebra trust ' s scout program , you will help to preserve the last remaining wild populations of the grevy ' s zebra . scout support provides salary , uniforms , vehicles , and equipment\u2014all necessary for the scouts who are working hard every day to create a safe haven for grevy ' s zebra and other endangered wildlife .\nthe grevy\u2019s zebra is the largest , weighing from 770 to 990 pounds ( 350 to 450 kilograms ) and measuring up to 5 feet ( 1 . 5 meters ) at the shoulder . its thick neck and large , round ears give the grevy\u2019s zebra the most mule - like physique . the grevy\u2019s zebra also has the thinnest stripes , extending all the way down to their white belly ; on the hindquarters the stripes are vertical until above the hind legs .\ndark water ( 2015 ) by john banovich zebra herd 9 x 12 limited edition giclee on canvas ltd . edition available price : $ 275 . 00 usd\na new analysis of the plains zebra\u2014the most common species , which ranges from ethiopia to south africa\u2014doesn ' t tease out one theory as the definitive winner .\njust as important as opportunities for physical activity , the play area also has a quiet zone that overlooks the lagoon with views of grazing giraffe and zebra .\nwithin the crater rim a daily wildlife drama is played out as large herds of zebra and wildebeest graze nearby lions , leopards , elephants and black rhinos .\nwhat i meant by a zebra not sounding like a horse , necessarily , was that mother zebras make a whinny ing sound when separated from their foal .\nforstmeier w . quantitative genetics and behavioural correlates of digit ratio in the zebra finch . proc biol sci . 2005 ; 272 : 2641\u20132649 . pmid : 16321787\ntschirren b , postma e . quantitative genetics research in zebra finches : where we are and where to go . emu . 2010 ; 110 : 268\u2013278 .\ntschirren b , postma e . quantitative genetics research in zebra finches : where we are and where to go . emu . 2010 ; 110 : 268\u2013278 .\nwhile plains zebra remain numerous in kenya the population appears to be declining . in 1995 the population was estimated as 152 , 490 from aerial surveys ( hack\nthe largest zebra is the grevy ' s zebra , according to the san diego zoo . it weighs 770 to 990 lbs . ( 350 to 450 kilograms ) and is around 5 feet ( 1 . 5 meters ) tall from shoulder to hoof . their thick bodies make them look like mules with stripes .\nbruner , k . a . , s . w . fisher , and p . f . landrum . 1994 . the role of the zebra mussel ,\nroditi , h . a . , d . l . strayer , and s . e . g . findlay . 1997 . characteristics of zebra mussel (\nthe zebra ' s biggest threats are habitat loss due to ranching and farming and competition for water with livestock . they are also hunted for their skins .\nmate call as reward : acoustic communication signals can acquire positive reinforcing values during adulthood in female zebra finches ( taeniopygia g . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nwitte k , sawka n ( 2003 ) sexual imprinting on a novel trait in the dimorphic zebra finch : sexes differ . anim behav 65 : 195\u2013203 .\nwitte k ( 2006 ) time spent with a male is a good indicator of mate preference in female zebra finches . ethol ecol evol 18 : 195\u2013204 .\nusing the zebra to do the work of horses , mules , and donkeys was a very popular idea , and there were widespread attempts to do so .\nthe vision of this strategy is : to have viable populations of grevy\u2019s zebra in their natural habitat , functioning in healthy ecosystems and valued locally and globally .\nbut it does show that temperature is the factor most strongly linked to striping : more specifically , the warmer it is , the more stripes on the zebra .\nthird , when run in bayesian mode zebra computes the prior in redshift - template space in a selfconsistent manner from the input catalogues and the redshifttemplate likelihood functions .\nkobiela me , cristol da , swaddle jp . risk - taking behaviours in zebra finches affected by mercury exposure . anim behav . 2015 ; 103 : 153\u2013160 .\nscheuhammer am . chronic dietary toxicity of methylmercury in the zebra finch , poephila guttata . bull environ contam toxicol . 1988 ; 40 : 123\u201330 . pmid : 3345357\nbastviken , d . t . e . , n . f . caraco , and j . j . cole . 1998 . experimental measurements of zebra mussel (\nmolloy , d . p . 2002 . biological control of zebra mussels . proceedings of the third california conference on biological control . university of california , davis .\nbill clicking . bill clicking is beak clattering that have already been described in zebra finches searching for a nest site and performing nest ceremony ( zann 1996 ) .\nboogert nj , giraldeau l - a , lefebvre l ( 2008 ) song complexity correlates with learning ability in zebra finch males . anim behav 76 : 1735\u20131741 .\nburley n , krantzberg g , radman p ( 1982 ) influence of colour - banding on the conspecific preferences of zebra finches . anim behav 30 : 444\u2013455 .\nzebra finches are frequently available in large pet stores , avian - retail stores as well as from bird breeders . they come a in a few color mutations .\nbox - and - whisker plot of d n / d s ( \u03c9 ) values between zebra finch and chicken orthologs for immune genes and whole - genome comparison ( all genes ) . whole - brain transcriptome comparisons ( est ) between chicken and zebra finch ( axelsson et al . 2008 ) are also included as reference .\nawf\u2019s grevy\u2019s zebra research has made considerable progress in gaining a greater understanding of the population . until awf and its partners intensified their work on the grevy ' s zebra over the last several years , there was little awareness about its conservation status at the local , national , and international levels . armed with data on just where the grevy\u2019s zebras live and roam in the landscape , the awf team is now working closely with local communities and authorities to secure key areas for grevy\u2019s zebra conservation ."]}
{"id": 1891, "summary": [{"text": "the family saturniidae , commonly known as saturniids , by most measures include the largest species of moths .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they are a family of lepidoptera , with an estimated 2,300 described species worldwide .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the saturniidae include such lepidoptera as the giant silkmoths , royal moths and emperor moths .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "adults are characterized by large size , heavy bodies covered in hair-like scales , lobed wings , reduced mouthparts , and small heads .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they lack a frenulum but the hind wings overlap the forewings , producing the same effect of an unbroken wing surface .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "these moths are sometimes brightly colored and often have translucent eyespots or \" windows \" on their wings .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "sexual dimorphism varies by species , but males can generally be distinguished by their larger , broader antennae .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "most adults possess wing spans between 1 and 6 in ( 2.5 and 15 cm ) , but some tropical species , such as the atlas moth ( attacus atlas ) , may have wing spans up to 12 in ( 30 cm ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "together with certain noctuidae ( chiefly calpinae and catocalinae , such as the genera ascalapha , erebus , or thysania ) , the saturniidae contain the largest lepidoptera , and some of the largest insects alive today . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "saturniidae", "paragraphs": ["saturniidae of prince edward island livestock for sale . pictures of and information about the saturniidae of prince edward island\nthibaud decaens saturniidae collection this site features images of live saturniidae adults and their caterpillars from around the world .\nsince we have accumulated many different saturniidae and sphingidae pupae and saturniidae cocoons this fall , we decided to compare them .\nmoths of western north america . 1 . distribution of saturniidae of western north america\nbalcazar lm , wolfe lk . cladistics of the ceratocampinae ( lepidoptera : saturniidae )\nsaturniidae , butterflies and moths of north america . accessed january 10 , 2013 .\nsaturnia homepage . wolfgang n\u00e4ssig ' s pages about saturniidae and other bombycoid moths .\n( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) : unique origin and repeated reduction of the aeropyle crown .\n( graells 1849 ) ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) . eos . 1975 ; 49 : 285\u201392 .\ntree of life web project . 2010 . saturniidae . version 02 december 2010 ( temporary ) .\nfamily saturniidae - giant silkworm and royal moths , bugguide . net . accessed january 10 , 2013 .\nmoths of western north america . 1 . distribution of saturniidae of western north america ( 32 . 49mb )\nracheli l , racheli t ( 2006 ) phylogenetic hypothesis and classification : theoretical and methodological issues with reference to some studies on saturniidae ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) . shilap revista de lepidopterolog\u00eda 34 ( 133 ) : 5\u201312 .\nwhat you see here is the amazing caterpillar of saturniidae moth . the family saturniidae includes the largest species of moths which generally feature heavy bodies covered in hair - like scales , lobed wings , reduced mouthparts , and small heads .\nsaturniidae ( bombycoidea ) ; [ nacl ] , 108 ; van nieukerken et al . , 2011 , zootaxa 3148 : 217\nsaturniidae caterpillar , it was\nserved\nas breakfast by the locals on one of the jobs we did in central africa .\n( graells , 1849 ) ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) . shilap soc hispano luso am lepid . 1992 ; 20 : 29\u201349 .\nthe cecropia moth is one of the large , showy moths of the family saturniidae . getty images / corbis documentary / darrell gulin\nsystematic monography of the palaearctic species of saturniidae , brahmaeidae , eupterotidae and endromididae ( lepidoptera ) ( w . a . n\u00e4ssig )\nwlss contributer of the year is bart coppens , who has provided great images of many saturniidae adults and larvae from around the world .\nsaturniidae , pieridae , noctuidae and nymphalidae were the more species consumed with 16 , 11 , 9 , and 8 species , respectively .\n( graells , 1849 ) ( lepidoptera , saturniidae ) en la provincia de cuenca . espa\u00f1a graellsia . 2010 ; 66 : 9\u201320 .\nskipper larvae ( hesperiidae ) , and those of moth families including lasiocampidae , arctiidae , saturniidae , notodontidae and zygaenidae pupate within cocoons .\n[ larvae - pupae parasitoids of hylesia metabus cramer ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) in northeastern venezuela : a case of natural biological control ] .\nadult feeding moths ( sphingidae ) differ from non - adult feeding ones ( saturniidae ) in activity - timing overlap and temporal niche width .\nwhat made you want to look up saturniidae ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\nstudies on summer diapause in pupae of antheraea yamamai ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) : i . shortening of the ' pupal ' duration under certain environmental conditions\npupa and other smerinthinae pupae are not very typical sphingidae , resembling saturniidae pupa more since it lacks a proboscis and not excessively elongated and pointy . o\nconstructed a molecular phylogeny of the moth genus hemileuca ( saturniidae ) and the h . electra species complex to examine patterns of character evolution and conservation implications\nthis site hosts pages for over 2500 saturniidae species / subspecies from around the world with over 1550 species / subspecies depicted in over 10 , 000 images .\nbombycidae ) have been used for centuries for the production of silk . several species in the family saturniidae including antheraea mylitta also produce silk of commercial quality .\n[ larvae - pupae parasitoids of hylesia metabus cramer ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) in northeastern venezuela : a case of natural biological control ] . - pubmed - ncbi\nadult feeding moths ( sphingidae ) differ from non - adult feeding ones ( saturniidae ) in activity - timing overlap and temporal niche width . - pubmed - ncbi\ni am personally committed to sharing information about all of the world ' s saturniidae . hence , this site will continue to be a work - in - progress .\n, but many saturniidae pupae are even easier to sex because the male antennae are much more pectinate than the female ones , and this can be seen clearly on the pupa .\nrubinoff , d . 1998 . field observations on mating behavior and predation of hemileuca electra ( saturniidae ) . the journal of the lepidopterists ' society , 52 : 212 - 214\nto coordinate the studies on bombycoidea , a small \u201cinformal annual meeting of saturniidae researchers\u201d for employed and amateur lepidopterists is organised on occasion of the annual frankfurt insect exchange in early november each year .\n( graells , 1849 ) , una nueva especie para la fauna lepidopterol\u00f3gica de almer\u00eda ( espa\u00f1a ) ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) . shilap soc hispano luso am lepid . 2008 ; 36 : 427\u201330 .\ni am constantly seeking natural setting images of saturniidae in all stages of development from around the world . as images become available , they will be woven into html text format for your viewing and enjoyment .\nthe wild silk moths of north america : a natural history of the saturniidae of the united states and canada , by paul m . tuskes , james p . tuttle , and michael m . collins .\nthe family saturniidae contains many of the largest and most spectacular moths on earth including the giant atlas moth attacus atlas which measures up to 25cms across the wings , and the amazing madagascan comet moth argema mittrei which has 15cm long tails extending from the hindwings . the name of the family saturniidae is derived from the ' saturn ' s rings ' ocelli on the wings . click on the images below for more photos and detailed descriptions .\nthis is the first number of a series of atlases detailing the distributional occurrence of the moths of north america . the atlas of saturniidae by richard peigler and me covers the documented distribution of a well - known group .\nrubinoff , d . m . san jose and r . peigler . 2017 . multi - gene phylogeny of the hemileuca maia complex ( saturniidae ) across north america suggests complex phylogeography and rapid ecological diversification . systematic entomology .\nmichener , c . d . 1952 . the saturniidae ( lepidoptera ) of the western hemisphere - morphology , phylogeny , and classification . bulletin of the american museum of natural history 98 ( 5 ) : 341 - 501 .\ndeml , r . and k . dettner . 2002 . morphology and classification of larval scoli of saturniinae and hemileucinae ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) . journal of zoological systematics and evolutionary research 40 ( 2 ) : 82 - 91 .\nrubinoff , d and f . a . h . sperling . 2004 . mitochondrial dna sequence , morphology and ecology yield contrasting conservation implications for two threatened buckmoths ( hemileuca : saturniidae ) . biological conservation 118 : 341 - 351 .\nrubinoff , d . and f . a . h . sperling . 2002 . evolution of ecological traits and wing morphology in hemileuca ( saturniidae ) based on a two gene phylogeny . molecular phylogenetics and evolution . 25 : 70 - 86 .\ntuskes , p . m . , j . p . tuttle , and m . m . collins . 1996 . the wild silk moths of north america : a natural history of the saturniidae of the united states and canada . cornell university press .\nthis moth is a member of the family saturniidae - or giant silk worm moths . members of this family are responsible for the production of silk for use in fabrics , rugs and other items . they are among the largest and most beautiful of all moths .\nfurther , the results of the travel to bolivia shall be used as basis for a planned \u201cfield guide\u201d of the saturniidae of the bolivian department of santa cruz . further research travels are intended for the coming years to close gaps in the knowledge of special questions .\nthis article is a step by step guide to the rearing of large numbers of saturniidae in outdoor sleeves . one can start at any one of the four metamorphic stages : 1 ) ova , 2 ) larva , 3 ) pupa / cocoon , 4 ) moth .\nregal moth , , ( subfamily citheroniinae ) , any of a group of moths in the family saturniidae ( order lepidoptera ) that are large and brightly coloured and occur only in the new world . the ferocious - looking but harmless hickory horned devil caterpillar ( larva of the royal walnut moth , citheronia\u2026\nregier , j . c . , c . mitter , r . s . peigler , and t . p . friedlander . 2002 . monophyly , composition and tribal relationships of saturniinae ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) : evidence from two nuclear genes . insect systematics and evolution 33 : 9 - 21 .\nelizabeth a . blake , michael r . wagner ; collection and consudlption of pandora moth , coloradia pandora lindseyi ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) , larvae by olvens valley and mono lake paiutes , bulletin of the entomological society of america , volume 33 , issue 1 , 1 march 1987 , pages 22\u201327 , urltoken\nregier , j . c . , c . mitter , r . s . peigler , and t . p . friedlander . 2002 . monophyly , composition , and relationships within saturniinae ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) : evidence from two nuclear genes . insect systematics and evolution 33 ( 1 ) : 9 - 21 .\nthe atlas moth ( attacus atlas ) is one of the largest moths in the world , with a wingspan of over 9 . 8 inches . females are slightly larger than males . like other moths in the family saturniidae , adults do not have working mouth parts and only live for a few days to a week .\nsince we have begun to accumulate quite a lot of different saturniidae and sphingidae pupae lately , we decided to compare some of them side by side . above are ventral , lateral , and dorsal views of seven different pupae , the five on the left being satuniidae and the two on the right sphingidae . from left to right : \u2640\nregier , j . c . , m . c . grant , r . s . peigler , c . mitter , c . p . cook , and r . rougerie . 2008 . phylogenetic relationships of wild silkmoths ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) inferred from four protein - coding nuclear genes . systematic entomology 33 : 219 - 228 .\nfriedlander , t . p . , k . r . horst , j . c . regier , c . mitter , r . s . peigler , and q . q . fang . 1998 . two nuclear genes yield concordant relationships within attacini ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) . mol . phyl . evol . 9 : 131 - 140 .\nfriedlander , t . p . , k . r . horst , j . c . regier , c . mitter , r . s . peigler , and q . q . fang . 1998 . two nuclear genes yield concordant relationships within attacini ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 9 ( 1 ) : 131 - 140 .\n\u2026asiatic giant silkworm moths ( family saturniidae ) . the larvae and sometimes the adults of a few species are used for food . the larvae of one skipper ( rhopalocampta libeon , or caeliades libeon ) are collected in large quantities in the congo , and the 10 - cm ( 4 - inch ) caterpillars of giant skippers ( family megathymidae ) , known in\u2026\nsince these are silk moths of family saturniidae they should be relatively easy to sex as pupae . the female pupa will have an extra pore compared to the male one , and also if the antennae of male and female adults are different ( in many species the males have much broader antennae ) you should be able to see this difference in the pupal case .\nin this paper , we reported the butterflies and moths that are consumed in mexico . we identified 67 species of lepidoptera that are eaten principally in their larval stage in 17 states of mexico . these species belong to 16 families : arctiidae , bombycidae , castniidae , cossidae , geometridae , hepialidae , hesperiidae , lasiocampidae , noctuidae , nymphalidae , papilionidae , pieridae , pyralidae , saturniidae , sesiidae , and sphingidae .\nlarvae pass through growth stages called instars . they have to shed old skins to make room for new growth . it is generally not a good idea to move larvae while they are reparing or attempting to shed skins . most saturniidae larvae spend about 6 - 8 days in their first instar and that is why i like to move larvae outdoors after only 3 - 4 days in their indoor hatching containers .\nthousands of people , all over the world , have reared saturniidae . for most , the experience has largely been one of finding a few larvae , taking them home , feeding them some leaves in an aquarium , large jar , etc . , watching them spin their cocoons , and then waiting for the adult emergence . many people have found an h . cecropia larva on an ornamental tree in the yard .\neven people with no particular love of insects find the giant moths ( and caterpillars ! ) of the family saturniidae fascinating . the name is thought to refer to the large eyespots found on the wings of some species . the eyespots contain concentric rings , reminiscent of the planet saturn ' s rings . these showy moths are easy to rear in captivity if you can find enough foliage to keep their very hungry caterpillars fed .\nmost females of the large saturniidae lay tiny eggs , either singly or in small rows on the underside of leaves . trying to find these eggs would be like looking for a needle in a haystack . most people obtain ova in the following ways : 1 ) obtain them from a dealer , 2 ) capture a gravid female at a light , 3 ) obtain cocoons from a dealer or from the wild and secure a mating .\nsaturniidae larvae are usually left in the sleeves to spin cocoons . some species ( cynthia and promethea ) always use a leaf wrap and remain attached to branches . other species sometimes use a leaf wrap , ( luna , cecropia , polyphemus ) , while others either spin attached to branches or trunks ( cecropia , columbia ) or in the folds of the sleeve - - a most annoying practice : polypphemus , cecropia , luna , io .\ni raise mostly cecropia and polyphemus moths , but i\u2019ve been trying other species too . this year i\u2019ve been raising prometheas , and i have some buck moth pupas that i\u2019m hoping will hatch so i can try raising them . in 2011 , i\u2019ve been raising luna moths . one advantage of these giant silk moths ( the family saturniidae ) is that the adults don\u2019t eat , so it\u2019s possible to keep them for a day or two to try to mate them and get eggs .\nthere are about 1 , 400 species world - wide in the moth family saturniidae . for over thirty years , the author has been studying more than three hundred of them . furthermore , he has professionally photographed the stages of development from the egg , through the larval stages and pupation , to the adult moth . the result is a unique documentation of the metamorphosis of these fascinating animals . with 2 , 949 illustrations , the author unfolds to us the unexpected variety and beauty of saturniid larvae .\nthis is one of those books that , once you see a copy , you will have to have it . books like this go a long way to encourage young naturalists to become entomologists . as a professor , i know that many young people do not collect books , thinking that they can get everything they need on the internet . but this book is not expensive considering its attributes , so i hope that every admirer of saturniidae will acquire it . when your computer crashes or the power goes out , you can immerse yourself in lampe\u2019s beautiful book using natural daylight or candlelight until those things get fixed .\nthe saturniidae are members of the superfamily bombycoidea . these species are medium to very large in size , and this family includes the largest moths in north america . adults have a wingspan of 3 to 15 centimeters , relatively small heads , and densely hairy bodies . larvae are usually very fleshy , with clumps of raised bristles . buck moth and io moth caterpillars have sharp , stinging hairs . caterpillars mostly feed on leaves of trees and shrubs ; some cause severe damage . pupa develop in silken cocoons or in the soil . this family does not contain the commercial silkworm moth ( bombyx mori ) , which is not native to north america .\nrudolf lampe has produced an excellent contribution that will be both scientifically useful and aesthetically enjoyable for those who rear and study saturniidae . for more than 30 years , lampe has reared and photographed saturniids , and this book is a wonderful culmination of his efforts . each [ of the more than 300 species ] is documented in an appendix giving the locality data , dates of the rearing , and what hostplant was used . close - up views of eggs , all larval stages , pupae , cocoons ( for those species that make cocoons ) , and pinned adults are given , usually of both sexes , and sometimes live adults are also shown in natural repose .\n2010 , in english and german , 368 pages , 336 color plates ( 2 , 949 photos ) , 9 color & 2 b / w figures . there are ~ 1 , 400 species world - wide in the moth family saturniidae . for over 30 years , the author has been studying more than 300 of them . he has professionally photographed the stages of development from the egg , through larval stages and pupation , to the adult moth . the result is a unique documentation of the metamorphosis of these fascinating animals . the unexpected variety and beauty of saturniid moths is extensively portrayed in this remarkable book . hardcover ; 8 - 1 / 2 x 12\n.\nmales and females of most large saturniidae are attracted to lights , especially mercury vapour or black lights . i have purchased both types of lights from hardware stores and use them regularly to attract females . mercury vapour lights are often used as floodlights or security lights on large buildings : schools , warehouses , car dealerships , etc . i have a five mile circuit that i make quite regularly during prime flight times in the spring and summer to visit such sites from 11 : 00 pm to 1 : 00 am looking for moths . police are notified and landowners ' permission is obtained in advance . a warm , overcast , moonless or at least\ndark\n, night offers the best collecting .\nactually the metamorphosis of lepidoptera ( from ovum to imago ) is strongly governed by their environment ( temperature , humidity , air flow , photo period , available resources , etc ) . that ' s why i designed all of my rearing / breeding cages and plant storage methods so i could control all of the environmental factors to match the normal conditions during the peak seasons of a species . short photo period slows them down , can induce early aestivation / hibernation , both that can result in smaller livestock / imago ' s . how sever is dependent on the species and the conditions . i ' ve reared a lot of different species of saturniidae since 1964 , and they are a product of their environment same as they are from all lepidopteran families . fwiw - hth\n( luna month ) actias luna classification kingdom : animalia class : insecta order : lepidoptera family : saturniidae genus : actias species : actias luna environmental information habitat : forested areas of north america . description of identifying characteristics / physical appearance food habits : caterpillar feeds on foliage of various species of hickory , walnut , sweet - gum , persimmon , and birch trees . luna moths predators : birds , bats , and spiders . moths are large , with a 4 to 5 inch wingspan . wings are light green , transparent spots and a pink - purple or yellow , hind wings bearing long twisted tails and antennae are feathery , luna moths have often been used in classrooms to help teach insect life cycles . economic importance for humans : positive importance to humans and / or the environment resources used urltoken urltoken urltoken urltoken urltoken\nthe female emperor moth is above , and the male below . this moth is considered by some to have the best sense of small of any animal . a male can smell the pheromone the female releases to attract him to mate from seven miles away ! this moth is found throughout the paleartctic , and is the only member of the saturniidae family found in the u . k . , it is normally seen in moorland and open country . the two specimens here are preserved , but in life the males have much brighter orange hindwings , the female colouring is similar , but less bright . males fly by day especially on sunny days , and their flight is rapid . females by night . the flight period is april and may . male wingspan is 60 mm , and female 80 mm . male forewing length is 27 - 32 mm , and female is 35 - 41 mm .\nlarvae pupate in different ways depending on which family they belong to . a larva from the family nymphalidae for example will spin a tiny button of silk on a leaf or stem , and anchor itself to it by its tail . the tail has an appendage called a cremaster , which is equipped with microscopic hooks to hold it securely to the silk . larvae of papilionidae and pieridae do the same , but additionally spin a silken girdle around their waist . lycaenidae and riodinidae don ' t possess cremasters so they either pupate on the ground , or attach themselves by a silk girdle to a leaf or stem . hesperiidae pupate loosely , usually within a flimsy silken tent . the larvae of most moths pupate loosely in a chamber just below the surface of the ground . others , including saturniidae , bombycidae and lasiocampidae pupate inside a tough silk cocoon spun on the leaves , stems or branches of their foodplants .\nactually if you use a hand lens it is really quite obvious , much clearer than in the photo . the only difference between the sexes is in the one segment i indicated , presence or absence of the pore . this difference is present in all lepidoptera , but you need to familiarise yourself with each species , as pupae can look quite different , and the shape of the female pore varies between specimens of the same species ( sometimes quite short , sometimes there ' s a slit across the whole segment ) as well as between species , but the principle is the same : male no pore , female with a pore in the position indicated . you will soon get the hang of the difference between sexes , and be able to spot it for different species . the hemileuca you are rearing will have basically the same difference between sexes . i do know that some of the saturniid breeders will deliberately cut open the cocoons , check the sex of the pupae and put them back inside . if done carefully it has no effect on the pupae at all . i ' m not sure if this applies to hemileuca , but many saturniidae pupae are even easier to sex because the male antennae are much more pectinate than the female ones , and this can be seen clearly on the pupa . adam .\naccording to classic ecology , resource partitioning by segregation along at least one of the three main niche axes ( time , food , and space ) must take place for the coexistence of species with similar ecological requirements . we used nocturnal light traps to investigate the assemblage structuration of two moth families : sphingidae ( 23 species ) and saturniidae ( 13 species ) . because competition for food among adults potentially occurs only among sphingids , only for this family did we expect less overlap of diel activity patterns than expected by chance and also a greater temporal niche width compared to saturniids . moreover , we expected a greater number of sphingid species pairs to differ in activity timing compared to saturniid pairs . we also hypothesized that in the case of a lack of temporal structuration , sphingids would be morphologically structured in relation to proboscis length . contrary to what we expected , both families overlapped their activity patterns more than expected by chance alone and sphingid moths were not morphologically structured . nevertheless , there were 173 significant pairwise differences in temporal activity between sphingids , contrasting with no interspecific differences between saturniids . sphingid species also showed a wider temporal niche width than saturniids , as expected . predation risk and abiotic factors may have caused the overall similarities in activity patterns for both families . the temporal niche seemed not to be determinant for the assemblage structuration of moths as a whole for either of the studied families , but segregation along the temporal niche axis of some potentially competing species pairs can be a relevant factor for the coexistence of nectar - feeding species .\nwhile we were at it , we also decided to compare some of our saturniidae cocoons . below are five different species , the three on the left being in the saturniinae tribe and the two on the right in the attacini tribe . from left to right : antheraea mylitta , antheraea polyphemus , actias luna , samia ricini , and hyalophora cecropia . all are unopened except the a . luna cocoon since it was from a brood reared in 2013 ; the rest are unopen and were obtained or reared this year . despite the close relation between the two antheraeas , their cocoons are surprisingly different . the mylitta is huge and perfectly smooth and ovular , made of extremely tough and thick beige colored silk . there also is a long silk stalk at the top for hanging to branches . in comparison , polyphemus is less perfectly shaped and flatter , with a tough but thinner shell . there is not stalk since they are either affixed to the tree or in the leaf litter . the a . luna cocoon resembles the a . polyphemus cocoon very much but is brown and the shell is much thinner , shinier , and smoother . the s . ricini cocoon is far less compact and the silk is softer and white . the shape is sort of irregular , being flat and tapered at the ends . the h . cecropia cocoon is also tapered at the ends - - very much so at the top , but the silk is very course and thick , though not as compact a the antheraeas ' . it is the largest cocoon by far and is like a bag , with a little escape hole at the top for when the moth ecloses . between the three saturniinaes and two attacini cocoons the former have more or less ovular cocoons while the attacini cocoon are more irregular shaped , but are usually tapered at the ends with a escape hole at the top .\ninsects have been a good and natural source of human diet for long periods of time . the tradition has been actively pursued in a number of continents where the collection of insects as food is an essential part of the people\u2019s livelihoods .\nthe concept of ingesting insects has only been acknowledged and researched very recently due to exposure and interests . publications found on the topic are spread across many journals in a lot of disciplines , varying from biochemistry , nutrition , food science , anthropology , history , entomology , agriculture , health , ecology , and sociology .\nsuch publications have started dealing with studies in order to understand the biology and ecology of edible insects , along with other factors to determine their availability , significance as food sources to sustain livelihoods , and their importance of ethno - entomological knowledge .\nin addition , these publications also showcase technology transfer\u2019s role to help people in utilizing their traditional knowledge for improving the worth of insects as food sources in their lives . the works created by fran\u00e7oise malaisse , jun mitsuhashi , and gene defoliart deserve special attention and applause in this field .\nedible insects carry a high quality of amino acids , proteins , and vitamins for human beings . these insects also contribute to a higher rate of food conversion than regular livestock . for instance , cricket needs 6 times lesser feed quantity than regular cattle , 4 times lesser than a sheep , and two times lesser than a pig or a broiler chicken , in order to generate the equivalent sum of protein .\nwhat\u2019s more , edible insects also emit lesser ammonia and greenhouse gases than the traditional livestock . edible insects are capable of growing on organic wastes too . as a result , these insects are potential sources for the regular production of protein , both for direct consumption by humans or for indirect recomposed food items , and as protein sources to be used in feedstock mixtures .\nthere are many numerous advantages of eating edible insects as a natural source of food . breeding of such insects in comparison to livestock is , in fact , a better step towards being environmentally friendly . this is due to the lesser amount of land occupancy , water pollution problems , and much lesser greenhouse gas emissions . eating house cricket has actually been proven as a more resourceful form of feed conversion .\nmoreover , the tremendous augmentation in population around the world has necessitated the need for a good source of protein , which is hardly met by reason of the limited quantity of available farmlands .\nin addition , it is most noteworthy to mention the economic advantages of eating insects in relation to the plant cultivations . for example , in mexico , collecting insects for human use led to a considerable shrinking in the degree of pesticides , which are usually used in an agricultural production . this has also lessened the economic burden for the cultivating farmers . among the many dangers , faced by everyone across the world , is the food diversity loss . hence , the utilization of a varied choice of insects as food would count as a big step in alleviating the problem .\nat present , there are almost 2 billion people , who consume a large range of edible insects on a regular basis both raw and cooked .\nfollow the list of insects , which have been authorized as edible and safe to eat by the u . n . :\nbeetles : these insects turn cellulose in trees to digestible fat , and contain more protein quantities than other insects .\nants : ants are low on carbs , and contain all essential proteins , calcium , iron , etc .\ngrasshoppers : these are a tremendous source of protein , and are usable in any curry flavor .\nstinkbugs : this edible insect tends to put in an apple - like flavor to any sauce , and is a good iodine source .\nthere is a large variety of edible insects , which can be used for regular consumption . a number of edible insects are in fact packed with good fats , fundamental minerals , proteins , and fibers , which amount to an equivalent of any other food source . other than an \u2018icky\u2019 factor , there is no real issue in consuming insects for an all round diet .\nhave you ever wondered insects can be a great source of nutrition ? well , some people will say \u2013 oh my god , how could we eat insects , given the fact , we have so many fine foods and vegetables for ourselves ? and some will argue by saying \u2013 from an ancient time , people have been eating insects to get nutrition and vitamins , which are not present in our body .\nin this article , we are going to take the support of the second types of people who believe insects are in fact , a fantastic way to provide nutritional value to our body . we will talk about what kind of nutrition you can get from insects and which insects provide the best value . so , let us have a look at the article . before going to the depths of the topic , we want you to know that there has been a constant debate as to whether the insects are a good source of nutrition . this debate has grown over the years because of lack of knowledge . for example \u2013 have you observed how birds feed insects to their young ?\nbasically , the young birds become ready to fly and leave their nest in just three weeks . so , how do they get the strength in such short time ? the answer is insects have a combination of nutritional elements and fluids , which provides the necessary nutritional value to the birds , making them strong enough to fly .\nas we have said earlier that insects are a genuine source of food for birds and animals , humans can also get benefits by eating them . you will see many articles and research studies , citing the significance of eating insects . even from different archaeological explorations , you will find out people in ancient time had eaten them on a regular basis . for example \u2013 one painting from an archaeological site depicts that mankind had utilized tools to collect termites from the mounds for food .\nif we talk about recent times , you will be amazed to know around 80 % people of the world are eating insects every day . in mexico , more than 200 edible insects have been used as foods and in thailand , there are more than 20 , 000 insects firms . not to mention , cambodia is the top exporter of edible insects .\nso , what do you understand from this information ? insects contain protein and other nutritive elements such as vitamins , mineral , prebiotic fiber , beneficial fats , etc . in that case , you could say that insects are the new frontier in nutrition and we have much more to discover from them .\nfrom a health point of view , insects contain a high amount protein with vitamins and minerals in abundance . there is also beneficial fats and different amino acids . besides , one vitamin , name vitamin b12 is not found in plant sources . in fact , nuts and pulses don\u2019t simply have this vitamin . however , insects can provide this vitamin easily . even insects include the combination of unsaturated omega - 3 and omega - 6 fatty acids , which are high in fish , pork , and cattle .\nfurthermore , when you will eat insects , you have to eat them in whole , meaning that the complete exoskeleton , vital organs , and muscle tissues will be consumed by you . this fact is the most significant fact as you will be able to enjoy the high micro - nutritional value of insects .\n1 . grasshoppers and crickets : grasshoppers and crickets are two of the best edible insects . a 3 . 5 - ounce grasshoppers can provide you with 14 - 28 grams of protein . this amount of protein is significant , given the fact , the grasshopper is a small insect . in relation to this fact , 30 - 60 % of women need 46 grams of protein daily and 25 - 50 % of men need 56 grams of protein each day . in that case , a grasshopper can meet this protein demand of men and women smoothly .\nadditionally , crickets and grasshoppers contain unsaturated fats . according to the food and agriculture organization of the united nations , unsaturated fats are essential for reducing the risk of heart disease . on a side note , humans cannot synthesize essential fatty acids as they have to obtain this health nutritional element via diet . therefore , crickets can easily deliver this nutrition as they have a fantastic omega 3 : 6 balance .\n2 . ants : according to national geographic website , a 3 . 5 - ounce red ants are enough to provide 14 grams of protein . the same amount of red ants can supply 5 . 7 milligrams of iron . now , men need 8 milligrams of iron each and women need 18 milligrams every day . thus , these red ants can cover almost 71 % of the men\u2019s iron demand . they can also meet one - third of iron demand of the women as well . not to mention , red ants along with other types of ants are a great source of calcium .\nthe fact of the matter is insects have certainly nutritional value and you can grow them just anywhere you want . along with other food items , you can add them to your food list because when you start eating insects for nutrition , you are putting less pressure on nature , meaning that we can have a sustainable environment altogether . so , if you have any questions regarding our opinion , please share your thoughts in the comments section .\ninsects are a good source of food supply in both humans and animals . this is why reports of various nutrient contents are often researched and found in fields of most disciplines varying from zoology to anthropology . a primary application of such nutrient contents of insects , especially the house cricket , is utilized as an essential nutritional food source for human beings .\nmore than 2 , 000 species in the insect world are acknowledged to be fit to be eaten . a number of evidence from ancient archeological sites proves that such insects have always been and are still an essential human food resource . in this article , we will primarily study about the nutrient content of the house cricket , also called acheta domesticus in latin .\nthere are a number of advantages to taking up insects as a source of food . in comparison to livestock , breeding of insects is a better environment - friendly action , due to land use , water pollution , and lesser greenhouse gas discharges .\nconsumption of house cricket proves to be a more efficient form of feed conversion . the increase in population growth all over the world augments the requirement of good sources of protein but is hardly met due to the limited amount of on hand farmland .\nadditionally , the economic advantages of consuming insects in comparison to the plant\u2019s cultivation must be taken into account . for instance , collecting insects in mexico for human eating decreased the extent of pesticides being used in agricultural production , along with a lessened economic burden on the farmers .\nalthough the tradition of using insects is not much common in every country nowadays , these insects continue to be a good source of nutrition in many cultures over the world .\nthe house cricket or acheta domestica is mostly found to be bred and eaten through appropriate farming conditions in europe . whilst the house cricket is sometimes eaten in its raw form , most of the time they are processed and consumed by human beings typically by roasting , drying , frying , or boiling .\nin addition , the dietary composition of such cultured insects like the house cricket has been researched and used as a food source to captivated insectivorous reptiles , mammals , or birds , which are kept in the zoos .\nthe nutritional elements in different insects and their different stages differ . hence , there is no generalization of such data relating to their nutritional content . analysis of the insects is made based on their level of protein , moisture , fat , fiber , and ash .\nit has been found that whole and raw insects by and large hold 55 - 85 % of moisture . on the other hand , the whole insects containing a lower content of moisture are normally the ones that have a higher fat content . the insects developed for human eating , in general , hold lesser moisture in comparison to the raw insects due to their processing , which typically engages some form of drying so as to prolong their shelf life .\nhouse crickets are one of the most commonly consumed insects all over the world . these are more commonly farmed by cultivators in thailand . this breed of house crickets is more well - liked than the native breed of cricket species attributable to its better quality texture and taste . the house cricket is typically consumed as a deep fried food snack and is sold off as a protein extract or as a protein powder .\nto conclude , the house cricket or acheta domesticus is a completely well rounded edible insect and can be relied on for long periods . due to the overpopulation issue all over the world , most people have taken to the consumption of alternatives to livestock and plant - based food sources . insect farming is quite a popular concept nowadays , which has driven a number of farmers to a better crop cultivation , devoid of fertilizers .\ngun safety is always a foremost concern . before indulging in a personal gun , you must be assured of your pre - chosen gun safe and secret zones . to responsibly use a gun is easy , provided you have your checks and balances ready and in control . the tool is used by people of all genders and races for protection against an unknown and surprising force .\nmore often than not , the gun is typically kept in the car because anyone can experience an unintentional mishap from an outside force , and hence you need to have a defensive stance at all times . people often experience burglary or crime cases while traveling in their cars and the display of the gun can thwart such a confrontation .\nwhile the gun is a good defense mechanism to be kept in the vehicle ; at the same time , one must be aware of the dangers of keeping such a powerful weapon on hand . if the gun is kept in the car , the owner must have a good way to lock and secure the weapon . this is so that further unwanted accidents or incidents are prevented . a loose firearm must be adhered to and should not be taken lightly .\nmost gun owners use a gun safe for keeping their guns safe . the gun safe is used by most law enforcement officials for keeping their guns safe . we have hence provided some very well researched and noteworthy pointers on the benefits of having a gun safe for your gun in regular and emergency needs .\nsecurity : in a gun safe , the gun is sealed in stealing cases and locked securely .\nstrength : a gun safe has enough strength in its security to prevent any illicit or unwanted entry by children , thieves , or other non - permitted persons .\neasy to use and fast in functionality : you can easily and effortlessly access and close your gun safe readily in times of an urgent need for a limited time .\nthere are a few common places in a car , which people commonly use to protect their guns . however , such places are not always safe as anyone can find the weapon , risking both you and your co - passengers in the car .\nto mention an unsafe place , the console or glove compartment is a good example . it is the first place that a thief or an unwanted party would look into and is basically an insecure place to hold a gun . additionally , the glove box or the console is not discreet at all . such areas for keeping your gun can make it very obvious as to the existence of the gun and may pose problems from thefts or threats . plus , it is too far away from the driver , in case he or she should need to make a defensive move .\ninstead of keeping your gun in an inaccessible area in your car , you could find more inventive ways to keep your gun safely in your car . it is very important to keep your gun within your hand\u2019s reach . you can simply have your gun kept out in the open while concealing it well inside the car . you could use the space provided beneath your steering column or beneath your seat .\nthere are a number of seat holster companies for cars , which have recently manufactured products , meant to be used for attaching the gun beneath your car seat . through such a way , your gun remains cleverly hidden out of sight , and you can access it without any difficulty .\ngun safety is a prior concern and should not be taken lightly . it is very important that you act responsibly so that no one else is harmed accidentally in the venture . thus , these are the points that you should keep in mind while keeping your gun in the car . do use a gun safe in your car so that your gun remains safe and secure . and , avoid the places where you should not keep your gun .\nbathroom ceiling fans are the most efficient must - haves in any regular bathroom . these bathroom fans can not only provide your home with a good ventilation system but also help save your bathroom walls from moisture and humidity . these ceiling fans are less costly and very useful for personal hygiene and proper flow of air around the house .\nceiling fans are used in bathrooms as a good way to air the bathroom space and protect the walls and corners . more often than not , the humidity stuck in any regular bathroom space can ultimately give rise to a batch of whole other problems like mildew and mold . bathroom fans tend to remove the extra moisture from such walls , thus preventing wallpapers and paints to peel off or become warped .\nthe bathroom ceiling fans add ventilation , improve airflow , and reduce the excess humidity in a bathroom space . in addition , these bathroom fans can serve well to remove unwanted odors from the body or products to create a well - ventilated environment . these fans are of tremendous use for times when a homeowner may wish to take a steam bath or spa in their bathrooms , which otherwise wreak havoc on the air quality . thus , they maintain the utmost air quality indoors and keep the homeowner comfortable .\nthe pressure cooker is the most useful and time saving tool among all the other inventions by humankind . it is a tool to be used for easy cooking in the day to day purposes . in the present millennium , this apparatus is a common and everyday object used in almost every household around the world .\nwhether you wish to make a luxurious and scrumptious meal or a simple home cooked meal , the pressure cooker can come to assist in the most simple and innovative recipes . these recipes can range from the toughest food items like chickpeas and beans to the most complex roasts or stews . we have made a list of the best and easy food items that you can cook in a pressure cooker , along with good tips to get the optimal results while using it and if you are looking for a high quality pressure cooker the instant pot ip - duo60 7 - in - 1 programmable pressure cooker review is a product we can\u00b4t recomment enough .\nchicken with tomatoes , chickpeas , and chorizo : this recipe is a common meal in all american households . the pressure cooker helps elevate and intensify the smoky flavors of the ingredients while the chicken is roasted inside it .\nbeef american stew : this is another classic dish , which cuts more than half time through the use of the pressure cooker . the cooker is used mainly for easy tenderizing of a tough piece of beef meat and takes about 45 minutes .\nsmoky beans : the pressure cooker can be used to bring out the earthy smell of the beans . you can additionally use some more ingredients while cooking beans in a cooker and gain the optimal tang .\nchicken and bean stew : while preparing a meat - based stew , the pressure cooker can be of ultimate convenience in saving a load of the cook\u2019s time and bringing out the best zest . a cooker can efficiently make your chicken tender by making it fall off the bone level ."]}
{"id": 1894, "summary": [{"text": "charlie cruz ( born 3 april 1975 in r\u00edo piedras , puerto rico ) is one of the new stars of the salsa music genre .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "his start was well received by the puerto rican recording industry .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "born in 1975 in puerto rico cruz was the oldest of seven siblings .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "he lived his adolescent years in paterson , new jersey , in the united states , where he grew to love salsa music .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "his models were exponents of the afro-caribbean genre such as h\u00e9ctor lavoe and frankie ruiz .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "his musical career started by singing chorus for his father , fonzy cruz , who recorded three records .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in 1996 , the younger cruz decided to move to puerto rico to be closer to his family and musical roots .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "by so doing , he entered the salsa scene , working for two years as a vocalist in domingo qui\u00f1ones \u2018 orchestra .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "at that time he took singing classes and studied piano as well .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in his 2nd cd as a soloist , cruz hit the international scene with his album imaginate .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "with the wea latina label , the production was helped by sergio george who directed and arranged .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "in that album , cruz was co - songwriter of \u201c y gritar\u00e9 \u201d , together with guadalupe garc\u00eda and sergio george .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "few people know that before becoming a singer he worked for five years as a boxer and became a professional in the 132 pound weight class .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "but the pull of music was stronger still , impelling him into a career as professional music artist .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "his latest release : asi soy featured the song hoy es el dia .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "charlie cruz , who today divides his time between puerto rico and tampa , grew up in the small town of naguabo .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "his love of salsa began as a 10-year-old , when he became a backup singer in the orchestra of his father , fonzy cruz .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the more he was exposed to music , the more he loved it .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "as he gained stage experience and worked with established salsa hit makers , cruz realized how much he truly loved the genre .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "his life changed drastically when he was invited to perform at a concert and share the stage with top acts like gilberto santa rosa , victor manuelle and tito nieves .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "as a result of this performance , he was signed by sir george records .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "under this label , he produced such hits as \" bombon de azucar \" and \" amarte es un problema . \"", "topic": 15}, {"text": "\" dejala que baile , \" the first single off mas de mi , features an upbeat , catchy flavor that will have every salsa fan swinging their hips on the dance floor . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "charlie cruz", "paragraphs": ["jp cruz , n alquwez , cp cruz , rfd felicilda\u2010reynaldo , lm vitorino , . . .\njp cruz , pc colet , n alquwez , h alqubeilat , ma bashtawi , ea ahmed , . . .\ns gennaro , gc mancus , j campbell , pc colet , jp cruz , g cacho , . . .\njoin international superstar , olga ta\u00f1\u00f3n and rising salsa star charlie cruz for the \u201c concierto del amor \u201d . share the evening with two latin artists who are currently heating up the billboard latin charts for a special engagement live for one night only .\nmoe ' s alley welcomes back blues legend charlie musselwhite for a saturday night . get your tickets early for this one .\nnamed one of puerto rico ' s best salsa performers , charlie cruz\u2019s albums such as imaginate and asi soy , as well as the 2016 single\nse cae el mundo\nfeaturing tito nieves , showcase his upbeat , catchy flavor that always fills the dance floor .\n( february 1 , 2011 ) - salsa star , charlie cruz makes his first appearance on billboard ' s latin tropical albums chart with his brand new album ,\nsigo aqu\u00ed\n. the new album released on november 16 th reaches position # 8 on the prestigious chart and becomes charlie ' s first top 10 album .\nsigo aqu\u00ed\nis one of the top 20 selling tropical albums in the u . s . and puerto rico . it is also becoming a favorite among salsa audiences establishing charlie as one of the leading soneros of our generation .\ncharlie cruz ( born 3 april 1975 in r\u00edo piedras , puerto rico ) is one of the new stars of the salsa music genre . signed up by sir george records , under this label he produced such hits as\nbombon de azucar\nand\namarte es un problema\n.\ncharlie cruz surged onto the music scene with his hit song , \u201c bomb\u00f3n de az\u00facar \u201d in 1999 . he has since recorded eight studio albums including his latest premio lo nuestro nominated release , \u201c sigo aqu\u00ed \u201d . his songs , unmistakable thanks to his artistic personality are heard on the airwaves of three continents and to date he has amassed seven top 10 hits on the billboard tropical chart including , \u201c t\u00fa me confundes \u201d , \u201c amarte es un problema \u201d and \u201c necesito m\u00e1s de t\u00ed \u201d . he is a part of a new generation of salsa singers in which his distinctively individual style sets him apart from the rest . charlie is one of the eternally vibrant salsa movement\u2019s top performers drawing his influences from legends h\u00e9ctor lavoe and frankie ruiz .\nwith an induction into the blues music hall of fame , 35 blues music awards ( including three wins in 2014 ! ) and 11 grammy nominations ( including a 2014 win ! ) , american electric blues harmonica player and bandleader charlie musselwhite has truly earned legendary status as one of blues music\u00b9s most important artists .\nlast week charlie ' s lead single ,\nnecesito mas de ti\nmoved into the top 5 of billboard ' s latin tropical airplay chart at position # 4 becoming his 6 th top 5 hit . the lead single continues this week within the top 10 for a fifth week and is the highest charting salsa song on that list alongside hits from don omar , prince royce and pitbull . the song has been receiving high rotation throughout the country and it is # 1 in detects . the video for\nnecesito mas de ti\nwill be released the this summer .\none of the non - black bluesmen who came to prominence in the early 1960s ( alongside mike bloomfield and paul butterfield , among others ) , musselwhite was reportedly the inspiration for dan aykroyd ' s character in the blues brothers . he was born in mississippi but spent his formative years in memphis , tn during the period when rockabilly , western swing , electric blues and other forms of african american music were combining to give birth to rock and roll . musselwhite supported himself by digging ditches , laying concrete and running moonshine in a 1950 lincoln automobile . this environment was musselwhite\u00b9s school for music , as well as life , and where he acquired the nickname\nmemphis charlie\n.\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nthe online extension of billboard magazine , urltoken is the essential online destination for the music business .\ndraft : drafted by the atlanta braves in the 13th round of the 1995 mlb june amateur draft .\ncurrent greats : clayton kershaw , bryce harper , mike trout , jake arrieta , miguel cabrera , zack greinke , jose altuve , . . .\nall - time greats : stan musial , barry bonds , babe ruth , derek jeter , ken griffey jr , jackie robinson , hank aaron , . . .\nnl central : chicago cubs , cincinnati reds , milwaukee brewers , pittsburgh pirates , st . louis cardinals\n2018 , 2017 , 2018 mlb pitching , 2018 mlb batting , 2018 mlb standings , 2018 mlb attendance , 2018 mlb rookies , . . .\n2018 mlb batting , 2018 mlb pitching , career war leaders , single - season home run leaders , active strikeout leaders , upcoming player milestones , . . .\nyesterday ' s mlb games , scores from any date in mlb history , mlb probable pitchers , . . .\nal standings , nl standings , standings for any date in history , . . .\n2016 world series : cubs vs indians , 2015 world series : , world series batting leaders , world series pitching leaders , . . .\nplayer finders : season & career finder , game finder , streak finder , event finder , player comparison finder , neutralized stats , . . .\nteam finders : season finder , split finder , game finder , streak finder , event finder , . . .\nother finders : draft finder , game score & result searches , team trade histories , . . .\nactive : terry francona , clint hurdle , a . j . hinch , . . .\nbaseball hall of fame , mlb mvp ' s , mlb cy young award , mlb rookie of the year , rawlings gold gloves , 2018 hof results , 2019 hall of fame ballot , . . .\n2018 all - star game , 2017 all - star game , all - time all - star batters , all - time all - star pitchers , . . .\noracle of baseball , uniform number tracker , cups of coffee , pronunciation guide , birthplaces , players by school attended , . . . .\n2018 draft , 2017 draft , 2016 draft , mlb number one picks , . . .\nminor league stats , negro league stats , nippon pro baseball stats , cuban national series stats , korean baseball stats , 2018 minor leagues , 2018 affiliates , . . .\n85 , 000 + pages of baseball information , how to contribute , . . .\nbatting glossary , pitching glossary , wins above replacement explainer , war data archive , br data coverage , . . .\nall logos are the trademark & property of their owners and not sports reference llc . we present them here for purely educational purposes . our reasoning for presenting offensive logos .\nmuch of the play - by - play , game results , and transaction information both shown and used to create certain data sets was obtained free of charge from and is copyrighted by retrosheet .\nwin expectancy , run expectancy , and leverage index calculations provided by tom tango of urltoken , and co - author of the book : playing the percentages in baseball .\ntotal zone rating and initial framework for wins above replacement calculations provided by sean smith .\nfull - year historical major league statistics provided by pete palmer and gary gillette of hidden game sports .\nmany historical player head shots courtesy of david davis . many thanks to him . all images are property the copyright holder and are displayed here for informational purposes only .\npuerto rican singer who became a salsa music star with albums like imaginate and asi soy . he previously sang in the orchestra of domingo quinones .\nhe grew up in paterson , new jersey and got his start in the music world by singing in his father ' s choir at age ten .\nhe was professional boxer in the 132 - pound weight class before becoming a professional musician .\nsorry , we just need to make sure you ' re not a robot . for best results , please make sure your browser is accepting cookies .\nthe following articles are merged in scholar . their combined citations are counted only for the first article .\nthis\ncited by\ncount includes citations to the following articles in scholar . the ones marked\nwe ' re sorry , but our site requires javascript to function . here are instructions on how to enable javascript in your browser .\ntry refreshing this page . if that doesn ' t work , please visit our help page .\nwe are updating our terms of service , privacy policy , and cookie and internet advertising policy effective may 25 , 2018 ! you can preview the new version and see details about the updates here .\nhello ! we have selected english as your language preference . if you would like to browse in a different language , please choose a language using the dropdown . deutsch english espa\u00f1ol fran\u00e7ais italiano \u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\nletssingit is a crowdsourced lyrics database , created by and maintained by people just like you ! help contribe and earn points to increase your vip level to get extra benefits .\nyou ' re not logged in . log in to enjoy extra privileges that come with a free membership !\nolga ta\u00f1\u00f3n is without a doubt one of the biggest stars to come out of puerto rico , for over 20 years the \u201c mujer de fuego \u201d has been entertaining audiences worldwide . this 5 time grammy award winner will make a highly anticipated return to the bay area , bringing her infectious tropical rhythms and sultry voice . her latest release , \u201c ni una lagrima m\u00e1s \u201d has spent multiple months in the top 5 of billboard\u2019s tropical albums chart and throughout her career she has amassed a record 26 top 10 hit singles including , \u201c muchacho malo \u201d , \u201c como olvidar \u201d , \u201c el frio de t\u00fa adi\u00f3s \u201d , \u201c basta ya ! \u201d and \u201c mentiroso \u201d . olga\u2019s electrifying stage presence is undisputable ; do not miss this rare engagement !\n400 first street south st . petersburg , fl 33701 for more info 727 . 892 . 5767\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nin true bluesman fashion , musselwhite then took off to chicago , where he continued his education on the south side , making the acquaintance of even more legends including lew soloff , muddy waters , junior wells , sonny boy williamson , buddy guy , howlin ' wolf , little walter , and big walter horton . musselwhite immersed himself completely in the musical life , living in the basement of big joe williams and forging a lifelong friendship with johnlee hooker . in time , musselwhite led his own blues band and in 1966 released the legendary\nstand back ! here comes charley musselwhite\u2019s southside band\n. since then , musselwhite has released over 25 albums , as well as guesting on albums by many other notable musicians including bonnie raitt , inxs , tom waits and the blind boys of alabama , among others . musselwhite recently teamed up with ben harper on\nget up !\n- the long time coming collaboration that took home the grammy for best blues album in 2014 .\nhitting < pauses the slideshow and goes back . hitting > pauses the slideshow and goes forward . spacebar resumes the slideshow . press esc to exit .\ndon ' t have a myspace account yet ? no worries , joining is easy .\nenter your email or username . we ' ll email instructions on how to reset your password .\nwe ' ve emailed you instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t see it , don ' t forget to check your spam folder .\ngetting in is easy . use one of your social networks or start fresh with an email address .\nthis is how you\u2019ll be known on myspace . most people use their real name .\nthis is your profile url . pick one that ' s 25 characters or less and includes a letter . you can throw in numbers , dots and dashes , too .\npick one that ' s hard - to - crack , only known by you , and at least 6 characters long .\nuse this to log in to your account , receive notifications and get handy updates from us .\ni acknowledge that i have read and accept the terms of use agreement and consent to the privacy policy and video privacy policy .\nwe loaded your account with your facebook details . help us with just a few more questions .\nthis is your profile url . we based it off your facebook details . but you can pick one that ' s 25 characters or less and includes a letter . numbers , dots and dashes are ok , too .\nyou may already know people on myspace . if we find matches from your facebook friends , we ' ll connect you to them right away .\nwe loaded your account with your twitter details . help us with just a few more questions .\nthis is your profile url . we based it off your twitter details . but you can pick one that ' s 25 characters or less and includes a letter . numbers , dots and dashes are ok , too .\nyou may already know people on myspace . if we find matches from the people you follow on twitter , we ' ll connect you to them right away .\ncapa announced the lineup of national and international artists which will be headlining festival latino 2017 presented by honda . the two - day , family - friendly , free event will be held saturday and sunday , august 12 and 13 , from 11 am - 8 pm each day in genoa park downtown . you can watch the announcement here :\nhaving just released a brand new single ,\nla verdad\nfeaturing luis vargas , this new york - based foursome has pioneered an urban - influenced bachata style , fusing the tropical and sentimental sounds of traditional bachata with the rock , hip hop , and r & b of the streets of nyc .\nformer lead singer of los hermanos rosario , to\u00f1o rosario went on to a successful solo career , earning three grammy nominations and selling more than 100 million albums with his signature romantic merengue style .\nfresh from his critically acclaimed performance in the off - broadway play i like it like that , grammy - and latin grammy - nominated salsa music star tito nieves (\nel pavarotti de la salsa\n) has set himself apart by incorporating english into his recordings , earning numerous gold records in a music career that spans more than 30 years .\na detailed schedule will be released at a later date , and will include the full lineup of entertainment and activities to be featured at the 2017 festival .\nto post your recommendation , please sign in or join your neighborhood on nextdoor .\napaza entertainment is a well respected company with over 10 years of experience in providing the total package for all your entertainment needs . we handle every aspect of your event from start to finish . we can promote your event , book the artists and coordinate the show . we have the resources and tools to create a solid presentation that will assure your event will be a total success . we are backed by a team of professionals who are capable of tackling any event big or small . we also work with you to provide the best talent available for your budget . we can do this because we deal directly with the artists and record labels to get the best rates possible . apaza entertainment is a company that is growing and expanding at a fast pace due to our satisfied customers who use us repeatedly to handle their entertainment needs . we have accomplished this because we care about our clients and work closely with them to create the perfect event . our team of professionals give 100 % of their time and effort on every project , big or small . we are a latino owned company with a bi - lingual staff who pride themselves in serving our hispanic community and private businesses . apaza entertainment is the company to use for your next event , give us a try and you won ' t be disappointed . we are looking forward to helping you make your next event a total success ."]}
{"id": 1899, "summary": [{"text": "the sparsely-spotted stingaree , white-spotted stingaree , or dixon 's stingaree ( urolophus paucimaculatus ) is a species of stingray in the family urolophidae , common off the southern australian coast .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "preferring sandy flats and seagrass beds , this benthic ray can be found from close to shore to a depth of at least 150 m ( 490 ft ) , and tends to occur deeper in the northern portion of its range .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "reaching a length of 57 cm ( 22 in ) , this species has a broad , diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc that is typically plain gray in color above with a v-shaped marking between the eyes .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "individuals from southerly waters also generally exhibit a smattering of small , dark-edged white spots .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "this ray is further characterized by a distinctively bell-shaped curtain of skin between the nostrils .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "its tail has a skin fold running along either side and a leaf-shaped caudal fin , but no dorsal fin .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "relatively inactive during daytime , the sparsely-spotted stingaree preys mainly on crustaceans , and to a much lesser extent on polychaete worms and other small benthic organisms .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is aplacental viviparous , with the mother provisioning her young with histotroph ( \" uterine milk \" ) .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "life history differs between the eastern and western subpopulations : eastern females bear litters of up to six pups with a twelve-month gestation period , while western females bear litters of only one or two pups with a ten-month gestation period .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "also , western rays mature later and live longer than eastern rays .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "the venomous sting of the sparsely-spotted stingaree is potentially injurious to humans , and it has been reported to react aggressively if disturbed .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has listed it under least concern , as there is little fishing activity over the majority of its range . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "sparsely - spotted stingaree", "paragraphs": ["demographic biology of the sparsely - spotted stingaree urolophus paucimaculatus from south eastern australia . abstract .\nregional differences in the reproductive parameters of the sparsely - spotted stingaree , urolophus paucimaculatus , from south - eastern australia .\nbray , d . and gomon , m . ( 2018 ) urolophus paucimaculatus sparsely - spotted stingaree in museums victoria collections urltoken accessed 10 july 2018\nmurch , a . spotted stingaree . elasmodiver . com . retrieved on september 7 , 2010 .\nduring the day , the spotted stingaree is often encountered buried in sand or hidden amongst seagrass or rocks .\nhead of a sparsely - spotted stingaree , urolophus paucimaculatus , at st leonards in port phillip bay , victoria . source : julian finn / museum victoria . license : cc by attribution\ndisc of the spotted stingaree is oval in shape and slightly longer than wide ; it is more circular in juveniles .\na pale grey stingaree with distinctive whitish spots on the disc . the spots are arranged in a regular pattern , and each has a darker margin . the sparsely - spotted stingaree is widely distributed and abundant on sandy bottoms and in seagrass beds in southern australia .\nmore information :\nregional differences in the reproductive parameters of the sparsely - spotted stingaree , urolophus paucimaculatus , from south - eastern australia .\nmarine and freshwater research 65 ( 11 ) 943 - 958 urltoken\nresearchers have found regional differences in the reproductive strategies of one of australia ' s most abundant stingray species , the sparsely - spotted stingaree ( urolophus paucimaculatus ) , leading them to question whether they might in fact be separate species .\nmy study concludes that stingaree species in wa have developed a different reproductive strategy to the stingaree species in se australia ,\ndr trinnie says .\nsparsely - spotted stingarees are common and abundant on sandy bottoms and in seagrass beds in shallow bays , harbours and inlets , and on the continental shelf to a depth of 150 m .\nreproductive biology of the eastern shovelnose stingaree trygonoptera imitata from south - eastern australia .\nasynchrony and regional differences in the reproductive cycle of the greenback stingaree urolophus viridis from south - eastern australia .\nbiennial reproductive cycle in an extensive matrotrophic viviparous batoid : the sandyback stingaree urolophus bucculentus from south - eastern australia .\nedwards , r . r . c . 1980 . aspects of the population dynamics and ecology of the white spotted stingaree , urolophus paucimaculatus dixon , in port phillip bay , victoria . australian journal of marine and freshwater research 31 : 459 - 467\nthe sparsely - spotted stingaree is widely distributed and abundant on sandy bottoms and in seagrass beds in southern australia , and often rests partly buried in the sandy bottom . stingarees must handled with great care as the serrated spine is venomous and can inflict a very painful wound . when wading in sandy shallows and seagrass areas it is advisable to shuffle along to avoid accidentally stepping on one of these rays .\nwhile this species is most similar to the common stingaree , trygonoptera testacea , it lacks the dark mask around the eyes .\nwa fisheries researcher dr fabian trinnie completed a phd on five stingaree species for the purpose of fisheries stock assessment , ecological risk assessment , and species extinction - risk .\nthe eastern and western forms of this ray differ slightly in coloration ; the western form , called sinclair ' s stingaree , has been considered a distinct separate species by some authors .\nrather reclusive , at least during the day , the spotted stingaree preys largely on crustaceans . it is aplacental viviparous : female bear litters of up to 13 pups and supply them with histotroph (\nuterine milk\n) during gestation . relatively inoffensive towards humans , the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has listed this species under least concern , citing the overall low level of fishing activity across its range . furthermore , it is sheltered from commercial fishing gear by the rough terrain of its favored habitats .\nthe spotted stingaree ( urolophus gigas ) is an uncommon species of stingray in the family urolophidae , endemic to shallow waters along the coast of southern australia . it favors rocky reefs and seagrass beds . this species can be readily identified by its nearly circular , dark - colored pectoral fin disc , adorned with a complex pattern of white or cream spots . its eastern and western forms differ slightly in coloration and have been regarded as separate species . there is a skirt - shaped curtain of skin between its nostrils . its tail is fairly thick and terminates in a short leaf - shaped caudal fin ; a relatively large dorsal fin is present just in front of the stinging spine .\njustification : urolophus paucimaculatus is an abundant endemic species distributed throughout southern australia on sandy and seagrass substrates . this stingaree is a significant component of the bycatch of seine and trawl fisheries in southeastern and southwestern australia , though its distribution far exceeds the extent of these fisheries . the species has no current commercial value but is edible and has the potential to be utilised in the future . eastern and western populations may be distinct but further research is required to verify this . with a wide southern australian distribution and its abundant status ( abundance has increased in some areas , i . e . , port phillip bay , victoria ) the species is assessed as least concern . however , given the low fecundity of the species ( 1 to 2 young per year in wa ; 1 to 6 per year in se australia ) , the high abortion rates among pregnant females landed by trawlers is the only real threat to this species and the catches of this species as bycatch should be monitored into the future .\nstingarees must handled with great care as the serrated spine is venomous and can inflict a very painful wound .\nendemic to southern australia , from from northern new south wales to about lancelin in western australia , including victoria , tasmania and south australia .\ndisc smooth , somewhat rhomboidal in shape with a broadly triangular fleshy snout . tail long , flattened near base , with prominent skin folds along the sides ; caudal fin deepish , spine long and slender ; dorsal fin absent .\npale grey above with a variable number of distinctive pale , regularly - arranged spots , each with a darker border . underside pale .\ncarnivore - prey on crustaceans , polychaete worms and small fishes . juveniles feed on small crustaceans .\nmating occurs in early to mid - summer and females give birth to a maximum of 6 pups in late autumn after a gestation of 10 - 12 months .\ncommonly taken as bycatch in seine and trawl fisheries in southern australia , although seldom marketed .\nurolophus paucimaculatus dixon , 1969 , vic . nat . 86 ( 1 ) : 11 , pls 1 - 3 . type locality : off cape patton , victoria .\ndixon , j . m . 1969 . a new species of ray of the genus urolophus ( elasmobranchii : urolophidae ) from victoria . victorian naturalist 86 ( 1 ) : 11 - 18 pls 1 - 3\ngomon , m . f . , yearsley , g . k . & last , p . r . 2008 . family urolophidae . 125 - 137 pp . in gomon . m . f . , bray , d . j . & kuiter , r . h ( eds ) . fishes of australia ' s southern coast . sydney : reed new holland 928 pp .\nhobday , d . k . , officer , r . a . & parry , g . d . 1999 . changes in demersal fish communities in port phillip bay , australia , over two decades , 1970\u201391 . marine and freshwater research 50 : 397\u2013407 .\nhutchins , j . b . & swainston , r . 1986 . sea fishes of southern australia . complete field guide for anglers and divers . perth : swainston publishing 180 pp .\nlast , p . r . & gomon , m . f . 1994 . family urolophidae . pp . 172 - 181 figs 150 - 159 in gomon , m . f . , glover , c . j . m . & kuiter , r . h ( eds ) . the fishes of australia ' s south coast . adelaide : state printer 992 pp . 810 figs\nlast , p . r . & stevens , j . d . 1994 . sharks and rays of australia . canberra : csiro australia 513 pp . 84 pls\nlast , p . r . & stevens , j . d . 2009 . sharks and rays of australia . collingwood : csiro publishing australia 2 , 550 pp .\nlast , p . r . , yearsley , g . k . & white , w . t . 2016 . family urolophidae pp . 676 - 705 . in : last , p . r . , white , w . t . , de carvalho , m . r . , s\u00e9ret , b . , stehmann , m . f . w . & & naylor , g . j . p . ( eds ) rays of the world . melbourne : csiro publishing , 800 pp .\nplatell , m . e . , potter , i . c . & clarke , k . r . 1998 . resource partitioning by four species of elasmobranchs ( batoidea : urolophidae ) in coastal waters of temperate australia . marine biology 131 ( 4 ) : 719 - 734 .\ntrinnae , f . i . 2013 . reproduction in five sympatric batoid species ( family urolophidae ) from south - eastern australia . phd thesis , deakin university , 198 pp .\ntrinnie , f . i . , white , w . t . & walker , t . i . 2006 . urolophus paucimaculatus . the iucn red list of threatened species 2006 : e . t60102a12300571 . urltoken downloaded on 17 november 2016 .\nwhite , w . t . & potter , i . c . 2005 . reproductive biology , size and age compositions and growth of the batoid urolophus paucimaculatus , including comparisons with other species of urolophidae . marine and freshwater research 56 ( 1 ) : 101 - 110\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthere are potential issues regarding eastern and western subpopulations of the species and molecular work is probably needed .\nurolophus paucimaculatus is known to inhabit most southern australian continental waters where it is distributed widely across a variety of soft substrates , from shallow bays and inlets to the open continental shelf : from northern new south wales ( 31\u00b050 ' s ) to lancelin in western australia ( 31\u00b000 ' s ) including victoria , tasmania and south australia ( last and stevens 1994 ) . the species has undergone a southward range expansion in recent decades .\nthis species is one of the most abundant and widely distributed benthic chondrichthyans found in southern australian waters , but little is not known about whether subpopulations or fragmentation occur . however , the southwestern population and the southeastern populations appear to be separated . in port phillip bay , victoria , local abundances can be correlated with the catch of recreational and commercial benthic fish species and increases in the abundance of u . paucimaculatus were recorded from 1970 to 1991 , probably due to a reduction in the abundance of competitors ( hobday et al . 1999 ) .\nthis species is demersal on the inner continental shelf over sandy and seagrass substrates from the shore to 150 m depth or more , including shallow bays and inlets ( last and stevens 1994 ) . in se australia it is generally found < 80 m depth and occurs deeper in the great australian bight . the species exhibits aplacental viviparity with uterine trophonemata and histotroph but demonstrates extreme atrophy of the left ovary and uterus . ovulation occurs between spring and early summer in se australia . litter size 1 to 2 in sw australia and varies 1 to 6 in se australia , with larger mothers carrying more young than smaller mothers . spontaneous abortion occurs at all sizes of pregnant animals when handled or caught in fishing gear . the sex ratio of embryos in se australia is 1 : 1 . diet consists primarily of crustaceans , in particular mysids , carid decapods and amphipods ( platell et al . 1998 ) . life history parameters for both se australia ( trinnie 2003 ) and sw australia ( white and potter in prep ) are given in the table below . life history parameters age at maturity : se aust : ~ 3 years at 50 % maturity , sw aust : 5 years ( female ) ; se aust : ~ 2 . 5 years at 50 % maturity , sw aust : 3 years ( male ) . size at maturity ( total length / dic width ) : se aust : 50 % mature at 27 cm tl , sw aust : 50 % mature at 22 . 3 cm dw ( female ) ; se aust : 50 % mature at 27 . 8 cm tl , sw aust : 50 % mature at 20 . 7 cm dw ( male ) . longevity : se aust : 9 + years ( females ) ; 8 + years ( males ) ; sw aust : 14 years . maximum size ( total length / disc width ) : se aust : 50 cm tl ( females ) ; 42 cm tl ( males ) ; sw aust : 27 . 2 cm dw . size at birth : se aust : ~ 15 . 0 to 15 . 5 cm tl ; sw aust : 12 . 6 cm dw . average reproductive age ( years ) : unknown . gestation time : se aust : ~ 1 year ; sw aust : 10 months . reproductive periodicity : 1 litter per annum . average annual fecundity or litter size : se aust : 1 - 6 dependant on maternal size ; sw aust : 1 to 2 . annual rate of population increase : unknown . natural mortality : unknown .\nse australia : urolophus paucimaculatus is commonly taken as bycatch in danish and inshore beach seines in the southern and eastern scalefish and shark fishery ( sessf ) . the demersal monofilament gillnets and longlines of the shark fishery in southern australia catch only small numbers and have no effect on the abundance of this species ( walker et al . 2002 ) . rapid risk assessment of the catch susceptibility defined from\navailability\n,\nselectivity\n,\nencounterability\nand\npost - capture mortality\n, rates this species as low to all fishing methods in the sessf ( t . i . walker , unpublished data ) . of animals caught and released , there would be some loss of aborting embryos in pregnant animals from the effects of capture and handling . although encounterability and selectivity are high for demersal trawl , availability is low because most of the population is distributed outside the range of this fishery . sw australia : a trawl survey of demersal fishes on the coastal shelf regions of sw australia in the early 1990s reported that u . paucimaculatus constituted 5 . 2 % of the total biomass of fish caught ( laurenson et al . 1994 , hyndes et al . 1999 ) . only a small number of trawlers operate within the range of this species and no other fisheries catch urolophids in the sw portion of its range . although females often abort embryos after capture , the low level of fishing pressure in sw australia appears to be sustainable with respect to this species . south australia / great australian bight : the species was reported as a negligible component of bycatch in the spencer gulf prawn fishery by carrick ( 1997 ) . this fishery is part of the south australian prawn fisheries and effort outside of spencer gulf and gulf saint vincent is low . indeed , a large portion of the range of u . paucimaculatus receives little fishing , i . e . large parts of inshore areas of the great australian bight . the great australian bight trawl sector of the sessf operates at depths exceeding that of u . paucimaculatus .\ncurrent monitoring of several areas in se australia is being conducted to better understand its population dynamics and to determine its life history characteristics . research is required to determine if eastern and western populations are distinct . the extensive network of ( small ) marine protected areas in southern australia will provide conservation benefits to this and other elasmobranch species . the effective implementation of the australian national plan of action for the conservation and management of sharks ( shark advisory group and lack 2004 ) ( under the fao international plan of action for the conservation and management of sharks : ipoa - sharks ) will help to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in australia .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nabstract : quantifying the feeding ecology of marine predators is essential for understanding their trophic interactions and their potential regulatory effects in marine ecosystems . i quantified the feeding ecology of 2 related predators that overlap only in part in spatial distribution : the coastal broadnose notorynchus cepedianus and the deepwater sharpnose heptranchias perlo sevengill sharks . i found the following : these 2 shark species have different diet specialisation patterns , but show similarities in their prey handling mode . n . cepedianus has a generalised diet , whereas h . perlo shows high specialisation and lower prey diversity . for both shark species , small , medium and large individuals use different strategies for handling different prey groups . h . perlo preys largely on deepwater teleosts , mainly lepidorhynchus denticulatus , with larger individuals ( 901 to 1365 mm total length , tl ) also consuming high proportions of large predatory teleosts of the families gempylidae and trichiuridae . n . cepedianus has a diverse diet . small individuals ( \u2264900 mm tl ) prey largely on teleosts and secondarily on chondrichthyans . medium individuals ( 901 to 1520 mm tl ) prey primarily on chondrichthyans and secondarily on teleosts . chondrichthyans ( mainly mustelus antarcticus ) are also the main prey of large n . cepedianus ( > 1700 mm tl ) , but this group also shows a greater preference ( than small and medium individuals ) for fur seals . despite the overall differences in dietary composition and the minimal overlap in spatial distribution , the 2 shark species consume prey that migrate from deep to coastal waters ( ommastrephid squid and gempylid fish ) .\ncite this article as : braccini jm ( 2008 ) feeding ecology of two high - order predators from south - eastern australia : the coastal broadnose and the deepwater sharpnose sevengill sharks . mar ecol prog ser 371 : 273 - 284 . urltoken\npublished in meps vol . 371 . online publication date : november 19 , 2008 print issn : 0171 - 8630 ; online issn : 1616 - 1599 copyright \u00a9 2008 inter - research .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nyearsley , g . k . , last , p . r . & morris , g . b . 1997 ,\ncodes for australian aquatic biota ( caab ) : an upgraded and expanded species coding system for australian fisheries databases\n, pp . 15 pp . + appendices\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : fb13d131 - d539 - 4789 - aad4 - 2a25acd8fdd3\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 21da9bc4 - 7a3c - 4483 - 9577 - a3b3b6cec338\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 438586\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nplease tell us how you intend to reuse this image . this will help us to understand what\u2019s popular and why so that we can continue to improve access to the collections .\nwhat\u2019s your intended use for this image ? please select an option scholarly or professional research for school , university , etc . personal or community research make a print for home to use in a blog or website publishing in a book make something else interesting could you please tell us more ? submit\nmuseums victoria supports and encourages public access to our collection by offering image downloads for reuse . images marked as public domain have , to the best of museums victoria\u2019s knowledge , no copyright or intellectual property rights that would restrict their free download and reuse . images marked with a creative commons ( cc ) license may be downloaded and reused in accordance with the conditions of the relevant cc license . please acknowledge museums victoria and cite the url for the image so that others can also find it .\ndisc flattened , almost circular , tail slender , tapering , with a prominent serrated spine , a long leaf shaped tail fin ; dorsal fin absent . pale grey above usually with one to four regularly arranged dark edged white spots , a concave bar between the eyes and a whitish underside . usually 30 cm long head to tail tip ( up to 38 cm ) .\ndisc almost circular , tail with a venomous spine and a caudal fin , greyish to pale brown with several dark - edged pale spots .\nhave you ever seen a willie wag - tail bird prancing in your backyard ? or what about a wedge - tailed eagle soaring majestically in the sky ? or even sighted a christmas beetle at your local park ? it\u2019s great to see these snippets of . . .\nthe source code for museums victoria collections is available on github under the mit license .\na curated database of candidate human ageing - related genes and genes associated with longevity and / or ageing in model organisms .\na curated database of genes associated with dietary restriction in model organisms either from genetic manipulation experiments or gene expression profiling .\nprojects focused on gene expression profiling of ageing and of dietary manipulations of ageing , such as caloric restriction .\nsoftware for ageing research , including the ageing research computational tools ( arct ) perl toolkit .\na curated database of ageing and life history information in animals , including extensive longevity records .\nthe benchmark genome assembly and annotation of the long - lived , cancer - resistant naked mole - rat ( heterocephalus glaber ) .\na high - coverage genome of the bowhead whale ( balaena mysticetus ) , the longest - lived mammal .\nanalyses using the anage database to study the evolution of longevity and ageing in vertebrate lineages .\na portal of ageing changes covering different biological levels , integrating molecular , physiological and pathological age - related data .\nthe whosage database contains people and biotech companies that are contributing to increase our understanding of ageing and life - extension .\n[ 0822 ] garcia et al . ( 2008 ) , the importance of habitat and life history to extinction risk in sharks , skates , rays and chimaeras ( pubmed )\ncomments , suggestions , ideas , and bug reports are welcome . please contact us .\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nit does not appear to be common , not does it aggregate any particular location .\nthe snout is fleshy and usually smoothly rounded , without a protruding tip . the eyes are tiny and followed by much larger comma - shaped\n, which have rounded posterior rims . there is a skirt - shaped curtain of skin with a finely fringed posterior margin between the nostrils . the floor of the small mouth bears 9\n12 papillae ( nipple - like structures ) ; a further narrow patch of papillae is found on the lower jaw .\n80 % as long as the disc and is fairly thick , with an oval cross - section and no lateral skin folds . a serrated stinging spine is placed atop the tail and preceded by a prominent\nis lance - like , short , and deep . the skin is completely smooth . the disc is dark brown to black above , becoming lighter towards the margins , and sometimes with irregularly scattered dark dots . there are 2\n3 rows of small whitish spots that border the disc margin and may extend onto the tail , as well as much larger pale spots arranged in groups over the middle of the back . the areas before and behind the eyes , and a pair of patches at the back of the disc , are usually free of spots . the tail has a light stripe along the midline in juveniles , and light spots in some adults ; the dorsal and caudal fins are dark brown to black with whitish edges . the underside is white or nearly so ; most individuals have dusky blotches and wide bands bordering the lateral disc margins . in some rays the color pattern is faint . this species can grow up to\nmilk\n) . females can produce litters of up to 13 pups . males and females reach\n( mpas ) , and it would potentially benefit from the implementation of the 2004 australian national plan of action for the conservation and management of sharks .\nscott , t . d . ( may 28 , 1954 ) .\nfour new fishes from south australia\n.\nlast , p . r . & l . j . v . compagno ( 1999 ) .\nmyliobatiformes : urolophidae\n. in carpenter , k . e . & v . h . niem .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 11 / 4 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\ngreek , oura = tail + greek , lophos = crest ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range 5 - 150 m ( ref . 12951 ) . temperate , preferred ? ; 32\u00b0s - 44\u00b0s\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 57 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 12951 )\noccurs on the continental shelf ( ref . 7300 ) . adults feed on worms , crabs , shrimp , and small bony fishes while juveniles take small crustaceans ( ref . 12951 ) .\nlast , p . r . and j . d . stevens , 1994 . sharks and rays of australia . csiro , australia . 513 p . ( ref . 6871 )\n- csiro c 4757 , 384 mm tl , mature male , south - west of cape otway , vic . ( 39\u00b009\u2019s , 143\u00b015\u2019e ) , 50 - 67 m depth , coll . by frv courageous , 20 jun . 1976 ; csiro h 3 - 01 , 430 mm tl , female , frederick henry bay , tas . ( 42\u00b055\u2019s , 147\u00b036\u2019e ) , 20 m depth , coll . by fv allanwood , 16 sep . 1983 ; csiro h 6 - 01 , 342 mm tl , mature male , same data as csiro h 3 - 01 ; csiro h 337 - 01 , off stanley , tas . ( exact coordinates unknown ) , 30 m depth , collector unkown , 19 may 1980 ; csiro h 722 - 05 , south - east of broken bay , n . s . w . ( 33\u00b038\u2019s , 151\u00b027\u2019e ) , 63 - 76 m depth , coll . by frv kapala , 20 nov . 1985 ; csiro h 870 - 10 , east of port stephens , n . s . w . ( 32\u00b042\u2019s , 152\u00b032\u2019e ) , 124 - 133 m depth , coll . by frv kapala , 22 apr . 1986 .\nsarah miller set\nfile : urolophus paucimaculatus corner inlet . jpg\nas an exemplar on\nurolophus paucimaculatus dixon , 1969\n.\na new species of ray of the genus urolophus ( elasmobranchii : urolophidae ) from victoria .\ndixon , 1969 : in : database of modern sharks , rays and chimaeras , www . shark - references . com , world wide web electronic publication , version 07 / 2018\n, 75154 ) . adults feed on worms , crabs , shrimp , and small bony fishes while juveniles take small crustaceans .\nhost - parasite list / parasite - host list ( version : 01 . 04 . 2015 ) 544 pp , 5 , 37 mb new !\n* volume discounts available . call or email us to have promo code created for you . * * large format files available on select images . send us a media request .\nmost easily recognised because of its pattern of white spots on the upper surface ; however , these spots become less distinct or are absent in specimens seen in deeper water and towards the north of its range . the species is more aggressive than other southern stingarees and has been known to attack divers . it is sometimes captured by trawlers in large quantities .\noccurrence describes how often the species is found on surveys within its distribution . it is calculated as the % of reef sites surveyed by rls divers across all the ecoregions in which the species has been observed\nabundance is calculated as the average number of individuals recorded per rls transect , where present .\nedit by : gj edgar . 2008 . australian marine life . new holland , sydney\nplease use this form only for a single type of error . if you see multiple errors on the page for this species , please report these in separate forms by clicking on this button again after submitting this form\nthank you for highlighting this error . we appreciate your assistance in maintaining high quality control standards\nwhile fishing pressure has now been reduced in the east and the species are recovering , dr trinnie warns if the same were to happen in wa , the stingarees would be even more susceptible to over - fishing because recruitment is lower . credit : klaus stiefel\nhe examined their reproductive biology to determine the periodicity of the reproductive cycle , size - at - maturity and maternity , and litter size caught during commercial fishing in south - east australian waters .\ndr trinnie also directly compared the reproductive strategy of u . paucimaculatus which were found in crowdy head in new south wales and in lancelin .\nin wa , pups are born in early or mid - summer and females bear litters of one or two , a strategy of producing few but large pups .\nin the south - east , however , birth occurs in spring or early summer and females bear litters of up to six , a strategy of more but smaller pups .\nwithout genetic testing , it is unknown whether these differences in u . paucimaculatus are due to them having to adapt to their surrounding environments ; because their habitat and environmental conditions are different or\nhowever , there is mounting evidence to suggest that they are separate species .\ndr trinnie says stingarees are highly susceptible to overfishing , as several south - eastern species are listed on the iucn red list as vulnerable to near threatened .\nhe says that over a 20 year period , some have had their populations reduced by up to 80 per cent .\nthey are all by - catch species\u2014caught during gill - netting , seine netting , and trawling and not kept for consumption ,\nhe says .\nwhen thrown back , most individuals would perish and pregnant females would most likely abort their young due to the stress .\nwhile fishing pressure has now been reduced in the east and the species are recovering , dr trinnie warns if the same were to happen in wa , the stingarees would be even more susceptible to over - fishing because recruitment is lower .\nif they were overfished in wa , it would take a lot longer to get back to the natural size population ,\nhe says .\nwestern australian mussel populations ( mytilus galloprovincialis ) could potentially mix with translocated species from the eastern states according to a study by the wa department of fisheries and uwa .\nsigns of serotiny , an ecological adaptation in which seed release occurs in response to an environmental trigger rather than spontaneously at seed maturation , has been discovered in in two species of conospermum .\na wa botanist says detailed fossil records and the development of phylogenetic trees could help experts understand why flora in australia ' s south - west is so diverse in comparison to the south - east .\na western australian study has found that restricting trawling to 20 - 40 per cent of fishing areas in shark bay can mitigate the long - term impacts of commercial trawling in the region .\nusing baited longlines in conjunction with baited remote underwater video systems ( bruvs ) has improved the way in which deep water fish stocks are monitored for conservation purposes .\ntwo new species of marine sponges , found only in the south - west of western australia , have been identified and named in recognition of the aboriginal peoples who are the traditional owners of the region .\na new type of zebrafish that produces fluorescent tags in migratory embryonic nerve precursor cells could help a rice university neurobiologist and cancer researcher find the origins of the third - most common pediatric cancer . . .\nthroughout the living world , parents have many ways of gifting their offspring with information they will need to help them survive . a new study in nature ecology and evolution examining the effects of exposure to predators . . .\nthe nuclei of cells are never static , even when the chromosomes they contain appear to be at rest . theorists at rice university have detailed the combination of forces that drive their constant motion .\nthe co - evolution of plant\u2014pathogen interactions has been revealed in unprecedented detail in a study of one of the world ' s deadliest crop killers . this is the rice blast pathogen , which destroys enough food to feed more . . .\nusing genome editing to inactivate a protein called pcsk9 effectively reduces cholesterol levels in rhesus macaques , a species of monkey , according to researchers from the perelman school of medicine at the university of . . .\nfish that ' farm ' their own patches of seaweed alter their ' cropping ' practices under high co2 conditions , researchers at the university of adelaide in australia have found .\nplease sign in to add a comment . registration is free , and takes less than a minute . read more\nthe following articles are merged in scholar . their combined citations are counted only for the first article .\nthis\ncited by\ncount includes citations to the following articles in scholar . the ones marked\nae punt , f trinnie , ti walker , r mcgarvey , j feenstra , a linnane , . . .\nrapid assessment of sustainability for ecological risk of shark and other chondrichthyan bycatch species taken in the southern and eastern scalefish and shark fish . . .\nti walker , jd stevens , jm braccini , rk daley , c huveneers , sb irvine , . . .\nas steffe , sm taylor , sj blight , kl ryan , cj desfosses , ac tate , . . .\nthreatened fish species that utilize riverine environments are faced with critical habitat degradation caused by various disturbances . brachymystax lenok tsinlingensi . . .\nsustainability of the rock lobster resource in south - eastern australia in a changing environment : implications for assessment and management : final report to fi . . .\na linnane , ti walker , ae punt , bs green , r mcgarvey , je feenstra , . . .\ncopyright\u00a9 2008 ningaloo turtle program . illustrations copyright\u00a9 2008 cape conservation group , inc . ningaloo turtle program po box 201 exmouth wa 6707\nr mau , s bedford , s mckinna - jones , l reinhold , f trinnie , r carter , . . .\nphone : + 61 2 9850 4229 e - mail : joomyun . park [ at ] urltoken\nresilience and sustainability are increased in marine ecosystems with greater diversity and niche complexity of species . changes in tasmanian faunal assemblages have been documented over varying time periods , and have been linked to a number of anthropogenic influences , including fishing , invasive species and climate change . although the physical biogeographic parameters of the area have been well studied , there is still little known of the overall functioning of these ecosystems , particularly in commercially fished inshore waters . an understanding of the functioning of such communities is particularly important in the face of increasing negative perturbations impacting these systems .\nmy research focuses on the impacts of the southeastern trawl fishery on the ecosystem functioning of the marine communities in northern tasmanian inshore waters . specifically , i am documenting the assemblage of species that comprise the community , and assessing how widespread this community is . i will assess the trophic structure and functioning of the community through analyses of gut content and stable isotopes . biometric data will also be used to help understand community dynamics . through analysis of fisheries bottom trawl data over the past 20 years , my colleagues and i will assess community changes over time , and will use proxies , such as the proportion of pelagic to demersal species , to determine the state of community resilience .\nsuch information will facilitate more informed decisions in fisheries management and conservation for the area .\nduring my phd , i studied the feeding and reproductive ecology of fishes collected by the trawl fishery in the southeastern waters of korea . after my phd , my research focused on two areas : ( 1 ) the ecology of larval fishes , and ( 2 ) the life history of mudskippers . research from the larval fishes study correlated impacts of climate change to the ecology of fishes the eastern sea of korea ( east / japan sea ) . several tropical and / or subtropical fish larvae , such as dolphin fish and chromis , occurred in the temperature water of the east japan sea . their presence was hypothesized to be due to the northward expansion of warmer water via the kuroshio current , particularly during summer . moreover , the zooplankton community was dominated by tropical originated copepod species , which are typical of warmer waters .\nmy research on the distribution and life history of mudskippers ( gobiidae ) occurred in tidal flats of southern coastal area in korea . three co - occurring species of mudskippers occurred in the area , with some segregation in habitat ranges . through gut content analyses , i showed that the diets of the three species varied , and such niche diversification may be responsible for the co - occurrence over time . i also found that some individuals consumed their own progeny , with filial cannibalism occurring during egg guarding . this may due to insufficient food resources and limited foraging opportunities for the guarding parents .\n, kwak sn . 2014 . length\u2013weight relationships and reproductive characteristics of the crowned seahorse ( hippocampus coronatus ) in eelgrass beds ( zostera marina ) of dongdae bay , korea . marine biology research , in publication .\nbaeck gw , park jm , huh sh , kim hj , jeong jm . feeding habits of kammal thryssa thryssa kammalensis ( bleeker , 1849 ) in the coastal waters of gadeok - do , korea . animal cells and systems , 18 , 154 - 159 .\nkwak sn , park jm , huh sh . 2014 . seasonal variations in species composition and abundance of fish and decapods in an eelgrass ( zostera marina ) bed of jindong bay . journal of the korean society of marine environment & safety , 20 , 259 - 269 .\n, huh sh , jeong jm , baeck gw . 2014 . diet composition and feeding strategy of yellow goosefish , lophius litulon ( jordan , 1902 ) , on the southeastern coast of korea . journal of applied ichthyology , 30 , 151 - 155 .\nbaeck gw , jeong jm , kim hj , huh sh , park jm . 2014 . length - weight and length - length relationships for four species of righteye flounder ( pleuronectidae ) on the south coast of korea . journal of applied ichthyology , 30 , 204 - 205 .\nshim jh , kwon j , park jm , kwak sn . 2013 . the effect of ocean acidification on early growth of juvenile oliver flounder ( paralichthys olivaceus ) : in situ mesocosm experiment . korean journal of environmental biology , 31 , 353 - 361 .\n, hashimoto h , jeong jm , kim h . j , baeck gw . 2013 . age and growth of the robust tonguefish cynoglossus robustus in the seto inland sea , japan . animal cells and systems , 17 , 290 - 297 .\nbaeck gw , yoon yh , park jm . 2013 . ontogenetic and diel changes in diets of two sympatric mudskippers periophthalmus modestus and periophthalmus magnuspinnatus on the tidal flats of suncheon bay , korea . fisheries science , 79 , 629 - 637 .\nhuh sh , baeck gw , choo hg , park jm . 2013 . feeding habits of spearnose grenadier , coeorinchus multispinulosus in the coastal waters off gori . korean journal of ichthyology , 25 , 157 - 162 .\nhuh sh , choi hc , baeck gw , kim hw , park jm . 2013 . seasonal distribution of larval fishes in the central and southern surface warters of the east sea . korean journal of fisheries and aquatic science , 46 , 216 - 222 .\nbaeck gw , park jm , choi hc , huh sh . 2013 . diet composition in summer of rosefish helicolenus hilgendorfii on the southeastern coast of korea . ichthyological research , 60 , 75 - 79 .\nbaeck gw , huh sh , park jm . 2012 . reproductive ecology of the glowbelly , acropoma japonicum ( perciformes : acropomatidae ) in the coastal waters off gori , korea . bulletin of the korean society of fisheries technology , 48 , 118 - 127 .\nbaeck gw , jeong jm , yeo ym , huh sh , park jm . 2012 . length\u2013weight and length\u2013length relationships for 10 species of scorpionfishes ( scorpaenidae ) on the south coast of korea . journal of applied ichthyology , 28 , 677 - 679 .\nbaeck gw , park jm , hashimoto h . 2011 . feeding ecology of three tonguefishes , genus cynoglossus ( cynoglossidae ) in the seto inland sea , japan . animal cells and systems , 15 , 325 - 336 .\nbaeck gw , park ci , choi hc , huh sh , park jm . 2011 . feeding habits of ocellate spot skate , okamejei kenojei ( muller henle , 1841 ) , in coastal waters of taean , korea . journal of applied ichthyology , 27 , 1079 - 1085 .\nhuh sh , han mi , hwang sj , park jm , baeck gw . 2011 . seasonal variation in species composition and abundance of larval fish assemblages in the south - western jinhae bay , korea . korean journal of ichthyology , 23 , 37 - 45 .\ndiet composition of juvenile goby species , gymnogobius heptacanthus and chaenogobius annularis , in the coastal waters of geoje , korea , 10 th japan - korea joint symposium on acquaculture , 8 - 9 december 2012 , nagasaki , japan .\nstress - related physiological changes and post - release survival of elephant fish ( callorhinchus milii ) after longlining , gillnetting , angling and handling in a controlled setting .\nusing logbook data to determine the immediate mortality of blue sharks ( prionace glauca ) and tiger sharks ( galeocerdo cuvier ) caught in the commercial u . s . pelagic longline fishery .\nprenatal stress from trawl capture affects mothers and neonates : a case study using the southern fiddler ray ( trygonorrhina dumerilii ) .\nphysiological response and immediate mortality of gill - net - caught blacktip reef sharks ( carcharhinus melanopterus ) .\nevaluating time - depth recorders as a tool to measure the behaviour of sharks captured on longlines .\nrespiratory mode and gear type are important determinants of elasmobranch immediate and post - release mortality .\nthe adenylate energy charge as a new and useful indicator of capture stress in chondrichthyans .\nmoving from measuring to predicting bycatch mortality : predicting the capture condition of a longline - caught pelagic shark .\ntemperature insensitivity and behavioural reduction of the physiological stress response to longline capture by the gummy shark , mustelus antarcticus .\ngeographical variability in life - history traits of a midslope dogfish : the brier shark deania calcea .\nfirst record of a bicephalic chondrichthyan found in australian waters ; the southern fiddler ray , trygonorrhina dumerilii ( chondrichthyes : rhinobatidae ) .\na meta - analysis of elasmobranch respiratory mode , gear type , and mortality . abstract .\nfisheries capture stress and its reproductive consequences ; changes to maternal body condition and neonate size in the southern fiddler ray trygonorrhina dumerilii as a result of trawling and air exposure . poster abstract .\nfrequency of multiple paternity in gummy shark , mustelus antarcticus , and rig , mustelus lenticulatus , and the implications of mate encounter rate , postcopulatory influences , and reproductive mode .\nimmediate and delayed effects of gill - net capture on acid - base balance and intramuscular lactate concentration of gummy sharks , mustelus antarcticus .\nlife history traits of the brier shark and greeneye spurdog inhabiting the continental slope of south - eastern australia . abstract\nin : program and abstracts for the 2011 workshop and conference of the oceania chondrichthyan society , 13th\u201315th september 2011 , sea world resort and water park , gold coast , queensland , australia .\ntrawl capture of port jackson sharks , heterodontus portusjacksoni , and gummy sharks , mustelus antarcticus , in a controlled setting : effects of tow duration , air exposure and crowding .\nstress related physiological changes and post - release survival of port jackson sharks ( heterodontus portusjacksoni ) and gummy sharks ( mustelus antarcticus ) following gill - net and longline capture in captivity .\nparathyroid hormone gene family in a cartilaginous fish , the elephant shark ( callorhinchus milii ) .\nusing rapid assessment and demographic methods to evaluate the effects of fishing on heterodontus portusjacksoni off far - eastern victoria , australia .\nevolutionary origin and phylogeny of the modern holocephalans ( chondrichthyes : chimaeriformes ) : a mitogenomic perspective .\nincorporating heterogeneity into growth analyses of wild and captive broadnose sevengill sharks notorynchus cepedianus .\ngestational morphogenesis of the uterine epithelium of the gummy shark ( mustelus antarcticus ) .\nassessing growth band counts from vertebrae and dorsal - fin spines for ageing sharks : comparison of four methods applied to heterodontus portusjacksoni .\nuse of stochastic models to estimate the growth of the port jackson shark , heterodontus portusjacksoni , off eastern victoria , australia .\nmicroscopic organization of the sperm storage tubules in the oviducal gland of the female gummy shark ( mustelus antarcticus ) , with observations on sperm distribution and storae .\nembracing movement and stock structure for assessment of galeorhinus galeus harvested off southern australia .\nin : sharks of the open ocean : biology , fisheries and conservation . [ eds m . d . camhi , e . k . pikitch and e . a . babcock ] . blackwell publishing , oxford , u . k . : 369\u2013392\nreproductive synchrony of three sympatric species of wobbegong shark ( genus orectolobus ) in new southwales , australia : reproductive parameter estimates necessary for population modelling .\ncomparison of deterministic growth models fitted to length - at - age data of the piked spurdog ( squalus megalops ) in south - eastern australia .\nspatial and temporal variation in the reproductive biology of gummy shark mustelus antarcticus ( chondrichthyes : triakidae ) harvested off southern australia .\nembryo development and maternal - embryo nutritional relationships of piked spurdog ( squalus megalops ) .\ndetermining reproductive parameters for population assessments of chondrichthyan species with asynchronous ovulation and parturition : piked spurdog ( squalus megalops ) as a case study .\ntotal and partial length - length , mass - mass and mass - length relationships for the piked spurdog ( squalus megalops ) in south - eastern australia .\nhierarchical approach to the assessment of fishing effects on non - target chondrichthyans : case study of squalus megalops in southeastern australia .\nin : iucn 2012 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2012 . 2 . < www . iucnredlist . org >\nin : fowler , s . l . , cavanagh , r . d . , camhi , m . , burgess , g . h . , cailliet , g . m . , fordham , s . v . , simpfendorfer , c . a . and musick , j . a . ( comp . and ed . ) . sharks , rays and chimaeras : the status of the chondrichthyan fishes . status survey . iucn ssc shark specialist group . iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk : 48\u201357\nin : hamlett , w . c . ( ed . ) reproductive biology and phylogeny of chondrichthyes : sharks , rays and chimaeras , vol . 3 . endfield , usa : science publishers : 45\u201379\nin : hamlett , w . c . ( ed . ) reproductive biology and phylogeny of chondrichthyes : sharks , rays and chimaeras , vol . 3 . endfield , usa : science publishers : 395\u2013434\nusing length , age and tagging data in a stock assessment of a length selective fishery for gummy shark ( mustelus antarcticus ) .\ncatch evaluation of target , by - product and by - catch species taken by gillnets and longlines in the shark fishery of south - eastern australia .\nin : hamlett , w . c . ( ed . ) reproductive biology and phylogeny of chondrichthyes : sharks , rays and chimaeras , vol . 3 . endfield , usa : science publishers : 361\u2013393\nmicroscopic organisation of the oviducal gland of the holocephalan elephant fish , callorhynchus milii .\ninformation for ecological risk assessment of piked spurdog ( squalus megalops ) off southeastern australia . abstract\nsouthern shark catch and effort 1970 - 2001 report to australian fisheries management authority .\nmicroanatomy of spermatophore formation and male genital ducts in the holocephalan , callorhynchus milii .\nassessing the management - related benefits of fixed - station fishery - independent surveys in australia ' s southern shark fishery .\nultrastructure of sperm storage and male genital ducts in a male holocephalan , the elephant fish , callorhynchus milii .\nbasslink project review of impacts of high voltage direct current sea cables and electrodes on chondrichthyan fauna and other marine life .\nmarine and freshwater resources institute report no . 20 : 68pp . second draft . reprinted as integrated impact assessment statement supporting study no . 29 sharks marine . ( basslink a national grid project : melbourne . )\neffects of water temperature and salinity on parathyroid hormone - related protein in the circulation and tissues of elasmobranchs .\nstock assessment of school shark galeorhinus galeus based on a spatially - explicit population dynamics model ."]}
{"id": 1901, "summary": [{"text": "callionima denticulata is a species of moth in the family sphingidae , which is known from panama , mexico , costa rica , nicaragua , bolivia , peru and western venezuela .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was originally described by schaus as calliomma denticulata , in 1895 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the wingspan is 59 \u2013 72 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on wing year round in costa rica .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it is extremely similar to callionima pan pan , but the forewing apex is strongly truncate , the outer margin strongly excavate below the apex and markedly dentate .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the basal half of the forewing underside is distinctly orange , contrasting with the greyish-brown distal part .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwing upperside is as in callionima pan pan , but the black anal spot is at least 1.5 mm wide .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the larvae feed on tabernaemontana alba and probably other apocynaceae species .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they are green with reddish orange spiracles and a longitudinal , dotted black line down the back and an orange , thick anal horn . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "callionima denticulata", "paragraphs": ["no one has contributed data records for callionima denticulata yet . learn how to contribute .\nfamily : sphingidae , latreille , 1802 subfamily : macroglossinae , harris , 1839 tribe : dilophonotini , burmeister , 1878 genus : callionima lucas , 1857 . . . . . . . . . . . species : denticulata schaus , 1895\n, but the forewing apex is strongly truncate , and the outer margin is strongly hollowed out below the apex and markedly dentate . cate\nadults fly continuously and specimens have been taken in every month in costa rica . hubert mayer reports a january flight in western ecuador .\nfemales call in the males with a pheromone released from a gland at the tip of the abdomen . both males and females nectar at flowers and come in to lights , but males are taken much more frequently that way .\nthe anal horn is orange and thick . larvae are green with reddish orange spiracles and a longitudinal , dotted black line down the back .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthis system is free software released under gnu / gpl 3 . 0 - portal version 1 . 0\nthis work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial - sharealike 3 . 0 united states license .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nthis listing was ended by the seller because the item is no longer available .\nthis amount includes applicable customs duties , taxes , brokerage and other fees . this amount is subject to change until you make payment . for additional information , see the global shipping program terms and conditions - opens in a new window or tab\nthis amount includes applicable customs duties , taxes , brokerage and other fees . this amount is subject to change until you make payment . if you reside in an eu member state besides uk , import vat on this purchase is not recoverable . for additional information , see the global shipping program terms and conditions - opens in a new window or tab\nestimated delivery dates - opens in a new window or tab include seller ' s handling time , origin zip code , destination zip code and time of acceptance and will depend on shipping service selected and receipt of cleared payment - opens in a new window or tab . delivery times may vary , especially during peak periods .\nitems shipping internationally may be subject to customs processing depending on the item ' s declared value .\nsellers set the item ' s declared value and must comply with customs declaration laws .\na brand - new , unused , unopened , undamaged item ( including handmade items ) . see the seller ' s\nlisting for full details . see all condition definitions - opens in a new window or tab\ncopyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 ebay inc . all rights reserved . accessibility , user agreement , privacy , cookies and adchoice"]}
{"id": 1913, "summary": [{"text": "salpa fusiformis , sometimes known as the common salp , is the most widespread species of salp .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they have a cosmopolitan distribution , and can be found at depths of 0 to 800 m ( 0 to 2,625 ft ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "they exhibit diel vertical migration , moving closer to the surface at night .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "they can occur in very dense swarms , as solitary zooids or as colonies .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "solitary zooids usually measure 22 to 52 mm ( 0.87 to 2.05 in ) in length .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "they are barrel-shaped and elongated , with a rounded front and a flat rear .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "aggregate zooids are 7 to 52 mm ( 0.28 to 2.05 in ) in length individually ( excluding projections ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "they are usually barrel or spindle-shaped . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "salpa fusiformis", "paragraphs": ["variety salpa fusiformis var . echinata herdman , 1888 accepted as salpa aspera chamisso , 1819 ( junior synonym )\nforma salpa fusiformis f . aspera von chamisso , 1819 accepted as salpa aspera chamisso , 1819 ( status change )\nfoxton , p . 1961 . salpa fusiformis cuvier and related species . discovery reports 32 : 1 - 32\nfoxton , p . 1961 . salpa fusiformis cuvier and related species . discovery reports , 32 : 1 - 32 .\nfoxton , p . 1961 . salpa fusiformis cuvier and related species . discovery reports 32 : 1 - 32 [ details ]\nthis species can often be confused with salpa aspera . s . fusiformis possesses less muscle fibers within the body muscle bands and a smooth tunic .\nscientific synonyms and common names salpa maxima | var . forsk\u00e5l , 1775 salpa runcinata | chamisso , 1819 biphora depressa | sars , 1829 biphora tricuspidata | sars , 1829 salpa maxima | meyen , 1832 salpa coerulea | quoy and gaimard , 1833\nsalpa fusiformis is a vertical migrator with nightly treks to the surface of up to 500 meters . large widespread surface swarms that persist for weeks occur in the monterey bay area .\nnamngivning : salpa fusiformis cuvier , 1804 . annales de la muse\u00e9 d\u2019histoire naturelle de paris 4 : 360 - 382 . synonymer : salpa runcinata chamisso , 1819 ; biphora depressa sars , 1829 ; biphora tricuspidata sars , 1829 ; salpa coerulea quoy & gaimard , 1834 . etymologi : fusiformis = spolformig ; fusus ( lat . ) = sl\u00e4nda , spole ; formis ( lat . ) = - formig . uttal : [ s\u00e1lpa fusif\u00f3rmis ]\nde visser , j . and r . w . m . van soest , 1987 . salpa fusiformis populations of the north atlantic . biological oceanography , 4 ( 2 ) : 193 - 209\nfiltration and ingestion rates of salpa fusiformis cuvier were determined while fed phaeodactylum tricomutum bohlin at concentrations of 2\u221264 \u00d7 10 3 cells\u00b7ml \u22121 . filtration and ingestion rates increase exponentially with increasing length and body protein . the relations between protein content and body length , and between filtration rate and weight are similar for blastozooids and oozooids . a capture efficiency of the order of 6\u201332 % is calculated : salpa fusiformis seems to have a low retention efficiency , but its very high filtration rate gives it pride of place amongst filter - feeders . specific filtration rates are independent of weight ; specific ingestion rates are independent of weight for blastozooids , but for oozooids they seem to diminish with increasing weight . the mean daily ration ( \u03bcg c ingested \u00b7 \u03bcg body c \u22121 ) is 107 % for a blastozooid and 117 % for an oozooid . specific filtration rates decrease exponentially as particle concentration rises , as for many other filter - feeders , and the specific ingestion rate follows an ivlev relation .\ncuvier , g . 1804 . m\u00e9moire sur les thalides ( thalia browne ) et sur les biphores ( salpa forsk\u00e5l ) . annales du mus\u00e9um national d ' historie naturelle paris 4 : 360 - 382 .\ncuvier , g . 1804 . m\u00e9moire sur les thalides ( thalia browne ) et sur les biphores ( salpa forsk\u00e5l ) . annales du mus\u00e9um national d ' historie naturelle paris 4 : 360 - 382 . [ details ]\n( of salpa clostra milne edwards , 1828 ) metcalf , m . m . 1918 . the salpidae ; a taxonomic study . bulletin united states national museum ( 2 ) 100 ( 2 ) : 5 - 193 . [ details ]\n( of salpa tricuspidata sars , 1829 ) sars , m . ( 1829 ) . bidrag til s\u00f6edyrenes naturhistorie . chr . dahl , bergen . 1 : 1 - 60 , plates 1 - 6 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nsoest , r . w . m . van , 1974 . a revision of the genera salpa forsk\u00e5l , 1775 , pegea savigny , 1816 , and ritteriella metcalf , 1919 ( tunicata , thaliacea ) . beaufortia , 22 ( 293 ) : 153 - 191 .\n( of salpa runcinata chamisso , 1819 ) chamisso , a . von 1819 . de animalibus quibusdam e classe vermium linnaeana . in : circumnavigatione terrae auspicante comte n . romanzoff , duce ottone de kotzbue , annis 1815 - 1818 peracta . berolini , dummlerum . [ details ]\n( of salpa pyramidalis lesson , 1832 ) lesson , r . p . 1832 . zoologie . pp . 256 - 279 , 433 - 440 . in : voyage autour du monde sur la corvette la coquille pendant 1822 - 1825 . volume 2 ( 1 ) . paris : pourret fr\u00e8res . [ details ]\nvan soest , r . w . m . ( 1974 ) . a revision of the genera salpa forsk\u00e5l , 1775 , pegea savigny , 1816 , and ritteriella metcalf , 1919 ( tunicata , thaliacea ) . beaufortia . 22 ( 293 ) : 153 - 191 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of salpa moniliformis macculloch , 1819 ) macculloch , j . 1819 . a description of the western islands of scotland including the isle of man : comprising an account of their geological structure with remarks on their agriculture , scenery , and antiquities . in three volumes . vol . 2 . constable , london and edinburgh . 579 pp . [ details ]\n( of salpa emarginata quoy & gaimard , 1824 ) quoy , j . r . c . ; gaimard , j . p . 1825 . observations sur les biphores et b\u00e9ro\u00e9s , faites pendant le voyage autour du monde de la corvette l ' uranie , command\u00e9e par m . louis de freycinet . annales des sciences naturelles 16 : 28 - 51 . [ details ]\n( of salpa emarginata quoy & gaimard , 1824 ) quoy , j . r . c . ; gaimard , j . p . ( 1824 ) . voyage au tour du monde fait par ordre du roi , sur les corvettes de s . m : l\u2019uranie et la physicienne pendant les ann\u00e9es 1817 \u00e0 1820 . in : desaules de freycinet . iv + 712 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nvan soest , r . w . m . ( 1974 ) . a revision of the genera < i > salpa < / i > forsk\u00e5l , 1775 , < i > pegea < / i > savigny , 1816 , and < i > ritteriella < / i > metcalf , 1919 ( tunicata , thaliacea ) . < em > beaufortia . < / em > 22 ( 293 ) : 153 - 191 .\n( of salpa coerulea quoy & gaimard , 1834 ) quoy , j . r . c . ; gaimard , j . p . ( 1834\u20131835 ) . voyage de d\u00e9couvertes de l\u2019astrolabe ex\u00e9cut\u00e9 par ordre du roi , pendant les ann\u00e9es 1826\u20131827\u20131828\u20131829 , sur le commandement de m . j . dumont d\u2019urville . j . tastu , paris . zoologie , mollusques . 3 : 1 - 366 ( 1834 ) , 367\u2013954 ( 1835 ) , atlas 107 pls . [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\ncosmopolitan , with the widest distribution of all species of salp , occurs from 50\u00b0 n and 45\u00b0 s in the pacific ocean and from 70\u00b0 n and 45\u00b0 s in the atlantic ocean .\noccurs from the surface to ca . 800 m and will perform diel vertical migrations .\nmedusae , siphonophores , ctenophores , heteropods , sea turtles , marine birds and many fish .\nthe aggregate generation has body muscle bands 1 - 4 and 5 - 6 that fuse dorsally . in some cases , body muscle bands 4 - 5 are fused laterally . the aggregate zooid possesses long fusiform anterior and posterior projections and a smooth thick tunic . the solitary generation also has a smooth thick tunic , and body muscle bands 1 - 3 meet dorsally , and 8 - 9 are strongly fused .\nentirely smooth , moderately thick to thin . muscles ( m ) 1 - 3 strongly fused over a wide area in the mid -\nregion , m8 and m9 are likewise strongly fused . m1 - m9 with 136 - 296 fibres , except for m4 with 14 - 40 fibres . number of muscle fibers is due to\n, in the ne atlantic ranging from 30 to 40 in m4 and from 206 to 281 in m1 - m9 .\nthat are typically long in relation to the body , giving it a slight asymmetry .\nentirely smooth , moderately thick to thin . six body muscles ; m1 - m4 strongly fused over a wide area in mid -\n, eurythermic species , occurring from 70\u00b0n to 45\u00b0s in the atlantic ocean , to 45\u00b0s in the indian ocean and from 50\u00b0n to 45\u00b0s in the pacific ocean .\nhas the widest distribution of all salp species , and is also one of the most abundant ones .\nb\u00e5mstedt , u . , j . h . foss\u00e5 , m . b . martinussen and a . fosshagen , 1998 . mass occurrence of the physonect siphonophore apolemia uvaria ( lesueur ) in norwegian waters . sarsia , 83 : 79 - 85 .\nbone , q . ( ed . ) , 1998 . the biology of pelagic tunicates . oxford university press , oxford . 340 pp .\nfraser , j . h . , 1950 . list of rare exotic species found in the plankton by the scottish research vessels in 1949 . annales biologiques , vol . vi : 95 - 99 . conseil permanent pour l ' exploration de la mer , kopenhagen .\nfraser , j . h . , 1964 . the continuous plankton recorder survey : plankton around the british isles during 1964 . ann . biol . , 21 : 56 - 62 ( cons . perm . int . expl . mer ) .\ngodeaux , j . , q . bone and j . - c . braconnot , 1998 . anatomy of thaliacea . in : q . bone ( ed . ) , 1998 . the biology of pelagic tunicates . oxford university press , oxford . pp 1 - 24 .\ngodeaux , j . , 1998 . the relationships and systematics of the thaliacea , with keys for identification . in : q . bone ( ed . ) , 1998 . the biology of pelagic tunicates . oxford university press , oxford . pp 273 - 294 .\nhunt , h . g . , 1968 . continuous plankton records : contribution towards a plankton atlas of the north atlantic and the north sea , part xi : the seasonal and annual distribution of thaliacea . bulletin of marine ecology , 6 : 225 - 249 .\nsoest , r . w . m . van , 1975b . zoogeography and speciation in the salpidae ( tunicata , thaliacea ) . beaufortia , 23 ( 307 ) : 181 - 215 .\n( of biphora depressa sars , 1829 ) sars , m . ( 1829 ) . bidrag til s\u00f6edyrenes naturhistorie . forste haefte . bergen , norway . 160 pp . [ details ]\n( of biphora tricuspidata sars , 1829 ) sars , m . ( 1829 ) . bidrag til s\u00f6edyrenes naturhistorie . forste haefte . bergen , norway . 160 pp . [ details ]\ngosner , k . l . ( 1978 ) . a field guide to the atlantic seashore . boston : houghton mifflin . 329p . [ details ]\nintegrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nvan der land , j . ( ed ) . ( 2008 ) . unesco - ioc register of marine organisms ( urmo ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nvan der land , j . ; van soest , r . w . m . ( 2001 ) . thaliacea , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 355 - 356 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nlinkletter , l . e . ( 1977 ) . a checklist of marine fauna and flora of the bay of fundy . huntsman marine laboratory , st . andrews , n . b . 68 : p . [ details ]\nmeinkoth , n . a . 1981 . field guide to north american seashore creatures . the audubon society . alfred a . knopf . new york . 799 p . [ details ]\nminer , r . w . 1950 . field book of seashore life . g . p . putnam & sons . new york . 888 p . [ details ]\nkott , p . ; bradford - grieve , j . ; esnal , g . ; murdoch , r . c . ( 2009 ) . phylum tunicata : sea squirts , salps , appendicularians , in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) ( 2009 ) . new zealand inventory of biodiversity : 1 . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . pp . 409 - 430 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\ncole , l . and g . lambert . 2009 . tunicata ( urochordata ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 1209\u20131216 in felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . [ details ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\ndyntaxa . ( 2013 ) . swedish taxonomic database . accessed at urltoken [ 15 - 01 - 2013 ] . , available online at http : / / urltoken [ details ]\nintergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nchen , q . c . ( 1982 ) . the marine zooplankton of hong kong . in : morton b , editor . proceedings of the first international marine biological workshop : the marine flora and fauna of hong kong and southern china . hong kong university press , hong kong . 2 : 789 - 799 . [ details ]\nsolitary zooids elongate , with slightly convex anterior and a squarely cut off posterior . test entirely smooth , moderately thick to thin . muscles ( m ) 1 - 3 strongly fused over a wide area in the mid - dorsal region , m8 and m9 are likewise strongly fused . m1 - m9 with 136 - 296 fibres , except for m4 with 14 - 40 fibres . number of muscle fibers is due to clinal variation , in the ne atlantic ranging from 30 to 40 in m4 and from 206 to 281 in m1 - m9 . dorsal tubercule is small and c - shaped . nucleus relatively small , compact , not causing a swelling of the test . rudimentary elaioblast disappears in a young stage .\naggregate zooids : body barrel shaped and typically fusiform , with conical anterior and posterior protuberances of the test that are typically long in relation to the body , giving it a slight asymmetry . test entirely smooth , moderately thick to thin . six body muscles ; m1 - m4 strongly fused over a wide area in mid - dorsal region ; m4 - m5 laterally fused ; m5 - m6 strongly fused in the mid - dorsal region . fibre number of m1 - m6 is 25 - 68 and is due to clinal variation . dorsal tubercule is a simple slightly arched stick . nucleus pale green in live specimens , relatively small and oval , not causing a swelling of the test .\neurythermic species , occurring from 70 n to 45 s in the atlantic ocean , to 45 s in the indian ocean and from 50 n to 45 s in the pacific ocean . depth distribution : occurring at depths from surface to ca . 800 m , seems to perform diurnal vertical migration .\ndepth range based on 156 specimens in 3 taxa . water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 119 samples . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 5 - 4938 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 1 . 361 - 26 . 893 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 019 - 44 . 356 salinity ( pps ) : 33 . 582 - 38 . 495 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 0 . 555 - 6 . 258 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 028 - 3 . 245 silicate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 799 - 150 . 591 graphical representation depth range ( m ) : 5 - 4938 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 1 . 361 - 26 . 893 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 019 - 44 . 356 salinity ( pps ) : 33 . 582 - 38 . 495 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 0 . 555 - 6 . 258 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 028 - 3 . 245 silicate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 799 - 150 . 591 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .\n, and can be found at depths of 0 to 800 m ( 0 to 2 , 625 ft ) .\nor as colonies . solitary zooids usually measure 22 to 52 mm ( 0 . 87 to 2 . 05 in ) in length . they are barrel - shaped and elongated , with a rounded front and a flat rear . aggregate zooids are 7 to 52 mm ( 0 . 28 to 2 . 05 in ) in length individually ( excluding projections ) . they are usually barrel or spindle - shaped .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\ncole , l . and g . lambert . 2009 . tunicata ( urochordata ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 1209\u20131216 in felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m press , college station , texas .\ndyntaxa . ( 2013 ) . swedish taxonomic database . accessed at urltoken [ 15 - 01 - 2013 ] .\ngosner , k . l . ( 1978 ) . a field guide to the atlantic seashore . < em > boston : houghton mifflin . < / em > 329p .\nkott , p . ; bradford - grieve , j . ; esnal , g . ; murdoch , r . c . ( 2009 ) . phylum tunicata : sea squirts , salps , appendicularians , in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) ( 2009 ) . new zealand inventory of biodiversity : 1 . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . pp . 409 - 430 .\nlinkletter , l . e . ( 1977 ) . a checklist of marine fauna and flora of the bay of fundy . < em > huntsman marine laboratory , st . andrews , n . b . < / em > 68 : p .\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . < em > china science press . < / em > 1267 pp .\nmeinkoth , n . a . 1981 . field guide to north american seashore creatures . the audubon society . alfred a . knopf . new york . 799 p .\nminer , r . w . 1950 . field book of seashore life . g . p . putnam & sons . new york . 888 p .\nvan der land , j . ( ed ) . ( 2008 ) . unesco - ioc register of marine organisms ( urmo ) .\nvan der land , j . ; van soest , r . w . m . ( 2001 ) . thaliacea , < b > < i > in < / i > < / b > : costello , m . j . < i > et al . < / i > ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . < i > european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , < / i > 50 : pp . 355 - 356\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\nyamaji , i . , illustrations of the marine plankton of japan . hoikusha publishing co ltd , osaka , pp . 537 ( 1991 ) .\nchihara , m . and murano , m . 1997 . an illustrated guide to marine plankton in japan . tokai university press , tokyo , pp . 1574 .\nen genomskinlig , j\u00e4mf\u00f6relsevis stor art som r\u00f6r sig ryckigt genom vattnet . dess muskelband n\u00e5r inte hela v\u00e4gen runt kroppen utan \u00e4r \u00f6ppna p\u00e5 buksidan . arten upptr\u00e4der i tv\u00e5 olika former ; en oozooid som liknar en l\u00e5da , och en gonozooid som \u00e4r spolformig . den p\u00e5tr\u00e4ffas regelbundet vid den svenska v\u00e4stkusten . en genomskinlig och j\u00e4mf\u00f6relsevis stor art som vanligen \u00e4r 4 - 5 cm l\u00e5ng men kan bli upp till 7 - 8 cm . h\u00f6ljet ( manteln ) som omger kroppen \u00e4r genomskinligt men ganska fast och har broskartad konsistens . i manteln finns muskelband som inte n\u00e5r hela v\u00e4gen runt kroppen utan \u00e4r \u00f6ppna p\u00e5 undersidan ( buksidan ) . det \u00e4r l\u00e4tt att skilja arten fr\u00e5n tunnbandssalp doliolum nationalis genom storleken , de p\u00e5 undersidan \u00f6ppna muskelbanden och djurens r\u00f6relsem\u00f6nster . medan arterna i familjen doliolidae stadigt glider fram genom cilier\u00f6relser i g\u00e4lkorgen f\u00f6rflyttar sig marsiansalp med hj\u00e4lp av muskelr\u00f6relser . varje g\u00e5ng den drar ihop musklerna pressas vatten ut , vilket inneb\u00e4r att djuret r\u00f6r sig ryckigt fram\u00e5t . arten upptr\u00e4der i tv\u00e5 klart olika former . den st\u00f6rre oozooiden ( den k\u00f6nl\u00f6sa generationen ) har nio muskelband och ser ut ungef\u00e4r som en liten l\u00e5da . gonozooiden ( den k\u00f6nliga generationen ) har en m\u00e4rklig , spolformig kropp med ett spetsigt bihang i fr\u00e4mre och ett i bakre delen av kroppen . den har bara sju muskelband .\nmarsiansalp \u00e4r en kosmopolitisk art som finns i stilla havet , indiska oceanen och atlanten . den saknas bara i arktiska och antarktiska vatten . trots att den har s\u00e5 stor utbredning f\u00f6rs den s\u00e4llan \u00e4nda in till sveriges v\u00e4stkust . den f\u00f6rekommer regelbundet l\u00e4ngs v\u00e4stkusten av brittiska \u00f6arna och norge . ibland kommer den \u00e4ven in i nordsj\u00f6n , och till svenska kusten vid bohusl\u00e4n .\npelagisk tunicat med spolformad kropp . tillf\u00e4llig g\u00e4st i samband med starka vattenr\u00f6relser mot nordost . de skattade v\u00e4rdena som bed\u00f6mningen baserar sig p\u00e5 ligger alla inom intervallet f\u00f6r kategorin livskraftig ( lc ) .\nmarsiansalp v\u00e4xlar alltid mellan en generation som fortplantar sig sexuellt och en som fortplantar sig asexuellt . denna livscykel kan klaras av p\u00e5 ungef\u00e4r 18 dygn . arten f\u00f6rekommer i l\u00e5ga t\u00e4theter i tropiska och subtropiska vatten , och den finns ocks\u00e5 i tempererade hav . den kan pl\u00f6tsligt upptr\u00e4da i h\u00f6ga populationst\u00e4theter och f\u00f6r\u00f6kar sig b\u00e4st n\u00e4r temperaturen inte \u00f6verstiger 17 \u00bac . den kan d\u00e5 bli s\u00e5 talrik att dess totala biomassa \u00e4r mycket st\u00f6rre \u00e4n den samlade massan av \u00f6vriga djurplankton , och den kan d\u00e5 g\u00f6ra slut p\u00e5 alla v\u00e4xtplankton i omr\u00e5det . i medelhavet har arten l\u00e4gst t\u00e4thet under augusti / september och h\u00f6gst fr\u00e5n mars till maj . den kan vara allm\u00e4n i nordsj\u00f6n n\u00e4r den f\u00f6rs med havsstr\u00f6mmar fr\u00e5n s\u00f6der till norra kusten av storbritannien .\nbl\u00e5 punkter visar fynd registrerade i artportalen och \u00f6vriga databaser anslutna till lifewatch . kan inneh\u00e5lla observationer som inte \u00e4r validerade . kartan uppdateras var fj\u00e4rde vecka .\nnationalnyckeln till sveriges flora och fauna . lansettfiskar - broskfiskar . branchiostomatidae - chondrichthyes . 2011 . artdatabanken , slu , uppsala .\nl\u00e4ngre texter , ut\u00f6ver kriteriedokumentation , har sammanst\u00e4llts av : thomas stach & hans g . hansson 2011 ( bearbetad av ragnar hall , artdatabanken ) .\ni det avancerade verktyget kan man s\u00f6ka ut och f\u00e5 fram artlistor , t ex arter i ett visst l\u00e4n , i en viss biotop , substrat , som p\u00e5verkas av en hotfaktor , eller som \u00e4r knutna till en sk v\u00e4rdart , t ex tr\u00e4det alm . dessa kan \u00e4ven kombineras .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , knutna till alm , \u00e4r beroende av d\u00f6d ved och som finns i kronobergs l\u00e4n .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , lever i sm\u00e5vatten och som p\u00e5verkas negativt av igenv\u00e4xning .\ndefaultl\u00e4get i verktyget \u00e4r arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade 2015 och dessa \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga s\u00f6kfaktorer . under fliken r\u00f6dlistekategori kan man dock v\u00e4lja att \u00e4ven inkludera arter som inte \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade . om man v\u00e4ljer att inkludera icke r\u00f6dlistade arter beh\u00f6ver man vara medveten om att samtliga arter inte \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga faktorer . nedan en sammanst\u00e4llning av vad som \u00e4r komplett .\ndenna funktion anv\u00e4nds n\u00e4r du vill skapa din egen lista av arter att hantera . du kan t . ex . navigera mellan arterna i listan genom att klicka p\u00e5 deras namn . du kan ocks\u00e5 v\u00e4lja att anv\u00e4nda knappen \u201dj\u00e4mf\u00f6r arter\u201d f\u00f6r att se bilder , kartor och k\u00e4nnetecken i en j\u00e4mf\u00f6relsevy .\ndu kan komponera ditt eget urval av arter genom att klicka dig fram via sl\u00e4kttr\u00e4det och d\u00e4r v\u00e4lja arter eller artgrupper till din lista . ett annat s\u00e4tt att g\u00f6ra ditt urval \u00e4r att anv\u00e4nda fliken \u201dfiltrera\u201d , d\u00e4r du kan s\u00f6ka p\u00e5 olika egenskaper . ovanf\u00f6r listan med s\u00f6kresultatet finns en knapp \u201dl\u00e4gg i mitt urval\u201d .\nthe mit license copyright ( c ) 2014 - 2016 google , inc . urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\nthe mit license ( mit ) copyright ( c ) 2011 - 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2013 sprymedia limited urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright 2008 - 2015 martin wendt , urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright jquery foundation and other contributors , urltoken this software consists of voluntary contributions made by many individuals . for exact contribution history , see the revision history available at urltoken the following license applies to all parts of this software except as documented below : = = = = permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software . = = = = all files located in the node _ modules and external directories are externally maintained libraries used by this software which have their own licenses ; we recommend you read them , as their terms may differ from the terms above .\nthe mit license ( mit ) - 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{"id": 1921, "summary": [{"text": "the alder flycatcher ( empidonax alnorum ) is a small insect-eating bird of the tyrant flycatcher family .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the genus name empidonax is from ancient greek empis , \" gnat \" , and anax , \" master \" .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the specific alnorum is latin and means \" of the alders \" .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "adults have olive-brown upperparts , browner on the wings and tail , with whitish underparts ; they have a white eye ring , white wing bars , a small bill and a short tail .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the breast is washed with olive-grey .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the upper part of the bill is grey ; the lower part is orangish .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "at one time , this bird was included with the very similar willow flycatcher in a single species , \" traill 's flycatcher \" .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "their breeding habitat is deciduous thickets , often alders or willows , near water across canada , alaska and the northeastern united states .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "they make a cup nest low in a vertical fork in a shrub .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "these birds migrate to south america , usually selecting winter habitat near water .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they wait on a perch near the top of a shrub and fly out to catch insects in flight , also sometimes picking insects from foliage while hovering .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they may eat some berries and seeds .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "this bird 's song is a wheezed ree-bee-a .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the call is a quick preet . ", "topic": 16}], "title": "alder flycatcher", "paragraphs": ["a small , nondescript flycatcher of northern wet thickets , the alder flycatcher is difficult to distinguish from the willow flycatcher by any feature other than voice .\nin an experiment on song learning , alder flycatchers were\ntutored\nwith willow flycatcher song in the first two months of life . the next spring , the alder flycatchers sang normal alder flycatcher song .\nthe alder flycatcher and the willow flycatcher are so similar in their physical appearance , it was thought that they were the same species , which was known as traill\u2019s flycatcher .\nthere are not known to be any conservation measures currently in place for the alder flycatcher .\nthe alder flycatcher has a relatively short breeding season , which lasts a maximum of 90 days .\nin an experiment on song learning , alder flycatchers were\ntutored\nwith willow flycatcher song in the first two months of life . the next spring , they sang normal alder flycatcher song .\nthe alder flycatcher is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthe alder flycatcher is so similar to the willow flycatcher that they were once thought to be the same species . song is the only definitive way to tell them apart .\nthe alder flycatcher ' s nest is a coarse , loose cup that nearly always has material hanging off it . the nest of the willow flycatcher tends to be neater , with no hanging material .\nthe longest - lived alder flycatcher was over 9 years old , when it was recaptured and rereleased during a banding operation in british columbia .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - alder flycatcher ( empidonax alnorum )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - alder flycatcher ( empidonax alnorum )\ntitle =\narkive species - alder flycatcher ( empidonax alnorum )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nsome alder flycatchers have white rings surrounding the eyes , whereas others do not .\nno information is available on management activities in montana specific to alder flycatcher , although the suspected breeding location for this species is protected within pine butte preserve .\nalder flycatcher : breeds from alaska east through manitoba to newfoundland and south to british columbia , great lakes region , much of new england , and into the mid - atlantic states . spends winters in tropics . preferred habitats include alder and birch thickets near\nfee - bee - o .\nthis traditional description identifies the song of the alder flycatcher . songs of empidonax flycatchers , a notoriously difficult group to identify in the field , are the best , and sometimes only , means for determining species . this is especially true for separating the alder flycatcher from its sibling species , the willow flycatcher ( e . traillii ) . alder and willow flycatchers cannot be identified reliably by sight alone , and even in - hand identification is not always certain . alder ( fee - bee - o song ) and willow ( fitz - bew ) flycatchers were considered one species called traill ' s flycatcher , a name still used to refer to the species pair . of these two sibling species , the alder flycatcher has the more northern and boreal distribution . alder flycatchers are late migrants in spring and leave early in the fall ; northern populations have a short 70 - 90 day breeding season . this flycatcher is single brooded , although individual pairs may renest after an early loss . molt occurs primarily on wintering grounds . the alder flycatcher is thought to winter chiefly in northern south america ( and thus further south than wintering willow flycatchers in middle america and extreme northwestern south america ) . the only definite winter records for alder flycatcher , on basis of call , are from eastern peru , eastern ecuador , and northern and eastern bolivia .\nin areas where breeding ranges overlap , alder flycatchers show less aggression toward willow flycatchers near nesting sites than any other species ; willow flycatcher are the more dominant of the two species ( gorski 1969b ) .\nother flycatchers found in montana with which the alder may be confused are the least ( e . minimus ) and willow flycatchers . in comparison , the least flycatcher has a shorter , narrower bill , a bold , complete eye - ring , thinner tail , and different song ( lowther 1999 , sibley 2000 ) . the general appearance of the alder flycatcher is so similar to that of the willow flycatcher that separating these two species visually can be extremely difficult ( lowther 1999 ) . the alder flycatcher is best separated from the willow flycatcher by voice . the song of the alder flycatcher ( a 3 - syllable\nfee - bee - o\n) is described as being harsh and burry in nature with a strongly accented second syllable , making it sound like a 2 syllable\nrrree - beep\n( lowther 1999 ) . the song of the willow flycatcher is accented on the first syllable , more of a\nfitz - bew ,\nbut may occasionally sound as though it has a subtle third syllable ,\nfritz - be - yew\n( lowther 1999 ) . the call of the alder is described more as an emphatic\npip\nor\npit\n( reminiscent of an olive - sided flycatcher ) in contrast to the liquid\nwhit\nof the willow ( gorski 1969a , 1971 , lowther 1999 , sibley 2000 ) . lowther ( 1999 ) indicates that , generally , the alder has a darker overall appearance ,\nslightly greener crown , more pointed wings , slightly shorter bill , and slightly longer tail .\nlowther , p . e . ( 1999 ) alder flycatcher ( empidonax alnorum ) in : poole , a . ( ed . ) birds of north america online . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca . available at : urltoken\nthe habitat of the alder flycatcher is seasonally variable , with dense , wet areas of alder ( alnus species ) maple ( acer species ) and birch ( betula species ) forest preferred during the breeding season ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . the breeding habitat is usually located in areas below elevations of 1 , 300 metres ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .\nwhile migrating , the alder flycatcher is found in various humid and semi - arid open habitats , such as forest edges , woodlands and fields ( 2 ) up to elevations of 2 , 500 metres ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .\nwillow and alder flycatchers do not respond to playback of recordings of each other ' s songs , even where their ranges overlap .\na burry fee - bee - o , rather different from the wheezy fitz - bew of the willow flycatcher .\nthe alder flycatcher is so similar to the willow flycatcher that they were thought to be the same species . song is the only definitive way to tell them apart . however , measurements of crown color with a colorimeter , together with other measures of wing shape , bill and tail , may be able to distinguish birds in the hand that are not calling .\nthe upperparts of the juvenile alder flycatcher are browner than the adult ( 2 ) ( 3 ) , the underparts are tinged yellow ( 3 ) and there are broad , yellow - buff bars on the wings ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .\nmost tyrant flycatcher species have stable populations in north america . the olive - sided flycatcher , though , has sharply declined throughout its range possibly due to habitat destruction on its wintering grounds and has been listed as near - threatened .\nobservations in may indicate the earliest presence of the species in the state . alder flycatcher records continue generally only through july , with one rarity ; an individual at pine butte that was observed in september of 1991 ( montana bird distribution committee 2012 ) .\nas an american species , the alder flycatch drew a crowd of 200 birdwatchers from around the uk when it appeared in cornwall in 2008 .\nthe moderately long bill is black on the upper surface and pale orange - yellow on the underside ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the eyes of the alder flycatcher are dark brown ( 4 ) and the legs and feet are black ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .\nthe alder flycatcher ' s diet is comprised mainly of insects obtained primarily by flycatching ( bent 1942 ) , although gleaning prey from tree and shrub foliage is also a known foraging behavior ( lowther 1999 ) . berries supplement their winter diet ( stiles and skutch 2003 ) .\nin winter , the alder flycatcher inhabits thickets and forest borders ( 2 ) , as well as areas with early successional vegetation ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . while overwintering , this species is found up to elevations of 1 , 100 metres ( 2 ) .\nalthough large in the empidonax genus , the alder flycatcher is a small species within the flycatcher family . thirteen to seventeen centimeters in length , with a wingspan of approximately 21 cm , the alder flycatcher has dull greenish - olive upperparts with a similarly colored , but darker , crown . the eye - ring is narrow , whitish , and sometimes indistinct but rarely lacking , while the throat is clearly white and contrasts with a gray breast band . the bill is black on the upper mandible and dull yellow - orange or pinkish on the lower . the wings are darker than the back , have white - edged tertials ( innermost secondaries ) and wing - bars that are whitish and boldly marked ( lowther 1999 ) . the vocalization of the alder flycatcher is a harsh and burry , three syllable\nrreebeea\nor\nfee - bee - o\n( lowther 1999 , sibley 2000 ) . for a more complete description , see below on distinguishing between the vocalizations of the alder and willow ( e . trailii ) flycatchers . for a comprehensive review of the conservation status , habitat use , and ecology of this and other montana bird species , please see marks et al . 2016 , birds of montana .\na long - distance migrant ( 2 ) ( 4 ) , the alder flycatcher leaves its wintering grounds between march and early may , moving northwards to breed ( 2 ) . this species usually remains at its breeding grounds until late august , when most individuals will have begun their southward migration ( 4 ) .\nlowther , p . e . 1999 . alder flycatcher ( empidonax alnorum ) . species account number 446 . the birds of north america online ( a . poole , ed . ) . ithaca , ny : cornell laboratory of ornithology ; retrieved 3 / 25 / 2008 from the birds of north america online database\nonly the male alder flycatcher produces vocalisations ( 4 ) , which include a short \u2018 pip \u2019 , \u2018 pit \u2019 , \u2018 tip \u2019 , \u2018 bic \u2019 , \u2018 peep \u2019 or \u2018 whit \u2019 ( 2 ) , as well as a distinct , buzzy \u2018 fee - bee - o \u2019 song ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .\nmore of a long - distance migrant than willow flycatcher , tending to nest farther north and winter farther south . migrates late in spring and early in fall .\ngorski , l . j . 1969 . traill ' s flycatcher of the\nfitz - bew\nsongform wintering in panama . auk 86 : 745 - 747 .\nthe breeding range of the alder flycatcher extends through canada and into a small area in the north - eastern united states . the migratory pathway of this species passes through the eastern united states and central america , with the overwintering grounds located in various western south american countries , including colombia , argentina , peru , belize , and venezuela ( 3 ) ( 5 ) .\nthe alder and willow flycatchers are so similar in plumage that visual identification is nearly impossible . these two species were actually considered to be one species , the \u201ctraill\u2019s flycatcher , \u201d until small differences in their plumages and distinct differences in their vocalizations showed that they were separate species . this was also the case for the cordilleran and pacific - slope flycatchers , and the eastern and western wood - peewees .\nthe diet of the alder flycatcher includes a variety of arthropods , including bees , wasps , flies , moths , butterflies , grasshoppers and crickets ( 2 ) . an individual may search for prey from a perch and pursue it through the air , or may take it directly from within foliage ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . in winter , this species may also eat small amounts of fruit ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .\nthe alder flycatcher has a large breeding range of 3 , 390 , 000 square kilometers . this includes brushy swamps and wetlands in alaska , canada , the northern mid - western states , and the north - eastern united states south through the appalachians . it winters in edge habitats in western south america . this species has a very large estimated breeding population of 130 , 000 individuals , and a conservation rating of least concern .\ngorski , l . g . 1969 . systematics and ecology of sibling species of traill ' s flycatcher . ph . d . dissertation , university of connecticut , storrs , connecticut . 81 pp .\nharris , j . h . , s . d . sanders , and m . a . flett . 1987 . willow flycatcher surveys in the sierra nevada . western birds 18 : 27 - 36\na small bird that spends the summer catching flying insects in northern thickets . this bird and the willow flycatcher are so similar to each other that they were considered one species until the 1970s . the only differences apparent in the field are in their voices . however , voice is important to these birds : many other kinds of songbirds have to learn their songs , but willow and alder flycatchers are born instinctively knowing the voice of their own species .\nin north america , one hundred forty - seven species of tyrant flycatchers in fifty - eight genera have occurred . these include the brilliant vermillion flycatcher , the sassy kingbirds , and the bridge - loving phoebes .\na few other exceptions to this color scheme are the frosty plumage of the scissor - tailed flycatcher highlighted by salmon pink underwings , the orangish coloration of the say\u2019s phoebe , and the black and white plumages of the eastern kingbird and black phoebe .\nthe plumage of the alder flycatcher ( empidonax alnorum ) is dull olive - green on the upperparts ( 3 ) ( 4 ) , although the head and crown are slightly darker than the back ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the underside and throat are white , and there are two white or pale yellow bars on the black wings ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . individuals of this species may have a narrow white eyering ( 4 ) , although this is absent in some , and the presence of pale - coloured lores is also variable ( 2 ) .\nhabitat use is similar to that of the willow flycatcher and includes willow ( salix ) thickets , red osier dogwood ( cornus sericea ) , or birch ( betula sp . ) along the edges of wetlands , streams , lakes , and forests ( johnsgard 1992 ) .\nmostly insects . differences in diet , if any , between this species and willow flycatcher are not well known . apparently eats mostly insects , including wasps , bees , winged ants , beetles , flies , caterpillars , moths , true bugs , and others . also eats some spiders , a few berries , and possibly some seeds .\nthe relatively short breeding season of the alder flycatcher runs from mid - june to early august ( 2 ) . the nest is constructed solely by the female and is a loose cup of coarse grass which is lined with wiry grass and conifer needles ( 2 ) . the nest is usually completed after around 36 hours ( 4 ) and the female then produces a clutch of 3 or 4 cream - white eggs ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) , which may be unmarked or have an irregular dark pattern on the surface ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . the female incubates the nest for between 11 and 15 days , and once the eggs have hatched ( 2 ) ( 4 ) the young are fed by both adults ( 4 ) . the young then fledge the nest after 14 or 15 days ( 2 ) .\nmembers of the tyrannidae occur in most types of forested and non - forest habitats in north america except for the tundra . some species such as the willow flycatcher and black phoebe are associated with wetland habitats , others like the olive - sided and hammond\u2019s flycatchers need coniferous forests , and other species such as the cassin\u2019s kingbird and say\u2019s phoebe , occur in grasslands . related species often replace each other in different habitats or regions such as in the case of the eastern and western wood - peewees .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nmuch of breeding habitat in the north is remote from effects of human disturbance . numbers probably stable .\nwillows , alders , brushy swamps , swales . breeds in thickets of deciduous trees and shrubs , usually near water , as around streams , ponds , or bogs . especially common in thickets of willows or alders . winters in woodland edges or second growth in the tropics , especially near water .\nforages by watching from a perch and then flying out to catch insects . usually forages from perches within tall shrubs or low trees ; catches insects in mid - air , or takes them from foliage while hovering .\n3 - 4 , rarely 2 . white , with brown spots concentrated toward larger end . incubation is by female , 12 - 14 days . young : both parents bring food for nestlings . age of young at first flight about 13 - 14 days .\nboth parents bring food for nestlings . age of young at first flight about 13 - 14 days .\nmale defends nesting territory by singing . courtship behavior is not well known , probably involves male actively chasing female through the trees . nest site is usually low in a deciduous shrub , averaging about 2 ' up , usually lower than 6 ' above the ground . placed in a vertical or diagonal fork in a branch . nest ( probably built by female alone ) is an open cup , usually built rather loosely of grass , weeds , strips of bark , small twigs , rootlets , lined with plant down or other soft materials . nest may have strips of grass or bark dangling from the bottom .\naudio \u00a9 lang elliott , bob mcguire , kevin colver , martyn stewart and others .\ntell congress to oppose a harmful rider that threatens sage - grouse and other wildlife .\ntell congress and the department of the interior to uphold the country ' s most important bird protection law .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\narthropods a major grouping of animals that includes crustaceans , insects and arachnids . all arthropods have paired jointed limbs and a hard external skeleton ( exoskeleton ) . early successional vegetation the first plants to colonise an ecosystem after a disturbance . incubate to keep eggs warm so that development is possible . lores the space between a bird\u2019s bill and eyes .\ndel hoyo , j . , farnsworth , a . and lebbin , d . ( 2004 ) handbook of the birds of the world . volume 9 : contingas to pipits and wagtails . lynx edicions , barcelona . available at : urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncopyright by borror laboratory of bioacoustics , department of evolution , ecology , and organismal biology , ohio state university , columbus , oh , all rights reserved .\nusing personal observations and reviewing literature that summarize the breeding , overwintering , or migratory habitat requirements of each species ( dobkin 1992 , hart et al . 1998 , hutto and young 1999 , maxell 2000 , foresman 2012 , adams 2003 , and werner et al . 2004 ) ;\ncalculating the percentage of observations associated with each ecological system relative to the percent of montana covered by each ecological system to get a measure of\nobservations versus availability of habitat\n.\nspecies that breed in montana were only evaluated for breeding habitat use , species that only overwinter in montana were only evaluated for overwintering habitat use , and species that only migrate through montana were only evaluated for migratory habitat use . in general , species were listed as associated with an ecological system if structural characteristics of used habitat documented in the literature were present in the ecological system or large numbers of point observations were associated with the ecological system . however , species were not listed as associated with an ecological system if there was no support in the literature for use of structural characteristics in an ecological system ,\npoint observations were associated with that system . common versus occasional association with an ecological system was assigned based on the degree to which the structural characteristics of an ecological system matched the preferred structural habitat characteristics for each species as represented in scientific literature . the percentage of observations associated with each ecological system relative to the percent of montana covered by each ecological system was also used to guide assignment of common versus occasional association . if you have any questions or comments on species associations with ecological systems , please contact the montana natural heritage program ' s senior zoologist .\nspecies associations with ecological systems should be used to generate potential lists of species that may occupy broader landscapes for the purposes of landscape - level planning . these potential lists of species should not be used in place of documented occurrences of species ( this information can be requested at :\n) or systematic surveys for species and evaluations of habitat at a local site level by trained biologists . users of this information should be aware that the land cover data used to generate species associations is based on imagery from the late 1990s and early 2000s and was only intended to be used at broader landscape scales . land cover mapping accuracy is particularly problematic when the systems occur as small patches or where the land cover types have been altered over the past decade . thus , particular caution should be used when using the associations in assessments of smaller areas ( e . g . , evaluations of public land survey sections ) . finally , although a species may be associated with a particular ecological system within its known geographic range , portions of that ecological system may occur outside of the species ' known geographic range .\nadams , r . a . 2003 . bats of the rocky mountain west ; natural history , ecology , and conservation . boulder , co : university press of colorado . 289 p .\ndobkin , d . s . 1992 . neotropical migrant land birds in the northern rockies and great plains . usda forest service , northern region . publication no . r1 - 93 - 34 . missoula , mt .\nforesman , k . r . 2012 . mammals of montana . second edition . mountain press publishing , missoula , montana . 429 pp .\nhart , m . m . , w . a . williams , p . c . thornton , k . p . mclaughlin , c . m . tobalske , b . a . maxell , d . p . hendricks , c . r . peterson , and r . l . redmond . 1998 . montana atlas of terrestrial vertebrates . montana cooperative wildlife research unit , university of montana , missoula , mt . 1302 p .\nhutto , r . l . and j . s . young . 1999 . habitat relationships of landbirds in the northern region , usda forest service , rocky mountain research station rmrs - gtr - 32 . 72 p .\nmaxell , b . a . 2000 . management of montana ' s amphibians : a review of factors that may present a risk to population viability and accounts on the identification , distribution , taxonomy , habitat use , natural history , and the status and conservation of individual species . report to u . s . forest service region 1 . missoula , mt : wildlife biology program , university of montana . 161 p .\nwerner , j . k . , b . a . maxell , p . hendricks , and d . flath . 2004 . amphibians and reptiles of montana . missoula , mt : mountain press publishing company . 262 p .\nbaicich , p . j . and c . j . o . harrison . 2005 . a guide to the nests , eggs and nestlings of north american birds . second edition . academic press , new york .\nbent , a . c . 1942 . life histories of north american flycatchers , larks , swallows , and their allies . u . s . national museum bulletin 179 . washington , dc .\ngorski , l . g . 1971 . traill ' s flycatchers of the\nfee - bee - o\nsongform wintering in peru . auk 88 : 429 - 431 .\nharrison , h . h . 1979 . a field guide to western birds nests . houghton mifflin company , boston , ma . 279 pp .\njohnsgard , p . a . 1992 . birds of the rocky mountains with particular reference to national parks in the northern rocky mountain region . lincoln : university of nebraska press . xi + 504 pp .\nmarks , j . s . , p . hendricks , and d . casey . 2016 . birds of montana . arrington , va . buteo books . 659 pages .\nmontana bird distribution committee . 2012 . p . d . skaar ' s montana bird distribution . 7th edition . montana audubon , helena , montana . 208 pp . + foldout map .\nsibley , d . a . 2000 . the sibley guide to birds . national audubon society and alfred a . knopf , inc . , new york , ny . 544 pp .\nstiles , f . g . and a . f . skutch . 2003 . a guide to the birds of costa rica . comstock publishing associates , cornell university press , ithaca . 511 pp .\namerican ornithologists union . 1983 . checklist of north american birds , 6th edition . 877 pp .\namerican ornithologists\u2019 union [ aou ] . 1998 . check - list of north american birds , 7th edition . american ornithologists\u2019 union , washington , d . c . 829 p .\ncasey , d . 2005 . rocky mountain front avian inventory . final report . prepared for the u . s . fish and wildlife service and the nature conservancy by the american bird conservancy , kalispell , montana .\nehrlich , p . , d . dobkin , and d . wheye . 1988 . the birder\u2019s handbook : a field guide to the natural history of north american birds . simon and schuster inc . new york . 785 pp .\ngodfrey , w . earl . 1966 . the birds of canada . national museums of canada , ottawa . 428 pp .\njohnsgard , p . a . 1986 . birds of the rocky mountains : with particular reference to national parks in the northern rocky mountain region . colorado associated university press , boulder , co .\nkeast , a . , and e . s . morton . 1980 . migrant birds in the neotropics : ecology , distribution , and conservation . smithsonian institution press , washington , dc .\nlenard , s . , j . carlson , j . ellis , c . jones , and c . tilly . 2003 . p . d . skaar\u2019s montana bird distribution , 6th edition . montana audubon , helena , mt . 144 pp .\nmontana bird distribution online database . 2001 . helena , montana , usa . april - september 2003 .\nsibley , d . 2014 . the sibley guide to birds . alfred a . knopf , new york , ny . 598 pp .\nskaar , p . d . 1969 . birds of the bozeman latilong : a compilation of data concerning the birds which occur between 45 and 46 n . latitude and 111 and 112 w . longitude , with current lists for idaho , montana , wyoming , impinging montana counties and yellowstone national park . bozeman , mt . 132 p .\nterres , j . k . 1980 . the audubon society encyclopedia of north american birds . alfred a . knopf , new york . 1109 pp .\nu . s . forest service . 1991 . forest and rangeland birds of the united states : natural history and habitat use . u . s . department of agriculture , forest service agricultural handbook 688 . 625 pages .\nwright , p . l . 1996 . status of rare birds in montana , with comments on known hybrids . northwestern naturalist 77 ( 3 ) : 57 - 85 .\n. you can download select species by searching or when you ' re on a taxa page like class , order , and family .\nno modification . singing bird perched approximately 6 feet above ground in the top of rhododendron shrub .\nnatural vocalization , windy morning just behind the dock in a small wooded brushy lot . bird was perched on a willow type bush about 8 feet up .\nblack spruce ( picea mariana ) bog with a dwarf birch ( betula glandulosa ) and labrador tea ( rhododendron groenlandicum ) dominated understory . transitioning to willow ( salix sp . ) and white spruce ( picea glauca ) in drier upland areas .\nheard singing in dense black willow stand on the bank of the mississippi river . continued singing while foraging and eventually flew within 10ft and intermittently gave different calls .\nmixed paper birch - quaking aspen woodland about 10 - 15 meters from muddy river , a sinuous watercourse with many sloughs . within a kilometer were many muskegs and lakes surrounded by spruce .\nsame individual featured in xc194087 . habitat : shrubland , river , mature mixed forest .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nand indistinct white eye - ring . wings are olive - brown with two white or pale bars . bill is short with orange\nblack legs and feet . weak fluttering direct flight with shallow , rapid wing beats .\nan estimated 63 % of their population breeds in canada ' s boreal forest .\na group of flycatchers has many collective nouns , including an\noutfield\n,\nswatting\n,\nzapper\n, and\nzipper\nof flycatchers .\nthe passeriformes ( pronounced pas - ser - i - for - meez ) , a large taxonomic order that includes antbirds , cotingas , and flycatchers , is composed of one hundred eighteen families of birds .\nthe tyrannidae ( pronounced tie - ran - uh - dee ) , or tyrant flycatchers , is a very large , successful family of four hundred and twenty - four species in one hundred genera only found in the americas .\nsome tyrant flycatchers are known for their bold , aggressive behavior , this family often called the tyrant flycatchers for this reason . the eastern kingbird in particular , seems to go out of its way to chase much larger birds ( such as turkey vultures ) away from its territory .\nsmall to medium in size , tyrant flycatchers have stocky heads with medium sized beaks , tails that vary in length , and long wings . they also have short legs suited to their arboreal lifestyles .\ntyrant flycatchers do not nest in colonies and mostly forage in pairs or alone although the eastern kingbird forms flocks during migration and on its wintering grounds in amazonia . most north american flycatchers share a similar foraging strategy that often varies by niche and prey item . this foraging strategy involves watching for insects from a perch , sallying out to catch one with a snap of the beak , and returning to the perch to eat it .\n\u00a9 2002 - 2013 urltoken all rights reserved . mitch waite group . no part of this web site may be reproduced without written permission from mitch waite group . privacy policy\nrelating to or living or located on the bank of a natural watercourse ( as a river ) or sometimes of a lake or a tidewater ."]}
{"id": 1936, "summary": [{"text": "rasbora is a genus of fish in the family cyprinidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they are native to freshwater habitats in south and southeast asia , as well as southeast china .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "a single species , r. gerlachi , is only known from an old specimen that reputedly originated from africa ( cameroon ) , but this locality is considered doubtful .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "they are small , up to 17 cm ( 6.7 in ) long , although most species do not surpass 10 cm ( 4 in ) and many have a dark vertical stripe .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "several species are regularly kept in aquariums .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "as a common english name , \" rasbora \" is used for many species in the genus rasbora , as well as several species in genera brevibora , boraras , megarasbora , metzia , microdevario , microrasbora , rasboroides , rasbosoma , sawbwa , trigonopoma and trigonostigma .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "some of these related genera were included in the genus rasbora in the past .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "in a 2007 analysis , rasbora was found to not be a monophyletic assemblage .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "however boraras and trigonostigma were determined to be monophyletic . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "rasbora", "paragraphs": ["if you are looking to introduce some rasbora into your aquarium fish tank , we have a collection of stunning rasbora fish available online .\njustification : rasbora rasbora is a widely distributed fish which breeds easily . there are no major threats to this species and so assessed as least concern .\ntype species : phycocharax rasbora , new species , by monotypy and original description .\nthere\u2019s a reason many rasbora and related families are so small \u2014 and it\u2019s evolutionary .\ns1 table . characters states of all characidae species analyzed herein plus phycocharax rasbora , new genus .\nmuch of the confusion abounds simply because the name rasbora is an eastern indian word that describes a fish .\netymology : from the bengali word \u201crasbora\u201d , the common name of the fish rasbora rasbora ( hamilton ) . rasbora is a generic name encompassed a great radiation of small cyprinids from southeastern asia , including the species currently allocated in the genus trigonostigma [ 21 ] , which possess a dark triangular blotch on body sides very reminiscent in shape and position similarly as found in the new species . gender masculine . a noun in apposition .\nrasbora kalochroma is a big boy and needs a larger home . at 10cm / 4\u201d in total length and , with a habit of displaying between males , this rasbora does much better in a tank of at least 120cm / 4\u2019 in length .\nmap of tapaj\u00f3s and xingu rivers and adjoining areas , indicating distribution and type - locality ( square ) of phycocharax rasbora .\nit also means that there are many fish trading as rasbora that do not make the grade , even though common names suggest otherwise . examples of ' fraudboras ' include the asian rummynose ( sawbwa resplendens ) , the galaxy rasbora ( danio margaritatus ) as well as microrasbora species .\nwhat is the true rasbora ? just as in the film epic many will make a claim and create even more confusion . nathan hill investigates .\nphycocharax rasbora , holotype , mzusp 119843 , 29 . 1 mm sl , male ; mzusp 115341 , 25 . 3 mm sl , paratype , female .\ncrucially with clown rasbora , the tank needs to be covered as they are prone to launching themselves at first fright . surface cover and floating plants will often help .\nthe beauty of the clown rasbora biotope is that you can have so many more fish in their tank and they are naturally found with a wealth of other species .\nso after much wonderful feedback i will only be getting some rasbora ( mosquito ) in my soon to be purchased 10 gallon fish tank . but i was wanting to know if i could get maybe 6mosquito and 6 emerald eye ( or 8 of both but space may be too small ) or just keep to 10 - 12 mosquito rasbora\nalthough some of them are more slow stream dwellers , the biotope habitat of a peaty swamp is acceptable to the mosquito rasbora and makes for an interesting and unusual project .\nif the scientific name boraras urophthalmoides sounds like an anagram of rasbora , it\u2019s because it is . boraras represent truly tiny members of the rasbora grouping and are among some of the most shy . however , given their fiercely bright coloration , they have a large fan base . i\u2019d guess that they are one of the uk\u2019s most popular biotope fish .\nnewer fishkeepers tend to be greeted by names that conflict from store to store . older fishkeepers will fondly recall species that used to be rasbora now belonging under some other heading .\nigarap\u00e9 do arnaldo , a tributary of rio bra\u00e7o norte , near bra\u00e7o norte hydroelectric dam , guarant\u00e3 do norte , mato grosso , brazil , type - locality of phycocharax rasbora .\nphycocharax rasbora , mzusp 119843 , paratype , 29 . 1 male ( a ) and mzusp 115313 , paratype , 26 . 4 mm sl , female ( b ) , immediately after collection .\nmosquito rasbora work best as a species - only shoal , due to their timid nature and small size . it\u2019s quite easy for them to end up in the belly of a normally peaceful tank mate .\nrasbora , at least those species commonly called rasboras , seem victims of a taxonomic gold rush , where researchers rush east , jam flags into species old and new , then ruminate over their exact biological origins .\nalong with other rasbora species , they will also happily co - exist with the icy - eyed brevibora dorsiocellata , some puntius species , chocolate gourami , and even some betta , such as b . pugnax .\nrasbora daniconius occurs in the mekong , chao phraya and salween basins , the northern malay peninsula , and westwards to the indus and sri lanka . in indonesia , this species is known from borneo and sumatra .\nthe harlequin ( trigonostigma heteromorpha ) has been a long - standing favourite in the trade and the rasbora most fishkeepers are likely to keep . they tolerate a wide range of water conditions , are attractive and active .\nthey struggle to get past 15mm / 0 . 7\u201d in length , which is why mosquito rasbora are appearing in so many nanos , although if kept in too small a set - up you can expect rivalry between males .\nof the more than five dozen species of rasbora , the harlequin is arguably the most popular of them all . often referred to as a red rasbora , the body is a reddish copper color which is accented by a striking black wedge covering the rear half of the body , like a characteristic black\npork chop\nshaped patch . the distinguishing triangular patch begins near the dorsal fin and comes to a point near the base of the caudal fin .\nthe harlequin rasbora is a shoaling fish , it should be kept in schools of 8 to 10 individuals . since the fish is rather peaceful , it makes a good community fish . schools of larger numbers make for a beautiful display .\nmales are more slender than females and exhibit a rounded extension at the bottom edge of the distinctive black wedge covering the posterior of the fish . the black wedge on females is perfectly straight . the female harlequin rasbora is also larger than the male .\ncitation : ohara wm , mirande jm , de lima fct ( 2017 ) phycocharax rasbora , a new genus and species of brazilian tetra ( characiformes : characidae ) from serra do cachimbo , rio tapaj\u00f3s basin . plos one 12 ( 2 ) : e0170648 . urltoken\nsuper tiny , extremely vibrant , and outgoing , the chili rasbora is an ideal inhabitant for a nano tank . they are one of my absolute favorites and a must have for any nano enthusiast . boraras brigittae - chili rasbora ph : 4 - 7 temperature - 68 - 82 hardness : 2 - 10 dkh adult size : . 7\u2033 maximum behavior : shoaling , keep in groups larger than 6 diet : micropredator , takes prepared foods well compatability : small and timid , does best with other small peaceful fish or invertebrates urltoken urltoken\nit\u2019s not uncommon to see shoals of harlequin rasbora ( trigonostigma heteromorpha ) used to devastating effect among thick beds of dense green foliage in the aquarium . aside the often gin - clear tint of aquascape water , such tanks aren\u2019t far off being ideal for these fish .\necological notes : phycocharax rasbora was collected primarily in dammed portions of the rio bra\u00e7o norte . contrasting from other tributaries of the rio tapaj\u00f3s basin , which are primarily clearwaters rivers , the rio bra\u00e7o norte is a blackwater tributary of the rio teles pires . in the site of occurrence of p . rasbora was build a small hydroelectric dam ( pch bra\u00e7o norte iv ) , and apparently the reservoir condition promoted the proliferation of algae . as consequence of the damming , the species thrived and can be considered as highly abundant at the dammed portion of the rio bra\u00e7o norte . in addition , p . rasbora seems to be uncommon in the lotic stretch of rio bra\u00e7o norte downstream of the dam , where only three specimens were collected . the type locality of the p . rasbora , the igarap\u00e9 do arnaldo , is a small tributary which was flooded during the damming of river , presenting muddy substrate with a great amount of decomposed organic matter with undergrowth marginal vegetation formed by grasses ( fig 4 ) . in this area , phycocharax rasbora was the most abundant species with 77 % of all specimens collected . the section of the rio bra\u00e7o norte downstream the dam present sandy bottom with pebbles and rocks . phycocharax rasbora occurs syntopically at bra\u00e7o norte reservoir with other characiformes species , such as cyphocharax cf . spilurus ( curimatidae ) , leporinus friderici ( anostomidae ) , serrapinus aff . micropterus , astyanax aff . bimaculatus ( characidae ) , hoplerythrinus unitaeniatus ( erythrinidae ) , gymnotiformes , as gymnotus diamantinensis ( gymnotidae ) , and cichliformes , i . e . , aequidens sp . and apistogramma sp . ( cichlidae ) . although little abundant downstream the dam , p . rasbora was found co - occurring with the following characiformes : leporinus desmotes ( anostomidae ) , hemiodus quadrimaculatus ( hemiodontidae ) , astyanax aff . bimaculatus , bryconops sp . , jupiaba polylepis , jupiaba paranatinga , moenkhausia hasemani , serrapinnus aff . micropterus ( characidae ) , and with a single species of siluriformes , hypostomus sp . ( loricariidae ) .\ndistribution : phycocharax rasbora is so far known only from its type locality at upper rio bra\u00e7o norte , a right - bank tributary of the rio peixoto de azevedo , part of rio teles pires drainage , rio tapaj\u00f3s basin ( fig 5 ) . the rio bra\u00e7o norte drains the serra do cachimbo at northern mato grosso state , brazilian amazon .\nphylogenetic analysis : the analysis gave relatively divergent hypotheses , especially by instabilities of some taxa whose relationships are not in the scope of this paper . however , in a broad range of values of k between 5 . 9 and 23 . 5 , most parsimonious trees ranging from 2750 to 2869 steps ( ci = 0 . 138\u20130 . 144 , ri = 0 . 652\u20130 . 669 ) , results are stable concerning the new taxon . in that range of parameters , phycocharax rasbora is recovered as the sister species of [ paracheirodon axelrodi ( schultz ) + hyphessobrycon elachys weitzman ] ( fig 6 ) . although far from conclusive , the clade recovered by p . rasbora disclosed positive gc value , suggesting a well - supported relationship . in most analysis the clade composed of phycocharax rasbora , paracheirodon axelrodi and hyphessobrycon elachys is sister group of clade formed by hyphessobrycon loweae + h . vanzolinii . it is worth noting that this latter clade is relatively little supported compared with its sister clade ( i . e . p . rasbora , p . axelrodi and h . elachys ) . the single synapomorphy found for the phycocharax clade is the abrupt expansion of the maxilla ventrally to the maxillary teeth ( character 107 , state 1 ) . the section of the phylogenetic tree where phycocharax is included , with clade supports and obtained synapomorphies provided ( fig 6 ) . the complete phylogenetic hypothesis including clade supports is available in s1 fig .\njustification : rasbora daniconius is assessed as least concern due to its wide distribution , ability to occupy a variety of habitats and the lack of any known major widespread threats . it is only fished locally and thus harvesting does not appear to be a threat to the species over its entire range , and it is a common species in at least one area of its range .\nthe anal - fin dimorphism observed in phycocharax rasbora , with males possessing a straight distal margin or almost so , is similar to the found in some species of hyphessobrycon durbin , primarily h . bifasciatus ellis , h . heliacus moreira , landim & costa , h . igneus miquelarena , menni , l\u00f3pez & casciotta , h . kayabi teixeira , lima & zuanon , h . loweae costa & g\u00e9ry , h . peugeoti ingenito , lima & buckup , and h . procyon pastana & ohara [ 27 , 28 ] . between the two hyphessobrycon species examined herein , h . bifasciatus and h . loweae , just this latter was herein recovered as close related to phycocharax rasbora . however , the referred clade includes both species that exhibit sexual dimorphism as those that not .\nharlequins are among the more difficult species to breed , however , spawning may be achieved if you provide the proper conditions . select young specimens and condition them with live foods such as daphnia and mosquito larvae prior to the spawning attempt . harlequin rasbora differ from other popular rasboras in the aquarium when it comes to breeding . while other rasboras are egg - scattering spawners , harlequin rasboras are egg layers .\ntechnically , one could quibble that only those fish within the rasbora genus could be classed as such . however , some of us prefer a broader definition that sees numerous genera all carrying the title , so i\u2019ll take the stance of many keepers in classing fish from several genera under the honorary title including , but by no means limited to , fish such as trigonostigma , boraras , and rasboroides all considered to be rasborin fish .\nthe black triangular blotch on posterior flank portion of the phycocharax is unique among the characids , but a similar - shaped blotch is present in hemigrammus pulcher . in contrast , h . pulcher is easily distinguished from phycocharax rasbora by having , as well as the remaining hemigrammus species , two rows of premaxillary teeth ( vs . single row ) . in addition , the premaxillary teeth of the new taxon are relatively compressed and distally expanded , while those of h . pulcher are relatively cylindrical with parallel lateral margins . furthermore , h . pulcher was obtained by phylogenetic analysis in a clade along with h . haraldi g\u00e9ry and h . aguaruna lima , correa & ota ( fig 6 ) , corroborating the hypothesis that h . pulcher belongs to the hemigrammus ocellifer ( steindachner ) species group [ 29 , 30 ] and , therefore , different from p . rasbora .\nfish hobbyists love the harlequin rasbora\u2014it has a beautiful metallic color and it is easy to care for . a large school makes an aquarium vivid and vibrant with movement . this is a great fish for a smaller - sized community tank , and its at peace with most . it is a smaller fish , so keep it with like - sized fish . larger fish might be attracted by its shimmer and make a meal out of it .\nphycocharax rasbora was collected during the rainy seasons ( april 2012 ; february 2014 ) and a dry season ( august 2015 ) . males and females presented gonads well developed in both seasons . oocytes with different sizes are present in the gonads , suggesting that females present multiple spawning , as well as several other small characids ( e . g . [ 19 , 20 ] ) . stomach contents of ten examined specimens contained mainly algae and vegetal matter .\nthe harlequin rasbora is a native of malaysia , singapore , sumatra , and southern thailand . it inhabits streams and waters that are characterized principally by low mineral content , high concentrations of dissolved humic acids , which is typical of water found flowing through peat swamp forests . the waterlogged soils of these forests inhibit the complete decay of leaf litter and result in the formation of peat , which leaches humic acids . these conditions resemble those found on in the blackwater habitats of south america .\nwater temperature is not critical , however , the ideal range is 74 to 78 f ( 23 to 26 c ) . the ph of the water should be slightly acidic , in the range of 6 . 0 to 6 . 5 . an aquarium intended to house harlequin rasboras should be planted with live plants , with some open areas for swimming provided between stands of plants such as cryptocoryne species , these being among the plants that inhabit the harlequin rasbora ' s native waters .\nphylogenetic relationships of the new taxon were supported only by a few characters in many analysis performed here . in most analysis , phycocharax rasbora was recovered as the sister group of paracheirodon axelrodi plus hyphessobrycon elachys , in a clade that also includes hyphessobrycon loweae and hyphessobrycon vanzolinii . the uncertainty about the phylogenetic relationships of the new taxon , in addition to its unique combination of characters , lead us to erect a new monotypic genus in the characidae . the erection of a new generic name when there is a stable and well - supported sister - group relationship with some available genera is undesirable in most cases , mainly when the candidates are morphologically similar . however , in this particular case , neither the phylogenetic relationships are stable or even well supported , nor the candidate genera are similar enough to include this new taxon under a common diagnosis .\nnumbers above branches denote gc values ; negative values are not shown . synapomorphies . a : 243 ( 0 ) ; b : 68 ( 1 ) , 180 ( 1 ) , 253 ( 0 ) , 307 ( 0 ) ; c : 285 ( 0 ) ; d : 158 ( 1 ) , 224 ( 0 ) , 246 ( 0 ) ; e : 29 ( 1 ) , 65 ( 0 ) , 138 ( 1 ) ; f : 107 ( 1 ) ; g : 294 ( 0 ) , 365 ( 1 ) ; h : 331 ( 1 ) ; i : 141 ( 0 ) , 163 ( 1 ) ; j : 246 ( 0 ) , 325 ( 0 ) ; k : 93 ( 1 ) , 347 ( 1 ) ; l : 20 ( 1 ) , 29 ( 1 ) , 45 ( 0 ) ; m : 91 ( 0 ) , 235 ( 1 ) ; n : 293 ( 0 ) , 314 ( 1 ) ; o : 333 ( 1 ) ; p : 180 ( 1 ) ; q : 126 ( 1 ) , 182 ( 0 ) ; r : 164 ( 1 ) ; s : 29 ( 1 ) , 148 ( 0 ) , 307 ( 0 ) , 347 ( 0 ) ; t : 247 ( 0 ) , 370 ( 2 ) ; u : 96 ( 1 ) , 141 ( 1 ) , 163 ( 0 ) . autapomorphy of p . rasbora : 350 ( 1 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nbiostor is built by @ rdmpage , code on github . page images from the biodiversity heritage library .\n, select family and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the family .\n, select country and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the country .\n, select ecosystem and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the ecosystem .\ncfm script by eagbayani , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by cmilitante , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by cmilitante , 14 / 03 / 2013\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nyou can keep it with any fish as long it\u2019s not large and a predator .\nit will not nip at or quarrel with any other species . some potentially good tankmates may include cardinal tetras , neon tetras , dwarf gouramis , bettas , small barbs , danios , other small rasboras , and cory catfish .\nrasboras are a true freshwater fish and are never seen in brackish waters . they prefer the lowland waters of southeastern asia , where the water is soft and acidic . harlequins prefer an environment with areas of dense vegetation , an open area for swimming , a dark substrate , and subdued lighting .\nharlequins make excellent community fish and will not nip at or quarrel with any other species .\nrasboras are undemanding when it comes to diet ; they will readily accept flake , dried , frozen and live foods . a varied diet will ensure that digestive problems or susceptibility to disease do not occur .\nwhen spawned in groups , keep two males for every female . hobbyists intent upon simulating natural conditions as closely as possible may choose to filter the aquarium water over peat , thus replicating the humic acid concentrations found in the fish ' s native waters , though this is not absolutely necessary if the basic water chemistry parameters ( no higher than 4 dh hardness , ph around 6 . 4 ) are correctly maintained . optimum water temperatures are between 76 and 80 degrees f . you will need cryptocorynes or similar broad - leafed plants in the breeding tank .\nonce you prepare the breeding tank , introduce the breeding stock late in the day . spawning will usually being in the morning and is initiated by the male dancing and trembling before the female . this spawning behavior is intended to direct the female beneath a suitable plant for depositing the eggs . you may see the male nudging the sides of the female and rubbing his belly against her back in an effort to move her to the spawning location .\nwhen ready to spawn , the female will turn upside down and rub her belly against the underside of a leaf , signaling the male to join her . the male will approach her while continuing to tremble , then wrap himself around her body and fertilize the eggs as they are released . six to 12 eggs are laid at a time . the fertilized eggs rise and adhere to the underside of the leaves . over the course of one to two hours , as many as 300 eggs may be laid . although , 80 to 100 is more typical .\nwhen spawning is complete , remove the breeding stock from the aquarium , as they will consume the fry once they hatch . in water temperatures of about 80 degrees f , the eggs will hatch in approximately 24 hours . the fry is translucent , remain attached to the leaf upon which the eggs were laid for another 12 to 24 hours , during which time the yolk sac is absorbed . once this process is completed , the fishes become free - swimming , and at this stage , require very finely sized food such as live infusoria for a period of seven to 14 days , after which the fry are able to feed upon newly hatched brine shrimp .\nif infusoria are unavailable , commercially prepared foods for an egglayer fry may also be used . young harlequin rasboras reach sexual maturity in approximately six to nine months .\nsay hello to one of those complicated groups of fish where historically there seem to be more arguments over names than there are actual species .\nrasboras are cyprinids , that huge group carrying everything from huge koi carp to dinky paedocypris , and much in between . characteristically , rasboras are noted for not having any of the distinctive barbels associated with cyprinid fishes .\nrasboras , true or otherwise , are superb aquarium inhabitants and lend themselves to some stunning biotope set - ups .\ntheir typically small size , combined with only limited shyness and shoaling behaviour , makes them stunning additions to many communities , although their water chemistry requirements sometimes prevent them being kept this way .\nthe tiny boraras species , as well as bearing spectacular colours , require only small systems in which to thrive and are dominating nano tanks and micro - biotopes these days , despite the occasional high price for such a small fish . but when you see one of these close up you\u2019ll be hooked \u2014 and you\u2019ll soon be dusting off that old 45 x 25 x 25cm / 18 x 10 x 10\u201d tank .\ndifferent species frequent different tank levels , many capitalising on the mid - water layer .\nall are easy to feed , with every species adapting to flake foods and life in captivity superbly . they retain their ravenous instincts , despite aquarium life , and dashes of live food always create frenzied activity in the tank at mealtimes .\nanything goes , but daphnia , small bloodworms , glassworms , wingless fruit flies , and even insects such as garden ants will never be refused by these fish .\nit\u2019s thought there are two species of this fish , depending on the presence of an orange spot on the anal fin , but whichever harlequin you pick up will be rewarding .\nwild harlequins are a scarce find nowadays , and the vigilant or purist might want to avoid colourful morphs , such as the blacks and blues you can see around . good harlequins are available in the shops but , like so many mass - farmed fish , there can be runts .\nthese fish go well in a community , but to see them at their best , try to create a biotope , or perhaps a species - only tank .\nfound across indonesia , sumatra and thailand , they usually live in acidic but not deeply blackened streams , and sometimes peaty swamps . those streams tend to have a yellowed tinge , and this is something the home aquarist would want to replicate if possible .\ndecoration is easy and ideally there should be plenty of it . ample pieces of bogwood should litter a sandy base , and that sand should be fine and dark , such as aquarium - grade silica .\nleaf litter can be added and will help to release tannins into the water . alder cones may also be used , but be sparing as they can be quite powerful in releasing acid .\nthese fish prefer softer , acidic waters and although they can cope in a neutral or slightly alkaline community tank , it\u2019s worth remembering that some pathogens fare better in alkaline waters . aim for a ph of between 5 . 0 and 7 . 0 , with a hardness of below 12\u00b0dh .\nset the temperature somewhere between 22 - 25\u00b0c / 72 - 77\u00b0f to recreate wild conditions and keep water flow light . harlequins do not thrive in high , rushing water flows and may actively avoid areas in the tank where they get buffeted .\nplanting works well with harlequins , especially thick beds of cryptocoryne and java fern . don\u2019t be shy about going bonkers with numbers of plants and the harlequins will love you !\nto really promote their confidence , add floating plants to the tank . even a handful of duckweed will encourage them to be more brazen .\nthey only grow to 5cm / 2\u201d as adults but do enjoy being in shoals , so it\u2019s worth thinking of a tank no less than 60cm / 2\u2019 long , with at least 12 harlequins .\nthese fish are peaceful with everything , but to keep things region authentic , opt for tank mates like acanthopthalmus loaches , puntius species like p . pentazona , or maybe even chocolate gouramis .\nclowns prefer more flow , although the water should still be stained with tannins . to this effect , it\u2019s worth considering adding alder cones to a external canister filter , or some peat supplementation if these aren\u2019t available . tannins will help to bring out the red colours of the fish , which can be a washed - out orangey - yellow when kept in water that\u2019s too clear .\nunlike with harlequins , planting should be confined to the backs and sides of the tank and ample swimming space should be left in the middle where males will show off to each other . cryptocoryne is a good choice , but dense , bushy plants , like thick mats of java moss , are appreciated . the fish will often be seen \u2018rubbing\u2019 themselves in it .\nacclimatisation is essential and they are easily shocked as a result of changes in water quality . as imports go , they are riskily high on mortality , which is why they are not as commonly seen as other species .\nwhen adding them to your tank , try to match water parameters to the transport water , but don\u2019t be too surprised if they pale , pant , and rest on the tank base on arrival .\nthere\u2019s confusion about numbers to keep . some maintain that due to their pugnacious attitude towards each other , low numbers are best . however , it\u2019s generally accepted that these are shoalers and should be kept in groups of 12 or more .\nin the wild , these fish get everywhere . from streams and rivers , through pools and lakes , and into rice paddies and even ditches on the side of the road , these are a surprisingly versatile fish that should be given the chance to shine .\naim for a lowish ph between 6 . 0 and 6 . 5 . a hardness level somewhere about 6\u00b0dh seems to suit . given a temperature of about 25 - 28\u00b0c / 77 - 82\u00b0f and access to plenty of live foods and carotenoid rich dry foods , these are fish you\u2019ll quickly come to adore .\nb . urophthalmoides inhabit truly acidic waters . in fact , they\u2019re the archetypal swamp dweller , relishing blackened water , low light levels and relentless acid .\nacidity and blackness should be high . keepers like to use heavy leaf litter , especially oak and beech leaves , combined with spindly pieces of bogwood , such as the sumatran driftwood from unipac , and low lighting levels .\nsome keepers don\u2019t even opt for an aquarium light , instead using a small low wattage table lamp . although some plants like java fern might tolerate this , it could be wiser to go for a coating of floating plants instead . these fish are from regions of overhanging foliage and natural light is quite alien .\nwater chemistry should be completely soft and acidic . a ph value as low as 4 . 0 will be shrugged off , along with hardness levels of zero to 10\u00b0dh . aim for a ph of between 5 . 5 and 6 . 5 .\nthey don\u2019t do well in nitrogenous wastes , so ensure that any tank is established prior to adding the fish .\nwater flow should be negligible and a tank of b . urophthalmoides is the perfect excuse to dig out that old biofoam 45 air - driven filter , and an air pump .\nhowever , if wanting to keep them with another species , consider the equally timid parosphromenus varieties of tiny liquorice gourami . although you\u2019ll not see too much of either species , you\u2019ll be ecstatic when they do make an appearance through that deep red water .\nthe fish have gradually become smaller , it is suspected , through environmental pressures .\nall miniaturised fish inhabit slow moving or static bodies of water , often devoid of sources of nutrition , such as the conditions you might find in a boggy , peaty swamp .\nthis evolutionary niche loses its advantage anywhere that water flow is strong and nutrition widely available .\nusually , a miniaturised fish will be stunted and small , but perfectly formed .\nhowever some fish , like paedocypris \u2014 the world\u2019s smallest \u2014 stops short of forming fully adult organs . instead it retains a simplified , or truncated body in which even the skeleton isn\u2019t fully developed .\nwhy not take out a subscription to practical fishkeeping magazine ? see our latest subscription offer .\ndon ' t forget that pfk is now available to download on the ipad .\n\u00a9 1955 - 2016 bauer consumer media limited are authorised and regulated by the financial conduct authority ( firm reference no . 710067 ) media house , peterborough business park , peterborough , pe2 6ea .\nfor the best experience on our site , be sure to turn on javascript in your browser .\nwe use cookies to improve your online experience . to accept these cookies continue browsing as normal . read our cookies policy here for more information\nyour company account is blocked and you cannot place orders . if you have questions , please contact your company administrator .\nall stock held on site is sourced from ethical breeders and are quarantined onsite and rigorously monitored for any signs of distress or ill health , to help ensure the best possible quality and wellbeing of our livestock . our selection is always expanding so keep checking back for new exciting species and varieties .\nasia : mekong , chao phraya and meklong basins ; also from northern malay peninsula .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 12 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 30857 )\nhas 1 / 2 4 scale rows between the dorsal - fin origin and the lateral line ; a conspicuous , narrow , black longitudinal stripe along the sides , widening into a diamond - shaped blotch on the caudal peduncle ( ref . 27732 ) . scale margins outlined by reticulated dark pattern ; black tips on caudal lobes present or absent ; lateral line complete ( ref . 12693 ) .\nassociated with clear , usually shallow and moderately flowing streams ( ref . 27732 ) . occur near the surface in small to medium - sized streams in upland areas . individuals from high - gradient upland streams have a much darker stripe and often black tips on the caudal fin lobes . feed probably on exogenous insects ( ref . 12693 ) . spawning sites are found in rivers and ponds ( ref . 33813 ) . mature adults probably breed during the rainy season . not seen in the markets , but occasionally imported in the aquarium trade ( ref . 12693 ) .\nrainboth , w . j . , 1996 . fishes of the cambodian mekong . fao species identification field guide for fishery purposes . fao , rome , 265 p . ( ref . 12693 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00537 ( 0 . 00245 - 0 . 01178 ) , b = 3 . 06 ( 2 . 87 - 3 . 25 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 2 \u00b10 . 40 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 27 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nbarbhuiya , a . h . , juffe bignoli , d . , rema devi , k . r . , dahanukar , n . & chaudhry , s .\nis known from the gangetic provinces and assam in india ; also present in bangladesh , myanmar , pakistan and thailand .\nthere is no information on the population and its trends for this species . more research is needed to investigate the population structure and trends .\nthe species is found in swamps and marshy areas . an attractive little purple - and - orange creature , it spawns readily but , if left to its own devices , will cannabilise its eggs .\nthis species attains a length of 13 cm . because of its beauty and hardiness , it has proved popular in small aquarium . it is also used for human consumption at a local level .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nmukerji , 1935 was first described from darna river in upper godavari river basin , deolali , nasik district , maharashtra state , india ( hora and mukerji 1935 ) . the species is valid as\nrema devi , k . r . , gopalakrishnan , a . , arunachalam , m . , shrikant , j . , johnson , j . a . , rahul , k . & molur , s .\nis distributed in maharashtra , karnataka and gujrat with localized threats to some populations . however , the species is assessed as least concern .\n. 2004 ) . it is currently known only from darna river in upper godavari river basin , deolali , nasik district , maharashtra state , india ( hora and mukerji 1935 , hora and misra 1937 , jayaram 1999 , menon 1999 ) . extensive surveys in the other tributaries of upper godavari river have not reveled this species indicating that the species is restricted to darna river ( s . jadhav pers . comm . ) . the species is also recorded from baroda ( now vadodara ) in gujarat ( ranade 1953 ) and mula - mutha river of krishna river system ( kharat\n, however , the population seems to be declining and it is rarely found in its type locality ( s . jadhav pers . comm . ) .\nis recorded from rivers and hill streams and it has a maximum length of 8 . 5 cm total length ( menon 1999 ) . the habitat of this fish , in its type locality , is threatened by organic pollution , agricultural pollution and introduced fishes ( n . dahanukar pers . obs . ) .\nbut it is caught by local fishermen and sold in the local market . it is also suggested as a good aquarium fish ( talwar and jhingran 1991 , mercy\nis recorded is threatened by organic pollution , agricultural pollution , introduced fishes and heavy harvesting ( n . dahanukar pers . obs . ) .\n, however , site protection is suggested for conservation of this threatened species . research is needed to understand population trends , life history , ecology and threats to this species .\nr . daniconius is reported to be common in the muthurajawela wetland sanctuary , sri lanka , but likely to have a variable abundance over its range .\nr . daniconius is a benthopelagic and potamodromous species . it occurs in a variety of habitats : ditches , ponds , canals , streams , rivers and inundated fields , but is primarily found in sandy streams and rivers . it is also found in brackish waters . it sometimes forms large schools .\nthis fish is often harvested with other smaller fish as food , locally , and for use in poultry feed . when they are small they can make attractive aquarium fish , and thus are captured for the aquarium trade .\nthreats to this species and its habitat are unknown at present , although it is collected for the aquarium trade and for poultry food but the scale does not appear to be causing a decline in the population .\nthere are no conservation measures currently known to be in action at habitat or species level .\nfreshwater ; benthopelagic ; ph range : 6 . 5 - 7 . 0 ; dh range : ? - 10 . tropical ; 20\u00b0c - 26\u00b0c ( ref . 2060 )\nasia : mekong , chao phraya and mae khlong basins , malay peninsula to borneo , java and sumatra in indonesia .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 12 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 6398 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 2 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 7 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 5 . preserved color yellowish brown with silvery sheen , darker dorsally ; scales margined by brown lines or dots . 12 - 13 scales between nape and dorsal . lateral line complete reaching caudal ; 9 ( rarely 8 ) scale rows between lateral lines over middle of caudal peduncle . origin of dorsal between tip of snout and caudal ; least depth of caudal peduncle 1 . 9 - 2 in its length . maxillary not reaching eye . thin lips , upper moderately protractile ; lower sometimes with external projecting knob at symphysis , fitting the notch on upper one .\noccurs mainly in rivers and enters flooded fields ( ref . 12975 ) . feeds on algae ( ref . 12975 ) .\ndoi , a . , 1997 . a review of taxonomic studies of cypriniform fishes in southeast asia . jap . j . ichthyol . 44 ( 1 ) : 1 - 33 . ( ref . 26580 )\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 0 \u00b10 . 00 se ; based on food items .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 23 of 100 ) .\njust get one type . they won ' t school together and this tank isn ' t big enough for 2 good sized schools .\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\na new genus and species of characid fish is described from rio bra\u00e7o norte , a tributary of rio teles pires , tapaj\u00f3s basin , mato groso , brazil . the new taxa can be diagnosed from the remaining characids by a unique combination of characters that includes the presence of a single row of relatively compressed premaxillary teeth , large teeth with four to nine cusps on premaxillary and dentary , absence of pseudotympanum , incomplete lateral line with 7\u201313 pored scales , sexually - dimorphic males with distal margin of anal fin approximately straight , and presence of a nearly triangular and horizontally elongated blotch from the posterior half of the body to caudal peduncle . the most parsimonious phylogenetic hypothesis , using morphological data , recovered the new genus and species in a clade including paracheirodon axelrodi and hyphessobrycon elachys .\ncopyright : \u00a9 2017 ohara et al . this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\ndata availability : all relevant data are within othe paper and its supporting information files .\nfunding : part of the type series was collected during an expedition funded by the south american characiformes inventory ( fapesp 2011 / 502827 , urltoken ) . the authors are supported by fapesp ( wmo : grant # 2013 / 22473\u20128 ; fctl : grants # 2011 / 51532\u20127 and 2013 / 20936\u20120 ) , conicet ( jmm : pip\u20120301 ) , and foncyt ( jmm : pict 2011\u20120992 ) . a travel by the second author to zuec was funded by fapesp [ grant # 2011 / 51532\u20127 ,\nsystematics of tetras ( genera hemigrammus , hyphessobrycon , thayeria , parapristella and bryconella ) , with emphasis on the species from northern cis - andean south america\n] . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nthe characidae is one of the richest families among bony fishes , and depending of the alternative proposals followed [ 1 , 2 ] , the family comprise between 1 , 100 to over than 1 , 200 species [ 3 ] . although much advance to understand the relationships within characidae family has been accomplished , it still constitutes in an unsettled issue . a stable classification of the characidae is still far to be established , given the great diversity and complexity of the family and the lack of comprehensive analysis combining morphological and molecular data [ 4 ] . many members of the characidae have low variation either in molecular data [ 2 ] as in morphological [ 5 , 6 ] , and most deep relationships within the family are incongruent between different analysis or have low support .\nduring recent ichthyological field surveys in the northern of the brazilian state mato grosso , was discovered from the rio bra\u00e7o norte , a tributary of the rio teles pires ( serra do cachimbo , rio tapaj\u00f3s basin ) , an attractively - colored characid tetra that proved to be not assignable to any previously known genus . the new taxon is described herein due to its unusual combination of single row of compressed premaxillary teeth , pseudotympanum absent , and sexual dimorphism with males exhibiting a straight distal margin of the anal fin , while females present the more generalized condition among characids ( i . e . , an anal fin with a distinct anterior lobe ) . in addition , the new taxon shows a remarkable color pattern with a large and elongated triangular blotch extending along middle flanks from vertical through the base terminus of dorsal fin to the caudal peduncle end . such blotch is similar in shape and position to the one present in the neotropical characid hemigrammus pulcher ladiges and the asian cyprinids of the genus trigonostigma kottelat & witte . the aim of the present study is to describe this new taxon , assigned herein to a new genus , due to both phylogenetic position and unique combination of characters .\nphylogenetic relationships of the new taxon among characids were assessed by parsimony using tnt software [ 11 ] following the characters of mirande [ 1 , 10 ] and mirande et al . [ 12 , 13 ] . thirty - five additional species were included to the dataset to evaluate possible close relatives to the new taxon or to check its possible inclusion in some genus already known , as well as to have a most comprehensive framework within the characidae phylogeny . the coding of the new taxon plus 212 species analyzed herein are included in s1 table and the dataset is available online at morphobank [ 14 , 15 ] . the complete list of 387 characters analyzed herein , with comments on those added ( two new ) or modified ( 15 ) from mirande et al . [ 12 ] , is provided as s2 appendix .\nas in the mentioned papers ( i . e . [ 1 , 10 , 12 , 13 ] ) , analysis were performed under extended implied weighting [ 16 , 17 ] in a broad range of values of k ( concavity constant ) . differing from previous contributions , the phylogenetic analysis in a broad range of values of k was herein performed only to evaluate the possible relationships and generic assignments of the new taxon , rather than to reach to some general phylogenetic hypothesis for the family . support was calculated with symmetric resampling and results are expressed as gc values according to goloboff et al . [ 18 ] .\nthe electronic edition of this article conforms to the requirements of the amended international code of zoological nomenclature , and hence the new names contained herein are available under that code from the electronic edition of this article . this published work and the nomenclatural acts it contains have been registered in zoobank , the online registration system for the iczn . the zoobank lsids ( life science identifiers ) can be resolved and the associated information viewed through any standard web browser by appending the lsid to the prefix \u201c urltoken \u201d . the lsid for this publication is : urn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : d0fd20e4 - d2eb - 4e52 - 9094 - ddfe45ee0be0 . the electronic edition of this work was published in a journal with an issn , and has been archived and is available from the following digital repositories : pubmed central , lockss .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 27e0cd39 - ad63 - 4d08 - be0f - 60670b17406f\n, holotype , mzusp 119843 , 29 . 1 mm sl , male ; mzusp 115341 , 25 . 3 mm sl , paratype , female .\n, medial view of left side ; premaxilla , 29 . 8 mm sl ; dentary and maxilla , 29 . 1 mm sl , paratypes , both mzusp 115341 .\n, mzusp 119843 , paratype , 29 . 1 male ( a ) and mzusp 115313 , paratype , 26 . 4 mm sl , female ( b ) , immediately after collection ."]}
{"id": 1940, "summary": [{"text": "the tonnidae are a family of medium-sized to very large sea snails , known as the tun shells .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "these are marine gastropod molluscs in the clade littorinimorpha .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the name \" tun \" refers to the snails ' shell shape which resembles wine casks known as \" tuns \" .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "while the shells are thin , they are also strong .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "there is no operculum .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "they are found in all tropical seas , where they inhabit sandy areas .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "during the day , they bury themselves in the substrate , emerging at night to feed on echinoderms ( especially sea cucumbers ) , crustaceans , and bivalves .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "some larger species also capture fish , using their expandable probosces to swallow them whole .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "females lay rows of eggs that become free-swimming larvae for several months before settling to the bottom . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "tonnidae", "paragraphs": ["which taxonomic groups does the family tonnidae belong to and what are the different tonnidae genus ? below , you will find the taxonomic groups the family tonnidae belongs to and the taxonomic tree with all the different genus .\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30e4\u30c4\u30b7\u30ed\u30ac\u30a4\u79d1\nto\ntonnidae\n.\ntonnidae there are less than 30 species in this special family of globose , large shells . tonnidae are not successful among collectors because they need a lot of space and they are hard to display in an aesthetic way .\ntaxonomical research ( incl . hostorical specimen research ) on marine gastropods of the families ficidae , tonnidae and turritellidae .\nwhich are the most common photographed tonnidae genus ? below , you will find the list of genus commonly photographed by underwater photographers .\nvos , c . ( 2005c ) notes on tonnidae of the t . variegata complex and t . chinensis complex , with descriptions of four new species ( gastropoda : tonnidae ) . visaya 1 ( 5 ) : 45 - 62 . [ november 2005 ]\nfamily tonnidae on the gladys archerd shell collection at washington state university tri - cities natural history museum website : brief fact sheet with photos .\nwhat made you want to look up tonnidae ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\ntaxonomy bouchet & rocroi ( 2005 ) listed cassidae as a synonym of tonnidae suter , 1913 ( 1825 ) , following in this riedel ( 1995 ) . the . . .\nalthough a relatively small family , the tonnidae has not been revised for many years , and there are taxonomic problems with many species . uncertainties of relationships are noted below for the two most common tonna species found in nsw .\n2008 . vos , c . tonnidae . in poppe g . t . ( ed . ) philippine marine mollusks , volume 1 : gastropoda 1 : 594 - 611 , pls 242 - 250 . conchbooks , hackenheim , germany\nvos , c . ( 2005a ) a new species of tonna br\u00fcnnich , 1772 ( gastropoda , tonnidae ) ( tonna berthae ) from south - african waters . gloria maris 44 ( 1 - 2 ) : 10 - 17\nvos , c . ( 2005b ) a new species of tonna br\u00fcnnich , 1772 ( gastropoda , tonnidae ) ( tonna oentoengi ) from indonesian and western australian waters . gloria maris 44 ( 1 - 2 ) : 18 - 24\n2013 . vos , c . overview of the tonnidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) in chinese waters . gloria maris 52 ( 1 - 2 ) ; pp . 22 - 53 ; pls . 1 - 9 ( master article in english ) [ vos , c . ( 2012 ) overview of the tonnidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) in chinese waters . shell discoveries 1 ( 1 ) ; pp . 12 - 22 ; pls . 1 - 9 ( partial translation in chinese ) ]\ntaxonomy bouchet & rocroi ( 2005 ) listed cassidae as a synonym of tonnidae suter , 1913 ( 1825 ) , following in this riedel ( 1995 ) . the two families are here maintained separate following beu ( 2008 : 272 ) [ details ]\nvos , c . ( 1999 ) a new tonna br\u00fcnnich , 1772 ( gastropoda : tonnidae ) from gulf of aden . gloria maris , vol . 38 , ( 1 - 6 ) , p . 43 - 47 , pl . 8 - 9\nvos , c . ( 2013 ) overview of the tonnidae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) in chinese waters . gloria maris 52 ( 1 - 2 ) ; pp . 22 - 53 ; pls . 1 - 9 page ( s ) : 23 [ details ]\n2007 . vos , c . a conchological iconography ( no . 13 ) - the family tonnidae . 123 pp . , 30 numb . plus 41 ( 1 col . ) un - numb . text - figs , 33 maps . , 63 col . pls , conchbooks , germany\nfamily tonnidae in the gastropods section by j . m . poutiers in the fao species identification guide for fishery purposes : the living marine resources of the western central pacific volume 1 : seaweeds , corals , bivalves and gastropods on the food and agriculture organization of the united nations ( fao ) website .\nthe family tonnidae includes a small number of species with medium - sized to large shells which are thin for their size , and nearly spherical . the spire is small , while the body whorl is large and well inflated , ending in a very wide aperture . the outer surface is usually sculptured by thick spiral ribs . the animals lack the operculum . most tun shells can be found living in sand , in the tropics beyond the edge of the coral reef .\nthis part comprises a taxonomic revision of 29 tonna - species and for other species of tonnidae in the genera eudolium and malea . tonna hawaiiensis is described new to science . the text gives a detailed description of the animals and shells as well as information on synonymy , distribution ( with detailed maps ) habitat and biology . as far as possible type material an large series of shells covering the whole species range were studies . material from at least 29 museums was included in this monograph . the bibliography includes 173 references .\nthe family tonnidae is represented in nsw by the genera tonna and eudolium . species of tonna are large , globular lightweight shells , mainly tropical in distribution , that live from the shallow subtidal down to several hundred metres . they live mainly in sandy areas , where they can burrow beneath the sand and leave just the tip of their siphon exposed . they feed on sea cucumbers ( holothurians ) . the two large tuns that occur in nsw belong to this genus ; they are taken by fishing trawlers , tonna cerevisina quite commonly and t . tetracotula less so .\nnomenclature family names cited with two dates ( the second one in parentheses ) are those ruled by article 40 ( 2 ) of iczn .\nif . . . a family - group name was replaced before 1961 because of the synonymy of the type genus , the replacement name is to be maintained if it is in prevailing usage . a name maintained by virtue of this article retains its own author [ and date , the first date cited ] but takes the priority of the replaced name [ the date cited in parentheses , here alluding to doliidae ] . suter ( 1913 ) placed dolium lamarck , 1801 in synonymy of tonna br\u00fcnnich , 1772 and replaced doliidae latreille , 1825 with the new name tonnidae . [ details ]\nnomenclature family names cited with two dates ( the second one in parentheses ) are those ruled by article 40 ( 2 ) of iczn .\nif . . . a . . .\nvaught , k . c . ; tucker abbott , r . ; boss , k . j . ( 1989 ) . a classification of the living mollusca . american malacologists : melbourne . isbn 0 - 915826 - 22 - 4 . xii , 195 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nbouchet p . & rocroi j . - p . ( 2005 ) . classification and nomenclator of gastropod families . malacologia . 47 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 397 isbn 3 - 925919 - 72 - 4 . [ details ]\n( of galeodoliidae sacco , 1891 ) bouchet p . & rocroi j . - p . ( 2005 ) . classification and nomenclator of gastropod families . malacologia . 47 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 397 isbn 3 - 925919 - 72 - 4 . [ details ]\n( of macgillivrayiidae h . adams & a . adams , 1854 ) bouchet p . & rocroi j . - p . ( 2005 ) . classification and nomenclator of gastropod families . malacologia . 47 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 397 isbn 3 - 925919 - 72 - 4 . [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ntonna ( dolium complex ) type species : tonna ( dolium complex ) dolium linnaeus , c . , 1758\ntonna ( canaliculata complex ) type species : tonna ( canaliculata complex ) canaliculata linnaeus , c . , 1758\ntonna ( sulcosa complex ) type species : tonna ( sulcosa complex ) sulcosa born , i . von , 1778\ntonna ( galea complex ) type species : tonna ( galea complex ) galea linnaeus , c . , 1758\ntonna ( perdix complex ) type species : tonna ( perdix complex ) perdix linnaeus , c . , 1758\ntonna ( chinensis complex ) type species : tonna ( chinensis complex ) chinensis dillwyn , l . w . , 1817\ntonna ( variegata complex ) type species : tonna ( variegata complex ) variegata lamarck , j . b . p . a . de , 1822\neudolium dall , w . h . , 1889 type species : eudolium crosseanum monterosato , t . a . de m . di , 1869\nmalea valenciennes , a . , 1833 type species : malea latilabris valenciennes , a . , 1833\nempty shell . chek jawa , jun 12 photo shared by loh kok sheng on flickr .\nempty shell . cyrene , aug 13 photo shared by loh kok sheng on his blog .\ntan siong kiat and henrietta p . m . woo , 2010 preliminary checklist of the molluscs of singapore ( pdf ) , raffles museum of biodiversity research , national university of singapore .\nabbott , r . tucker , 1991 . seashells of south east asia . graham brash , singapore . 145 pp .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :\nwe want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .\nenter your email address and we will send you an email with your username and password .\ne - mail jecilia sisican if you do not receive your email with your username and password .\nclick on an image to view all the information : family , species , author , date , and full locality .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 1 . 021 seconds . )\nthe genus eudolium contains smaller shells , up to about 80 mm in length , that occur in deeper water than tonna - specimens have been taken down to 1829 m . two species occur in nsw ; both are widely distributed , one occurring in the atlantic ocean as well as the indo - west pacific . they are both rare , most specimens available for study locally having been trawled during fish surveys by the fisheries research vessel\nkapala\n.\nhedley , c . 1919 . a review of the australian tun shells . records of the australian museum 12 ( 11 ) : 329 - 336 .\nmarshall , b . a . 1992 . a revision of the recent species of eudolium dall , 1889 ( gastropoda : tonnoidea ) . the nautilus 106 ( 1 ) : 24 - 38 .\ntonna allium ( dillwyn , 1817 ) . indo - west pacific to sydney .\ntonna cepa ( roeding , 1798 ) . ( synonyms canaliculata linnaeus , 1758 ; testardi , montrouzier , 1863 ) . indo - west pacific . in nsw , known only from\ntriton\ndredging from sydney harbour .\ntonna dolium ( linnaeus , 1758 ) . indo - west pacific , to sydney . this species was misidentified in iredale & mcmichael ' s checklist as tonna parvula tapparone - canefri , 1878 .\ntonna perdix ( linnaeus , 1758 ) . ( synonym rufum blainville , 1829 ) indo - west pacific to sydney .\nmalea pomum ( linnaeus , 1758 ) . indo - west pacific . in nsw , known only from\ntriton\ndredging from sydney harbour .\nlove words ? you must \u2014 there are over 200 , 000 words in our free online dictionary , but you are looking for one that\u2019s only in the merriam - webster unabridged dictionary .\nthe story of an imaginary word that managed to sneak past our editors and enter the dictionary .\ntake this quiz and discover 12 words for things you didn ' t know had words .\njennifer hammock split the classifications by femorale resource from tonna boucheti vos , 2005 to their own page .\njennifer hammock split the classifications by inventaire national du patrimoine naturel from tonna galea ( linnaeus , 1758 ) to their own page .\njennifer hammock split the classifications by inventaire national du patrimoine naturel from tonna perdix ( linnaeus , 1758 ) to their own page .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 9203c208 - e8d9 - 4e66 - b088 - 38131b3c2e44\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 536d7c15 - 1c8a - 4836 - 8374 - e79eab5d3383\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 251567\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\ngenus : eudolium w . h . dall , 1889 ( syn : doliopsis , endolium , galeodolium , simplicodolium , tuberculodolium - db : 10 sp , 7 img )\ngenus : malea a . valenciennes , 1883 ( syn : quimalea - db : 12 sp , 9 img )\ngenus : tonna m . t . br\u00fcnnich , 1772 ( syn : cadium , cadus , dolium , foratidolium , galea , macgillivrayia , parvitonna , perdix , canaliculata complex , chinensis complex , sulcosa complex , variegata complex , canaliculata - complex , chinensis - complex , sulcosa - complex , variegata - complex , galea - complex - db : 30 sp , 35 img )\nif you have knowledge of information not shown you can login to add it yourself .\n2003 . monsecour , d . & vos , c . some notes on tonna rosemaryae vos , 1999 . gloria maris , 42 ( 4 - 5 ) : 104 - 107 .\n2010 . ryall p . & vos c . two new species of turritella ( gastropoda : turritellidae ) from western africa . novapex 11 ( 1 ) : 13 - 20 .\nnote from tom rice : genera used on this page are from the original discription where possible , no genera will be updated to the latest worms info , as this would be an impossible task at hand . thank you for your understanding . - - - in accordance with the gdpr law of may 25 2018 , you can report here a problem / issue / abuse / other . you can also request that yourself will be removed from this list by clicking the button below . report\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 494 seconds . )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\njavascript is turned off in your web browser . please turn it on to take full advantage of arctos , or try our html specimensearch option .\ntaxon name is the\nnamestring\nor\nscientific name ,\nthe\ndata\nthat is used to form identifications and the core of every taxonomy record .\ntaxon term is the data value of either a classification term (\nanimalia\n) or classification metadata ( such as name authors ) .\nterm type is the rank (\nkingdom\n) for classification terms , in which role it may be null , and the label for classification metadata (\nauthor text\n) .\nsource indicates the source of a classification ( not a taxon name ) . some classifications are local ; most come from globalnames .\ncommon names are vernacular term associated with taxon names , and are not necessarily english , correct , or common .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nif you do not have an account yet , you can register here first .\ne - mail conchbooks office if you do not receive your email with your username and password .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\naustralian gastropods of the family bursidae . part 1 . the families of tonnacea , the genera of bursidae , and revision of species previously assigned to tutufa jousseaume , 1881 - australian museum\naustralian gastropods of the family bursidae . part 1 . the families of tonnacea , the genera of bursidae , and revision of species previously assigned to"]}
{"id": 1945, "summary": [{"text": "llallawavis scagliai ( magnificent bird of scaglia ) is a large , extinct predatory bird from pliocene argentina .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "its fossil is the most complete fossil of a phorusrhacid ( or \" terror bird \" ) yet found .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the fossil , discovered in 2010 in sediment among the cliffs above la estafeta beach , contains the complete palate , complete trachea , skull , voice box , and eye bones .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the fossil shows l. scagliai was a medium-sized phorusrhacid around four feet tall and lived in argentina approximately 3.5 million years ago during the pliocene epoch .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "l. scagliai likely roamed in grassland and weighed around 40 pounds ( 18 kg ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the joints separating the skulls bones were fused , unlike modern birds , and that may have helped it batter prey .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "ct scans of its inner ear show that it could only hear frequencies between about 380 and 4230 hertz , and probably had a deep voice to match .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the below cladogram is simplified after the analysis of degrange et al. ( 2015 ) . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "llallawavis", "paragraphs": ["cience - llallawavis - scagliai - terror - bird - argentina - 02684 . html\nskeleton of llallawavis scagliai . image credit : m . taglioretti / f . scaglia .\nnew species of ancient terror bird , llallawavis scagliai , discovered | science 2 . 0\nthis suggests that llallawavis would have been better at detecting lower frequency sounds than humans are .\ndrawing showing the skeletal anatomy of llallawavis scagliai . figure 2 from degrange et al . , 2015 .\na reconstruction of llallawavis . the white elements are those that have been discovered . from degrange et al . , 2015 .\nthey found that llallawavis would have had an average hearing range of around 3 , 800hz and a sensitivity of around 2 , 300hz .\nllallawavis scagliai is a medium - sized terror bird with an estimated body mass of 18 kg and estimated height of 1 . 2 m\nthe newly discovered species is dubbed llallawavis scagliali (\nscaglia ' s magnificent bird\n) after the study ' s senior author fernando scaglia .\nbased on comparisons with living species , these measurements suggested that the ears of terror birds like llallawavis were most sensitive to low - pitched sounds .\nthe south american bird has been named llallawavis scagliai - meaning scaglia ' s magnificent bird after one of argentina ' s famous naturalists galileo juan scaglia .\n' this seems to indicate that llallawavis may have had a narrow , low vocalization frequency range , presumably used for intraspecific acoustic communication or prey detection . '\n[ 2 / 2 ] \u266b . . . tahdon laulaa riemusuulla s\u00e4velm\u00e4n uuden t\u00e4\u00e4n : krr\u00e4\u00e4\u00e4\u00e4kh ! art : h . santiago druetta # llallawavis # scagliai urltoken\nthe scientific name of the bird is llallawavis scagliai . llallawa means magnificent in the quechua language in reference to the nature of the terror bird\u2019s remains , and avis means bird .\n' however , based on the hearing frequencies that we know that they were able to hear , it is possible to state that llallawavis may have produced sound of low frequency . '\nalthough smaller than some of the species discovered , llallawavis scagliai , was one of the last terror birds to prowl the earth before they died out around 2 . 5 million years ago .\nhe said : ' the palate is a big area of jaw muscle attacment in birds . so , we are able to state how much developed were some of the jaw muscles in llallawavis .\none of south america\u2019s top predators in its day , the 1 . 2 - meter - tall \u201cterror bird\u201d llallawavis scagliai ( artist\u2019s representation shown ) lived in what is now northeastern argentina about 3 . 5 million years ago .\nscaglia\u2019s terror bird ( llallawavis scagliai ) is the most recently discovered member of the terror bird family ( phorusrhacidae ) . this species known for a single near - complete , fully - articulated skeleton which even includes a preserved windpipe .\npaleontologist federico degrange of argentina\u2019s centro de investigaciones en ciences de la tierra and colleagues named the old bird in the latest journal of vertebrate paleontology . drawing from quechua and latin , they\u2019ve called it llallawavis \u2013 the \u201cmagnificent bird\u201d . it\u2019s an apt title . found in the 3 . 3 million year old rock of argentina , llallawavis is represented by a nearly - complete skeleton that includes the delicate bones of the middle ear , the bony ring of the eye , and ossified rings of the avian\u2019s throat .\naside from giving degrange and coauthors a more detailed look the specific group of terror birds to which llallawavis belonged \u2013 called mesembriornithines \u2013 the beautiful fossil adds some new details about how this 40 pound , 4 - foot - tall carnivore interacted with the pliocene world .\nthanks to the inner ear of llallawavis , for example , the paleontologists were able to estimate that the terror bird had a relatively narrow range of hearing in the neighborhood of 3800 hz . and since birds often vocalize in the lower ranges of what they can hear , degrange and coauthors point out , this hints that llallawavis may have communicated with low - frequency sounds that could travel long distances . unfortunately , despite having part of the throat set in stone , the branches of the bird\u2019s airway critical for sound - making were not fossilized to check what sounds they could have produced . what these impressive avians actually sounded like is still left to our imagination .\n\u201cthe mean hearing estimated for this terror bird was below the average for living birds . this seems to indicate that llallawavis scagliai may have had a narrow , low vocalization frequency range , presumably used for intraspecific acoustic communication or prey detection , \u201d said dr federico degrange of the universidad nacional de c\u00f3rdoba , conicet and the centro de investigaciones en ciencias de la tierra , argentina , who is the lead author of the paper published in the journal of vertebrate paleontology .\nfamed for their large hooked beaks and a presumed taste for meat , flightless phorusrhacids , also known as \u201cterror birds , \u201d were among south america\u2019s top predators before going extinct about 2 . 5 million years ago . now paleontologists have unearthed one of the most complete fossils of a phorusrhacid to date . the skeleton of the new species , dubbed llallawavis scagliai , is approximately 95 % complete , giving scientists the ability to study a terror bird\u2019s anatomy in unprecedented detail . analyses of the well - preserved remains are already providing insights into the bird\u2019s hearing ability , scientists say .\na 90 % - complete\nterror bird\nskeleton found on an argentinean beach suggests these big - beaked predators had good low - frequency hearing and deep voices .\nit is the most complete skeleton ever discovered for one of these menacing beasts , and represents a new species .\nthis offers clues about the animal ' s hearing , which was probably lower than that of modern birds and suggests they used low - pitched calls to communicate .\nargentinian palaeontologists made the discovery in the cliffs of la estafeta beach , not far from the popular tourist city of mar del plata .\nfederico degrange , one of the study ' s authors , said dealing with the tide had presented a challenge .\nthe sea can actually take the fossil and destroy it in the sea . it ' s a nice place to work , but you have to be fast ,\nhe told bbc news .\nterror birds , or\nphorusrhacids\n, were the top predators on the south american land mass in the era following the dinosaurs ' extinction some 65 million years ago .\nthe flightless beasts stood up to 3m tall , boasting long legs and devastating hooked beaks . a previous study of this weaponry suggested that the birds could have despatched their prey with a single blow , before setting to work on its flesh .\nthey evolved very unique forms , with huge skulls , huge beaks with hooks , and long hindlimbs ,\nsaid dr degrange , a terror bird specialist who works at the national university of cordoba .\nthey lost their ability to fly and they developed very unusual predatory capabilities that were not present in any comparable animals .\nit stood about 1 . 2m tall and probably weighed 18kg , making it a medium - sized addition to the terror bird family . and it lived towards the end of that family ' s long period of dominance , some 3 . 5 million years ago .\nthis means it probably ate mammals or other birds ; pretty much anything smaller than itself , dr degrange suggested .\nperhaps most intriguing among the well - preserved details of the fossil is its skull , which allowed the researchers to make some educated guesses about the animal ' s sensory capabilities - and even its voice .\na very interesting thing is that we could reconstruct the shape of the inner ear ,\ndr degrange said .\nwe are able to say that terror birds had low frequency sensitivity - so it seems reasonable to suggest that they also produced low - frequency sounds .\nagain , by comparing their anatomy with birds that are alive today , you might imagine that they sounded something like an ostrich or an emu , dr degrange said .\ntheresa may names a new uk foreign secretary after boris johnson quits over her brexit strategy .\n\u201cit\u2019s rare to find such a complete fossil of anything , let alone a bird , \u201d says lawrence witmer , a vertebrate paleontologist at ohio university , athens , who wasn\u2019t involved in the new study . \u201cthis is a very exciting find . \u201d\nthe fossil , which is missing only a few wing and toe bones and the tip of its stubby tail , was excavated in northeastern argentina in 2010 from material laid down as sediment about 3 . 5 million years ago . l . scagliai likely lived in an open environment , possibly a grassland or a sparse forest through which small rivers flowed , says federico degrange , a paleo - ornithologist at the national university of c\u00f3rdoba in argentina and lead researcher on the study .\nthe new species of terror bird weighed an estimated 18 kilograms ( about 40 pounds ) and stood about 1 . 2 meters ( 4 feet ) tall , degrange\u2019s team reports in the current issue of the journal of vertebrate paleontology . that\u2019s a moderate size for a terror bird , degrange notes ; at least one other species in the group grew more than 2 meters tall and weighed 70 kg or more .\nunlike most birds , many of the joints between bones in a terror bird\u2019s skull are typically fused , witmer says . in this species , the joints in the birds\u2019 upper palate , as well as some of those near the beak , are much less flexible than they are in other types of birds , which may have helped them pummel their prey and more effectively rip apart carcasses .\nbut the most interesting information from the new fossil came from ct scans of its inner ear . the shape and orientation of the semicircular canals in that structure suggest the bird could swivel its head quickly , as it might when tracking or striking at prey , degrange says . moreover , he notes , analyses of the scans even provide information about the bird\u2019s sense of hearing , which was most likely limited to frequencies between 380 and 4230 hertz\u2014approximately the same range as keys on the right half of a standard piano keyboard . that is substantially lower than the range measured for l scagliai \u2019s closest flightless relatives , the team reports .\n\u201cthat\u2019s to be expected for a large animal , \u201d says luis chiappe , a vertebrate paleontologist at the natural history museum of los angeles county in california . \u201cthe general rule of thumb is , the bigger you are , the lower the sounds you produce and hear . \u201d\nthe emphasis on low - frequency hearing is very interesting , witmer says , because it may suggest something about how the birds tracked prey . \u201clow frequencies tend to propagate across long distances with little attenuation . \u201d\nbut in recent years , some scientists have proposed that not all terror birds were good hunters . this suggests that the members of some species may have spent a good fraction of their time scavenging carcasses rather than chasing prey . by measuring the proportions of various carbon and nitrogen isotopes in terror bird fossils , researchers could better assess the birds\u2019 dietary habits , chiappe says . in particular , they could get a better idea about where in the food chain the terror birds\u2019 main sources of nutrition were coming from . \u201ci\u2019m surprised that no one has done a careful study of such isotopes yet , \u201d he notes .\n\u00a9 2018 american association for the advancement of science . all rights reserved . aaas is a partner of hinari , agora , oare , chorus , clockss , crossref and counter .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\n/ / urltoken\nthe skeleton of a new species of giant predatory bird that terrorised the earth 3 . 5 million years ago has been discovered and is helping to reveal how these creatures would have sounded .\npalaeontologists say the four feet ( 1 . 2 metres ) tall bird is the most complete skeletons of a ' terror bird ' - a group of flightless prehistoric meat - eating birds - to be discovered .\nit was so well preserved that scientists have been able to study part of the bird ' s auditory system and its trachae .\ndon ' t mess with the t - rex : researchers find tyrannosaurs . . .\nthey say that while it had a terrifying apperance , its hearing was probably below average compared to birds living today .\na giant prehistoric \u2018terror bird\u2019 - once thought to have been a ruthless predator which snapped the necks of mammals with its enormous beak - was actually a vegetarian , according to one study .\nthe two - metre gastornis was a flightless creature which lived in europe between 40 and 55 million years ago .\nbecause of its size and ominous appearance , it was thought to be a top carnivore .\nbut a team of german researchers , who studied fossilised remains of the beasts found in a former open cast coal mine , say they believe it was actually not a meat eater .\npalaeontologists in the us have also found footprints believed to belong to the american cousin of gastornis , and these do not show the imprints of sharp claws , used to grapple prey , that might be expected of a raptor .\nalso , the bird\u2019s sheer size and inability to move fast made some believe it couldn\u2019t have preyed on early mammals - though others claim it might have ambushed them .\nthey claim that the animal probably also had a limited vocal range that was quite low frequency .\nit has also raised the prospect that the bird may have even used low frequency sounds to help detect its prey .\ndr federico degrange , a palaeontologist at the centre for research in earth sciences and the university of c\u00f3rdoba in argentina , said : ' the mean hearing estimated for this terror bird was below the average for living birds .\nterror birds , or phorusracids as they are also known , were a group of carnivorous birds that grew up to 10 feet tall and had large hooked beaks .\nthey were the dominant predators in south america during the cenozoic age which started with the extinction of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago .\nit was discovered by fernando scaglia , from the lorenzo scaglia municipal museum of natural sciences , along with matias taglioretti and alejandro dondas at la estafeta beach south of mar del plata city in the buenos aires province of argentina in 2010 .\ndr scaglia is the grandson of galileo juan scaglia who was director of the museum between 1940 and 1980 .\ndue to incoming tides which were damaging the cliff , the team had to work quickly to excavate the entire fossil in one day .\nhowever , despite this they were able to retrieve a skeleton that is around 90 per cent complete .\nin a study published in the journal of vertebrate paleontology , the researchers were able to reconstruct the structure of the bird ' s inner ear using 3d computed tomography .\nthe human ear , by contrast , can detect sounds with frequencies between 20hz and 20 , 000hz , but is best at around 4 , 000 - 5 , 000hz .\ndr degrange told mail online the bird had a tracheobronchial syrinx - the structure that produces sound in birds - that was mainly made of cartilage and so it did not survived .\nhe said : ' it is not possible then through this to know exactly what kind of sounds terror birds were capable of produce .\nthe researchers have also been able to better understand the some of the birds other features based on the palate and bones around the eye that were also preserved .\ndr degrange said the bird would have had powerful muscles around its jaws but they were still conducting studies on the eyes to discover whether the bird was active during the day , at night or in the twilight hours .\n' the sclerotic ring will give us an idea of the eye shape and size . this will allow us to infer if terror birds were diurnal , nocturnal or crepuscular . '\nhe added that the fossil may also help scientists unpick what caused the giant birds to eventually die out .\nhe said : ' the discovery of this species reveals that terror birds were more diverse in the pliocene than previously thought .\n' it will allow us to review the hypothesis about the decline and extinction of this fascinating group of birds . '\ndr claudia tambussi , another author of the study at argentina ' s centre for research in earth sciences , added : ' the discovery of this new species provides new insights for studying the anatomy and phylogeny of phorusrhacids and a better understanding of this group ' s diversification . '\nwhat was agreed at chequers . . . and how the three - page . . .\nbottleneck of 700 , 000 migrants wait in libya to cross the . . .\n' prostitutes , orgies , group sex - all of it ' : ex - wife of . . .\nwoman , 38 , ' shoots her father in the head and then lives . . .\ndid the devil wear prada ? bee shaffer ' s wedding is . . .\nsydney tower skywalk was ' shut down due to unsafe winds ' . . .\nalive ! four thai boys who made it out of cave in daring . . .\n' diana would be ashamed ' : meghan ' s bitter half - sister . . .\ncontroversial ai that ' detects political beliefs , sexuality and iq ' based on facial features could be used . . .\na new way to tackle climate change ? heat from underground rivers in london could help cut the capital ' s . . .\nhas kepler found its last alien world ? nasa reveals its planet hunting space telescope is about to run out . . .\namazon is still selling nazi - branded merchandise , despite researchers first warning it about the products . . .\nhidden artwork from chapel inside underground quarry that was used as a hideout in the second world war . . .\n' gentle giant ' dinosaur the size of a double decker bus that roamed the earth more than 200 million years . . .\nsamsung opens the world ' s largest phone plant in india : 1 . 5 million square foot factory will produce 120 . . .\nai learns the basics of driving a car using trial and error after being let loose on the road for just ' 15 . . .\nwant to appear rich ? buy an iphone , a samsung tv and soy sauce : scientists reveal the top 10 items that make . . .\nfascinating pictures reveal how britain ' s heatwave has exposed historical secrets including a roman - era . . .\nmesmerising maps reveal record - breaking temperatures across the world as the earth experiences ' one of the . . .\npeople who see themselves as albert einstein suddenly think they are smarter : being in the body of someone . . .\nmassive timehop data breach exposes the private details of 21 million users including names , email addresses . . .\nkhloe kardashian reveals she stopped breast - feeding daughter true . . . three months after giving birth\nselena gomez is seen with same mystery man she was with in may . . . after news her ex justin bieber is engaged to hailey baldwin\nmakeup artist joyce bonelli reaches out to the kardashian clan on instagram . . . after the famous family ' fire ' and unfollow her on social media\ndaddy daycare ! jared kushner takes kids back to d . c . after weekend in new jersey - as ivanka dons a short dress for visit to a nyc asphalt company\nsofia richie , 19 poses in a bikini top just after scott disick ' s ex kourtney kardashian , 39 , did the same . . . and fans call her out for it\nnaomi campbell wows in flamboyant feathered gown . . . while ashley graham sizzles in plunging lace dress as they walk in dolce & gabbana show in italy\nnaya rivera sells her five - bedroom la home for a cool $ 3 . 55 million after finalizing her divorce from ryan dorsey\nmel b ' is unable to pay her back taxes amid ongoing divorce battle with stephen belafonte . . . as it ' s estimated the pair owe up to $ 650k ' to the irs\nkylie jenner rocks curve - clinging attire as she shows off body . . . and considers going back to blonde\ndakota johnson dons striped wrap dress in la . . . after calling co - star chris hemsworth ' spectacular '\ncardi b hits back at troll who mocked her baby shower . . . as she shows off naked baby bump for photoshoot\nbuy your own celebrity hideaway ! castle adored by michael douglas and jack nicholson goes on sale for $ 5 . 2m ( and even comes with treehouse )\nant - man and the wasp soars to $ 76 million on opening weekend . . . beating its prequel by $ 19 million\nliam payne and cheryl split : carefree 1d star returns to stage for first time since break - up . . . as he poses happily with his backing dancers in france\ntristan thompson goes house hunting alone as he checks out $ 2m property in la with its own basketball court . . . just minutes from khloe ' s mansion\nchris hemsworth kicks off filming for the star - studded men in black spin - off as he cuts a sharp figure in london . . . 21 years after the first film hit screens\njill zarin admits she ' s ready to date again after being spotted with handsome businessman . . . following beloved husband bobby ' s death\ndj khaled cancels wireless performance due to ' travel issues ' just hours before his slot . . . as fans rage over his ' vacation ' snap\n13 reasons why villain justin prentice says he ' s not bothered by social media trolls . . . and that getting attacked online means he ' s doing his job as an actor\n' she didn ' t get those from me ' : kylie jenner says daughter stormi has dad travis scott ' s lips . . . as star reveals her breasts are ' three times the size ' post - baby\nkevin hart celebrates 39th birthday in las vegas . . . nearly a year after sin city cheating scandal\ndakota fanning joins michael b . jordan in voice cast of western anime series gen : lock\nfarm heroes saga , the # 4 game on itunes . play it now !\nit ' s eye - wateringly expensive at $ 2 , 999 , but naim ' s uniti atom is a revelation , an integrated amplifier than makes it easy to stream music at a quality you ' ve probably never heard before .\nafter a day with the iphone x , while face id isn ' t perfect , and the ' notch ' is an annoyance , the iphone x is a glimpse into the future of phones and the best handset of the market by a long way .\nthey aren ' t cheap , but shinola ' s $ 595 foray into headphones are the perfect accessory for design obsessives looking to upgrade their listening habits .\nwith the pixel xl , google has created a handset that is not only the best android device out there , but arguably matches the iphone 8 in terms of design and feel .\napple ' s watch will free you from your phone - while making sure you don ' t suffer the fear of missing out . it ' s a huge step forward , and a compelling reason for the average user to buy a smartwatch .\nwhile the iphone x may have stolen the headlines , in fact the iphone 8 could be the sleeper hit of apple ' s new range , offering the same power as the x but with features and a design users trust .\nwhile the design is impressive and easy to use , the game line up is disappointing .\nnaim ' s incredible mu - so qb takes you back to the good old days - where the music captivates and enthralls , rather that simply being something in the background .\nit might not be a name familiar to the us market , but naim is a legendary british brand hoping to make a splash with the american launch of its $ 1499 mu : so speaker .\npeloton ' s hi - tech bike lets you stream live and on demand rides to your home - and it ' s one of the best examples of fitness technology out there - at a price .\na group of paleontologists has described a new genus and species of phorusrhacidae that lived in what is now argentina during the pliocene epoch , around 3 . 5 million years ago .\nphorusrhacidae ( the so - called terror birds ) were a group of extinct terrestrial carnivorous birds that are known mainly from the cenozoic of south america , but also from the plio - pleistocene of north america and the eocene of africa .\nthese birds had a very large body mass , up to 70 kg , and were 0 . 9 \u2013 2 meters in height .\nthey were the predominant predators during the cenozoic and certainly one of the most striking groups that lived during that period .\nthe new species , named the scaglia\u2019s magnificent bird , is the most complete terror bird ever discovered , with almost 100 percent of the skeleton exquisitely preserved .\nthe species name honors galileo juan scaglia ( 1915\u20131989 ) , naturalist and director of the museo municipal de ciencias naturales lorenzo scaglia in buenos aires , argentina , during 1940\u20131980 .\naccording to the paleontologists , the specimen reveals details of anatomy that rarely preserve in the fossil record , including the auditory region of the skull , voice box , complete trachea , bones for focussing the eye , and the complete palate , allowing an unprecedented understanding of the sensory capabilities of terror birds .\nfederico j . degrange et al . 2015 . a new mesembriornithinae ( aves , phorusrhacidae ) provides new insights into the phylogeny and sensory capabilities of terror birds . journal of vertebrate paleontology , vol . 35 , no . 2 ; doi : 10 . 1080 / 02724634 . 2014 . 912656\njuvenile australopithecus climbed trees , 3 . 32 - million - year - old foot fossil shows\n\u00a9 2011 - 2018 . sci - news . com . all rights reserved . | back to top\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\nthe name llallawa means \u201cmagnificent\u201d in quechua , in reference to the well - preserved nature of the remains . avis is the latin word for \u201cbird\u201d . the species name is after galileo juan scalia , a naturalist and director of the museo municipal de ciencias naturales in mar del plata , argentina . fully translated , the binomial name therefore means \u201cscaglia\u2019s magnificent bird\u201d .\nscaglia\u2019s terror bird lived during the late pliocene in what is now argentina . its habitat was likely grassland and open woodland .\nthis species is known from a single , nearly complete articulated skeleton , the most complete of any terror bird known to date . discovered in 2010 and described in 2015 , the skeleton ( shown above ) was missing only some of the forelimb bones , toe bones , and the pygostyle * . this specimen is particularly valuable in that it includes the only complete trachea known for any terror bird , as well as intact sclerotic rings * .\nscaglia\u2019s terror bird was one of the smaller members of its family , with an estimated body mass of 18kg ( 40lbs ) and a hip height of about 90cm ( 3ft ) . when fully erect , it could have stood 120cm ( 4ft ) tall at the top of its head . the body was lightly - built with long , slender legs for fast running . the skull was about 27cm ( 0 . 9ft ) long with a beak that was relatively shallower and with a less prominent hook than that of other terror birds . another notable feature of the bird\u2019s head was its narial knob or bump just above its nostrils .\nthe structure of the inner ear suggests that scaglia\u2019s terror bird was adapted for very rapid and precise movements of the head and neck in response to visual and audio cues . its low , narrow beak and lightweight body suggests that its diet consisted of relatively small prey items such as cavimorph rodents and other small mammals , as well as smaller birds and reptiles . it probably hunted in a manner similar to modern seriemas ; after a short dash the prey would be pinned down before being picked up and violently slammed into the ground repeatedly . this action not only kills the victim , but also makes it easier to swallow due to the breaking of its bones .\nalthough it is currently impossible to reproduce the types of sounds scaglia\u2019s terror bird could produce , detailed analysis of its hearing capacity has shown that it could detect frequencies ranging from 380 to 4230 hz , with a mean sensitivity of 2300 hz . the bird\u2019s own vocalizations , as well as those of its prey would have fallen within this range .\npygostyle : in birds , the fusion of several caudal ( tail ) vertebrae into a single bone .\nsclerotic ring : rings of interlocking bones which support the eyeball in several vertebrate groups .\ndegrange fj , tambussi cp , taglioretti ml , dondas a , scaglia f ( 2015 ) . \u201ca new mesembriornithinae ( aves , phorusrhacidae ) provides new insights into the phylogeny and sensory capabilities of terror birds\u201d . journal of vertebrate paleontology 35 ( 2 ) : e912656 <\nthe long - nosed peccary ( mylohyus nasutus ) was a large north american peccary that lived from the late pliocene to the early holocene . am . . .\nthe lion ( panthera leo ) evolved in africa about 3 . 5 million years ago and quickly spread to eurasia , where it remained abundant until his . . .\nthe steller\u2019s sea cow ( hydrodamalis gigas ) was the largest of the sirenians to have lived in recent times , growing up to 9 meters long a . . .\nsaber - toothed cat skeleton at the national museum of nature and science in tokyo , japan . wiki one of the most iconic animals of the pl . . .\nwalking with beasts ( wwb ) is a 6 - episode miniseries which aired in late 2001 as a direct sequel to walking with dinosaurs ( wwd ) . it was pro . . .\nthe haast\u2019s eagle ( harpagornis moorei ) was the largest and most powerful bird of prey known to have ever existed and was the top predato . . .\nthe dire wolf ( canis dirus ) is one of the most well - known predators of pleistocene north america and recently made famous by the televisi . . .\nthe scimitar cat ( homotherium serum ) was a smaller and lesser known cousin of the more famous saber - toothed cat ( smilodon fatalis ) . th . . .\nthe red panda ( ailurus fulgens ) is the sole surviving representative of a family of small to medium - sized carnivorans * known as the ailur . . .\nthe oxyaenidae is a family of creodonts first described by renowned american paleontologist edward drinker cope in 1877 . while hyaenodont . . .\nwhen you think of a scary dinosaur , what comes to mind ? the agile , sickle - clawed utahraptor ? a towering tyrannosaurus ? something as alien as the croc - snouted , sail - backed spinosaurus , perhaps ? books and museum halls are well - stocked with such mesozoic nightmares , but scary dinosaurs have also stalked the land in the days after the end - cretaceous mass extinction . there\u2019s an entire group of fossil dinosaurs \u2013 technically known as p horusrhacids \u2013 that are imposing enough that paleontologists often call them by a more evocative name . these were the terror birds .\nthere aren\u2019t any terror birds around today . the first evolved around 62 million years ago and the last perished about 2 . 5 million years ago , most of them playing the part of apex predator among the forests and plains of ancient south america . their skeletons are evolutionary works of frightful beauty , and the latest to be described is the best - preserved terror bird ever seen .\ndegrange , f . , tambussi , c . , taglioretti , m . , dondas , a . , scaglia , f . 2015 . a new mesembriornithinae ( aves , phorusrhacidae ) provides new insights into the phylogeny and sensory capabilities of terror birds . journal of vertebrate paleontology . 35 ( 2 ) . doi : 10 . 1080 / 02724634 . 2014 . 912656\nwe ' ve detected that javascript is disabled in your browser . would you like to proceed to legacy twitter ?\nmost well preserved terror bird - 90 % cmokele aand givesus a ideaof wat they sunder like .\ntwitter may be over capacity or experiencing a momentary hiccup . try again or visit twitter status for more information .\nyou can add location information to your tweets , such as your city or precise location , from the web and via third - party applications . you always have the option to delete your tweet location history . learn more\nhere ' s the url for this tweet . copy it to easily share with friends .\nby embedding twitter content in your website or app , you are agreeing to the twitter developer agreement and developer policy .\nnot on twitter ? sign up , tune into the things you care about , and get updates as they happen .\nthis timeline is where you\u2019ll spend most of your time , getting instant updates about what matters to you .\nhover over the profile pic and click the following button to unfollow any account .\nwhen you see a tweet you love , tap the heart \u2014 it lets the person who wrote it know you shared the love .\nthe fastest way to share someone else\u2019s tweet with your followers is with a retweet . tap the icon to send it instantly .\nadd your thoughts about any tweet with a reply . find a topic you\u2019re passionate about , and jump right in .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nselection bias in publication ? minorities , women and republicans are all penalized . but women are improving\nscience 2 . 0 is a pro - science outreach nonprofit operating under section 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) of the internal revenue code . please make a tax - deductible donation if you value independent science communication , collaboration , participation , and support open access .\ntake a look at the best of science 2 . 0 pages and web applications from around the internet !"]}
{"id": 1954, "summary": [{"text": "tristramella magdelainae is an extinct species of cichlid fish .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it was endemic to the vicinity of damascus in syria .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "it was last recorded in the 1950s , has not been recorded since and is presumed extinct .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "drought , pollution and water extraction may have destroyed its habitat .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "this taxon is considered to be a subspecies of t. simonis in fishbase and considered a synonym of t. simonis by catalogue of fishes .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "this species reached a length of 13 centimetres ( 5.1 in ) sl . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "tristramella magdelainae", "paragraphs": ["tristramella magdelainae is an extinct species of cichlid fish . it was endemic to the vicinity of damascus in syria . it was last recorded in the 19\u2026 | pinteres\u2026\nyou selected tristramella simonis intermedia steinitz & ben - tuvia , 1959 . this is a synonym for :\noriginal scientific description : lortet , l . ( 1878 ) . poissons et reptiles du lac de tib\u00e9riade et de quelques autres parties de la syrie . archives du mus\u00e9e d\u2019histoire naturelle du lyon 2 : 99 - 189 , pls . 6 - 18 . species bibliography : fricke , ronald . ( 2005 ) . types in the fish collection of the staatliches museum f\u00fcr naturkunde in stuttgart , described in 1845\u20132004 . stuttgarter beitr\u00e4ge zur naturkunde serie a ( biologie ) , number 684 : 1 - 95 . goren , m . ( 2006 ) . tristramella magdelainae . in : iucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 1 . ( urltoken ) . downloaded on 09 july 2011 . weber , claude . ( 1998 ) . catalogue revise des types primaires de la collection ichthylogique de museum d ' histoire naturelle de la ville de geneve ( mhng ) . revue suisse de zoologie 105 ( 1 ) : 3 - 14 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nbogutskaya , n . & pollock , c . m . ( mediterranean workshop , dec . 2004 )\njustification : the species was described from collections made in the 1950s . the species has not been reported since . presumed extinct .\nthis fish is likely to now be extinct ( m . goren , pers . comm ) .\ndrought , pollution and water extraction may have resulted in destroying available habitat for this species .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nit seems javascript is either disabled or not supported by your browser . to view this site , enable javascript by changing your browser options and try again .\nexplore an aquarium , planetarium , and natural history museum\u2014all under one living roof .\nthe academy\u2019s institute for biodiversity science and sustainability is at the forefront of efforts to understand two of the most important topics of our time : the nature and future of life on earth .\nbased in san francisco , the institute for biodiversity science and sustainability is home to more than 100 research scientists and nearly 46 million scientific specimens from around the world\u201438 , 000 of which are alive and on display in the academy\u2019s steinhart aquarium . the institute also leverages the expertise and efforts of the academy ' s aquarium biologists and more than 100 international research and field associates and 450 distinguished fellows .\nthrough expeditions around the globe , captive breeding programs , and investigations in the lab , the institute\u2019s scientists strive to understand the evolution and interconnectedness of life . through these same efforts , as well as through partnerships , community outreach , and public engagement initiatives , the institute aims to guide critical conservation decisions and address the challenge of sustainability .\nwith nearly 46 million scientific specimens from around the world , the academy\u2019s research collections provide one of the best records of life on earth , both now and in the past . this vast library of life\u2014available to scientists around the world , both in person and online\u2014helps us track the spread of disease , predict the impact of climate change , and much more .\ndespite intensive efforts to document life on earth , scientists estimate that more than 90 percent of the species on our planet have yet to be discovered . academy scientists are racing to discover new species and determine their place on the tree of life\u2014with the ultimate goal of protecting them before they disappear .\nto provide the best conservation recommendations , we must understand not only what lives where , but also how species reproduce , interact with one another and respond to threats . to address this need , academy scientists map species distributions , analyze reproductive strategies , study food web and other ecosystem interactions , and more .\ndetailed knowledge about the evolution , distribution , and interconnectedness of life on earth allows academy scientists to make thoughtful conservation recommendations and participate in critical discussions about sustainability challenges . through partnerships with governments and conservation organizations , community outreach , captive breeding programs , and public engagement initiatives , academy scientists are helping to shape a sustainable future for our planet .\naccess our online collections or set up an in - person visit . anthropology botany entomology herpetology ichthyology invertebrate zoology & geology ornithology & mammalogy\na governing group of approximately 450 distinguished scientists , academy fellows have made notable contributions to one or more of the natural sciences and help further the reach of our research and education initiatives through individual and collaborative efforts with academy researchers . nominated by their colleagues and selected by the board of trustees , academy fellows remain members of the fellowship for life .\nfor more than 160 years , academy scientists have been working to discover and document biodiversity around the world\u2014from the tops of the highest mountains to the depths of the oceans .\nacademy scientists study an unusual adaptation in a number of new guinea bird species : toxic skin and feathers .\nscientists use advanced rebreather technology for deep dives into unexplored areas of the ocean .\nour scientists study the rich diversity of marine invertebrates , including corals , mollusks , urchins , and more .\nwe believe discovery is just the first step in our work\u2014sharing our findings with community leaders , governments , and science enthusiasts of all ages is a critical part of our mission .\nresearchers , using the academy ' s collections , have discovered when avian pox arrived on the galapagos islands .\ntake a virtual expedition with us to investigate the amazing diversity of life on this planet .\npeter roopnarine discusses his work with fossils and his adventure with a six - foot squid .\nby working with partners and the general public , developing captive breeding programs , and training the next generation of scientists , we are tackling some of today\u2019s biggest sustainability challenges .\nacademy researchers are among the first to study\u2014and breed in captivity\u2014tiny , fascinating pygmy seahorses .\nlearn more about the academy ' s citizen science program , and join an upcoming bioblitz or biodiversity survey .\nsnapshot cal coast is a citizen science effort across california to document our coastal biodiversity .\nscience - based solutions for a better future\u2014now on exhibit at the academy and at planetvision . com .\nthe california academy of sciences is a renowned scientific and educational institution dedicated to exploring , explaining , and sustaining life on earth . based in san francisco\u2019s golden gate park , it is home to a world - class aquarium , planetarium , and natural history museum\u2014all under one living roof .\nstay curious\u2014every thursday at nightlife . sign up for event updates and exciting announcements .\nsign up for the academy\u2019s monthly newsletter and get a promo code for 10 % off at our online retail store .\noccurs in swamps and pools . feeds on algae , other plants and detritus ( ref . 12251 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nsyntypes : smns 3187 mhng 611 . 21 ( 2 ) bmnh 1898 . 12 . 5 . 1 to 4 mcz 25533 mnhn 1883 - 1139 smf 187 usnm 48023\nyou must first create a username and login before you can post a comment about this entry . .\na database of\nmissing\nand recently extinct species of plants and animals .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c1faa - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c42d7 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 3234f3f4 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 324ac511 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 33317dee - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nasia : lakes tiberias and muzairib in the jordan system . has apparently disappeared from lake hula .\nfroese r . & pauly d . ( eds ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase ( version feb 2018 ) . in : roskov y . , abucay l . , orrell t . , nicolson d . , bailly n . , kirk p . m . , bourgoin t . , dewalt r . e . , decock w . , de wever a . , nieukerken e . van , zarucchi j . , penev l . , eds . ( 2018 ) . species 2000 & itis catalogue of life , 30th june 2018 . digital resource at urltoken species 2000 : naturalis , leiden , the netherlands . issn 2405 - 8858 .\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 8656d665 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\n. if you continue to use the site we will assume that you agree with this ."]}
{"id": 1956, "summary": [{"text": "diaphania elegans is a moth in the crambidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by m\u00f6schler in 1890 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in puerto rico , hispaniola , jamaica , cuba , costa rica , panama , guatemala , honduras , mexico and southern texas .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it is also found in south america , where it has been recorded from venezuela , trinidad , ecuador , peru , brazil , paraguay and argentina .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is 11 \u2013 14 mm for males and 12.5 \u2013 15 mm for females .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "there is a brown costal band , as well as an external brown band on the forewings .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is also a translucent white area , with a light purple gloss and with a group of yellow scales on the anal margin .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings have an external brown band .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "larvae have been recorded feeding on the flowers of cucurbita maxima . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "diaphania elegans", "paragraphs": ["home \u00bb guide \u00bb arthropods ( arthropoda ) \u00bb hexapods ( hexapoda ) \u00bb insects ( insecta ) \u00bb butterflies and moths ( lepidoptera ) \u00bb pyralid and crambid snout moths ( pyraloidea ) \u00bb crambid snout moths ( crambidae ) \u00bb spilomelinae \u00bb diaphania \u00bb diaphania elegans - hodges # 5207 . 1 ( diaphania elegans )\ndiaphania elegans ( m\u00f6schler , 1890 ) is now recognized within the north american fauna ( texas ) , news lepd . soc . , 42 ( 1 ) : 3 .\ndiaphania hyalinata has abdomen mostly white and black border of forewing is narrower than d . indica .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nthe brown outer band of the forewing has an enlarged area at the inner margin .\nwith black border of forewing is narrower . per capps in kimball ( 1965 )\nm\u00f6schler , h . b . 1890 : die lepidopteren - fauna der insel portorico . abhandlungen herausgegeben von der senckenbergischen naturforschenden gesellschaft . 16 ( 1 ) : 229 , 1 pl .\nthe lepidoptera of florida : an annotated checklist . charles p . kimball . 1965 . florida dept . of ag . gainesville , fl . v + 363 pp .\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 10 july , 2013 - 12 : 16am additional contributions by steve nanz , robert lord zimlich last updated 12 october , 2016 - 11 : 08am\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nknudson , e . & c . bordelon . , 2008 . illustrated checklist of the lepidoptera of the lower rio grande valley , texas , vol . 3c : micro - moths and geometroids . . texas lepidoptera survey , houston . 30 pp\n80x5 - 240x3 - 240x4 - 320x1 - 320x2 - 320x3 - 640x1 - 640x2 set display option above . click on image to enlarge .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthis system is free software released under gnu / gpl 3 . 0 - portal version 1 . 0\nthis work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial - sharealike 3 . 0 united states license .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nsign up for a free account , or sign in ( if you ' re already a member ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\nmethod of identification : illustrated in black and white by amsel ( 1954 ) pl . 96 , fig . 11 ."]}
{"id": 1958, "summary": [{"text": "sphaeridium is a genus of beetles in the family hydrophilidae , the water scavenger beetles .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "they occur in europe , and some species have been introduced to north america .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the adults are 4 to 7.5 millimeters long .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they have short antennae with hairy clubs at the tips .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "these beetles live in cow dung .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the adults feed on the dung and other organic matter , but the beetle larvae are predators of the maggots of the flies that breed in the dung , such as the face fly ( musca autumnalis ) .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "two or more sphaeridium beetle species may coexist in one pat , and the larvae may feed on each other .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the female beetle deposits several eggs encased in a cocoon .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "species include : sphaeridium bimaculatum sphaeridium bipunctatum sphaeridium bipustulatum sphaeridium inquinatum sphaeridium lunatum sphaeridium marginatum sphaeridium pellucidum sphaeridium plagiatum sphaeridium punctiforme sphaeridium rubrum sphaeridium ruficolle sphaeridium rufipes sphaeridium scarabaeoides sphaeridium substriatum sphaeridium testudineum sphaeridium vaccarium", "topic": 12}], "title": "sphaeridium", "paragraphs": ["what made you want to look up sphaeridium ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\npart or all of this entry has been imported from the 1913 edition of webster\u2019s dictionary , which is now free of copyright and hence in the public domain . the imported definitions may be significantly out of date , and any more recent senses may be completely missing . ( see the entry for sphaeridium in webster\u2019s revised unabridged dictionary , g . & c . merriam , 1913 . )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nthe family is mostly a water - dwelling group , but some species are modified for\nswimming\nin dung , or otherwise living in relatively moist habitats .\na manual of common beetles of eastern north america dillon , elizabeth s . , and dillon , lawrence . 1961 . row , peterson , and company .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nlove words ? you must \u2014 there are over 200 , 000 words in our free online dictionary , but you are looking for one that\u2019s only in the merriam - webster unabridged dictionary .\nthe story of an imaginary word that managed to sneak past our editors and enter the dictionary .\ntake this quiz and discover 12 words for things you didn ' t know had words .\nclick here to support naturespot by making a donation - small or large - your gift is very much appreciated . thank you .\nlength 5 to 7 mm . quite a distinctively marked beetle : the blackish coloured elytra have a dark red blotch and fade to a pale yellow - brown in the rear third .\nfairly frequent in leicestershire and rutland . there were a total of 34 vc55 records for this species up to march 2015 .\nlength 5 . 5 to 7 . 5 mm . a very smooth , blackish dome shaped beetle with pale yellow tips to the lytra and faint reddish blotches on its sides .\nadults feed on the fresh dung of herbivorous animals ; their young are predators of small insect larvae .\nfairly frequent in leicestershire and rutland . there were a total of 32 vc55 records for this species up to march 2015 .\nthis page was last edited on 28 july 2016 , at 16 : 27 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\nthe water scavenger beetles ( hydro\u00adphilidae ) are of oblong or rounded body shape , most of them are small - sized , but there are also very large representatives , e . g . up to 50 mm in the genus hydrophilus . the species in the subfamily hydrophilinae live in water , whereas the representatives of the subfamily sphaeridiinae are usually found on the land in dung or vegetable detritus . a distinguishing feature of the scavenger beetles are their 6 - 9 - membered antennae and the extended maxillar palps , which are designed to perform the normal task of the antenna ( smelling and tasting ) . the antennae in turn are used for respiration . upon surfacing fresh air is passed along the antennae to the elytra , where it is stored . worldwide more than 2000 species have been described , in germany 110 species are found .\nin continuing your browsing of this site , you accept the use of cookies to offer you suitable content and services and realize visits statistics . learn more about cookies .\nto get the picture , please visit : bouyon herv\u00e9 herve . bouyon @ urltoken\nany reuse of one or more photographs on this site is subject to an authorization request from the author . link to the code of intellectual property ( legifrance )\nto get the picture , please visit : fred chevaillot la ville 38520 saint - christophe - en - oisans 09 61 31 24 34 06 51 19 18 32 urltoken e - mail : fred . chevaillot @ urltoken\nthank you for your contribution to the improvement of the inpn . the information submitted has been sent to an expert for verification and correction .\ncorresponds to a report on the basis of at least one observation proved within a period of 10 years ( 20 years for little - known invertebrates ) preceding the year and no presumption of extinction since obtaining the last data nor doubt on reproductive and implemented nature of this population . for migratory species , the presence indicated concerns areas of reproduction .\nthe last reliable sighting is older than 10 years compared to the reference date , no recent specific research and no presumption of extinction from that date [ vertebrates , invertebrates and plants well studied ( rhopalocera , grasshoppers , dragonflies . . . ) ] ;\nthe last reliable observation being older than 20 years , no recent specific research and no presumption of extinction from that date [ poorly known taxa : fungus , many invertebrates . . . ] .\nthis point covers the absence , more difficult by nature to demonstrate than presence . this status is based on one or more of the following criteria :\nthis status must be assigned to a department in which the presence of the species is casual .\nparticular case of absence due to a proven extinction less than a half century ago ( older disappearances are treated as\nno probable or definite\n) .\nin the state of knowledge , we can not comment on the presence or absence in the current department . this is the default status when not comprised in one of the previous categories or whenever there is doubt .\nwarning : the data available reflects the progression status of knowledge or the availability of the inventories . it should never be considered as comprehensive .\nnational inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr ."]}
{"id": 1963, "summary": [{"text": "chalcid wasps ( / \u02c8k\u00e6ls\u026ad / , from greek khalkos , meaning ' copper ' , for their metallic colour ) are insects within the superfamily chalcidoidea , part of the order hymenoptera .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the superfamily contains some 22,500 known species , and an estimated total diversity of more than 500,000 species , meaning the vast majority have yet to be discovered and described .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the name \" chalcid \" is often confused with the name \" chalcidid \" , though the latter refers strictly to one constituent family , the chalcididae , rather than the superfamily as a whole ; accordingly , most recent publications ( e.g. , ) use the name \" chalcidoid \" when referring to members of the superfamily .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "most of the species are parasitoids of other insects , attacking the egg or larval stage of their host , though many other life cycles are known .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "these hosts are to be found in at least 12 different insect orders including lepidoptera ( butterflies and moths ) , diptera ( true flies ) , coleoptera ( beetles ) , hemiptera ( true bugs ) , and other hymenoptera , as well as two orders of arachnida , and even one family of nematodes .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "when the host is itself a parasitoid , they are referred to as hyperparasitoids .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "a small percentage are phytophagous and the larvae feed inside seeds , stems , and galls , including some that act as pollinators ( e.g. fig wasps ) .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "generally beneficial to humans as a group , chalcidoids help keep various crop pests under control , and many species have been imported as biocontrol agents .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "copidosoma floridanum is one such species , whose genome is being sequenced by the human genome sequencing center as part of the i5k project , which aims to sequence the genomes of 5,000 arthropods .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "chalcidoids are tiny , dark-coloured wasps , typically black or brown , but often metallic blue or green , with complex sculpturing on the body .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they are also recognized by the characteristic reduced wing venation , similar to that seen in other superfamilies of parasitic wasps . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "chalcid wasp", "paragraphs": ["get to know the beneficial insect chalcid wasp that preys on the eggs of garden predators .\nthe species of chalcid wasp my homeowner encountered\nswarming\nin her attic this spring appeared identical to other similar wasp pictures i ' ve received recently . these turned out to be\na chalcid wasp , order hymenoptera , family chalcidae . it ' s microterys nietneri , thanks to dan for the id .\ncould you identify this insect from this picture ? brachymeria podagrica is a chalcid wasp parasitoid that attacks filth flies , like those that feed on carrion .\nan obscure critter . i ' m guessing that not one in 100 pmps has ever heard of a chalcid ( chal sid ) wasp before . but chalcid wasps are common natural enemies of many insect pests . identified by their small size and giant hind femurs , the chalcididae family makes up one of the dozen or so\nparasitoid\nwasp families within the bee / wasp / ant order hymenoptera .\nfig wasp , ( family agaonidae ) , any of about 900 species of tiny wasps responsible for pollinating the world\u2019s 900 species of figs ( see ficus ) . each species of wasp pollinates only one species of fig , and each fig species has its own wasp species to pollinate it . this\u2026\nto learn more about monarch butterflies and chalcid wasps , click on this sentence .\nrappaport n , mori s , roques a . estimating impact of a seed chalcid\nthe alfalfa seed chalcid is attracted by flowering alfalfa and oviposits into immature seed in young developing pods . once the seed starts to swell it is not susceptible to oviposition by the chalcid . this wasp requires a flat , soft pod through which to oviposit . the wasp larva requires the duration of the seed - filling period to develop into a pre - pupa and pupa , and it feeds on the seed endosperm . once the seed ripens the pupa hatches and the wasp chews out of the seed and pod . the wasp will stay in a pre - pupal stage in the ripened seed if it is late in the season and is induced into a winter diapause .\nsingle and double infections with wolbachia in the parasitic wasp nasonia vitripennis - effects on compatibility . genetics143 : 961 - 972 .\nto learn more about chalcid wasps and how they infect chrysalises , click on this sentence .\nparasitoid wasps are certainly one of the most fascinating and wonderful , yet horrifying , of all creatures . so seemingly cruel in its behavior that theologians and biologists argued over the last 200 years whether the mere existence of insects like the ichneumon wasp ( a cousin of the chalcid wasp ) served as proof against the christian belief in a loving creator - god . *\nin combination with alterations in crop closure timing , both sanitation and closing date operate synergistically to diminish seed wasp populations . with a sanitation and closing date management programme in operation , the population of seed wasp in the area will decline over a period of seasons . seed producers need to assess the economics of management decisions that influence the susceptibility of seed crops to seed wasp damage in conjunction with net returns (\nchalcid wasps are small insects that lay eggs in soft moth and butterfly chrysalises . wasp larvae hatch from the eggs . the larvae drink the hemolymph ( blood ) of the chrysalis . the chrysalis continues to live and mature for quite a few days . the chrysalis dies and the wasp larvae form pupae . when the wasp pupae mature , adult wasps emerge from the pupae and eat a tiny hole in the chrysalis . the wasps , from a few to hundreds , emerge from the chrysalis from the one or two holes they have eaten in the chrysalis .\nhi , i came searching for identification of the same wasp ! my search words were : \u201csmall black wasp with strong hind legs\u201d . i found this pupa on a mint leaf ( part of a bunch i had bought from the market ) . i wondered what butterfly / moth caterpillar would like to eat mint leaves which have such strong smell . so i kept the pupa in a jar with ventilation , and after two weeks , today morning i saw a wasp ! now i think i can connect the dots . some lepidoptera caterpillar on the mint got parasitised by this chalcid wasp either at larval or pupal stage . i will release it in my garden so that it can do some pest control : ) thanks a lot .\nartokhin ks , 1983 . natural enemies of the lucerne seed chalcid . zashchita rasteni , no . 12 : 45\ncollecting and preserving chalcid wasps ( hymenoptera : chalcidoidea . ) journal of natural history 16 : 315 - 334 .\na sweep net should be swept through the alfalfa and the contents inspected . the seed wasp will be present in the net if any are in the field (\nresearch indicates that eradication of the seed wasp is not possible . insecticide application is not a means of permanent control . the wasp will always be present where alfalfa is grown and the key to management is to live with the presence of the pest but make changes to the management in order to reduce its impact on seed yield (\nsome significant natural enemies of the alfalfa seed chalcid are reported . all of them are larval parasitoids from the order hymenoptera .\nthe records of the wasp in trifolium ( clover ) seed are probably a mistake . clover seeds are damaged by bruchophagus gibbus . the larvae of both species are morphologically similar .\nto round out this discussion of chalcids , i should mention two species that display atypical habits \u2014 one beneficial , the other harmful . the first of these two oddball chalcids is the fig wasp ( family agaonidae ) , to which nature has given the responsibility of pollinating the commercially important smyrna fig \u2014 a tree that can produce fruit only after being pollinated by the wild fig , or caprifig . and because of the peculiar nature of the smyrna fig flower , the fig wasp is the only creature that can accomplish this feat . the black sheep of the chalcid family is the clover seed chalcid ( bruchophagus phatyptera ) , which infests the seeds of several varieties of legumes and is one of the very few harmful members of the chalcid clan .\n[ 1880\u201385 ; < new latin chalcid - , s . of chalcis a genus < greek chalk ( \u00f3s ) copper , brass ]\npeterson s , 2003 . seed chalcid damage to alfalfa seed in california . international pollination systems , visalia , california , usa . urltoken\n. other important references to the chalcid taxonomic literature , with emphasis on the north american fauna , are given in the sections below .\nthe adult female of the alfalfa seed chalcid has a needle - like structure ( ovipositor ) that is used to insert eggs into immature alfalfa seeds . a single larva ( grub ) develops within each seed and destroys all the contents , leaving only the seed coat . when the wasp emerges from the seed , a hole is visible .\n* an interesting discussion of the ichneumon wasp controversy can be found in stephen jay gould ' s essay on non - moral nature in the book hen ' s teeth and horse ' s toes .\nde barro j , 2001 . living with the enemy : managing lucerne seed wasp in lucerne seed crops . publication no . 01 / 135 . rural industries research and development corporation , australia . urltoken\nde barro j , 2001 . evaluating and managing lucerne seed wasp in lucerne seed crops . a report for the rural industries research and development corporation . rirdc publication no 01 / 136 , australia . urltoken\nabout 12 mm in length , this leucospidid wasp is a parasite on the raspberry horntail , as well as being one of the largest chalcids and a superb mimic of the yellow jacket . photo : ron west\n, chemical control of the seed wasp is not a viable or sensible option and does not form part of its management strategy . the wasp is exposed for 6 months of the year ( through the dryland and irrigated seed production season ) to insecticides that are used in commercial seed production to manage other pests . resistance of the seed wasp to insecticides including malathion , chlorpyrifos , and a range of synthetic pyrethroids is commonly reported in the seed - producing areas of south australia and new south wales . a similar scenario exists in the alfalfa seed - producing areas of north america , where district - wide sanitation practices are encouraged .\nchalcid wasps are not likely to enter an account over and over by accident . if you find chalcids indoors , get a sample and have them identified .\ncupressus sempervirens vs cypress seed chalcid , megastigmus wachtli : genetic and evolutionary relationships , iufro s7 . 01 symposium physiology and genetics of trees . phytophage interactions .\nbrewer gj , 1980 . a survey of the alfalfa seed chalcid in central kansas . journal of the kansas entomological society , 53 ( 3 ) : 538\n. the following publications that include keys to chalcid families are listed in alphabetical order by area covered ; those with an asterisk also include keys to genera .\nin australia , it is known that the wasp is more active in february than earlier in the seed crop season and that the presence of volunteer alfalfa in the area surrounding the seed crop can augment the seed wasp population . the wasp does not develop populations in defined intervals . it has continuing , overlapping generations , which means that all the stages of the life cycle are present at any one time , in any one area and in any one paddock . a spray that kills the adults will have no effect on the pupae , which will hatch straight after the spray has been applied , and almost immediately mate and continue the life cycle (\non the other hand , another chalcid phenomenon \u2014 known as hyperparasitism \u2014 can work against the gardener , and occurs when a chalcid uses another parasitic insect for its host , thus negating the beneficial effect of the victim parasite . ( in one species of chalcid , this hyperparasitism takes on a bizarre twist in that while the females are parasites of scale insects , the males are hyperparasites that attack the parasites of scale insects . . . including the females of their own species ! )\nresulting emergence of males and females of the cypress seed chalcid , megastigmus wachtli , from eggs laid in seeds of cupressus sempervirens by unfertilized female m . wachtli .\ncompared pod - wall characteristics with seed damage and resistance to the alfalfa seed chalcid in medicago species . the findings suggested that pod - wall lignification may reduce seed losses due to chalcid damage . the highest levels of resistance to the eurytomid are found in the annual species , which also had highly lignified pod - walls .\nthe adult alfalfa seed chalcid is a minute , jet - black wasp . only some parts of the legs ( on the tibia and tarsus ) are yellow - brown . the male is 1 . 2 - 1 . 7 mm and the female is 1 . 3 - 1 . 8 mm long . the thorax protrudes and the abdomen is egg - shaped with a plain ventral part (\nfrom hungary suggested a simple method for separating beneficial parasitoids ( b . bruchophagi , i . perplexus and pteromalus medicaginis ) of the alfalfa seed chalcid from alfalfa chaff .\nthoenes sc ; moffett jo , 1990 . infestation patterns of the alfalfa seed chalcid in oklahoma alfalfa fields . southwestern entomologist , 15 ( 1 ) : 15 - 25\nit is extremely difficult to briefly characterize or present a key to chalcid families on a world basis , particularly with current uncertainty and controversy over membership of some families .\nthe chalcidoidea is a widely distributed group that is divided into about 19 families , chief among which are the mymaridae ( fairyfly ) , trichogrammatidae , eulophidae , encyrtidae , eupelmidae , perilampidae , agaonidae ( fig wasp , q . v . ) , torymidae , pteromalidae , eurytomidae ( seed chalcid ) , and chalcididae . some of the leucospidae , largest of the chalcids , reach 15 mm in length .\ni found this tiny wasp ( 2 - 3mm ) in leaf litter . black with a bluish iridescence and pointed abdomen . can anyone help with id please . also , is its host likely to be a leaf - litter dweller ?\nchalcid\nis usually used to refer to any member of this superfamily , rather than only members of the family chalcididae . using\nchalcidoid\ninstead removes any ambiguity .\nthoenes sc ; moffett jo , 1987 . emergence from overwintered seeds of hymenoptera parasitizing the alfalfa seed chalcid in oklahoma . southwestern entomologist , 12 ( 1 ) : 33 - 43\nif anything , higher level relationships within chalcidoidea are even less well resolved than are relationships of chalcidoidea with other hymenoptera . a comprehensive historical review of chalcid higher classification was given by\nthe number of described chalcidoid taxa in the world that are currently regarded as valid . pages 9 - 10 in chalcid forum no . 13 . 31 pp . unpublished newsletter .\nfor a long time this species was identified as bruchophagus gibbus , which damages the seeds of clover and other leguminous plants . gussakovskii described the alfalfa seed chalcid as b . roddi (\nnielson mw , 1976 . diapause in the alfalfa seed chalcid , bruchophagus roddi ( gussakovsky ) in relation to natural photoperiod . environmental entomology , 5 ( 1 ) : 123 - 127\nstrong fe , 1962 . laboratory studies of the biology of the alfalfa seed chalcid , bruchophagus roddi guss . ( hymenoptera : eurytomidae ) . hilgardia , 32 : 229 - 249 .\nmany australian seed producers stop the seed production of alfalfa in december so that the crops flower in january and february when the warm / hot weather is optimal for pollination . however , this management strategy permits maximum wasp damage . the producers need to assess their management concepts . by closing a crop 2 - 4 weeks earlier than usual ( e . g . in november ) , harvesting at 100 % ripeness is permitted as opposed to 80 - 90 % ripeness , later in the season and prior to the autumn rainfall . seed wasp damage is reduced by earlier crop closure due to lower wasp populations being present at the time of flowering and seed set . the net return from a seed crop that is closed in the traditional december period is often the same or less than the net return from a similar standard seed crop that is closed earlier . in december , the crop is not permitted to reach complete ripeness prior to desiccation , whereas the crop that is closed earlier reaches full ripeness and has less seed wasp damage .\nkral ' ovic j , 1971 . the ecology of the lucerne seed chalcid bruchophagus roddi guss . ( hymenoptera , eurytomidae ) . biologicke prace , 17 ( 3 ) : 2 - 75\ntingey wm ; nielson mw , 1975 . developmental biology of the alfalfa seed chalcid on resistant and susceptible alfalfa clones . journal of economic entomology , 68 ( 2 ) : 167 - 168\nbrewer gj ; horber e , 1984 . field infestation and alfalfa seed chalcid ( hymenoptera : eurytomidae ) development in different medicago clones . environmental entomology , 13 ( 4 ) : 1157 - 1159\nprashar hk ; dhaliwal js , 1984 . biology of lucerne seed chalcid , bruchophagus roddi gussakovsky ( hymenoptera : eurytomidae ) . indian journal of agricultural sciences , 54 ( 10 ) : 935 - 940\nchalcidoid or chalcid wasps are one of the most diverse groups of hymenoptera ( bees , ants , wasps ) numerically , structurally , and biologically . they range in size from the smallest insect known ,\nwasp , any member of a group of insects in the order hymenoptera , suborder apocrita , some of which are stinging . wasps are distinguished from the ants and bees of apocrita by various behavioral and physical characteristics , particularly their possession of a slender , smooth body and legs with\u2026\nthere is no doubt that molecular analysis of chalcid relationships is an exciting new frontier that holds promising rewards for our understanding of the evolution of the group . however , such analyses seem likely to add to the instability of chalcid classification , at least in the short term , and by themselves seem unlikely to provide a fully resolved pattern of chalcid relationships . in order to fully resolve the evolutionary history of the chalcidoidea it will also be necessary to develop a comprehensive , accurate , morphological - based character matrix for the superfamily . this is an extremely complex and daunting task considering the enormous diversity of the group , but must be done in order to advance chalcid classification beyond the level of personal preference . although no cladistic hypotheses of family relationships based on analysis of morphology have considered the chalcidoidea in its entirety , noyes ( 1990 ) presented a tree diagram illustrating one set of potential chalcid family relationships ( see reproduction in\na word on chalcidoid classification\nor dendrogram 1 in heraty et al . 1997 ) . gibson et al . ( 1999 ) reviewed current concepts of chalcid phylogenetics and classification , and this paper should be consulted for a comprehensive list of relevant publications . however , some of the more major molecular or morphological analyses that have investigated monophyly and relationships of chalcid families or subfamilies through explicit character state analysis are listed below . references are given under the primary family or families investigated though the papers often include discussion of other families .\nin jhansi , uttar pradesh , india , the chalcid damage resulted in an economic loss of rs . 12 , 000 / ha in 2001 - 2002 and rs . 9300 / ha in 2000 - 2001 (\nthoenes sc ; moffett jo , 1987 . emergence of alfalfa seed chalcid , bruchophagus roddi ( hymenoptera : eurytomidae ) , from overwintered seeds in oklahoma . environmental entomology , 16 ( 3 ) : 774 - 778\nall in all , though , chalcid wasps are among the most valuable insects you can have in your garden , packing one heck of a lot of pest control wallop in a very small , totally natural package .\nthe alfalfa seed wasp is a small insect ( less than 2 mm long ) that can be spread through flight . the larvae develop within a single alfalfa seed and they are easy to spread through the world in the seed trade . it is difficult to find all the stages . . . .\nin california , usa , when the fields are divided into two groups ( based on the number of insecticide applications : one to two applications versus three to five applications ) , there are 2 . 3 times more chalcid - damaged seeds found in the three to five insecticide application group , compared to the one to two application group . increased insecticide applications may reduce the predator and parasitoid populations that would normally suppress the seed chalcid populations (\nbrewer gj ; sorensen el ; horber ek , 1983 . laboratory techniques to evaluate resistance of alfalfa clones to the alfalfa seed chalcid ( hymenoptera : eurytomidae ) . environmental entomology , 12 ( 5 ) : 1601 - 1605\nanother particularly beneficial chalcid species is encarsia formosa , which has proven helpful in controlling stubborn infestations of the greenhouse whitefly ( trialeurodes vaporariorum ) . because this little wasp lays its eggs under the skins of whitefly larvae , its young will hatch right in the midst of an ample supply of food . ( tests have shown that . this control measure works best in greenhouses with temperatures averaging 75 degrees fahrenheit or higher . in cooler conditions , the whiteflies may develop faster than the chalcids and thus lessen the parasite ' s effectiveness . )\nmany small wasps and flies that exist in an alfalfa seed crop can be confused with the alfalfa seed chalcid . most of the small wasps are good predators of aphids and heliothis spp . and have long tail - like features ( ovipositors ) , which the seed wasps lack . many small flies such as midges are common in alfalfa , especially in irrigated crops . these midges are most often misidentified as seed wasps because they are the same size and shape . however , midges do not have a shiny jet - black abdomen but have a dull , grey - white one . the other feature that makes them distinct to the untrained eye is that the midge flies away quickly when captured , whereas a seed wasp tends to curl up and ' play dead ' . the midge also flies around people and animals on warm , humid days . the seed wasp keeps at a distance from people (\nit is important that the control programme for the seed chalcid starts in the spring , as this species cannot be controlled by insecticide applications during the production of the seed crop . the adult wasp inserts eggs inside the pods , and the larval and pupal stages develop inside the alfalfa seeds . the pest over - winters as pupae in the seeds that were spilled in the previous season or in seeds that were produced by the alfalfa grown in field border areas and roadsides . the adults emerging in may and june lay eggs in the alfalfa seeds wherever they are available , with the most common seed source being the plants growing outside of the fields . several generations of the chalcid are completed each year , with the levels of seed infestation becoming progressively higher as the chalcid populations increase in mid - and late summer . that is why the insecticide treatment has to be directed against the adults before oviposition . the next application is when it is necessary . two treatments , one applied at budding and the other at the green - pod stage , reduce the percentage of infested seeds and almost double the yield (\nspringer tl ; kindler sd ; sorensen el , 1990 . comparison of pod - wall characteristics with seed damage and resistance to the alfalfa seed chalcid ( hymenoptera : eurytomidae ) in medicago species . environmental entomology , 19 ( 5 ) : 1614 - 1617\nthe wasp is an excellent parasite of alfalfa and develops its populations in response to the availability of the host rather than any particular environmental cue such as temperature or day - length . however , the wasp will hibernate ( diapause ) in the winter in response to cues in the autumn . irrigated seed crops within a 5 km radius of dryland seed crops ( or significant pasture or wasteland seed - producing alfalfa ) are infested unless they mature within 4 weeks of the maturity date of the dryland crop . the areas outside the 5 km radius are not significantly affected regardless of the crop maturity date , especially if the crops in this region mature at a similar time . the dryland seed crops and the presence of feral and pasture lucerne in the areas near to irrigated seed crops can be hosts for population development . research has shown that the seed wasp can be found everywhere in the presence of flowering alfalfa : around sheds , gardens , stock yards , fence lines , irrigation channels , check banks , stock raceways , along roadsides and grazing pastures (\narbab a , 2006 . spatial distribution pattern of immature stages of alfalfa seed weevil , tychius aureolus ( keiswetter ) ( col . curculionidae ) , and alfalfa seed wasp , brochophagus roddi , ( hym . eurytomidae ) ( gussakovski ) in alfalfa seed fields . journal of agricultural sciences - islamic azad university , 12 ( 2 ) : pe263 - pe269 .\npadmavathi c ; pandey k ; rakesh s ; seth r , 2003 . assessment of losses caused by seed chalcid , bruchophagous roddi guss . ( hymenoptera : eurytomidae ) in lucerne grown for seed . indian journal of plant protection , 31 : 152 - 153 .\n] . about 80 chalcid species are known to be pests of agriculture ( mostly seed - feeders in the families eurytomidae and torymidae ) and some chalcids are considered harmful because they are hyperparasitoids , but most are economically and environmentally beneficial . the large majority of chalcid species are primary parasitoids of other insects and arachnids and as such they are important participants in nature ' s own control system for regulating arthropod populations . in addition to the largely unappreciated role of most species in helping to control what might otherwise be pest species , over 800 chalcid species have been associated with targeted biological control programs . this represents about two - thirds of all biocontrol programs involving hymenoptera , and about one - third of all biocontrol programs in which partial or complete economic control of an insect pest was achieved (\nhi folks , finally , i think i have discovered the mysterious source of my chalcid friends ! i was up in the attic this morning . we had a dead rat in one of the traps . all around the carcass of the rat were these brown little pupae . after doing some research , i discovered that these were fly pupae . then , on one site , i came across a photo of a chaclid wasp ( or parasite fly ) depositing an egg into a fly pupa : from : urltoken and here is the likely story : rat comes in and gets caught in the trap , dies . as it decomposed , flies lured to the stench flew in through the roof vents in the attic and did what they do best . later , after the fly maggots went into their pupal stage , the chalcid wasps came and did what they do best . mystery solved ! thanks for your help ! doon\ndhaliwal js ; prashar hk , 1985 . varietal resistance and effect of date of last cut and insecticidal application on the control of lucerne seed chalcid , bruchophagus roddi gussakovsky ( hymenoptera : eurytomidae ) . indian journal of agricultural sciences , 55 ( 5 ) : 354 - 357\nerd\u00e9lyi c ; szentkiralyi f ; manninger s , 1979 . data to the interrelationship of damages caused by the lucerne seed chalcid ( bruchophagus roddi ) and the lucerne seed weevil ( tychius flavus ) . acta phytopathologica academiae scientiarum hungaricae , 14 ( 12 ) : 201 - 207\nbutler gd jr ; ritchie pl jr ; werner fg , 1968 . the effect of temperature on the life cycle of the alfalfa seed chalcid and its parasites . technical bulletin , agricultural experiment station , college of agriculture , university of arizona , no . 185 : 17 pp .\nthe alfalfa seed wasp is a small insect ( less than 2 mm long ) that can be spread through flight . the larvae develop within a single alfalfa seed and they are easy to spread through the world in the seed trade . it is difficult to find all the stages . the pest only damages the seeds and where alfalfa is used in non - seed production it passes unnoticed . however , it can be found everywhere that flowering alfalfa is available : around sheds , gardens , stock yards , fence lines , irrigation channels , check banks , stock raceways , along roadsides and in grazing pastures . the seed wasp has continuing , overlapping generations , which means that all stages of the life cycle are present at any one time , in any one area and in any one paddock . a spray that is used to kill the adult will have no effect on the pupae and they will emerge immediately after the spray has been applied , and almost immediately mate and continue the life cycle . the wasp is exposed to insecticides , which are used in commercial seed production to manage other pests , for 6 months of the year through the dryland and irrigated seed production season . the resistance of the seed wasp to insecticides is commonly reported in the seed - producing areas of south australia and new south wales . a similar scenario exists in the alfalfa seed - producing areas of north america , where district - wide sanitation practices are encouraged . up to 80 - 90 % of the harvested seed may be infested and this can cause great financial losses .\nszocs g ; erd\u00e9lyi c ; makranczy g ; bus a , 1998 . a simple method for separating beneficial parasitoids of the alfalfa seed chalcid ( bruchophagus roddi ) from alfalfa chaff . acta phytopathologica et entomologica hungarica , 33 ( 3 / 4 ) : 357 - 365 ; 14 ref .\naeschlimann jp ; vitou j , 1989 . observations on the lucerne seed chalcid , bruchophagus roddi ( hym . , eurytomidae ) , and its parasitoids in mediterranean france : a promising candidate for classical biological control in australia . acta oecologica , oecologia applicata , 10 ( 2 ) : 129 - 133\nsoroka jj ; spurr dt , 1998 . geographic incidence and damage levels of alfalfa seed chalcid , bruchophagus roddi ( hymenoptera : eurytomidae ) , in saskatchewan , and its relationship to weather and agronomic variables and production practices . canadian entomologist , 130 ( 1 ) : 1 - 11 ; 23 ref .\nadults longevity of a cypress seed chalcid , megastigmus wachtli , emerged from seed yield of 2 - year - old cones cupressus sempervirens in september ( a ) in field , placed into rearing boxes stored in an outdoor insectary at ba\u00efnem and nourished with honey water ; ( b ) breeding under laboratory conditions .\nresearch indicates an average total of irrigated seed loss of 67 . 39 kg / ha . a value of a $ 3 / kg to the producer equates to a financial loss of a $ 202 . 16 / ha . approximately 9700 ha of irrigated seed production in south - east australia is susceptible to infestation by the seed wasp . losses to producers in the area are approximately a $ 2 million per season . in 1999 / 2000 , a total of 4993 tonnes of alfalfa seed at a value of a $ 3 . 63 / kg was exported , equating to a value in excess of a $ 18 . 2 million . a $ 5 . 18 million of potential seed exports are lost due to the alfalfa seed chalcid (\ntrichogrammatid , ( family trichogrammatidae ) , any of a group of tiny , parasitic chalcid wasps , particularly of the genus trichogramma , in the order hymenoptera . adults of trichogramma species are less than 1 mm ( 0 . 04 inch ) long , with pear - shaped wings having a single vein and fringing hairs and\u2026\nthe relationship between colonization by a cypress seed chalcid and the tortricid was characterized by their presence / absence ratio in 1000 colonized 2 - year - old cones of c . sempervirens . 10 cones were collected from each of 100 trees . cones attacked by m . wachtli and p . tessulatana were identified on the basis of their external appearance , as they dried and opened precociously when compared to cones containing healthy seed . for each attacked cone , the presence or the absence of attack of the chalcid and the tortricid was noted to see whether m . wachtli prefers , rejects or is indifferent to the previous attack of the cones by p . tessulatana .\nin my last column ( in mother earth news n0 . 97 ) , i mentioned that one natural , effective means of controlling cutworms and other caterpillars in your garden is to introduce a tiny parasitic wasp species \u2014 known scientifically as trichogramma \u2014 whose larvae feed upon the eggs of harmful insects . this time around , i ' d like to expand on the use of trichogramma and other chalcids as a natural means of controlling insect pests in your garden .\nseed wasps develop populations where alfalfa is flowering and setting seed . sanitation practices such as mowing , grazing and herbicide spraying significantly reduce the presence of the wasps in the seed crops by reducing the availability of the alfalfa outside the seed crop for population development . australian alfalfa seed producers can individually and in co - operation with the adjacent landowners / seed producers , implement simple sanitation practices on a wide scale level to reduce seed wasp populations and damages to the seed crops .\nthe chalcid fauna of the ussr ( chalcidoidea ) . keys to the fauna of the ussr . zoological institute of the academy of sciences of the ussr , no . 44 , moscow , ussr . 574 pp . ( in russian ) . [ english translation : israel program for scientific translations , jerusalem , israel , 1963 . 593 pp . ]\nthe tortricid pseudococcyx tessulatana staudinger ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) and the seed chalcid m . wachtli also found in algeria ( bouaziz 1993 ; bouaziz and chakali 1997 ) seemed to cause significant damage ( guido et al . 1995 ; roques and raimbault 1986 ; zocchi 1963 ) . however , their exact distribution , and their biology , remains unstudied in algeria .\nvariety was centralized on two scales , a lower and a medium . the medium cone scale was significantly more colonized than the lower one ( number of holes = 40 , f 7 , 30 = 28 . 24 , p = 0 . 00 ) . thus , attack strategy by both the chalcid and tortricid varied according to the cypress species and location of attack on the cone .\nresearch has shown that by reducing the presence of flowering alfalfa around sheds , gardens , stock yards , fence lines , irrigation channels , check banks , stock raceways , along roadsides and in grazing pastures , the presence of the seed wasp in seed crops is reduced . the best results are obtained by maintaining those sanitation efforts from the time that the alfalfa first flowers through to when the seed crops have finished flowering . in practice this may require a combination of grazing , spraying and mowing two or three times in a single season .\nde barro ( 2001a , b ) in australia named two species of parasitic wasps that were collected from the reared wasps . i . perplexus and p . sequester hatched in late november at a ratio of 2 : 1 females to males . these wasps were collected from offal from across the district , providing evidence that they are widespread but in low populations . they have also been detected in forbes and deniliquin in new south wales . according to the author , very little is known about the biology of these wasp parasites but they are worth investigating as a biological control option .\ncultural practices are important in managing this pest . in the spring , the cultivation of the soil using a disc cultivator and irrigation kills infested seeds on the soil surface . clipping - back established stands helps to delay bloom , provides a shorter pollination window and reduces the time that the green pods are available for egg laying . the elimination of volunteer alfalfa along roadsides and ditch banks is also important in minimizing seed chalcid populations (\n) , but are beneficial as the obligate pollinators of figs . some members of five other families ( eulophidae , eurytomidae , pteromalidae , tanaostigmatidae and torymidae ) are seed - feeders or gall - formers on plants , though for many chalcids reared from galls it is not known whether they are primary gall - formers , or inquilines or parasitoids in the galls . john noyes provides a concise summary of known chalcid biology by family in\nin addition to their devouring other insects in the embryonic or larval forms , certain chalcid species display a number of unusual , and therefore interesting , habits . for example , some chalcids are well known for polyembryony , in which anywhere from ten to over a thousand larvae develop from each egg . . . good news for the gardener who ' s plagued with insect pests and wants to introduce a large number of beneficial parasites quickly and with little effort .\nthe green cypress ( cupressus sempervirens l . , pinales : cupressaceae ) is of great interest for ornamental , reforestation and windbreak use in the entire mediterranean basin . it is well adaptated to the various mediterranean conditions and resists long dry periods as well as cold extremes . the entomological fauna that exploits cupressaceae seeds is well known . roques and battisti ( 1999 ) mention nine insects and acarina species found in cypress seeds and cones in natural forests , and in plantations , seedbeds , seed orchards or urban trees of the mediterranean area . these authors showed how insects specialized in seed exploitation . the seed chalcid , megastigmus wachtli seitner ( hymenoptera : torymidae ) , and seed bugs , orsillus ( dallas ) ( heteroptera : lygaeidae ) , limit seed yields , particularly in seed orchards . a total of 21 megastigmus seed chalcid species are recognized in europe , north africa and asia minor ( roques and skrzypczynska 2003 ) . battisti et al . ( 2003 ) affirmed that more than 60 % of cypress cones were colonized either by a seed chalcid , m . wachtli , or by the seed bug , orsillus maculatus ( fieber ) . a survey of the oviposition behavior of orsillus depressus carried out in algeria suggested that this seed bug lays eggs in emergence holes excavated through the cone scale by a seed chalcid , m . wachtli ( bouaziz 2003 ) . similarly , a survey of the oviposition behavior of o . maculatus carried out in france and italy suggested that this seed bug lays eggs preferentially in the emergence holes of m . wachtli ( rouault 2002 ) . in addition , the relationship between the exotic pathogenic fungus seiridium cardinale ( wagener ) sutton and gibson and species of the genus orsillus on c . sempervirens was shown to be essentially based on the availability of m . wachtli oviposition sites ( battisti et al . 1997 , battisti et al . 1999 ; battisti et al . 2000 ; bouaziz 2003 ; rouault et al . 2000 , rouault 2002 ) .\nreported five species of larval parasites of the alfalfa seed chalcid . up to 93 % of the pest larvae were parasitized . the dominant species are pteromalus sequester and baryscapus bruchophagi , which cause 33 and 31 % parasitism , respectively . two had three generations per year and their flight began earlier than that of the host . idiomacromerus perplexus parasitized up to 18 % of the larvae ; it has two generations per year and its flight begins at the end of the flight period of the first generation of the host .\nradiography of the seeds allowed the examination of later development of larvae during cone maturation . larval development proceeded entirely in a single seed . the larva initially developed at the expense of the cotyledons and it started to consume seed endosperm the following spring . similar results were observed previously ( roques 1983 ; roques et raimbault 1995 ; guido et al . 1995 ) . larvae of m . wachtli seemed able to develop in non - fertilized ovules as guido et al . ( 1995 ) suggested , but we could not experimentally infest non - fertilized ovules in order to test this assumption ( bouaziz and roques , unpublished results ) . rouault et al . ( 2004 ) hypothesize that all species of megastigmus associated with pinaceae can oviposit in unfertilized ovules , whereas those exploiting cupressaceae cannot , and thus oviposit only in already fully developed fertilized seeds . infested megagametophytes of unpollinated ovules did not degenerate as would have been expected , but continued to develop ( aderkas et al . , 2005 ) . niwa and overhulser ( 1992 ) and rappaport et al . ( 1993 ) showed that the m . spermotrophus larvae were able to lay eggs on non - fertilized ovules of the pseudotsuga species and that the larva could complete its development there . the chalcid lays its eggs in seeds of douglas fir ( pseudotsuga menziesii ( mirbel ) franco ) before fertilization has taken place in the plant . oviposition not only prevents the expected degeneration and death of unfertilized ovules , but it induces energy reserve accumulation ( aderkas et al . , 2005 ) . following oviposition by m . spermotrophus in unpollinated megagametophytes , larvae hatched and began consuming the central zone . eggs were laid in megagametophytes that were differentiating archegonia which would eventually house the plant eggs . ( aderkas et al . , 2005 ) . the torymid chalcid wasp was able to induce identical nuclear behavior in infested , unfertilized megagametophytes , as occurred in uninfested , fertilized megagametophytes ( aderkas et al . , 2005 ) .\nstated that seed yields and infestation levels were correlated with temperature , rain and degree - day data from the year of and the year preceding seed collection . the infestation level of b . roddi was most closely correlated with the temperature and rainfall in july and august of both years . the proportion of damaged seed is highest in the years following warm and dry summers . alfalfa cultivar also influences the infestation levels ; winter - hardy cultivars that become dormant early in the autumn have lower levels of chalcid - damaged seeds than less hardy cultivars that maintain growth later in the season .\n, at about 130 microns ( 0 . 13 mm ) , to over 30 mm , including bizarre as well as beautiful winged and wingless forms . about 22 , 000 valid species have been described in about 2 , 100 genera world - wide , but these numbers represent only a fraction of true chalcid diversity and estimates of 60 , 000 to 100 , 000 species world - wide do not seem unreasonable . there are over 2 , 600 described species in over 700 genera in north america . illustrated keys to the families and genera of chalcids known from north america are given in\ncollected five hymenopterous parasitoids of the alfalfa seed chalcid . over 99 % of the parasitoids were either i . perplexus ( 90 . 4 % ) or b . bruchophagi . the other three species were eupelmus allynii , idiomacromerus insuetus and lyrcus maculatus . most parasitoid emergence occurred from early june to mid - july , the actual time depended on parasitoid species and where the seeds had been collected . emergence peaks of the parasitoids followed those of the pest by 1 to 2 weeks . small numbers of i . perplexus and b . bruchophagi emerged in the second year ( 1984 ) from seeds that were collected in the autumn of 1982 .\nthe percentage of cones colonized by megastigmus were compared among tree , stand , and species using analysis of variance ( anova , statsoft statistica / w package ) . anova was used to compare the percentage of m . wachtli and p . tessulatana emergence holes on the colonized cones , and to test localization of the colonization per cone shape , insect pests and cypress species . the percentages data were transformed by arcsin \u221a p to achieve homogeneity of the variance before statistical analysis . anova was followed by tukey ' s test to look for differences between locations and species . the results of the longevity of m . wachtli were analyzed by the \u03c7 2 test . the relationship between the colonization by the seed chalcid and by the tortricids was subjected to a pearson correlation test ( r ) .\ndiapause in b . roddi is one of the principal mechanisms for the survival and perpetuation of this multivoltine species in alfalfa seed . the chalcid diapauses in the pre - pupal stage . diapause begins on approximately 1 september and is completed on approximately 1 december , when 100 % of the population is in diapause . the day - length for induction ranges from 10 . 5 - 13 h ; only approximately 40 % of the population diapauses at a day - length of 10 . 25 - 11 h . diapause lasts for approximately 5 . 5 months , from 1 december to 15 april . termination of the diapause and emergence of the population occur over a period of approximately 2 months , from 15 april to 15 june . a day - length of 13 - 14 . 5 h terminates diapause (\nobservations on the adults of b . roddi in oklahoma , usa from mid - may until the end of september show that maximal population densities generally occur in august . the adults emerge earlier at lower elevations and at more southern locations than at higher elevations or at the most northern location . the males emerge earlier and in greater numbers than the females , until early june . thereafter , more females emerge . overall , 60 % of the emerging adults are female . the females in the alfalfa fields outnumber the males by ratios of 1 . 5 : 1 to 2 : 1 . peaks of adult emergence in different fields range from three to six per year . the chalcid infests alfalfa seed throughout the growing season , with an infestation rate of 3 . 7 % in june , increasing to 38 . 6 % in august . diapausing chalcids are found in nearly every sample , and the percentage in diapause ranges from 0 in june to 81 . 9 in august (\n. historically , family classification has been based primarily on external morphology rather than phylogenetic relationships . because of this , and because of the extreme structural diversity that characterizes the group , there have been a comparatively large number of families recognized within the superfamily as well as instability in the number of families recognized . anywhere from 9 to 24 families have been recognized since about 1950 , with 19 or 20 families generally being recognized at present . however , monophyly of many if not most of the families is in doubt . chalcid families often seem to intergrade into each other , with ' family level ' features sometimes working for only one sex , not being possessed by all members of the family , or being possessed by some members of other families . consequently , at least some families appear to be more taxa of convenience than monophyletic evolutionary lineages . as one might suspect , the classification of some subfamilies to one family or another is controversial and there is even uncertainty about the proper family classification of some genera .\nquicke et al . ( 1994 ) also provided evidence that chalcids other than mymaridae ( and mymarommatidae ) have a structure of the female ovipositor that differs from all other hymenoptera \u2014 the fused second valvulae have asymmetrical dorsolateral portions that overlap medially to a greater or lesser extent [ sem ] . furthermore , they have a transversely striated band of notal membrane , the laminated bridge near the base of the second valvulae . quicke et al . proposed that both the unique structure of the second valvulae and the laminated bridge were synapomorphies uniting all chalcids except mymarids . this would support an hypothesis that mymaridae is the sister group of all other chalcidoidea . gibson and huber ( 2000 ) subsequently showed that females of at least one of two known genera of rotoitidae have an ovipositor structure that is intermediate between the mymarid - like and other chalcid - like structures . the rotoitid ovipositor has about the basal half of the second valvulae structured like mymarids and most other hymenoptera , but the apical half with asymmetrical overlapping portions similar to other chalcids . this intermediate structure could be evidence that rotoitidae is the second - most basal lineage of chalcidoidea after mymaridae .\nunlike in southern europe , the seed bug o . depressus seems more abundant than o . maculatus on cypress species growing in north africa ( bouaziz and chakali 1997 ) . in europe and in the mediterranean basin , trees of the cupressaceae family host several seed bug species of the genus orsillus , especially o . maculatus and o . depressus . detailed information about natural history is available for o . maculatus ( guido et al 1995 ; battisti et al 1997 ; ramos and abrantes 2000 ) . this seed bug develops essentially on the evergreen cypress , c . sempervirens , where it lays eggs in cone openings , such as emergence holes of a cypress seed chalcid , m . wachtli , or at inner side of partly detached cone scales ( battisti et al 2000 ) . both nymphs and adults feed on mature seeds inside the cones , causing considerable damage to seed crops in seed orchards as well as in natural stands ( roques et al . 1999 ; battisti et al 2000 ) . information on the biology of o . depressus is much less detailed but this bug has been observed on several species of juniperus , chamaecyparis and thuja as well as on cupressus ssp and pinus ( cleu 1953 ; dupuis 1965 ; dioli 1991 ; stichel 1962 ) . in addition , it was reported to severely affect seed production on a plantation of cupressus lusitanica mill . in portugal ( ramos and abrantes 2000 ) . the seed bug o . maculatus is associted with pathogenic fungi affecting cypress , such as s . cardinal which is responsible for the cypress bark canker , and pestalotiopsis funerea ( desm . ) the adult bugs may disseminate the fungi conidia among trees whereas the nymphs may find a suitable development site in fungus - infested cones ( battisti et al 1999 ; ramos and abrantes 2000 ) . in algeria , a fungus - infected cone can be inhabited by the nymphs of the seed bug o . depressus , the adults of which may carry a heavy spore load at emergence . cones are infected when eggs are laid within the cone , most frequently via the emergence holes of m . wachtli ( bouaziz 2003 ) .\nalthough still at what might be called an embryonic stage , molecular analyses have now started to provide independent evidence to test and refine family concepts that are widely acknowledged to be less than satisfactory . rasplus et al . ( 1998 ) concluded from analysis of the d1 and d2 regions of the 28s rrna gene that agaonidae sensu boucek ( 1988a ) is not monophyletic . they redefined the family to include only the pollinating agaoninae sensu boucek ( 1988a ) , reassigning some subfamilies to the pteromalidae and excluding other subfamilies that they left unassigned to family . more recently , gauthier et al . ( 2000 ) analysed the d2 region of the 28s rdna gene and concluded that the family elasmidae deserved only tribal status within the subfamily eulophinae of eulophidae . as for the previous study , they also excluded some taxa from eulophidae and left them unassigned to family . campbell et al . ( 2000 ) provided the first comprehensive analysis of chalcid subfamily and family relationships based on analysis of the d2 region of 28s rdna . they included 85 taxa , representing 18 families and 32 subfamilies , and concluded that their analysis placed 80 % of the taxa ( including outgroup taxa )\ninto some form of realistic grouping ( generic or family group taxon ) based on morphological evidence\n. of 12 families with more than one taxon represented , only three were indicated as monophyletic ( eucharitidae , mymaridae and trichogrammatidae ) , though eulophidae was monophyletic with the inclusion of elasmus ( = elasmidae ) . more unrealistic or intriguing results included none of the three genera of eunotinae ( pteromalidae ) grouping together , and neither eupelminae nor calosotine ( eupelmidae ) being indicated as monophyletic or showing any affinities with cleonyminae , tanaostigmatidae or encyrtidae . interestingly , their analysis indicated mymaridae as the sister group of all other chalcidoidea , whereas most analyses of dowton and austin ( 2001 ) retrieved mymaridae as an apical clade within chalcidoidea . resolving the relationships of mymaridae with other chalcidoidea is critical for establishing the ancestral life history of the group . traditionally , chalcids have been considered as most likely evolving from some ectoparasitoid of wood - boring beetles . if mymarommatoidea is the sister group of chalcidoidea and if mymaridae is truly the sister group of all other chalcidoidea then parsimony would indicate the immediate ancestor was an endoparasitic egg parasitoid dowton and austin ( 2001 ) ."]}
{"id": 1966, "summary": [{"text": "neocirrhites armatus , the flame hawkfish , is a species of hawkfish native to tropical reefs of the pacific ocean at depths of from 1 to 10 metres ( 3.3 to 32.8 ft ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "this fish reaches a length of 9 centimetres ( 3.5 in ) tl .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "this species is also found in the aquarium trade .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it is the only known member of its genus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is bright red with black dorsal markings .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "like most hawkfishes , the flame hawkfish lacks a swim bladder .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "it is a percher and a bottom-dweller , living on and about coral heads and stony reefs . ", "topic": 18}], "title": "neocirrhites armatus", "paragraphs": ["neocirrhites armatus , the flame hawkfish , perched in a saltwater aquarium . ( image credit : ben young landis / cc - by )\nflame hawkfish ( neocirrhites armatus ) are so named because of their brilliant red color . they also have a black stripe that runs along the base of their dorsal fin , as well as black circles around their eyes .\nthis is a flame hawkfish ( neocirrhites armatus ) , a small , tropical marine fish no bigger than a cosmetic compact mirror . that night dining out , i happened to be seated next to one of the restaurant\u2019s saltwater aquariums .\nsadovy , y , tj donaldson . 1995 . sexual pattern of neocirrhites armatus ( cirrhitidae ) with notes on other hawkish species . environmental biology of fishes 42 ( 2 ) : 143 - 150 . doi : 10 . 1007 / bf00001992\nneocirrhites armatus is widespread in the pacific and commonly seen in parts of its range . neocirrhites armatus is closely associated with particular corals , however it is not known if this species is a coral obligate . very substantial declines in abundance of its host coral species could then lead to reductions in populations of this species . it is unlikely that this is a major threat to the species at this time , and there are no other known major threats . the species is listed as least concern .\nthere are no known conservation measures in place for neocirrhites armatus . the species does occur in marine protected areas in some parts of its range - for example the phoenix islands protected area in kiribati and the great barrier reef marine park in australia .\nlarger hawkfishes might eat small fish , shrimps etc . in the aquarium . species of the cyprinocirrhites and neocirrhites genera are least likely to eat shrimps etc .\nneocirrhites armatus is not common in museum collections , having only 109 records worldwide ( accessed through the fishnet2 portal , www . fishnet2 . net , 2015 - 02 - 23 ) . it is very commonly seen in parts of micronesia , especially in guam and the northern mariana islands ( i . williams pers . comm . 2015 ) .\nneocirrhites armatus is a solitary species that inhabits seaward reefs at depths down to 25 metres . it is usually found perching among branches of pocillopora ( for example p . eydouxi and p . elegans ) and stylophora coral heads which it inhabits for shelter as protection . this species has a maximum total length of 9 cm ( allen and erdmann 2012 ) .\n( of neocirrhitus armatus castelnau , 1873 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nneocirrhites armatus is distributed in the western pacific , from japan ( the ryukyu and ogasawara islands ) , micronesia , papua new guinea ( the louisiade group ) , across melanesia and polynesia to the pitcairn islands , south to the great barrier reef , australia ( allen and erdmann 2012 ) . this species is found to depths of at least 25 m , but more commonly in 10 - 15 m ( i . williams pers . comm . 2015 ) .\nthere are no known major threats at this time . neocirrhites armatus is collected for the aquarium trade , but this is not thought to have a substantial impact on populations of this species . as this species is closely associated with corals , any threat to these corals could eventually impact this species . for example , such corals could be affected by climate change ( bleaching or acidification ) or destruction of coral habitat . very substantial declines in abundance of its host coral species could then lead to reductions in populations of this species ; however , it is unlikely that such impacts would threaten this species within three generation lengths .\ndonaldson replies : \u201ci am still investigating the question you raised but can offer a bit of insight . with neocirrhites and probably oxycirrhites typus , both obligate coral - dwelling species , sex - change is probably driven by environmental / behavioral cues , e . g . the loss of the male in a mating group . \u201d\ngreek , neos = new + latin , cirrus = curl ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; reef - associated ; depth range 1 - 10 m ( ref . 9710 ) . tropical ; 30\u00b0n - 28\u00b0s\npacific ocean : ryukyu islands to the line islands and mangar\u00e9va , south to the great barrier reef and the austral islands ; caroline , mariana , and the wake islands in micronesia .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 9 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 559 )\ncommon along surge - swept reef fronts and submarine terraces to a depth of about 11 m . usually seen hiding among branches of live corals ( stylophora mordax , pocillopora elegans , p . eydouxi , or p . verrucosa ) . retreats deep into the coral when approached ( ref . 9710 ) . feeds on small crustaceans ( ref . 89972 ) . oviparous , monogamous ( ref . 52884 ) . highly priced aquarium fish , requires well - oxygenated water and fades in captivity ( ref . 37816 ) .\npelagic spawners ( ref . 31569 ) . monogamous mating is observed as both facultative and social ( ref . 52884 ) . also ref . 103751 .\nrandall , j . e . , g . r . allen and r . c . steene , 1990 . fishes of the great barrier reef and coral sea . university of hawaii press , honolulu , hawaii . 506 p . ( ref . 2334 )\n) : 25 . 2 - 29 . 4 , mean 28 ( based on 993 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 0000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01585 ( 0 . 00631 - 0 . 03980 ) , b = 3 . 01 ( 2 . 79 - 3 . 23 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 5 \u00b10 . 50 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 10 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\na hardy marine , suitable for reef or fish - only systems , but will prey on small ornamental fish and motile invertebrates\u2014this is not restricted to animals small enough to be ingested whole , as they will dismember larger prey items . highly oxygenated water\na hawkfish wants a high perch from which it can keep an eye on the scene below , and down from which it can swoop onto its prey . in the wild it is an obligate resident of coral branches , and in the aquarium it needs a suitable habitat into which it can div\ncarnivorous . despite the fact that their natural behaviors are centered around a highly predatory lifestyle , flame hawks are usually easy to wean over to prepared foods and will then greedily accept all regular aquarium fare .\nbelieved to be a protogynous hermaphrodite , with the male generally being slightly larger . although captive spawnings occur , no successful rearing of the fry , which have a long planktonic stage , has been reported .\nbright red with a broad , arc - shaped black dorsal band and a black eye ring .\na bit pricier than other hawkfishes , the flame hawk is still less expensive than many other popular marines . its color and personality ensure its steady popularity . lacking a swimbladder , these animals stay motionless on their perch until prey is sighted , at which point they swoop down onto their meal like their avian namesakes . because a hawkfish can be extremely territorial about its perch , it is recommended that other species be stocked in the aquarium first to allow them to establish territories before the hawkfish arrives to claim what it wants . the flame hawk is a beautiful and fascinating fish that certainly deserves its continued popularity .\nthis little fish was my dinner date on a recent night out . though it turns out she has quite the complicated love life .\nnative to the coral reefs of the western pacific ocean , the flame hawkfish is a sought - after species in the aquarium fish trade . hobbyists enjoy its inquisitive nature , darting about the fish tank and peering at visitors with muppet - like , googly eyes . hawkfish are called such because of their habit of perching atop coral branches like hawks \u2014 then bursting off for circling swims to patrol their patch of territory , before returning to their favorite perching branch .\nwhile our date that night was brief , the flame hawkfish has no shortage of romantic intrigue .\nthe flame hawkfish favors a specific type of coral and is highly preferential in terms of territory \u2014 some individuals have been observed to reside continuously on the same coral head for more than two years ( donaldson 1989 ) .\nwithin their little homefront , flame hawkfish often live in monogamous pairs , defending their territory against intruding males and large females . couples engage in frequent courtship year - round , and courtship takes place \u2014 you guessed it \u2014 around sunset ( donaldson 1989 ) .\nbut like many other reef fish species , the \u201crelationship status\u201d of flame hawkfish has dizzying twists , many of them described by biologist terry donaldson in a 1989 study .\nit seems that flame hawkfish monogamy depends on the size and number of their coral head habitat . on reefs where suitable coral heads are located sufficiently apart , flame hawkfish are likely to form monogamous pairs , presumably because the chance of males finding and meeting female mates is much lower .\nbut on coral heads large enough to support the territories of multiple females , or on reefs where suitable coral heads are located close enough together , males will \u201cacquire\u201d additional females \u2014 and a small harem forms .\ndonaldson observed two of these relationship structures . in one , \u201ca male living with a female often made visits to a second adjacent female during courtship periods , but returned to the coral where the first female resided . \u201d\nin another , a single male living alone will have visited \u201ceach of the females in adjacent coral heads during courtship periods but returned to its own coral head when courtship had been completed . \u201d\nto use american english vernacular , some male flame hawkfish , it would appear , are \u201cplayahs\u201d .\nbut wait , there\u2019s more ! it turns out that flame hawkfish are \u201cprotogynous hermaphrodites\u201d \u2014 all flame hawkfish are born female , but as they grow larger , their gonads will change from egg - producing ovaries into sperm - producing testes . the sex change is permanent and males can\u2019t change back into females \u2014 although there are other species of hawkfish that can do so ( sadovy and donaldson 1995 ) .\nthis expected sex change might explain why on smaller coral heads where mates are hard to come by , flame hawkfish couples will chase away intruding males and and large females .\na resident female has an obvious incentive to chase away intruding females , to prevent them from stealing her man , so to speak . but a resident male has an incentive to chase away large females because a large female could be ready to change into a male \u2014 one that could subsequently steal his woman .\nso , it was probably for the better that my hawkfish date didn\u2019t get too serious . even if we had hit it off , i might have come home one day to find all my possessions thrown out of my house , with my hawkfish bride - turned - groom possibly on the prowl and sleeping around with my neighbors . my life ruined because of some pint - sized , tomato - colored sleazeball\u2026\naddendum october 27 , 2013 : professor terry donaldson followed up with me by email , and offered even more fascinating observations about the breeding ecology of the flame hawkfish . i asked him whether flame hawkfish changed sex simply as they grew larger , or whether females changed sex when a resident male is lost .\ndonaldson adds he suspects flame hawkfish are capable of bidirectional sex change \u2014 unlimited gender switches between male / female states \u2014 and he hopes to conduct further studies .\n\u201cbidirectional sex change might occur also , but again this would be driven by a behavioral cue . if a larger male succeeds in gaining entry into a coral head , it might force the smaller resident male to change back into a female , so as to make the best of a bad situation without losing available microhabitat and mating opportunities . \u201d\ndonaldson , tj . 1989 . facultative monogamy in obligate coral - dwelling hawkfishes ( cirrhtidae ) . environmental biology of fishes 26 ( 4 ) : 295 - 302 . doi : 10 . 1007 / bf00002466\nfish are amazing and underrated creatures . join me as i geek out and explore the amazing diversity of fish species on our planet . read more about our journey or look up our index of species featured so far .\nben young landis is a science writer and consultant by day , amateur cook by night , and fish geek 24 / 7 . drop a line at @ younglandis or via email .\nadvertisements that appear on this website are selected by wordpress . com , and are not endorsements by the author .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\neschmeyer , w . n . ( ed ) . 2014 . catalog of fishes . updated 6 october 2014 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 6 october 2014 ) .\namerican samoa ; australia ; cook islands ; fiji ; french polynesia ; guam ; japan ; kiribati ( kiribati line is . , phoenix is . ) ; korea , republic of ; marshall islands ; micronesia , federated states of ; new caledonia ; northern mariana islands ; papua new guinea ; pitcairn ; samoa ; solomon islands ; tokelau ; tonga ; tuvalu ; united states minor outlying islands ( wake is . ) ; vanuatu ; wallis and futuna\nthis errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t67997836a115452899 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthis species can be kept in a small tank , if it is specifically equipped to meet its needs .\nit is recommended however , to keep it in an aquarium which is larger then described above .\nthis species can be a threat for small fishes , crustaceans , worms , snails etc .\nfood with plenty of pigment and generally a varied diet of high quality can help alleviate colour loss .\nwhen a male is needed , a female changes sex and takes on the role .\nthis species can be aggressive when kept together with fish that are very similar , or if they are not provided with adequate space .\nhawkfish stay still and wait for food most of the time , they are therefore suitable for smaller aquaria .\nvery aggressive genera the very aggressive species will sometimes attack many different types of fish , even the ones that are larger than themselves .\nsemi aggressive genera the semi aggressive species are most threatening towards fish whose behaviour mimcks their own , and fish which are introduced after they have settled in .\nless aggressive genera the less aggressive species are rarely threatening towards fish that which do not resemble them .\nhawkfish do not place many demands on their surroundings or water quality , as they are fairly hardy .\nit is possible to keep several hawkfish together , but sometimes they will suddenly begin to fight after some time in the aquarium . this may be due to them changing gender so one can end up with two males .\nscott w . michael . 2001 . basslets , dottybacks & hawkfishes : v . 2 ( reef fishes ) - tfh publications / microcosm ltd . - ( english ) james w . fatherree . the hawkfishes - reefs magazine - ( english ) bob fenner . hawkfishes , family cirrhitidae part i , part ii , part iii - wet web media - ( english )\nfroese , r . and d . pauly . editors . 2014 . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . urltoken , version ( 08 / 2014 ) .\nminimum volume\nindicates the size of the tank needed to house this species under optimal conditions .\nthis is based on a medium size animal , which you want to keep for several years . it might be possible to keep smaller specimens for a limited period in a smaller tank . a larger tank might be needed for fully - grown specimens .\nhardiness\nindicates how resistant this species is to disease and how well i tolerates bad conditions in general . some species doesn ' t handle transportation very well , but that doesn ' t mean that the species isn ' t hardy under the right conditions .\nin this case , a\nnormal\naquarium is a reef aquarium with mixed corals or a fish only aquarium with an approximately salinity of 1 . 026 ( sg ) and a temperature close to 26\u00b0c . species requiring more than a 4000 - liter tank are considered not suitable for home aquarium .\nspecial aquariums may cover tanks with low salinity , sub - tropical temperature , deep sand bed , sea grass etc .\nalways reef safe : no sources indicate that this species will harm corals or other invertebrates .\noften reef safe : only a few aquarists has reported problems keeping this species with corals and other invertebrates .\nreef safe with caution : this species may be a threat to some types of invertebrates .\nreef safe with luck : most specimens will harm corals and / or other invertebrates , but you might be lucky .\nnot reef safe : this species is a threat to most corals and / or other invertebrates .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nin their natural environment , flame hawkfish are often found in living in pairs in the shallow waters of the pacific ocean . they are usually found along coral reefs .\nflame hawkfish are bottom - dwelling fish and they often hide among hard corals . you should also provide lots of live rock in their aquarium .\nalthough flame hawkfish do best when living among hard corals , they often eat the other inhabitants in a reef tanks , such as small crustaceans and molluscs . they will eat your ornamental shrimps and hermit crabs , and sometimes even smaller fish and some sessile invertebrates .\nin fact , their natural diet consists of small molluscs and other crustaceans . in captivity , flame hawkfish sometimes lose their brilliant red color due to dietary deficiencies . to prevent this , feed them meaty marine foods , chopped up sea food ( crab , shrimp , squid ) as well as other meaty marine fish foods ( mysid shrimp , vitamin enriched brine shrimp , frozen marine fish food ) . they enjoy eating marine snails and feeder shrimp .\nflame hawkfish are small fish , reaching only about 3 . 5 - 4 inches ( 9 - 10 cm ) in length . despite their small size they can become territorial toward other bottom - dwelling fish . they are generally peaceful with non bottom - dwellers .\nimage of flame hawkfish \u00a9 marc atkins , image from urltoken - may not be copied .\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]"]}
{"id": 1967, "summary": [{"text": "gornogomphodon is an extinct genus of synapsid from the gorno formation of bergamo , italy .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it existed during the middle carnian age of the late triassic ( around 216.5 to 228.0 million years ago ) .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "it contains only one species : gornogomphodon caffi .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "gornogomphodon is known only from a fossil jaw fragment with three transversely elongate teeth preserved .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the scant fossil material and the locality they were collected from ( the gorno formation were once shallow lagoons ) lead to initial uncertainty over the nature of the fossil .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it was proposed to be the remains of a pycnodont fish but further studies eventually made this hypothesis unlikely .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the overall morphology of the teeth suggests they are the upper postcanines of the right maxilla of a gomphodont ( herbivorous cynodonts ) , but they also possess unique characteristics that make their taxonomic assignment difficult .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "gornogomphodon was named after the gorno formation ( literally ' gorno gomphodont ' ) .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the specific name for its only species gornogomphodon caffi was named in honor of enrico caffi , the first director of the museo di scienze naturali enrico caffi . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "gornogomphodon", "paragraphs": ["this is the place for gornogomphodon definition . you find here gornogomphodon meaning , synonyms of gornogomphodon and images for gornogomphodon copyright 2017 \u00a9 urltoken\nhere you will find one or more explanations in english for the word gornogomphodon . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word gornogomphodon and , of course , gornogomphodon synonyms and on the right images related to the word gornogomphodon .\nhow can i put and write and define gornogomphodon in a sentence and how is the word gornogomphodon used in a sentence and examples ? \u7528gornogomphodon\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528gornogomphodon\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528gornogomphodon\u9020\u53e5 , gornogomphodon meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .\ngornogomphodon\nwas named after the gorno formation ( literally ' gorno gomphodont ' ) .\nhave a fact about gornogomphodon caffii ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for gornogomphodon caffii ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\ngornogomphodon\nis known only from a fossil jaw fragment with three transversely elongate teeth preserved .\ngornogomphodon is an extinct genus of synapsid from the gorno formation of bergamo , italy . it existed during the middle carnian age of the late triassic ( around 216 . 5 to 228 . 0 million years ago ) . it contains only one species : gornogomphodon caffi . gornogomphodon is known only from a fossil jaw fragment with three transversely elongate teeth preser . . .\nthe specific name for its only species\ngornogomphodon caffi\nwas named in honor of enrico caffi , the first director of the museo di scienze naturali enrico caffi .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\na jaw fragment with three teeth preserved , collected from the gorno formation ( carnian , upper triassic ) of lombardy ( italy ) is described . the teeth are transversely elongated , three - cusped and bear anterior and posterior cingula . their overall morphology supports their identification as postcanines of a gomphodont cynodont . the unique tooth morphology of the new specimen supports its attribution to a new genus and species , while at the same time precluding positive assignment to already known gomphodont families . there is a fairly small record of gomphodont cynodonts in europe , so that the described specimen adds to the knowledge of the distribution and diversity of european gomphodonts and it also represents the first ever collected in italy .\nsilvio renesto [ silvio . renesto @ urltoken ] , dipartimento di biologia strutturale e funzionale , universit\u00e0 degli studi dell\u2019insubria , via dunant 3 , 21100 varese , italy ; spencer g . lucas [ spencer . lucas @ urltoken ] , newmexico museum of natural history and science , 1801 mountain road n . w . albuquerque , new mexico , 87104 usa .\nthis is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license ( for details please see urltoken ) , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken"]}
{"id": 1972, "summary": [{"text": "elophila tinealis is a moth in the crambidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by munroe in 1972 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from michigan , ontario and new york , south to florida and west to texas .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of swamps and wet woods .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 10 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "both the fore - and hindwings are dark brown to blackish with a silvery-white patch in the medial area and some white dots .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults have been recorded on wing from july to september .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on lemna species . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "elophila tinealis", "paragraphs": ["species elophila tinealis - black duckweed moth - hodges # 4754 - bugguide . net\nthree other species of elophila occur in the united states with one , elophila tinealis munroe , in florida . the adult of elophila tinealis is much smaller than that of the waterlily leafcutter and has longer , narrower and darker wings . the larvae of elophila tinealis are not well known , but seem to feed on and most often make their cases out of duckweed , lemna sp .\nthe larvae of elophila gyralis ( hulst ) and elophila icciusalis ( walker ) are similar to those of the waterlily leafcutter , but the anterior and posterior transverse bands of crochets ( i . e . , the gripping hooks on the prolegs ) are the same size . elophila gyralis and elophila icciusalis adults are more brightly colored than elophila tinealis and elophila obliteralis and are yellowish - orange and white or brownish in color . although elophila gyralis and elophila icciusalis larvae may make portable cases , they usually cut only one leaf piece and attach it to a whole leaf and live between the two layers .\nkinser , p . d . , neunzig , h . h . , 1981 . description of the immature stages and biology of synclita tinealis lepidoptera pyralidae nymphulanae . journal of the lepidopterists ' society , 35 ( 2 ) : 137\nelophila obliteralis has a wide host range and is known to feed on nearly 60 plant species ( table 1 ) .\nfigure 5 . pupa of the waterlily leafcutter , elophila obliteralis ( walker ) . photograph by stephen p . l . luk .\nfigure 6 . adult female waterlily leafcutter , elophila obliteralis ( walker ) . photograph by j . lotz , division of plant industry .\nfigure 3 . waterlily leafcutter , elophila obliteralis ( walker ) , leaf case . photograph by lyle j . buss , university of florida .\ntable 1 . host range of the waterlily leafcutter . plants arranged by families and genera that are known to be hosts for elophila obliteralis ( walker ) .\nfigure 2 . larva of the waterlily leafcutter , elophila obliteralis ( walker ) , attacking hygrophila . photograph by j . p . cuda , university of florida .\nfigure 1 . hygrophila showing feeding damage caused by the waterlily leafcutter , elophila obliteralis ( walker ) . photograph by j . p . cuda , university of florida .\nfigure 4 . larva of the waterlily leafcutter , elophila obliteralis ( walker ) , with opened leaf case . photograph by lyle j . buss , university of florida .\nfigure 7 . adult male waterlily leafcutter , elophila obliteralis ( walker ) . wingspan of this specimen is 11 mm . photograph by lyle j . buss , university of florida .\ngenus synclita changed to elophila as per hugh mcguinness 8 / 2009 . source : munroessa was synonymized , along with synclita , by goater , nuss and speidel in microlepidoptera of europe , vol . 4 . pyraloidea i . 2005 .\nin october 2007 , we received a report from researchers at the uf / ifas center for aquatic and invasive plants of an insect attacking hygrophila . samples of the insect were collected and it was identified as the waterlily leafcutter elophila obliteralis ( walker ) . of the more than twenty acentropinae species occurring in florida , elophila obliteralis ( walker ) is the most common . although its common name implies that it is a pest of waterlilies , it actually has a wide host range . most of the damage caused by the larvae usually is superficial and rarely endangers the plant , but the damage observed on the hygrophila plants was severe ( figures 1 and 2 ) .\na study that attempted to identify the biotic and abiotic factors that limited growth of common salvinia , salvinia minima ( baker ) , an exotic floating aquatic plant , found that herbivory by elophila obliteralis and a weevil , cyrtobagous salviniae calder and sands were two of the most influential factors on growth ( tipping et al . 2012 ) .\nin addition to the invasive aquatic weed hygrophila , the waterlily leafcutter also feeds on another invasive plant , hydrilla , hydrilla verticillata l . f . royle . numbers of elophila obliteralis collected from hydrilla from field sites in florida and louisiana were similar to the numbers of the hydrilla leafcutter , parapoynx diminutalis snellen that were collected ( balciunas and minno 1985 ) .\nthis common moth occurs throughout florida , westward to texas and northward to western nova scotia and southern manitoba ( munroe 1972 ) . it also has been introduced into hawaii ( williams 1944 ) , england ( shaffer 1968 ) , and british columbia ( munroe 1972 ) . in a study in south carolina , elophila obliteralis was found in both lentic ( still freshwater ) and lotic ( fast moving freshwater ) water bodies ( stoops et al . 1998 ) . out of 65 surveyed sites in south carolina , elophila obliteralis was present in 6 . 2 % , in those sites with a water temperature between 23 . 0 and 27 . 0\u00b0c , a width of 3 . 24 to 45 . 7 m , a depth of 0 . 3 - 1 . 0 m , and a ph of 6 . 6 to 7 . 5 ( stoops et al . 1998 ) .\nin addition to having a pest status in aquatic nurseries , due to its wide host range , elophila obliteralis also plays a minor role in biological control , as it feeds on invasive species , such as hydrilla , salvinia and hygrophila . as a native species this type of biological control is known as natural regulation . however , due to the extensive host range of this species it would not be advisable to attempt to increase wild numbers through mass releases or conservation as they would likely feed non - specifically on other desirable plants as well as the weeds .\nelophila obliteralis has a wide host range and is known to feed on waterlilys and other ornamental pond plants as well as the invasive aquatic weeds , salvinia ( tipping et al . 2012 ) , water lettuce ( dray et al . 1993 ) , hygrophila and hydrilla . the larvae are the stage that feeds on the plant and causes damage to the plant tissue . in addition to feeding , the larvae cut the leaves to prepare a leaf case for shelter . as the larvae develop , they cut new , progressively larger leaf cases . this action in itself can provide quite significant damage to the infested plant ( nachtrieb et al 2007 ) . in a field study , to compare the effect of herbivory on different aquatic plants , elophila obliteralis was one of the three species that caused the most damage ( nachtrieb et al 2007 ) . when feeding the larvae remove chunks from the leaves , usually feeding on the basal or middle portions ( balciunas and minno 1985 ) . this feeding often causes the leaves to break away from the stem . if the population density is high and plant material becomes more scarce , the larvae will begin to feed on the stems , which can cause the entire plant to fragment ( balciunas and minno 1985 ) .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nthe moths of north america north of mexico . fascicle 13 . 1a . scopariinae , nymphulinae eugene munroe . 1972 . the wedge entomological research foundation .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\ncontributed by mark a . brogie on 21 july , 2017 - 8 : 23am\ntrinity river refuge hq building . , liberty county , texas , usa november 4 , 2016\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhygrophila polysperma ( roxb . ) t . anderson ( polemoniales : acanthaceae ) is a rooted submersed or emersed aquatic plant in shallow water areas and saturated shorelines throughout florida . this invasive aquatic plant also is known as hygrophila , hygro , east indian hygro , green hygro , miramar weed , oriental ludwigia , and indian swampweed ( hereafter referred to as hygrophila ) .\nhygrophila is a federal listed noxious weed ( usda 1983 ) , a florida state listed category ii prohibited plant ( fldep 1993 ) , and a florida exotic pest plant council category i invasive species ( fleppc 2017 ) . the submersed growth habit displaces native vegetation in many canals and drainage ditches in south florida . the plant forms dense stands that occupy the entire water column , clogging irrigation and flood - control systems ( schmitz and nall 1984 , sutton 1995 ) and interfering with navigation ( woolfe 1995 ) . hygrophila also creates problems as an emergent plant in some shoreline areas , including rice fields ( krombholz 1996 ) .\neggs : the eggs are whitish in color , and appear domelike ( oval and flattened ) . the flattened side is glued to the leaf and the domed side has wrinkles down the length of the egg ( dyar 1906 ) . the eggs are 0 . 6 mm in length and 0 . 4 mm wide ( dyar 1906 ) . they are deposited singly or in overlapping , ribbon - like masses near the edges of submersed leaf surfaces .\nlarvae : most members of the crambid subfamily acentropinae have aquatic larvae with tracheal gills . however , the larva of this moth lacks gills , and is sometimes referred to as\nthe sandwich man\ndue to its habit of living between two pieces of leaf ( leaf case ) that it cuts from its host plant ( figure 3 and 4 ) .\nthe epidermis ( skin ) of the larvae is covered with minute papillae ( bumps ) . the body is creamy - white , but increasingly brownish from abdominal segment four forward to the prothorax . the prothoracic coxae ( proximal leg segments ) are touching while the mesothoracic coxae are nearly touching . the head is yellowish - brown with a faint brown genal ( cheek ) stripe . the prothoracic spiracle ( respiratory opening ) is vestigial ( non - functioning ) , and the while spiracles on abdominal segments three and four are distinctly larger than others . the crochets ( gripping hooks ) are arranged in two biordinal ( sometimes partially triordinal ) transverse bands , with the anterior band distinctly larger than the posterior band .\npupae : the pupae are pale yellow and the wings and head appear darker ( figure 5 ) ( dyar 1906 ) . the head has two distinct black spine - like hairs . the spiracles on abdominal segments 2 - 4 are large , round , elevated and red brown in color ( dyar 1906 ) . the anterior spiracles are much smaller . the pupae are found inside silk cocoons within the leaf cases formed by the larvae .\nadults : adults are sexually dimorphic and readily distinguishable ( figures 6 and 7 ) . females have a 15 to 19 mm wingspan , and the female ' s wings are paler in color appearing grayish - brown with orange - brown markings . the wingspan of the male is only about 11 to 13 mm , and the male ' s wings are grayish - brown interspersed with brownish and white markings .\nno information is available about the development times of this species . the female moth lays her eggs on the exposed edges of submersed aquatic plants ( gill et al . 2008 ) . upon hatching , the larvae enclose themselves inside cut leaf pieces . the leaves are webbed together with silk . cases made by young larvae are water - filled and oxygen uptake occurs cutaneously ( presumably via the epidermal papillae ) whereas cases of older larvae are air - filled . the cases of young larvae remain attached to the leaf from which they were made . older larvae detach the case from the leaf and are free - floating . larvae abandon smaller cases as they mature and construct larger cases from new leaves . the case may consist of two entire leaves , parts of leaves , or of parts of many plants tied together with silk . the larvae extend out of the case to feed on plant material , but usually the body remains in the case . prior to pupation , larvae attach their cases to petioles or leaf blades of their host plants above or below the water surface , and spin a silk cocoon inside their leaf cases .\ndue to its broad host range , this insect frequently is a pest in aquatic plant nurseries , especially on waterlilies , nymphaea spp . in the nursery setting , this insect can cause economic losses as the larval feeding makes the plants unattractive to customers . extensive feeding may even lead to reduced plant health and death ( gill et al . 2008 ) .\nto monitor for the waterlily leafcutter , observe leaves for the characteristic holes created by this insect ( gill et al . 2008 ) . the adults can be trapped by uv black lights and the larvae can be extracted from the plant material by handpicking or using a berlese funnel .\nis a pest of greenhouses and may require control in aquatic plant nurseries . as with other aquatic moth pests ,\nwould likely provide control with little or no adverse effects to other aquatic organisms . in support of this hypothesis , the closely related organism\nwas found to cause significant mortality to the waterlily leafcutter ( haag and buckingham 1991 ) .\nthe authors would like to acknowledge funding provided by the usda nifa ramp grant 2010 - 02825 that helped pay for the revision of this article .\n[ fldep ] florida department of enviromental protection . ( 1993 ) . aquatic plant permit rules : aquatic plant importation , transportation , non - nursery cultivation , possession and collection . ( 25 july 2017 ) .\n[ fleppc ] florida exotic pest plant council . ( 2007 ) . list of florida ' s invasive species . florida exotic pest plant council . ( 7 may 2014 ) .\nbalciunas jk , minno mc . 1985 . insects damaging hydrilla in the u . s . a . journal of aquatic plant management 23 : 77 - 83 .\ndray fa , center td , habeck dh . 1993 . phytophagous insects associated with pistia statiotes in florida . environmental entomology 22 : 1146 - 1155 .\ndyar hg . 1906 . the north american nymphulinae and scopariinae . journal of the new york entomological society 14 : 77 - 108 .\ngill s , reeser , r , raupp , m . 2008 . controlling two aquatic plant pests nymphuliella daeckealis ( haimbach ) and the waterlily leafcutter , synclita obliteralis ( walker ) . the university of maryland cooperative extension factsheet 818 . 7 pages .\n[ fleppc ] florida exotic pest plant council . ( 2017 ) . list of florida ' s invasive species . florida exotic pest plant council ( 25 june 2017 ) .\nhaag kh and buckingham gr . 1991 . effects of herbicides and microbial insecticides on the insects of aquatic plants . journal of aquatic plant management 29 : 55 - 57 .\nkrombholz p . 1996 . hygrophila polysperma : an indicator plant . the aquatic gardener : journal of the aquatic gardeners association 9 : 135 - 137 .\nmunroe e . 1972 . fasicle 13 . 1a : pyraloidea : pyralidae ( part ) . the moths of america north of mexico ( mona ) series ( dominick rb et al . [ eds ] ) . ew classey ltd and r . b . d . publications inc . , london , uk . 134 pages .\nnachtrieb jg , grodowitz mj , smart rm . 2007 . impact of invertebrate herbivory on native aquatic macrophytes . aquatic plant control research program technical notes collection . vicksburg , ms : u . s . army engineer research and development center . erdc / tn apcrp - bc - 9 . ( 25 june 2017 ) .\nschmitz dc , nall le . 1984 . status of hygrophila polysperma in florida . aquatics 6 : 11 - 14 .\nschmitz dc , nelson bv , nall je , schardt jd . 1991 . exotic aquatic plants in florida : a historical perspective and review of the present aquatic plant regulation program . pp . 303 - 326 . in center tc , doren rf , hofstetter rl , myers rl , whiteaker ld ( eds ) , proceedings of a symposium on exotic pest plants . technical report nps / nrever / nrtr - 91 / 06 . u . s . department of interior , national park service , denver , co .\nshaffer m . 1968 . illustrated notes on synclita obliteralis ( walker ) and euzophora bigella ( zeller ) , two species new to the british list ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) . entomologist ' s gazette 19 : 155 - 158 .\nstoops ca , adler ph , mccreadie jw . 1998 . ecology of aquatic lepidoptera ( crambidae : nymphulinae ) in south carolina , usa . hydrobiologia 379 : 33 - 40 .\nsutton dl . 1995 . hygrophila is replacing hydrilla in south florida . aquatics 17 : 4 , 6 , 8 , 10 .\ntipping pw , martin mr , bauer l , pierce rm , center td . 2012 . ecology of common salvinia , salvinia minima baker , in southern florida . aquatic botany 102 : 23 - 27 .\nwilliams fx . 1944 . biological studies in hawaiian water - loving insects . part iv . lepidoptera or moths and butterflies . proceedings of the hawaiian entomological society 12 : 180 - 185 .\nwoolfe t . 1995 . water weed is latest menace . tallahassee democrat , 4c , 3 august .\n[ usda ] u . s . department of agriculture . 1983 . noxious weeds . federal register . 48 : 20037 - 20047 .\nzimmerman ec . 1958 . volume 8 lepidoptera : pyraloidea . in insects of hawaii : a manual of the insects of the hawaiian islands including an enumeration of the species and notes on their origin , distribution , hosts , parasites , etc . university of hawaii press , honolulu . 456 pages ."]}
{"id": 1991, "summary": [{"text": "ocypode convexa , commonly known as the golden ghost crab , or alternatively the western ghost crab or yellow ghost crab , is a species of ghost crabs endemic to the coast of western australia , from broome to perth .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "they are relatively large ghost crabs , with a carapace growing up to 45 mm ( 1.8 in ) long and 52 mm ( 2.0 in ) wide .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "they are easily recognisable by their golden yellow colouration .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "like other ghost crabs they have box-like bodies with unequally sized claws .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "they also have large eyestalks with the cornea occupying most of the bottom part .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "golden ghost crabs are common inhabitants of open sandy beaches , living in burrows in the intertidal and supratidal zones .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "they are predominantly nocturnal and semi-terrestrial .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "they are a generalist species , feeding on carrion and debris , as well as preying on small animals .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "along with the red fox ( vulpes vulpes ) , they are significant as one of the main predators of eggs and hatchlings of western australian sea turtles , particularly the endangered loggerhead sea turtle ( caretta caretta ) which has one of the largest rookeries in the region . ", "topic": 21}], "title": "golden ghost crab", "paragraphs": ["crab ocypodidae ghost crab st . croix fauna usvi beach sand nature caribbean animals my photography\nthese things are cool ! is it possible to spot a ghost crab in maine ? i\u2019ve never heard of these types of crabs . would a ghost crab pinch like an ordinary crab ? thanks .\nturra a , goncalves mao , denadai mr . spatial distribution of the ghost crab\nchan bkk , chan kky , leung pcm . burrow architecture of the ghost crab\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive video - silver gull stealing food from golden ghost crab\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive video - silver gull stealing food from golden ghost crab\ntitle =\narkive video - silver gull stealing food from golden ghost crab\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nghost crab burrows can be found from the high tide line to 400 m shoreward .\nhorn - eyed ghost crab ocypode ceratophthalma\n. wild singapore . may 2009 .\nwant to know how these crabs look like ? here are some useful ghost crab pics . check out these ghost crab photos to get an idea about the appearance of these creatures .\ncycling in the ghost crab , ocypode quadrata ( fabr . ) ( brachyura , ocypodidae )\nghost crabs are so named for their generally pale colours and nocturnal habits as well as their eerie ability to suddenly appear from seemingly nowhere and disappear back into the sand as they dart to and from burrows . there are six species of ghost crab in australia , four of which can be found on mainland western australia . probably the two most notable species are the horn - eyed ghost crab , ocypode ceratophthalma ( pallas , 1772 ) and the golden ghost crab , ocypode convexa ( quoy & gaimard , 1824 ) . the horn - eyed ghost crab is widely distributed in the indian and pacific oceans , and is most easily recognised by the long stylets on top of the eyes . these stylets are longer in mature males and are probably used as part of mating rituals and displays for warding off rival males . the golden ghost crab is endemic to western australia and recognisable by its golden yellow colour . ghost crabs are typically tropical , but the golden ghost crab can be found as far south as bunbury .\nalso known as the western ghost crab or yellow ghost crab , the golden ghost crab is a species of ghost crab ( ocypode spp . ) which is endemic to the coast of western australia , ranging from broome to perth . golden ghost crabs are common inhabitants of open sandy beaches , living in burrows in the intertidal and supratidal zones . they are predominately nocturnal and semi - terrestrial , emerging are night to feed on carrion , debris , and occasionally small invertebrates . they are also known to feed on sea turtle hatchlings and are one of the main predators of loggerhead sea turtle eggs and hatchlings .\nindustry standard king crab packs contain 1 . 5 pounds of\nbroken\ncrab per 20lb . box\ngtcp researchers 2010 / 11 noticed a quite unusual specimen of golden ghost crab ( ocypode convexa ) in the monitored gnaraloo rookery at the end of november 2010 . golden ghost crabs ( ocypode convexa ) are found frequently along gnaraloo beaches and have a very distinct yellow colour . however , the individual spotted had an unusual pattern of red colouration .\nthis animal is also known as \u201csand crab\u201d or \u201cwhite crab\u201d . these are also known as \u201cmole crabs\u201d .\nstudies have shown the density of ghost crab harvesting to be around 3000 - 5000 every km every year .\nstudies on the ecology and behaviour of the ghost crab , ocypode cursor ( l . ) in northen cyprus\nin russia , king crab have been historically overfished and area closures have not been effective in the face of continued illegal , unreported and unregulated fishing . seafood watch warned that russia\u2019s commercially important crab stocks , which include golden king crab , have the potential to collapse .\nolden king crab is the smallest of the alaskan king crab species and is found mostly in the aleutian islands .\nbuyer beware : russian king crab is sometimes mislabeled as \u201calaska king crab\u201d and sold in the u . s .\n\u2014model 4a ) . a gaussian model best described the relationship between ghost crab density and beach width ( f = 4 . 65 , p = 0 . 030 ) , with ghost crab density peaking at beaches of intermediate width (\n] and may underlie an increased contribution of alternate or supplemental prey ( i . e . amphipods ) to the ghost crab diet .\n\u2014model 5 ) . significant relationships were found when examining ghost crab tp and the proportion of each principal prey . highest ghost crab tp was generally associated with higher use of mole crabs ( hyperbola model , f = 7 . 75 , p = 0 . 015 ) (\nstrachan ph , smith rc , hamilton dab , talylor ac , atkinson rja . studies on the ecology and behaviour of the ghost crab ,\n) . ghost crabs are highly mobile so prey accessibility is not considered to be a major factor in our working model . assuming constant mortality of ghost crabs over the gradient of resource availability we further anticipate that ghost crab population abundance will be elevated at intermediate beach width sites (\nknott , d . 2010 .\natlantic ghost crab : ocypode quadrata\n( on - line ) . accessed june 06 , 2011 at urltoken .\nthe recreational fishery for all rock crab species , including rock crab ( cancer antennarius ) , yellow crab ( cancer anthonyi ) and red crab ( cancer productus ) is open statewide , year - round . the daily bag limit is 35 crab , and the minimum size limit is 4 inches . review crabbing regulations that went into effect on august 1 , 2016 , crab measurement methods ( pdf ) , and other crabbing regulations in the current saltwater sport fishing regulations booklet .\nhaley sr . cycling in the ghost crab , ocypode quadrata ( fabr . ) ( brachyura , ocypodidae ) . crustaceana . 1972 ; 23 : 1\u201311 .\nsmall beach crab , about 2 inches across , yellow coloration . very shy !\npetrochirus diogenes ( caribbean hermit crab ) for the cynic philosopher diogenes of sinope .\nmost king crab is delivered live to shore - based processors and cooked while live and then brine frozen ; some king crab is processed on board catcher processors .\nmorrow k , bell ss , tewfik a . variation in ghost crab trophic links on sandy beaches . mar ecol prog ser . 2014 ; 502 : 197\u2013206 .\nglaze for king crab should be 3 - 5 % so it\u2019s recommended that periodic glaze tests be done on crab legs to make sure you\u2019re not paying for water .\nsteiner aj , leatherman sp . recreational impacts on the distribution of ghost crabs (\nrecreational impacts on the distribution of ghost crabs ( ocypode quadrata , fab . )\nj . w . pepper says it a number of times in\nthe man with the golden gun\nwhile speaking to some asians in bangkok .\nmitchell , p . 2007 .\nghost crab : hungry nocturnal ghosties\n( on - line ) . mitchells publications . accessed june 06 , 2011 at urltoken .\ni am a park ranger in florida . i will be doing a ranger program on ghost crabs soon . a couple of pics of the ghost crab fossils would be great to add to the program ! thank you ! hope you see this comment .\nking crabs are found in the north pacific ocean and primarily fished in alaska and russia . they are relatively slow to mature , making them vulnerable to fishing pressure . a 2015 assessment of aleutian islands golden king crab indicated that the stock is healthy and the crab are being fished at a sustainable level , according to seafood watch .\nthe eyes of ghost crabs allow 360\u02da vision because they are positioned on mobile stalks .\nuse clams and oysters or even old vegetables and fish to your crab . repetition in diet can tire your crabs and make their survival difficult . try to find out which foods your crab like . feed that often to your crab and also balance it with other foods .\nshields , j . 1998 .\nthe ghost crab , ocypode quadrata\n( on - line ) . virginia institute of marine science . accessed june 06 , 2011 at urltoken .\nanother arthropod method of achieving all - round vision is to have eyes on mobile stalks , like the ghost crab .\n( foy and oxford scientific films 1982 : 124 )\njonathan p . green ( 1964 ) .\nmorphological color change in the hawaiian ghost crab ocypode ceratophthalma ( pallas )\n. the biological bulletin 126 ( 3 ) : 407\u2013413 .\namong all metrics of beach physical setting , only beach width was found to have a significant relationship with contribution of prey types to ghost crab diets . mean proportion of each of the three principal prey of ghost crabs , determined using stable isotopes and the siar mixing model (\n) . however a significant negative relationship between ghost crab tp and the proportion of coquina clams in their diets was recorded ( f = 6 . 43 , p = 0 . 024 ) (\nhobbs ch , landry cb , perry je . assessing anthropogenic and natural impacts on ghost crabs (\n) , displayed significant relationships with beach width using a stepwise regression analysis . however , the nature of the relationship displayed between beach width and proportion of each principal prey in ghost crab diets differed (\n) that predicted the availability of prey resources and ghost crab dietary composition along a gradient of beach width and associated micro - habitats important to prey . over the 16 beaches examined , we found evidence to support the predicted relationships from the working model across the range of beach morphology . although most beaches contained populations of all three principal ghost crab prey , the variation in habitat conditions displayed with increasing beach width were accompanied by quantifiable shifts in ghost crab diet and trophic position . furthermore , the observed patterns of trophic position of ghost crabs suggest that these predators may augment diets of principal prey in fundamentally different ways along the continuum of beach sizes . below we discuss these findings in more detail .\nking crab is sold as sections , claws , legs , and split legs bandsawed down the middle .\nprey component coding as follows : coquina clam ( donax variablis ) white ; , amphipod ( talorchestia spp . ) grey ; , mole crab ( emerita talpoida ) black . ghost crab isotopic signatures were assessed from muscle tissue collections ( n = 3\u20137 crabs / site ) between may 2010 and july 2012 .\n) . specifically , the proportion of mole crabs in ghost crab diets exhibited a significant ( f = 6 . 97 , p = 0 . 019 ) but negative linear trend with increasing beach width (\n] and may help explain the strong patterns of highest ghost crab density being recorded on beaches of intermediate width reported here . however , despite these limitations , our study provides new details on diets and trophic position given our use of longer - term , integrated measures of ghost crab diets ( stable isotopes ) and a dynamic food web approach . this may better allow the relative \u201csampling efforts\u201d of the ghost crabs themselves to reveal the most regular pattern of feeding across the diversity of habitat morphologies where they live [\nbecause of their dark skin , which can blend into the night , making them ghost - like .\n) in relation to beach width . the relationships between amphipods as a dietary component and ghost crab density with beach width were modeled using a gaussian distribution , y = [ - 0 . 5 ( ( x\u2014x\ngolden king crab in the u . s . are managed by the national marine fisheries service and the north pacific fishery management council . in 2009 , alaska\u2019s king crab derby fishery was replaced by a catch share system that incentivizes fishermen to fish more efficiently . management measures include stock assessments , harvest limits , gear restrictions , and observer coverage . management strategy implementation varies , though , so some stock data is limited . seafood watch called king crab management in alaska moderate to highly effective . in russia , illegal , unreported and unregulated fishing of crab is nearly twice the total allowable catch . citing 2014 research from the world wildlife fund , seafood watch noted poor enforcement , tracking , and recordkeeping in russia . while bilateral agreements between russia and major crab importers have reduced iuu fishing , it still remains so high for crab that the stocks are at risk of collapsing and seafood watch gave the russian far east commercially important crab fisheries a critical rating .\nhaley , s . r . 1969 . relative growth and sexual maturity of the texas ghost crab , ocypode quadrata ( fabricius ) ( brachyura , ocypodidae ) . crustaceana 17 : 285 - 297 . [ links ]\nin malaysian myths , cancer was the \u201cfirst and only crab\u201d which existed long ago , the primal or mother crab from which all crabs came . it was a huge crustacean who lived in a deep hole in the sea . this hole was so large that the crab\u2019s coming and goings from it would cause the ocean tides .\nin alaska , pots targeting golden king crab can incidentally catch a range of fish and invertebrates including octopus , pacific cod , sponges , sea stars , and coral . however , overall bycatch is very low and the species caught are not of conservation concern , seafood watch reported in 2015 . management measures for u . s . king crab include restrictions on gear and fishing areas that reduce bycatch . pots are required to have minimum mesh size limits as well as degradable escape or timed release mechanisms to prevent ghost fishing .\ngreek & roman mythology cancer the crab was known by several names . in latin , the name cancer means crab . manilus and ovid both referred to this constellation as litoreus or \u201cshore - inhabiting . \u201d in greece , it was karkinos , meaning crab . in the alfonsine tables , it was called carcinus , a latinized form of the greek word . aside from being known as a crab , it was also called asses and crib .\nred king crab is the largest and most common species of the alaskan king crab species and accounts for 75 % of the alaska catch , with more than 90 % of that caught in bristol bay . alternatively , g\ni\u2019m originally from rhode island but currently living in central florida . i was sitting on the beach in cocoa and all of sudden i felt a tickle on my toe . i sit up to find a white and yellow crab at my feet . i was so shocked to see this crab so close to me and not to mention how this crab touched my toe . very interesting and beautiful crab . came on here to find more info .\n) . based on our model , the trophic position of ghost crabs is predicted to be similar across the range of beach widths . the main sources of the ghost crab diet are all primary consumers which often use macrophyte materials , particulate in the swash zone or as detritus in the wrackline , as their main source of nitrogen [\n\u2026a species of ghost crab ( ocypodinae ) that is widely distributed across the eastern coasts of the americas , ranging from rhode island to southern brazil . like other ghost crabs o . quadrata typically inhabits sandy beaches where lives in burrows under the sand . atlantic ghost crabs are fairly opportunistic omnivores with their diet including items like bivalves , insects , plant material , detritus and sometimes other crustaceans . like the closely related fiddler crabs atlantic ghost crabs have two different sized claws , however this difference is not as pronounced as seen in fiddler crabs as ghost crabs uses noise ( either produced by \u201cbubbling\u201d , stridulation , or hitting their claw on the ground ) to attract potential mates .\nhere we explored whether diet and trophic position of a principal predator of sandy beaches\u2014the atlantic ghost crab\u2014living in an aquatic - terrestrial coupled system display a strong relationship to changes in habitat morphology created by a combination of physical parameters driven principally by beach width ( fig 1 ) . we a priori established a working model ( fig 2 ) that predicted the availability of prey resources and ghost crab dietary composition along a gradient of beach width and associated micro - habitats important to prey . over the 16 beaches examined , we found evidence to support the predicted relationships from the working model across the range of beach morphology . although most beaches contained populations of all three principal ghost crab prey , the variation in habitat conditions displayed with increasing beach width were accompanied by quantifiable shifts in ghost crab diet and trophic position . furthermore , the observed patterns of trophic position of ghost crabs suggest that these predators may augment diets of principal prey in fundamentally different ways along the continuum of beach sizes . below we discuss these findings in more detail .\nthe crab can move on the sand at about 10 miles per hour and is able to change is direction suddenly .\n) , examples of dietary shifts were observed for atlantic ghost crabs as physical features of habitats varied along a gradient of increasing beach width . for most beaches , macroinfauna from swash zones composed a large proportion of ghost crab diets . as beach width increased , macrofaunal resource availability in the swash shifted from mole crabs to coquina clams . we observed the highest occurrence of mole crabs in ghost crab diets at narrow ( < 30 m ) beach sites best represented by fpic and pen . these narrow sites also have relatively steep swash zones and coarse sediments which are preferred by mole crabs [\n] . ghost crabs from some narrow sites which supported high mole crab densities ( cc , ind ) did not display a high proportion of mole crabs in their diets perhaps indicative of reduced resource accessibility . specifically , ghost crabs are poor swimmers and may avoid some feeding areas if strong wave action is present . in contrast , the highest occurrence of coquina clam resources in ghost crab diets was recorded at wide ( > 50 m ) beach sites best represented by fper , org and aug , which hosted moderately - sized sediments and shallow slopes known to be preferred by coquina clams [\n] . better documentation of ghost crab behavior and accessibility to resources , including the consumer\u2019s ability to forage in strong wave surge , fine or densely - packed sediments and macrophyte wrack is desirable ; such information will improve our working model and help evaluate the assumption that ghost crabs have access to all food resources on every beach . additionally , investigations of ghost crab feeding in response to the presence of their own native ( herons , gulls , raccoons ) and introduced predators ( foxes , feral cats , dogs ) as well as competitors ( plovers , sandpipers , and turnstones ) may be informative [\nocypode ( ocypode ( ghost crab ) ) is prey of : rattus duscicyon crocethia alba charadriiformes conepatus larus belcheri larus pipixcan tropidurus based on studies in : peru ( coastal ) this list may not be complete but is based on published studies .\nocypode ( ocypode ( ghost crab ) ) preys on : diatoms in surface film aves emerita analoga excirolana diptera phaleria dermestes calliphora based on studies in : peru ( coastal ) this list may not be complete but is based on published studies .\n) . proportional contribution of coquina clams to ghost crab diets displayed a positive linear relationship with beach width ( f = 21 . 11 , p < 0 . 001 ) and this was the strongest relationship revealed in the stepwise regression analyses (\nscaptia ( plinthina ) beyonceae lessard 2011 ( horse fly ) named after singer - songwriter beyonc\u00e9 knowles , inspired by her hit single\nbootylicious\nand the dense patch of golden hairs on the fly ' s abdomen .\nbe sure to check that the count is correct ; king crab are graded by the number of walking legs per 10 pounds . hence , a 20 - pound box of 9 / 12 count king crab should contain 18 - 24 walking legs .\nit is omnivorous , meaning it feeds on both animals and plants . it can also devour other crabs and detritus . the creature feeds on snails , clams , turtle hatchlings , lizards and small crabs . ghost crab foods also include organic matter .\nwe propose a simple model of ghost crab feeding along a gradient of beach morphology ( fig 2 ) . we use beach width as our principal metric of habitat morphology as it best integrates a number of physical parameters of the sandy beach habitat where ghost crabs live including beach slope , median sediment grain size , and availability and quality of macrophyte wrack [ 43 , 55 , 56 ] . we predict that diet composition of ghost crabs will vary over beach width mainly reflecting prey availability as preferred micro - habitats and distinct feeding modes of each prey ( mole crab , coquina clam , amphipod ) vary as described earlier ( figs 1 and 2 ) . ghost crabs are highly mobile so prey accessibility is not considered to be a major factor in our working model . assuming constant mortality of ghost crabs over the gradient of resource availability we further anticipate that ghost crab population abundance will be elevated at intermediate beach width sites ( fig 2 ) . here both principal swash prey ( mole crab , coquina clam ) and elevated populations of semi - terrestrial amphipods , associated with localized deposition of suitable macrophyte wrack subsidies ( fig 1 ) , are all available for consumption allowing enhanced survival and growth of ghost crabs ( fig 2 ) . based on our model , the trophic position of ghost crabs is predicted to be similar across the range of beach widths . the main sources of the ghost crab diet are all primary consumers which often use macrophyte materials , particulate in the swash zone or as detritus in the wrackline , as their main source of nitrogen [ 33 , 47 ] . thus the trophic position of the predator should remain relatively unchanged regardless of what combination of the three principal prey are consumed . however , some degree of omnivory , scavenging of carrion or microphagous depositing feeding , may lead to altered trophic positions of ghost crabs [ 11 , 38 , 49 ] .\nschlacher ta , w m . a . , schoeman ds , olds ad , huijbers cm , connolly rm . golden opportunities : a horizon scan to expand sandy beach ecology . estuar coast shelf s . 2015 ; 157 1\u20136 .\nregardless of what the case is , the crab is awarded a place in the heavens as a constellation by hera . as the crab failed to kill hercules , it only has faint stars that make it up ; no bright stars are found within it .\nzeta cancri \u2013 also known as tegmine , meaning \u201cthe shell of the crab\u201d is a star system of at least four stars .\nthe eyestalks are tipped with a tuft of bristles ( setae ) . the eyestalks are held vertically when the crab is active .\nthe ghost crab is relatively small and , being almost translucent with flecks of pink and yellow , it is well camouflaged against the sand . if you manage to see one up close , you will notice its eyes are on the end of long stalks .\npombo m , turra a . issues to be considered in counting burrows as a measure of atlantic ghost crab populations , an important bioindicator of sandy beaches . plos one . 2013 ; 8 ( 12 ) : e83792 . wos : 000328882000113 . pmid : 24376748\nall active ( i . e . , evidence of recent excavation ) ghost crab burrows within transects were enumerated during all six sampling periods at all sites , with the exception of sgsp and sgp ( april 2011 and july 2012 ) and ana , aug , av and fper ( july 2012 ) , to estimate ghost crab density ( # individuals / 100 m 2 ) . burrow density is considered a reasonable proxy of relative abundance across sites [ 37 , 56 ] despite any differences to absolute numbers [ 61 ] . ghost crabs were sampled after dusk using nets , placed on ice and stored at \u22124\u00b0c in the laboratory for isotopic analysis .\namong all metrics of beach physical setting , only beach width was found to have a significant relationship with contribution of prey types to ghost crab diets . mean proportion of each of the three principal prey of ghost crabs , determined using stable isotopes and the siar mixing model ( fig 5 and s2 table ) , displayed significant relationships with beach width using a stepwise regression analysis . however , the nature of the relationship displayed between beach width and proportion of each principal prey in ghost crab diets differed ( fig 6 ) . specifically , the proportion of mole crabs in ghost crab diets exhibited a significant ( f = 6 . 97 , p = 0 . 019 ) but negative linear trend with increasing beach width ( table 1 \u2014model 1 , fig 6a ) . a positive linear relationship between amphipod dietary proportion and physical beach parameters was also well described by beach width ( f = 5 . 61 , p = 0 . 033 ) ( table 1 \u2014model 2a and fig 6b ) . the relationship remained significant ( f = 4 . 10 , p = 0 . 041 ) when a gaussian model was applied to the peaked pattern ( table 1 \u2014model 2b and fig 6b ) . proportional contribution of coquina clams to ghost crab diets displayed a positive linear relationship with beach width ( f = 21 . 11 , p < 0 . 001 ) and this was the strongest relationship revealed in the stepwise regression analyses ( table 1 \u2014model 3 and fig 6c ) . among other beach physical features , only sediment size indicated a marginal ( p = 0 . 091 ) contribution to the relationship with coquina clams ( table 1 \u2014model 3 ) . additionally , attempts to describe the relationship between ghost crab density and physical parameters of the beach using a step - wise linear approach failed ( table 1 \u2014model 4a ) . a gaussian model best described the relationship between ghost crab density and beach width ( f = 4 . 65 , p = 0 . 030 ) , with ghost crab density peaking at beaches of intermediate width ( table 1 \u2014model 4b and fig 6d ) . again , no other metric of beach physical setting contributed significantly to pattern of ghost crab densities observed across beaches ( table 1 \u2014model 4b ) .\n( a ) mole crab ( emerita talpoida ) ; ( b ) amphipod ( talorchestia spp . ) ; and ( c ) coquina clam ( donax variablis ) , . ( d ) log 10 - transformed mean density of ghost crab ( o . quadrata ) in relation to beach width . the relationships between amphipods as a dietary component and ghost crab density with beach width were modeled using a gaussian distribution , y = [ - 0 . 5 ( ( x\u2014x a ) / ( b ) ) 2 ] ( table 1 ) . regression coefficient ( r 2 ) and level of significance ( p - value ) are indicated for each relationship .\nlucrezi s , schlacher ta . the ecology of ghost crabs in : hughes rn , hughes dj , smith ip , editors .\nvalero - pacheco e , alvarez f , abarca - arenas lg , escobar m . population density and activity pattern of the ghost crab , ocypode quadrata , in veracruz , mexico . crustaceana . 2007 ; 80 ( 3 ) : 313\u201325 . isi : 000246010000005 .\nwith increasing maturity , the crab begins to lose its external skeleton . it comes off at a point , only to be replaced by a new , slightly larger shell . the new shell takes some time to harden and until that happens , the crab remains vulnerable .\nis one of the largest of the brachyuran crabs . metamorphosis into the first crab stage takes place at the surf - beach interface .\nharryhausenia boyko , 2004 ( fossil sand crab ( crustacea : anomura : albuneidae ) ) for movie animator ray harryhausen ( 7th voyage of sinbad , jason and the argonauts , etc . ) . he animated a sand crab for the movie\nthe mysterious island .\nking crab is low in saturated fat and a good source of vitamin b12 , phosphorus , zinc , copper , and selenium . it\nmartin stevens , cheo pei rong , & peter a . todd ( 2013 ) .\ncolour change and camouflage in the horned ghost crab ocypode ceratophthalmus\n. biological journal of the linnean society 109 : 257\u2013270 . doi : 10 . 1111 / bij . 12039 .\nthe ghost crabs belong to the genus ocypode which translates as swift foot . an apt name for what is potentially one of the fastest animals on the planet , if you account for body size , of course . the horn - eyed ghost crab has been clocked at around 7 . 5 km / h . although that doesn\u2019t sound like much , they are actually moving at 100 body lengths per second compared to the fastest human sprinters and the cheetah which can only reach speeds of 11 and 20 body lengths per second , respectively . so , if a ghost crab was of comparable size , they\u2019d be running at something close to 340 and 530 km / h !\neffigia okeeffeae nesbitt 2007 . ( archosaur ) from ghost ranch , new mexico , near where the artist georgia o ' keeffe lived .\nrelationship between : ( a ) ghost crab trophic position and beach width and b - d ) ghost crab trophic position and dietary proportion of three principal prey items ( s2 table ) . principal prey are : ( b ) mole crab , emerita talpoida ; ( c ) amphipod , talorchestia spp . ( data point for sgsp excluded from regression , see results and discussion ) ; and ( d ) coquina clam , donax variablis . the dietary component of e . talpoida was modeled using an exponential saturating hyperbola , y = a ( 1 - e - bx ) . regression coefficient ( r 2 ) and level of significance ( p - value ) are indicated for each relationship .\nyou will probably only catch a quick glimpse of this fast - moving crab as it races across the sand and disappears into a burrow .\nhas fleshy claws and legs with sweet , rich meat , and crab caught later in the year tends to have a higher meat fill .\nneves , f . m . & c . e . bemvenuti . 2006 . the ghost crab ocypode quadrata ( fabricius , 1787 ) as a potential indicator of anthropic impact along rio grande do sul coast , brazil . biological conservation 133 : 432 - 435 . [ links ]\nturra , a . ; m . a . o . gon\u00e7alves & m . r . denadai . 2005 . spatial distribution of the ghost crab ocypode quadrata in low - energy tide - dominated sandy beaches . journal of natural history 39 : 2163 - 2177 . [ links ]\nbasal resource isotopic signatures are for dominant forms ( sg = seagrass , th = thalassia testudinum , syr = syringodium filiforme , ma = macroalgae , sarg = sargassum sp . , two species indicates a mixture of sg materials within beach wrack ( see s1 table ) . halodule wrightii ( sg ) was not considered given its minor contribution to wrack ( see s1 table ) . % of gc diet = percent contribution to ghost crab ( gc ) diet . ghost crab ( ocypode quadrata ) major prey items ( principal resources ) : coquina clam ( donax variabilis ) , mole crab ( emerita talpoida ) , amphipod ( talorchestia spp . ) . ghost crab trophic position ( gc tp ) determined using the following equation : tp gc = [ ( \u03b4 15 n gc \u2212 \u03b4 15 n res ) / 2 . 3 ] + 2 , where \u03b4 15 n gc represents the mean signature ( n = 3\u20139 indiv . ) of ghost crabs ; \u03b4 15 n res represents the weighted mean signature of the three principal resources ; and 2 . 3 is one trophic level change in aquatic environments ( see methods for details ) .\nghost crabs are found in ropical waters , from the kimberley in western australia , northern territory , queensland to sydney , new south wales .\nthe ghost crab stays in the cool protection of its burrow by day and scuttles down to the water at twilight to hunt . the burrow , which is built quite high up on the shore ( sometimes over 100 m from the sea ) , can be over 1 m deep .\nvalero - pacheco , e . ; f . alvarez ; l . g . abarca - arenas & m . escobar . 2007 . population density and activity pattern of the ghost crab , ocypode quadrata , in veracruz , mexico . crustaceana 80 : 313 - 325 . [ links ]\nit wets it gills for two purposes , reproduction and respiration . occasionally , the crab draws up water from moist sand to moisten its gills .\ngaudipluma artal et al . 2013 ( eocene crab ) its carapace resembles the buildings of catalan architect anton\u00ed gaud\u00ed . [ zootaxa 3652 : 343 ]\nborradaile , l . a . ( 1922 ) . on the mouthparts of the shore crab . j . linn . soc . 35 : 115\u2013142\nthe atlantic ghost crab has been described as both a predator and scavenger with its diet thought to consist primarily of swash - zone inhabiting mole crabs ( emerita talpoida ) and coquina clams ( donax variabilis ) , as well as semi - terrestrial amphipods ( talorchestia spp . ) which utilize damp wrack in the supratidal [ 36 , 37 , 44 , 45 ] ( fig 1 ) . all three principal prey taxa provide critical trophic links in sandy beach ecosystems globally but have distinct feeding modes and preferred micro - habitats [ 33 , 46 , 47 ] . ghost crab diets may be opportunistically supplemented by marine carrion , and / or microphagous depositing feeding - either of which may modify ghost crab trophic position , sensu [ 38 , 48 ] , albeit such resources most likely contribute only a small percentage to their diet [ 37 , 49 , 50 ] .\nalbunea groeningi boyko , 2002 ( sand crab ( crustacea : anomura : albuneidae ) ) named for matt groening , creator of\nthe simpsons\n.\nhas been shown to have a negative impact on turtle populations . there have been efforts to control ghost crab populations due to their predation on turtle eggs . studies have found that ghost crabs consume up to 10 % of turtle eggs when they prey on a nest , and they have also been known to prey on the hatchlings . measures to control populations around turtle nesting sites have included destroying burrows and using raccoons that prey on the crabs .\nthomas j . trott ( 1988 ) .\nnote on the foraging activities of the painted ghost crab ocypode gaudichaudii h . milne edwards & lucas in costa rica ( decapoda , brachyura )\n. crustaceana 55 ( 2 ) : 217\u2013219 . doi : 10 . 1163 / 156854088x00546 . jstor 20104392 .\ni\u2019m writing a field report on ghost crabs right now ( ocypode quadrata ) . i\u2019d be very interested in reading the paper you\u2019ve got = ) .\nfor most estuarine beaches , lower burrow densities were observed during winter compared to summer sampling . this is probably related to seasonal differences of ghost crab rhythms , with low activities during cold days as already recorded for o . quadrata in other beaches ( haley 1969 , leber 1981 , alberto & fontoura 1999 ) .\nin what follows , we broaden an earlier examination of the diets of the widely distributed atlantic ghost crab , ocypode quadrata , [ 43 ] to encompass 16 barrier island beaches along the sub - tropical gulf of mexico and atlantic coasts of the united states and make predictions about the changing structure of food webs that accompany the gradient of physical attributes of the surveyed beaches . identifying conspicuous changes in the conversion of carbon and nitrogen by a major predator\u2014the ghost crab\u2014across a range of sandy beach morphology is a critical first step in describing food web configurations and their variation over time and space [ 10 , 27 , 47 , 54 ] .\nthe crab has club - shaped eyestalks and it boasts of a 360\u00b0 vision . this helps it see and catch insects that are even in mid - air .\ncurrently , ghost crabs are not considered threatened or endangered . one of the main threats to ghost crabs is off - road vehicles ( orvs ) . the orvs can crush or bury the crabs and interfere with their reproductive cycle . orvs can greatly affect ghost crabs at night when they are feeding . another threat is a decline in their habitat ; construction in the upper intertidal zone for residential or commercial use can caused increased mortality and a potential decline in the population .\nthe relationships between the mean proportion of each of the three diet components and the physical parameters ( beach width , foreshore slope , median sediment grain size and wrack biomass ) across all sites were examined using least squares forward stepwise regression analysis within the statistics module of sigmaplot version 13 . 0 . stepwise regression selects independent variables for a multiple linear regression equation from a list of candidate variables to avoid using extraneous variables in the model . the diet component proportions were first transformed ( \u221aarcsine ) to address the potential problems of constraints in the covariance , correlation structure and subsequent interpretation linked to the use of compositional data [ 73 ] . for those relationships where stepwise linear regression did not yield significant results and exhibited non - linear tendencies to the structure of the data , appropriate non - linear models were applied using individual physical parameters . stepwise regression analysis was also used to investigate the relationship between ghost crab density and beach physical parameters ( mean beach width , foreshore slope , median sediment grain size and wrack biomass ) . mean burrow density , as the proxy for ghost crab abundance , was transformed ( log 10 ) to meet assumptions of normality [ 74 ] . stepwise regression analysis was also used to examine the relationships between ghost crab trophic position and beach physical parameters . finally , linear and non - linear models were applied to relationships between proportions of the diet ( mole crab , amphipod , coquina clam ) and ghost crab trophic position .\nghost crabs have been used as indicators for measuring the impacts of human use on beaches . their population is relatively easy to monitor ; the density of ghost crabs on a beach can be estimated by counting the number of burrows in a certain area . population densities have declined due to habitat modification and heavy , continuous trampling . because ghost crabs are apex predators of the habitat , monitoring their population can allow humans to assess the impact of human activity on sandy beach ecosystems .\nis considered semiterrestrial . it has developed an interesting adaptation for life on land : a crab will occasionally will return to the water to wet its gills ; however it can also get water from damp sand . ghost crabs use fine hairs on the base of their legs to wick water from the sand up onto its gills .\nprevious studies of brazilian populations of ghost crabs were based on the reproductive cycle and recruitment ( negreiros - fransozo et al . 2002 ) and spatial distribution in a southern high - energy oceanic sandy beach ( alberto & fontoura 1999 ) and in low - energy tide - dominated sandy beaches ( turra et al . 2005 ) . in the latter , anthropogenic impact on ghost crab density may be confounded by natural response to high environmental heterogeneity that are characteristic of low - energy sandy beaches .\nghost crabs construct simple to complex deep burrows in soft sandy and / or muddy substrates . they can be found in sandy beaches , rubble flats , and in\nthe strong hairy legs of this animal make it run very fast and achieve speeds of about 10 miles per hour . this makes this crab the fastest among all crustaceans .\nalbania \u2013 in south albania , there is the katallani \u201cthe catalan\u201d a monster which relies on the historical catalan occupation of the region centuries ago used to scare children . in south italy , there is the gogoli , \u201cthe mongol\u201d another historical use of the golden horde that is used to frighten children into behaving .\nfinland \u2013 here , the bogeyman is known as m\u00f6rk\u00f6 . in the moomin stories , the m\u00f6rk\u00f6 or groke is a frightening , dark blue and big ghost like creature .\nalthough ghost crab diets have been described from several locations , little information exists on the variation in their diets that may be expected across the broad spectrum of beach morphology despite the ghost crab\u2019s wide distribution and importance to the function of sandy beach ecosystems [ 37 , 42 , 44 , 51 , 52 ] . in lakes , modification of prey populations , predator diets , trophic position and degree of omnivory has been observed along gradients of lake morphology reflecting differences in predator access to particular food web compartments supporting important prey [ 9 , 27 ] . similarly , in sandy beaches , based upon known distribution and preferred habitats of the main prey of ghost crabs ( see fig 1 ) ( mole crabs , coquina clams , and semi - terrestrial amphipods ) [ 5 ] and invertebrate community composition [ 17 , 40 , 53 ] , the relative availability of the most commonly accessed prey change in response to altered beach width , substrate type and slope . thus the gradient of sandy beach morphologies may be viewed as a series of micro - habitat compartments ( swash zone , wrackline ) varying in prey accessibility and availability which should have implications for links to higher trophic level consumers ( i . e . ghost crab ) ( fig 1 ) .\n\u2018ocypodid\u2019 ( ghost and fiddler ) crabs are \u2018 semi - terrestrial \u2018 ( spending time on land and in the water ) , living on sandy beaches , mud flats and mangroves . they can spend long periods of time out of the water by keeping their gills moist via special gill chambers that extract oxygen from the air . their eyes are stalked , which means they can be laid flat within the grooves on their shell or raised for a better look around . they take shelter in their cool burrows above the high tide water mark during the day and come out at night in search of food . they feed on plants , animals ( turtle hatchlings included ! ) and micro - organisms . the golden ghost crab is only found along the western australian coast , from bunbury to exmouth . they are relatively small growing to a carapace width of 45 millimetres .\nwhile all races in chinese are refered to as a type of ghost / shadow ( sub - human ) , the word for japanese is unique in that it means child .\nbarros , f . 2001 . ghost crabs as a tool for rapid assessment of human impacts on exposed sandy beaches . biological conservation 97 : 399 - 404 . [ links ]\ntrophic position ( tp ) of ghost crabs ranged from 3 . 7 ( anc , beach width = 32 m ) to 1 . 9 ( ana , beach width = 67 m ) . the stepwise regression procedure revealed that beach width was the single physical beach parameter that contributed to a useful model description with tp decreasing significantly ( f = 20 . 35 , p < 0 . 001 ) as beach width increased ( table 1 \u2014model 5 and fig 7a ) . slope , sediment size and wrack biomass did not add predictive power ( p > 0 . 268 ) ( table 1 \u2014model 5 ) . significant relationships were found when examining ghost crab tp and the proportion of each principal prey . highest ghost crab tp was generally associated with higher use of mole crabs ( hyperbola model , f = 7 . 75 , p = 0 . 015 ) ( table 1 \u2014model 6 and fig 7b ) and / or amphipods ( f = 21 . 44 , p < 0 . 001 ) ( table 1 \u2014model 7 and fig 7c ) . however a significant negative relationship between ghost crab tp and the proportion of coquina clams in their diets was recorded ( f = 6 . 43 , p = 0 . 024 ) ( table 1 \u2014model 8 and fig 7d ) .\nhughes , d . a . 1966 . behavioral and ecological investigations of the crab ocypode ceratophthalmus ( crustacea : ocypodidae ) . journal of zoology 150 : 129 - 143 . [ links ]\nghost crabs can make very good pets if properly looked after . if you are planning to breed these crabs in your home , here are some steps that you have to follow .\nmating can occur throughout the year . unlike other crab species , ghost crabs can mate even when the female\u2019s integument is hard , which means that they can mate anytime after sexual maturation . this is an adaptation to terrestrial life . mating occurs while both the male and the female have a hard shell . usually mating will occur somewhere in or near the burrow of the male . often copulatory plugs are found in ghost crabs ; the male will release a seminal fluid along with his sperm that will become hard and prevent rival sperm from reaching the female\u2019s ova .\nchiromantes garfunkel davie & ng , 2013 ( garfunkel ' s bright - eyed crab ) named for art garfunkel in tribute to his song\nbright eyes\n. [ zootaxa 3609 : 1 ]\npakistan \u2013 the bhoot or jin baba is used by parents to scare children into behaving . this creature is a ghost djinn . in other places it is known as kathu ki maa .\nbarros f . ghost crabs as a tool for rapid assessment of human impacts on exposed sandy beaches . biol conserv . 2001 ; 97 ( 3 ) : 399\u2013404 . isi : 000166790200012 .\nyes , we study bird nest productivity on our florida state park beaches and ghost crabs have been documented in eating snowy plover eggs , chicks and make attempts at eating adult plovers . they also eat least tern eggs and harass least tern adults on nests . we have some footage on youtube looking at defense mechanisms feigning broken wing to lure ghost crabs away from snowy plover nests .\nmesoparapylocheles michaeljacksoni klompmaker et . al . 2012 ( fossil hermit crab ) discovered on the same day that the researchers learned of pop superstar michael jackson ' s death , and named in his honor .\n] , the relative availability of the most commonly accessed prey change in response to altered beach width , substrate type and slope . thus the gradient of sandy beach morphologies may be viewed as a series of micro - habitat compartments ( swash zone , wrackline ) varying in prey accessibility and availability which should have implications for links to higher trophic level consumers ( i . e . ghost crab ) (\nthe modern - day symbol for cancer is a pair of pincers like those on a crab . the constellation shape for cancer itself looks more like an upside - down \u201cy\u201d which is interpreted to be the back of the crab . over the millennia , the cancer constellation has been used to represent a number of different animals , most often those of an aquatic , shore - dwelling animal with an exoskeleton .\nschlacher , t . , s . lucrazi . 2009 . monitoring beach impacts : a case for ghost crabs as ecological indicators ? . 2nd queensland coastal conference , gold coast : 1 - 15 .\nthe crab , cancer enters the story here as either the hydra called on it for help or the goddess hera sent it to hinder the hero hercules . it\u2019s considered a large crab , large enough that it tries to do a number on hercules\u2019 foot with its pincers . for all its trouble , hercules simply kills it by crushing it in return with his foot and then turning his attention back to the hydra and finally succeeds at killing it . a slight variation to this turn of events places hercules as having kicked the crab hard enough that it flew up into the heavens to become the familiar constellation of cancer .\nsteiner , a . j . & s . p . leatherman . 1981 . recreational impacts on the distribution of ghost crabs ocypode quadrata fab . biological conservation 20 : 111 - 122 . [ links ]\nalpha cancri \u2013 also known as acubens or al zubanah , both meaning \u201cthe claws . \u201d another name for this star is sertan , \u201cthe crab . \u201d it is the fourth brightest star of the cancer constellation ."]}
{"id": 2000, "summary": [{"text": "there were two military orders known as the order of our lady of bethlehem .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "mathew paris mentions that henry iii of england authorized them to open a house in a suburb of cambridge in 1257 ; but he does not mention their founder , where they originated , and their history .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "their habit was similar to that of the dominicans and that a red star , whose five rays emanated from an azure centre , decorated the breast of their cape .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this was in commemoration of the star that appeared to the magi and led them to bethlehem .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "nothing further is known of this military order .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "there was an order of knights whose members wore a red star on their costume because of having a house in bethlehem at the time of the crusades ; this was the military order of crusaders of the red star ( ordo militaris crucigerorum cum rube\u00e2 stell\u00e2 ) .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they came from palestine to bohemia in 1217 , and blessed agnes of bohemia confided two hospitals to their charge .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "they have since remained in that country where they devote themselves to the care of the sick , to education , and to the various works of the ecclesiastical ministry .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "after the taking of constantinople by the turks ( 1453 ) , pius ii founded the order of our lady of bethlehem .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the purpose of these knights was to defend the island of lemnos which cardinal louis , patriarch of aquileia , had recaptured from mohammed ii .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the island was to be their headquarters from which they were to oppose the attacks of the muslims by way of the \u00e6gean sea and the hellespont .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the order was composed of brother-knights and priests governed by an elective grand-master .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the white costume worn by the members was decorated with a red cross and the rule prescribed for them was very similar to that of the knights of st. john of jerusalem .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the pope founded this community on 18 january 1459 .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "to supply their needs , the pope turned over to them the property and revenues of older orders which no longer fulfilled their purpose , such as : the order of saint lazarus , sainte-marie du ch teau des bretons , bologna , order of the holy sepulchre , santo spirito in sassia , st. mary of the crossed friars , and st. james of lucca , all of which were suppressed for this purpose .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "pius ii alluded in a bull to this foundation and the bravery of its knights , but the second capture of lemnos by the turks rendered the institution useless .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "thus the order of our lady of bethlehem was suppressed almost as soon as founded and those orders whose goods the pope had transmitted to it were re-established . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "order of our lady of bethlehem", "paragraphs": ["dedicated to our lady of bethlehem and known under the name of bethlehemites . mathew\nrendered the institution useless . thus the order of our lady of bethlehem was suppressed almost as soon as founded and those orders whose goods the\nmade by the pope himself runs : \u201cto our humble son , the prince luigi cesario amoroso , the inherited supreme magister of the order of our lady of bethlehem , and to all beloved knights of the order , we give our apostolical blessing\u201d .\n( 1686 ) , and instituted the order of the star of our lady before returning to his alleged dominions .\nfrom the 18th of january 1944 , that the prince pietro amoroso d\u2019aragona is the direct descendant and inheritor of amorites \u2013 phrygian cesarean dynasty with the title \u201ccesarean highness\u201d . by the same edict he recognized the order of our lady of bethlehem and the order of st . john of acre and st . thomas , has accepted from the prince pietro amoroso d\u2019aragona the title of big cross of the order of our lady of bethlehem (\norder of our lady of bethlehem knights grand cross equestrian order of saint mary of bethlehem grand cross star . breast star , 82 mm , silver gilt with brill size : 3 . 5\nprovenance : lifelong military medal collection . consigned by the private chicago , il family of the collector .\ntoday the association of the knights of the order of our lady of bethlehem under the guidance of the prince angelo maria amoroso d ' aragona is defining their main mission as charitable help to ill and distressed people .\nwas thoroughly equipped and stocked and even offered an opportunity for the religious installment of those who tended the sick . the institution was placed under the patronage of our lady of bethlehem .\nthe order of our lady of bethlehem ( it . ordine militare e ospedaliero di s . maria di betlemme ) is the military order founded on 19th january 1459 by pope pius ii for defending of the island of lemnos ( bull : \u00abveram semper et solidam\u00bb )\nwithin the bounds of cooperation , the latin patriarch of jerusalem the supreme prior of the order of holy sepulchre of jerusalem michel sabbah has visited the residence of the supreme magister of the order of our lady of bethlehem in bari ( via vittorio veneto 5 ) on the 10th of january 1988 . the chevaliers of the bethlehem order headed by the supreme chancellor the marquis paolo cecconato ( on the photo ) .\non the 26th of october 1980 , the chevalier of the order of our lady of bethlehem bartolo longo ( 10 . 02 . 1841 \u2013 05 . 10 . 1926 ) was blessed by catholic church , and was also named in the encyclic of the pope john paul ii as \u201crosarium mariae\u201d - \u201cthe apostle of rosary\u201d . his beatification has become a sensational event in the history of the knights of the bethlehem order . his portrait in knight\u2019s of the order of our lady of bethlehem full regalia was placed into the main hall of \u00abpontificio santuario di pompei\u00bb ( pompey , italy ) .\nfounded an order of our lady of bethlehem , intending to transfer to it the possessions of older orders which no longer fulfilled their purpose ( 1459 ) , but the loss of the island prevented its institution . the same fate befell the german order of the christian militia , projected ( 1615 ) under\nduring the pontificate of pope john paul ii , the relations with the order of our lady of bethlehem are moving to the positive directions . on the 26th of july 2002 , in the hall called \u201csala nervi\u201d , in vatican , the audience of the knights of the order of our lady of bethlehem and pope john paul ii took place . the event gathered 50 delegates from the different regions of italy , who came together with children and grandchildren . during the audience , the st pope was granted with the painting \u2013\nthe period from the xviii until the first part of xx century can be considered as the blossom of the activity of the order of our lady of bethlehem , the one of the most favorable and important in its history . the knight investitures were recovered since 1730 in the neapolitan kingdom .\nhowever , after the law n 178 from the 1951 , established the \u201corder for the deserts in front of italian republic\u201d and cancelled the special perquisites of all earlier existing knight orders in italy ( except for the order of malta and the order of holy sepulchre of jerusalem ) , the order of our lady of bethlehem is getting the associative status with the residence in bari ( from 1957 up to now days ) .\nthis category consists of the nobly born knights in minimum four generations , inherited the chevalier titles of the order of our lady of bethlehem by the direct men line . the category could only be granted to the representatives of ancient noble families with the right to descent the knight titles .\nas pius ii alluded in a bull from the 16th march 1464 \u00abmagnae devotionis tuae\u00bb : prince dagobert de amorosa , the descend of an ancient caesarean origin byzantine house , is becoming the first inherited supreme magister of the order of our lady of bethlehem . the earl antonio crispo di sira is appointed as chancellor of the order .\nin 1479 the knights of the order suffered defeat and , after the final capture of lemnos by the turks , had to leave the island forever . the remained knights together with the supreme magister moved to naples , italy . from this moment the order of our lady of bethlehem stopped act as a holistic military organization . following the disposition of pope innocent viii , the main part of order\u2019s property came into possession of the order rhodes and malta .\nsince the middle of last century , the counterfeit orders are appearing in italy via the actions of many enterprising\nprinces\nand other persons , who copied the name of their organizations from the famous knight orders . in 1931 , the mgr eftimios yuakim created the fictitious order called \u201cthe order of our st maria lady of bethlehem\u201d ( santa maria nostra signora di betlemme ) , which was convicted by st throne later . the situation became more serious in the 40th , in connection to the annihilation of royal fecial council and removal of the governmental control over the legality of noble titles in italy . up to today there are several counterfeit orders with the different interpretations of the name of our lady of bethlehem : \u201capostolic order of our lady of bethlehem\u201d and \u201cthe order of knights of bethlehem order of east\u201d launched by the \u201c adopted descendants\u201d of amoroso d\u2019aragona ( \u201cprince\u201d antonio ii tiberius dobrinya d\u2019aragona and \u201cprince\u201d pier pasle de sharne ) . similar examples are : \u201cecumenic hospitaller order of st . john chevaliers of malt\u201d and \u201cthe order of st constantine and st george\u201d , created by the \u201cprince\u201d francesco amoroso komnenos angelo flavio lascaris paleologo d\u2019aragona . such organizations were never recognized and have nothing in common with the line of amoroso d\u2019aragona and its history , what was proved many times by the legal descendant and current head of dynasty the prince angelo maria amoroso d ' aragona .\n. almost at the same time there arose in castile the order of calatrava and in leon the order of alcantara .\n, as in palestine , to supply their place with a permanent order . this order adopted the\nit\u2019s worth to mention , that the document was issued after the infamous publications of l\u2019osservatore romano ( 1933 , 1938 ) . the decretal is stressing the independent from time and politics situation status of knight institution of the line of amoroso d\u2019aragona . finally , the royal civil court held in bari on the 20th june 1945 , \u2116 3383 r . g sentenza \u2116 . 786 and the court \u2116 4419 r . g . sentenza \u2116 1006 , 1945 , both have confirmed the dynastic rights of supreme magister of the order of our lady of bethlehem and the competence of official performance of the chevalier\u2019s titles for knights of the order , despite the fascist period publications of vatican ( osservatore romano , rivista araldica ) , mentioning that these issues are containing many incorrect information about the order of our lady of bethlehem .\nthe following pages will provide you with more detailed information about our life including who we are , our daily schedule of liturgical prayer and work , vocational and travel information , news updates and homilies . you may also be interested in visiting our retreat house facilities pages and our on - line store pages by following the links at the bottom of this page .\nof henry iv ( 1399 ) . a third order , scottish by origin , is that of the order of the thistle , dating from the reign of james v of\nof francis ii : \u201c\u2026 based on the statute of the military and hospitaller order of st . john of acre and st . thomas , issued on the 24th june 1498 in naples by the prince nicola de amerusio d\u2019 aragona , and the other statute of the the military and hospitaller order of our lady of bethlehem , issued on the 25th march 1730 in naples by the prince filippo augusto amoroso d\u2019aragona , both are recognized further in force . we accept with pleasure the request from applier and wish to provide him with the special certificate of our king favor , in respect with mention and not rebuttable caesarean origin of his ancient family and his numerous prove of affection and faith to our king throne\u2026\u201d\nwas found , and hundreds of italian guerrillas were awarded with it for the heroic participation in the opposition . on the front side of the medal is the half - face of the prince pietro amoroso d\u2019aragona , on the back side are the cross of the order of our lady of bethlehem and following inscription : \u201cfor the praise of them , who saw the light in the darkness , to show the way of freedom and fair . 7th day of october 1943\u201d\nthe same is to be said of the order of st . peter , instituted by\naccording to the opinion of italian heraldic council , the current situation of the order of our lady of bethlehem is categorized as \u201cnon - national orders\u201d in italy . currently , the ministry of foreign affairs of italy is working on the detailed list of such \u201cnon - national orders\u201d , which will consist of the earlier recognized dynastic orders in the kingdom . the council would also pay attention to the orders recognition by tribunals between 1946 ( since the monarchy abolishment ) and 1951 ( the cancellation of the rights of dynastic orders and establishment of \u201corder for the deserts in front of italian republic\u201d ) .\ncurrently the order of our lady of bethlehem is consisting of more than 1000 members from different countries , among whom about 600 are living in italy . in this country the order is involving 5 provinces . the catania region is considered as most significant according to the number of knights with established special delegature under the patronage the right reverend mgr pio vittorio vigo - incumbent roman catholic bishop of acireale ( cecilia ) . the veneto province with the center in venice is the second significant area under the guideline of mgr rino olivotto .\nretreatants are welcome all year round at our abbey to enjoy some private time in peace and solitude .\nthe candidates to the chevaliers must be introduced by the delegates of the order during the annual capitul in order to prove their deserts and nobility .\n. the knights of st . catherine of sinai are not an order , either secular or regular .\nby way of the \u00e6gean sea and the hellespont . the order was composed of brother - knights and\n, so that they have considered themselves as successors of the order of the collar . after the cession of bugey to\nof an order of the passion of christ ( 1360 ) the text of which has recently been published , but which were never enforced .\nabbey news correction a few days ago it was stated on our daily liturgical schedule page that on friday of . . . read more \u2192\nabbey news moving right along this past week the contractors on our gatehouse renovation project made a good deal of . . . read more \u2192\nfrom the 18th of december 1943 ) and granted the prince with the title gran cordone of the order of st . maurice and lazarus (\nthe abbey of the genesee is home to some 30 contemplative monks belonging to the order of cistercians of the strict observance also known as trappists .\na buyers fee discount of 3 % is extended to those paying by check , cash or money order .\non the 20th june 2009 in munich , bavaria , was found new province of the order for german knights with the head of prelate munich mgr adalbert merlein . the open ceremony of the province was coincided with the 550 anniversary of the order foundation and held in cathedral . the raising to the knighthood of the order of the right reverend apostolic exarch of st throne for the byzantine rite catholic of germany and scandinavia bishop mark crick .\nall delivered in a dark red velvet interior box with the order logo imprinted in gold .\n( 1180 ) , but difficult to distinguish from the order of calatrava , with which it was soon amalgamated .\nin 1924 the supreme magister luigi cesario spiridone amoroso d\u2019aragona ( 1899 \u2013 1931 ) and following him the prince pietro amoroso d\u2019aragona are officially announcing the opposition against the dictatorial regime of mussolini . the knights of the order are creating the center of antifascist opposition called orbet ( the abbreviation is taken from the name \u201cordine betlemme\u201d ) . the center\u2019s history is full of samples of the heroic activity of its guerrilla - knights in different regions of the country . the groups of orbet saved hundreds of jewish families along the whole italy . the guerrillas defended the freedom of the country with the weapon in hands . the center was hunt down by the national socialists under the personal instructions from giacomo suardo , the deputy of the ministry of domestic affairs , later the president of the senate and member of big fascist council until the suspending of mussolini in september 1943 . the order of our lady of bethlehem fall into the black book of vatican as the \u201cunrecognized order\u201d ( the publications osservatore romano l ' osservatore romano from 1st june 1933 , rivista araldica ( 1933 fasc . x , p . 479 ) , l\u2019osservatore romano 25th august 1938 ) .\nin the 80th years the cooperation with the directions of the oldest knight order , which was found in the time of crusade and existing up to now - the order of holy sepulchre of jerusalem ( ordo eguestris s . sepulcri hierosolymitani ) , is outlined . the supreme magister and the supreme prior of this order , in accordance with the rule , are appointed from the high hierarchy of catholic church by the pope .\nby the decretal from the 2nd february 1860 , the king of the kingdom of the two sicilies francis ii bourbon has confirmed the inherited character of the supreme magistracy of the order and rank it as the second dynastic order of caesarean family name amorosa d\u2019 aragona , along with the order of st . john of acre and st . thomas ( founded by the prince aminado de amerusio in 1205 ) , which was also the prosperity of the family by inherited right .\nin the 50th years of xx century , following the act \u2116178 from the 3rd march 1951 , the st throne announced its recognition only of the order of malta ( smom ) and the order of holy sepulchre of jerusalem , leaving without mentioning the other knight\u2019s institutions , equal to the \u201crecognized\u201d ones by the history and glorious past . the dynastical orders of the house of amoroso d\u2019aragona and the order of former house of savoy , together with many others , were ignored by the st throne .\nthe order gains the auspices from the side of powerful prelate of roman curia , the cardinal alfredo ottaviani , who served as secretary of the holy congregation of the special spirituals in 1928 - 1929 , and further as deputy of governmental vatican secretary . among the cavaliers of the order in that period we can meet a lot of hierarchs of catholic church , representatives of monarchal families and governmental figures .\nan order of the collar , which held its chapters in the charterhouse ( founded in 1892 ) of pierre - ch\u00e2tel in bugey . here also the knights of the annunziata kept their\non the 18th may 1484 , the king ferdinando i d\u2019 aragona granted to the order the right to allocate on the territory of his kingdom . naples is becoming the new retreat for the knights of the bethlehem order and up to the beginning of xx century the main residence of supreme magister is located here . the prince giovanni de amorosa is gained with the honorable predicate to the family name - \u201cd\u2019 aragona\u201d . the prince died in naples on the 15th september 1519 and was buried in the church san giorgio .\n, it was originally considered a military order , but dissensions arose and each rank chose its own grand master .\nand revenues of the orders of st . lazarus , of sainte - marie du ch\u00e2teau des bretons , of bologna , of the holy sepulchre , of santo spirito in sassia , of st . mary of the crossed friars , and of st . james of\nin 1589 , were not so much a military order as an association of gentlemen who undertook to maintain the public peace in those turbulent times .\n, from the 23rd of may 1949 issued by tribunal of the vico del gargano , has proved the legality of the order in new italian government and the trueness of the documents touching the recognition history of heraldic heritage of the house amoroso d\u2019aragona , including the pope\u2019s bulls , ancient sovereign diplomas and royal decreets of the house of savoy .\nin windsor castle for the holding of chapters . this , the order of the garter , takes its name from the characteristic badge , won on the left knee . the choice of this badge has given rise to various anecdotes of\n( modelled on the former ) , both still in existence . in the same category should be included the order of santiago which spread throughout castile ,\nmutual relationships of the order with st throne often depended on the politic situations in italy and were complex . since the moving from the island lemnos , the order didn\u2019t present reasonable activity for many years . the inherited knights didn\u2019t have own structure for more than two hundred years .\nthe abbey of regina laudis , founded in 1947 in bethlehem , connecticut , u . s . a . , is a community of contemplative benedictine women dedicated to the praise of god through prayer and work . the nuns of the abbey chant the mass and full divine office each day , while expressing the traditional benedictine commitment to manual work and scholarship through various contemporary media and professional disciplines . the mission to praise god at all times is symbolized by the lyre on the abbey ' s crest and by our motto , taken from the book of judith \u2013 non recedat laus :\nthe situation is significantly changes with the coming to power of dictator benito mussolini , who assisted the creation of vatican government , which started it\u2019s politic existence after the signing of lateran agreements in 1929 . the administration of vatican has generated a list of actions aimed to support the politics of fascist government of different countries . the pope pius xi approved the invasion of italy to ethiopia and its occupation , the fascist mutiny in spain and the sending of part of italian army to help franco . on the 20th of june 1933 was concluded the concordat with hitler . finally , within the bounds of reconciliation between the italian government and st throne , by the fascist government of mussolini and sovereign military order of malta was signed concordat ( legislative action # 1029 ) about the mutual official recognition , and following it , the fascist duce is becoming the cavalier of order of malta . the members of his government are granted with the value of the order of malta . we have seen a lot of parade portraits and photos of duce with the white malta\u2019s cross on the neck .\nfrom the 4th of february 1944 ) . the dynastic status of both orders of amoroso house is finally defined in italian kingdom , they are allowed to proceed the new investitures , the chevaliers are permitted to wear openly the order\u2019s signs .\nwhere he died ( 1270 ) , nor of that of the argonauts of st . nicholas , attributed to charles iii , king of\nwithin a limited time , only for the 26 years , i . e . from the 1st january 1904 to 25th september 1930 , the chevaliers of the order has became as following :\n, a feature of all new foundations . one of these was soon undertaken by brother anthony of the cross who sent two of his community to\nthey added that of caring for the sick even at the risk of their own lives . in 1688 brother anthony of the cross , with the help of a\nwas autonomous , all the houses of a military order were bound to contribute their revenues , after deducting expenses , to a central treasury . as a result of this enormous circulation of capital controlled by the orders , their wealth could be applied to financial operations which made them veritable credit and deposit banks . their perfect\nand afterwards solicited admission among them . in 1672 brother roderick of the cross obtained the confirmation of this establishment by the king of\nan income of 3 , 000 crowns . the bethlehemites , because of making only simple\nin 1681 to secure the confirmation of these new institutions . the council of the indies assigned the\nfounded from the abbey of gethsemani in 1951 monastic life at genesee is made up of a balanced daily round of prayer , lectio divina and manual labor in an atmosphere of simplicity , silence and fraternal support .\nin 1944 the groups orbet took part in the \u201cfour naples days\u201d ( quattro giornate di napoli ) significant for the history of italy . the story of that event is related with the heroic defend of naples from the nazi occupation . naples was the first european city released by insurrectionary forces . in 1944 the residence of the supreme magister was moved to rome , the building situated on the central street via del corso 26 , near to famous piazza del popolo . in 1949 the same building was used for the patronato nazionale assistenziale ordine betlemme \u2013 the national helping fond of the order , which approve the efficiency of organization and coordination of the charity work of orbet during the hard postwar period . in honor of these events , the special\n, exclusive of princes of the blood and foreign princes , with st . george as its patron and with its\nby the special permission of governmental authorities , the status \u201cnon - national orders\u201d was granted only to a few orders of royal bourbon house of the two sicilies . it is expected that soon the same status would get the orders of other sovereign dynasties , including the houses of amoroso d\u2019aragona .\n, of which the knights of livonia thenceforward formed one branch under a provincial master of their own ( 1238 ) . their possessions , acquired by conquest , formed a principality under\naccording to the records in pope\u2019s bull , the inherited name of supreme magister is becoming the possession of the amoroso d ' aragona family , the direct descendent of the prince dagobert de amorosa by the branch of his older brother \u2013 the prince giovanni de amorosa .\n, a grand master ( usually the reigning prince ) , and the practice of certain devotions . most of them also asked for the\nwhich compels the belligerent to maintain his military apparatus on a level with those of his adversary , on pain of defeat . the strength of an army was in its cavalry , and to this type the armament , mounting , and tactics of the military orders conformed . the\nabbey news birthday of the church and end of the easter season almost finished . . . . . . with the . . . read more \u2192\nremarkable , that at the same time the analogical tribunal from the 18th july 1945 ( n\u00b0 475 of the royal civil court of naples ) recognized the prince antonio de kurtis galiardi \u2013 focas ( famous in 50th as popular actor of italian cinema under the pen name \u201ctoto\u201d ) as the direct legal descendent of caesarian dynasty the komnenos of byzantium , owing all the rights and privileges of this family . in the contemporary noble catalogues he is stated as \u201chis imperial highness antonio griffo focas flavio ducas komnenos gagliardi de curtis of byzantium\n.\nlacking this official recognition should be expunged from history , even though they figure in the pages of all the old historians of the military orders . as a matter of fact , more than one rule of this kind , scarcely passing beyond the initial stages , has existed , and such are the orders which may be designated\ncopyright \u00a9 2017 by kevin knight . dedicated to the immaculate heart of mary .\nat midnight in the midst of a great throng . in 1654 he made a\nto defend the immaculate conception even at the peril of his life . he died , exhausted by labour and penance , 25 april , 1667 , at the age of forty - eight . his funeral was impressive and at the request of the\n, the rule bound the brethren to the exercises of the monastic life such as the recitation of the hours , for which , in the case of illiterates , a fixed number of paters was substituted . it also prescribed their dress and their food , and their feast , abstinence , and fast days . lastly , the rule imposed detailed\nof the work . the favour was granted , but pedro died before the messenger ' s return . from that time the community prospered , beginning with the extension of the\nall content copyright \u00a9 the abbey of the genesee . webmaster , sojourner web design studio\ndomain , and as such had a sacred character which placed them beyond liability to profane uses or to secular imposts . they differed from the temporalities of other monastic institutions only in the centralized system of their administration . while within each of the other religious institutes every\n, devoted lives of these religious won them esteem and gratitude . they were especially admired during the plague of 1736 , a fact unanimously acknowledged by the writers who describe the condition of latin america in the eighteenth century . but this did not prevent their suppression , as well as that of all other religious , in 1820 . at that time their superior - general resided in mexico and the bethlehemites were scattered throughout two provinces , that of\nand that a red star , whose five rays emanated from an azure centre , decorated the breast of their cape . this was in commemoration of the star that appeared to the\nhelpers soon joined pedro de betancourt and at length was formed a congregation of brothers generally known as bethlehemites and so called on account of their house . but the care of the sick did not totally absorb their attention ; they likewise lent their assistance in the two other\nwhich were also barracks , combining with the passive obedience of the soldier , the spontaneous submission of the religious , living shoulder to shoulder in brotherly union , commander and subordinate , these orders surpassed , in that cohesiveness which is the ideal of every military organization , the most famous bodies of picked soldiery known to history , from the macedonian phalanx to the ottoman janissaries .\n, which was republished later in 1932 , 1945 and 1949 . it listed the family names of noble and knight degrees granted by the princes amoroso d\u2019aragona as to direct descendants and heritors of former caesarean house\namoriense\n( found by mihail ii travl , the caesar of byzantium in 820 \u2013 829 ) and to the ranked as supreme magister of own dynastic orders .\nincluding twenty - two houses and that of new - spain , eleven . to the ordinary religious\nin accordance with the willing of the prince luigi amoroso d\u2019aragona ( 1959 \u2013 1996 ) , from the 1992 , the right to be granted for the titles of both dynastic institutes of house amoroso d\u2019aragona was extended to orthodox christians and protestants , although earlier there were only the catholic knights .\nprince dagobert de amorosa closed his eyes on the 5th of october 1482 in naples and was buried in the church of st dominica - s . domenico maggiore di napoli . he didn\u2019t have children .\n, pedro was born at villaflora on the island of teneriffe in 1619 . from childhood he led a\nthe hospitaller bethlehemites , or belemites , were founded by the ven . pedro de betancourt . a descendant of the celebrated juan de betancourt , who , early in the fifteenth century , achieved the conquest of the\nshop for fresh breads baked by the brothers of genesee abbey , along with coffee , cakes and more .\n, pictured by the earl antonio crispo . the pope passed the apostolic blessing to the knights and all the attending . the audience was finished by ceremonial representative of the military honors by swiss guards of the st throne .\n; beyond this it has left but little trace except a church of remarkable architecture , st . nicholas , at\nand country , thus carrying out his desire of going to the west indies . during the following year he reached\nconfirmed the congregation and its constitutions ( 1673 ) . after his return to america this religious founded the hospital of\n, has served as a model for all the others . after barely a century of existence , they were suppressed by\nplease help support the mission of new advent and get the full contents of this website as an instant download . includes the catholic encyclopedia , church fathers , summa , bible and more \u0097 all for only $ 19 . 99 . . .\nin 1558 , to watch over and preserve that sanctuary . these distinctions were mostly granted to functionaries of the pontifical chancery .\n, had recaptured from mohammed ii . the island was to be their headquarters whence they were to oppose the attacks of the\nand the erection of a beautiful church . brother anthony , who assumed the government , drew up constitutions which he submitted to the\nin 1468 , failing to perpetuate their existence , owing to the lack of territorial possessions , gave place to a purely secular confraternity .\nhelp us make the future plans of the monastery a reality . we would be grateful for your contributions as we renovate the monastery .\nde curtis griffo focas\u201d is the second imperial dynasty , recognized at the same period in italy equally to the house of amoroso d\u2019aragona .\nabbey news schedule change friday , june 8th feast of the sacred heart mass 10 am followed by adoration until vespers . . . read more \u2192\nthe natural beauty , silence and solitude of the verdant genesee river valley so conducive for the contemplative life provides an ideal location for the monastery .\nwith which they decked themselves , and which they distributed among their dupes lavishly \u0097 though not gratuitously . hence came a whole category of orders justly considered\nabbey news schedule change this thursday , may 10th , is ascension thursday , a holy day of obligation . mass will be at . . . read more \u2192\nby tradition , the ceremony of accepting the new chevaliers is hold in italy , in cathedral san sabine , bari , and in the church san salvador , rimini .\nabbey news solemnity of st . benedict this coming wednesday , july 11th , we ' ll be joining the entire benedictine family in celebrating . . . read more \u2192\ngoverned by an elective grand - master . the white costume worn by the members was decorated with a red cross and the rule prescribed for them was very similar to that of the\ncalls attention to the former in his\ngrande chronique\n( tr . huillard - br\u00e9holles , paris , 1840 , 8vo , iii , 300 ) where he mentions that henry iii of\nwhere they were very favourably received by the viceroy to whom he had recommended them . doctor antoine * d ' arvila gave them the hospital of notre dame du carmel which he was then establishing at\nmir\u00e6us , origine des chevalier et ordres militaires ( antwerp , 1609 ) ; favyn , histoire des ordres de chevalerie ( 2 vols . , paris , 1620 ) ; bielenfeld , geschichte und verfassung aller ritterorden ( weimar , 1841 ) ; cappeleti , storia degli ordini cavallereschi ( leghorn , 1904 ) ; clarke , concise history of knighthood , ii ( london , 1884 ) ; digby , the broad stone of honour ( london , 1876 - 77 ) ; lawrence - archer , the orders of chivalry ( london , 1887 ) ; see also bibliographies attached to special articles on the several great orders .\nof st . francis , adopting its religious garb which he still retained after founding his congregation . he personally trained his first disciples and had no wish to organize a community , but simply to establish his\nin accordance with the capitul ( cap . \u2116 ix , art . 63 , 64 , 74 ) and decreet of the supreme magister from the 8th december 1994 , each class has its own category :\nhad passed . the orders of any historical existence may be reduced to three categories : ( a ) the greater regular orders ; ( b ) the lesser regular orders ; ( c ) the secular orders .\ncontact information . the editor of new advent is kevin knight . my email address is webmaster at newadvent . org . regrettably , i can ' t reply to every letter , but i greatly appreciate your feedback \u2014 especially notifications about typographical errors and inappropriate ads .\ninvoices will be emailed within 48 hours following the conclusion of the auction . payments can be made by mail , to the following address : centurion auctions4196 w . us highway 90lake city , fl 32055or by telephone : 386 - 868 - 2889we also accept wire transfers . please contact the gallery for wire instructions .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nin those days employed so freely . they did not all follow the same monastic rule . the\nin all its rigour ; they were permitted , in certain orders , to marry once , and that only with a maiden . even where second marriages were tolerated , they had to\nwere the heavy cavalry ; the men - at - arms - brethren , the light cavalry . the former were entitled to three horses a piece ; the latter had to be content with one . among the former , only\nnihil obstat . october 1 , 1911 . remy lafort , s . t . d . , censor .\nas to their founder , where they originated , and their history . we only\nalso excited his compassion . every thursday he begged for them through the city and visited them in their cells . the neglected\nhe was buried in their church where , for a long time , his remains were held in veneration .\nrequested him to make some alterations in the habit worn by his religious . a free\nand observed the same rule as the men and they , too , were suppressed in 1820 .\nh lyot , histoire des ordres monastiques , iii , 355 - 356 ; viii , 371 - 372 ; baronius , annales ecclesiastici ( lucca , 1753 ) , xxix , 179 - 180 ; heimbucher , die orden und kongregationen , i , 497 - 498 ; de montalvo , vida del venerable pedro de san jos betancourt ( rome , 1718 ) ; eyzaguirre , los intereses cat licos en am rica ( paris , 1859 ) , ii , 304 - 306 , 408 - 410 .\nnihil obstat . 1907 . remy lafort , s . t . d . , censor .\nsince the 1730 , the prince filippo augusto amoroso d\u2019aragona ( 1722 \u2013 1744 ) is resuming the chivalric investitures in neapolitan kingdom .\nin 1903 the knights headed by the great magister the prince luigi cesario amoroso d\u2019aragona ( 1899 \u2013 1931 ) were put up by pope pius x on the private audience . the inscription in the document\nthe category is granted to the chevaliers born in noble , or raised to a squireship now days .\nthe category is associated with the chevaliers distinguished by a special deserts , whose ascendants by women line belonged to a noble families , or without the noble origin .\n( viadell ' immacolata , 13 - 31100 treviso tel . 0422 - 261892 fax 0422 - 1780767 )\nwelcome to the world ' s largest marketplace for fine art , antiques & collectibles .\ndomestic : insured , traceable shipping charges will be added to invoices . international : traceable shipping service ( we cannot insure international shipments ) . buyers receive a shipping notification by email when their items ship . once paid , please allow up to 14 business days for items to ship . local pickup is also available by appointment .\nsince 2002 , liveauctioneers has made exceptional items available for safe purchase in secure online auctions .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nnotice : cookies are required to make purchases on this web site . please enable\nfirst - party\ncookies in your browser .\nsecond - party\n,\nthird - party\n, or\ntracking\ncookies are not used on this web site .\nnotice : this website is best viewed with javascript enabled . please enable client - side scripting in your browser .\nthank you for visiting us . if you have any questions or concerns , for further information , or to report problems with these pages contact us .\npyx khs 2 1 / 8\nx 1 / 2\n$ 20 . 00\nthese are 14 kt gold plated , 925 sterling as well as bronze plating .\nofficial name abbaye de la clart\u00e9 - dieu ( dem . rep . congo )"]}
{"id": 2005, "summary": [{"text": "oenomaus ortygnus , the aquamarine hairstreak , is a species of butterfly of the lycaenidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found from brazil through central america to tamaulipas , mexico .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "rare strays may be found up to southern texas .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of low elevation wet and dry tropical forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the wingspan is 30 \u2013 38 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the upperside is blue with black borders and the underside is gray with a pink sheen .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there are no submarginal or postmedian lines .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there are three or four black spots on the hindwings .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing from january to november in mexico .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on annona species .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they bore into and feed upon the buds , flowers and fruits of their host plant . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "oenomaus ortygnus", "paragraphs": ["new host plant records for oenomaus ortygnus ( cramer ) ( lepidoptera : lycaenidae ) in mexico .\nnew host plant records for oenomaus ortygnus ( cramer ) ( lepidoptera : lycaenidae ) in mexico . - pubmed - ncbi\nthis is the first record of oenomaus ortygnus ( cramer ) damaging fruits of ilama ( annona diversifolia ) and extends the butterfly distribution for three states in mexico .\nthis is the first record of oenomaus ortygnus ( cramer ) damaging fruits of ilama ( annona diversifolia ) and extends the butterfly distribution for three states in mexico .\noenomaus ortygnus ; [ nacl ] , # 4294 ; [ bow ] : pl . 67 , f . 20 ; [ opler ] ; [ nl4a ] , # 880\ncalvo r ( 1998 ) reproducci\u00f3n de oenomaus ortygnus ( lepidoptera : lyacaenidae ) en barva , heredia , costa rica . rev biol trop 46 : 101 - 104 . [ links ]\noenomaus isabellae faynel , 2006 ; bull . soc . ent . fr . 111 ( 2 ) : ( 137 - 156 ) ; tl : french guiana\nfaynel c ( 2006 ) le genre oenomaus h\u00fcbner , 1819 , en guyane fran\u00e7aise ( lepidoptera , lycaenidae ) . bull soc entomol fr 111 : 137 - 156 . [ links ]\nfennah rg ( 1937 ) lepidopterous pests of the sour - sop in trinidad . ( 2 ) thecla ortygnus cramer . trop agric 14 : 244 - 245 . [ links ]\nfaynel c ( 2008 ) le genre oenomaus h\u00fcbner , 1819 , en guyane fran\u00e7aise . 2 e partie ( lepidoptera , lycaenidae ) . bull soc entomol fr 113 : 15 - 32 . [ links ]\npe\u00f1a & bennett ( 1995 ) reported 296 species of neotropical insects associated with annona ( annonaceae ) , among them , the borers , such as bephratelloides cubensis ( ashmead ) ( hymenoptera : eurytomidae ) , cerconota anonella ( sepp ) ( lepidoptera : elachistidae ) , and oenomaus ortygnus ( cramer ) ( lepidoptera : lycaenidae ) , are the main pests causing economically important damages to the crops .\noenomaus ortygnus has been found in 12 states of mexico ( fig 2 ) ( godman & salvin 1887 - 1901 , kendall 1975 , raguso & llorente - bousquets 1990 ) . the report of kendall ( 1975 ) of females ovipositing and larvae feeding on the fruits of annona globiflora schltdl . ( annonaceae ) in ciudad mante , tamaulipas , is the only information available so far for mexico . to update the status of this pest in mexico , we inspected the most important annona growing areas from march 2008 to february 2009 .\nall fruits of a . reticulata and a . diversifolia attacked by o . ortygnus showed necrosis ( fig 1a ) . larvae are usually found under the dead tissue ( fig 1b ) , feeding on the fruit pulp . one to five larvae may be found per fruit . in the laboratory pupation occurred on the external surface of the fruit ( fig 1c ) as observed by calvo ( 1998 ) with a population of o . ortygnus at the estaci\u00f3n experimental santa l\u00facia , barva , heredia , costa rica .\nfive fruits of annona reticulata l . that showed damage by o . ortygnus were collected in march 2008 in tepalcingo , morelos ( 18\u00ba35 ' n , 98\u00ba50 ' w , elevation 1169 m ) . six fruits of a . diversifolia safford with the same damages were found in september 2008 in cacahuamilapa , guerrero ( 18\u00ba40 ' n , 99\u00ba30 ' w , elevation 1163 m ) . three fruits of a . reticulata were attacked by o . ortygnus in february 2009 in zacapala , puebla ( 18\u00ba35 ' n , 98\u00ba03 ' w , elevation 1254 m ) . collected fruits were placed in plastic containers ( 40 x 21 x 12 cm ) and covered with cheesecloth so that adults could not escape . the samples were incubated at 26 \u00b1 1\u00bac and relative humidity of 50 % . five adults of o . ortygnus , from larvae reared on these fruits , emerged in the lab .\nthe present report increases the knowledge about o . ortygnus in two ways : it adds a new record of annona as larval host plant and extends the known distribution of the butterfly for the morelos state in mexico . adults were deposited in the fruit pest collection at fundaci\u00f3n salvador s\u00e1nchez col\u00edn cictamex , s . c . , coatepec harinas , estado de m\u00e9xico , m\u00e9xico .\nalthough the presence of o . ortygnus has been often noticed on bullock heart ( a . reticulata l . ) , soursop ( a . muricata l . ) and cherimola ( a . cherimola mill . ) ( dom\u00ednguez - gil 1978 , calvo 1998 , coto & saunders 2001 , beccaloni et al 2008 ) , we found no evidence that this butterfly damaged soursop and cherimola in our surveys . we visited orchards in las varas , nayarit ( 21\u00ba11 ' n , 105\u00ba08 ' w , elevation 40 m ) and coatepec harinas , estado de m\u00e9xico ( 18\u00ba45 ' n , 99\u00ba45 ' w , elevation 2119 m ) in july , august , and november 2008 , other insect pests were recorded attacking a . muricata as b . cubensis and talponia batesi heinrich ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) on cherimola , respectively .\nthe authors acknowledge dr . robert k . robbins ( national museum of natural history , smithsonian institution ) for important comments , corrections , and for reviewing the manuscript . for sharing with us information on the geographical distribution of o . ortygnus in mexico , we thank dr . jorge llorente - bousquets , dr . mois\u00e9s armando luis - mart\u00ednez , dr . isabel vargas - fern\u00e1ndez ( museo de zoolog\u00eda\nalfonso l . herrera\n, departamento de biolog\u00eda evolutiva , facultad de ciencias , universidad nacional aut\u00f3noma de m\u00e9xico ) , and dr . robert k . robbins . for financial support , md thanks funda\u00e7\u00e3o de amparo \u00e0 pesquisa do estado de s\u00e3o paulo / fapesp ( as part of the project\nsystematics , bionomy , and evolution of neotropical lepidoptera \u0096 process number 02 / 13898 - 0 ) and pr\u00f3 - reitoria de pesquisa of the universidade de s\u00e3o paulo / usp / projeto 1 and m . sc . jorge v\u00e1ldez - carrasco for helping with the illustrations . thanks also to anonymous reviewers for valuable comments .\nupperside blue with black borders . underside gray with a pink sheen ; no submarginal or postmedian lines . hindwing has 3 or 4 black spots .\neggs are laid singly on the host plant ; caterpillars bore into and feed upon the buds , flowers and fruits .\njanuary - november in mexico , strayed to south texas in mid - december .\nbrazil north through central america to tamaulipas , mexico . rare stray to south texas .\ng4 - apparently secure globally , though it might be quite rare in parts of its range , especially at the periphery .\ns . texas , mexico - brazil , surinam , trinidad . see [ maps ]\npanama - brazil ( par\u00e1 , rio de janeiro ) . see [ maps ]\nthecla geba hewitson , 1877 ; ill . diurn . lep . lycaenidae ( 7 ) : 198 , pl . 79 , f . 641 - 642 ; tl : ecuador\nthecla atena hewitson , 1867 ; ill . diurn . lep . lycaenidae ( 3 ) : 92 , pl . 36 , f . 93 , pl . 37 , f . 101 ; tl : brazil , amazon\ne - mail : jshuey at tnc . org ; director of conservation science ; indiana office of the nature conservancy ;\nbutterflies of north america . 2 . scientific names list for butterfly species of north america , north of mexico .\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nupperside iridescent greenish - blue with black borders in males ; pale blue in females . underside gray with an aquamarine band along the trailing edge of the hindwing . hindwing has 3 or 4 black spots .\nvery rare vagrant in the lower rio grande valley of southernmost texas ; normally found from tamaulipas , mexico south to brazil .\nadults are nectar feeders ; us records have mostly been on eupatorium betonicifolium . caterpillars found on plants in the genus annona ; no known host plants or documented reproduction in the us .\nmost recent us record was november 5 2005 , at bentsen - rio grande valley state park . prior to that , november 22 2003 at the naba international butterfly park . two individuals were seen and one collected in brownsville in december 1962 .\nwauer , roland h .\nbutterflies of the lower rio grande valley\nboulder co : johnson books , 2004 .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nnaba checklist of north american butterflies occurring north of mexico - edition 2 . 3\n[ cite : 1318989 this link is a list of just the names including typo corrections , additions and updates to the following checklist : cassie , b . , j . glassberg , a . swengel & g . tudor . 2001 . north american butterfly association ( naba ) checklist & english names of north american butterflies . second edition . north american butterfly association , morristown , nj .\nthe second edition of the checklist includes all 722 species of butterflies that have been recorded in north american , north of mexico and in hawaii , giving both english and scientific names .\na catalogue of the butterflies of the united states and canada - - by jonathan p . pelham\ntaxonomic checklist used on bugguide for butterflies - - does not seem to have a link , so here it is . link updated 16 october 2016 as per comments .\na downloadable pdf file with extensive data on habitats , hostplants , flight dates , and range in the carolinas . you must give an e - mail address to reach the download - - the authors want to inform you of updates . ( this is produced by the north carolina wildlife resources commission , a state agency . ) ( i thought i had posted this before , but cannot find it . )\nsammlung europ\u00e4ischer schmetterlinge , errichtet von jacob h\u00fcbner in augsburg ( 1793\u20131841 ) : updated plates legend .\nseachable database with information on the general classification and the diet and feeding behaviour of the orders of insects and arachnids found in canada\u2019s forest environments . cite : 1463600\nan invaluable site for synonyms , links to original descriptions , literature , and other information . covers the entire world , but tends to have more complete information for european and north american species . a great place to begin literature searches . cite : 1329955\nthe best online resource for moths of great britain and ireland . cite : 1329952\npublisher ' s page glassberg , j . 2018 . a swift guide to butterflies of mexico and central america , second edition . princeton university press , princeton , nj . 304 pp . 3 , 250 color photos and maps a groundbreaking photographic field guide to almost all of mexico ' s butterfly species and many of central america ' s this is a revised second edition of a groundbreaking photographic field guide to the butterflies of mexico and central america . written by jeffrey glassberg , the pioneering authority on the field identification of butterflies , the guide covers more than 2 , 000 species and features over 3 , 700 large , gorgeous color photographs , the very best images available , accompanied by authoritative facing - page text . this second edition includes more species , more than 1 , 500 new photos , and updated text , maps , and species names . and range maps , field marks , and host plants are included for all mexican butterflies . the result is an ideal field guide that will enable you to identify almost every butterfly you see .\na systematic revision of some of the american butterflies , with brief notes on those known to occur in essex co . , massachusetts .\nfull text scudder , s . h . 1872 . a systematic revision of some of the american butterflies , with brief notes on those known to occur in essex county , massachusetts . annual report . peabody academy of science 4 : 24 - 83 .\nby kendall , r . o . , & w . w . mcguire .\nfull pdf kendall , r . o . , & w . w . mcguire . 1984 . some new and rare records of lepidoptera found in texas . bulletin of the allyn museum 86 : 1 - 50 . introduction some of the records treated here have appeared in the lepidopterists ' news ( season summary ) and others in the southern lepidopterists ' news . for historical and biological abstracting purposes they are formalized in this paper , together with appropriate credits and reference citations . it will be noted that these particular species , except for staphylus azteca ( scudder ) and atrytone mazai freeman ( oversightsl , were not included in the 1981 miller and brown catalogue / checklist because their original appearance in the literature was not in a formal publication .\nan annotated checklist of the butterflies of bentsen - rio grande valley state park and vicinity .\ntexas parks & wildlife department , austin . mimeograph pp . 1 - 22 . , 1974\nmcguire , w . w . & m . a . richard . 1974 . an annotated checklist of the butterflies of bentsen - rio grande valley state park and vicinity . texas parks & wildlife department , austin . mimeograph pp . 1 - 22 .\nthe species listed here in are primarily a result of the collecting by the authors during the period 1972 - 1973 . certain important records of the previous several years are also included . additionally , the checklist incorporates records of a number of other lepidopterists . the primary focus of the checklist , then , is upon recent collecting , rather than being an attempt to list all known records from the mid - valley area .\ndurden , c . j . 1990 . guide to butterflies of austin . texola 6 : 1 - 109 . invaluable resource for information on austin ' s butterflies . see : travis county butterfly checklist\nthe butterfly fauna of barton creek canyon on the balcones fault zone , austin , texas , and a regional list .\njournal of the lepidopterists ' society 36 ( 1 ) : 1 - 17 . , 1982\nfull pdf durden , c . j . 1982 . the butterfly fauna of barton creek canyon on the balcones fault zone , austin , texas , and a regional list . journal of the lepidopterists ' society 36 ( 1 ) : 1 - 17 . abstract . diversity of substrate , topography and water supply , and climate and vegetation account for the occurrence of 74 % of the regional fauna along a 1 . 1 km stretch of barton creek . monthly mean weather records for 40 years are analyzed on a bioclimagram and the modes matched with habitat types . 172 species are listed for the ten counties around austin , and range , habitat , abundance , and residency are indicated for the 127 found at the study site .\nbutterflies of the upper frio - sabinal region , central texas , and distribution of fauna elements across the edwards plateau .\njournal of the lepidopterists ' society , 52 ( 3 ) : 229 - 261 . , 1998\nfull pdf gaskin , d . e . 1998 . butterflies of the upper frio - sabinal region , central texas , and distribution of fauna elements across the edwards plateau . journal of the lepidopterists ' society , 52 ( 3 ) : 229 - 261 . abstract . a survey of the butterfly fauna ( 1988 - 96 ) of the upper frio - sabinal region of the southern edwards plateau , texas , is presented . butterflies were observed along transects at five study sites and during repeated opportunistic transects at 12 secondary localities . a total of 28 , 03 . 5 specimens , comprising 100 species was recorded .\ngeyata ajilvsgi . 1990 . butterfly gardening in the south : cultivating plants that attract butterflies . taylor publishing co . , dallas . xii + 342 pp . = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = select quotes from miller ' s review ( full pdf ) : novice and master gardeners in the southern u . s . , particularly in the rio grande valley , texas , have an extraordinary treat in store with this volume . there are special sections of the book devoted to creating a personal butterfly garden and to methods of attracting butterflies , highlighted by personal observations on such topics as the important characteristics of floral nectaries ( color , shape and fragrance ) and how to choose the appropriate plants , with one of my favorites - adopt a weed .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ncasta\u00f1eda - vild\u00f3zola a 1 , nava - d\u00edaz c , duarte m , franco - mora o , hern\u00e1ndez - fuentes lm .\ncentro de investigaci\u00f3n y estudios avanzados en fitomejoramiento , facultad de ciencias agr\u00edcolas , campus el cerrillo , universidad aut\u00f3noma del estado de m\u00e9xico , toluca , estado de m\u00e9xico , m\u00e9xico . acastanedav @ urltoken\nneotrop . entomol . vol . 40 no . 4 londrina july / aug . 2011\nbeccaloni gw , viloria al , hall sk , robinson gs ( 2008 ) catalogue of the hostplants of the neotropical butterflies . cat\u00e1logo de las plantas hu\u00e9sped de las mariposas neotropicales . zaragoza , sociedad entomol\u00f3gica aragonesa vol . 8 , 536p . [ links ]\nclench hk ( 1964 ) a new hairstreak for the united states . j lepid soc 18 : 189 - 190 . [ links ]\ncoto d , saunders jl ( 2001 ) insectos plaga de la guanabana ( annona muricata ) en costa rica . man integr plagas 61 : 60 - 68 . [ links ]\ndom\u00ednguez - gil oe ( 1978 ) insectos perjudiciales del guan\u00e1bano ( annona muricata l . ) en el estado zulia , venezuela . rev fac agron ( luz ) 4 : 149 - 163 . [ links ]\ngodman fd , salvin o ( 1887 - 1901 ) biologia centrali - americana . insecta . lepidoptera - rhopalocera . fam . lycaenidae 2 : 1 - 112 . [ links ]\njanick j , paull re ( 2008 ) the encyclopedia of fruit and nuts . cambridge , cabi publishing , 800p . [ links ]\nkendall o ( 1975 ) larval foodplants for seven species of hairstreaks ( lycaenidae ) from mexico . bull allyn mus 24 : 1 - 4 . [ links ]\nopler pa , lotts k , naberhaus j ( 2010 ) butterflies and moths of north america . ( urltoken ) , accessed on 11 . ix . 2010 . [ links ]\npe\u00f1a je , bennett fd ( 1995 ) arthropods associated with annona spp . in the neotropics . fla entomol 78 : 329 - 349 . [ links ]\nraguso ra , llorente - bousquets je ( 1990 ) the butterflies ( lepidoptera ) of the tuxtlas mts . , veracruz , mexico , revisited : species - richness and habitat disturbance . j res lepid 29 : 105 - 133 . [ links ]\nsociedade entomol\u00f3gica do brasil r . harry prochet , 55 86047 - 040 londrina pr brasil tel . : ( 55 43 ) 3342 3987 editor @ urltoken"]}
{"id": 2038, "summary": [{"text": "gnorimoschema aterrimum is a moth in the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by powell and povoln\u00fd in 2001 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from california .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is about 5.1 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are covered by blackish scales with paler bases without a pattern .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the tornal margin has a mixture of dense cinereous scales tinged with faint ochreous , extending towards the apex .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are nearly translucent , thinly blackish dusted , paler and partly lustrous basally .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on solidago canadensis .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they mine the leaves , creating a full-depth blotch mine . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "gnorimoschema aterrimum", "paragraphs": ["this is the place for aterrimum definition . you find here aterrimum meaning , synonyms of aterrimum and images for aterrimum copyright 2017 \u00a9 urltoken\nhere you will find one or more explanations in english for the word aterrimum . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word aterrimum and , of course , aterrimum synonyms and on the right images related to the word aterrimum .\nhave a fact about gnorimoschema gallaesolidaginis ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for gnorimoschema gallaesolidaginis ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .\nreed , 1930 griswold , t . , and j . s . ascher . . ."]}
{"id": 2073, "summary": [{"text": "the siamese fireback ( lophura diardi ) also known as diard 's fireback is a fairly large , approximately 80 cm long , pheasant .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the male has a grey plumage with an extensive red facial skin , crimson legs and feet , ornamental black crest feathers , reddish brown iris and long curved blackish tail .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the female is a brown bird with blackish wing and tail feathers .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the siamese fireback is distributed to the lowland and evergreen forests of cambodia , laos , thailand and vietnam in southeast asia .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "this species is also designated as the national bird of thailand .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the female usually lays between four and eight rosy eggs .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the scientific name commemorates the french naturalist pierre-m\u00e9dard diard . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "siamese fireback", "paragraphs": ["embed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - siamese fireback ( lophura diardi )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - siamese fireback ( lophura diardi )\ntitle =\narkive species - siamese fireback ( lophura diardi )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe siamese fireback is thought to be omnivorous , feeding on an array of fallen fruits and berries , as well as insects , worms and small land - crabs ( 4 ) .\nthe siamese fireback is currently known to occur in just two protected areas , nam bai cat tien national park in vietnam and xe pian national protected area in laos ( 4 ) .\n: fireback hens , despite not being colorful , their unique markings make them more attractive than other pheasant hens . the siamese fireback hen has no crest , her facial wattles are smaller than the male ' s , but just as bright . the head , throat , chin and neck are grayish - brown ; the upper back and upper breast are bright chestnut . the lower back , wings and tail are chestnut , vermiculated with white and black . the bill is dark gray and the legs and feet are red .\n: this species was once readily available in america , but has somewhat declined over the last 15 years . they do best in a large planted aviary with lots of shade to simulate the forests for which they naturally inhabit . siamese fireback will require good shelter and heat during the colder months in northern climates . provide the birds with plenty of green food and mealworms .\nmcgowan , p . j . k . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . siamese fireback ( lophura diardi ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe siamese fireback is threatened by habitat loss and overexploitation for food and sport ( 4 ) . although this pheasant seems to tolerate considerable degradation of its forest habitat , extensive lowland forest destruction within its range is a concern for this lowland specialist ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . numbers have greatly declined during the past half century and its range has contracted , partly due to habitat changes , but probably more markedly due to excessive hunting and snaring ( 5 ) ( 6 ) .\na lowland resident of evergreen , semi - evergreen and bamboo forest , second - growth and scrub , often seen near open patches such as roads and tracks through the forest . chiefly found below 500 m above sea level , but occasionally up to 800 m , and perhaps even 1 , 150 m ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . the siamese fireback appears to tolerate some degradation of its forest habitat , such as moderate logging and cultivated fields in small clearings ( 5 ) ( 6 ) .\nthe siamese fireback is thought to be omnivorous , feeding on an array of fallen fruits and berries , as well as insects , worms and small land - crabs ( 4 ) . little information is available on the breeding behaviour of this shy bird in the wild , other than that eggs have been collected between mid - april and late june , and that one nest was situated on the ground in a hollow at the base of a tree . clutches seem to contain between four and eight eggs , and are incubated for 24 to 25 days in captivity ( 4 ) . males attain adult plumage in their first year but do not typically breed until their third ( 3 ) . like other\n: very beautiful bird that will attain its adult plumage the first year . the crest is long and made up of purple - black feathers . the facial wattles are bright red , the throat , head and face behind the wattles are black . the breast , neck and upper back is gray with very fine vermiculations . the middle of the back is bright yellow ( hence the name\nfireback\n) , the lower back is metallic blue with chestnut fringes . the tail is long and curved with metallic black , blue and green sheens . the wings are gray with black and white streaks ; the belly and lower areas are black . the bill is yellow , legs and feet red . like other species of\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\n60 - 80 cm . male is a slender grey pheasant with an irridescent green ( can appear black ) tail . long red legs and facial skin . prominent coronal tuft . female lacks crest , has a rufous mantle and underparts and banded wings and tail .\nthis species is listed as least concern as it is more resilient to the threats of habitat alteration and hunting pressure than once thought , thus the rate of population decline is not suspected to be as rapid as was indicated . as habitat loss and hunting are ongoing threats , the population is suspected to be undergoing a slow to moderate decline ; however , this is not thought to approach the threshold for vulnerable . the species is not thought to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under any of the other criteria .\nlophura diardi is found in thailand ( uncommon to locally common resident , principally in the north - east and south - east , c . 5 , 000 individuals estimated ) , laos ( widespread and locally abundant , but heavily snared ) , cambodia ( locally common and widespread ) and vietnam ( locally common and widespread in central and southern regions ) . its total population size has not been recently estimated , although the population in cambodia may be conservatively estimated at c . 2 , 000 individuals ( f . goes in litt . 2011 ) . the species is suspected to be undergoing a slow to moderate decline owing to continued habitat loss and hunting pressure .\nthe total population is suspected to number 20 , 000 - 49 , 999 individuals based on a conservative estimate of c . 2 , 000 individuals in cambodia ( f . goes\n2011 ) and an estimate of c . 5 , 000 individuals in thailand .\nthis species is suspected to be experiencing a slow to moderate population decline owing to continued habitat loss and degradation and on - going hunting pressure .\nit occurs in evergreen , semi - evergreen and bamboo forest , secondary growth and scrub , often near roads and tracks through the forest , chiefly in the plains and foothills to 500 m , but occasionally up to 800 m , and perhaps 1 , 150 m . it seems able to tolerate considerable degradation of its forest habitat . the species occurs in small groups which are presumed to be family parties .\nthe species occurs in a number of protected areas , however they often provide only limited protection against hunting and logging activities ( s . mahood\nincrease the existing protected area network . support governments in their efforts to control illegal logging in south - east asia . determine the current global population size and trend . support efforts to tackle the issue of hunting inside protected areas .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nlittle information is available on the breeding behaviour of this shy bird in the wild , other than that eggs have been collected between mid - april and late june , and that one nest was situated on the ground in a hollow at the base of a tree . clutches seem to contain between four and eight eggs , and are incubated for 24 to 25 days in captivity ( 4 ) . males attain adult plumage in their first year but do not typically breed until their third ( 3 ) . like other lophura pheasants , males of this species perform courtship displays in which they whistle and whirr their wings ( 2 ) .\nfound in southeast asia , from east myanmar , through north , central and east thailand , central and south laos , north and central cambodia to central vietnam ( 4 ) .\nclassified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list 2006 ( 1 ) .\ndel hoyo , j . , elliott , a . & sargatal , j . ( 1994 ) handbook of the birds of the world - new world vultures to guineafowl . vol . 2 . lynx edicions , barcelona .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nomnivore an organism that feeds on both plants and animals . vermiculations wormlike ; often used to describe fine , wavy lines of colour on bird feathers . wattle bare fleshy skin that hangs from the bill , throat or eye of birds .\ndelacour , j . ( 1951 ) the pheasants of the world . country life ltd . , london .\ndel hoyo , j . , elliott , a . and sargatal , j . ( 1994 ) handbook of the birds of the world - new world vultures to guineafowl . vol . 2 . lynx edicions , barcelona .\nflpa - images of nature pages green house wetheringsett stowmarket suffolk ip14 5qa united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 1728 861 113 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 1728 860 222 pictures @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhas alternatively been placed in genus diardigallus , but recent genetic work found no evidence that lophura as currently constituted is polyphyletic # r . the same work identified five clades within lophura , one of which consists of present species and l . ignita ( with l . rufa ) # r . monotypic .\ne myanmar through n , c & se thailand , c & s laos and n & c cambodia to c & s vietnam .\nmale c . 80 cm ( tail 33\u201336 cm ) , one bird 1420 g ; female c . 60 cm ( tail 22\u201326 cm ) , 680\u20131025 g . male distinctive , with mostly grey upperparts , large wattles . . .\nmale gives loud whistling call in advertisement and a repeated \u201cpee - yu pee - yu\u201d ; male . . .\na lowland forest resident . in thailand and laos , inhabits primary and secondary evergreen forest , . . .\nbelieved to be omnivorous , feeding on a variety of fallen fruits and berries , and also insects , worms , small land crabs , etc . also claimed . . .\nmating system apparently polygamous , with dominant male largely monopolizing proximity , and therefore access to all the females in a group . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . previously considered near threatened . mace lande : vulnerable . based on a recent population estimate for whole of thailand of c . 5000 . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nincludes , in tetraonini , all taxa that have commonly been separated in families meleagrididae and tetraonidae .\nbroad molecular study of phasianidae found that lophura forms , together with crossoptilon , one branch of a subclade that also comprises pucrasia , syrmaticus , chrysolophus and phasianus # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : lophura diardi . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 290 , 873 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\npheasants , males of this species perform courtship displays in which they whistle and whirr their wings ( 2 ) .\nkari pihlaviita marked the finnish common name\nsavufasaani\nfrom\nlophura diardi ( bonaparte , 1856 )\nas trusted .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n: very dense forests , bamboo and evergreen from sea - level to 2 , 000 feet .\n, they can grow fairly long spurs that the keeper will need to keep trimmed to prevent injuries to the hen when breeding .\n: not much is known of this specie ' s status in the wild , but with rapid deforestation in its native lands , its outlook can not be good .\nthe species is named for the french naturalist & explorer pierre - medard diard ( 1794 - 1863 ) by ornithologist charles lucien bonaparte who first described the species 1856 .\n: third year , but i ' ve heard from those who have had some second year males that were fertile . males will attain adult plumage the first year , but will have smaller tails than mature birds .\n( l to r ) : 1 , jan harteman ; 2 , myles lamont ; 3 , mel royal .\n. 2nd ed . , world pheasant association and spur publications , hindhead , u . k .\nrobson , c . 2002 . birds of thailand . princeton university press , princeton , nj .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken"]}
{"id": 2095, "summary": [{"text": "pseudohermenias abietana is a species of moth of the tortricidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found from fennoscandia and northern russia to the pyrenees , sardinia and italy and from france to romania .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 14 \u2013 18 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on wing from may to july in one generation per year .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on abies alba and picea abies species .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they mine the needles of their host plant .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "current year 's needles are mined out from a silken tube attached to a twig .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "most frass is ejected into the tube .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "older larvae vacate the mine and live freely , feeding among spun needles .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae are brownish with a shining black head .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the species overwinters in the larval stage . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "pseudohermenias abietana", "paragraphs": ["figure 1 . type material of the tortricidae described by fabricius . a : pyralis abbreviana , b : p . abietana , c : p . abildgaardana , d : p . boscana , e : p . laterana , f : p . lundana , g : p . m i x t a n a , h : p . pflugiana , i : tinea compositella , j : p . daldorfana , k : p . schumacherana , l : p . ro b o r a n a , m : p . bipunctana , n : p . trapezana , o : p . reticulana , p : p . asperana , q : p . isertana , r : p . rivellana , s : p . dorsana , t : p . strigana . scale bars = 5 mm .\nbl\u00e5 punkter visar fynd registrerade i artportalen och \u00f6vriga databaser anslutna till lifewatch . kan inneh\u00e5lla observationer som inte \u00e4r validerade . kartan uppdateras var fj\u00e4rde vecka .\ni det avancerade verktyget kan man s\u00f6ka ut och f\u00e5 fram artlistor , t ex arter i ett visst l\u00e4n , i en viss biotop , substrat , som p\u00e5verkas av en hotfaktor , eller som \u00e4r knutna till en sk v\u00e4rdart , t ex tr\u00e4det alm . dessa kan \u00e4ven kombineras .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , knutna till alm , \u00e4r beroende av d\u00f6d ved och som finns i kronobergs l\u00e4n .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , lever i sm\u00e5vatten och som p\u00e5verkas negativt av igenv\u00e4xning .\ndefaultl\u00e4get i verktyget \u00e4r arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade 2015 och dessa \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga s\u00f6kfaktorer . under fliken r\u00f6dlistekategori kan man dock v\u00e4lja att \u00e4ven inkludera arter som inte \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade . om man v\u00e4ljer att inkludera icke r\u00f6dlistade arter beh\u00f6ver man vara medveten om att samtliga arter inte \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga faktorer . nedan en sammanst\u00e4llning av vad som \u00e4r komplett .\ndenna funktion anv\u00e4nds n\u00e4r du vill skapa din egen lista av arter att hantera . du kan t . ex . navigera mellan arterna i listan genom att klicka p\u00e5 deras namn . du kan ocks\u00e5 v\u00e4lja att anv\u00e4nda knappen \u201dj\u00e4mf\u00f6r arter\u201d f\u00f6r att se bilder , kartor och k\u00e4nnetecken i en j\u00e4mf\u00f6relsevy .\ndu kan komponera ditt eget urval av arter genom att klicka dig fram via sl\u00e4kttr\u00e4det och d\u00e4r v\u00e4lja arter eller artgrupper till din lista . ett annat s\u00e4tt att g\u00f6ra ditt urval \u00e4r att anv\u00e4nda fliken \u201dfiltrera\u201d , d\u00e4r du kan s\u00f6ka p\u00e5 olika egenskaper . ovanf\u00f6r listan med s\u00f6kresultatet finns en knapp \u201dl\u00e4gg i mitt urval\u201d .\nthe mit license copyright ( c ) 2014 - 2016 google , inc . urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\nthe mit license ( mit ) copyright ( c ) 2011 - 2015 twitter , inc permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright ( c ) 2008 - 2013 sprymedia limited urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright 2008 - 2015 martin wendt , urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\nthe mit license ( mit ) - urltoken copyright ( c ) steven sanderson , the knockout . js team , and other contributors urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright ( c ) 2009\u20132015 permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright 2005 - 2014 openlayers contributors . all rights reserved . redistribution and use in source and binary forms , with or without modification , are permitted provided that the following conditions are met : 1 . redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice , this list of conditions and the following disclaimer . 2 . redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice , this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and / or other materials provided with the distribution . this software is provided by openlayers contributors ` ` as is ' ' and any express or implied warranties , including , but not limited to , the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose are disclaimed . in no event shall copyright holder or contributors be liable for any direct , indirect , incidental , special , exemplary , or consequential damages ( including , but not limited to , procurement of substitute goods or services ; loss of use , data , or profits ; or business interruption ) however caused and on any theory of liability , whether in contract , strict liability , or tort ( including negligence or otherwise ) arising in any way out of the use of this software , even if advised of the possibility of such damage . the views and conclusions contained in the software and documentation are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as representing official policies , either expressed or implied , of openlayers contributors .\nyour browser doesn ' t support javascript or you have disabled javascript . please enable javascript , then refresh this page . javascript is required on this site .\neuropean union funding : for a one - year period ( 2017 - 12 - 16 to 2018 - 12 - 15 ) , eppo has been awarded an eu grant for the further development of the eppo code system ( agreement nb : sante / 2017 / gs / eppo / s12 . 768842 ) . the eu commission is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information from this project subsequently included in the eppo global database .\nbaixeras , joaqu\u00edn & karsholt , ole , 2011 , the tortricidae described by j . c . fabricius ( lepidoptera ) , zootaxa 3127 , pp . 1 - 37 : 3\ntype locality . sweden ( \u201chabitat in suecia abiete dom . de paykull\u201d ) .\n) ( karsholt and nielsen 1976 ) . remarks . the lectotype was designated by karsholt and nielsen ( 1976 ) .\nno known copyright restrictions apply . see agosti , d . , egloff , w . , 2009 . taxonomic information exchange and copyright : the plazi approach . bmc research notes 2009 , 2 : 53 for further explanation ."]}
{"id": 2108, "summary": [{"text": "the lovebug ( plecia nearctica ) is a species of march fly found in parts of central america and the southeastern united states , especially along the gulf coast .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it is also known as the honeymoon fly or double-headed bug .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "during and after mating , adult pairs remain coupled , even in flight , for up to several days .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the species was first described in 1940 by d. e. hardy , but was seen in louisiana as early as 1911 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "at that time , he reported the incidence of lovebugs to be widespread , but most common in texas , florida , alabama , mississippi , and louisiana .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "however , by the end of the 20th century the species had spread heavily to all areas bordering the gulf of mexico , as well as georgia and south carolina .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "l. a. hetrick , writing in 1970 , found the bug was also widespread in central and northern florida and described its flights as reaching altitudes of 300 to 450 metres ( 980 to 1,480 ft ) and extending several kilometers over the gulf .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "in 2006 , it was reported as far north as topsail beach , north carolina .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "lovebugs ' larvae feed on partially decayed vegetation in the landscape and , in this respect , are beneficial to humans .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "adults primarily feed on nectar from various plants , particularly sweet clover , goldenrod , and brazilian pepper . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "lovebug", "paragraphs": ["i heard that uf was responsible for releasing the lovebug . is that true ?\ncallahan , p . , h . denmark . 1974 . the lovebug phenomenon .\nyou can read more about lovebug myths and facts at this uf / ifas document .\noriginally an invasive species from central america , the lovebug\u2014harmless to humans\u2014is now found throughout florida .\nyou could become a & apos ; lovebug & apos ; because you are so full of love . someone else could become a lovebug because they are so full of love . to be called a lovebug is the ultimate expression of affection , you are so full of love .\n, proved to be pathogenic to the lovebug and to cause signifigant mortality among larva and adults .\nthe lovebug in florida : setting the record straight ( 3 . 9mb powerpoint ) - uf / ifas\nchemical controls are ineffective , as the lovebug is widespread and continually drifts onto highways from adjacent areas .\nfigure 5 . larvae of the lovebug , plecia nearctica hardy . photograph by james castner , university of florida .\nthe first lovebug messages were intercepted by messagelabs ' skeptic heuristic detection engine just after midnight on 4 may 2000 .\nchambers , s . 1977 . genetic characteristics of a colonizing episode in the lovebug , * plecia nearctica * .\nvan handel , e . 1976 . metabolism of the lovebug * plecia nearctica * ( diptera : bibionidae ) .\nlarval lovebug . photo : dr . timothy a . mousseau , dept of biological sciences , university of south carolina .\nbuschman , l . 1976 . invasion of florida by the lovebug * plecia nearctica * ( diptera : bibionidae ) .\nthornhill , r . 1976 . reproductive behavior of the lovebug , * plecia nearctica * ( diptera : bibionidae ) .\njonas brothers lyrics are property and copyright of their owners .\nlovebug\nlyrics provided for educational purposes and personal use only .\nthe lovebug laboratory is staffed with leading scientists , doctors and medical experts working to pick the prime probiotics for each of our products .\nthornhill , r . 1980 . sexual selection within mating swarms of the lovebug , * plecia nearctica * ( diptera : bibionidae ) .\nthe tool looks at previously analysed malcode to identify potential threats , and blocked lovebug based on characterstics seen in the melissa virus , said fletcher .\nuf\u2019s only significant research on lovebugs came in the early 1970s , when the usda funded studies to determine the extent of florida\u2019s newly arrived lovebug problem .\nlovebug was primitive by today ' s standards , being a simple script virus with clear , unobfuscated code that was easy to understand , said fletcher .\nhieber , c . , j . cohen . 1983 . sexual selection in the lovebug , * plecia nearctica * : the role of male choice .\ncherry r . 1998 . attraction of the lovebug , plecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) , to anethole . florida entomologist 81 : 559 - 562 .\nthis enabled lovebug to spread faster and wider than anything we had seen before ,\nsaid fletcher , chief architect at symantec hosted services , formerly messagelabs .\nlovebugs are an introduced species , and do not have many natural enemies . because of this , lovebug populations continue to grow and move . many people consider\ncherry , r . 1998 . attraction of the lovebug , plecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) to anethole . florida entomologist 81 : 559 - 562 . urltoken\nbuschman ll . 1976 . invasion of florida by the\nlovebug ,\nplecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) . florida entomologist 59 : 191 - 194 .\nhieber cs , cohen ja . 1983 . sexual selection in the lovebug , plecia nearctica : the role of male choice . evolution 37 : 987 - 992 .\nkish , l . , i . terry , g . allen . 1977 . three fungi tested against the lovebug , * plecia nearctica * , in florida .\nchambers sm . 1977 . genetic characteristics of a colonizing episode in the lovebug , plecia nearctica . annals of the entomological society of america 70 : 537 - 540 .\nthis 1975 range map shows the extent of the lovebug invasion ; it is now reported in north carolina and oklahoma . ( figure from cuda & leppla , uf )\nkish lp , terry i , allen ge . 1977 . three fungi tested against the lovebug , plecia nearctica , in florida . florida entomologist 60 : 291 - 295 .\nthornhill r . 1976b . reproductive behavior of the lovebug , plecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america 69 : 843 - 847 .\ntrimble jj . 1974 . ultrastructure of the ejaculatory duct region of the lovebug , plecia nearctica hardy . international journal of insect morphology and embryology 3 : 353 - 359 .\nlovebugs plastered on car . acid from the smashed lovebug bodies etch vehicle paint if allowed to remain on very long . photo credit : tim donovan , florida fish and wildlife\nthe adult lovebug lives only about three to four days , which is just long enough to mate , feed and disperse eggs . a female lovebug can lay an average of 350 eggs , which she deposits under decaying vegetation in grassy or weedy areas . after the eggs are laid , the larvae develop and begin feeding on grass and decomposing leaves . the next phase of the lovebug life cycle is the pupal stage and this can last seven to nine days before lovebugs become adults and start the cycle all over again .\nbuschman , l . l . 1976 . invasion of florida by the\nlovebug\nplecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) . florida entomologist 59 : 191 - 194 . urltoken\nwhitesell . 1974 . heat , sound , and engine exhaust as\nlovebug\nattractants ( diptera : bibionidae : plecia nearctica ) . environmental entomology 3 : 1038 - 1039 .\nvan handel e . 1976 . metabolism of the\nlovebug\nplecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america 69 : 215 - 216 .\na decade after the lovebug computer virus caught the online world by surprise , social engineering is still a popular element of cyber attacks , but it has become far more sophisticated .\ncallahan , p . , h . denmark . 1973 . attraction of the lovebug , * plecia nearctica * ( diptera : bibionidae ) , to uv irradiated automobile exhaust fumes .\nthornhill , r . 1976c . reproductive behavior of the lovebug , plecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) . ann . entomol . soc . amer . 69 : 843 - 847 .\nwhitesell jj . 1974 . heat , sound , and engine exhaust as\nlovebug\nattractants ( diptera : bibionidae : plecia nearctica ) . environmental entomology 3 : 1038 - 1039 .\nvan handel , e . 1976 . metabolism of the\nlovebug\nplecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) . ann . entomol . soc . amer . 69 : 215 - 216 .\nlay their eggs in places with dying vegetation . after hatching , the larva feeds on this vegetation . lovebug larva benefit humans by breaking down dead vegetation and returning it to the soil .\ncallahan , p . s . 1985 . dielectric waveguide modeling at 3 . 0 cm of the antenna sensilla of the lovebug , plecia nearctica hardy . applied optics 24 : 1094 - 1097 .\nthe key thing about the lovebug worm , was that it used social engineering ,\naccording to paul fletcher , a member of the first security team to intercept and name the virus .\nthe lovebug was about wanting to be seen , but most of the e - mail - borne malware of today is designed to steal information , undetected for months or years , said fletcher .\nlovebug life cycle with the approximate duration and size of each stage ( not drawn exactly to scale , adult pair 0 . 6 in . head to head ; partially derived from pinto 2002 ) . the lovebug has two generations each year , emerging as adults in april - may ( winter generation , larvae 240 days ) and august - september ( summer generation , larvae 120 days ) .\nhieber , c . s . and j . a . cohen . 1983 . sexual selection in the lovebug , plecia nearctica : the role of male choice . evolution 37 : 987 - 992 .\ncallahan ps , denmark ha . 1973 . attraction of the\nlovebug ,\nplecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) to uv irradiated automobile exhaust fumes . florida entomologist 56 : 113 - 119 .\nkish lp , allen ge , kimbrough jw , kuitert lc . 1974 . a survey of fungi associated with the lovebug , plecia nearctica , in florida . florida entomologist 57 : 281 - 284 .\nan army isn\u2019t going to win the war if the soldiers don\u2019t make it to the battlefield . that\u2019s why the microscopic soldiers in each lovebug probiotics supplement are guarded by bio - tract \u00ae technology .\nthat\u2019s why lovebug probiotics are carefully created probiotics to benefit everyone . our supplements are geared toward various needs and stages of life , from young infants , to kids , to full - grown adults .\n, nor are there any that particularly feed on the adult fly . lovebugs are considered to be pests to humans . biologists have tested different fungi on lovebug larva as a possibility of biological control .\ncallahan ps , denmark ha . 1974 . the\nlovebug\nphenomenon . proceedings of the tall timbers conference on ecological animal control by habitat management ( march 1973 ) . 5 : 93 - 101 .\nevans he . 1985 . the lovebug . in the pleasures of entomology . portraits of insects and the people who study them . smithsonian institution press , washington , d . c . , 238 pp .\ndenmark , h . a . and f . w . mead . 2001 . lovebug . university of florida , ifas , entomology and nematology department , featured creatures , eeny - 47 . ( urltoken ) .\nmousseau , t . a . 2004 . populations of the lovebug , plecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) go unchecked by predators . bull . royal entomol . society . antenna 28 : 78 - 80 .\nthere\u2019s nothing about the lovebug that would harm florida\u2019s blood - feeding mosquito species . so it\u2019s hard to imagine any competent scientist looking at plecia nearctica and thinking \u201cthis creature could help us control mosquito populations . \u201d\nsome natural enemies of lovebugs are fungi . although more time and research is needed , nine different species of fungi are known to affect lovebug larvae . however , available data indicate that only the fungus beauveria bassiana causes significant mortality levels ( 27 to 33 % ) in adults and immatures . laboratory studies using invertebrate predators found in lovebug - infested pastures indicated that these predators included earwigs , two species of beetle larvae , and a centipede .\nlovebug adults are attracted to light - colored surfaces , especially if they are freshly painted , but the adults can congregate almost anywhere by reacting to the effects of sunlight on automobile fumes , asphalt , and other products .\nkish , l . p . , i . terry , g . e . allen . 1977 . three fungi tested against the lovebug , plecia nearctica , in florida . florida entomologist . 60 : 291 - 295 . urltoken\njack : hows things with jane ? eddi : oh ok , she & apos ; s my lil lovebug . jack : i see , she must really love you then ! eddi : yep : ) emily : hows things with jack ? jane : great thanks ! but i & apos ; m turning into a bit of a lovebug . emily : i guess you & apos ; ve proppa fallen for him then ? jane : yep : )\nbuy lovebug from\na little bit longer\non itunes : song = urltoken video = urltoken more . . . get the free jonas brothers app : itunes = urltoken and android = urltoken more . . . official website = urltoken\nlovebug tablets release the good bugs gradually over an 8\u201310 hour period , delivering billions of helpful organisms deep down into your digestive tract so they can get to work . this technology provides you with the maximum probiotic benefit throughout the day .\ncallahan , p . s . and h . a . denmark . 1973 . attraction of the\nlovebug ,\nplecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) , to uv irradiated automobile exhaust fumes . florida entomologist 56 : 113 - 119 . urltoken\ncallahan ps , carlysle tc , denmark ha . 1985 . mechanism of attraction of the lovebug , plecia nearctica , to southern highways : further evidence for the ir - dielectric waveguide theory of insect olfaction . applied optics 24 : 1088 - 1093 .\ni never understood what all the hype about probiotics was , until now . these products are life changing ! it ' s like i have a brand new digestive system . i am a lovebug convert for life ! kate - san francisco , ca\nduring the past several years , both the april\u2013may and august\u2013september lovebug flights have been substantially reduced in north central florida . this reduction in the population is partly attributed to predators . larvae aggregate in extremely high numbers in pastures and other grassy habitats . this makes them vulnerable to foraging birds . lovebug larvae have been found in the gizzards of robins and quail . although examinations of the stomach contents of armadillos have been negative , observations suggest that they , too , may be excellent predators of the larvae .\nthe lovebug invasion will soon be over for this season , but we can expect a revival in august and september for another four weeks or so . lovebugs don ' t bite , poison , or carry diseases . they are simply an inconvenient nuisance .\nafter a lovebug - filled drive , wash your car with water and scrub it to remove the lovebugs . a hood air deflector or screen will reduce the number of spattered lovebugs on your car . using car wax will protect an automobile ' s paint .\nflorida was one of the last gulf coast states the lovebug moved into . they were initially reported in 1949 , in escambia county \u2013 the county at the westernmost tip of florida\u2019s panhandle . the insect gradually made its way further east and south into peninsular florida .\nare completely dependent upon nectar and pollen as food . lovebugs feed during the day , and are thought to stop feeding in the late afternoon . lovebug larvae use decaying vegetation as a source of food . emerging lovebugs cannot survive more than 24 hours without food .\nlocal reduction of annual burning of woodlands , the development of improved pastures , and the increase of cattle probably have contributed to the presence of larger populations of lovebugs . chemical controls are ineffective as the lovebug is widespread and adults continually drift onto highways from adjacent areas .\nthe slow - moving lovebug , often attached to a mate , is a familiar sight to most people in the southern united states in the summer and early fall . these creatures are well known for splattering bug guts all over people\u2019s cars , generally causing a mess .\nkish , l . p . , g . e . allen , j . w . kimbrough , and l . c . kuitert . 1974 . a survey of fungi associated with the lovebug , plecia nearctica , in florida . florida entomologist 57 : 281 - 284 . urltoken\nlovebug swarms can get so large and thick that drivers cannot see ahead of them . this in turn can create a dangerous hazard . it is quite common to see motorists pulled over waiting for the swarm to pass . only then can they get back on the road and drive safely .\nnow , let\u2019s talk about the really miraculous lovebugs that are anything but a nuisance to humans . lovebug probiotics retain the cutesy name , but nothing else from its namesake . our lovebugs work in quite the opposite way , and support gut health while offering your body hundreds of health benefits simultaneously .\ncallahan , p . s . , t . c . carlysle , and h . a . denmark . 1985 . mechanism of attraction of the lovebug , plecia nearctica , to southern highways : further evidence for the ir - dielectric waveguide theory of insect olfaction . applied optics 24 : 1088 - 1093 .\na number of insecticides have been evaluated for effectiveness in controlling lovebug larvae and adults . most of them kill lovebugs but are impractical because high populations of the insects occur over vast areas of the state . a vacuum cleaner can be used to remove adults from confined areas , such as in buildings and vehicles .\nno parasites have emerged from lovebug larvae or adults held in the laboratory , and few cases of predation have been observed in nature over the years ( hetrick 1970 , mousseau 2004 ) . apparently lovebugs adults are avoided by red imported fire ants , solenopsis invicta buren ( = s . wagneri santschi ) , and other predators but one periodically eaten by spiders , dragonflies , and birds . they have aposematic coloration that implies defensive mimicry but have not been chemically analyzed or tested as food for predators ( dunford et al . 2008 ) . bee keepers report anecdotally that honeybees do not visit flowers infested with lovebugs . fungal pathogens , identified by screening larvae and adults , could be limiting lovebug populations ( kish et al . 1974 , 1977 ) . these fungi include the well - known insect pathogenic genera , metarhizium , beauveria , conidiobolus , and tolypocladium . although not yet studied , lovebug eggs may be subjected to predation or parasitism .\ndunford , j . c . , m . a . branham and j . m . leavengood , jr . 2008 . additional notes on aposematic insects at archbold biological station , florida , with comments on the arrival of the lovebug , plecia nearctica hardy . journal of entomological science 43 : 337 - 343 .\nthe lovebug , plecia nearctica hardy , is a bibionid fly species that motorists may encounter as a serious nuisance when traveling in southern states . it was first described by hardy ( 1940 ) from galveston , texas . at that time he reported it to be widely spread , but more common in texas and louisiana than other gulf coast states .\nthe species was formally described under the name plecia nearctica in 1940 , by an entomology graduate student at the university of kansas , d . elmo hardy . he had witnessed swarms of the insect in texas and louisiana . incidentally , the lovebug had been recognized by scientists even earlier , and was given a provisional scientific name , plecia bicolor .\nsoon after rainy periods in the spring and especially in the fall in the wooded upper coast counties of texas , \u201clovebugs\u201d ( plecia narctica ) emerge as adults and mate in swarms around roads and buildings . in reality , these insects are actually flies . the common name , lovebug , has been given to these black colored , orange - backed flies because they are most often seen flying around in mating pairs .\nthe imminent demise of thousands of lovebugs on the windshield and front of a car will not dissolve the paint . the fluid of a smashed lovebug is not the same as battery acid , but the dead insect will become acidic within 24 hours if allowed to remain baking in the sun on the car surface . experts advise removal as soon as possible , before damage can occur , with scrubbing as a removal technique .\nemerge from their pupal stage ready to mate . males emerge first and hover above the emergence site . male lovebug swarms consist of large males near the ground , medium males in the middle , and small males farthest from the ground . the large males ( closest to the ground ) are able to\npair\nwith the females before the other males . there is evidence of a great amount of male intraspecific competition over females .\nstatus : semi - annual pest . this species ' reputation as a public nuisance is due to its slightly acidic body chemistry ( affecting automobile windshields , hoods , and radiator grills when the vehicles travel at high speeds ) the remains become dried and extremely difficult to remove . research showed that migration explained the introduction of the lovebug into florida and other southeastern states , contrary to the urban myth that the university of florida created them by manipulating dna to control mosquito .\non to a bug that most of us wish was a myth : the lovebug . there ' s a legend that lovebugs were somehow developed by the government to stem the mosquito problem you ' re all probably very aware of down here in florida . supposedly , they were trying to create only a female bug that would attract male mosquitoes , distracting them from actual reproduction . unfortunately , they accidentally created a male as well , and the things bred like crazy .\nsome people consider the lovebug to be among the peskiest alien invasive species to become established in the gulf states . on the contrary , these potentially annoying flies are actually beneficial as larvae because they help to decompose dead plant material . people would also appreciate esthetic aspects of the adults , if these insects were not such a nuisance . like cute little migratory birds , lovebugs signal changes in the seasons from spring to summer and again from summer to fall . moreover , if they were larger , people could easily see and admire their delicate features , particularly the big round eyes of the males . wilhelm rudolph wiedemann named the lovebug genus plecia in 1828 , so his concept for the term may never be known . a reasonable guess , however , is that he applied the greek verb\npleo\nintending to mean\nto sail\n( jaeger , e . c . 1955 ) . lovebugs sail from flower to flower much like butterflies and in smaller numbers could be perceived as beautiful . they have become less abundant over the past 30 years , and people living in the gulf states are beginning to accept them as a normal part of nature . however , newcomers are much less tolerant of lovebugs until they learn that these insects are not dangerous . since lovebug populations tend to rebound unpredictably , we are fortunate that these creatures create inconveniences and tickle , rather than threaten human health and the environment .\nlovebug pairs are not strong fliers , so tend to remain within a few hundred yards of emergence sites when there is little or no wind ( thornhill 1976b ) . they are able to move across the wind when it is 5 - 7 mph and search for sources of nectar and suitable oviposition sites . stronger winds blow them as high as 1500 ft in the air and concentrate them against down - wind objects . coupled females initiate and control flight but males assist if they are able to obtain food ( sharp et al . 1974 ) . locations within 20 - 30 miles can have quite different levels of lovebug emergence and dispersal ( cherry and raid 2000 ) , and this variable distribution can lead to naturally occurring\nhotspots\nin different places from year to year . lovebugs are most abundant in moist grassy habitats . people who live near these habitats , or are exposed to winds that deposit the insects at their homes , can perceive erroneously that they are attracting these pests .\nlovebug larvae thrive in moist habitats high in organic matter such as bar ditches and swampy areas . they are harmless in their immature state and actually help nature by decomposing dead plant tissues . mass adult emergence occurs during specific periods of the year as dictated by environmental conditions ( prolonged periods of soil saturation from rains ) conducive to their development . adults spend their time sipping nectar from flowers and searching for mates and mating while hovering in the air . it has been thought that car fumes contained some properties that were attractive to these flies , but they are naturally attracted to open spaces within their generally wooded habitats . because of their harmless biology , chemical control using insecticides has not been recommended . they do not respond to insect repellents ( citronella , deet ) since they are not attracted by carbon dioxide as are blood - feeding arthropods . adulticides , such as fogs and aerosol insecticides , designed to quickly knock down and kill swarming adults , will affect exposed insects . however , these compounds are readily displaced by wind currents and are generally quick to lose effectiveness relative to the duration of lovebug swarming periods , which may last several weeks . at best , all that can be done is to learn how to cope with lovebug swarms . populations of adult flies may be drastically diminished by heavy rains . otherwise , adults may naturally be present for a period of several weeks in the spring and especially in the late summer or early fall . it may be helpful to remember the following points .\nin the lovebug , copulation begins with males flying and swarming above females , who remain on or close to the ground . the swarm is most dense from one foot to about five feet off the ground , but the swarm can be as high as 20 feet above the ground and can contain up to 40 - plus males . larger males often dominate the bottom of the swarm in competition to get a fit mate . the males prefer larger , heavier females because they provide better odds of reproducing and mating .\nwithin florida , this fly was first collected in 1949 in escambia county , the westernmost county of the florida panhandle . today , it is found throughout florida . with numerous variations , it is a widely held myth that university of florida entomologists introduced this species into florida . however , buschman ( 1976 ) documented the progressive movement of this fly species around the gulf coast into florida . research was conducted by university of florida and u . s . department of agriculture entomologists only after the lovebug was well established in florida .\nadult lovebugs are nonthreatening to humans because they do not bite or sting . they primarily feed on nectar from various plants , particularly sweet clover , goldenrod , and brazilian pepper . under laboratory conditions , male lovebugs live for about 92 hours , whereas females live up to 72 hours . in nature , the adults live just long enough to mate , feed , disperse and deposit a batch of eggs\u2014about three to four days . lovebug flights are usually restricted to daylight hours and temperatures above 68\u00b0f . at night lovebugs rest on low - growing vegetation .\nthompson ( 1975 ) reported over 200 species in the genus plecia . however , there are only two species of plecia in the u . s . \u2014 plecia nearctica and plecia americana hardy . their ranges are similar , but plecia americana extends northeastward to north carolina and south to mexico , whereas plecia nearctica ranges farther south to costa rica . plecia americana is a woodland species that does not seem to be a problem on highways . before hardy described the lovebug species as plecia nearctica , it was known as plecia bicolor bellardi ( hetrick 1970a ) .\nlovebugs are small , slow herbivorous insects that feed on the pollen and nectar found in flowers . thus , they lack the mandibles ( jaws ) , grasping legs , speed , and other characteristics of predaceous insects , such as dragonflies . lovebugs are active during the day , whereas most mosquitoes are crepuscular ( active at twilight ) or nocturnal , and they are only adults for a few weeks each year . for these and many other reasons , the lovebug would be a poor candidate to genetically engineer as a mosquito predator , even if it were possible .\nit is during the daylight that lovebugs become a problem . during this time , males will do nothing but follow females . females will seek good egg sites and consequently , massive swarms of these flies will form . since females are searching for good places to lay eggs , they tend to be attracted to areas which produce methane or co2 gas ; both are associated with decaying organic matter . car emissions have similar gases so consequently , lovebug swarms will find their way onto highways following the gases released by automobile exhaust pipes . it is here where lovebugs have earned their notorious reputation .\nlastly , if you just have the occasional lovebug flying around , space spray any room using aquacide aerosol . this water based space spray is ideally suited for flying pests and can be applied as often as is needed . it uses pyrethrin as an active which means there won\u2019t be any lasting residual . but its very safe for use in the home and won\u2019t pose a hazard to people or pets so then can remain even when treating . remember that aquacide is a not a true \u201ccure\u201d . so if you have a large population of lovebugs outside the home , treating the yard will help stop them from invading .\nspattered bugs should be washed off the car as soon as possible . lovebugs are more easily removed , and the chance of damaging the car\u2019s finish is lessened , if the car has been waxed recently . when the remains are left on an unwaxed car for several days , the finish will often be permanently damaged . soaking splattered lovebugs for several minutes with water aids in their removal . when lovebugs are numerous , motorists may choose to spread a light film of baby oil over the front of the hood , above the windshield , and on the grill and bumper . this practice will make lovebug removal a simpler task .\nit ' s like mass murder of the\nlove bugs\nby everyone that has to drive during the love bug season below link for member ' s that want to know more about how bugs love to ruin your ride they love , then they die , or get smashed by your monte : ( lovebug - wikipedia , the free encyclopedia < button class = vspib type = submit > < / button > < cite > urltoken lovebug < / cite > - cached similar you + 1 ' d this publicly . undo for other uses , see love bug ( disambiguation ) . . . . at that time , he reported the incidence of lovebugs to be widespread , but most common in texas and . . . semi - annual pest status - folklore - management - citations sometimes , they are so thick that they will block your view . . . they are difficult to remove , especially if they aren ' t removed fast . . . . i just use heavy coats of wax for protection . . . . on long trips you have to stop & clean them off often . . . they do eat your paint ` if you don ' t clean them soon . : ( the price floridians pay 2 live & love in a paradise called florida ~ >\nlovebugs are members of the fly family and certain times of the year , they will become a huge nuisance along roadways and in the yard . they\u2019re active in many regions of the united states and seem to have two primary seasons . the first is in spring , during the months of april , may and june . the second season is in the fall and usually during the months august , september and october . lovebugs are well known even though their season is short and limited . this article will explain some basic biology of the lovebug , explain why they are a major problem and what can be done to minimize and treat local infestations .\ni recently received a call from a guy who lives south of daytona who was shocked to see some kind of insect eating lovebugs on his porch . a family member told him that this was unheard of , since everyone knows nothing eats lovebugs , so they decided to call me here at the headquarters of the entomological society of america . i asked if he could send me a photo , which he did , and it turned out to be an assassin bug nymph , a voracious hunter . i\u2019m sure praying mantises and other insect predators would be happy to dine on them as well , and lovebug larvae have been found in the gizzards of robins and quail .\ninsecticides available to the public for controlling houseflies , mosquitoes , and other flies will also kill lovebug adults . however , there are risks associated with using these products around humans and pets , and the lovebugs will return almost immediately . other insects are often misidentified as being lovebugs , some of which are innocuous or beneficial , and therefore , should not be killed . it is important to preserve lady beetles , lacewings , honeybees , and other insects that help to protect or pollinate plants . thus , insecticides are expensive , potentially harmful , and of no value in controlling lovebugs . it is best just to avoid lovebugs if they become a nuisance during their brief appearances each year .\ncallahan and denmark ( 1973 ) reported that ambient temperatures above 28\u00b0c and visible light at above 20 , 000 lux ( 2000 ft - c ) stimulated lovebug flight but not orientation behavior . lovebugs are attracted to irradiated automobile exhaust fumes ( diesel and gasoline ) when the ultraviolet light incident over the highway ranges from 0 . 3 to 0 . 4 microns ( 3000 to 4000 angstroms ( a ) ) between 10 am and 4 pm , with a temperature above 28\u00b0c . hot engines and the vibrations of automobiles apparently contribute to the attraction of lovebugs to highways . callahan et al . ( 1985 ) reported that formaldehyde and heptaldehyde were the two most attractive components of diesel exhaust .\n1 . thorax with dorsum rufous and pleura extensively black ; head with oral margin distinctly produced forward . male genitalia with 9th tergum not as broad as in plecia americana , just slightly broader than long , with shallow medial excavation and ventromedial flap , not produced ventrolaterally ; 9th sternum with dorsolateral lobe extending under 9th tergum , produced ventromedially into a narrow forked process ; telomeres large , l - shaped in lateral view . female genitalia with 9th tergum large , almost completely concealing cerci in lateral view , strongly excavated dorsomedially ; cerci small , narrow in dorsal view ; 8th sternum small , with a shallow medial excavation ; ovipositor lobes broad , blunt apically and strongly sclerotized dorsally . . . . . lovebug , plecia nearctica hardy\nwhen numerous lovebugs are smashed on the front of a vehicle , the contents of their bodies , especially eggs , coat the painted surface . no permanent damage is caused , however , if the surface is cleaned before the coating is baked by the sun for a day or two . marisa and jeffrey gedney ( personnel communication ) determined that macerated lovebugs are about neutral with a ph of 6 . 5 but become acidic at 4 . 25 within 24 hours . yet , automobile paint was not damaged after being coated with macerated lovebugs and held in a humid indoor environment for 21 days . a lovebug - coated surface exposed to the sun for an extended period of time , however , may be damaged by the insects and their removal ( denmark and mead 2001 ) . the front of a vehicle can be protected by coating it with \u201ccar wax\u201d and removing the lovebugs within 24 hours .\nthe \u201clovebug\u201d ( figure 1 ) is a fly in the family bibionidae that is easily identified by its black , slender body and red thorax . these small flies , also known as march flies , are closely related to mosquitoes and gnats . the males are about 1 / 4 inch in length , while females are 1 / 3 inch in length . there are two known species of lovebugs in the united states . one is a native species , and the other is an invasive species that first appeared in southern louisiana during the 1920s . the outbreak soon spread southward , crossing deep into mississippi and alabama , and finally reaching florida in 1947 . they have since migrated northward , reaching from georgia to south carolina . both species have two key outbreaks in population a year : once during april\u2013may and the next in august\u2013september . they are often found near or by highways and are a nuisance and hindrance to drivers .\nif have lovebug activity in your yard , expect to see their swarms alight and congregate more and more from year to year once the problem starts . if you have a well landscaped yard with plenty of flowers and other plants which produce nectar and other sweet smells of plant life , they\u2019ll keep coming back as they need nectar to fuel their swarming . aphids and whiteflies allowed to live in your plants will cause the release of honey dew which in turn will attract feeding lovebugs . such invasions can become messy and relentless . worse yet is that once they start , they don\u2019t seem to ever stop . the members of any swarm will die off within a week yet once they are found in or around any property , expect them to come back year after year if you don\u2019t take some defensive measures . these measures will help to kill off local invasions so they don\u2019t find their way into your home and become established .\nthe\nlovebug ,\nplecia nearctica hardy ( diptera : bibionidae ) , is a seasonally abundant member of a generally unnoticed family of small flies related to gnats and mosquitoes . the males are about 1 / 4 inch and the females 1 / 3 inch in length , both entirely black except for red on top of their thoraxes ( middle insect body segment ) . other common names for this insect include march flies , double - headed bugs , honeymoon flies , united bugs , and some expletives that are not repeatable . lovebugs characteristically appear in excessive abundance throughout florida as male - female pairs for only a few weeks every april - may and august - september ( ipm florida 2006 ) . although they exist over the entire state during these months , they can reach outbreak levels in some areas and be absent in others . they are a nuisance pest , as opposed to destructive or dangerous , in areas where they accumulate in large numbers .\nalthough the lovebug has two distinct generations per year in florida , adults can be found during most months ( buschman 1976 ) . higher temperatures cause adult populations to peak slightly earlier in the southern areas of the state . as in all other flies , lovebugs exhibit complete metamorphosis , having egg , larva , pupa and adult stages ( figure 3 ) . an individual female deposits an average of 350 eggs under decaying vegetation in a grassy or weedy area with adequate moisture . conditions must not be too wet or dry , although the larvae soon emerge and can move short distances to locate the best habitats . larvae develop more rapidly at higher temperatures , so the summer generation is shorter than the one in the winter . the larvae feed on decomposing leaves and grass until they pupate . the pupal stage lasts 7 - 9 days ( hetrick 1970 ) . in nature , the adults live just long enough to mate , feed , disperse and deposit a batch of eggs , about 3 - 4 days ( thornhill 1976b ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nj . weston , d . e . short , and m . p . lehnert 2\nthis fact sheet is excerpted from sp486 : pests in and around the southern home , which is available from the uf / ifas extension bookstore . urltoken\nfemale lovebugs lay 100 to 350 eggs that are deposited underneath debris and decaying vegetation . after about 20 days the larvae hatch and feed on the decaying plant vegetation . the larvae act as a decomposer in the natural habitat by converting the plant material into nutrients that can then be used by the growing plants . once the larvae mature and have stopped feeding on the decomposing vegetation , they pupate . in warmer climates such as florida , the generation during the summer is significantly shorter than the winter generation because the rate at which the larvae pupate increases significantly with an increase in temperature . the pupal stage generally lasts about seven to nine days .\nmales hover over the females by orienting themselves with the wind in order to ease flight . as the females emerge from the vegetation , males immediately swoop down and grasp a female . at times , males will grasp a female that is already mating with a male in an attempt to disrupt mating . as many as 10 males have been observed holding onto a female , each attempting to copulate . after finding a match , the pair will come to a rest on the vegetation below and finish their mating process , during which the male faces the opposite direction of the female .\nlovebugs are a considerable nuisance to motorists . they congregate in unbelievable numbers along highways , and the insects spatter on the windshields and grills of moving vehicles . windshields become covered with the fatty remains , and vision is obstructed . during flights , the flies clog radiator fins , causing cars to overheat . they also get into refrigeration equipment on trucks , causing them to malfunction . the fatty tissue will cause pitting of the car\u2019s finish if it is not removed within a few days . flies enter cars and sometimes are crushed by drivers and passengers , causing stains on clothing . they are also a considerable nuisance to fresh paint . the flies enter houses under construction in such numbers that carpenters refuse to work . beekeepers complain because worker bees do not visit flowers that have been infested with the flies .\nthere are several things that can be done to lessen the problem facing motorists . by traveling at night motorists can avoid the insects ; lovebugs reach peak activity at 10 am and stop flying at dusk . traveling at slower speeds will reduce the number of bugs that will be spattered . a large screen placed in the front of the grill will keep the radiator fins from clogging , and will protect the finish on the front of the car . if a large screen is not used in front of the grill , a small screen can be placed behind the grill in front of the radiator .\nthis document is eny - 329 , one of a series of the department of entomology and nematology , uf / ifas extension . original publication date october 1993 . revised may 2003 and july 2011 . reviewed january 2017 . visit the edis website at urltoken .\nj . weston ; d . e . short , retired professor ; and m . p . lehnert , ms 2008 ; department of entomology and nematology , uf / ifas extension , gainesville , fl 32611 .\nthe institute of food and agricultural sciences ( ifas ) is an equal opportunity institution authorized to provide research , educational information and other services only to individuals and institutions that function with non - discrimination with respect to race , creed , color , religion , age , disability , sex , sexual orientation , marital status , national origin , political opinions or affiliations . for more information on obtaining other uf / ifas extension publications , contact your county ' s uf / ifas extension office . u . s . department of agriculture , uf / ifas extension service , university of florida , ifas , florida a & m university cooperative extension program , and boards of county commissioners cooperating . nick t . place , dean for uf / ifas extension .\npair of mating lovebugs with larger female on left . note the elongated female rostrum ( snout - like prolongation of the head ) and large circular male eyes .\ntaxonomic characters to distinguish p . nearctica from p . americana . head of plecia nearctica male ( a ) and female ( b ) , head of p . americana , male ( c ) and female ( d ) : ocelli ( o ) , antenna ( a ) , oral margin - forward ( om - f ) , and oral margin - convex ( om - c ) . wing of p . nearctica ( e ) : costa ( c ) , radial sector ( rs ) , medial cell ( mc ) , anal cell ( a ) , and basal cells ( bc ) .\nlovebugs are not native to most of the southern united states ( hardy 1945 ) . according to buschman ( 1976 ) , since 1940 p . nearctica has extended its range from louisiana and mississippi across the gulf states , reaching florida in 1949 . in the late 1960s , it became established entirely across north florida . during the 1970s explosive populations occurred progressively southward nearly to the end of peninsular florida and northward into south carolina ( figure 4 ) . its movement may have been accelerated by prevailing winds , vehicle traffic , sod transport , increased habitat along highways , and expansion of pastures , but not by uf researchers .\npattern of migration of plecia nearctica from central america to the southeastern u . s .\nafter mating , lovebugs disperse as coupled pairs , presumably flying in search of nectar on which to feed and suitable oviposition sites . mated females are attracted to sandy sites with adequate moisture , dead leaves , grass clippings , cow manure , and other decomposing organic debris . cherry ( 1998 ) found that lovebugs are attracted to anethole , an essential oil found in plants that also attracts bees . both sexes of adults also are attracted to the floral odorant , phenylacetaldehyde ( arthurs et al . 2012 & 2015 ) . additionally , female lovebugs are attracted to uv irradiated aldehydes , a major component of automobile exhaust fumes ( callahan and denmark 1973 , callahan et al . 1985 ) . they may confuse these chemicals with the odors emitted from decaying organic matter at typical oviposition sites . heat has also been shown to attract lovebugs ( whitesell 1974 ) and contribute to their abundance on highways . additionally , lovebugs seem to collect on light - colored buildings , especially when freshly painted ( callahan 1985 ) . many kinds of flies are attracted to light - colored and shiny surfaces , although the physiological or behavioral mechanisms are unknown . thus , lovebugs apparently accumulate in relatively warm , humid , sunny areas with food and chemicals in the atmosphere that mimic oviposition sites .\nthe general pattern of mating in lovebugs begins with males forming swarms above emergence areas each day in the morning and afternoon ( leppla et al 1974 , thornhill 1976c ) . individual males also may fly just above these areas . females emerge from the soil later than males , crawl onto vegetation , and fly into the swarms . a male may grasp a female before or after she flies into a swarm . in either case , the pair lands on vegetation where the male transfers sperm to the female . sperm transfer requires an average of 12 . 5 , hours but the pair can remain coupled for several days during which they feed and disperse ( thornhill 1976c ) . the male ejects a depleted spermatophore after separating from the female ( leppla et al . 1975 ) , and both sexes may mate again . pairs formed during the morning hours begin dispersal flights , whereas those that couple in the evening remain on vegetation until taking flight the following day .\nmyth : the body fluids of lovebugs are acidic and immediately dissolve automobile paint .\nthe university of florida research programs in urban and public health entomology are among the strongest in the u . s . priority is placed on destructive or dangerous pests that threaten human health and resources . these pests include mosquitoes that transmit west nile virus , equine encephalitis , and other diseases ; those that infest people , livestock and pets ; and urban insects , such as cockroaches , ants , and termites . nuisance pests like lovebugs and blind mosquitoes are important but much less damaging and costly . the florida legislature funded research on lovebugs at the university of florida during the outbreak that swept through the state in the early 1970s . additional resources were contributed by the usda and florida department of agriculture and consumer services , division of plant industry . even though this support is no longer available , the university of florida continues to provide information to help educate florida residents and tourists about lovebugs .\nit is possible but usually not necessary to avoid lovebugs and the problems they cause . unlike some of their close relatives , lovebugs do not bite , sting , or transmit diseases and are not poisonous . lovebugs are only active in the daylight and are much less mobile during the early and late daytime hours . typically , the pairs fly across the wind during their dispersal flights and are blown against obstacles , especially vehicles traveling at high speeds . their remains can be removed from surfaces easily if not left to bake in the sun . lovebugs are poor fliers that can be kept out of a building by creating positive pressure with an air - conditioning fan . if a few lovebugs enter , a vacuum cleaner can be used to remove them . screens can be added to windows and doors , particularly on the prevailing windward side of a building , and placed over decks and swimming pools . a fan can be used outside near work or recreational areas to keep lovebugs away . due to their abundance and mobility , lovebugs cannot be controlled effectively with poisons or repellents .\nthe figures were prepared by s . h . johnson ; j . p . cuda , m . a . branham , and j . l . gillett - kaufman provided very helpful reviews of the manuscript .\narthurs , s . p . , n . tofangsazi , r . l . meagher and r . cherry . 2012 . attraction of plecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) to floral lures containing phenylacetaldehyde . florida entomologist . 95 : 199 - 201 . urltoken\narthurs , s . p . , c . morales - reyes and r . h . cherry . 2015 . trap design for lovebugs , plecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) . florida entomologist 98 : 892 - 898 . urltoken"]}
{"id": 2116, "summary": [{"text": "aenetus ramsayi , the swift ghost moth , is a moth of the hepialidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is known from queensland and new south wales .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the wingspan is 100 mm for females and 80 mm for males .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "females have green forewings with white markings and pale orange hindwings .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "males have blue-green forewings with white markings and blue-green hindwings .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing from february to march .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on various trees and saplings , including diploglottis australis , alectryon , syzygium smithii and eucalyptus grandis .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "they bore in the stem of their host plant . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "aenetus ramsayi", "paragraphs": ["aenetus ramsayi ( scott , 1869 ) = charagia ramsayi scott , 1869 = achladaeus ramsayi = charagia ramsayi .\naenetus ramsayi ; [ aucl ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 854 ( list )\nno one has contributed data records for aenetus blackburnii yet . learn how to contribute .\naenetus marginatus ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 854 ( list )\naenetus hampsoni ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 855 ( list )\naenetus crameri ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 855 ( list )\naenetus wollastoni ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 855 ( list )\naenetus toxopeusi ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 855 ( list )\naenetus cohici ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 855 ( list )\naenetus arfaki ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 855 ( list )\naenetus eugyna ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 855 ( list )\naenetus sordida ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 855 ( list )\naenetus ligniveren ; [ aucl ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 854 ( list )\naenetus lewinii ; [ aucl ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 854 ( list )\naenetus astathes ; [ aucl ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 854 ( list )\naenetus splendens ; [ aucl ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 854 ( list )\naenetus ombraloma ; [ aucl ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 854 ( list )\naenetus montanus ; [ aucl ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 854 ( list )\naenetus scotti ; [ aucl ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 854 ( list )\naenetus blackburnii ; [ aucl ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 854 ( list )\naenetus eximia ; [ aucl ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 854 ( list )\naenetus tegulatus ; [ aucl ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 854 ( list )\naenetus scripta ; [ aucl ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 854 ( list )\naenetus tephroptilus ; [ aucl ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 855 ( list )\naenetus dulcis ; [ aucl ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 855 ( list )\naenetus mirabilis ; [ aucl ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 855 ( list )\naenetus virescens ; dugdale , 1994 , fauna of new zealand 30 : 38 ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 855 ( list )\naenetus ( hepialidae ) ; [ aucl ] ; dugdale , 1994 , fauna of new zealand 30 : 37 ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 854 ( list )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\nthere are no photos of this species on the website yet . you can offer your photo by logging into your account\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 / / en\nall rights reserved . no part of this publication may be reproduced ( except brief passages for the purpose of a review ) , stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means , electronic , mechanical , photocopying , recording or otherwise , without the prior written permission of the author .\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\n= ; dugdale , 1994 , fauna of new zealand 30 : 37 ; [ aucl ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 854 ( list )\n= ; [ aucl ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 854 ( list )\n= ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 854 ( list )\nhepialus astathes turner , 1915 ; proc . r . soc . qd 27 ( 1 ) : 56 ; tl : w . a . , albany ; waroona\noenetus [ sic ] montanus tindale , 1953 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 76 : 79\nhepialus blackburnii lower , 1892 ; trans . r . soc . s . austr . 15 : 5 ; tl : s . australia\n: newcastle , ash island , hunter river , n . s . w .\n= ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 854 ( list )\nhepialus tephroptilus turner , 1915 ; proc . r . soc . qd 27 ( 1 ) : 57 ; tl : w . a . , albany\n= ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 855 ( list )\n= ; [ aucl ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 855 ( list )\noenetus [ sic ] mirabilis rothschild , 1894 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 6 ) 13 ( 77 ) : 440 ; tl : cedar bay , north queensland\ncharagia hampsoni joicey & noakes , 1914 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 8 ) 14 : 282 , pl . 14 ; tl : angi laks , arfak mts , dutch new guinea , 6000ft\ncrameri viette , 1956 ; nova guinea ( n . s . ) 7 : 42 ; tl : new guinea\noenetus [ sic ] wollastoni rothschild , 1915 ; in rothschild & durrant , lep . b . o . u . exp . new guinea : 146 ; tl : utakwa river , new guinea\ntoxopeusi viette , 1956 ; nova guinea ( n . s . ) 7 : 44 ; tl : new guinea\ncohici ( viette , 1961 ) ( oenetus ) ; bull . soc . ent . fr . 66 : 106 ; tl : new caledonia\n= ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 855 ( list )\n= ; [ nhm card ] ; dugdale , 1994 , fauna of new zealand 30 : 38 ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 855 ( list )\n= ; dugdale , 1994 , fauna of new zealand 30 : 38 ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 855 ( list )\ncharagia sordida rothschild & jordan , 1905 ; novit . zool . 12 ( 2 ) : 478 ; tl : new guinea\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nreise der \u00f6sterreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859 unter den behilfen des commodore b . von w\u00fcllerstorf - urbair . zoologischer theil . band 2 . abtheilung 2 . lepidoptera . rhopalocera\n- 120 , ( inhalts - verz . ) 1 - 9 ( pl . 1 - 74 ) , ( felder & rogenhofer , 1874 ) , ( 5 ) : pl .\nsystematische bearbeitung der schmetterlinge von europa , zugleich als text , revision und supplement zu j . h\u00fcbner ' s sammlung europ\u00e4ischer schmetterlinge , sechter un letzter band , 1843 - 1856\n( 1 ) : ( i ) pl . i ( 1843 ) , ( 3 ) : ( i ) i - ii , pl . ii - iv ( 1844 ) , ( 6 ) : ( i ) pl . v ( 1844 ) , ( 7 ) : ( i ) pl . vi ( 1844 ) , ( 8 ) : ( i ) iii - x , pl . vii - viii ( 1844 ) , ( 9 ) : ( i ) pl . ix - xi ( 1844 ) , ( 11 ) : ( i ) pl . xii ( 1845 ) , ( 13 ) : ( i ) xi - xiv , pl . xiii - xiv ( 1846 ) , ( 17 ) : ( i ) pl . xvi ( 1846 ) , ( 22 ) : ( ii ) pl . i - iii ( 1847 ) , ( 35 ) : ( i ) pl . xv ( 1848 ) , ( 36 ) : ( i ) pl . xvii - xix ( 1848 ) , ( 37 ) : ( i ) pl . xx ( 1849 ) , ( ? 38 ) : ( i ) xv - xviii ( 1849 ) , ( 38 ) : ( i ) pl . xxi - xxii ( 1849 ) , ( 40 ) : ( ii ) i - ii - iv , pl . iv - ix ( 1849 ) , ( 48 ) : [\n- 36 ( 1852 ) , ( 60 ) : ( ii ) v - viii , pl . x - xiv ( iv ) 37 - 40 ( 1853 ) , ( 65 ) : ( iv )\nbeitr\u00e4ge zur lepidopterenfauna des malayischen archipels . ( 5 ) verzeichniss der schmetterlinge von amboina\non some new lepidoptera discovered by a . s . meek in british new guinea\ncontribution \u00e0 l ' \u00e9tude des hepialidae ( 32\u00e8me note ) . hepialidae de nouvelle guin\u00e9e\nwalker , 1856 list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 1 : 1 - 278 ( 1854 ) , 2 : 279 - 581 ( 1854 ) , 3 : 583 - 775 ( 1855 ) , 4 : 777 - 976 ( 1855 ) , 5 : 977 - 1258 ( 1855 ) , 6 : 1259 - 1508 ( 1855 ) , 7 : 1509 - 1808 ( 1856 )\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nnielsen , e . s . , g . s . robinson , d . l . wagner . 2000 . ghost - moths of the world : a global inventory and bibliography of the exoporia ( mnesarchaeoidea and hepialoidea ) ( lepidoptera ) . journal of natural history 34 ( 6 ) : 823 - 878 .\n. note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own license , and they may or may not be available for reuse . click on an image or a media link to access the media data window , which provides the relevant licensing information . for the general terms and conditions of tol material reuse and redistribution , please see the\neach tol branch page provides a synopsis of the characteristics of a group of organisms representing a branch of the tree of life . the major distinction between a branch and a leaf of the tree of life is that each branch can be further subdivided into descendent branches , that is , subgroups representing distinct genetic lineages .\nfor a more detailed explanation of the different tol page types , have a look at the structure of the tree of life page .\ntree of life design and icons copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2004 tree of life project . all rights reserved ."]}
{"id": 2117, "summary": [{"text": "cambarus aculabrum is a rare species of crayfish known by the common name benton cave crayfish .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "it is native to arkansas in the united states , where it is known from only four locations .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is a federally listed endangered species of the united states .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "this crayfish was first described to science as a new species in 1987 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is about 48 millimeters ( 1.8 inches ) long .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "a troglobite , it lacks pigment , making it white in color , it and has only rudimentary eyes .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is genetically distinct from other species of cave crayfish .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the crayfish lives at four caves in northern arkansas , three in benton county and one in washington county .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is not considered an arkansas endemic species because 58 % of one of the benton county cave zones is actually within the neighboring state of missouri .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "this crayfish feeds on organic matter washed into the cave from the surface , and on bat guano .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it is sometimes eaten by the banded sculpin ( cottus carolinae ) .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "little else is known about its ecology .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "threats to this species include direct mortality when they are trampled by cave explorers and trespassers .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "gates have been put in place at the caves to protect them but vandalism is still a threat .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "pollution of the groundwater in the caves was the main reason the animal was federally listed .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "individuals are sometimes washed out of caves during floods , leading to mortality . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "cambarus aculabrum", "paragraphs": ["cambarus aculabrum is a rare species of crayfish known by the common name benton cave crayfish . content licensed under creative commons attribution . source : urltoken\ncave crayfish ( cambarus aculabrum ) .\nbeacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\ncave crayfish ( cambarus aculabrum ) .\nbeacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . 30 october 1996 .\nrecovery plan for the cave crafish ( cambarus aculabrum ) .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service , atlanta , 37pp .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) . 1996 . cave crayfish ( cambarus aculabrum ) recovery plan . u . s . fish and wildlife service , atlanta , georgia . 37 pp .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . 27 april 1993 .\nendangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; determination of endangered status determined for the cave crayfish ( cambarus aculabrum ) .\nfederal register 58 ( 79 ) : 25742 - 25746 .\ngraening , g . o . , m . e . slay , a . v . brown , and j . b . koppelman . 2006 . status and distribution of the endangered benton cave crayfish , cambarus aculabrum ( decapoda : cambaridae ) . the southwestern naturalist , 51 ( 3 ) : 376 - 439 .\nthis species is known from two caves in benton county , arkansas ( hobbs , 1989 ; robison and allen , 1995 ; usfws , 1996 ) and just into missouri ( graening et al . , 2006 ) . with all of the effort to look for cave organisms based out of fayetteville , a great deal of search has been focused in the area to find more cambarus aculabrum . it has long seemed confined to the original 2 caves , yet recent discoveries have added 2 additional sites nearby - both based on one or two specimens . missouri has a cave biologist on staff and considerable survey work has been done with no discoveries of the species in that state ( brian wagner , ar game and fish , to cindy osborne , ar heritage , pers . comm . , june 2002 ) .\nfirst form males are distinguished by a fully formed and hardened first pleopod ( reproductive appendages ) . these males can be further distinguished from closely related cambarus setosus and c . tartarus by the absence of a transverse groove separating the proximolateral lobe from the shaft on the first pleopod . it differs from c . zophonastes in that it possesses a longer central projection of the first pleopod that also has a shallow subapical notch .\n( < 100 square km ( less than about 40 square miles ) ) this species is known from two caves in benton county , arkansas ( hobbs , 1989 ; robison and allen , 1995 ; usfws , 1996 ) and just into missouri ( graening et al . , 2006 ) . with all of the effort to look for cave organisms based out of fayetteville , a great deal of search has been focused in the area to find more cambarus aculabrum . it has long seemed confined to the original 2 caves , yet recent discoveries have added 2 additional sites nearby - both based on one or two specimens . missouri has a cave biologist on staff and considerable survey work has been done with no discoveries of the species in that state ( brian wagner , ar game and fish , to cindy osborne , ar heritage , pers . comm . , june 2002 ) .\ncave crayfish are highly specialized for living in stable cave environments with low light and low temperatures and are unable to cope with changes in their habitats that may be induced by human activities . water quality degradation represents a major threat to c . aculabrum . this species is also vulnerable due to its limited distribution , with only two known populations containing a small number of individuals ; its limited reproductive potential ; and the potential for take by humans .\nbear hollow cave contains a small stream approximately 660 ft ( 201 . 2 m ) long and an undescribed pool that are habitat for c . aculabrum . the cave stream flow and depth varies . at times , parts of the stream may dry up leaving tiny pools of water or parts of the stream may completely disappear underground leaving no trace . after some rainfall events the cave may nearly fill up with water , as evidenced by trash found lodged up near the cave ceiling .\nthe numbers of crayfish observed in logan and bear hollow caves has varied dramatically between cave visits . the greatest number of crayfish observed in a single visit is nine in bear hollow cave and 21 in logan cave . in 14 visits to logan cave , crayfish were observed on only three occasions . in a 1990 survey , three c . aculabrum were observed in logan cave , one of which was dead , and only a single crayfish in bear hollow cave . six crayfish were observed in logan cave during another cave visit in 1995 while four were observed in bear hollow cave . from october 1994 through september 1995 , between seven and 21 cave crayfish were observed in logan cave .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nlivingston , f . , soulsby , a . - m . , batchelor , a . , dyer , e . , whitton , f . , milligan , h . t . , smith , j . , lutz , m . l . , de silva , r . , mcguinness , s . , kasthala , g . , jopling , b . , sullivan , k . & cryer , g .\nhas been assessed as critically endangered . this species has an area of occupancy of less than 10 km\u00b2 as each of the four cave pools has a maximum area of 200 m\u00b2 . the caves are severely fragmented and they are not connected to each other . there is a continuing decline in the extent and quality of habitat due to continued human disturbances and impacts through trampling and groundwater pollution . this species is extremely sensitive to groundwater quality and there is evidence that it is preyed on by banded sculpin (\n) . it has a very low population , of only 40 individuals , and longevity of 75 years indicating that there is a late age of reproductive maturity . a recovery plan has been initiated by the usfws in 1996 , which has been implementing measures to protect this species . however , even with this recovery plan in place , the population still remains low and sensitive to disturbance and quality of habitat .\n2006 ) . with all of the effort to look for cave organisms based out of fayetteville , a great deal of search has been focused in the area to find further specimens of this species . it has long seemed confined to the original caves , yet recent discoveries have added 2 additional sites nearby - both based on one or two specimens . in missouri , expert survey work has been carried out with no further discoveries of the species in that state ( brian wagner , ar game and fish , to cindy osborne , ar heritage , pers . comm . 2002 ) . the area of occupancy ( aoo ) is estimated to be less than 4 km\u00b2 .\n2006 ) . probably < 200 adults are extant . numbers of crayfish observed vary dramatically between cave visits . the greatest number observed at one time in one cave is nine and in the other cave 21 ( usfws , 1996 ) . the current total observed population size is 40 individuals , based on the latest complete visual census of the second largest occurrence ( n = 6 ) , largest occurrence ( n = 31 ) , small occurrence ( n = 2 ) , and the smallest creek pool discharge occurrence ( n = 1 ) ( graening\nthis species is a cave dwelling species inhabiting subterranean streams and pools ( jacobson 1996 ) . one of the caves from which this species is known is an ozarkian solution channel , within which this species has been observed along the side walls of a pool or at the stream margin ( robison and allen 1995 ) . cave streams in which this species lives are generally less than 50 cm deep .\n. ( 2006 ) have assessed continuing threats since the recovery plan . among these , habitat degradation from groundwater pollution is the primary reason for federal listing of the species and remains a serious threat . organic pollutants are present in the groundwater basins of the two initial caves . mean concentrations of nitrate , phosphorous , and faecal bacteria consistently equals or exceeds those of regional surface waters monitored by the national water quality assessment program for the springfield plateau aquifer . over 100 confined animal feeding operations ( poultry and swine ) and cattle ranching operations as well as over 60 residences on septic systems are within the recharge zone of one cave and two confined feeding operations , and at least 200 residences on septic systems are within the discharge zone of the second cave ( graening\n. 2006 ) . as for human disturbance , both caves with the largest populations were both formerly popular recreational destinations . vandalism and trespassing continue to be serious management issues at both sites , even after erection of steel channel gates . trampling was formerly considered a threat at all sites but has been alleviated at one cave when a fixed line was bolted to a canyon ledge 3 m above the stream in 2001 ( graening\n. 2006 ) . more specifically , hog and poultry operations , fertilization of nearby pasture lands , regional airport expansion , and residential development threaten the water quality of the second cave . residential development is the primary threat to water quality in the largest cave occurrence ( usfws 1996 ) .\ncompiled by the us fish and wildlife service ( jacobson 1996 ) . this plan has seen the implementation of cave gates on two sites\n, and three caves have surrounding land recovered and septic tanks are being upgraded to prevent leakages ( natureserve 2009 ) . one of the localities has been designated as a\n. it also qualifies as endangered under the federal environmental species act of 1973 ( jacobson 1996 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n- - natureserve explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50 , 000 plants , animals and ecological communtities of the u . s and canada . natureserve explorer provides in - depth information on rare and endangered species , but includes common plants and animals too . natureserve explorer is a product of natureserve in collaboration with the natural heritage network .\nitis reports - - itis ( the integrated taxonomic information system ) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants , animals , fungi , and microbes of north america and the world .\nfws digital media library - - the u . s . fish and wildlife service ' s national digital library is a searchable collection of selected images , historical artifacts , audio clips , publications , and video .\nsmall , white obligate cave - dwelling crayfish with no pigment and reduced eyes .\nthe cave crayfish is a small , white obligate cave - dwelling crayfish . the body length of this species has been measured to reach up to 1 . 8 in ( 4 . 6 cm ) . this species has no pigment and has reduced eyes . it also has an acute or subacute apex of the antermomedian lobe of the epistome .\nthe reproductive habits of this species , as well as other sociobiological information , is not known at this time . this species , however , displays similar reproductive characteristics of other decopods . the males probably begin molting into the reproductive state in late summer with copulation occurring in late summer and fall . egg laying likely occurs in late winter and early spring . most males molt back to the nonreproductive form during april .\nwater quality and clarity of logan cave stream is generally high and many water parameters remain relatively constant for much of the year . most changes in water properties occur when the cave ' s stream flow increases after a storm .\nthe cave crayfish is most commonly found along the walls of the pool , or along stream edges .\nthe type locality of this species is logan cave as well as its associated stream and lake . the cave cray - fish is also known from bear hollow cave and its associated stream about 23 mi ( 37 km ) from logan cave . both of these areas are located in benton county , arkansas .\nin an observation of other cave crayfish and troglobitic species , small population sizes have been a result of reduced food sources . as an adaptation to this it has also been observed that these species display a lower metabolic rate , increased longevity , delayed maturity and reproduction and decreased fecundity . the otherwise adaptive characteristic could make the cave crayfish highly vulnerable to environmental pollution and limit this species ' ability to recover .\nin 1989 the u . s . fish and wildlife service ( fws ) purchased 123 . 9 acres ( 50 . 1 hectares ) at logan cave ( the cave crayfish ' s original locality ) . this attempt will facilitate preservation activities initiated by the fws . the rest of the area , however , is privately owned .\na collecting permit is required for collecting for any species , except for fish bait under state regulations . troglobites are protected from possession and sale by arkansas state law .\npotential conservation measures and federal involvement are expected to include : ( 1 ) environmental protection agency : clean water act ' s provisions for pesticide registration and waste management actions . ( 2 ) corps of engineers : inclusion of the cave crayfish in project planning and operation and during permit review . ( 3 ) federal highway administration : consideration of the cave crayfish in bridge and road construction in known areas of occupancy . ( 4 ) farmers home administration : consideration of impacts of the cave crayfish in loan processes . ( 5 ) soil conservation service : inclusion of the cave cray - fish in farmer ' s assistance programs .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service regional office 1875 century blvd . , suite 200 atlanta , georgia 30345 phone : 404 - 679 - 4000 urltoken\nurltoken gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the modern language association ( mla ) , the chicago manual of style , and the american psychological association ( apa ) .\nwithin the \u201ccite this article\u201d tool , pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style . then , copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list .\nbecause each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article , urltoken cannot guarantee each citation it generates . therefore , it\u2019s best to use urltoken citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publication\u2019s requirements and the most - recent information available at these sites :\nmost online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers . therefore , that information is unavailable for most urltoken content . however , the date of retrieval is often important . refer to each style\u2019s convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates .\nin addition to the mla , chicago , and apa styles , your school , university , publication , or institution may have its own requirements for citations . therefore , be sure to refer to those guidelines when editing your bibliography or works cited list .\n2006 ) . with all of the effort to look for cave organisms based out of fayetteville , a great deal of search has been focused in the area to find further specimens of this species . it has long seemed confined to the original caves , yet recent discoveries have added 2 additional sites nearby - both based on one or two specimens . in missouri , expert survey work has been carried out with no further discoveries of the species in that state ( brian wagner , ar game and fish , to cindy osborne , ar heritage , pers . comm . 2002 ) . the area of occupancy ( aoo ) is estimated to be less than 4 km .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhobbs , h . h . , jr . and a . v . brown . 1987 . a new troglobitic crayfish from north western arkansas . proceedings of the biological society of washington , 100 ( 4 ) : 1040 - 1048 .\nthis species is highly imperiled . this species has an extent of occurrence of less than 10 sq . km as each of the four cave pools has a maximum area of 200 m . the caves are severely fragmented and they are not connected to each other . there is a continuing decline in the extent and quality of habitat due to continued human disturbances and impacts through trampling and groundwater pollution . this species is extremely sensitive to groundwater quality and there is evidence that it is predated on by banded sculpin ( cottus carolinae ) . it has a very low population , of only 40 individuals , and a longevity of 75 years indicating that there is a late age of reproductive maturity . a recovery plan has been initiated by the us fisheries and wildlife service in 1996 , which has been putting in place measures to protect this species . however , even with this recovery plan in place , the population still remains low and sensitive to disturbance and quality of habitat .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\nthis species was previously known only from four caves in / around benton county , arkansas that are 38 km apart and both solution channels in boone formation ( hobbs and brown , 1987 ; usfws , 1996 ) . recent documentation of specimens in one cave recharge zone ( outside the cave itself ) in mcdonald co . , missouri , has increased the current understanding of the range of this species to include this area ( graening et al . , 2006 ) . two caves ( benton co . , arkansas ; and washington co . , arkansas ) are fairly recent range additions with one female sighted in 1999 and one male in 2004 ; plus one specimen expelled during a flood event in 2004 , respectively ( graening et al . , 2006 ) . extensive survey effort nearby revealed no others .\nprobably < 200 adults are extant . numbers of crayfish observed vary dramatically between cave visits with the greatest number observed at one time in one cave is nine and in the other cave 21 ( usfws , 1996 ) . the curent total observed population size is 40 individuals , based on the latest complete visual census of the second largest occurrence ( n = 6 ) , largest occurrence ( n = 31 ) , small occurrence ( n = 2 ) , and the smallest creek pool discharge occurrence ( n = 1 ) ( graening et al . , 2006 ) . the maximum historical count ( irrespective of date ) is 56 ( 47 in the largest cave occurrence , 9 in the second largest cave occurrence ) ( graening et al . , 2006 ) .\ntwo of the four sites are considered viable , one with decent viability ( graening et al . , 2006 ) .\na natural mortality factor is expulsion from the subterranean habitat by flooding during storm events . this has been documented on more than one occasion for the two largest occurrences ( into pea ridge hollow , missouri thus expanding range of this species ) ( graening et al . , 2006 ) . natural dispersal of this species is limited by its confinement to a stygobitic habitat in very few localities .\nthis species cannot survive outside the cave environment ( graening et al . , 2006 ) ; especially since they have been consumed by non - stygobitic predators outside the caves .\nalbinistic ; eyes without pigment and much reduced ; 2 terminal elements of first pleopod of male bent > 90 degrees , central projection ca . 135 degrees ; body strongly compressed ( hobbs and brown 1987 ) . [ length : to 28 . 5 tcl , to 45 tl ] [ width : to 12 ]\ncentral projection at > 90 degree angle to main axis of pleopod , with notch in apex ; proximolateral groove near base of pleopod ( hobbs and brown 1987 ) .\nreproductively active males in dec and jan ; no other data . spawning and actual mating periods unknown .\nco - occurs with the rare ozark crayfish , amblyopsis rosae in one cave .\nno data ; home range probably not over 50 m ; ability to survive outside cave paractically nil .\none of the caves from which this species is known is an ozarkian solution channel and species has been observed along the side walls of a pool or at the stream margin ( robison and allen , 1995 ) . cave streams in which this species lives are generally less than 50 cm deep .\nthis species was listed as a u . s . federal endangered species in 1993 and a recovery plan drafted ( usfws , 1996 ) . the primary conservation activity has been land protection . at one cave , usfws purchased 49 . 6 hectares containing the cave entrances and created a national wildlife refuge in 1989 . a cave gate was installed in 1998 by usfws and tulsa regional grotto , national speleological society . the nature conservancy is implementing a voluntary program to upgrate septic systems in the cave recharge zone to reduce nutrient loading of the aquifer . a pilot project at the prperty owner land involved the retrofitting of an old concrete spetic tank system with a recirculating , aerobic digestion trickle filter and fiberglass septic tank which should reduce nutrient and bacteria concentrations in the effluent . another property owner donated 1 . 7 ha of land containing the entrance to a second cave in 1998 to the nature conservancy establishing a natural area and a cooperative clean - up illegal refuse dumps in the discharge zone was performed . a cave gate was installed in the early 1990s . the entrance and surrounding land ( 4 . 1 ha ) of a third cave was donated to the nature conservancy , establishing another nature area and the nature conservancy has begun a reforestation effort of its discharge zone . site conservation and management pland for all 4 caves were developed by the nature conservancy . public outreach projects have not been implemented ( usfws , 1996 ; graening et al . , 2006 ) .\noccurrences are based on some evidence of historical or current presence of single or multiple specimens , including live specimens or recently dead shells ( i . e . , soft tissue still attached without signs of external weathering or staining ) , at a given location with potentially recurring existence . evidence is derived from reliable published observation or collection data ; unpublished , though documented ( i . e . government or agency reports , web sites , etc . ) observation or collection data ; or museum specimen information .\nseparation barriers are based on hydrological discontinuity . additional physical barriers , particularly for secondary and tertiary burrowers , include presence of upland habitat between water connections of a distance greater than 30 m . migration of primary burrowers is generally not hindered by presence of upland habitat unless conditions are very xeric ( dry and desert - like ) ( smith , 2001 ) .\nfreshwater cave ( troglobitic ) species may occur from near entrances to very deep in cave systems . for cave species , each cave where an observation or collection was recorded ( see minimum eo criteria , above ) constitutes an element occurrence regardless of separation distance unless caves are part of a single hydrological system ( see below ) . occurrences are additionally separated by underground physical barriers to movement . multiple caves within a single hydrological cave system are considered to be a single element occurrence when they are less than one km apart . multiple caves within a single hydrological cave system are considered separate element occurrences when hydrological connections have not been determined or when separated by a distance of at least one km .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nhobbs , h . h . , jr . 1989 . an illustrated checklist of the american crayfishes ( decapoda : astacidae , cambaridae , and parastacidae ) . smithsonian contributions to zoology 480 : 1 - 236 .\nkoppelman , j . b . and d . e . figg . 1995 . genetic estimates of variability and relatedness for conservation of an ozark cave crayfish species complex . conservation biology , 9 ( 5 ) : 1288 - 1294 .\nmclaughlin , p . a . , d . k . camp , m . v . angel , e . l . bousfield , p . brunel , r . c . brusca , d . cadien , a . c . cohen , k . conlan , l . g . eldredge , d . l . felder , j . w . goy , t . haney , b . hann , r . w . heard , e . a . hendrycks , h . h . hobbs iii , j . r . holsinger , b . kensley , d . r . laubitz , s . e . lecroy , r . lemaitre , r . f . maddocks , j . w . martin , p . mikkelsen , e . nelson , w . a . newman , r . m . overstreet , w . j . poly , w . w . price , j . w . reid , a . robertson , d . c . rogers , a . ross , m . schotte , f . schram , c . shih , l . watling , g . d . f . wilson , and d . d . turgeon . 2005 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : crustaceans . american fisheries society special publication 31 : 545 pp .\nrobison , h . w . and r . t . allen . 1995 . only in arkansas : a study of the endemic plants and animals of the state . university of arkansas press , fayetteville , arkansas .\ntaylor , c . a . , g . a . schuster , j . e . cooper , r . j . distefano , a . g . eversole , p . hamr , h . h . hobbs iii , h . w . robison , c . e . skelton , and r . f . thoma . 2007 . a reassessment of the conservation status of crayfishes of the united states and canada after 10 + years of increased awareness . fisheries 32 ( 8 ) : 371 - 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( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\nall documents and related graphics provided by this server and any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server are provided\nas is\nwithout warranty as to the currentness , completeness , or accuracy of any specific data . natureserve hereby disclaims all warranties and conditions with regard to any documents provided by this server or any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , including but not limited to all implied warranties and conditions of merchantibility , fitness for a particular purpose , and non - infringement . natureserve makes no representations about the suitability of the information delivered from this server or any other documents that are referenced to or linked to this server . in no event shall natureserve be liable for any special , indirect , incidental , consequential damages , or for damages of any kind arising out of or in connection with the use or performance of information contained in any documents provided by this server or in any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , under any theory of liability used . natureserve may update or make changes to the documents provided by this server at any time without notice ; 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{"id": 2122, "summary": [{"text": "fundulus zebrinus is a species of fish in the fundulidae known by the common name plains killifish .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it is native to north america , where it is distributed throughout the mississippi river , colorado river , and rio grande drainages , and other river systems ; many of its occurrences represent introduced populations .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "this fish grows up to about 6.9 centimeters long , with a maximum length of 8 to 10 centimeters .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its lifespan is up to 3 years , but most fish do not exceed two .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it has a flat head with a protruding jaw that allows it to feed at the water 's surface .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is variable in color , being brown , black , greenish , or straw-colored , with paler yellowish or silvery coloration on the belly .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the fish is striped with the 12 to 28 dark vertical bars that give the species its scientific name , meaning \" like a zebra \" .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the males have wider , darker bars than the females .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the breeding male develops bright orange coloration on most of his fins .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this species feeds on chironomid larvae , copepods , nematodes , and other small animals .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it is also herbivorous .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it may feed by scooping up and swallowing mouthfuls of riverbed substrate to obtain buried food objects .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the fish often spits out most of the sand and undigestible material , but the digestive tract usually contains an amount of sand .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the fish eats mosquito larvae when available , and studies suggest it might be useful in mosquito abatement efforts .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the fish lives in a number of shallow river and stream habitat types .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it may occur in lower , moderate and swift , turbid water flows .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it may be found in lakes .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it is tolerant of brackish , alkaline , and salty water , more so than most other local fish species .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it may bury itself in the substrate with only its eyes and mouth showing .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the fish might perform this behavior as a stress response , and it might serve to protect it from sunlight and heat , predators , or low water levels , or to help rid itself of parasites .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the killifish may face predation by other fish , notably the green sunfish ( lepomis cyanellus ) ; where this predator occurs , killifish populations drop .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "spawning is associated with water temperature , usually occurring when the temperature exceeds 26 \u00b0c .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "spawning season has been noted to start in april and continue through august .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "a number of parasites have been observed on this species , including myxosoma funduli , a myxozoan , a species of trichodina , a protozoan , urocleidus fundulus , a fluke , and gyrodactylus bulbacanthus , a monogenean , all of which infest the gills .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "also , the parasite gyrodactylus stableri infests the fins and organisms of neascus , a genus of flukes , infest the eye and internal tissues of the fish .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the monogenean gill parasite salsuginus thalkeni was first described from the fish .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "for a long time , fish of the closely related species fundulus kansae were considered to be members of f. zebrinus , the names synonyms .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "f. kansae was sometimes considered a subspecies of f. zebrinus .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "molecular and genetic studies supported the separation of the species .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "f. zebrinus is slightly larger than f. kansae , with larger scales and larger eyes .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the fins of the breeding male become more red in color , whereas the male f. kansae develops a more yellow-orange fin color .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this species has a wide range , mostly in the central united states .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "its native range is mostly within the great plains .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it includes much of the mississippi river drainage , parts of the colorado and brazos rivers , and some areas in the rio grande region , especially the pecos river .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its distribution was influenced by pleistocene changes in the geography of the local river systems , such as glaciation .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "many occurrences of the fish represent introductions , such as populations at lake powell in arizona and utah , the fort peck reservoir in montana , and several tributaries of the colorado river in colorado , utah , and nevada .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "some occurrences may or may not be native .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "fish introductions began in earnest around the 1930s .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "most introductions occurred when plains killifish were used as bait by anglers and escaped into the wild to establish new populations . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "fundulus zebrinus", "paragraphs": ["diversity of the parasite assemblage of fundulus zebrinus in the platte river of nebraska .\nfundulus zebrinus jordan and gilbert 1883 : 891 ; poss and miller ( 1983 ) .\ndiversity of the parasite assemblage of fundulus zebrinus in the platte river of nebraska . - pubmed - ncbi\nkreiser et al . ( 2001 ) and kreiser ( 2001 ) presented data supporting the recognition of two species of plains killifish : fundulus kansae ( northern plains killifish ) and fundulus zebrinus .\nkreiser , b . r . 2001 . mitochondrial cytochrome b sequences support recognition of two cryptic species of plains killifish , fundulus zebrinus and fundulus kansae . american midland naturalist 146 : 199 - 209 .\nposs , s . g . , and r . r . miller . 1983 . taxonomic status of the plains killifish fundulus zebrinus . copeia 1983 ( 1 ) : 55 - 67 .\nposs , s . g . , and r . r . miller . 1983 . taxonomic status of the plains killifish , fundulus zebrinus . copeia 1983 ( 1 ) : 55 - 67 .\nnear kearney , nebraska , i found a group of plains killifish ( fundulus zebrinus ) migrating from one pool to another in the backwaters of the platte river . see the full story here : urltoken\nhughes , r . m . 1981 . the plains killifish , fundulus zebrinus ( cyprinodontidae ) , in the colorado river basin of western north america . southwestern naturalist 26 ( 3 ) : 321 - 324 .\nposs , s . g . and r . r . miller , 1983 . taxonomic status of the plains killifish , fundulus zebrinus . copeia 1983 ( 1 ) : 55 - 67 . ( ref . 35647 )\nkreiser , b . r . , j . b . mitton , and j . d . woodling . 2001 . phylogeography of the plains killifish , fundulus zebrinus . evolution 55 ( 2 ) : 339 - 350 .\nfundulus zebrinus occurs sympatrically with the red river pupfish ( cyprinodon rubrofluviatilis ) in the red and brazos rivers and is closely associated , ecologically and phylogenetically , with the species ( echelle 1970 ; echelle et al . 1972 ) .\nspawning location : in mirror lake and lake francis , ( pecos river ) new mexico , fundulus zebrinus spawned on substrates such as gypsum boulders , bare sediment and vegetation - covered sediment ( kodric - brown and mazzolini 1992 ) .\nkodric - brown , a . , and mazzolini p . 1992 . the breeding system of pupfish , cyprinodon pecosensis : effects of density and interspecific interactions with the killifish , fundulus zebrinus . environmental biology of fishes 35 : 169 - 176 .\na genetic survey revealed that introduced fundulus kansae populations from the san juan river drainage ( site : cross creek canyon , san juan co . , utah ) grouped with populations of f . zebrinus from the brazos , red and pecos rivers ( kreiser et al . 2000 ) .\ntable 1 . states with nonindigenous occurrences , the earliest and latest observations in each state , and the tally and names of hucs with observations\u2020 . names and dates are hyperlinked to their relevant specimen records . the list of references for all nonindigenous occurrences of fundulus zebrinus are found here .\ngriffith , r . w . 1974 . environment and salinity tolerance in the genus fundulus . copeia 1974 ( 2 ) : 319 - 331 .\nfuller , p . , 2018 , fundulus zebrinus jordan and gilbert , 1883 : u . s . geological survey , nonindigenous aquatic species database , gainesville , fl , urltoken revision date : 4 / 13 / 2006 , peer review date : 4 / 1 / 2016 , access date : 7 / 9 / 2018\nfundulus zebrinus differs from f . kansae ( northern plains killifish ) in having larger scales , larger eyes and a more robust body ; f . zebrinus has 47 ( 42 - 50 ) scale rows in lateral series , the large male of the species having bright red fins ; f . kansae has 53 ( 47 - 60 ) scale rows in lateral series , the large male of the species having yellow - orange fins ( hubbs 1926 ; page and burr 1991 ; hubbs et al . 2008 ) . fundulus kansae is not found in the pecos , red , and brazos rivers ( kreiser 2001 ; kreiser et al . 2001 ) . f . zebrinus has 12 or more vertical dark bands marking the sides ; these bars distinguishing the species from live - bearers of similar shape ( koster 1957 ) .\nfrom the latin word fundus = bottom , the habitat ; zebrinus = like a zebra ( in reference to the vertical bars or stripes ) ( ref . 79012 )\nshute , j . r . , and a . w . allen . 1980 . fundulus zebrinus ( jordan and gilbert ) , plains killifish . pp . 531 in d . s . lee et al . , atlas of north american freshwater fishes . n . c . state mus . nat . hist . , raleigh , i - r + 854 pp .\nsalsuginus thalkeni n . sp . ( monogenea : ancyrocephalidae ) is described from the gills of the plains killifish , fundulus zebrinus , in the south platte river of nebraska . salsuginus thalkeni is distinguished from previously described species by measurements of sclerotized parts and by proportions ( measurement ratios ) , differences between dorsal and ventral hamuli , and angles between deep and superficial hamulus roots .\nlatin , fundus = bottom ; a peculiar name for a topminnow , coined for a bottom species of atlantic coast being\nthe abode of the fundulus mudfish\n( ref . 45335 )\nsigler and sigler ( 1987 ) ; hubbs et al . ( 1991 ) ; page and burr ( 1991 ) ; pflieger ( 1997 ) . fundulus kansae is considered a junior synonym ( poss and miller 1983 ) .\ntexas distribution : species ranges from the red river to the pecos river ( hubbs et al . 2008 ) . kreiser ( 2001 ) and kreiser et al . ( 2001 ) reported collection of this species from the pecos , brazos and red rivers ( the colorado river was not sampled in the study ) . warren et al . ( 2000 ) listed the following drainage units for distribution of fundulus zebrinus in the state : galveston bay ( including minor coastal drainages west to mouth of brazos river ) , brazos river , colorado river . species found in independence creek ( largest tributary of lower pecos river ; bonner et al . 2005 ) ; pedernales river ( tributary of the colorado river ; birnbaum 2005 ) ; lower rio grande ( minckley et al . 1991 ) . shute and allen ( 1980 ) listed distribution of f . zebrinus ( = fundulus z . zebrinus ) in the trinity , brazos , colorado , and rio grande / pecos drainages of texas . collected from the big bend region at garden springs ( mouth of tornillo creek and mouth of terlingua creek ) ; most likely introduced by bait bucket release ( hubbs 1957 ) .\npopulations in the southern united states are currently stable ( warren et al . 2000 ) . widespread and locally common ( minckley et al . 1991 ) . ostrand and wilde ( 2004 ) reported that fundulus zebrinus was a dominant species in pools sampled in the upper brazos river drainage , composing 7 . 1 % of the fish collected . in austin , texas , naturally occurring population in waller creek ( colorado river ) on the university of texas campus was eliminated by chemical pollution around 1946 ( edwards 1976 ; poss and miller 1983 ) .\nthis species ' range includes the red river , brazos river , colorado river , galveston bay , and pecos river drainages in texas and new mexico ( kreiser et al . 2001 ) . populations of the fundulus zebrinus - kansae group in southern montana , southwestern south dakota , northern and central wyoming , western colorado , eastern and southern utah , northwestern new mexico , northern arizona , and big bend region of texas are introduced ( poss and miller 1983 ) . introduced populations also occur in nevada ( glen clemmer pers . comm . 1998 ) .\nreproductive strategy : gravid females were pursued by either single males , pairs of males or by groups of several males ; a spawning pair settled to the substrate where the female deposited eggs ; spawning pair either traveled to another site or the pair parted ( kodric - brown and mazzolini 1992 ) ; species observed to be interspecifically territorial in association with the pecos pupfish ( cyprinodon pecosensis ) . echelle ( 1970 ) observed fundulus zebrinus ( red river drainage , oklahoma ) noting that it is a bottom spawner ; males were observed attempting to defend breeding territories against red river pupfish ( cyprinodon rubrofluviatilis ) males .\nnorth america : mississippi river and gulf slope basins in the usa from northern central montana to central wyoming and south to colorado river , brazos river , galveston bay and rio grande drainages in texas ( ref . 5723 ) . distinct from fundulus kansae which is found in the drainages north of the red river ( ref . 55961 ) .\ndrainage systems of the great plains and western gulf slope underwent substantial changes through diversions and stream captures during the pleistocene , either as the result of the glacial advances or through independent geologic processes . the distributions of a variety of fishes that range across west - central north america , such as the plains killifish ( fundulus zebrinus ) , are thought to be the product of this pleistocene influence . we examined the geographic pattern of genetic variation in f . zebrinus using three allozyme loci ( n = 793 ) , mitochondrial dna restriction fragment length polymorphisms ( rflps , n = 352 ) , and sequencing of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase i ( coi , n = 23 ) in an attempt to understand the roles of dispersal and vicariance . the phylogeographic patterns were concordant between the allozyme and mitochondrial data with the exception of the population in the north canadian river . the populations fell into three geographic assemblages , which we designated as northern , central , and southern . a large phylogenetic break ( average roger ' s d = 0 . 702 ; average sequence divergence in rflps = 4 . 6 % ; average sequence divergence in coi = 5 . 5 % ) separated the northern / central and southern assemblages . the northern region was likely colonized sometime during the mid - pleistocene . fish in the brazos and pecos rivers probably reached these drainages through stream captures of the red river . the large phylogenetic break between the northern / central and southern clades supports previous attempts to recognize two species of plains killifish : f . zebrinus and f . kansae .\nchanges in the values of the shannon h ' diversity index as determined for individual hosts ( infraassemblage diversity ) , host samples ( sample assemblage diversity ) , and for species density are reported for an assemblage of 7 parasites in fundulus zebrinus in the platte river in nebraska for a 5 - yr period . the parasites were : myxosoma funduli ( gill ) , trichodina sp . ( gill ) , gyrodactylus bulbacanthus ( gill ) , salsuginus sp . ( gill ) , gyrodactylus stableri ( body surface ) , and neascus sp . ( = posthodiplostomum ; eyes and body cavity ) . in addition , relative abundance and equitability are given for each of the study years . mean infraassemblage diversity , sample assemblage diversity , species density , and equitability were all significantly negatively correlated with river streamflow ( measured in cubic feet per second ) of the year prior to the sample , but were independent of the concurrent year ' s streamflow . over the long term , m . funduli and trichodina sp . were the most , and g . bulbacanthus was the least , abundant . species pair prevalence and relative density correlations showed few long - term patterns of co - occurrence or microallopatry . the strongest association was between m . funduli and the neascus sp . and was attributed to similarities in ecological requirements of intermediate hosts .\nmesohabitat : shallow , sandy , river edges , channels , and backwaters ( minckley et al . 1991 ) . according to ostrand and wilde ( 2001 ) , this species has high thermal , low dissolved oxygen , and high salinity tolerances : mean critical thermal maxima = 42 . 0 \u00b1 0 . 2\u00b0c ; salinity tolerance = 43 \u00b1 0 . 05\u2030 ; mean minimum dissolved oxygen tolerance = 1 . 25 \u00b1 0 . 09 mg / l . a laboratory study suggested a relatively narrow optimal oxygen concentration for f . zebrinus ; species apparently possesses great capacity to sense and respond to oxygen conditions , which is adaptive toward life in western streams ( hill et al . 1978 ) . griffith ( 1974 ) reported tolerance of salinities as high as 89\u2030 . ostrand and wilde ( 2004 ) collected species from isolated pools in the upper brazos river drainage , texas ; found in pools with salinities as high as 110\u2030 . species occurs abundantly in the saline waters of the pecos river , texas ( hubbs 1957 ; rhodes and hubbs 1992 ) . f . zebrinus was one of seven species ( all tolerant of a wide range of salinities ) in communities that dominated areas of high conductivity , in the pecos river drainage , texas ( linam and kleinsasser 1996 ) . collected from the colorado river , texas , from sandy bottomed draws that periodically go dry ; water was highly saline to the taste , and salt encrustaceans were present on dry areas of the bed ( echelle et al . 1977 ) .\nn . sp . ( monogenea : ancyrocephalidae ) from <\nby john j . janovy jr . , tim r . ruhnke et al .\njohn j . janovy jr . , university of nebraska - lincoln follow tim r . ruhnke , west virginia state university follow terry a . wheeler , mcgill university follow\npublished in the journal of parasitology ( june 1989 ) 75 ( 3 ) : 344 - 347 . copyright 1989 , the american society of parasitologists . used by permission .\n,\nlike a zebra ,\na reference to the vertical bars or stripes ( pflieger 1997 ) .\n100 mm tl ( shute and allen 1980 ; page and burr 1991 ) .\ncoloration : dark olive back , fading to yellowish on sides and to silvery white on the belly ; 12 or more dark bands ( fewer and wider on male ) mark the sides . bright red fins on large male ( koster 1957 ; page and burr 1991 ; hubbs et al . 2008 ) .\n: 47 ( 42 - 50 ) scale rows in lateral series ( texas populations ; hubbs et al . 2008 ) .\nposs and miller ( 1983 ) reported that lateral scale row count varied from 38 - 58 [ based on specimens from the rio grande ( 39 - 53 ) ; pecos river ( 38 - 53 ) ; colorado river , texas ( 42 - 53 ) ; brazos river ( 41 - 50 ) ; red river and washita river ( 39 - 58 ) populations ] ; dorsal fin ray count varied from 11 - 17 [ pecos river 14 ( 11 - 16 ) ; colorado river , texas 14 ( 11 - 15 ) ; brazos river 14 ( 11 - 16 ) ; red river and washita river 15 ( 11 - 17 ) populations ] ; anal fin ray count varied from 9 - 14 [ pecos river 13 ( 11 - 14 ) ; colorado river , texas 13 ( 11 - 14 ) ; brazos river 12 ( 9 - 14 ) ; red river and washita river 13 ( 12 - 14 ) populations ] .\nhubbs ( 1926 ) and koster ( 1957 ) listed count of 41 - 49 lateral scale rows for this species .\nbody shape : compressed , moderately elongated body with large head , wide mouth , and projecting lower jaw ( koster 1957 ) .\nmouth position : terminal ; lower lip large and fleshy ( sublette et al . 1990 ) .\n: lateral scales large ; gill slit not extending dorsal to uppermost pectoral fin ray ; distance from origin of dorsal fin to end of hypural plate less than distance from origin of dorsal fin to preopercle or occasionally about equal to that distance ( hubbs et al . 1991 ; hubbs et al . 2008 ) .\nthe least width of the preorbital ( flat bone between the eye and mouth ) is only one - half to two - thirds as great as diameter of the eye ( koster 1957 ) .\n( northern plains killifish ) : dorsal fin long and rounded ; pectoral and pelvic fins ovate , pectorals much larger than pelvics ; anal fin elongate , sharply angulate ; caudal fin truncate ( sublette et al . 1990 ) . male has slight depression in the region of the urogenital papilla ; female has an oviducal sheath surrounding the urogenital region and the anterior edge of the anal fin ( bonham 1962 ) . males possess small slender contact organs , hooked forward , on the anal fin and adjacent portion of the body ( hubbs 1926 ) .\n: reported from near the mouth of the black river , new mexico , where it was apparently maintained by immigration from resident populations in the adjacent pecos river ( cowley and sublette 1987 ; sublette et al . 1990 ) . species found in the rio grande / pecos drainage of new mexico ( shute and allen 1980 ; hubbs and echelle 1972 ) . pecos river , new mexico ( minckley et al . 1991 ) .\nmacrohabitat : found in shallows of ponds and streams at lower elevations in the pecos valley ( koster 1957 ) .\nspawning season : in southwestern oklahoma ( red river drainage ) , echelle ( 1970 ) observed species spawning as early as march 28 and as late as october 27 .\nfood habits : echelle ( 1970 ) observed individuals ( red river drainage , oklahoma ) feeding at the surface as well as the bottom ; bottom feeding behavior involved \u201cdigging\u201d and \u201cnipping\u201d . rabe et al . ( 1973 ) identified 12 algal genera from the foreguts and / or hindguts of specimens from oscar creek , oklahoma , and 28 algal genera were cultured from coffeepot creek , oklahoma specimens .\nbirnbaum , j . s . 2005 . associations of watershed and instream environmental factors with aquatic macrofauna in tributaries of the pedernales river , texas . m . s . thesis , texas a & m university , college station . 112 pp .\nbonham , l . e . 1962 . ecology of a saline spring , boone ' s lick . m . a . thesis , univ . mo . , columbia . 89 pp .\nbonner , t . h . , c . thomas , c . s . williams , and j . p . karges . 2005 . temporal assessment of a west texas stream fish assemblage . the southwestern naturalist 50 ( 1 ) : 74 - 106 .\ncowley , d . e . , and j . e . sublette . 1987 . distribution of fishes in the black river drainage , eddy county , new mexico . southwestern naturalist 32 ( 2 ) : 213 - 221 .\nechelle , a . a . 1970 . behavior and ecology of the red river pupfish , cyprinodon rubrofluviatilis . ph . d . dissertation , university of oklahoma , norman . 125 pp .\nechelle , a . a . , a . f . echelle , and f . b . cross . 1977 . first records of cyprinodon rubrofluviatilis ( cyprinodontidae ) from the colorado and arkansas river systems , texas . the southwestern naturalist 22 ( 1 ) : 142 - 143 .\nechelle , a . a . , a . f . echelle , and l . g . hill . 1972 . interspecific interactions and limiting factors of abundance and distribution in the red river pupfish , cyprinodon rubrofluviatilis . american midland naturalist 88 ( 1 ) : 109 - 130 .\nedwards , r . j . 1976 . relative and seasonal abundance of fish fauna in an urban creek ecosystem . unpublished ma thesis , university of texas , austin .\nhill , l . g . , w . j . matthews , and g . d . schnell . 1978 . locomotor reactions to two cyprinodontid fishes to differences in dissolved oxygen concentrations . the southwestern naturalist 23 ( 3 ) : 397 - 400 .\nhubbs , c . 1957 . distributional patterns of texas fresh - water fishes . the southwestern naturalist 2 ( 2 / 3 ) : 89 - 104 .\nhubbs , c . , and a . a . echelle . 1972 . endangered and non - game fishes of the upper rio grande basin . pp . 147 - 167 in : symposium on rare and endangered wildlife of the southwestern united states . new mexico dept . game and fish , santa fe .\nhubbs , c . , r . j . edwards , and g . p . garrett . 1991 . an annotated checklist of the freshwater fishes of texas , with keys to identification of species . texas journal of science , supplement 43 ( 4 ) : 1 - 56 .\nhubbs , c . , r . j . edwards , and g . p . garrett . 2008 . an annotated checklist of the freshwater fishes of texas , with keys to identification of species . texas journal of science , supplement , 2 nd edition 43 ( 4 ) : 1 - 87 .\nhubbs , c . l . 1926 . studies of the fishes of the order cyprinodontes . vi . material for a revision of the american genera and species . misc . publ . mus . zool . univ . mich . 16 : 1 - 86 .\njordan , d . s . , and c . h . gilbert . 1883 . synopsis of the fishes of north america . u . s . nat . mus . bull . 16 : 1 - 1018 .\nkoster , w . j . 1957 . guide to the fishes of new mexico . university of new mexico press , albuquerque . 116 pp .\nkreiser , b . r . , j . b . mitton , and j . d . woodling . 2000 . single versus multiple sources of introduced populations identified with molecular markers : a case study of a freshwater fish . biological invasions 2 : 295 - 304 .\nlinam , g . w . , and l . j . kleinsasser . 1996 . relationship between fishes and water quality in the pecos river , texas . texas parks and wildlife department , river studies report no . 9 , austin .\nminckley , w . l . , g . k . meffe , and d . l . soltz . 1991 . conservation and management of short - lived fishes : the cyprinodontoids . pp . 247 - 282 in : minckley , w . l . , and j . e . deacon ( eds . ) . battle against extinction : native fish management in the american west . the university of arizona press , tucson , arizona . 517 pp .\nostrand , k . g . , and g . r . wilde . 2001 . temperature , dissolved oxygen , and salinity tolerances of five prairie stream fishes and their role in explaining fish assemblage patterns . trans . amer . fish . soc . 130 : 742 - 749 .\nostrand , k . g . , and g . r . wilde . 2004 . changes in prairie stream fish assemblages restricted to isolated streambed pools . trans . amer . fish . soc . 133 : 1329 - 1338 .\npage , l . m . , and b . m . burr . 1991 . a field guide to freshwater fishes of north america , north of mexico . houghton mifflin company , boston , 432 pp .\npflieger , w . l . 1997 . the fishes of missouri . missouri department of conservation , jefferson city , 372 pp .\nrabe , j . r . , a . a . echelle , and h . e . schlicht . 1973 . viability of algae in digestive tracts of 2 cyprinodontids . progressive fish - culturist 35 ( 3 ) : 147 - 149 .\nrhodes , k . , and c . hubbs . 1992 . recovery of pecos river fishes from a red tide fish kill . the southwestern naturalist 37 ( 2 ) : 178 - 187 .\nsublette , j . e . , m . d . hatch , and m . sublette . 1990 . the fishes of new mexico . university of new mexico press , albuquerque . 393 pp .\nwarren , m . l . , jr . , b . m . burr , s . j . walsh , h . l . bart , jr . , r . c . cashner , d . a . etnier , b . j . freeman , b . r . kuhajda , r . l . mayden , h . w . robison , s . t . ross , and w . c . starnes . 2000 . diversity , distribution , and conservation status of the native freshwater fishes of the southern united states . fisheries , conservation 25 ( 10 ) : 7 - 29 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe nonindigenous occurrences section of the nas species profiles has a new structure . the section is now dynamically updated from the nas database to ensure that it contains the most current and accurate information . occurrences are summarized in table 1 , alphabetically by state , with years of earliest and most recent observations , and the tally and names of drainages where the species was observed . the table contains hyperlinks to collections tables of specimens based on the states , years , and drainages selected . references to specimens that were not obtained through sighting reports and personal communications are found through the hyperlink in the table 1 caption or through the individual specimens linked in the collections tables .\nmississippi river and gulf slope basins from north central missouri to central wyoming , and south to colorado river , brazos river , galveston bay , and rio grande ( primarily pecos river ) drainages , texas . mostly on great plains ( page and burr 1991 ) .\nmost introductions apparently originated from bait bucket releases . in western colorado , the species may have been introduced by bait bucket transfers or accidentally stocked as a contaminant with other species , although upstream expansion from utah cannot be ruled out ( woodling 1985 ) . it possibly spread downstream into the big horn river of montana from wyoming ( brown 1971 ) . the species has been introduced widely since about the 1930s ( poss and miller 1983 ) .\nestablished in many areas of the colorado river above and below glen canyon dam ( poss and miller 1983 ) . presumably established in other localities mentioned .\nposs and miller ( 1983 ) discussed the introduction history of this species and provided a dot distribution map distinguishing native and introduced records . according to lee et al . ( 1980 et seq . ) , many records represent natural occurrences ( e . g . , the yellowstone river drainage records in montana and wyoming , the cheyenne river records in wyoming and south dakota , the non - pecos records in the rio grande basin in texas ) ; however , poss and miller ( 1983 ) concluded these populations were introduced . holton ( 1990 ) found the species to be more widespread in montana than previously thought , inhabiting the little missouri and yellowstone drainages and the fort peck reservoir area ; thus , he suggested that the species may be native to the state . tyus et al . ( 1982 ) gave a map showing its distribution in the upper colorado basin . the plains killifish has never been collected in north dakota ( steinwand , personal communication ) even though it has been collected in the yellowstone river in montana near the montana / north dakota state line ( elser et al . 1980 ) . that area of western north dakota has been intensively surveyed ( steinwand , personal communication ) , so it is not likely that the species was overlooked .\nbailey , r . m . and m . o . allum . 1962 . fishes of south dakota . miscellaneous publications of the museum of zoology , university of michigan , ann arbor , mi 119 : 1 - 131 .\nbrown , c . j . d . 1971 . fishes of montana . montana state university , bozeman , mt .\ndeacon , j . e . , and j . e . williams . 1984 . annotated list of the fishes of nevada . proceedings of the biological society of washington 97 ( 1 ) : 103 - 118 .\nholden , p . b . , and c . b . stalnaker . 1975 . distribution and abundance of mainstream fishes of the middle and upper colorado river basins , 1967 - 1973 . transactions of the american fisheries society 104 ( 2 ) : 217 - 231 .\nholton , g . d . 1990 . a field guide to montana fishes . montana department of fish , wildlife and parks , helena , mt . 104 pp .\nhubbs , c . , r . j . edwards , and g . p . garrett . 1991 . an annotated checklist of freshwater fishes of texas , with key to identification of species . texas journal of science , supplement 43 ( 4 ) : 1 - 56 .\nlee , d . s . , c . r . gilbert , c . h . hocutt , r . e . jenkins , d . e . mcallister , and j . r . stauffer , jr . 1980 et seq . atlas of north american freshwater fishes . north carolina state museum of natural history , raleigh , nc .\nmiller , r . r . , and c . h . lowe . 1967 . fishes of arizona . pages 133 - 151 in c . h . lowe , editor . the vertebrates of arizona , part 2 . university of arizona press , tucson , az .\nminckley , w . l . 1973 . fishes of arizona . arizona fish and game department . sims printing company , inc . , phoenix , az .\npage , l . m . , and b . m . burr . 1991 . a field guide to freshwater fishes of north america north of mexico . the peterson field guide series , volume 42 . houghton mifflin company , boston , ma .\nschmidt , b . - chief fisheries mangement , division of wildlife resources , salt lake city , ut . response to nbs - g non - indigenous questionaire . 1992 .\nsigler , f . f . , and r . r . miller . 1963 . fishes of utah . utah department of fish and game , salt lake city , ut . 203 pp .\nsublette , j . e . , m . d . hatch , and m . sublette . 1990 . the fishes of new mexico . new mexico department of game and fish , university of new mexico press , albuquerque , nm . 393 pp .\ntilmant , j . t . 1999 . management of nonindigenous aquatic fish in the u . s . national park system . national park service . 50 pp .\nwoodling , j . 1985 . colorado ' s little fish : a guide to the minnows and other lesser known fishes in the state of colorado . colorado division of wildlife , denver , co . 77 pp .\nthis information is preliminary or provisional and is subject to revision . it is being provided to meet the need for timely best science . the information has not received final approval by the u . s . geological survey ( usgs ) and is provided on the condition that neither the usgs nor the u . s . government shall be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of the information .\nthe data represented on this site vary in accuracy , scale , completeness , extent of coverage and origin . it is the user ' s responsibility to use these data consistent with their intended purpose and within stated limitations . we highly recommend reviewing metadata files prior to interpreting these data .\ncitation information : u . s . geological survey . [ 2018 ] . nonindigenous aquatic species database . gainesville , florida . accessed [ 7 / 9 / 2018 ] .\ncontact us if you are using data from this site for a publication to make sure the data are being used appropriately and for potential co - authorship if warranted . for queries involving fish , please contact pam fuller . for queries involving invertebrates , contact amy benson .\nfreshwater ; brackish ; benthopelagic ; ph range : 7 . 0 - ? ; non - migratory . tropical ; 20\u00b0c - 25\u00b0c ( ref . 2060 ) ; 46\u00b0n - 29\u00b0n\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 8 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 27139 ) ; common length : 6 . 9 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 12193 ) ; max . reported age : 3 years ( ref . 12193 )\ninhabits shallow sandy runs , pools , and backwaters of headwaters , creeks and small to medium rivers . tolerates extremely alkaline and saline streams , and often found where few other fishes can survive . buries headfirst in sand and orients itself with only mouth and eyes are visible . this habit may protect the fish from intense sunlight or may help avoid predators , detect potential prey , or stream desiccation . 10 cm max tl ( ref . 5723 ) . not a seasonal killifish . is easy to maintain in the aquarium ( ref . 27139 ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00603 ( 0 . 00250 - 0 . 01453 ) , b = 3 . 08 ( 2 . 87 - 3 . 29 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 2 \u00b10 . 2 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( tmax = 3 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 12 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this species is listed as least concern in view of the fairly large extent of occurrence , large number of subpopulations , apparently large population size , stable or slowly declining trend , and lack of major threats .\nthis species is represented by a large number of occurrences ( subpopulations ) . total population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10 , 000 . this species is common throughout most of the native range in west and north texas ( mark gallyoun and gary garrett pers . comm . 1998 ) . trend over the past three generations is uncertain but probably relatively stable or slowly declining .\nhabitat includes runs , pools , backwaters , or edges of shallow ( rarely deeper than 15 cm ) , sandy - bottomed , turbid headwaters , creeks , and small to medium rivers with slow to moderate current ; many localities are highly alkaline or saline ( lee et al . 1980 , page and burr 2011 ) . this species commonly occurs in swift shallow water in southwestern kansas . spawning occurs in small shallow pools over sand or gravel / rubble bottoms .\ncurrently , this species is of relatively low conservation concern and does not require significant additional protection or major management , monitoring , or research action .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nresearch curator of fishes , north carolina state museum of natural sciences , research laboratory , 4301 reedy creek rd . , raleigh , nc , 27607 , usa\nbanks , r . c . , r . w . mcdiarmid , a . l . gardner , and w . c . starnes\nchecklist of vertebrates of the united states , the u . s . territories , and canada\nnelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , et al . , eds .\nfull author list : nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h\u00e9ctor espinosa - p\u00e9rez , lloyd t . findley , carter r . gilbert , robert n . lea , and james d . williams\nrobins , richard c . , reeve m . bailey , carl e . bond , james r . brooker , ernest a . lachner , et al .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ndepartment of environmental , population and organismic biology , university of colorado , boulder 80309 , usa . brian . kreiser @ urltoken\nresearch support , u . s . gov ' t , non - p . h . s ."]}
{"id": 2123, "summary": [{"text": "eupithecia correana is a moth in the geometridae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in the regions of o'higgins ( colchagua province ) , maule ( curico province ) and araucania ( malleco province ) in chile .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of the northern valdivian forest biotic province .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is about 7.5 mm for males and 7-7.5 mm for females .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the median area of the forewings is white or pale greyish white , contrasting with the dark brown basal area and faintly reddish brown distal area .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are greyish white , with dark brown scales basally and pale greyish brown scales distally .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults have been recorded on wing in january and february . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "eupithecia correana", "paragraphs": ["eupithecia lavicaria fuchs , 1902 ( syn : eupithecia lavicata prout , 1914 ) , described from norway .\nash pug ( angle - barred pug ) ( eupithecia innotata f . fraxinata )\nthe eupithecia ( lepidoptera , geometridae ) of chile . bulletin of the amnh ; v . 186 , article 3\neupithecia is a large genus of moths of the family geometridae . there are hundreds of described species , found in all parts of the world ( 45 in the british isles alone ) , and new species are discovered on a regular basis .\neupithecia species form the bulk of the group commonly known as pugs . they are generally small with muted colours and specific identification can be difficult . as a group they are easily identified by their narrow wings held flat at 90\u00b0 to the body with the hindwings almost hidden behind the forewings .\nthe larvae of many species feed on the flowers and seeds of their food plants rather than the foliage . many species have a very specific food plant . some hawaiian eupithecia are predators of other insects ( e . orichloris , e . staurophragma , e . scoriodes ) . they mimic twigs but when sensitive hairs on their backs are triggered , they quickly grab the insects touching them . the defensive behavior of snapping may have pre - adapted hawaii ' s ancestral eupithecia for shifting to predation from feeding on pollen . also , insect predators that behave in this way are lacking in hawaii ' s fauna .\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\njavascript is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .\nfull - text is provided in portable document format ( pdf ) . to view articles you must have the free adobe acrobat reader . click here to download the latest version . the . epub version displays best on an ipad , but may work on other devices that accept . epub format . download directly to your device\u2019s book reader ( e . g . , ibooks ) or drag into your e - books collection on your computer .\nbulletin of the american museum of natural history the bulletin , published continuously since 1881 , consists of longer monographic volumes in the field of natural sciences relating to zoology , paleontology , and geology . current numbers are published at irregular intervals . the bulletin was originally a place to publish short papers , while longer works appeared in the memoirs . however , in the 1920s , the memoirs ceased and the bulletin series began publishing longer papers . a new series , the novitates , published short papers describing new forms .\ndepartment of library services american museum of natural history central park west at 79th st . , new york , ny 10024 \u00a9 american museum of natural history , 2011\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nto date 683 species of macro - moth along with 1159 species of micro - moth have been recorded in norfolk since records began in victorian times . this site aims to provide full details of all the species that occur ( or once occurred ) in norfolk , with photographs , descriptions , flight graphs , latest records , distribution maps and more !\nif you have photos of any moths featured on this site , and would like them displayed along with your name and comments . . . please send them in ( any size . jpg images ) .\nplease consider helping with the running costs of norfolk moths . thank you : - )\nunderlying maps using digital map data \u00a9 norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola\u2122 2018 . \u00a9 james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data \u00a9 nola\u2122 2018\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\nchinery , michael ( 1986 ) . collins guide to the insects of britain and western europe ( reprinted 1991 ) .\nskinner , bernard ( 1984 ) . colour identification guide to moths of the british isles .\nthis article was sourced from creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . world heritage encyclopedia content is assembled from numerous content providers , open access publishing , and in compliance with the fair access to science and technology research act ( fastr ) , wikimedia foundation , inc . , public library of science , the encyclopedia of life , open book publishers ( obp ) , pubmed , u . s . national library of medicine , national center for biotechnology information , u . s . national library of medicine , national institutes of health ( nih ) , u . s . department of health & human services , and urltoken , which sources content from all federal , state , local , tribal , and territorial government publication portals ( . gov , . mil , . edu ) . funding for urltoken and content contributors is made possible from the u . s . congress , e - government act of 2002 .\ncrowd sourced content that is contributed to world heritage encyclopedia is peer reviewed and edited by our editorial staff to ensure quality scholarly research articles .\nby using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy . world heritage encyclopedia\u2122 is a registered trademark of the world public library association , a non - profit organization .\n. \u201d on his return to spain he found his old regiment about to march fo . . . . . . t imitate that life of mine when i in lonely sadness on the great rock\nthere to pine ; thou , . . . . . . what thou dost ; touch it not unless thou wouldst lay down thy life as the\nof thy rashness . \u201d the car - rier gave no heed to these words ( and he . . . . . . be with you , and keep in mind what you have promised and sworn under those\nthat have been already declared to you . \u201d so saying , he gave rocin . . . . . . ut , as there might be some to be found among them that did not deserve the\nof fire . \u201cno , \u201d said the niece , \u201cthere is no reason for showing merc . . . . . . ou , master nicholas , i say let this and \u2018amadis of gaul\u2019 be remit - ted the\nof fire , and as for all the rest , let them perish with - out further . . . . . . never slept a day under a roof , went to their graves as much maids as the\nthat bore them . i say , then , that in these and other respects our g . . . . . . ar , hatred nor love , should make them swerve from the path of truth , whose\nis history , rival of time , storehouse of deeds , witness for the past . . . . . . ked plough had not dared to rend and pierce the tender bowels of our first\n, belonging to a genus that feeds on feathers ; a beetle ( quedius ) and * . . . . . . brating so rapidly as to be scarcely visible , i was reminded of the sphinx\n: their movements and habits are indeed in many respects very similar . . . . . . . than any other race of animals . i allude only to the butterflies ; for the\n, contrary to what might have been ex - pected from the rankness of the . . . . . . ads . nothing could be more interest - ing than some of the family groups . a\nwith one or two daughters would often come to our rancho , mounted on . . . . . . manner in which his laws were enforced . one of these was , that no man , on\nof being put into the stocks , should carry his knife on a sunday : t . . . . . . ate individual , but likewise used them , as old spain had done before for a\nsettlement . en - gland claimed her right an seized them . the english - . . . . . . yages of the adventure and beagle , is in lat . 46 degs . 50 ' , in the gulf of\n. it is 15 miles long , and in one part 7 broad and descends to the sea . . . . . . an rafael . the posi - tion of the glaciers at this place and in the gulf of\nmay be put even in a more striking point of view , for they descend to . . . . . . in charge of this same fortress . after we left south america , he paid the\nin the usual manner , by being con - quered , taken prisoner , and shot . . .\nthat 60 don quixote have been already declared to you . \u201d so sayin . . . . . . ut , as there might be some to be found among them that did not deserve the\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from project gutenberg are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department .\norganic farming - externalities - biodiversity . . . nearly all non - crop , naturally occurring species observed in comparative farm land practice studies show a preference for organic farming both by abundance and diversity . . . an average of 30 % more species inhabit organic farms . . . many weed species attract beneficial insects that improve soil qualities and forage on weed pests . . .\nnemertea . . . all species have a proboscis which lies in the rhynchocoel when inactive but everts ( turns inside - out ) to emerge just above the mouth and capture the animal ' s prey with venom . . . a few species with stubby bodies filter feed and have suckers at the front and back ends , with which they attach to a host . . . chemoreceptors , and on their heads some species have a number of pigment - cup ocelli , which can detect light but not form an image . . .\northoptera - life cycle . . . orthopteroid species have a paurometabolous life cycle or incomplete metamorphosis . . . of sound is generally crucial in courtship , and most species have distinct songs . . . the number of moults varies between species growth is also very variable and may take a few weeks to some months depending on food availability and weather conditions . . .\nnemertea - taxonomy . . . comprises 100 marine species . . . comprises about 400 species . . . includes seven species , of which six live as commensals in the mantle of large clams and one in that of a freshwater snail . . .\nnemertea - description - nervous system and senses . . . most nemertean species have just one pair of nerve cords , many species have additional paired cords , and some species also have a dorsal cord . . . in some species the cords lie within the skin , but in most they are deeper , inside the muscle layers . . . some species have paired cerebral organs , sacs whose only openings are to the outside . . .\nnature seemed to have adorned herself for our departure with a profusion of fringes and curls , mingled with the bright tints of flowers , reflected in the water . but we missed the white water - lily , which is the queen of river flowers , its reign being over for this season . . . . many of this\na man can go from being a lover to being a stranger in three moves flat . . . but a woman under the guise of friendship will engage in acts of duplicity which come to light very much later . there are different\nto survive in a world full of stimuli ; but it prevents the survival of the aristocracy ."]}
{"id": 2127, "summary": [{"text": "the unicorn crestfish or unicornfish ( eumecichthys fiski ) is a very rare , little-known species of crestfish in the family lophotidae , and the only member of its genus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it likely has a worldwide distribution , having been first discovered offshore of kalk bay , south africa , and subsequently reported from the sea of japan , southwest florida , clarion island off mexico , hawaii , and india .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "a report from the bering sea may have been in error .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it is found in the bathypelagic zone , at a depth of around 1,000 m ( 3,300 ft ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "this fish has ribbon-like body measuring up to 150 cm ( 59 in ) in length .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its common name comes from a horn-like supraoccipital process projecting forward of its eyes .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the upper jaw is protrusible , and the jaws contain small conical teeth .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the dorsal fin runs along the entire length of the body and contains 310-392 soft rays ; the first three to five dorsal rays at the tip of the projecting ridge are elongated into a pennant .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the pectoral fins contain 13-15 rays ; the pelvic fins are absent .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "the anal fin contains five to 9 rays and in adults is split lengthwise to form two rows of nubbins .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the caudal fin contains 12-13 rays , with the bottommost ray enlarged and bony .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "the coloration is silvery with 24-60 dark subvertical bands .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the dorsal and caudal fins are crimson .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "eumenichthys is one of three lampriform genera known to possess ink tubes , allowing them to expel a black fluid from their cloacae as a defense against predators .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "the ink tube is derived from a primitive gut and runs above and parallel to the intestine .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "a known predator of the unicorn crestfish is the longnose lancetfish , ( alepisaurus ferox ) ; a lancetfish 73 cm ( 29 in ) long has been found that had swallowed a unicorn crestfish 55 cm ( 22 in ) long . ", "topic": 16}], "title": "unicorn crestfish", "paragraphs": ["the unicorn crestfish ( eumecichthys fiski ) is the only species in the . . .\na fossil unicorn crestfish ( teleostei , lampridiformes , lophotidae ) from the eocene of iran .\n# fishaday \u2020babelichthys olneyi unicorn crestfish from iran , named for the babelfish . ht @ gombessagirl urltoken\na fossil unicorn crestfish ( teleostei , lampridiformes , lophotidae ) from the eocene of iran . - pubmed - ncbi\nrt @ hannahoish : # fishaday \u2020babelichthys olneyi unicorn crestfish from iran , named for the babelfish . ht @ gombessagirl urltoken\nhead of a unicorn crestfish , eumecichthys fiski . source : eric woroch , us nmfs - piro observer program / wikimedia commons . license : public domain\na rare deepsea oarfish relative with an extremely long silvery ribbon - like body , a horn - like process extending froward on the head , bright red fins , and 24 - 60 darker vertical bands along the sides . as a defence against predators , the unicorn crestfish can expel black fluid from around the anus .\nthe unicorn crestfish ( eumecichthys fiski ) is the only species in the genus eumecichthys , which is one of just two genera in the oceanic family lophotidae ( the crestfishes ) . this species is rare and known only from the deep sea ( possibly around 1000 m ) , but is apparently widely distributed from south africa to india , japan , hawaii , and mexico . the head and body are silvery with 24 to 60 dark vertical bands and the fins are red . the highly elongated body may reach 130 cm or more ( body depth is around 1 / 25th of length ) . the first three or four dorsal rays are produced into a long , narrow pennant that extends far forward of the mouth . the dorsal fin includes 310 to 393 rays , the anal fin 5 to 9 rays , the pectoral fin 13 to 15 rays , and the caudal fin ( tail ) 12 to 13 rays . ( robins and ray 1986 ; heemstra 2003 ; froese and pauly 2011 ) the common name , unicorn crestfish , comes from the distinctive projecting supraoccipital , a bone on the dorsal ( upper ) side of the skull . a unique feature shared by members of the lophotidae ( lophotes and eumecichthys ) is the presence of an ink tube ( or ink sac ) . the ink tube allows its bearer to expel black fluid from the cloaca as a defense against predators ( robins and ray 1986 ; honma , ushiki , and takeda , 1998 ) .\nlophotidae , or crestfishes , is a family of rare deep - sea teleosts characterised by an enlarged horn - like crest on the forehead . they are poorly represented in the fossil record , by only three described taxa . one specimen attributed to lophotidae has been described from the pelagic fauna of the middle - late eocene zagros basin , iran . originally considered as a specimen of the fossil lophotid \u2020 protolophotus , it is proposed hereby as a new genus and species \u2020 babelichthys olneyi , gen . et sp . nov . , differs from the other fossil lophotids by its relatively long and strongly projecting crest , suggesting a close relationship with the modern unicorn crestfish , eumecichthys . this new taxon increases the diversity of the deep - sea teleost fauna to which it belongs , improving our understanding of the taxonomic composition of the early cenozoic mesopelagic ecosystems .\nin the present paper , \u2020 babelichthys olneyi , a new genus and species of lophotidae from the eocene of iran is described . few fossil representatives of taeniosomi , an elusive group of deep - sea teleosts , are known and only one of them has been previously described in detail ( bannikov , 1999 ) . \u2020 babelichthys is potentially the only currently known fossil close relative of the unicorn crestfish eumecichthys . this discovery is also significant because it expands the diversity of the middle - late eocene ilam fauna . modern lophotids are found in mesopelagic environments ( olney , 2002 ) , so the presence of at least two representatives of the family in the fauna that is mostly composed by relatives of modern deep - sea teleosts ( arambourg , 1967 ; afsari et al . , 2014 ; p\u0159ikryl , brzobohat\u00fd & gregorov\u00e1 , 2016 ) reinforces its potential as a valuable glimpse of the otherwise poorly known early cenozoic deep - water ecosystems .\nthe distinction between an almost horizontal \u201ccrest\u201d projecting anteriorly and a more vertical and relatively shorter \u201ccrest\u201d distinguishes \u2020 babelichthys from \u2020 protolophotus ( see above , taxonomic justification ) , but also from the extant lophotus and the other known lophotid fossil taxa ( table 1 ) . conversely , in the eumecichthys specimen that is examined , the crest is strongly projected anteriorly ( angle of 72 . 4\u00b0 ) and relatively very long ( table 1 ) . another element is the apparent absence of vomerine fang - like teeth in \u2020 babelichthys ( it is however possible that they were present , but not preserved in the fossil ) , like in eumecichthys , while they are present in lophotus ( olney , johnson & baldwin , 1993 ) . since only one specimen is available , it is impossible to perform a thorough comparison of head morphologies at various growth stages and between individuals . nevertheless , it seems on the basis of preserved elements that head morphology in \u2020 babelichthys is closer to the one observed in eumecichthys than in lophotus , corroborating the proposition of oelschl\u00e4ger ( 1979 ) that it represents a potential fossil sister group to eumecichthys . it would then be the first known fossil unicorn crestfish . nevertheless , \u2020 babelichthys also differs from eumecichthys : its crest is less strongly projecting and relatively shorter ( table 1 ) . moreover , no other lophotid , fossil or extant , has such an extreme enlargement and expansion of the dorsal - fin pterygiophores , the second one in particular .\nlampridiforms are strange spiny - rayed teleosts , found in mesopelagic environments in every ocean of the world ( olney , johnson & baldwin , 1993 ; olney , 2002 ) . their most famous representatives are the endothermic opah ( lampris guttatus ) and the gigantic , serpentine oarfish ( regalecus glesne ) , the longest known teleost . along with these iconic taxa , lampridiforms include equally weird ribbon - like and elongate animals , characterized by a silver - coloured skin and long , bright red fins : the taeniosomes . the 15\u201318 extant species of the clade taeniosomi include oarfishes ( regalecidae ) , ribbonfishes ( trachipteridae ) , the tapertail ( radiicephalidae ) and lophotidae , the crestfishes ( regan , 1907 ; walters & fitch , 1960 ; olney , 1984 ; roberts , 2012 ) . lophotids are characterized by unique anatomical structures , such as an ink gland ( walters & fitch , 1960 ; honma , ushiki & takeda , 1999 ) not found anywhere else in teleosts ( except in the closely related radiicephalids ; harrisson & palmer , 1968 ) . the most conspicuous osteological feature of lophotids is a well - developed horn - like crest , formed by an anteriorly projecting expansion of the frontal and supraoccipital bones of the cranium ( oelschl\u00e4ger , 1979 ; oelschl\u00e4ger , 1983 ; olney , johnson & baldwin , 1993 ) . this crest is closely associated with the anterior pterygiophores supporting the dorsal fin , and as a result , the dorsal fin expands over , and sometimes anterior to the cranium . lophotids are represented in modern fauna by one to three lophotus species and by the unicorn crestfish , eumecichthys fiski ( walters & fitch , 1960 ; craig , hastings & pondella , 2004 ) . their fossil record consists in at least three monotypic genera ( bannikov , 1999 ; carnevale , 2004 ) . the present article is a revision of an anatomically distinctive fossil specimen attributed to lophotidae . arambourg ( 1943 ) and arambourg ( 1967 ) first described the specimen from a rich late eocene fauna located near ilam , zagros basin , iran . the ilam fauna comprises numerous representatives of teleost taxa such as beryciformes , gadiformes , ophidiiformes and stomiiformes , typical of the modern deep - sea pelagic environments ( arambourg , 1967 ; afsari et al . , 2014 ; p\u0159ikryl , brzobohat\u00fd & gregorov\u00e1 , 2016 ) .\nprobably worldwide . western atlantic : southeastern florida in usa . southeast atlantic : false bay , south africa ( ref . 4165 ) . northwest pacific : japan ( ref . 559 ) . eastern central pacific : hawaii and mexico ( ref . 4165 ) . indian ocean : india ( ref . 4165 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 150 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 7251 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 5 - 9 . head and body silvery in color with 24 - 60 dark sub vertical bands ; dorsal and caudal fins crimson in color ( ref . 4165 ) . dorsal fin with 310 - 392 soft rays .\na rare ( ref . 4165 ) , mesopelagic species found at 1 , 000 m depth ( ref . 5213 ) .\nheemstra , p . c . , 1986 . lophotidae . p . 402 - 403 . in m . m . smith and p . c . heemstra ( eds . ) smiths ' sea fishes . springer - verlag , berlin . ( ref . 4165 )\n) : 7 . 7 - 15 . 1 , mean 10 . 6 ( based on 338 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 0625 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00115 ( 0 . 00043 - 0 . 00306 ) , b = 3 . 07 ( 2 . 84 - 3 . 30 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 1 \u00b10 . 6 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : very low , minimum population doubling time more than 14 years ( ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : very high vulnerability ( 80 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this species is likely distributed worldwide to depths of 1 , 000 m . there are no known species - specific threats and there are no known species - specific conservation measures . this species is assessed as least concern .\nthis species is likely distributed worldwide . in the western atlantic it is known from southeastern florida in usa . it has also been described from southern and central brazil . in the southeastern atlantic this species is known from false bay , south africa ( heemstra 1986 ) and from the gulf of guinea . in the northwest pacific this species is known from japan ( masuda et al . 1984 ) . in the eastern central pacific , this species is known from hawaii and mexico ( heemstra 1986 ) . in the indian ocean , it is known from india ( heemstra 1986 ) . it is found to depths of 1 , 000 m .\nangola ; anguilla ; antigua and barbuda ; bahamas ; barbados ; bermuda ; brazil ; british indian ocean territory ; christmas island ; cocos ( keeling ) islands ; comoros ; congo , the democratic republic of the ; dominica ; dominican republic ; equatorial guinea ; france ( clipperton i . ) ; french guiana ; french southern territories ; gabon ; guadeloupe ; guatemala ; guyana ; india ( andaman is . , nicobar is . ) ; indonesia ; iran , islamic republic of ; japan ; kenya ; kiribati ( kiribati line is . , phoenix is . ) ; madagascar ; maldives ; martinique ; mauritius ; mayotte ; mexico ; mozambique ; myanmar ; namibia ; nigeria ; oman ; pakistan ; philippines ; russian federation ( central asian russia , kuril is . ) ; saint kitts and nevis ; saint martin ( french part ) ; sao tom\u00e9 and principe ; seychelles ; sint maarten ( dutch part ) ; somalia ; south africa ; sri lanka ; suriname ; taiwan , province of china ; tanzania , united republic of ; trinidad and tobago ; turks and caicos islands ; united states ( hawaiian is . ) ; united states minor outlying islands ( howland - baker is . , johnston i . ) ; virgin islands , british ; virgin islands , u . s . ; yemen\nthere is little species - specific population information available for e . fiski . it is represented by six lots in museum collections ( fishnet2 database searched june 2014 ) .\nthis is a rare mesopelagic species which is found to depths of 1 , 000 m ( fischer et al . 1990 ) .\nthere is no species - specific use and trade information available for this species .\nthere are no known species - specific conservation measures in place for e . fiski . it is likely found in marine protected areas throughout its range .\nfischer , w . , sousa , i . , silva , c . , de freitas , a . , poutiers , j . m . , schneider , w . , borges , t . c . , feral , j . p . and massinga , a . 1990 . fichas fao de identifica\u00e7ao de esp\u00e9cies para actividades de pesca . guia de campo das esp\u00e9cies comerciais marinhas e de \u00e1guas salobras de mo\u00e7ambique . publica\u00e7ao preparada em collabora\u00e7ao com o instituto de investiga\u00e7ao pesquiera de mo\u00e7ambique , com financiamento do projecto pnud / fao moz / 86 / 030 e de norad . food and agricultural organization of the united nations ( fao ) , rome , italy .\nheemstra , p . c . 1986 . trachichthyidae . in : m . m . smith and p . c . heemstra ( eds ) , smith\u2019s sea fishes , pp . 410 - 413 . springer - verlag , berlin , germany .\niucn . 2015 . the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2015 - 4 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 19 november 2015 ) .\nmasuda , h . , amaoka , k . , araga , c . , uyeno , t . and yoshino , t . 1984 . the fishes of the japanese archipelago . tokai university press , tokyo , japan .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nin australia , the only known specimen was washed ashore at cheynes beach , albany , in 1989 . elsewhere the species is very rare , but thought to occur worldwide in depths of around 1000 m .\nlophotes fiski g\u00fcnther 1890 , proc . zool . soc . london 1890 ( 2 ) : 244 , pls 19 - 20 . type locality : cape of good hope , kalk bay , south africa .\nbray , d . j . 2008 . family lophotidae . pp . 298 in gomon , m . f . , bray , d . j . & kuiter , r . h . ( eds )\n. the iucn red list of threatened species 2015 : e . t190107a60791470 . urltoken downloaded on 06 may 2017 .\nolney , j . e . 1999 . families veliferidae , lamprididae , stylephoridae , lophotidae , radiicephalidae , trachipteridae , regalecidae . pp . 1966 - 1975 in carpenter , k . e . & niem , v . h . ( eds )\nthe living marine resources of the western central pacific . fao species identification guide for fisheries purposes\njennifer hammock chose to hide data on\neumecichthys fiski ( g\u00fcnther , 1890 )\n.\nkatja schulz changed the thumbnail image of\neumecichthys fiski - credit sandra j . raredon , division of fishes , nmnh\n.\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nsarvinauhakala\nto\neumecichthys fiski ( g\u00fcnther , 1890 )\n.\nsara eckert added text to\neumecichthys fiski\non\neumecichthys fiski ( g\u00fcnther , 1890 )\n.\nthis is filed under\ndiagnostic description .\nbut this information is not diagnostic . we may need to remap if this is a general problem .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , reproduction and adaptation in any medium and for any purpose provided that it is properly attributed . for attribution , the original author ( s ) , title , publication source ( peerj ) and either doi or url of the article must be cited .\nthe taxonomic status of the lophotid specimen studied here is currently unclear ( walters , 1957 ; oelschl\u00e4ger , 1979 ; bannikov , 1999 ) , and it lacks a proper anatomical description . given the rarity of fossil material attributed to taeniosome lampridiforms , a detailed description and revised taxonomy of this material is needed in order to improve our understanding of the morphological evolution and fossil record of this peculiar group .\nthe material described herein , mnhn . f . eip11 ( figs . 1 and 2 ) , was discovered during excavations near ilam ( zagros basin , western iran ) by camille arambourg in 1938\u20131939 . the specimen was chosen to be the paratype of \u2020 lophotes elami ( arambourg , 1943 ) , along with the holotype mnhn . f . eip10 ( fig . 3 ) . on the basis of osteological differences from extant lophotids , such as the well - ossified pelvic girdle in a ventral position observed in the holotype of \u2020 lophotes elami , walters ( 1957 ) assigned it to a distinct new genus \u2020 protolophotus ( fig . 3 ) . oelschl\u00e4ger ( 1979 ) later proposed that mnhn . f . eip11 differs sufficiently from mnhn . f . eip10 to be classified in a different genus . he related the specimen to the extant eumecichthys and gave it the name \u2020\u2018 protomecichthys \u2019 . however , the genus \u2020\u2018 protomecichthys \u2019 lacks both a designated type species and a formal description . thus , it fails to meet the requirements of article 13 . 3 of the international code of zoological nomenclature ( international commission on zoological nomenclature , 1999 ) and should be considered a nomen nudum ( bannikov , 1999 ) .\n( a ) mnhn . f . eip11d . ( b ) counterpart mnhn . f . eip11g . scale bars = 20 mm .\nphotograph ( detail of the head ) and interpretative drawing . legend : achy , anterior ceratohyal ; bra , branchiostegal ; bsp , basisphenoid ; den , dentary ; dfr , dorsal - fin ray ; dhhy , dorsal hypohyal ; dpt , dorsal - fin pterygiophore ; enpt , endopterygoid ; fr , frontal ; hyo , hyomandibula ; iop , interopercle ; lac , lachrymal ; let , lateral ethmoid ; mpt , metapterygoid ; mx , maxilla ; osp , orbitosphenoid ; pal , palatine ; pchy , posterior ceratohyal ; pmx , premaxilla ; pop , preopercle ; psp , parasphenoid ; qu , quadrate ; soc , supraoccipital ; soc - sp , spine of the supraoccipital ; spl , splint of the first dorsal - fin ray ; vhhy , ventral hypohyal ; vo , vomer . scale bar = 10 mm .\n\u2020 eolophotes lenis , pin 1413 / 86 ; eumecichthys fiski , usnm 164170 ( radiographs ) ; lophotus lacepede , nhmuk 1863 . 8 . 27 . 1 ( radiographs ) ; \u2020 oligolophotes fragosus , pin 3363 / 121 ; \u2020 protolophotus elami , mnhn . f . eip10 .\nthe electronic version of this article in portable document format ( pdf ) will represent a published work according to the international commission on zoological nomenclature ( iczn ) , and hence the new names contained in the electronic version are effectively published under that code from the electronic edition alone . this published work and the nomenclatural acts it contains have been registered in zoobank , the online registration system for the iczn . the zoobank lsids ( life science identifiers ) can be resolved and the associated information viewed through any standard web browser by appending the lsid to the prefix urltoken . the lsid for this publication is : urn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : b677ba4f - ccf4 - 4678 - a8a8 - 502f059704d2 . the online version of this work is archived and available from the following digital repositories : peerj , pubmed central and clockss .\nthe specimen was examined with a stereomicroscope equipped with a camera lucida drawing arm . the interpretative drawing was produced with adobe illustrator cs6 from the camera lucida drawings and from photographs . measurements were taken with a compass or with the software imagej 1 . 5 from radiographs ; angles were also measured with imagej . the method for estimating the degree of projection of the crest is modified from craig , hastings & pondella ( 2004 ) : it is based on the angle between the straight line from the tip of the crest to the proximal end of its anterior margin ( instead of the tip of the upper jaw , due to varying jaw positions in fossils ) and the vertical line drawn perpendicular to the main axis of the parasphenoid ( instead of the vertebral column , not preserved in mnhn . f . eip11 ) . the relative length of the crest is the ratio between the crest length ( distance between the tip of the crest and the proximal end of its anterior margin ) and the head length without the crest ( from the anterior margin of the ethmoid region to the posterior margin of the neurocranium ) . all extinct taxa are indicated with a dagger ( \u2020 ) .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 86986e5e - 5fff - 465d - a987 - e475fbf02966\netymology . hellenization of the name of the \u201cbabel fish\u201d , the teleost - like , ear - dwelling , polyglot extra - terrestrial species from douglas adams\u2019 1979 book the hitchhiker\u2019s guide to the galaxy , in reference to the very peculiar , almost alien - like , appearance of the genus .\ndiagnosis . a lophotid differing from \u2020 eolophotes , lophotus , \u2020 oligolophotes and \u2020 protolophotus by the relatively longer , strongly projecting crest ; and from eumecichthys by the relatively shorter , deeper and less strongly projecting crest , with strongly expanded anterior dorsal - fin pterygiophores .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : d2540d1f - f169 - 40de - b910 - 7302810615e7\n1943 \u2020 lophotes elami arambourg , p . 287 , pl . x , fig . 1\nholotype . mnhn . f . eip11d / g , almost complete articulated cranium and anterior portion of the dorsal fin , in part and counterpart ( figs . 1 and 2 ) . this is the only specimen known for the genus and species .\netymology . species named in honour of the late john e . olney , in recognition of his work on the anatomy and ontogeny of lampridiformes .\ntype locality and horizon . near ilam , zagros basin , western iran . this teleost fauna , part of the pabdeh formation , was erroneously aged cretaceous by priem ( 1908 ) , and rupelian ( oligocene ) by arambourg ( 1943 ) and arambourg ( 1967 ) . it is more accurately middle to late eocene in age ( afsari et al . , 2014 ; and references therein ) .\nmnhn . f . eip11 consists only of the head of the animal , along with the associated anterior portion of the dorsal fin . the specimen is mostly articulated , except for the left ventral portion of the hyoid arch that is upturned and preserved ventral to the rest of the cranium . the limits of most bones are poorly preserved , probably due to their low degree of mineralization in life as is the case in modern taeniosome lampridiforms .\ntotal head length : 104 mm ; head length ( without the crest ) : 44 mm ; crest length ( anterior margin ) : 51 . 5 mm ; head depth : 25 . 5 mm ; orbit diameter : 23 mm .\nthe neurocranium of mnhn . f . eip11 is highly modified . the frontal develops a dorsal lamina that projects anterior to the jaws . throughout approximately its anterior half , it is in contact with an enlarged laminar process of the supraoccipital , delimited dorsally by a strong supraoccipital spine . together , they form a conspicuous \u201ccrest\u201d , long and strongly projecting anteriorly ( at an angle of 64 . 5\u00b0 ) . alone , the crest contributes to 58 % of total head length .\nthe frontal makes up approximately 60 % of the anterior margin of the crest . both the frontal and the supraoccipital show radial ornamentation on the crest ; it radiates from the posterior end of the frontal and the distal tip of the supraoccipital . the supraoccipital spine borders the dorsal margin of the bone , and narrows towards the tip .\nthe ethmoid region is poorly preserved , with an probable enlarged lateral ethmoid that hides the mesethmoid . an enlarged lachrymal is nested in the antero - ventral corner of the orbit ; it is parallel to the parasphenoid ventrally , and curves dorsally along the posterior edge of the lateral ethmoid . the orbitosphenoid runs along the dorsal margin of the orbit and has a conspicuous process pointing ventrally . the posterior wall of the orbit is delimited ventrally by a robust and straight basisphenoid . otherwise , the sphenoid , otic and occipital regions are too poorly preserved to distinguish the individual bones . the parasphenoid is robust and slightly curves dorsally at its anterior end . the junction between the parasphenoid and the vomer is not discernable . there is no evidence of vomerine teeth .\nthe premaxilla is relatively small , with a well - developed ascending process , and a barely visible alveolar process . the maxilla bears a conspicuous and pointed process at its antero - dorsal end . the posterior end is expanded dorsoventrally , forming a rounded lamina . neither the premaxilla nor the maxilla bear visible teeth . there is no evidence of a supramaxilla . the anterior margin of the dentary , slightly concave and bearing no visible teeth , forms a strong angle with the ventral margin . the posterior margin of the dentary forms an interosseous space with the anguloarticular , which is mostly hidden by overlaying bones .\nonly the proximal , single - headed articulation of the hyomandibula is clearly visible ; the distal end of the bone seems to be preserved in close association with the metapterygoid . the latter is roughly triangular and is one of the best preserved bones of the suspensorium . the symplectic is rod - like , narrows slightly anteriorly and inserts in a notch on the postero - ventral margin of the quadrate . the triangular quadrate bears an antero - ventral condyle that articulates with the anguloarticular . the anterior portion of the suspensorium is poorly preserved , and it is difficult to outline the limits of the endopterygoid , ectopterygoid and palatine bones . the dorsal and posterior portions of the endopterygoid are preserved , suggesting that the bone forms two laminae , the dorsal one along the parasphenoid , and the ventral one contacting both the quadrate and the metapterygoid .\nboth the left and right ventral hyoid arches are visible . one is preserved in life position : its posterior end overlaps the operculum , but its dorsal margin is hidden by the lower jaw , suggesting it corresponds to the right ventral hyoid arch . the left one is displaced and upturned , and lies ventral to its counterpart . the posterior ceratohyal is triangular and articulates with the anterior ceratohyal with an interdigitated suture . the anterior ceratohyal shows a strong ventral concavity at midlength ; its dorsal margin is much less concave . the anterior end of the anterior ceratohyal forms a rounded condyle , over which the curved ventral hypohyal articulates . the dorsal hypohyal lies dorsally over the anterior ceratohyal . there are six branchiostegals : the anterior two are shorter and articulate with the anterior ceratohyal at the level of its ventral concavity ; the four others articulate more posteriorly ( due to the faint distinction between both ceratohyals , it is difficult to determine on which one they articulate ) ; they are very long ( the posteriormost being the longest ) and curved posteriorly over the ventral margin of the interopercle . the branchiostegals of the left hyoid arch are disarticulated .\nthe preopercle is wide and angled at mid - length . the interopercle is an elongate bone rounded at its extremity that forms the ventral margin of the opercular series . it has a smooth ventral margin , closely associated with the posterior branchiostegals . the potential presence of parts of the opercle , in contact with the preopercle , is unclear .\nthe dorsal fin is only partially preserved , with only the most anterior pterygiophores and dorsal - fin rays visible . its most striking feature is the extremely elongated and enlarged first dorsal - fin ray , which is 10 times as wide as the more posterior fin rays ( at their base and greatest width ) . it does not bifurcate distally , lacks any visible segmentation , and a groove runs throughout its length . a rounded splint protrudes at its anterior base ; it is unclear whether it constitutes a separate dorsal - fin element or not . fifteen other dorsal - fin rays are preserved posteriorly . their distal end is missing in most cases , but they all seem to be of a similar length , except for the second and third dorsal - fin rays that are noticeably longer . they do not bifurcate distally , and no segmentation is clearly visible .\nten dorsal - fin pterygiophores are unambiguously preserved . they are strongly inclined anteriorly , which causes the dorsal fin to originate at the tip of the crest , and to run along the entire head of the animal . the first two dorsal - fin pterygiophores are greatly enlarged and in close contact with the crest . both also show a conspicuous flange at their posterior margin . the first pterygiophore is narrow posteriorly , where it does not contact the supraoccipital , and widens in its distal end . the second one is much wider and slightly narrows at its distal extremity . it is in close contact with the first pterygiophore throughout its entire length . the third and fourth preserved pterygiophores are in close contact with the second one throughout almost all of their lengths . the more posterior pterygiophores have a mostly straight shaft that curves slightly at its distal extremity . the most posterior ones are less inclined than the anterior ones . the proximal ends of all preserved pterygiophores converge at the same point : the base of the crest\u2014thus they insert anterior to the ( not preserved ) first neural spine . the elongated and enlarged first dorsal - fin ray inserts on the first pterygiophore . it is unclear if the rays two to eight insert on pterygiophores that are mostly hidden or not preserved , or in supernumerary association with the enlarged second pterygiophore . the rays 9\u201316 each insert serially on a corresponding pterygiophore .\noelschl\u00e4ger ( 1979 ) proposed that mnhn . f . eip11 is different enough anatomically from the other lophotids , fossil and extant , to justify its attribution to a new genus . indeed , it differs from the holotype of \u2020 protolophotus , found in the same geological levels , by the relative development of the crest . in mnhn . f . eip11 , the crest is projecting anteriorly with an angle of 64 . 5\u00b0 , and the ratio between the lengths of the crest\u2019s anterior margin and of the head without the crest is of 1 . 17 to 1 . in the holotype of \u2020 protolophotus , mnhn . f . eip10 ( fig . 3 ) , the anterior margin of the crest is almost vertical ( degree of projection : 20\u00b0 ) , and it is relatively shorter ( margin of the crest / head length without the crest : 0 . 67 / 1 ) . mnhn . f . eip11 also shows a much stronger first dorsal - fin ray , and its two anterior dorsal - fin pterygiophores are much more developed . body size is known to affect relative crest size and degree of projection in extant lophotus ( craig , hastings & pondella , 2004 ) , which could be misleading when trying to differentiate taxa based on crest morphology . however , this bias can probably be ruled out in the case of mnhn . f . eip11 and mnhn . f . eip10 : both individuals have similar head lengths without the crest ( 42 and 44 mm , respectively ) , suggesting that they are at a similar growth stage . it then seems that classifying mnhn . f . eip11in a different genus and species , \u2020 babelichthys olneyi , is justified from a morphological point of view .\nthe monophyly of lampridiformes ( excluding stylephorus , sensu nelson , grande & wilson , 2016 ) is well - supported by molecular phylogenetic analyses ( wiley , johnson & dimmick , 1998 ; miya et al . , 2007 ; betancur et al . , 2013 ; near et al . , 2013 ) and by numerous morphological features ( olney , johnson & baldwin , 1993 ; davesne et al . , 2014 ; davesne et al . , 2016 ; delbarre , davesne & friedman , 2016 ) . several of these character states are unambiguously found in \u2020 babelichthys : the premaxilla and dentary are toothless , the frontal and the supraoccipital are both involved in a sagittal crest , the anterior ceratohyal forms a condyle that articulates with the ventral hypohyal , and the first dorsal - fin pterygiophore inserts anterior to the neural spine of the first abdominal vertebra .\nthe phylogenetic studies that explore lampridiform intrarelationships with a sufficient sampling all recover a monophyletic taeniosomi ( wiley , johnson & dimmick , 1998 ; grande , borden & smith , 2013 ; martin , 2015 ) . the taeniosome character states found in \u2020 babelichthys include the absence of supraneurals , and anterior dorsal - fin pterygiophores that are enlarged and inclined over the neurocranium ( olney , johnson & baldwin , 1993 ) . \u2020 babelichthys then clearly shows a character state combination that confirms its identification as a taeniosome lampridiform .\nolney , johnson & baldwin ( 1993 ) proposed that the enlarged supraoccipital process , projecting anteriorly over the frontals ( forming the \u201ccrest\u201d as described herein ) and supporting the first dorsal - fin pterygiophore , is a synapomorphy of lophotidae . since it is not found elsewhere in lampridiforms , this character confirms the attribution of \u2020 babelichthys to lophotidae . it has to be noted that in the yet unpublished phylogenetic analysis of martin ( 2015 ) , the monophyly of lophotidae is ambiguous , with one parsimonious tree finding lophotus more closely related to the other taeniosomes than to eumecichthys , while in the other both genera are sister groups . given this ambiguity , lophotidae is considered monophyletic in this discussion .\nangle ( \u00b0 ) between the straight line from the tip of the crest to the proximal end of its anterior margin and the line drawn perpendicular to the main axis of the parasphenoid .\ndistance ( mm ) between the tip of the crest to the proximal end of its anterior margin .\ndistance ( mm ) between the anterior margin of the ethmoid and the posterior margin of the neurocranium .\ntaeniosome lampridiforms are known by several fossil representatives . the oldest unquestionable occurrences are all attributed to lophotidae : the diminutive \u2020 eolophotes lenis ( fig . 4a ) , from the lutetian ( eocene ) of georgia ( daniltshenko , 1962 ; daniltshenko , 1980 ) and \u2020 protolophotus elami ( fig . 3 ) , found in the same middle - late eocene formation as \u2020 babelichthys ( see above ) . an additional , younger fossil lophotid is \u2020 oligolophotes fragosus ( fig . 4b ) from the early oligocene pshekha formation of adygea , northern caucasus , russia ( bannikov , 1999 ) . the taeniosome fossil record also includes the trachipterid \u2020 trachipterus mauritanicus from the messinian ( late miocene ) of algeria ( carnevale , 2004 ) , and a fragmentary possible oarfish ( regalecus ) from the pliocene of italy ( bronzi , 2001 ; roberts , 2012 ) . there is no known fossil radiicephalid . finally , the small and distinctive \u2020 bajaichthys elegans , from the ypresian ( early eocene ) of bolca , italy , has been classified as a taeniosome or close relative due to its mobile jaws , elongate body and reduced caudal fin ( sorbini & bottura , 1988 ; bannikov , 2014 ) . however , it can be confidently classified in zeiformes , a separate teleost clade ( davesne , carnevale & friedman , 2017 ) . in total , five entirely fossil taeniosome species are currently known ( four lophotidae , one trachipteridae ) , a diversity expanded by the present description of \u2020 babelichthys .\n( a ) \u2020 eolophotes lenis , holotype pin 1413 / 86 ; scale bar = 5 mm . ( b ) \u2020 oligolophotes fragosus , holotype pin 3363 / 121 ; scale bars = 10 mm .\nnational museum of natural history , smithsonian institution , washington d . c . , united states\nthe author thanks ga\u00ebl cl\u00e9ment ( mnhn ) for allowing access to the specimen of study , alexandre bannikov ( pin ) for his useful information on the lampridiform fossil record and for suggesting the redescription of this specimen , as well as giorgio carnevale ( universit\u00e0 degli studi di torino ) for insightful anatomical discussion . sandra raredon ( usnm ) kindly sent radiographs of extant lophotids for comparison , while lilian cazes , philippe loubry ( mnhn ) and av mazin ( pin ) provided high - quality photographs of the fossil specimens . finally , the editor j\u00e9r\u00e9my anquetin and referees alexandre bannikov and dave johnson are thanked for their invaluable reviews and comments .\ndonald davesne conceived and designed the experiments , performed the experiments , analyzed the data , wrote the paper , prepared figures and / or tables , reviewed drafts of the paper .\nthe measurements in table 1 are the raw data . the material described herein , mnhn . f . eip11 is stored at mnhn , mus\u00e9um national d\u2019histoire naturelle , paris , france .\npublication lsid : urn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : b677ba4f - ccf4 - 4678 - a8a8 - 502f059704d2 .\nbabelichthys gen . nov . : urn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 86986e5e - 5fff - 465d - a987 - e475fbf02966 ,\nbabelichthys olneyi sp . nov . : urn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : d2540d1f - f169 - 40de - b910 - 7302810615e7 .\nthe author was supported by the natural environment research council ( grant ne / j022632 / 1 ) and by the leverhulme trust ( grant rpg - 2016 - 168 ) . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nr\u00e9sultats scientifiques de la mission c . arambourg en syrie et en iran ( 1938\u20131939 ) . ii . les poissons oligoc\u00e8nes de l\u2019iran\nontogeny and systematics of fishes , special publication number 1 , american society of ichthyologists and herpetologists .\nthe living marine resources of the western central atlantic . volume 2 : bony fishes part 1 ( acipenseridae to grammatidae ) .\nsystematics , biology and distribution of the species of the oceanic oarfish genus regalecus ( teleostei , lampridiformes , regalecidae ) .\nour promise peerj promises to address all issues as quickly and professionally as possible . we thank you in advance for your patience and understanding .\nfollowing\nis like subscribing to any updates related to a publication . these updates will appear in your home dashboard each time you visit peerj .\nyou can also choose to receive updates via daily or weekly email digests . if you are following multiple publications then we will send you no more than one email per day or week based on your preferences .\nnote : you are now also subscribed to the subject areas of this publication and will receive updates in the daily or weekly email digests if turned on . you can add specific subject areas through your profile settings .\npeerj feeds - atom | rss 1 . 0 | rss 2 . 0 | json peerj computer science feeds - atom | rss 1 . 0 | rss 2 . 0 | json peerj preprint feeds - atom | rss 1 . 0 | rss 2 . 0 | json archives - peerj | peerj computer science | peerj preprints\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nyearsley , g . k . , last , p . r . & morris , g . b . 1997 ,\ncodes for australian aquatic biota ( caab ) : an upgraded and expanded species coding system for australian fisheries databases\n, pp . 15 pp . + appendices\ng\u00fcnther , a . 1890 ,\ndescription of a new species of deep - sea fish from the cape ( lophotes fiski )\n, proceedings of the zoological society of london , vol . 1890 , no . 2 , pp . 244 - 247 pls 19 - 20\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 300d6bfc - 8d7c - 4324 - be6d - 169fccc93ccc\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 7f8740be - b135 - 4e67 - 853b - 775fec3e7b63\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 342582\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\npmid : 28674642 pmcid : pmc5493034 doi : 10 . 7717 / peerj . 3381\n\u2020 babelichthys olneyi , gen . et sp . nov . holotype mnhn . f . eip11d .\ndouble - check spelling , grammar , punctuation . translators work best when there are no errors or typos .\nif words are different , search our dictionary to understand why and pick the right word .\nif phrases are different , try searching our examples to help pick the right phrase .\nwe ' ve combined the most accurate english to spanish translations , dictionary , verb conjugations , and spanish to english translators into one very powerful search box .\nspanishdict is devoted to improving our site based on user feedback and introducing new and innovative features that will continue to help people learn and love the spanish language . have a suggestion , idea , or comment ? 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{"id": 2129, "summary": [{"text": "the chinese flying frog or chinese gliding frog ( rhacophorus dennysi ) is a species of tree frog in the rhacophoridae family found in china , laos , burma , and vietnam .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "also known as the blanford 's whipping frog , large treefrog , and denny 's whipping frog .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "this frog is up to 10 cm ( 3.9 in ) long .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical moist montane forests , rivers , swamps , freshwater marshes , intermittent freshwater marshes , ponds , irrigated land , and canals , and ditches .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "females lay eggs in foam nests attached to branches and grasses hanging over water .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "they create nests by beating a frothy secretion into foam with their hind legs .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is considered least concern by the iucn . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "chinese flying frog", "paragraphs": ["the chinese flying frog or chinese gliding frog ( rhacophorus dennysi ) is a species of tree frog in the rhacophoridaefamily found in china , laos , burma , and vietnam . also known as the blanford ' s whipping frog , large treefrog , and denny ' s whipping frog . [ 2 ]\nthe chinese flying frog is a large species reaching a size of 10cm . they inhabit tropical lowland forests of china , laos , burma and vietnam .\nbeautiful painting of wallace ' s flying frog ( rhacophorus nigropalmatus ) by the unique carel brest van kampen .\n1854 illustration of reinwardt ' s flying frog rhacophorus reinwardtii by jean gabriel pr\u00eatre . image in public domain .\nmating in the bushes - false malabar gliding frog ( rhacophorus pseudomalabaricus ) : building nest .\na moss - textured rhacophorid frog . specimens of vietnamese mossy frog or tonkin bug - eyed frog ( theloderma corticale ) . top photo by steven g . johnson , cc by - sa 3 . 0 . lower image by v\u00e1clav gvo\u017ed\u00edk , cc by - sa 2 . 5 .\nepisode 2 of david attenborough\u2019s conquest of the skies was on tv the other day , and i watched it ( i livetweeted throughout , mostly because i wanted to talk about their portrayal of pterosaurs and mesozoic theropods ) . and hence i have rhacophorid frogs on my mind \u2013 the mostly tropical afro - asian group that includes the famous rhacophorus flying frogs , the best known member of which is wallace\u2019s flying frog r . nigropalmatus from indonesia , thailand and adjacent countries . as usual , flying frog were used by sir david to help illustrate the diversity of animals that have evolved a gliding ability .\nthe overachieving wallace ' s flying frog wasn ' t content to just hop and swim . thousands of years of watching birds navigate the rain forest and avoid predators by taking to the sky appears to have convinced this unique amphibian that air travel is the way to go .\nthe wallace ' s flying frog population is considered stable , and they have special status only in certain localities . however , they are partial to breeding and laying eggs in the fetid wallowing holes of the nearly extinct asian rhinoceros , and further decreases in rhino populations may negatively affect the species .\nalso known as parachute frogs , wallace ' s flying frogs inhabit the dense tropical jungles of malaysia and borneo . they live almost exclusively in the trees , descending only to mate and lay eggs .\nwallace ' s flying frogs are not the only frogs who have developed this ability , but they are among the largest . the black color of their foot webbing helps distinguish them from their similarly aerial cousins .\nholotype specimen of philautus maia , showing eggs preserved in contact with ventral surface . did this frog really carry its eggs around like this ? illustration from g\u00fcnther ( 1876 ) .\ntapley , b . 2009 . aspects of captive husbandry of taylor\u2019s bug - eyed frog , theloderma stellatum ( taylor , 1962 ) . herpetological bulletin 108 , 31 - 33 .\nbyrne , p . g . & whiting , m . j . 2011 . effects of simultaneous polyandry on offspring fitness in an african tree frog . behavioral ecology 22 , 385 - 391 .\nthis frog is up to 10 cm ( 3 . 9 in ) long . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical moist montane forests , rivers , swamps , freshwater marshes , intermittent freshwater marshes , ponds , irrigated land , and canals , and ditches .\nhertwig , s . t . , lilje , k . e . , min , p . y . , haas , a . & das , i . 2012 . molecular evidence for direct development in the rhacophorid frog , philautus acutus ( rhacophoridae , anura ) from borneo . the raffles bulletin of zoology 60 , 559 - 567 .\nwallace\u2019s flying frog and the other gliding rhacophorus species are pretty remarkable . they\u2019re very big compared to most other members of the group , svls being 90 - 100 mm in females and 80 - 90 mm in males . their fully webbed hands and feet are enormous , but they also have flaps of skin \u2013 winglets , if you like \u2013 on the arms and legs , and sometimes on the body . glides of more than 15 m have been recorded . exactly how many rhacophorus species are true gliders is uncertain : the ability is confirmed for just a handful of species but more may have it ( inger & stuebing 2005 ) . several smaller ones ( including r . angulirostris , r . cyanopunctatus and r . gauni ) have only partial digital webbing and either lack those skin flaps or only have small versions .\nrhacophorids are sometimes called flying frogs , shrub frogs , bush frogs , moss frogs , old world treefrogs , or afro - asian treefrogs , and occur across sub - saharan africa , china , much of tropical asia , japan , the philippines and sulawesi . about 380 species are recognised as of early 2015 . the last time i wrote about this group \u2013 december 2008 \u2013 this number was more like 290 , so the rate at which new species are discovered and named is pretty impressive .\nthe outsides of these foam nests dry to form a hard crust , thereby protecting the eggs within . however , monkeys , snakes and other predators will break into the nests and eat the eggs if they can . most surprisingly , fornasini\u2019s spiny reed frog afrixalus fornasini ( a member of hyperoliidae ) is a documented foam nest predator , though it can only eat from the nest before the foam has dried ( channing 2001 ) .\nexternal appearance is variable in rhacophorids . for all their fame as \u2018flying frogs\u2019 , it has to be said that the vast majority look \u2013 to those unenlightened in anuran diversity \u2013 like standard \u2018treefrogs\u2019 . they\u2019re generally small ( svls of 40 mm or less ) , wide - headed , big - eyed frogs with expanded digit - tips and a ( normally ) prominent tympanum . many are smooth - skinned but spiny tubercles cover the skin in some taxa , and others are notably warty , with a rough , bumpy skin that aids camouflage .\nthe latter is most developed in the grotesque rough treefrog theloderma horridum of thailand , peninsula malaysia and borneo . indeed , this is one of several species ( most of which belong to theloderma ) that resemble moss or bark in external texture and colour [ adjacent photos of t . corticale by steven g . johnson and v\u00e1clav gvo\u017ed\u00edk ] . t . asperum \u2013 patterned in brownish and pale blotches \u2013 superficially resembles a bird dropping and is sometimes called the bird poop frog . vocal sacs are absent in some taxa ( like nyctixalus ) but big and obvious in others .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nfrost , d . r . 2014 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 . 0 ( 7 july 2014 ) . electronic database . american museum of natural history , new york , usa . available at : urltoken .\nthis species was included in rhacophorus by inger ( 1966 ) , then placed in polypedates by liem ( 1970 ) , and then returned to rhacophorus by dubois ( 1987 ) .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , tolerance of a degree of habitat modification , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthis species is known historically from northern myanmar and china ( zhao and adler , 1993 ) . it is also known from northern viet nam and central lao people ' s democratic republic . the type locality ' singapore ' is clearly based on a traded specimen ( bourret , 1941 ) . it is known from altitudes up to 900m asl .\nit inhabits forests and riparian forests in hilly areas . it breeds in still waters such as paddy fields , pools , ditches , marshes and ponds . it is mostly restricted to primary forest . the call of this species is exceptionally loud .\nits known areas of occurrence in viet nam continue to suffer from persistent processes degrading the forest , such as non - timber forest products collection , plantations , wildfires and changes to hydrology ( birdlife international 2001 ) . small numbers are also exported for the international pet trade .\nits range includes many protected areas . the rating of \u2018threatened\u2019 for r . nigropalmatus in the 1992 viet nam red data book ( tran et al . , 1992 ) might refer in part to r . dennysii .\npeter paul van dijk , nguyen quang truong , bryan stuart , michael wai neng lau , geng baorong , gu huiqing , yang datong . 2004 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nwe are currently working on this care sheet . if you have any experience with this species , please contact us with details .\ndo your research before you commit to buying any pet , please do your own independent research .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . no available public dna sequences . download fasta file\nlisted as least concern in view of its wide distribution , tolerance of a degree of habitat modification , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nits range includes many protected areas . the rating of threatened for r . nigropalmatus in the 1992 viet nam red data book ( tran et al . , 1992 ) might refer in part to r . dennysii .\nfemales lay eggs in foam nests attached to branches and grasses hanging over water . they create nests by beating a frothy secretion into foam with their hind legs .\nvan dijk , p . p . , truong , n . q . , stuart , b . , lau , m . w . n . , baorong , g . , huiqing , g . & datong , y . ( 2004 ) . rhacophorus dennysi . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 23 july 2007 .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ndue to full webbing between fingers and toes , these tree - dwelling frogs are able to achieve gliding flight for short distances between trees . they are one of the largest species of tree frogs . the females grow to twelve centimetres , while the males remain somewhat smaller . their diet comprises mainly of insects and worms .\nwhen threatened or in search of prey , they will leap from a branch and splay their four webbed feet . the membranes between their toes and loose skin flaps on their sides catch the air as they fall , helping them to glide , sometimes 50 feet or more , to a neighboring tree branch or even all the way to the ground . they also have oversized toe pads to help them land softly and stick to tree trunks .\nthey are generally bright green with yellow sides and grow to about 4 inches . they survive mainly on insects .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nproducts , services , articles , news and other items appearing on urltoken do not necessarily reflect actual endorsements or positions of world pet association .\nepisode 2 of david attenborough ' s conquest of the skies appeared on tv the other day , and i watched it ( in fact , i livetweeted throughout , mostly because i wanted to talk about their portrayal of pterosaurs and mesozoic theropods ) .\ncladogram from meegaskumbura et al . ( 2002 ) , the sri lankan taxa being shown in blue . note the huge number of species that had not been named when this study was published .\na nice illustration of this is provided by meegaskumbura et al . \u2019s ( 2002 ) documentation of more than 100 new rhacophorid species on sri lanka alone ( just 18 sri lankan rhacophorid species were known prior to their work ) , a discovery that makes sri lanka on par with madagascar , new guinea and borneo in terms of anuran diversity .\nand , yes , more than 100 new species announced in a single paper . if we look at the discovery record of various of the rhacophorid lineages , we see that \u2013 for example \u2013 43 new species of raorchestes , 30 new species of rhacophorus , and 51 new species of pseudophilautus have been named since 2000 . . . 9 new raorchestes species were named in 2014 alone ( frost 2014 ) . as should be well known , the number of recognised amphibian species has sky - rocketed in recent years , and this really is because of newly discovered species , not just the result of splitting , taxonomic elevation of subspecies , or the recognition of cryptic species that can only be distinguished genetically .\nthe most famous illustration of a rhacophorid ever published : a gliding rhacophorus nigropalmatus from alfred russell wallace ' s 1869 the malay archipelago . wallace wrote about this species and illustrated it in his notes ( he didn ' t discover it though - that honour goes to charles hose ) .\nthe great paradox is that amphibians are in chronic global decline at the same time , and many species can no longer be located at all . despite meegaskumbura et al . \u2019s ( 2002 ) 100 + new rhacophorid species , they were unable to find many that had been described in the 19th century , a discovery which implies that the species concerned have gone extinct . as you should also know , amphibian species are currently being \u2018lost\u2019 on a regular and worrying basis \u2013 we don\u2019t talk of a \u2018global amphibian crisis\u2019 for nothing .\nmost rhacophorids are arboreal or semi - arboreal , living in shrubs , trees and bushes from close to ground level to way up in the forest canopy . there\u2019s some uncertainty over how high up in the canopy these frogs actually occur . nature documentaries ( like the aforementioned attenbourough - led projects ) create the impression that they really live tens of metres up in the high canopy but this is hard to confirm and has been doubted on occasion . recently , however , individuals of some species ( like rhacophorus belalongensis on borneo , named in 2008 ) have been recorded from tree - tops 10 m high . members of some groups are associated with primary forests , but others inhabit agricultural fields , roadsides , cleared forest and villages . [ images below by \u03c364 and alpsdake . ]\nit has to be said that some rhacophorids are not really all that remarkable when compared to , say , familiar ranid frogs . this montage shows tadpoles and an adult of rhacophorus arboreus . however , this species is a foam nester , on which see below . tadpole photo at lower left by \u03c364 , other photos by alpsdake . all cc by - sa 3 . 0 .\nspecialised reproductive strategies are widespread across these frogs , and some of the techniques they use mean that they don\u2019t have to come down to the ground to breed . some ( like some philautus species ) stick their eggs to the undersides of leaves above the ground and some philautus species ( like p . mjobergi ) have been reported to be nepenthiphilous \u2013 that is , to lay their eggs inside pitcher plants . while some frogs definitely are nepenthiphilous , the only alleged rhacophorid eggs discovered inside a pitcher plant and subjected to molecular testing turned out to be from the microhylid species microhyla borneensis ( hertwig et al . 2012 ) . [ photo below by katja rembold . ]\nfrogs belonging to several lineages are documented as users of pitcher plants ( this photo shows a heterixalus inside a dead nepenthes madagascariensis . heterixalus is a hyperoliid , not a rhacophorid ) . it has been claimed that rhacophorids of several species use pitchers in this way , but the cases are either controversial or turned out to be erroneous . photo by katja rembold , cc by - sa 3 . 0 .\nthose philautus eggs , by the way , don\u2019t produce free - swimming tadpoles : philautus species are direct developers , which means that the embryos change to froglets within the eggs , a free - living tadpole phase being absent ( the developing embryos are lecithotrophic or endotrophic , meaning that they depend on a yolk store ) . direct development is also the case in pseudophilautus and raorchestes .\nwhile ( as just mentioned ) some of these direct developers stick their eggs to leaves that are alive and well above ground - level , others come down to the ground and lay their eggs beneath dead leaves . meegaskumbara et al . ( 2007 ) said that these ground - breeding species \u201cdeposit their eggs in nests excavated on the forest floor\u201d ( p . 9 ) . waitaminute \u2013 frogs excavating nests ? really ? i have to look into this . . .\nrhacophorid foam nests in asia and africa . at left : nests of rhacophorus arboreus in japan , photo by alpsdake , cc by 3 . 0 . at right : chiromantis rufescens foam nest in gabon , photo by brian gratwicke , cc by 2 . 0\nthen there are those rhacophorids that manufacture arboreal foam nests [ adjacent nest photos by alpsdake and brian gratwicke ] . the females exude a secretion that they ( and their male partners ) whip up with their legs to form a foam clump that\u2019s attached to leaves , branches or aerial roots . it seems that the production of this secretion is quite costly and that a female needs to take a break and re - hydrate herself by soaking up standing water before she can complete a single nest .\nthis strategy is present in the afro - asian foam - nest frogs chiromantis , most rhacophorus species , and members of polypedates . in some species \u2013 most famously the grey foam nest treefrog c . xerampelina of south - eastern africa \u2013 large numbers of these frogs sometimes choose to nest in the same place , meaning that branches or aerial roots can be festooned with whole lines of dripping foam nests . actually , it isn\u2019t just that the frogs \u2018choose\u2019 to nest in the same place \u2013 males will deliberately get in on the action if they see a pair working to make a nest , and the result is that single egg clutches are invariably fertilised by more than one male . byrne & whiting ( 2011 ) showed that this multiple paternity \u2013 technically , it\u2019s simultaneous polyandry \u2013 assists in the survival of the resulting offspring , so it\u2019s certainly in the interests of females to solicit as much male attention as possible during these breeding events . [ photos below by brian gratwicke , kapenta and chintan sheth . ]\nmontage of chiromantis and kin . at left : c rufescens ( photo by brian gratwicke , cc by 2 . 0 ) . top right : c . xerampelina ( image by kapenta , cc by - sa 4 . 0 ) . lower right : feihyla vittata ( photo by chintan sheth , in public domain ) . the feihyla species were once included within chiromantis but have since been recovered in several alternative placements in molecular phylogenies .\npolypedates leucomystax pair in amplexus . i think i spot some subtle sexual dimorphism . image taken in java , indonesia , by w . a . djatmiko , cc by - sa 3 . 0\nthe eggs hatch inside the clump , the tadpoles dropping into the stream or pool ( sometimes originally formed by rhinos or pigs ) below after several days . polypedates leucomystax bucks the trend by sometimes making foam nests on the ground ( inger & stuebing 2005 ) . [ adjacent photo by w . a . djatmiko ] . it seems that foam - nesting evolved just once within rhacophorids , since all foam - nesters belong to a single clade ( frost et al . 2006 , grosjean et al . 2008 , pyron & wiens 2011 ) .\nfoam - nester tadpoles are ectotrophic : free - swimming and completing development outside the egg , and often with a schooling habit . some live in muddy pools and are of typical , non - specialised morphology . others ( like those of rhacophorus penanorum ) are specialised stream - dwellers with streamlined bodies , sucker - like mouths and elongate , muscular tails . these tadpoles are rheophilous ( associated with fast - flowing streams ) and inhabit rocky pools that are sometimes also home to megophrys / xenophrys spadefoot tadpoles and ansonia toad tadpoles ( haas et al . 2012 ) .\na really interesting thing that\u2019s been noted for rheophilous tadpoles is that their limb development seems to be offset , time - wise , relative to the condition in related , non - rheophilous species . this is presumably an evolutionary response to the fact that developing hindlimbs might affect their streamlining and ability to cling to rocks in fast - flowing water . they also keep sucker - like mouths and other features for longer than do other tadpoles ( nodzenski & inger 1990 ) . accordingly , it can be difficult to say reliable things about their age and estimated metamorphic stage .\namazing ' vampire tadpoles ' of rhacophorus vampyrus . ( a ) schematic view of tadpole as seen from the front , ( b ) photo of the real thing . image from vassilieva et al . ( 2013 ) .\nfinally , there are yet other rhacophorids where egg clumps are laid in arboreal settings , but not in foam nests . in some theloderma species , egg clumps are laid in water - filled tree hollows , and the tadpoles complete their development here . in captivity , these frogs will lay their egg clumps attached to the bark , just above the hollow , the hatching tadpoles then dropping into the water ( tapley 2009 ) . oh , there are also a few foam - nesting rhacophorus species that lay their eggs in tree hollows , the most famous of which is r . vampyrus from vietnam ( after hatching inside a foam nest , the tadpoles drop into a water - filled tree hollow ) . this species saw international stardom a couple of years ago when it was revealed that the tadpoles have black , hooked fangs on the lower jaw that \u2013it ' s presumed \u2013 are used when feeding on unfertilised eggs provided by their mother : these tadpoles , it seems , practise obligate oophagy , eating r . vampyrus eggs and nothing else ( vassilieva et al . 2013 ) .\nfinally finally , the possibility exists that a completely unique reproductive strategy was present in a species that now seems to be extinct . the holotype female specimen of\n, collected on sri lanka prior to 1876 , had a disc - shaped mass of eggs attached to its belly , raising the possibility that members of this species carried their eggs around with them ( g\u00fcnther 1876 ) . alas , meegaskumbura\n. ( 2007 ) discussed how unlikely this proposal was , concluding that a more plausible possibility is that the individual concerned was collected while in the process of laying and positioning her egg clutch on a leaf . alas , only further observations can establish the \u2018truth\u2019 and . . . sadly ,\ncentury discovery and the present . don\u2019t forget : global . amphibian . crisis .\nfinally , where do rhacophorids fit within the anuran radiation ? molecular studies find them to be close to ranidae , the familiar neobatrachian clade that includes european water frogs , brown frogs , the american bullfrog , leopard frogs and so many others ( frost et al . 2006 , pyron & wiens 2011 ) . they\u2019re clearly not at all close to hylid treefrogs ( hylids are part of the same clade as glassfrogs , toads and kin ) . i also need to say that a huge amount of work \u2013 scarcely any of which is cited in the article you\u2019re reading now \u2013 has recently been devoted to the in - group relationships of rhacophoridae , several conventional \u2018genera\u2019 being the subject of substantial disagreement due to proposals that they might be paraphyletic or polyphyletic . at the risk of elaborating further , i must stop here . oh , i seem to have blogged about anurans again .\nchanning , a . 2001 . amphibians of central and southern africa . cornell university press , ithaca and london .\n- . , grant , t . , faivovich , j . , bain , r . h . , haas , a . , haddad , c . f . b . , de s\u00e1 , r . o . , channing , a . , wilkinson , m . , donnellan , s . c . , raxworthy , c . j . , campbell , j . a . , blotto , b . l . , moler , p . , drewes , r . c . , nussbaum , r . a . , lynch , j . d . , green , d . m . & wheeler , w . c . 2006 . the amphibian tree of life . bulletin of the american museum of natural history 297 , 1 - 370 .\ngrosjean , s . , delorme , m . , dubois , a . & ohler , a . 2008 . evolution of reproduction in the rhacophoridae ( amphibia , anura ) . journal of zoological systematics and evolutionary research 462 , 169 - 176 .\ng\u00fcnther , a . 1876 . note on the mode of propagation of some ceylonese tree - frogs , with description of two new species . annals and magazine of natural history ( 4 ) 17 , 377 - 380 .\nhaas , a . , hertwig , s . t . , krings , w . , braskamp , e . , dehling , j . m . , min , p . y . , jankowski , a . , schweizer , m . & das , i . 2012 . description of three rhacophorus tadpoles ( lissamphibia : anura : rhacophoridae ) from sarawak , malaysia ( borneo ) . zootaxa 3328 , 1 - 19 .\ninger , r . f . & stuebing , r . b . 2005 . a field guide of the frogs of borneo . natural history publications ( borneo ) , kota kinabalu .\nmeegaskumbura , m . , bossuyt , f . , pethiyagoda , r . , manamendra - arachchi , k . , bahir , m . , milinkovitch , m . c . & schneider , c . j . 2002 . sri lanka : an amphibian hotspot . science 298 , 379 .\n- . , manamendra - arachchi , k . , schneider , c . j . & pethiyagoda , r . 2007 . new species amongst sri lanka\u2019s extinct shrub frogs ( amphibia : rhacophoridae : philautus ) . zootaxa 1397 , 1 - 15 .\nnodzenski , e . & inger , r . f . 1990 . uncoupling of related structural changes in metamorphosing torrent - dwelling tadpoles . copeia 1990 , 1047 - 1054 .\npyron , a . r . & wiens , j . j . 2011 . a large - scale phylogeny of amphibia including over 2800 species , and a revised classification of extant frogs , salamanders , and caecilians . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 61 , 543 - 583 .\nvassilieva , a . , galoyan , e . & poyarkov , n . 2013 . rhacophorus vampyrus ( anura : rhacophoridae ) reproductive biology : a new type of oophagous tadpole in asian treefrogs . journal of herpetology 47 , 607 - 614 .\nthe views expressed are those of the author ( s ) and are not necessarily those of scientific american .\ndarren naish is a science writer , technical editor and palaeozoologist ( affiliated with the university of southampton , uk ) . he mostly works on cretaceous dinosaurs and pterosaurs but has an avid interest in all things tetrapod . his publications can be downloaded at darrennaish . wordpress . com . he has been blogging at tetrapod zoology since 2006 . check out the tet zoo podcast at tetzoo . com !\ndiscover world - changing science . explore our digital archive back to 1845 , including articles by more than 150 nobel prize winners .\nscientific american is part of springer nature , which owns or has commercial relations with thousands of scientific publications ( many of them can be found at urltoken ) . scientific american maintains a strict policy of editorial independence in reporting developments in science to our readers .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic ."]}
{"id": 2130, "summary": [{"text": "the lycid-mimicking moth ( snellenia lineata ) is a species of moth of the oecophoridae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found australia in the australian capital territory , new south wales , queensland and victoria .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 15 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the wings are brown , the hindwings shading to black at the margins .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the thorax is brown , and the abdomen is black .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the antennae have filamentous tips .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "adults feed at flowers and are often found near poisonous lycidae beetles of the metriorrhynchus genus , which they mimic . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "snellenia lineata", "paragraphs": ["taxon concept snellenia _ lineata last modified 2017 - 02 - 03 15 : 09 : 01 . 109\nsnellenia walsingham , 1889 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1889 ( 1 ) : 13 ; ts : snellenia coccinea walsingham\nsnellenia miltocrossa turner , 1923 ; proc . r . soc . victoria ( n . s . ) 36 : 81\nsnellenia hylaea turner , 1913 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 38 ( 1 ) : 221 ; tl : queensland , mt tambourine\nsnellenia capnora turner , 1913 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 38 ( 1 ) : 221 ; tl : n . queensland , herberton\nsnellenia tarsella walsingham , 1889 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1889 ( 1 ) : 15 , pl . 6 , f . 3 ; tl : darjeeling\nsnellenia coccinea walsingham , 1889 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1889 ( 1 ) : 15 , pl . 2 , f . 1 - 7 ; tl : sikkim\nthese adult moths have brown forewings with black veins . the hindwings are black with brown bases . the thorax is brown , and the abdomen is black . the antennae have filamentous tips . the wingspan is about 1 . 5 cms .\nmelbourne university press , 1990 , pl . 5 . 1 , p . 226 .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nfelder , r . & rogenhofer , a . f . 1875 ,\nreise der \u00f6sterreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859\n, pp . plates 121 - 140\nwalker , f . 1856 ,\nsphingidae\n, list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum , vol . 8 , pp . 1 - 271\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 5cd5b0a0 - ebeb - 4235 - 9e64 - 5ab95e1d8428\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 334103\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthis page contains information and pictures about lycid - mimicking moths that we found in the brisbane area , queensland , australia .\n. it has the lycid brick - red colours . its antenna , head and thorax all look similar to lycid . this moth active during the day .\nphotos taken in ford road conservation area on mar 2011 . the moth was resting on moss on a fallen rotten tree trunk .\ncsiro , division of entomology , melbourne university press , 2nd edition 1991 , plate6f .\ni . f . b . common , melbourne university press , 1990 , p 223 , plate5 . 1 .\neretmocera ? flavipennis felder & rogenhofer , 1875 ; reise fregatte novara , bd 2 ( abth . 2 ) ( 5 ) : pl . 138 , f . 59 ; tl :\namer . ?\nignispergens diakonoff , 1948 ; bull . mus . nat . hist . nat . paris ( 2 ) 20 ( 3 ) : 271\nsangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nreise der \u00f6sterreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859 unter den behilfen des commodore b . von w\u00fcllerstorf - urbair . zoologischer theil . band 2 . abtheilung 2 . lepidoptera . rhopalocera\n- 120 , ( inhalts - verz . ) 1 - 9 ( pl . 1 - 74 ) , ( felder & rogenhofer , 1874 ) , ( 5 ) : pl .\nwalsingham , 1889 monograph of the genera connecting tinaegeria , wlk . , with eretmocera , z . trans . ent . soc . lond . 1889 ( 1 ) : 1 - 40 , pl . 1 - 6\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\nthere are no photos of this species on the website yet . you can offer your photo by logging into your account\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\n, sydney , nsw ( walker in the original description gave the type locality as para , south america but the specimen labelled as type in the bmnh has a sydney label on it ) .\n. ( zoologischer theil , band 2 , abteilung 2 ) heft 4 . wien . plates 121 - 140 pp .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken"]}
{"id": 2147, "summary": [{"text": "the scrawled butterflyfish ( chaetodon meyeri ) is a species of butterflyfish ( family chaetodontidae ) .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is found in the indian ocean and pacific ocean from east africa to the line islands ; north to the ryukyu islands ; south to the great barrier reef ; including micronesia and the galapagos islands .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "growing to a maximum length of 20 cm ( nearly 8 in ) , its body is whitish or blue-white with curved to oblique black bands on the sides .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "a yellow-edged black bar runs through the eye , another is on the snout .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is a close relative of the mailed butterflyfish ( c. reticulatus ) and the ornate butterflyfish ( c. ornatissimus ) .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "together they make up the subgenus called \" citharoedus \" , but as this name had already been used for a mollusc genus when it was given to the fish , it is not valid .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they are probably quite close to the subgenus corallochaetodon which contains for example the melon butterflyfish ( c. trifasciatus ) .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "like these , they might be separated in megaprotodon if the genus chaetodon is split up .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the scrawled butterflyfish is found at depths between 2 and 25 m in coral-rich areas of clear seaward and lagoon reefs .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "they feed exclusively on coral polyps . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "scrawled butterflyfish", "paragraphs": ["meyer ' s butterflyfish , small : over 1 - 1 . 5\n, indian ocean\nmeyer ' s butterflyfish , medium : over 1 . 5 - 3 . 5\n, indian ocean\nmeyer ' s butterflyfish , large : over 3 . 5 - 5 . 5\n, indian ocean\ntherefore it is important to choose the correct species in relation to the corals wanted , if one desires to keep butterflyfish in a coral - aquarium . bristleworms , tubeworms and other small invertebrates are also a part of the diet for many butterflyfish .\nalso known as coralfishes , maypole butterflyfish , meyeri butterflyfish , meyer ' s butterfly , meyer ' s coralfish , scrawl butterflyfish , scrawled butterflyfish . found singly or in pairs in clear water lagoons and seaward reefs rich in coral growth . they feed exclusively on coral polyps . length - 18cm depth - 2 - 25m widespread indo - pacific butterflyfishes have very fine hair like teeth that enable them to pick out small organisms inaccessible to most other fish for eating . they thrive mainly on a diet of coral polyps , tentacles of featherdusters and christmas - tree worms . as these food sources all zap back into their shells , butterflyfishes need to be able to hover motionless while picking at the coral and to dart swiftly over short distances to get the worm before it retracts . they do this by using their pectoral fins as oars to brake , sprint , turn and even reverse .\nthey ignore most other fish and are generally peaceful , therefore multiple butterflyfish will have no problem living together . one should however be cautious about keeping similar species together unless they are a couple .\nthe butterflyfish are known for their attractive patterns and colours . they are closely related to angelfishs , but can always be distinguished , as they lack the spines on each side of the head of the angelfish .\na smaller group of these fish will seek out primairily soft corals , like zoanthus . a larger part of the species will target different types of lps corals . butterflyfish are also known to seek out anemones , tubeworms and bristleworms .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nwhile there have been no declines documented , this species is dependent on live coral cover , which may therefore make it susceptible to habitat loss . however , it has a relatively wide distribution , apparently large population and no obvious major threats other than coral loss . it is therefore listed as least concern .\nthis species occurs throughout the indo - pacific ( pyle 2001 ) , from the east african coast from as far south as durban , south africa ( burgess 1978 ) , east to the line islands ( kiribati and usa ) and hawaii ( steene 1978 ) , north to the ryukyu islands ( southern japan ) and south to the great barrier reef ( australia ) , new caledonia and tonga ( g . r . allen pers . comm . 2006 ) . vagrants have been recorded as far east as the galapagos islands ( chile ) and the revillagigedo islands ( mexico ) . it has been recorded from depths of 2 - 30 m .\naustralia ; british indian ocean territory ; christmas island ; cocos ( keeling ) islands ; comoros ; ecuador ( gal\u00e1pagos ) ; fiji ; french polynesia ; french southern territories ( mozambique channel is . ) ; india ( andaman is . , nicobar is . ) ; indonesia ; japan ; kenya ; kiribati ( phoenix is . ) ; madagascar ; malaysia ; maldives ; marshall islands ; mauritius ; mayotte ; micronesia , federated states of ; mozambique ; myanmar ; nauru ; new caledonia ; palau ; papua new guinea ; philippines ; r\u00e9union ; seychelles ; solomon islands ; somalia ; south africa ; sri lanka ; taiwan , province of china ; tanzania , united republic of ; thailand ; tonga ; tuvalu ; united states minor outlying islands ( us line is . ) ; vanuatu\nthis species is widespread , but generally uncommon . this species is reliant on live coral for food , but population trends in relation to coral loss have not been studied .\npopulations of this species are associated with areas of rich coral in clear water lagoons and on seaward reefs . adults occur as individuals or in pairs , and exhibit home - ranging behaviour . juveniles are usually observed among branching corals . it is an obligate corallivore , but probably feeds on coral mucus , rather than coral tissue .\nthis species is rarely exported through the aquarium trade ( pyle 2001 ) . this species is caught in artisanal fisheries .\n2008 ) . currently there has been no documented declines associated with coral loss , and there appear to be no other major threats to this species .\nthere appear to be no species - specific conservation measures in place . this species is present within marine protected areas . monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring , as well as determination of the degree of co - dependence between this species and corals .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthis species eats mainly coral polyps and will not survive on a replacement food . therefore , unless one is willing to provide it with living corals , it will not survive in an aquarium !\nsome species of the chaetodon genus are grouped together in what is known as a\ncomplex\n, since they are so very similar .\nregardless of resemblance , it is important to be able to distinguish them , as in some cases they vary greatly in their needs . sometimes there are just small differences in colour or pattern , but in other instances it is vital to know where the fish originally come from .\nit can be problematic , with many of these species , to get them eating in the beginning , but many of the species cannot resist live zooplankton or live mussels with crushed shells . another option is to mimic their natural behaviour by stuffing their food into coral skeletons or stones .\nas these fish can be difficult to acclimatize and get feeding , it is important to buy healthy fish , to avoid having to deal with more problems . make sure to check that they do not have parasites or any visible infections .\nthere are some species that should not be kept in an a aquarium , as they are food specialists and will almost always refuse to eat replacement foods . it can be possible to breed some species , which will eat frozen foods . otherwise the only way to keep food specialists is by feeding them their natural diet , which consists of live sps or lps corals for example .\nindo - pacific : east africa to the line islands ; north to the ryukyu islands ; south to the great barrier reef ; including micronesia and the galapagos islands ( ref . 5227 ) .\nscott w . michael . 2004 . angelfishes and butterflyfishes ( reef fishes series book 3 ) tfh publications / microcosm ltd . - ( english ) bob fenner . butterflyfishes ; separating the good ones and those you don ' t want - wet web media - ( english ) collection of links to additional information - wet web media - ( english ) tea yi kai . 2014 . reef nuggets 2 : aquatic lepidopterans for your reef ( revised edition ) - reef builders - ( english )\nfroese , r . and d . pauly . editors . 2014 . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . urltoken , version ( 08 / 2014 ) .\nminimum volume\nindicates the size of the tank needed to house this species under optimal conditions .\nthis is based on a medium size animal , which you want to keep for several years . it might be possible to keep smaller specimens for a limited period in a smaller tank . a larger tank might be needed for fully - grown specimens .\nhardiness\nindicates how resistant this species is to disease and how well i tolerates bad conditions in general . some species doesn ' t handle transportation very well , but that doesn ' t mean that the species isn ' t hardy under the right conditions .\nin this case , a\nnormal\naquarium is a reef aquarium with mixed corals or a fish only aquarium with an approximately salinity of 1 . 026 ( sg ) and a temperature close to 26\u00b0c . species requiring more than a 4000 - liter tank are considered not suitable for home aquarium .\nspecial aquariums may cover tanks with low salinity , sub - tropical temperature , deep sand bed , sea grass etc .\nalways reef safe : no sources indicate that this species will harm corals or other invertebrates .\noften reef safe : only a few aquarists has reported problems keeping this species with corals and other invertebrates .\nreef safe with caution : this species may be a threat to some types of invertebrates .\nreef safe with luck : most specimens will harm corals and / or other invertebrates , but you might be lucky .\nnot reef safe : this species is a threat to most corals and / or other invertebrates .\ndue to availability and individuality of each species , colors and sizes may vary .\nplease select from the available marine fish species below . you may also click here to browse the category .\nplease select from the available invertebrate species below . you may also click here to browse the category .\nplease select from the available coral species below . you may also click here to browse the category .\nplease select from the available aquarium supplies below . you may also click here to browse the category .\nwith 79 or more in marine life . use coupon code : freeshipping more details\nall images , pictures and descriptions are generalizations and cannot be exact representations . copyright 2018 saltwaterfish . com . all rights reserved .\nreceive free shipping on qualifying order when you sign up to receive our email . open your email for complete details .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\na heartbreak species for aquarists , needing live coral polyps in its diet to survive .\na heartbreaker , this glorious fish needs a daily diet of live coral polyps to survive and is virtually destined to perish in captivity . as with all of the obligate corallivore butterflyfishes , it should be left on the reef unless an expert aquarist can somehow meet its dietary needs .\nurltoken | urltoken | urltoken microcosm\u2122 is a trademark of microcosm , ltd . 823 ferry road | charlotte , vt | usa 05445 | telephone 802 - 425 - 5700 ext . 19\nmicrocosm aquarium explorer is a world - class online resource devoted to the underwater worlds that are home to fishes , corals , aquatic plants and invertebrate life of special interest to aquarium keepers . the mission of microcosm aquarium explorer is to inspire and inform those with an interest in the natural world , with particular emphasis on tropical coral reef and rainforest aquatic ecosystems that are the models for aquarists creating captive microcosms in their home aquaria .\ncreated to help individuals around the world identify tropical fish found during their scuba dive and snorkelling excursions .\nnewsletter is out now . are you subscribed ? ! you know what to do if you haven ' t !\nella mai \u2013 boo ' d up ( remix ) ft . nicki minaj & quavo"]}
{"id": 2154, "summary": [{"text": "mites are small crawling animals related to ticks and spiders .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "most mites are free-living and harmless .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "other mites are parasitic , and those that infest livestock animals cause many diseases that are widespread , reduce production and profit for farmers , and are expensive to control .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the invertebrate mites are arthropods with a chitinous exoskeleton and jointed limbs .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "within the arthropoda , they belong in the subclass acari ( or acarina ) and species belonging to the acari are informally known as acarines .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "although both acarines and insects ( class insecta ) are studied in the fields of veterinary and medical parasitology , acarines are separated from insects by structure , feeding , lifecycles , and disease relations .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "both livestock and companion animals are susceptible to mite infestation .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "humans also may become infested by contagion from these domestic animals ( a zoonosis ) .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the term livestock is used in this article for all those domesticated mammals and birds that people rear for production of food , hides , wool , and draught power .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "infestation by mites usually causes skin diseases known as mange , scabies , scab , demodecosis , or in general as acariasis .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the causation , economic impact , and control of these diseases in livestock are described in this article .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "mites that cause disease in honey bees are described in varroa destructor . ", "topic": 10}], "title": "mites of livestock", "paragraphs": ["for controlling sheep mites ( or any other mites of livestock and pets ) . learn more about\nfor controlling horse mites ( or any other mites of livestock and pets ) . learn more about\nfor controlling cattle mange mites ( or any other mites of livestock and pets ) . learn more about\nin your previous studies it was clear to you that livestock diseases and parasites have high economic effects in livestock production . parasites vectors to various livestock , damage organs of animals and predisposes them to secondary infections . parasites have the following effects on livestock :\ndog mites and cat mites : biology , prevention and control . ear mites , sarcoptic mange , scabies , demodectic mange , itch mites , nasal mites , notoedric mange , walking dandruff .\nclick here if you are interested in medicinal plants for controlling mites and other external parasites of livestock and pets .\nmost scab and mange mites do not play a significant role in the transmission of microbial diseases to livestock or pets .\nclick here to learn more about general aspects of biological control of parasites of livestock and pets .\ngraham oh , hourrigan jl . eradication programs for the arthropod parasites of livestock .\nis therefore based on prophylaxis of the infection in man , livestock and dogs .\nmites in the family trombiculidae are commonly referred to as red bugs or chigger mites .\nspp . parasitize other species of mites . these mite \u2013inhabiting mites can attack man . the genus\nherbal medicines for dogs , cats & livestock against fleas , ticks , mites , lice , worms & other parasites .\nlice , fleas , keds and mites cause considerable loses in livestock . animal houses should be cleaned and dusted regularly .\ndog mites and cat mites : biology , prevention and control . ear mites , sarcoptic mange , scabies , demodectic mange , itch mites , nasal mitesnotoedric mange , walking dandruff .\nthe biology of mites , parasites of livestock - cattle , sheep , goats , pig , poultry - , dogs and cats . scab , mange\nchakrabarti a , pradhan nr . demodicidosis in livestock in west bengal ( india )\ndrummond ro . tick - borne livestock diseases and their vectors . chemical control of ticks .\nsutherst rw . management of arthropod parasitism in livestock . in : dunsmore jp , editor .\nrotational grazing of livestock species should be followed to minimize or limit the infection from pasture .\nmites are able to cause mange on different species of livestock but are somewhat host specific , thus infecting some species more severely than others .\ncattle mites are not vectors of other pathogens , i . e . they do not transmit microbial diseases as many other livestock parasites do .\nsheep mites are not vectors of other pathogens , i . e . they do not transmit microbial diseases as many other livestock parasites do .\nhorse mites are not vectors of other pathogens , i . e . they do not transmit microbial diseases as many other livestock parasites do .\nsubject acarology . soil mites > biological control . soil mites > integrated control . agricultural pests . beneficial insects . soil management . soil mites .\nbasu bc , menon bp , sengupta cm ( 1952 ) studies on the mange mites of livestock in india . indian veterin j 22 : 143\u2013149\n. fipronil , methoprene and amitraz are all pesticides used also on livestock and agriculture .\nis found in the veins of the nasal mucosa of livestock in the indian subcontinent . infection rates of 40 - 50 %\nthe use of pathogenic fungi against crop and livestock pests has been intensively investigated . there are already numerous commercial products containing spores of these fungi that are used against crop pests . there use against livestock pests is much less developed and little is known so far on their field efficacy against ticks and mites that affect livestock and / or pets .\nquarantine importance : numerous important pests of crops , livestock , wildlife , native flora , and humans .\nskin must be squeezed to extrude mites from hair follicles trichogram : is the examination of hair plucked from a follicle for mites . finding a few mites is normal ! it is only demodecosis if you find numerous mites or many life stages\nchorioptic mites of cattle ( also called\nleg mites\n, or\nbarn itch\n) are less harmful than psoroptic or sarcoptic mites . they are not transmitted to humans .\nbram ra . tick - borne livestock diseases and their vectors . 1 . the global problem .\nchakrabarti a , pradhan nr ( 1985 ) demodicosis in livestock in west bengal ( india ) .\nidentify and prepare a list of livestock feeds common in your school or in neighboring areas for the following animals .\nwharton rh . tick - borne livestock diseases and their vectors . acaricide resistance and alternative methods of tick control .\n. such products containing amitraz are often used in many countries for mite control on livestock and dogs .\nchorioptic mites of horses ( the itchy leg mite ) are less harmful than psoroptic or sarcoptic mites . they are not transmitted to humans .\nattempts to infect and demonstrate transovarial transmission of r . tsutsugamushi in three species of leptotrombidium mites\nsarcoptic mites of sheep are a species - specific strain of sarcoptes scabiei , a mite species that infests also cattle , pigs , other livestock and also humans . this means that it can be transmitted to humans . they are less abundant on sheep than psoroptic mites .\nsikes rk , chamberlain rw . laboratory observations on three species of bird mites .\nlitwin sb . \u201cpigeon mites\u201d causing a pruritic dermatitis . report of a case .\nmites infest sheep worldwide . the most important parasitic mite species of sheep are :\npsoroptic mites of horses are usually not infectious for humans , dogs and cats .\nzhao ye , cheng h . rapd analysis and sequence alignment of genomic dna of hair follicle mites\nto our knowledge ixodiphagus wasps are not yet commercially available in most countries where ticks are a problem for livestock .\nhelson gah ( 1956 ) some arthropods affecting man and livestock in new zealand . n z vet 4 : 11\u201318\nagricultural hygiene helps protect livestock and crops from pests and disease , including insects , parasites , pathogens and weeds .\nchorioptic sheep mites ( also called\nleg mites\n, or\nfoot scab\n) are quite abundant worldwide , but less harmful than psoroptic or sarcoptic mites . they are not transmitted to humans .\nthey are parasites that are found in the body of the livestock eg . tapeworms , roundworms , liver - flukes . livestock houses should not only provide protection against elements of environment but also must allow ease in maintenance of high standards of hygiene . dirty environments promote infection by internal parasites .\nsarcoptic mites of cattle are a species - specific strain of sarcoptes scabiei , a mite species that infests also sheep , pigs , other livestock and also humans . this means that it can be transmitted to humans .\nmange or scabies in livestock is a skin condition caused by microscopic mites in or on the skin . the mites cause intense itching and discomfort which is associated with decreased feed intake and production . scratching and rubbing results in extensive damage to hides and fleece .\nscab and mange mites of veterinary importance have a worldwide distribution but they tend to be more frequent in regions with cold climate a hard winters . such mites live in the skin of their hosts . infestations with mites are technically called acariasis .\nso far there are no reports on serious problems of cattle mites resistance to parasiticides .\nsulzberger mb , kaminstein i . avian itch mites as a cause of human dermatoses .\nsarcoptic mites of horses are a species - specific strain of sarcoptes scabiei , a mite species that infests also sheep , cattle , pigs , other livestock and also humans . this means that it can be transmitted to humans .\nmg was fed to 50 mites at 75\u201385 % rh . the number of mites was assessed after 25 days , so the bioassay used population suppression as the measure of efficacy .\nhowever , to our knowledge there are still no commercial products based on bacillus thuringiensis approved for use on livestock or pets .\nwilliams , r . e . ( 2010 ) veterinary entomology : livestock and companion animals . boca raton , crc press .\nin cattle are the most common . liver flukes attack many types of livestock , especially cattle , sheep and goats . water snail lymnaea species , is the intermediate host . control liver fluke basically involves drenching of livestock animals with antihelminthic drugs and elimination of the intermediate host by draining swampy area .\ndiagnosis has to be confirmed examining skin scrappings of affected parts under the microscope for visualization of the mites .\ndiagnosis has to be confirmed examining skin scrappings under the microscope for visualization of the mites .\nso far there are no biological control methods against ticks and mites of dogs and cats .\npathogenic impact and economic importance of mange mites in ruminants | dr . tekeste abriham - urltoken\naka scab , psoroptic mange is caused by species of psoroptes . non burrowing skin mites .\npositive diagnosis of the problem by a physician . scabies mites are extremely small ; females measure about 1 \u2044 60 inch . in the case of both scabies and straw itch mites , the rash or bites associated with these mites is the primary diagnostic characteristic .\ninsects and mites that feed on fungus or stored grain that is damaged include the foreign grain beetle , indian meal moth , psocids and grain mites .\nbram ra , george je , reichard re , tabachnick wj . the threat of foreign arthropod - borne pathogens to livestock in the united states .\n( b ) to keep livestock away from pastures contaminated with metacercariae . this may only be possible when the number of animals involved is small .\n) . scabies mites have greatest survival away from a host in conditions of low temperature and high relative humidity . mites have been shown to remain infective after up to 36\nscab and mange mites are typical winter pests in regions with a cold or moderate winter . and they affect mainly stabled livestock , because crowding creates a warm and humid microclimate that favors mite development and transmission .\n) . adult female mites burrow into the upper epidermis of the host at the rate of approximately 0 . 5\u20135\nis common in house dust in tropical climates and may be more prevalent than pyroglyphid mites and is a significant cause of sensitivity . this species has been reported to occur in small numbers in some homes in the southern subtropical united states . sensitivity to storage mites may be 6\u201322 % in urban and rural populations in europe . there is little cross - reactivity between storage mites and house dust mites . however , many patients are sensitive to both storage mites and the pyroglyphid house dust mites .\nnumber of laying hens per country in millions ( 2012 ) and the percentages of farms infested by dermanyssus gallinae . image reproduced from mul ; \u00a9wageningen ur livestock research .\nmites : re - evaluation of species integrity . med vet entomol 25 : 370\u2013376 . doi :\nin most countries there are no injectables approved for the control of mites on dogs and cats .\nso far there are almost no reports on confirmed resistance of dog or cat mites to acaricides .\nof dogs . milbemycin oxime has no efficacy against fleas or ticks . milbemycin oxime is exclusively used on pets , not on livestock or in agriculture .\nparasitic mites often have adaptations for being on animals claws , suckers , etc .\ntaxonomic priority in psoroptes mange mites : p . ovis or p . equi ?\n, natural or synthetic that will keep mites away from horses . and there are\nso far there are no drenches that reliably control mites on dogs and cats .\nthere are also reports of a good efficacy of thuringiensin suspensions against northern fowl mites when directly applied on infested chicken .\nalthough the disease can manifest in a number of ways , the only form is the presence of ectoparasites\u2014ticks and mites .\nwhereas there are numerous topical and systemic acaricides that control mites on livestock in most countries , only a fraction are also approved for use on horses or other equids . the reason is often that the horse market is smaller than the livestock market and thus it is not attractive enough for most animal health companies to invest in a claim for use on horses .\ningested by the host , which in turn is influenced by the climate , the amount of protection of larvae provided by vegetation , the livestock density and the grazing pattern of the ruminants present .\nsmith mg , blattner rj , heys fm . st . louis encephalitis : infection of chicken mites ,\nif a herd is free of mites , contamination can only come from animals brought in . consequently , to avoid contamination treat all incoming animals against mites , especially during the winter months .\ninfestations with mites are technically called acariosis or acariasis , both on animals and humans .\nthe eu label does not include any mites among the parasites controlled by certifect .\nchamberlain rw , sikes rk , sudia rw . attempted laboratory infection of bird mites with the virus of saint louis encephalitis .\nhall , m . t . b . , 1977 ; diseases and parasites of livestock in the tropics . longman group ltd , london . pp 22 \u2013 257 .\nharm to birds by bloodsucking mites is comparable to that of ticks for large livestock . besides stress and pain caused by itching and inflammation of the skin , blood loss can be considerable , which can cause anemia that can be fatal . egg production can be substantially reduced .\n( ii ) arachnida like ticks and mites various microenvironments eg . under the tail , belly region , anal region around the neck among other areas , favour the proliferation for different types of external parasites . this affects the distribution of the parasites and livestock production in general .\nlife - threatening anemia by direct consumption of host blood is possible when mites are seen in high numbers .\nwhitten lk ( 1962 ) parasitic mites of domestic animals in new zealand . n z entomol 3 : 9\u201312\ndurden la jlk , turell mj . mechanical transmission of venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus by haematophagous mites ( acari )\ncahn mm , shechter fr . pruritus from an unusual source - bird mites ; report of a case .\nvacated facilities where sheep infected with psoroptic mites were hold must be kept vacant for at least 2 weeks . this is necessary to allow surviving mites or eggs to die before arrival of new stock .\nzhao ye , cheng h , xun m , wu lp . extraction and random primer pcr detection of genomic dna of parasitic mites\nchamberlain rw , sikes rk . laboratory investigations on the role of bird mites in the transmission of eastern and western equine encephalitis .\ntaxonomic priority in psoroptes mange mites : p . ovis or p . equi ? | springerlink\nwritten by a globally prominent entomologist , agricultural acarology : introduction to integrated mite management provides tools for developing integrated mite management programs for agriculture , including management of plant - feeding mites , mites attacking bees and livestock , and stored products . emphasizing the biology , ecology , behavior , and diverse methods of controlling mites , this book provides an overview of the management of agriculturally important mites using all available integrated pest management ( ipm ) tools , including biological control , cultural practices , host - plant resistance , and pesticides . agricultural acarology prepares agricultural managers to identify , manage , and contribute to the field of integrated mite management . an accompanying cd - rom contains numerous color photographs of mites and the damage they cause , and pdfs of key publications .\nfleas and lice are two of the most common and irritating parasitic insects of humans and livestock . lice commonly live among the hairs of their hosts , feeding on blood . some species are carriers of typhus fever . fleas usually infest birds and mammals , and can feed on humans when they are transferred from pets or livestock . fleas are known to carry a variety of devastating diseases , including the plague .\nall mites are highly contagious among dogs and / or cat . depending on the species they can be contagious for humans as well . however , they are not transmitted by vectors ( e . g . flies , mosquitoes , etc . ) . mites do not transmit microbial diseases , neither to pets , nor to humans or livestock .\nare labeled for use against sarcoptic mange mites , but it is generally not considered the compound of choice . if\nmites are microscopic parasites , mostly not bloodsucking , which live on the skin of numerous domestic and wild animals .\nsurveys for ectoparasites on wildlife associated with amblyomma variegatum ( acari : ixodidae ) - infested livestock in st . croix , u . s . virgin islands .\nthe life cycle of nasal mites is not completely understood . usually these mites remain inside the nasal channels but a few mites may reach the outer nose . nasal mites often cause light or no symptoms at all , but strong infestations can lead to chronic sneezing , nasal discharge , coughing , nasal bleeding ( epistaxis ) , and restlessness . in very infrequent severe cases serious impairment of the respiratory function can occur .\nsteelman , c . d . , 1976 ; effects of external and internal arthropod parasites on domestic livestock production . ann . rev . entomol . 21 : 155 \u2013 175 .\nthe principle of a parasite control strategy is to keep the challenge to young livestock by the pathogenic trichostrongyle parasites at a minimum rate . this is achieved in the following ways .\nof mange and mites like ticks , mites belong to the arachnida family . there are more than 45 000 mite species . most can only be seen with a microscope and live in a diverse array of habitats . many live as parasites on plants and animals . \u2018mange\u2019 is the name given to skin diseases caused by parasitic mites in wild and domestic animals . sheep scab , for example , is caused by mites .\nskin irritation in humans handling infested materials . a related group of astigmatid mites , also ancestrally nest inhabiting , is the family pyroglyphidae . these mites have colonized human habitations from bird nests and are the primary source for allergens in house dust . commonly known as house dust mites , species particularly in the genus\nfleas and lice are two of the most common and irritating parasitic insects of humans and livestock . lice commonly live among the hairs of their hosts , feeding on blood . some species are carriers of the epidemic inducing typhus fever . fleas usually infest birds and mammals , and can feed on humans when they are transferred from pets or livestock . fleas are known to carry a variety of devastating diseases , including the plague .\nfor catching mites , for the simple reason that they spend their whole life on the animals .\nmay also be prevalent . domestic dwellings can also contain storage mites ( e . g . ,\nfigure 1 . gravel mulch can help stop or slow pests such as millipedes and clover mites .\nhealth plays a major role in determining the productivity of farm animals . in your previous studies , you learnt the role played by parasites and pathogens in livestock production . the health and productivity of farm animals is also dependent on the plane of nutrition exposed to them . in this topic you are expected to understand the diverse sources of livestock feeds , categorize them and explain their digestion in various farm animals .\nparasites cause considerable damage to livestock and loss of income to farmers . in this lesson , we shall explore the effects of parasites on livestock and the most susceptible stage of their lifecycle in order to successfully control them . parasitism is an association between two organisms in which one is called a parasite and the other a host in the context of the association . the parasite benefits by nourishing itself at the expense of the host .\nother mites , especially certain bird mites ( e . g . the red fowl mite , dermanyssus gallinae ) do not live in the skin of the hosts but are bloodsuckers . they behave rather like soft ticks .\npalimpestov ma ( 1947 ) peculiarities in the development of psoroptid mange mites . vet 24 : 6\u20139 ( in russian )\nsmith mg , blattner rj , heys fm . the isolation of the st . louis encephalitis virus from chicken mites (\nare labeled for use against mange mites in cattle , but it is generally not considered the compound of choice . if\nkirkwood a ( 1963 ) longevity of the mites dermanyssus gallinae and liponyssus sylviarum . exp parasit 14 : 358 - 366\nreview and resolution of some nomenclatural issues regarding the genus psoroptes ( acari : psoroptidae ) , scab - mites of domestic and wild mammals .\nsummarizing , a lot of research is still needed until reliable products based on these nematodes become commercially available for the control of ticks or mites of veterinary importance .\n, glycyphagidae , carpoglyphidae , echimyopididae , and chortoglyphidae are medically important because they are the sources of potent allergens . many species of these mites are often referred to as \u201cstorage mites\u201d because they occur in stored hay , grain , and straw , in processed foods made from grain ( flour , baking mixes ) , and in dust in grain and hay at storage , transfer , and livestock feeding facilities . also , stored product mites may occur in homes in significant numbers . thus , humans may be exposed to storage mites and their allergens , occupationally and in the home . inhalation or contact on the skin or mucus membranes of the eyes with allergens from storage mites can induce allergic reactions . these mites and their allergens can also occur in bread , pancakes , cakes , pizza , pasta , and bread made from ingredients contaminated with mites . humans have had anaphylactic reactions after eating these mite - contaminated foods .\ncertain insect species are the carriers of some of humanity ' s most dreaded diseases , including malaria , typhus , and plague . as consumers of agricultural crops and parasites of our livestock , insects are also humankind ' s number one competitor for resources .\n( a ) controlling the density of livestock ( stocking rate ) . overstocking forces the animals to graze closer to faecal material and closer to the ground , and may result in the consumption of a higher number of infective larvae .\nattacks only at night and hide in crevices during the day which might be a reason for low incidence of mites reported by many authorities . furthermore , iwuala and okpala ( 1977 ) [ 17 ] indicated that mites species\nthe second treatment if necessary should be given three weeks after the pre - rains treatment . two successive treatments three weeks apart should prevent livestock from acquiring parasite burdens .\nmites affect all kinds of livestock end pets , as well as humans and wildlife . mites are often quite species - specific , i . e . they are occur only on one type of host and a few closely related species , e . g . on canids such as dogs , wolves and foxes , but not on cats ; or on cattle and buffaloes but not on sheep or goats , etc .\n2013 . of mites and men : preliminary evidence for increasing incidence of avian ectoparasitosis in humans and support of its potential threat to medical health ; pp . 635\u2013636 .\nas all arachnids , adults have 4 pairs of legs ( larvae only 3 ) , whereby those of scab and mange mites are often rudimentary .\nso far there are very few products for oral delivery approved for the control of mites of dogs and cats . the most relevant one is :\neggs of ticks and mites deposited in cracks and crevices in the walls , floors and wood work of the animal houses should be removed periodically .\ncertain insect species are the carriers of some of humanity ' s most dreaded diseases , including malaria , typhus , and plague . as consumers of agricultural crops and parasites of our livestock , insects are also humankind ' s number - one competitor for resources .\nscab , mange and other mites are very small arachnid parasites . most of them can be seen only under the microscope .\nvaliente moro c , chauve c , zenner l . vectorial role of some dermanyssoid mites ( acari , mesostigmata , dermanyssoidea )\nmites are tiny parasites ( < 1 mm ) that live in the skin of horses , donkeys and many other mammals and vertebrates worldwide . mites are not insects but belong to the group called acarina , together with ticks .\nwith a number of anthelmintics available in several formulations ( ready - to - use drench , paste , powder , mineral premix , urea / molasses / anthelmintic blocks , pour on , injectable , slow release and pulse release devices ) , it is recommended that the ideal formulation is selected by considering availability , price , parasite species to be treated , type of livestock , livestock numbers and type of management .\ncattle mites : biology , prevention and control . cattle mange . psoroptes , sarcoptes , chorioptes , demodex\ntaxa most similar to mites : ricinuleids have a cucullus and opisthosomal segmentation . opilionids have opisthosomal segmentation .\nmites in cows : a case report from iran . j fac vet med univ tehran 53 : 50\u201351\nzemskaya aa , pchelkina aa . gamasoid mites and q fever . in : markevich ap , editor .\ncheyletiella mites infest mainly cats , but can also affect dogs , foxes , rabbits and also humans .\n, e . g , houseflies . but in very high numbers , the nuisance may be considerable and have an impact on productivity of livestock operations . and they can also trasmit animal diseases .\non the other hand , as indicated above , some mites are beneficial to humans in their role as biological control agents against agricultural pests . also , the natural role of mites in providing \u201cecosystem services\u201d in the form of nutrient cycling cannot be overlooked .\ndiagnosis is based on the presence of the previously mentioned symptoms , but has to be confirmed examining skin scrappings of affected parts under the microscope for visualization of the mites .\nscab and mange mites are minuscule ( 0 , 15 a 0 , 8 mm ) and not visible for the naked eye . infestations are recognized by the symptoms and clinical signs they cause on livestock or pets . to determine the specific agent examination of skin scrappings under the microscope is often required .\nvarious methods including dipping , spraying , ear tagging or pour on , have been used to apply chemicals to protect livestock against ticks . direct application of acaricides to animals is the most popular method of controlling ticks on livestock ( drummond , 1983 ) . applications of acaricide to tick - infested cattle via dipping or sprayer can be equally effective under ideal conditions with proper handling of equipments without injuring animals and subsequent dilution of a product ( george , 2000 ) .\nsikes rk , chamberlain rw ( 1954 ) laboratory observations on three species of bird mites . j parasitol 40 : 691 - 697\nspecies of knemidocoptes these burrowing mites cause severe inflammation in the legs which will become swollen and encrusted leading to immobilization and death .\nectoparasites live on the outer surface of humans . they include lice and the mites that cause scabies ( skay - beez ) .\ncontrol may also be directed at the intermediate host , the oribatid mites . it has been shown that the habitat of the mites can be destroyed by ploughing and where this is feasible , newly sown pastures can be kept free of tapeworms for several years .\nsurveys for ectoparasites on wildlife associated with amblyomma variegatum ( acari : ixodidae ) - infested livestock in st . croix , u . s . virgin islands . - pubmed - ncbi\nmbati pa , hlatshwayo m , mtshali ms , mogaswane kr , de waal td , dipeolu oo . ticks and tick - borne diseases of livestock belonging to resource - poor farmers in the eastern free state of south africa .\ncattle mites : biology , prevention and control . cattle mange . psoroptes , sarcoptes , chorioptes , demodex .\nsometimes mites are not easily identified , and the complaint will center on behavior changes or an unthrifty appearance .\nmites from china based on coi and 18s rdna gene sequences . vet parasitol 184 : 392\u2013397 . doi :\nall mites are very small ( < 0 . 5 mm ) and only visible under the microscope . they\ncoetzer , j . a . w . ( 1994 ) infectious diseases of livestock with special reference to southern africa . cape town : oxford university press . isbn 0 - 19 - 570506 - 8 .\nis a member of the class arachnida , subclass acari , order astigmata and family sarcoptidae . scabies mites are obligate parasites that burrow into the skin of their host , reproducing and laying eggs in the burrows . adult female mites are approximately 0 . 2\u20130 . 5\nas indicated above , there are a number of instances in which mites are important to humans . many species are serious pests of agricultural crops , either through direct damage or indirectly as vectors of plant pathogens . other species are parasitic on domestic animals and cause losses in meat , egg , and fiber production . others , such as the human scabies mite , are direct agents of human disease or , as in the case of chiggers and ticks , vectors of pathogens . other mites may affect humans by infesting stored food products . many species of astigmata are known as stored - product mites because they have moved from their ancestral rodent nest habitats into human food stores . such mites may also cause damage in animal feed by causing allergic reactions in livestock and are also known to cause\ninstead of thorax and abdomen mites have just an abdomen ( also called idiosoma ) . the abdomen contains all the major organs ( digestive tract , reproductive organs , nervous system , etc . ) . female mites are always larger than males .\nmites are microscopic , round with short legs adult females burrow into the skin and lay eggs in resulting tunnel eggs hatch and development of larva to nymph to adult occurs rapidly in 17 - 21 days . adult mites can live for 4 weeks\nact as intermediate hosts . the mites , which are soil - inhabiting , surface during the night and early morning to feed on manure . during their feeding they accidentally ingest eggs of the intestinal tapeworms present in the manure , and the larval stage called a cysticercoid develops in the mites . ruminants become infected by ingesting herbage containing mites carrying the infective stage of the parasite .\nthis site presents the parasites of veterinary importance for livestock and pets grouped into ectoparasites and endoparasites . a good reason for this classificastion is that the veterinary medicines for the control of such parasites are classically divided into ectoparasiticides and endoparasiticides .\nnakamae h , fujisaki k , kishi s , yashiro m , oshiro s , furuta k . the new parasitic ecology of chicken mites\nof the flocks remains the preferred option for sheep scab prevention in many regions . to ensure effective prevention the acaricide must reach the mites\nare notoriously difficult to control for multiple reasons , one of these being the tendency of mites to seek refuge in poultry house sub - structures when not feeding . the majority of the\namong the numerous chemical classes of parasiticides , only the macrocyclic lactones are appropriate for use as injectables against various mite species . however , whereas several macrocyclic lactones are enormously used as injectables on livestock , there are almost no injectable macrocyclic lactones for pets . in some countries the classical 1 % injectable formulation of ivermectin for livestock is also approved for use on dogs and even cats . but in most countries , including the eu and the usa this classic 1 % ivermectin formulation is usually not approved for use on cats and dogs ( see table below for a summary on macrocyclic formulations for pets and livestock )\nsarcoptes mites of most domestic mammals ( and other mite species too ) can be contagious for humans , causing the so - called pseudoscabies , characterized by intense itch . however , the mites cannot complete development on humans and the infestation recedes spontaneously .\nreview and resolution of some nomenclatural issues regarding the genus psoroptes ( acari : psoroptidae ) , scab - mites of domestic and wild mammals . - pubmed - ncbi\nuesugi y , aiba s , suetake t , tagami h . multiple infestations with avian mites within a family .\nthe following factors should be considered in the control of internal parasites ; 1 . nutritional status , 2 . size of the animal , 3 . the environment of livestock . the stock person should ensure that all predisposing factors to infection are controlled , these include ,\nin regions with a cold winter ( canada , most of the usa and europe , etc . ) psoroptic mange is a typical winter pest , favored by livestock crowding due to indoor confinement during the cold season .\non the side of the body , head , back , hip , legs and abdomen of cow aged 2 - 14 years in july . a heifer was infested with mites of the genus\npyemotes tritici commonly breed in stored grain , dried beans and peas , wheat straw , hay and other dried grasses . they are frequently a problem for people doing landscaping or feeding horses and other livestock . the mites are actually beneficial because they attack insects that feed on stored grain and similar materials . people who handle mite - infested materials will be attacked . the bites of straw itch mites are characteristically found on the trunk of the body and on the arms .\nthe study of arthropod ectoparasites has been driven in the past in canada principally by the need for answers to specific problems affecting man , domestic animals or wild game species . our knowledge of the fleas arose from initial concerns about plague in western canada . where ticks caused paralysis and death in livestock in british columbia , a specialist in the field was appropriated to conduct the needed research . lice , keds , and mites are frequent pests on confined livestock and poultry and several studies have been conducted to measure impact on performance and for pest control .\nmites , more closely related to spiders than insects and extremely small , utilize microenvironments of moderate temperature and raised humidity . the most important family\nin baltic amber , water mites have been found too . they parasitize representatives of chironomidae ( nonbiting midges ) or trichoptera ( caddis flies ;\ndurden la , linthicum kj , monath tp . laboratory transmission of eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus to chickens by chicken mites ( acari : dermanyssidae )\nthey refer to parasites found on outside the body of the livestock on or under the skin of the host . most of the ectoparasites belong to the class arthropoda with two distinct classes namely ( i ) insecta for example tsetse flies , lice , keds , fleas .\nmites are readily killed ; however , successful treatment requires removal of contaminated forage and treatment of environment ( e . g . pyrethrin sprays ) before new forage replaced .\ncan reach a length of 1 . 3 mm . the life cycle of feather mites consists of oviparous adults one larval and two nymphal stages . birds become infected with teleonymphs by contact . in the past feather mites were considered to be apathogenic , but under conditions of high host concentrations , they can cause skin and feather alterations .\nchicken mites these are blood sucking mites of poultry in wood framed houses . - nocturnal feeders that hide in the day time - rapid lifecycle - 7 days with adult females producing eggs after each meal - adults can survive up to 8 mos without feeding !\nsarcoptic mites are very small ( 0 . 3 to 0 . 5 mm ) and can be seen only under the microscope . as all mite species , sarcoptic mange mites spend their whole life on the same host . the mites do not actively jump or crawl from one host to another one , but are passively transmitted when animals come in close physical contact . however , horses can pick mites from the immediate environment and they can also be passively transmitted by saddlery or tools and equipment in the stable . but there are no external vectors that transmit the mites , e . g . insects , worms , rats , mites , birds , etc . , as it happens with many other parasites .\nmites inhabiting vegetation , vegetable matter , hay , straw , cereals and other stored foods , and bedding may cause dermatitis in animals contacting the infested environment or feed . these mites belong to the suborders sarcoptiformes ( astigmata ) , trombidiformes ( prostigmata ) , and parasitiformes ( mesostigmata ) . forage mites include mites in the genera acarus , tyrophagus , , glycyphagus , pyemotes , neoschoengastia , euschoengastia , caloglyphus , lepidoglyphus , cheyletus , and suidasia . many species of larval trombiculidae ( harvest mites , red bugs , or chiggers ) are capable of producing skin lesions and irritation in the horse . genera represented include eutrombicula , neotrombicula , and leptotrombium .\nectoparasitism refers to an infestation of the reptilian host by one of several groups of acarids ( ticks and mites ) of the genera ophionyssus , ixodes , hyalomma , haemaphysalis , amblyomma , aponomma , agrasidae , and ornithodoros .\ndisease : blood - feeding by these large flies is painful but loss of livestock productivity by biting - stress is poorly known . tsetse - flies are notorious as the biological vectors of the trypanosoma species of protozoa that cause nagana in cattle and sleeping - sickness in humans .\n( 1975 ) [ 5 ] divided mites into the following families : - family psoroptidae : - e . g .\nhorse mites : biology , prevention and control . horse mange , horse scab . psoroptes , sarcoptes , chorioptes , demodex\nadult mites are small ( 0 . 15 a 0 . 55 mm long ) and can be seen only under the microscope . as all mite species , sarcoptic mange mites spend their whole life on the same host . the mites do not actively jump or crawl from one host to another one , but are passively transmitted when animals come in close physical contact . however , dogs can pick mites from the immediate environment . there are no external vectors that transmit the mites , e . g . insects , worms , birds , etc . , as it happens with many other parasites .\nis a broad - spectrum insecticide effective against adult fleas , but not against mites or ticks . it belongs to the\nanother prominent class of arthropods that contains parasitic species is the arachnids . included in this group are spiders , scorpions , ticks , and mites .\nsarcoptic mites are very small ( 0 . 3 to 0 . 5 mm ) and can be seen only under the microscope . as all mite species , sarcoptic mange mites spend their whole life on the same host . mites do not actively jump or crawl from one host to another one , but are passively transmitted when animals come in close physical contact . however , sheep can pick mites from the immediate environment or fomites . there are no external vectors that transmit the mites , e . g . insects , worms , birds , etc . , as it happens with many other parasites .\nmost bloodsucking mites are not that species - specific as scab and mange mites . many such mite species can infect and survive on several bird species , also on wild birds . this means that wild birds are vectors of such mites and can transmit the infestation e . g . between poultry houses . even rodents and other domestic and wild animals ( e . g . dogs , cats , foxes , etc . ) and even workers can be passive vectors and such mites in industrial bird production facilities .\nthe life cycle is completed in 4 to 6 weeks . survival off the host is limited to a few days . whereas immature mites remain mostly below the epidermis , adult mites are on the skin surface , move freely and spread the infestation throughout the host ' s body . transmission mainly of adult mites is by contact , mostly from freshly shorn sheep to shorn or wooly sheep .\nsarcoptic mites are very small ( 0 . 3 to 0 . 5 mm ) and can be seen only under the microscope . as all mite species , sarcoptic mange mites spend their whole life on the same host . the mites do not actively jump or crawl from one host to another one , but are passively transmitted when animals come in close physical contact . however , cattle can pick mites from the immediate environment or fomites . there are no external vectors that transmit the mites , e . g . insects , worms , birds , etc . , as it happens with many other parasites .\nas all mite species , psoroptes mites spend their whole life on the same host . transmission within a herd is mostly by physical contact . the mites do not actively jump or crawl from one host to another one , but are passively transmitted when animals come in close contact . nevertheless , psoroptic mites and eggs can survive 2 to 3 weeks off the host by suitable conditions ( maximum to 12 weeks by cold weather ) , i . e . animals can pick mites or eggs from their environment or can be transmitted by fomites . but there are no external vectors that transmit the mites , e . g . insects , worms , rats , mites , birds , etc . , as it happens with many other parasites .\nlancaster , j . l . & meisch , m . v . ( 1986 ) arthropods in livestock and poultry production . chichester : ellis horwood ltd . isbn 0 - 85312 - 790 - 5 .\npsoroptes mites produce typical scabs on the skin of affected animals , thus their common name scab mites . psoroptes mites do not dig tunnels in the skin . in the past it was thought that they pierce the skin of their hosts . today it is believed that they do not pierce the skin , but that the mite feces cause an allergic reaction of the host ' s skin , which reacts producing exudations and skin thickening and hardening ( lichenification ) with formation of papules , scales and crusts ( excoriations ) , often with hair loss . the mites than suck the exudates and secretions produced .\ntransmission of o . tsutsugamushi by different generations of 12 colonies of leptotrombidium chiggers .\nwas found on 108 wormed pigs in usa . mohr ( 1961 ) [ 18 ] reported that 4 species of mites that cause mange in cattle are\nbaker as . mites and ticks of domestic animals : an identification guide and information source . london : the stationary office ; 1999 . [ links ]\nan inventory among most european countries revealed that on average 83 % of the poultry farms are infested with poultry red mites ( see figure 5 ) .\nfor the control of ear - mites special ear - drops are often used ( e . g . with pyrethrins , ivermectin or milbemycin oxime ) .\nspecies that predates on other mites and is used as a biological control weapon in crop protection . it also predates on tick larvae , particularly those that climb onto shrubs or grass blades questing for potential hosts . but results of trials run in australia with these mites to control\nthe medical and economic importance of ticks has long been recognized due to their ability to transmit diseases to humans and animals . ticks cause great economic losses to livestock , and adversely affect livestock hosts in several ways . loss of blood is a direct effect of ticks acting as potential vector for haemo - protozoa and helminth parasites . blood sucking by large numbers of ticks causes reduction in live weight and anemia among domestic animals , while their bites also reduce the quality of hides . however , major losses caused by ticks are due to their ability to transmit protozoan , rickettsial and viral diseases of livestock , which are of great economic importance world - wide . there are quite a few methods for controlling ticks , but every method has certain shortcomings . the present review is focused on ticks importance and their control .\nmode of action , i . e . although topically administered , it is absorbed through the skin into the pet ' s blood and distributed throughout the whole body . moxidectin is also used on livestock but not in agriculture or hygiene .\ncattle demodectic mange mites are even smaller ( ~ 0 . 25 mm ) than psoroptic or sarcoptic mites . they get into the hair follicles and sebaceous glands and build nodules and papules that can become infected with secondary bacteria . the life cycle can be completed in about 2 weeks , but is poorly understood . demodex mites can survive up to 4 months off the host .\nalso the simplified passive tape trap ( spt , roy et al . 2014 ; chiron et al . 2014 ) method is easy to make . use a 5 \u2013 8 cm long section of 3 cm wide painter\u2019s masking tape and wrap it around cylindrical bars in the poultry system , joining the two ends , but leaving a central space near the bar to serve as a mite refuge ( see figure 4 ) . the number of mites trapped on this sticky refuge should be scored to four different levels : 0 = no mites visible in the trap ; 1 = 1 - 9 mites visible in the trap ; 2 = sparse groups of > 10 mites visible in the trap ; 3 = clusters of mites visible in the trap .\nthe introduction of large numbers of ducks into rice fields after harvest has been used to reduce the snail population . the ducks eat the snails and the fluke species specific to the ducks compete with the fluke species of ruminants in the infection of snails . it is reported that snails infected with duck flukes will not become infected with flukes of livestock .\ngray ( 1961 ) [ 9 ] discovered mites to be an irritating and parasitic ectoparasite likewise other forms of mites like chiggers . recently , yerubam ( 1984 ) [ 10 ] discovered that out of 30 herds of local ( black ) goats monitored throughout 1983 in different part of israel , ten ( 10 ) were infested with mites . he also stated that the infested goats were aged 2 years or more and were in good physical condition . steelman ( 1976 ) [ 11 ] observed large numbers of nodules caused by\nmaggots , several mites species that get into the respiratory system , etc . ) , as well as worms that remain on the skin of their hosts .\ngriffiths da , atyeo wt , norton ra , lynch ca ( 1990 ) the idiosomal chaetotaxy of astigmatid mites . j zool ( london ) 220 : 1\u201332\nproper disposal of carcasses of animals died of infectious disease is of utmost importance in preventing the spread of diseases to other animals and humans .\nif a herd is free of mites , contamination can only come from cattle brought in . consequently , to avoid contamination all incoming animals must be treated against mites , also those that went to the a fair or to the market and came back unsold : they may have picked mites from other sheep . two injections with a macrocyclic lactone ( e . g . doramectin , ivermectin , moxidectin ) with 7 to 10 days interval should do the job , but keep the animals isolated until 10 days after the second injection . remember that sheep may be infected with mites without showing clinical signs ! topical sprays and pour - ons are not reliable for controlling psoroptic mites .\nsheep mites : biology , prevention and control . sheep scab , sheep mange . psoroptes , sarcoptes , chorioptes , psorergates , demodex\nheavy infestations cause severe anemia and can kill nestlings . older birds suffer reduced weight gains and egg production these mites are zoonotic !"]}
{"id": 2166, "summary": [{"text": "heliothelopsis unicoloralis is a moth in the crambidae family .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it was described by barnes and mcdunnough in 1914 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from arizona .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 12 \u2013 14 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are deep black-brown with a slight bronze tinge and sprinkled with whitish scaling .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are uniform black-brown .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults have been recorded on wing in august . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "heliothelopsis unicoloralis", "paragraphs": ["photographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nbarnes , w . m . & j . h . mcdunnough 1914 b : some new north american pyraustinae . \u2013 contributions to the natural history of the lepidoptera of north america , chicago 2 ( 6 ) : 244 , pl . 2 fig . 15 .\nmunroe , e . g . 1961 : synopsis of the north american odontiinae , with descriptions of new genera and species ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) . \u2013 memoirs of the entomological society of canada , ottawa 93 ( 24 ) : 53 .\nsynopsis of the north american odontiinae , with descriptions of new genera and species ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) eugene g . munroe . 1961 . memoirs of the entomological society of canada . 93 ( 24 ) : 1 - 93 .\ncontributed by jason d . roberts on 2 august , 2007 - 2 : 30pm additional contributions by kyhl austin last updated 15 may , 2016 - 6 : 28pm\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services ."]}
{"id": 2169, "summary": [{"text": "coregonus albula , known as the vendace or as the european cisco , is a species of freshwater whitefish in the family salmonidae .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is found in lakes in northern europe , especially finland , sweden , russia and estonia , and in some lakes of norway , the united kingdom , northern germany and poland .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is also found in diluted brackish water in the gulfs of finland and bothnia , both of which are in the baltic sea .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the length of an adult is normally about 20 cm ( 8 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the maximum age is about ten years .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the vendace is traditionally the most important target of freshwater fisheries in parts of fennoscandia and russia .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "vendace roe is considered a delicacy , which has been granted a pdo status in the swedish bothnian bay archipelago ( kalix l\u00f6jrom ) . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "coregonus albula", "paragraphs": ["semen biology of vendace ( coregonus albula l . ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nbiological and morphological characteristics of vendace , coregonus albula l . from lakes drawsko and pe\u0142cz\nviet\u0113jo eiropas rep\u0161a ( coregonus albula ( l . ) ) popul\u0101ciju morfologiskais raksturojums da\u017eos latvijas . . .\ncombined assessment of genetic variability of coregonus albula ( l . ) populations in latvia based on a . . .\nage , growth and condition of vendace coregonus albula ( l . ) from lakes morzyczko and pe\u00a3cz ( nw poland )\nestimation of genetic variability in populations of vendace ( coregonus albula ( l . ) ) in latvian lakes . . .\njennifer hammock split the classifications by inventaire national du patrimoine naturel from coregonus albula ( linnaeus , 1758 ) to their own page .\nkatja schulz marked the finnish common name\nmixikk\u00fa maiva\nfrom\ncoregonus albula ( linnaeus , 1758 )\nas untrusted .\nselected biological characteristics of the catch - available part of population of vendace , coregonus albula ( l . ) from lake miedwie , poland\nfuller p ; nico l , 2012 . coregonus albula . usgs nonindigenous aquatic species database . gainesville , fl , usa : usgs . urltoken\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - vendace ( coregonus albula )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - vendace ( coregonus albula )\ntitle =\narkive species - vendace ( coregonus albula )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nkottelat m ; freyhof j , 2008 . coregonus albula . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . gland , switzerland : iucn . urltoken\nreshetnikov ys , 2003 . coregonus albula . in : atlas of russian freshwater fishes , volume 1 , 1 . moscow , russia : nauka , 135 - 137 .\ntargeted fishing of c . albula may be difficult , but possible , especially on the spawning grounds .\npollan ( coregonus autumnalis ) , another coregonid fish , is only found in irish waters .\nsemenov d , 2011 . data on the morphology and ecology of vendace coregonus albula ( salmoniformes , coregonidae ) from the kuybyshev reservoir . journal of ichthyology , 51 ( 5 ) : 410 - 413 .\nvuorinen j ; himberg mkj ; lankinen p , 1981 . genetic differentiation in coregonus albula ( l . ) ( salmonidae ) populations in finland . hereditas , 94 ( 1 ) : 113 - 121 .\ngillraker development in juvenile polymorphic european whitefish ( coregonus lavaretus l . ) in lake femund , norway\nauvinen h , 1988 . distribution and food of vendace ( coregonus albula ( l . ) ) larvae in lake pyhaejaervi ( karelia , se finland ) . finnish fisheries research , 9 : 107 - 115 .\nliso s ; gjelland k\u00f8 ; reshetnikov ys ; amundsen pa , 2011 . a planktivorous specialist turns rapacious : piscivory in invading vendace coregonus albula . journal of fish biology , 78 ( 1 ) : 332 - 337 . urltoken\nmorphological divergence and origin of sympatric populations of european whitefish ( coregonus lavaretus l . ) in lake femund , norway\ngill raker counting for approximating the ratio of river - and sea - spawning whitefish , coregonus lava . . .\ncoregonus lavaretus isolate 5 haplotype a3 cytochrome b ( cytb ) and nadh dehydrogenase subunit 3 ( nd3 . . .\nn\u00e6sje tf ; sandlund ot ; jonsson b , 1986 . habitat use and growth of age - 0 whitefish , coregonus lavaretus , and cisco , c . albula . environmental biology of fishes , 15 ( 4 ) : 309 - 314 .\nmutenia a ; salonen e , 1992 . the vendace ( coregonus albula l . ) , a new species in the fish community and fisheries of lake inari . polish archives of hydrobiology , 39 ( 3 - 4 ) : 797 - 805 .\nvuorinen j ; n\u00e6sje tf ; sandlund ot , 1991 . genetic changes in a vendace coregonus albula ( l . ) population , 92 years after introduction . in : journal of fish biology , 39 ( supplement a ) . 193 - 201 .\nthere is confusion over whether or not the true coregonus albula was actually the one imported and stocked in this country . todd ( 1983 ) investigated the history of the early coregonus transfers and summarized much of the information . he was informed by one german contact that the fish imported to the united states from hatcheries on the bodensee / lake constance ( such as the 1885 shipment and possibly others ) were more likely c . wartmanni . kendall ( 1914 ) used the name leucichthys albula for this species .\ngordeeva nv ; kholod on ; dvoryankin ga ; sendek ds ; sterligova op , 2009 . on the origin of solovetskaya vendace coregonus albula and of the syamozero smelt osmerus eperlanus . journal of ichthyology , 49 ( 1 ) : 23 - 31 . urltoken\namundsen pa ; staldvik fj ; reshetnikov ys ; kashulin n ; lukin a ; b\u00f8hn t ; sandlund ot ; popova oa , 1999 . invasion of vendace coregonus albula in a subarctic watercourse . biological conservation , 88 ( 3 ) : 405 - 413 .\nsandlund ot ; jonsson b ; n\u00e6sje tf ; aass p , 1991 . year - class fluctuations in vendace , coregonus albula ( linnaeus ) : who ' s got the upper hand in intraspecific competition ? journal of fish biology , 38 : 873 - 885 .\nwheeler ( 1969 ) ; ladiges and vogt ( 1986 ) . the taxonomy and systematics of coregonus is particularly problematic . some of the confusion is the result of the many early introductions and transplants of the various species and populations within europe and elsewhere ( e . g . , leviton 1996 ) . furthermore , the reportedly frequent hybridization between related coregonus species also has contributed to the taxonomic confusion . many ichthyologists ( e . g . , berg 1948 ) have historically recognized only a few widespread , polytypic species of coregonus ( including c . albula ) across europe . recently , kottelat and freyhof ( 2007 ) recognized 59 species of coregonus .\nczerniejewski p ; wawrzyniak w , 2006 . management of vendace ( coregonus albula ( l . ) ) in the lakes of northwest poland in the late twentieth and early twenty - first centuries . archives of polish fisheries , 14 ( 1 ) : 105 - 121 .\nb\u00f8hn t ; amundsen pa , 1998 . effects of invading vendace ( coregonus albula l . ) on species composition and body size in two zooplankton communities of the pasvik river system , northern norway . journal of plankton research , 20 ( 2 ) : 243 - 256 .\ntable 1 . states with nonindigenous occurrences , the earliest and latest observations in each state , and the tally and names of hucs with observations\u2020 . names and dates are hyperlinked to their relevant specimen records . the list of references for all nonindigenous occurrences of coregonus albula are found here .\nbaltic sea migration patterns of anadromous , coregonus lavaretus ( l . ) s . str . and sea - spawning europe . . .\nscientific synonyms and common names coregonus albula linnaeus , 1758 synonyms : salmo albula linnaeus , 1758 , syst . nat . , ed . x : 310 ( ' habitat in europa ' ) . coregonus albula var delta finnica g\u00fcnther , 1866 , cat . fish . , 6 : 193 ( gulf of finland ) . coregonus albula : smitt , 1895 , 2 ( partly ) : 893 , pl . xlii ( fig . 2 ) ( col . ) ehrenbaum , 1936 : 37 , fig . 17 alm , in andersson et al . , 1942 , 2 : 639 , pl . 125 ( col . ) berg , 1948 , 1 : 317 , fig . 180 - 181 wheeler , 1969 : 149 , fig . 66 . common names : coregone blanc [ fr ] europeiskaja riapushka [ ru ] helting [ da ] lakesild [ no ] mar\u00e4ne [ de ] mixikk\u00fa maiva [ su ] ryapushka [ ru ] sielawa [ pl ] sikl\u00f6ja [ sv ] smaasild [ sv ] vendace [ en ]\nvuorinen pj ; kein\u00e4nen m ; peuranen s ; tigerstedt c , 2003 . reproduction , blood and plasma parameters and gill histology of vendace ( coregonus albula l . ) in long - term exposure to acidity and aluminum . ecotoxicology and environmental safety , 54 ( 3 ) : 255 - 276 .\navailable data do not allow to distinguish c . albula as a whole from c . sardinella and c . vandesius . a very high variability is reported for all morphological characters between the many populations referred to c . albula , suggesting that several species might be involved . further studies are needed to resolve their identity .\nwinfield , i . j . , fletcher , j . m . and james , j . b . ( 2004 ) conservation ecology of the vendace ( coregonus albula ) in bassenthwaite lake and derwent water , u . k . annales zoologici fennici , 41 : 155 - 164 . available at : urltoken\nwinfield , i . j . , fletcher , j . m . and james , j . b . ( 2004 ) conservation ecology of the vendace ( coregonus albula ) in bassenthwaite lake and derwent water , u . k . annales zoologici fennici , 41 : 155 - 164 . available at : urltoken\nteleost fishes of the coregonidae are good model systems for studying postglacial evolution , adaptive radiation and ecological speciation . of particular interest is whether the repeated occurrence of sympatric species pairs results from in - situ divergence from a single lineage or from multiple invasions of one or more different lineages . here , we analysed the genetic structure of baltic ciscoes ( coregonus albula complex ) , examining 271 individuals from 8 lakes in northern germany using 1244 polymorphic aflp loci . six lakes had only one population of c . albula while the remaining two lakes had c . albula as well as a sympatric species ( c . lucinensis or c . fontanae ) .\ncomparative analysis of complete mitochondrial genomes suggests that relaxed purifying selection is driving high nonsynonymous evolutionary rate of the nadh2 gene in whitefish ( coregonus ssp . )\nthe effect of stocking size on the first winter survival of whitefish , coregonus lavaretus ( l . ) , in the gulf of bothnia , baltic sea\npam fuller , and leo nico , 2018 , coregonus albula ( linnaeus , 1758 ) : u . s . geological survey , nonindigenous aquatic species database , gainesville , fl , urltoken revision date : 2 / 29 / 2012 , peer review date : 4 / 1 / 2016 , access date : 7 / 9 / 2018\nsarvala j ; rahasilta m ; hangelin c ; hirvonen a ; kiiskila m ; saarikari v , 1988 . spring abundance , growth and food of 0 + vendace ( coregonus albula l . ) and whitefish ( c . lavaretus l . ) in lake pyh\u00e4j\u00e4rvi , sw finland . finnish fisheries research , 9 : 221 - 233 .\nb\u00f8hn t ; amundsen pa , 2004 . invasion - mediated changes in the population biology of a dimorphic whitefish coregonus lavaretus population . annales zoologici fennici , 41 : 125 - 136 .\nthe vendace ( coregonus albula l . ) inhabits several latvian lakes . in latvia this species is included into the list of specially protected species with limited use . taking into consideration the high variability of vendace and the fact that it belongs to valuable and marketable fish , there arises a scientific interest to reveal possible reasons influencing its variability . there is no precise . . . [ show full abstract ]\n. . . ako coregonus lavaretus lavaretus ( martyniak et al . , 2004 ) . o tomto probl\u00e9me sa zmie\u0148oval u\u017e v druhej polovici minul\u00e9ho storo\u010dia aj sw\u00e4rdson ( 1956 sw\u00e4rdson ( , 1979 ) a nesk\u00f4r aj himberg & lehtonen ( 1995 ) . pr\u00e1ve sw\u00e4rdson popisuje druh coregonus lavaretus a ostan\u00e9 pop\u00edsan\u00e9 druhy a poddruhy ozna\u010duje ako mlad\u0161ie synonym\u00e1 tohto plastick\u00e9ho a adaptabiln\u00e9ho druhu . . . .\nwhile the population genetic data alone can not unambiguously uncover the mode of speciation , our data indicate that multiple lineages may be responsible for the complex patterns typically observed in coregonus . relative differences within and among lakes raises the possibility that multiple lineages may be present in northern germany , thus understanding the postglacial evolution and speciation in the c . albula complex requires a large - scale phylogenetic analysis of several potential founder lineages .\nvendace ( c . albula ) is a salmonid fish with native distribution in northern parts of europe . it is an obligate planktivore with characteristics typical for pelagic fish ; a protruded lower jaw and a slender bo . . .\nvendace ( coregonus albula ( l . ) ) is found in several latvian lakes and is included in a list of specially protected species with restricted use in latvia . however , a lack of basic data on the biology and population status of these populations hinders the sustainable use of this fish and national efforts to manage its populations . the rapd technique was used to evaluate genetic diversity among . . . [ show full abstract ]\n. . . the value of the commercial catch of whitefish from the baltic sea was about 2 million euros in 2005 , and the catch totalled 765 000 kilos . according to the present view , all native scandinavian whitefishes belong to same species , coregonus lavaretus sensu lato ( nikolsky and reshetnikov 1970 ; reshetnikov 1980 ; himberg and lehtonen 1995 ) , rather than the five - species complex based on morphological variation previously proposed by sva\u00a8rdson ( 1957 , 1979 , 1998 ) , although very little genetic research has been carried out on this topic . the only other native coregonid species in finland is the vendace ( coregonus albula ) . . . .\nseveral shipments of eggs , originally identified as coming from coregonus albula , were imported from germany by the u . s . fish commission in the 1880s . the commission instructed c . g . atkins to hatch the eggs in captivity ; all or most of the surviving young were later released into the two maine lakes ( e . g . , smiley 1885 ) . intentionally stocked , this species was apparently seen as a potential food fish .\nn\u00fcsslin , 0 . 1908 . die larven der gattung coregonus , ihre beziehungen zur biologie , und ihre systematische bedeutung . verh . dr . zool . ges . : pp . 172 - 194 , 17 fig .\na great number of intra - specific forms of local populations of vendace ( coregonus albula ) are presumed to be a result of hybridisation between different incipient forms . morphological and genetic analysis for the study of vendace population of lake nirza in latvia was used . body length , weight and age in different male and female groups were used for morphological analysis . genetic polymorphism and genetic structure of the vendace population of lake nirza have been evaluated by electrophoresis based on the analysis of isoenzyme systems . four isoenzyme systems ( malic enzyme ( me ) , esterases ( est ) , peroxide dismutase ( sod ) , malate dehydrogenase ( mdh ) ) and non - specific protein were analysed . sixteen polymorphic loci were selected for genotype analysis . the genetic analysis of the vendace population from lake nirza showed that homozygotes dominate over heterozygotes . however , distribution of genotypes among different isoenzyme systems is different . the present study provides the first report on the application of isoenzyme markers for genetic investigations of coregonus albula populations in latvian lakes .\nvendace ( coregonus albula ( l . ) ) is a very plastic species of freshwater whitefish which is widespread in europe . but in latvia this species is included into the list of specially protected fish species with limited use . we examined cross - species amplification of 14 microsatellite loci ( cocl - lav22 , cocl - lav23 , cisco - 59 , cisco - 106 , cisco - 90 , cisco - 126 , cisco - 157 , cisco - 179 , cisco - 181 , cisco - 183 , . . . [ show full abstract ]\nkahilainen kk ; ostbye k ; harrod c ; shikano t ; malinen t ; merila j , 2011 . species introduction promotes hybridization and introgression in coregonus : is there sign of selection against hybrids ? molecular ecology , 20 ( 18 ) : 3838 - 3855 .\nthis vendace ( coregonus albula ) is one of the uk ' s rarest freshwater fish ( 2 ) ; it is a small , streamlined ( 2 ) and slim fish with a bluish green back ( 5 ) , a white belly ( 6 ) and silvery flanks ( 5 ) . the fins are grey in colour becoming darker towards the margins ( 6 ) . it has large eyes , a relatively small mouth and an adipose fin ( 5 ) . other common names for this species include ' whitefish ' and ' european cisco ' in england and ' fendas ' in welsh ( 7 ) .\netheridge ec ; adams ce ; bean cw ; durie nc ; gowans ard ; harrod c ; lyle aa ; maitland ps ; winfield ij , 2012 . are phenotypic traits useful for differentiating among a priori coregonus taxa ? journal of fish biology , 80 ( 2 ) : 387 - 407 .\nthe effects of hybridization and stocking on the commercially important coregonus can be quantified and accounted for , thus the group remains an excellent model for the study of speciation in sympatry . despite having used more than 1200 marker loci in a study of 10 populations , our data failed to provide conclusive evidence for whether spring - spawning coregonus stem from parallel sympatric speciation . parallel trends in niche differentiation and phenotypic differentiation are evident in both lakes with sympatric populations , but neutral genetic differentiation suggests allopatric speciation and introgression on secondary contact . it is clear that population genetic criteria alone cannot resolve the mechanisms of speciation , and that our analysis benefited from a large spatial scale of sampling . examination of relative differences within and among lakes has raised the possibility that multiple lineages may be present in northern germany . as a result , phylogenetic analysis and sampling of additional lakes from potential source populations from a broad geographic range is required for an unequivocal identification of the evolutionary mechanisms and phylogeography which have led to the ecological and genetic diversity found in the c . albula complex .\nthe objective of this study was to describe the morphometry and motility parameters of vendace ( coregonus albula ) spermatozoa . morphometric parameters of vendace sperm head and tail were of values similar to rainbow trout . the effects of ph , sodium , potassium and calcium ion concentrations on computer - assisted sperm analysis ( casa ) sperm motility characteristics were tested . vendace sperm was motile in a wide ph range of 6 . 0\u201310 . 5 with the optimum ph established at 9 . 0 . increases in potassium and calcium ions caused decreases in the percentage of motile sperm . the casa parameters and erratic sperm movement pattern of vendace spermatozoa were similar to whitefish ( c . lavaretus ) sperm motility , suggesting that there is a coregonid - specific sperm motility pattern .\nthe objective of this study was to describe the morphometry and motility parameters of vendace ( coregonus albula ) spermatozoa . morphometric parameters of vendace sperm head and tail were of values similar to rainbow trout . the effects of ph , sodium , potassium and calcium ion concentrations on computer - assisted sperm analysis ( casa ) sperm motility characteristics were tested . vendace sperm was motile in a wide ph range of 6 . 0 - 10 . 5 with the optimum ph established at 9 . 0 . increases in potassium and calcium ions caused decreases in the percentage of motile sperm . the casa parameters and erratic sperm movement pattern of vendace spermatozoa were similar to whitefish ( c . lavaretus ) sperm motility , suggesting that there is a coregonid - specific sperm motility pattern .\n. . . both lineages can exhibit dwarf - sized pelagic or larger sized benthic forms , however , when occurring in sympatry individuals belonging to the acadian lineage tend to have evolved towards the dwarf phenotype ( bernatchez & dodson , 1990 ; lu et al . , 2001 ) . also in europe several differentiated forms exist ( himberg & lehtonen , 1995 ; kottelat & freyhof , 2007 ; \u00f8stbye et al . , 2006 ; \u00f8stbye et al . , 2005 ) like the north sea houting ( abbreviated nsh ) ( coregonus oxyrhinchus ) , a recently diverged species or ecotype of the european lake whitefish ( abbreviated elw ) ( coregonus lavaretus ) ( hansen et al . , 2008 ; jacobsen et al . , 2012 ) . . . .\nvendace have been observed to reduce zooplankton diversity , resulting in smaller zooplankton species and smaller sizes of individual zooplankters ( b\u00f8hn and amundsen , 1998 ; amundsen et al . , 2009 ) . they have also led to large reductions in densities of native planktivorous coregonus lavaretus ( b\u00f8hn and amundsen , 2001 ; gjelland et al . , 2007 ; b\u00f8hn et al . , 2008 ) .\nbackground . the ability to distinguish between stocks in mixed fisheries is a prerequisite for a sustainable fisheries management . in the gulf of bothnia the relative contribution of endangered river - spawning and sea - spawning whitefish , coregonus lavaretus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) , to fisheries catches are currently not well known . this also applies to the southern aland islands , a major feeding . . . [ show full abstract ]\nbiology and management of coregonid fishes , 19 august 1990 , quebec , canada : eds . t . n . todd and m . luczynski , polski archiwum hydrobiologii , issn 0032 - 3764 ; 39 ( 1992 ) 3 - 4 , 463 - 472 anadromous european whitefish , coregonus lavaretus ( l . ) , spawn in several rivers along the coasts of the baltic sea . damming and pollution have weakened or totally destroyed many populations . european whitefish . . . [ show full abstract ]\nvendace ( c . albula ) is a salmonid fish with native distribution in northern parts of europe . it is an obligate planktivore with characteristics typical for pelagic fish ; a protruded lower jaw and a slender body with black , silvery and white dorsal , lateral , and ventral sides , respectively . another typical pelagic character of vendace is diel vertical migration behaviour . it has an opportunistic life history with many small eggs , high mortality rates , and a relatively short generation time . it is highly specialized , and considered the most specialized zooplanktivorous fish species in the scandinavian freshwater fish fauna by sv\u00e4rdson ( 1976 ) .\n. . . the european whitefish species complex ( coregonus lavaretus l . ) illustrates the full range of problems associated with the interpretation of morphological diversity . here , the traditional species designations suggested that numerous whitefish species inhabit european waters ( linnaeus , 1758 ; steinmann , 1950a steinmann , , b , 1951 sv\u00e4 rdson , 1957 sv\u00e4 rdson , , 1998 berg , 1962 ; resethnikov , 1968 ; himberg & lehtonen , 1995 ; kottelat , 1997 ) . however , the phenotypic species classification poses two fundamental problems ( see felsenstein & sober , 1986 ; humphries & parenti , 1999 ) . . . .\narch . hydrobiol . spec . issues advanc . limnol . , vol . 46 , nr . july , 39 - 47 the scientific nomenclature in the systematic literature of coregonid fishes from northwest europe is chaotic despite the application of exact and powerful modern methods in molecular biology and population genetics . altogether over one hundred species have been descriped . there are many parallel scientific names for the same whitefish populations and often old , wrongly used scientific names are still in use . recent advances in research have shown that the number of coregonid fish species in fennoscandia and western europe can be reduced to four species : coregonus lavaretus l . , c . autumnalis pollan thompson , c . albula l . and the introduced c . peled gmelin . the existence of ecologically or morphologically well distinguished sympatic whitefish populations and geographical subspecies motivates a subdivision . the most suitable system is the use of a binominal name followed by a third name descriping an ecological feature , and a fourth name naming the locality of the whitefish populations . the supplementary coding system , well developed , can be useful in fishery management , and it needs a solid background data . the purpose of our paper is to propose a nomenclature and taxonomy for north and west european coregonid fishes hereby provoking further discussion . int . symposium on biology and management of coregonid fishes\n. . . the european whitefish coregonus lavaretus ( l . ) is a salmonid widely distributed across the palearctic . the species exhibits great variation in morphology and ecological plasticity , which makes its taxonomy extremely difficult ( sv\u00e4rdson , 1979 ; reshetnikov , 1980 reshetnikov , , 1988 himberg & lehtonen , 1995 ) . virtually all coregonids inhabiting the coastal zone of the baltic sea belong to c . lavaretus sensu lato and include sympatric anadromous and sea - spawning forms ( himberg , 1970 ; lehtonen , 1981 ; amundsen , 1988 ; lehtonen & b\u00f6hling , 1988 ; himberg & lehtonen , 1995 ; s\u00e4is\u00e4 et al . , 2008 ) . . . .\n. . . though the use of marine habitats varies , nearly all salmonids spawn exclusively in fresh water , defined as b1 psu ( scott and crossman , 1973 ) , however , exceptions do occur . some european lake whitefish , coregonus lavaretus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) , live entirely within the brackish waters of the baltic sea ( himberg and lehtonen , 1995 ) . pink salmon , oncorhynchus gorbuscha ( walbaum , 1792 ) , and chum salmon , oncorhynchus keta ( walbaum , 1792 ) , are known to spawn in the intertidal zone of prince william sound , alaska ( helle et al . , 1964 ; scott and crossman , 1973 ) demonstrating exclusive marine residency . . . .\n. . . coregonus is the most species - rich genus among the salmonid fishes and represents one of the well - known examples of adaptive radiation among fishes ( givnish , 1997 ; bernatchez , 2004 ) . due to high phenotypic diversity , the taxonomy of coregonid fishes has been rather controversial ( berg , 1962 ; sv\u20ac ardson , 1979 ; himberg & lehtonen , 1995 ; reshetnikov , 2004 ) . in european and north american post - glacial lakes , whitefish from the c . lavaretus / clupeaformis species complex frequently occurs in two or more ecotypes that have evolved in sympatry ( bernatchez , 2004 ; \u00f8stbye et al . , 2005a ; siwertsson et al . , 2010 ; kahilainen et al . , 2011 ) . . . .\n. . . the species exhibits great variation in morphology and ecological plasticity , which makes its taxonomy extremely difficult ( sv\u00e4rdson , 1979 ; reshetnikov , 1980 reshetnikov , , 1988 himberg & lehtonen , 1995 ) . virtually all coregonids inhabiting the coastal zone of the baltic sea belong to c . lavaretus sensu lato and include sympatric anadromous and sea - spawning forms ( himberg , 1970 ; lehtonen , 1981 ; amundsen , 1988 ; lehtonen & b\u00f6hling , 1988 ; himberg & lehtonen , 1995 ; s\u00e4is\u00e4 et al . , 2008 ) . coregonus lavaretus has been an important species for both commercial and recreational fisheries in the baltic sea , but during the last halfcentury the natural population has drastically declined , especially in estonian waters ( saloj\u00e4rvi et al . , 1985 ; ojaveer , 1999 ; s\u00f5rmus & turovski , 2003 ) . . . .\naflp demonstrated a significant population structure ( bayesian \u03b8 b = 0 . 22 ) . lower differentiation between allopatric ( \u03b8 b = 0 . 028 ) than sympatric ( 0 . 063 - 0 . 083 ) populations contradicts the hypothesis of a sympatric origin of taxa , and there was little evidence for stocking or ongoing hybridization . genome scans found only three loci that appeared to be under selection in both sympatric population pairs , suggesting a low probability of similar mechanisms of ecological segregation . however , removal of all non - neutral loci decreased the genetic distance between sympatric pairs , suggesting recent adaptive divergence at a few loci . sympatric pairs in the two lakes were genetically distinct from the six other c . albula populations , suggesting introgression from another lineage may have influenced these two lakes . this was supported by an analysis of isolation - by - distance , where the drift - gene flow equilibrium observed among allopatric populations was disrupted when the sympatric pairs were included .\nthe genetic analysis is made on the population of the european smelt osmerus eperlanus occasionally introduced to lake syamozero ( karelia ) and of the vendace coregous albula supposedly acclimatized in solovetskie islands as a result of fish cultural activities of the solovetskii monastery . they are compared with several natural populations\u2014possible donors for both introductions . genetic variation in a sample of smelt was estimated by means of restrictase analysis of mtdna ( fragment nd1 / nd2 ) in samples of vendace\u2014by means of allozyme analysis of six isoenzyme systems . the probable population for the syamozero smelt is the population of onega lake in spite of the previously noted greater morphological similarity of colonizers with the smelt of ladoga lake . a high level of genetic variation in the syamozero smelt in comparison with native populations indicates that , beside the introduction from onega lake , there were repeated introductions from neighboring water bodies . the genetic analysis of the solovetskaya vendace does not prove that the vendace appeared on islands due to acclimatization . frequencies of alleles of allozyme loci in the solovetskaya population significantly differ from frequencies in continental populations . still , it is compared with some populations of the arkhangelsk oblast . estimations of genetic diversity of the solovetskaya vendace turned out to be comparable with those in native populations .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\na widespread species with no known major widespread threats . identities of some lacustrine populations needs to be confirmed .\nbaltic basin , lakes of upper volga drainage ( seliger , vseluga , perejaslavskoe ) , some lakes of white sea basin and north sea basin east of elbe drainage . anadromous in gulf of finland and marine in northernmost freshened part of gulf of bothnia . north to about 69\u00b0n in lake inari , northern finland . frequently stocked in lakes and reservoirs in northern and central germany and poland .\nvery common . the species extended its range to the north through shipping canals and translocations .\nhabitat : lacustrine and marine in open water . at sea , forages close to coast . spawns along shores , at 3 - 10 m depth , rarely to 22 m depth or just below surface . spawns deeper in clear lakes and closer to surface in lakes with humic waters . biology : anadromous , marine and landlocked populations . spawns for the first time at 2 - 5 years ( 2 - 3 in lake onega ) , males usually earlier than females . spawns in october ( central finland ) , december ( northern germany ) at 6 - 7\u00b0c . anadromous populations start migrating to rivers in august ( neva ) . eggs hatch in march - april and juveniles migrate to sea in late summer of first year in anadromous populations . larvae pelagic close to water surface , usually close to shore . usually occurs in deep waters in daytime and moves to upper layers at night . feeds on zooplankton .\nwhen the 2010 assessment of this species was published in 2011 , a 2013 citation reference was accidentally attached to the account and hence the previous version of the assessment showed it as being published in 2013 when it should have been 2011 . the error is corrected here and is therefore given a 2016 citation date ; the 2011 reference that should have been used in the citation is under the references .\n( errata version published in 2016 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2011 : e . t5360a97801719 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngreek , kore = pupils of the eye + greek , gonia = angle ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; freshwater ; brackish ; benthopelagic ; anadromous ( ref . 51243 ) ; depth range 30 - ? m . temperate ; 71\u00b0n - 69\u00b0n , 2\u00b0w - 61\u00b0e\neurope : baltic basin , lakes of upper volga drainage ( seliger , vseluga , perejaslavskoe ) , some lakes of white sea basin and north sea basin east of elbe drainage . anadromous in gulf of finland and marine in northernmost freshened part of gulf of bothnia ; north to about 69\u00b0 n in lake inari , northern finland ; lower rhine ( now extirpated ) . frequently stocked in lakes and reservoirs in germany and poland . appendix iii of the bern convention ( protected fauna ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 48 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 556 ) ; common length : 20 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 556 ) ; max . published weight : 1 . 0 kg ( ref . 556 ) ; max . reported age : 10 years ( ref . 593 )\nlacustrine and marine in open water . at sea , forages close to coast ( ref . 59043 ) . forms pelagic schools in deeper lakes ( ref . 4779 ) . spawns along shores , at 3 - 10 m depth , rarely to 22 m depth or just below surface . spawns deeper in clear lakes and closer to surface in lakes with humic waters ( ref . 59043 ) . spawns on shallow sand or gravel substrate . anadromous in the baltic . feeds on planktonic crustaceans ( ref . 4779 ) .\nascend a short distance up the rivers in shoals in late august to mid - october . mature in the second year ( lacustrine forms later ) and the young ones descend in late summer ( ref . 4779 ) .\nsvetovidov , a . n . , 1984 . salmonidae . p . 373 - 385 . in p . j . p . whitehead , m . - l . bauchot , j . - c . hureau , j . nielsen and e . tortonese ( eds . ) fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and the mediterranean . unesco , paris . vol . 1 . ( ref . 4779 )\n) : 2 . 1 - 4 . 5 , mean 2 . 6 ( based on 38 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00468 ( 0 . 00387 - 0 . 00565 ) , b = 3 . 21 ( 3 . 17 - 3 . 25 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 1 \u00b10 . 17 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( k = 0 . 3 - 0 . 7 ; tm = 2 ; tmax = 10 ; fec = 2 , 000 ) .\nprior r = 0 . 43 , 2 sd range = 0 . 17 - 1 . 06 , log ( r ) = - 0 . 84 , sd log ( r ) = 0 . 45 , based on : 1 m , 6 k , 8 tgen , 1 tmax , 11 fec records\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 27 of 100 ) .\nappearance : a small , slim , streamlined fish most easily confused with bleak or with small whitefish or peled . unlike the bleak , the vendace is a member of the salmon family and thus has an adipose fin . distinguished from the whitefish and peled by its much longer lower jaw . in the whitefish the upper jaw is longer and in the peled the jaws are of equal length .\ncolouring : back dark bluish green or brownish , sides silvery and belly white .\nreproduction : spawns in october - november , sometimes in shallows sometimes in water up to 20 m deep , depending on the lake . some lakes have populations that spawn in early spring in deeper water than autumn - spawning vendace in the same lake . spawns at a young age , usually two years , sometimes in the autumn of its first year .\nfood : plankton , older fish also take surface insects and small fish fry .\ndistribution and habitat : originally a fish of the large lakes of se finland , vendace have been transplanted for purposes of commercial exploitation throughout finland with the exception of northernmost lapland , although populations have been established in lake inarinj\u00e4rvi and the river paatsjoki . does not tolerate brackish water well and in the sea is restricted to the eastern gulf of finland and the northernmost gulf of botnia . vendace move in shoals in open water , preferring deep , clear water . can tolerate more eutrophic waters provided oxygen levels are good .\nfacebook | contact information | terms of use and privacy policy | all rights reserved . \u00a9 copyright luontoportti / naturegate 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nin britain the vendace occurs only as non - migratory freshwater populations , but in the baltic it occurs as anadromous populations ( they spend most of their time in saltwater and migrate to freshwater to spawn ) ( 7 ) . the vendace feeds primarily on free - swimming organisms such as water fleas ( 6 ) and planktonic crustaceans ( 5 ) .\nspawning occurs in november and december ( 6 ) ; adults move to the edges of lakes , and females scatter the small two millimetre diameter yellow to orange eggs in gravely areas in still water ( 6 ) . the eggs are fertilised externally and develop slowly on the bottom of the lake ( 7 ) , hatching the following spring ( 2 ) . individuals are thought to live up to six years of age ( 2 ) .\nfound in north - west europe between the english lake district in the east to western russia , and from a northern extreme in scandinavia to north western russia reaching south to bavaria ( 2 ) . historically the vendace has been recorded from just four uk lakes ; two in scotland ( 3 ) , and two in the english lake district ( 8 ) . one of the scottish populations has not been recorded since 1911 when a sewage works was built ; the other scottish population has not been recorded since the 1970s ( 9 ) and so the species is classed as extinct in scotland ( 10 ) .\nyou can view distribution information for this species at the national biodiversity network atlas .\noccurs in open water shoals in deep , cold lakes where the vendace can take refuge from hot summer temperatures ( 2 ) ( 6 ) . it also requires shallow areas with a gravely substrate for spawning ( 7 ) .\nthe vendace is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) , annex iii of the bern convention , annex v of the ec habitats and species directive , schedule 5 of the wildlife and countryside act 1981 ( 3 ) , and schedule 3 of the conservation regulations 1994 ( 4 ) .\nthe vendace has faced pressure from the introduction of non - indigenous fish species , which were probably introduced by pike anglers using live bait ( 2 ) . juvenile roach compete for planktonic food with vendace , and ruffe eat vendace eggs ( 2 ) . ruffe were recorded in derwent water for the first time in 2001 ( 11 ) . other threats are habitat loss and pollution , particularly eutrophication resulting from nutrient enrichment ( 3 ) , and siltation of spawning sites with organic matter ( 9 ) . the a66 passes close to bassenthwaite lake ; an accident involving an industrial tanker would be devastating ( 2 ) .\nthe vendace is fully protected under the wildlife and countryside act ( 1981 ) , and both lakes are sites of special scientific interest ( sssis ) and candidate special areas of conservation ( 2 ) . bassenthwaite lake is also a national nature reserve managed by the national trust . the management plan for this site takes into account the presence of vendace ( 3 ) . a current conservation measure involves hatching vendace eggs from bassenthwaite lake in captivity and releasing the young back into the lake ( 11 ) . in addition , young vendace from bassenthwaite and derwent water have been released into two scottish water bodies . a survey of water bodies in cumbria aimed to detect suitable places for the establishment of refuge populations , however no suitable sites were found ( 11 ) .\nthe vendace is a priority species under the uk biodiversity action plan ( uk bap ) ; the species action plan aims to maintain the current populations and re - introduce the species to scotland by 2005 ( 3 ) .\nthere may be further information about this species available via the national biodiversity network atlas .\nadipose fin in some fish , a second dorsal fin consisting of a flap of fatty tissue which lacks supporting rays . anadromous in fish : those species that spend most of their lives at sea but migrate to fresh water to spawn . crustaceans diverse group of arthropods ( a phylum of animals with jointed limbs and a hard chitinous exoskeleton ) characterised by the possession of two pairs of antennae , one pair of mandibles ( parts of the mouthparts used for handling and processing food ) and two pairs of maxillae ( appendages used in eating , which are located behind the mandibles ) . includes crabs , lobsters , shrimps , slaters , woodlice and barnacles . eutrophication nutrient enrichment of aquatic or terrestrial ecosystems . fertilisation the fusion of gametes ( male and female reproductive cells ) to produce an embryo , which grows into a new individual . indigenous a species that occurs naturally in an area . planktonic aquatic organisms that drift with water movements ; may be either phytoplankton ( plants ) , or zooplankton ( animals ) . re - introduce attempt to establish a native species back into an area where it previously occurred . spawning the production or depositing of large quantities of eggs in water .\ncihar , j . ( 1991 ) a field guide in colour to freshwater fish . aventium publishing , prague .\nnewdick , j . ( 1979 ) the complete freshwater fishes of the british isles . ac & black , london .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe nonindigenous occurrences section of the nas species profiles has a new structure . the section is now dynamically updated from the nas database to ensure that it contains the most current and accurate information . occurrences are summarized in table 1 , alphabetically by state , with years of earliest and most recent observations , and the tally and names of drainages where the species was observed . the table contains hyperlinks to collections tables of specimens based on the states , years , and drainages selected . references to specimens that were not obtained through sighting reports and personal communications are found through the hyperlink in the table 1 caption or through the individual specimens linked in the collections tables .\nnorthern europe , northern parts of the former ussr , the baltic and north sea basins , and the swiss alps ( ladiges and vogt 1986 ; leviton 1996 ) .\nbaird , s . f . 1889 . report of the commissioner for 1886 . part xiv . u . s . commission of fish and fisheries , washington , d . c .\nbean , t . h . 1892 . observations upon fishes and fish - culture . bulletin of the u . s . fish commission 10 : 49 - 61 .\nberg , l . s . 1948 - 1949 . freshwater fishes of the u . s . s . r . and adjacent countries , 4th edition . three volumes . translated from russian , 1962 - 1965 , for the smithsonian institution and the national science foundation , by israel program for scientific translations , jerusalem , israel . volume 1 : 504 pp . ; volume 2 : 496 pp . ; volume 3 : 510 pp .\nkendall , w . c . 1914 . an annotated catalogue of the fishes of maine . proceedings of the portland society of natural history 3 : 1 - 198 .\nkottelat , m . , and j . freyhof . 2007 . handbook of european freshwater fishes . publications kottelat , cornol , switzerland .\nladiges , w . , and d . vogt . 1986 . guida dei pesci d ' acqua dolce d ' europa . franco muzzio & co editore , padova , italy .\nsmiley , c . w . 1885 . notes upon fish and the fisheries . bulletin of the u . s . fish commission 5 : 465 - 469 .\ntodd , t . n . 1983 . the feasibility of mass - culturing coregonines in the great lakes . research completion report , u . s . fish and wildlife service , ann arbor , mi .\nwheeler , a . 1969 . the fishes of the british isles and north - west europe . michigan state university press , east lansing , mi .\nthis information is preliminary or provisional and is subject to revision . it is being provided to meet the need for timely best science . the information has not received final approval by the u . s . geological survey ( usgs ) and is provided on the condition that neither the usgs nor the u . s . government shall be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of the information .\nthe data represented on this site vary in accuracy , scale , completeness , extent of coverage and origin . it is the user ' s responsibility to use these data consistent with their intended purpose and within stated limitations . we highly recommend reviewing metadata files prior to interpreting these data .\ncitation information : u . s . geological survey . [ 2018 ] . nonindigenous aquatic species database . gainesville , florida . accessed [ 7 / 9 / 2018 ] .\ncontact us if you are using data from this site for a publication to make sure the data are being used appropriately and for potential co - authorship if warranted . for queries involving fish , please contact pam fuller . for queries involving invertebrates , contact amy benson .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nlike most websites we use cookies . this is to ensure that we give you the best experience possible .\ncontinuing to use urltoken means you agree to our use of cookies . if you would like to , you can learn more about the cookies we use .\nwe\u2019d value your feedback on the tool . our survey takes only five minutes to complete .\nvendace have been introduced into non - native lake systems in many countries , and in some of them changes within the colonizer population have been studied . however , scientific studies of the effects of vendace invasion on the receiving ecosystem are limited to the inari - pasvik watercourse in the border area between russia , finland and norway . research here has examined effects on the resource level ( b\u00f8hn and amundsen , 1998 ; amundsen et al . , 2009 ) , effects from exploitative competition ( b\u00f8hn and amundsen , 2001 , 2004 ; gjelland et al . , 2007 ; b\u00f8hn et al . , 2008 ) , as prey for piscivorous predators ( jensen et al . , 2008 ) , and experiments using brown trout stocking as an agent for biological control of vendace ( k . \u00f8 . gjelland , norwegian institute for nature research , in prep . ) .\nstrong effects from the vendace planktivory have been reported as reduced zooplankton diversity , reduced individual zooplankter size , and reduced zooplankton densities . this has resulted in lowered zooplankton availability for planktivorous fish , and to a large extent displaced native planktivores from the pelagic fish communities through exploitative competition . due to its relatively small size , vendace is an attractive prey and an important food source for pelagic piscivores . vendace have been purposely introduced to a wide range of lakes and reservoirs .\nstudies of changes in the invading vendace population come from many different lake systems , e . g . lake osensj\u00f8en , southern norway (\nsome authors recognize coregonids as a distinct family ( coregonidae ) , classified as a sister family to salmonidae ( e . g .\n) . the complexity of phenotypic and genotypic variation within the coregonids poses a challenge to the coregonid nomenclature . distinguishing between\nthe back of the vendace is dark green / blue / black , flanks silvery white , belly whitish , tip of snout and lower jaw black . body is slender when small , moderately slender with increasing size , head relatively small , lower jaw projects beyond tip of snout , upper jaw reaches back to level of pupil , tip of lower jaw fits into a groove in the upper jaw . gillrakers 45 - 52 . pre - dorsal distance greater than distance from dorsal origin to base of last anal finray ; dorsal finrays iii - iv 8 - 9 , anal finrays iii - iv 10 - 12 ( 13 ) . scales moderate , 77 - 85 ( 86 , 88 ) in lateral line . vertebrae 57 - 59 ( 60 ) ( kottelat and freyhof , 2008 ) .\nvendace matures within the second to fifth years of life , at lengths 9 - 20 cm . in most populations , vendace rarely attain lengths > 25 cm (\nthe native range of vendace is within drainages connected with the north and baltic sea , between the british isles in the west and the petchora drainage ( russia ) in the east ( svetovidov , 1984 ; groot , 1990 ; reshetnikov , 2003 ; kottelat and freyhof , 2007 , 2008 ; etheridge et al . , 2012 ) . some populations are also found in drainages to the white sea and in lakes of the upper volga drainage ( reshetnikov , 1980 ) .\n, 2008 ) . within and at the fringes of its geographic range , it has also been translocated and introduced to many lakes and reservoirs where it was previously absent ( e . g .\nthe native vendace populations of the british isles are threatened ( etheridge et al . , 2012 ) .\nthe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available . when several references are cited , they may give conflicting information on the status . further details may be available for individual references in the distribution table details section which can be selected by going to generate report .\nintroduced from poland and czech rep . for mosquito control and by spread from other countires\nblanc et al . , 1971 ; sandlund , 1992 ; amundsen et al . , 1999\nreshetnikov , 1980 ; holcik , 1991 ; reshetnikov et al . , 1997 ; reshetnikov , 2003\nvendace is a valuable species for freshwater fisheries and also marine fisheries in the bothnian bay ( northern part of the baltic sea ) and in the gulf of finland . vendace have been introduced into non - native lake systems in many countries ; in some of them changes within the colonizer population have been studied , and reduced food availability has been indicated . most introductions are related to deliberate stocking and / or aquaculture for the purpose of increasing the potential for freshwater fisheries . subsequent establishment and spread depends on the characteristics of the receiving ecosystem , and may be aided by the construction of reservoirs ( e . g . semenov , 2011 ) .\nthere are many accounts of introduction , mostly in europe within or at the fringes of the geographic range of native vendace . accounts also exist for more remote locations such as for maine , usa ( unsuccessful introduction ; fuller and nico , 2012 ) and for kazakhstan ( established ; mitrofanov and petr , 1999 ) . in norway , hatchery - produced vedace fry was deliberately introduced in a number of lakes between 1860 and 1900 . of the 16 documented cases , only one succeeded ( sandlund et al . , in press ( 2012 ) ) . although some of the introductions have been successful , probably most of them have failed ."]}
{"id": 2188, "summary": [{"text": "the buff-throated saltator ( saltator maximus ) is a seed-eating bird .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "traditionally placed in the cardinal family ( cardinalidae ) , it actually seems to be closer to the tanagers ( thraupidae ) .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it breeds from southeastern mexico to western ecuador and northeastern brazil .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "this is the type species of saltator .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "consequently , it and its closest allies would retain the genus name when this apparently polyphyletic group is eventually split up .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the buff-throated saltator is on average 20 cm ( 7.9 in ) long and weighs 42 \u2013 52 g ( 1.5 \u2013 1.8 oz ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the adult has a slate-grey head with a white supercilium and a greenish crown .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the upperparts are olive green , the underparts are grey becoming buff on the lower belly , and the throat is buff , edged with black .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the thick convex bill and legs are black .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "young birds are duller , and have a white-mottled blackish throat and breast , and brown markings on the lower underparts .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the common call is a high seeeer .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "males duet melodiously with a warbled cheery cheery answered by cheery to you .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "this is a species of dense vegetation .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the buff-throated saltator feeds on fruit ( e.g. of cymbopetalum mayanum ( annonaceae ) , trophis racemosa ( moraceae ) , and gumbo-limbo ( bursera simaruba ) ) , buds , nectar and slow-moving insects .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it forages at low and mid levels , sometimes with mixed species flocks .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the two pale blue eggs per clutch measure some 22 \u2013 32 mm ( 0.87 \u2013 1.26 in ) long by about 16.5 \u2013 21.5 mm ( 0.65 \u2013 0.85 in ) wide and weigh about 4.8 \u2013 6.1 g ( 0.17 \u2013 0.22 oz ) each , which is large among saltator eggs .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "they are laid in a bulky cup nest up to 2 m ( 6.6 ft ) high in a tree or bush . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "buff - throated saltator", "paragraphs": ["the buff - throated saltator is the english name for the neotropical bird saltator maximus . the buff - throated saltator has a stout , finch - like bill , and traditionally was classified with the cardinals and grosbeaks , cardinalidae . recent research reveals that saltators are embedded within the tanager radiation ( thraupidae ) . saltators are generally arboreal birds with subdued color patterns and coloration , but usually have a bold superciliary . the buff - throated saltator is one of the more widespread members of the genus , and occurs from southern mexico south to northern bolivia and southeastern brazil .\nsaltator was perched about 3 m above me . recording was normalized to - 3 db .\nsaltator was foraging about 2 m above me . it sang both its song ( 0 : 00 , 0 : 27 ) and many high\nzeeks\n( e . g . , 0 : 07 , 0 : 15 ) . recording was normalized to - 3 db .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : saltator maximus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\npartners in flight estimate the total population to number 5 , 000 , 000 - 50 , 000 , 000 individuals ( a . panjabi in litt . 2008 ) . trend justification : this species is suspected to lose 15 . 7 - 17 . 5 % of suitable habitat within its distribution over three generations ( 12 years ) based on a model of amazonian deforestation ( soares - filho et al . 2006 , bird et al . 2011 ) . it is therefore suspected to decline by < 25 % over three generations .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .\ngrabaci\u00f3n hecha en el marco del proyecto\nestudio t\u00e9cnico y participativo de la biodiversidad aviar del municipio de ibagu\u00e9 \u2013 tolima , como estrategia para la consolidaci\u00f3n del ecoturismo de aves , la conservaci\u00f3n de sus h\u00e1bitats y el desarrollo de procesos de educaci\u00f3n ambiental\nuniversidad de ibagu\u00e9 - rednatur - colciencias .\ntwo types of song in a continuous recording , all timings oriinal . singing spontaneously at the tip of a myracrodruon urundeuva tree . gallery forest , uberabinha river . home backyard with many fruiting trees . filtered at 400 hz high pass . treated for noise reduction . normalized .\nsame individual as xc384419 but different song variant . in sparse gallery forest along road foraging with a mixed flock , about 40ft away .\nin sparse gallery forest along road foraging with a mixed flock , about 40ft away .\nsqueaks and songs from a group of saltators foraging several meters above my head . i cut out much background noise from some nearby chickens .\nhumid forest edge . reference : jn1 . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\na bird descending from a tree to a feeder , and taking a bite of a banana .\njosep del hoyo , juan sanabria , greg baker , dani\u00eal jimenez , yo\u00ebl jimenez , richard garrigues , stefan behrens , robert schaefer , pascal vagner , mkennewell , carlos gussoni , desmond allen , paul molina abril , pieter de groot boersma .\nmanuel retana , andrew emmerson , martin flack , juan fdo . alvarez castro , lukasz michal pulawski , paul van giersbergen , josep del hoyo , margareta wieser , mauricio rueda , andretti . tche , r\u00f3ger rodr\u00edguez , josef widmer , diazlucrecia , luis vargas , orlando jarqu\u00edn g . , holger teichmann , raymond marsh , jacob . wijpkema , richardgreenhalgh031 , joe prasil , jorge chinchilla , helmut . schumann , david valentin , barb winterfield , marco valentini , guy poisson , billonneau jean claude , antonio silveira , greg griffith , horacio luna , nimali digo and thilanka edirisinghe , jacqueserard , hal and kirsten snyder , miriam bauman , anthony villaume , luis r figueroa , samantha klein , jos\u00e9 frade , marco t . saborio , manakincarmelo , aleix comas , lars petersson , dusan m . brinkhuizen , marin\u00eas eiterer , alexander schimmeck , greg baker , thiago t . silva , ron flemal .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 294 , 961 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nwe noticed that you ' re using an unsupported browser . the tripadvisor website may not display properly . we support the following browsers :\nthis bbc wildlife magazine and national geographic published destination offers a 2 hour guided tour by the owners . $ 40 per person . tour start times : 8am , 10am , 1pm , 3pm . reservation required . free coffee .\nsee all 386 reviews of dave & dave ' s costa rica nature . . .\n* tripadvisor llc is not a booking agent and does not charge any service fees to users of our site . . . (\ntripadvisor llc is not responsible for content on external web sites . taxes , fees not included for deals content .\ndavid and his son david are both very friendly hosts and a pleasure to talk with . if you are interested in birds and photography i don ' t think there is a better place in costa rica . their feeders bring in a good variety of interesting and colorful birds and in prime position for shooting their pictures . there is also a trail . . .\nthanks so much for taking time to write us this review . we are always excited to hear that our guests enjoyed their time here at the naturepavilion . we look forward to hopefully seeing you back here again some time soon . best , dave and dave"]}
{"id": 2194, "summary": [{"text": "argyrotaenia velutinana , the red-banded leafroller moth , is a species of moth of the tortricidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in the eastern united states and south-eastern canada , from quebec and ontario to florida , west to texas and at least iowa .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it has also been reported from british columbia .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the wingspan is 13 \u2013 20 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings have a wide diagonal median band that is reddish in females and blackish in males .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the basal area is light yellowish-brown with darker shading near the inner margin .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are dirty white to light grey with a pale fringe .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing from february to october in two to four generations per year .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on various plants , including the leaves and fruit of apple and other fruit trees , as well as spruce and various vegetables .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they are green with a pale dorsal stripe and a yellowish head and reach a length of about 16 mm .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the species overwinters in the pupal stage in folded leaves on the ground . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "argyrotaenia velutinana", "paragraphs": ["redbanded leaf roller larva , a . velutinana . | redbanded leaf roller larva , argyrotaenia velutinana .\nspecies argyrotaenia velutinana - red - banded leafroller - hodges # 3597 - bugguide . net\nvelutinana walker , 1863 ( cacoecia ? ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus 28 : 313 . tl : north america , holotype : bmnh . male .\nargyrotaenia velutinana was once considered one of the most important tortricid pests on apple in the eastern united states . its status as a major pest peaked after the widespread use of ddt in the late 1940 ' s presumably destroyed many of its natural enemies . it is currently controlled under most ipm programs and is only considered a minor pest .\nargyrotaenia velutinana completes 2 - 3 full generations over much of its range . because this species undergoes facultative diapause , the number of generations can vary depending on latitude . in the north , only two generations are completed , with a partial third possible . in the south , a possible fourth generation is present . overwintering occurs in the pupal stage .\nadults can appears similar to other species of argyrotaenia . in the nearctic , this includes species such as a . floridana , a . kimballi , a . niscana , a . pinatubana , and a . tabulana . in the palearctic , argyrotaenia ljungiana may appear similar . a genitalic dissection can be used to confirm identity . male a . velutinana have a distal , pointed projection from the median sclerotized portion of the valva that is absent in a . ljungiana .\nlarvae of argyrotaenia velutinana are highly polyphagous and have been described by freeman ( 1958 ) as feeding\non almost any plant .\nthis includes several conifers , as reported by prentice ( 1966 ) . chapman and lienk ( 1971 ) speculate that primary hosts may be limited to members of the rosaceae , as apple appears to be a preferred host in many regions . the following partial host list includes both primary and secondary hosts :\ndigachthes razowski , 1990 ( argyrotaenia ) , ann . zool . 43 : 403 . no type\noligahthes razowski , 1964 ( argyrotaenia ) , ann . zool . 22 : 458 . no type\nlignaea razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 316 no type\nochrotona razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 312 no type\ndigahthes razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 311 no type\nthe green unmarked larva can be confused with the larva of many other tortricids , including other species of argyrotaenia , epiphyas postvittana , and choristoneura rosaceana .\ntucumana trematerra & brown , 2004 ( argyrotaenia ) , zootaxa 574 : 4 tl : argentina , tucumn , ciudad universitaria . holotype : usnm . male .\ncibdela razowski , 1988 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 31 : 409 tl : peru , cuzco , tambomachay . holotype : usnm . male .\nlobata razowski , 1988 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 31 : 408 tl : bolivia , cochabamba , incachaca . holotype : usnm . male .\noccultana freeman , 1942 ( argyrotaenia ) , can . ent . 74 : 57 . tl : canada , quebec , mount lyall . holotype : cnc . male .\nrepertana freeman , 1944 ( argyrotaenia ) , sci . agric . 25 : 84 . tl : canada , new brunswick , waweig . holotype : cnc . female .\ntabulana freeman , 1944 ( argyrotaenia ) , sci . agric . 25 : 87 . tl : canada , ontario , constance bay . holotype : cnc . female .\nbrimuncus razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 316 tl : costa rica , braulio carrillo . holotype : vbc . male .\ndearmata razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 312 tl : brazil , paran , curitiba . holotype : vbc . female .\nfragosa razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 317 tl : brazil , paran , curitiba . holotype : vbc . male .\nkearfotti obraztsov , 1961 ( argyrotaenia ) , am . mus . novit . 2048 : 27 . tl : usa . california , carmel . holotype : amnh . male .\nobvoluta razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 319 tl : brazil , paran , curitiba . holotype : vbc . female .\nparturita razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 313 tl : mexico , veracruz , huatusco . holotype : vbc . male .\njamaicana razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 313 tl : jamaica , greenhills , hardware gap . holotype : cmnh . male .\nlevidensa razowski , 1991 ( argyrotaenia ) , shilap revta . lepid . 19 ( 1990 ) : 140 . tl : brazil , nova teutonia . holotype : umb . female .\nlojalojae razowski & becker , 2010 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 15 . tl : ecuador , loja , loja . holotype : vbc . male .\npolvosana obraztsov , 1961 ( argyrotaenia ) , am . mus . novit . 2048 : 31 . tl : mexico , chihuahua , la polvosa . holotype : amnh . male .\nalbosignata razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 318 tl : brazil , paran , morro de meio . holotype : vbc . male .\nchillana razowski , 1999 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 42 : 329 tl : ecuador , el oro , 6 km n chilla . holotype : cmnh . male .\nchroeca razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 314 tl : costa rica , cerro de la muerte . holotype : vbc . male .\ncubae razowski & becker , 2010 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 13 . tl : cuba , santiago , sierra maestra . holotype : vbc . male .\nfloridana obraztsov , 1961 ( argyrotaenia ) , am . mus . novit . . 2048 : 8 . tl : usa , florida , port sewall . holotype : amnh . male .\nfortis razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 319 tl : costa rica , cerro de la muerte . holotype : vbc . female .\ngranpiedrae razowski & becker , 2010 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 17 . tl : cuba , santiago , gran piedra . holotype : vbc . male .\nmagnuncus razowski & wojtusiak , 2008 ( argyrotaenia ) , genus 19 : 533 . tl : ecuador , province cotopaxi , via la mana , pilalo . holotype : mzuj . male .\npilalona razowski & wojtusiak , 2008 ( argyrotaenia ) , genus 19 : 530 . tl : ecuador , province cotopaxi , via la mana , pilalo . holotype : mzuj . male .\npomililiana trematerra & brown , 2004 ( argyrotaenia ) , zootaxa 574 : 2 tl : argentina , ro negro province , alto valle de rio negro . holotype : tremc . male .\ntelemacana razowski & becker , 2010 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 16 . tl : brazil , parana , telemaco borba . holotype : vbc . male .\nburroughsi obraztsov , 1961 ( argyrotaenia ) , am . mus . novit . 2048 : 33 . tl : usa , colorado , mesa verde national park . holotype : amnh . male .\ncupreographa razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 311 tl : mexico , veracruz , estacin biologia las tuxtlas . holotype : vbc . male .\nhodgesi heppner , 1989 ( argyrotaenia ) , fla . ent . 72 : 102 . tl : usa , florida , glade co . , fisheating creek . holotype : usnm . male .\npotosiana razowski & becker , 2010 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 17 . tl : mexico , nuevo leon , cerro potosi . holotype : vbc . male .\nsantacatarinae razowski & becker , 2010 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 14 . tl : brazil , santa catarina , sao joaquim . holotype : vbc . male .\nvinalesiae razowski & becker , 2010 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 13 . tl : cuba , pinar del rio , venales . holotype : vbc . female .\naltera razowski & wojtusiak , 2008 ( argyrotaenia ) , genus 19 : 533 . tl : ecuador , province carchi , res . forest golondrinas , west cordillera . holotype : mzuj . male .\ncoconinana brown & cramer , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , j . lepid . soc . 53 : 121 : tl : usa , arizona , coconino co . . holotype : usnm . male .\nconfinis razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 310 tl : mexico , chiapas , san cristobal de las casas . holotype : vbc . male .\nglabra razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 320 tl : mexico , chiapas , san cristobal de las casas . holotype : vbc . male .\nhemixia razowski , 1991 ( argyrotaenia ) , shilap revta . lepid . 19 ( 1990 ) : 139 . tl : brazil , santa catarina , nova teutonia . holotype : umb . male .\nchalarostium razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia minisignaria ssp . ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 315 tl : jamaica . blue mt . peak . holotype : cmnh . female .\nhuachucensis obraztsov , 1961 ( argyrotaenia montezumae ssp . ) , am . mus . novit . 2048 : 7 . tl : usa . arizona , huachuca mountains . holotype : usnm . male .\nsagata razowski & becker , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 43 : 311 tl : brazil , rio de janeiro , parque nacional itatiaia . holotype : vbc . male .\nspaldingiana obraztsov , 1961 ( argyrotaenia ) , am . mus . novit . 2048 : 20 . tl : usa , utah , utah co . , provo . holotype : usnm . male .\nsubcordillerae razowski & wojtusiak , 2008 ( argyrotaenia ) , genus 19 : 531 . tl : ecuador , province carchi , res . forest golondrinas , west cordillera . holotype : mzuj . male .\ntenuis razowski & wojtusiak , 2008 ( argyrotaenia ) , genus 19 : 532 . tl : ecuador , province carchi , res . forest golondrinas , west cordillera . holotype : mzuj . male .\natrata razowski & wojtusiak , 2009 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 51b : 152 . tl : ecuador , prov . tungurahua , banos - runtun . holotype : mzuj . male .\nchiapasi razowski & becker , 2010 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 14 . tl : mexico , chiapas , san cristobal de las casas . holotype : vbc . male .\nklotsi obraztsov , 1961 ( argyrotaenia ) , am . mus . novit . 2048 : 36 tl : usa , new mexico , panchuela ranger station , near cowles . holotype : amnh . male .\nlautana powell , 1960 ( argyrotaenia ) , pan - pacif . ent . 36 : 90 . tl : usa , california , san bernardino mountains , camp baldy . holotype : usnm . male .\nochrochroa razowski , 1999 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 42 : 310 tl : dominican republic , dominican republic ( providenciales , erebus hotel area ) . holotype : cmnh . female .\noctavana brown & cramer , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , j . lepid . soc . 53 : 121 . tl : mexico , puebla , 10 km e esperanza . holotype : eme . male .\nposticicnephaea razowski & wojtusiak , 2009 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 51b : 151 . tl : ecuador , prov . tungurahua , banos - runtun . holotype : mzuj . male .\nbialbistriata brown & cramer , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , j . lepid . soc . 53 : 124 . tl : mexico , durango , 10 mi w el salto . holotype : cnc . male .\nburnsorum powell , 1960 ( argyrotaenia ) , pan - pacif . ent . 36 : 91 . tl : usa , texas , jeff davis co . , davis mountains . holotype : cas . male .\ncordillerae razowski & wojtusiak , 2006 ( argyrotaenia ) , shilap revta . lepid . 34 : 51 . tl : venezuela , cordillera de mrida , mrida , monte zerpa . holotype : mzuj . male .\ncupressae powell , 1960 ( argyrotaenia ) , pan - pacif . ent . 36 : 83 . tl : usa , california , los angeles co . , los angeles . holotype : cas . female .\nbeyeria powell , 1960 ( argyrotaenia cupressae ssp . ) , pan - pacif . ent . 36 : 85 . tl : usa . california , alameda co , berkeley . holotype : cas . male .\nferruginea razowski & wojtusiak , 2006 ( argyrotaenia ) , shilap revta . lepid . 34 : 51 . tl : venezuela , cordillera de mrida , mrida , monte zerpa . holotype : mzuj . male .\ngraviduncus razowski & wojtusiak , 2010 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 118 . tl : peru , prov . cusco , cordillera vilcanota , marcapata . holotype : mzuj . male .\nkimballi obraztsov , 1961 ( argyrotaenia ) , am . mus . novit . 2048 : 13 . tl : usa , florida , highlands co . , archbold biological station . holotype : amnh . male .\nunda brown & cramer , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , j . lepid . soc . 53 : 119 . tl : mexico , mexico , 7 air km wsw juchitepec . holotype : eme . male .\nbisignata razowski , 1999 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 42 : 310 tl : dominican republic , dominican republic ( pedernales , 5 km ne los arroyos ) . holotype : cmnh . male .\nceramica razowski , 1999 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 42 : 309 tl : dominican republic , dominican republic ( pedernales , 8 km ne los arroyos ) . holotype : cmnh . male .\nlignitaenia powell , 1965 ( argyrotaenia ) , proc . biol . soc . wash . 78 : 72 . tl : usa , california , riverside co . , pinyon flat . holotype : cas . male .\nminisignaria razowski , 1999 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 42 : 311 tl : dominican republic , dominican republic ( pedernales , 8 km ne los arroyos ) . holotype : cmnh . female .\nnuezana razowski , 1999 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 42 : 309 tl : dominican republic , dominican republic ( la vega , 24 km se constanza ) . holotype : cmnh . female .\nthamaluncus razowski , 1999 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 42 : 311 tl : dominican republic , dominican republic ( peravia , 3 km sw la nuez ) . holotype : cmnh . male .\nfuscociliana stephens , 1852 ( argyrotaenia ) , list specimens br . anim . colln . br . mus 10 : 68 . tl : united kingdom . great britain . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\nneibana razowski , 1999 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 42 : 310 tl : dominican republic , dominican republic ( baoruco , sierra de neiba , los guineos ) . holotype : cmnh . female .\ngraceana powell , 1960 ( argyrotaenia ) , pan - pacif . ent . 36 : 93 . tl : usa , california , riverside co . , san bernardino mountains , hathaway creek . holotype : usnm . male .\ngriseina razowski & wojtusiak , 2010 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 117 . tl : peru , dept . huanuco , via huanuco - tingo maria , carpish . holotype : mzuj . male .\nisolatissima powell , 1964 ( argyrotaenia ) , univ . calif . publ . ent . 32 : 212 . tl : usa , california , los angeles co . , santa barbara island . holotype : lacm . male .\nnigrorbis razowski & wojtusiak , 2010 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 118 . tl : peru , dept . huanuco , via huanuco - tingo maria , carpish . holotype : mzuj . female .\ndescriptions of and notes on north and central american species of argyrotaenia , with the description of a new genus . nicholas s . obraztsov . 1961 . american museum novitates , no . 2048 : pp . 1 - 42 .\ninsulana powell , 1964 ( argyrotaenia franciscana ssp . ) , univ . calif . publ . ent . 32 : 201 . tl : usa . california , ventura co . , anacapa island . holotype : lacm . male .\nspinacallis brown & cramer , 2000 ( argyrotaenia ) , j . lepid . soc . 53 : 119 . tl : mexico , veracruz , caon de las minas , 13 km ne perote . holotype : eme . male .\nfelisana razowski , 1999 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 42 : 309 tl : dominican republic , dominican republic ( independentia , sierra de neiba , 5 km wnw angel felis ) . holotype : cmnh . female .\ncognatana stephens , 1852 ( argyrotaenia ) , list specimens br . anim . colln . br . mus 10 : 68 . tl : united kingdom . scotland [ united kingdom ] . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\nmartini powell , 1960 ( argyrotaenia ) , pan - pacif . ent . 36 : 94 . tl : usa , arizona , graham co . , pinaleno mountains , mount graham , pine crest . holotype : lacm . male .\nmesosignaria razowski , 1999 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 42 : 311 tl : dominican republic , dominican republic ( la vega , 9 km se constanza , near valle nuevo ) . holotype : cmnh . female .\npaiuteana powell , 1960 ( argyrotaenia ) , pan - pacif . ent . 36 : 87 . tl : usa , california , mono co . , rock creek , 1 mi w tom ' s place . holotype : cas . male .\ninterfasciae razowski & wojtusiak , 2010 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 117 . tl : peru , dept . pasco , oxapampa , el cedro , yanachaga - chemillen n . p . . holotype : mzuj . male .\nposticirosea razowski & wojtusiak , 2010 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 119 . tl : peru , dept . pasco , oxapampa , el cedro , yanachaga - chemillen n . p . . holotype : mzuj . female .\nrufina razowski & wojtusiak , 2010 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 116 . tl : peru , dept . pasco , oxapampa , el cedro , yanachaga - chemillen n . p . . holotype : mzuj . male .\nrufescens razowski & wojtusiak , 2009 ( argyrotaenia ) , acta zool . cracov . 51b : 152 . tl : ecuador , prov . morona - santiago , n . p . sangay , qda . shillnan , via guamote - macas . holotype : mzuj . male .\nonorei razowski & pelz , 2004 ( argyrotaenia ) , nachrbl . ent . ver . apollo ( n . f . ) 25 : 132 . tl : ecuador , morona - santiago province , macas , proao > alshi , 5 km s alshi . holotype : smfl . female .\nscotina razowski & pelz , 2004 ( argyrotaenia ) , nachrbl . ent . ver . apollo ( n . f . ) 25 : 132 . tl : ecuador , morona - santiago province , macas , proao > alshi , 5 km s alshi . holotype : smfl . male .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nadult - forewing has wide diagonal median band that is reddish in female , blackish in male ; basal area light yellowish - brown with darker shading near inner margin ; pale whitish shading in am area at inner margin forms diamond - shaped patch when wings are held together at rest ; whitish shading beyond median band except for dark triangular patch along costa in pm area ; hindwing dirty white to light gray with pale fringe .\nlarva - body green with pale dorsal stripe ; head yellowish . see photo at tortai .\npolyphagous on the foliage and fruit of deciduous trees and shrubs , herbaceous plants , and rarely conifers . it can be a major pest of apple orchards .\nearly instar larva creates small silk shelter where it skeletonizes the underside of leaf along the mid - vein . later instars silk together two leaves , or a leaf to a fruit . overwinters as pupa in folded leaf on the ground .\nwalker , f . , 1863 . list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum . part xxviii \u2013 tortricites and tineites .\nlist of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum . part xxviii \u2013 tortricites and tineites francis walker . 1863 . british museum ( natural history ) , p . 287 - 561 .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nalisellana robinson , 1869 ( tortrix ) , trans . am . ent . soc 2 : 267 . tl : usa , ohio . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\namatana dyar , 1901 ( lophoderus ) , j . new york ent . soc . 9 : 24 . tl : usa , florida , palm beach co . , palm beach . syntypes : usnm . 3 males .\nchioccana kearfott , 1907 ( tortrix ) , trans . am . ent . soc 33 : 72 . tl : usa . florida . lectotype : amnh . male .\nchiococcana meyrick , in wagner , 1912 ( argyrotoxa ) , lepid . cat . 10 : 52 . no type\nartocopa meyrick , 1932 ( tortrix ) , exotic microlepid . 4 : 255 . tl : costa rica , orosi . holotype : nhmv . male .\natima walsingham , 1914 ( tortrix ) , biol . centr . - am . lepid . heterocera 4 : 292 . tl : panama , volcan de chiriqu . holotype : bmnh . female .\ncacaoticaria razowski & wojtusiak , 2006 ( bonagota ) , acta zool . cracov . 49b : 31 . tl : ecuador , prov . morona - santiago , gualaceo - limon road , east . holotype : mzuj . male .\ncitharexylana zeller , 1866 ( teras ) , stettin . ent . ztg . 27 : 138 . tl : colombia , cundinamarca , near umbaque . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . 1 female .\ncoloradanus fernald , 1882 ( lophoderus ) , trans . am . ent . soc 10 : 67 . tl : usa , colorado . syntypes : usnm . male , female .\ndichotoma walsingham , 1914 ( tortrix ) , biol . centr . - am . lepid . heterocera 4 : 291 . tl : mexico , guerrero , omilteme . holotype : bmnh . female .\ndichroaca walsingham , 1914 ( tortrix ) , biol . centr . - am . lepid . heterocera 4 : 279 . tl : mexico and costa rica , mexico ( guerrero , amula ) and costa rica ( ro susio ) . syntypes : bmnh . 1male , 1female .\ndispositana zeller , 1877 ( tortrix ) , horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 94 . tl : colombia , bogot . holotype : bmnh . female .\nspoliana zeller , 1877 ( tortrix ) , horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 96 . tl : colombia . bogot . holotype : bmnh . male .\ndorsalana dyar , 1903 ( tortrix ) , proc . ent . soc . wash . 5 : 231 . tl : usa , arizona , coconino co . , williams . syntype ( s ) : usnm ; amnh . 4 males , 2 females .\ndimorphana barnes & busck , 1920 ( tortrix ) , contrib . nat . hist . lepid . n . am 4 : 215 . tl : canada . british columbia , victoria . holotype : usnm . male .\nfranciscana walsingham , 1879 ( tortrix ) , illust . typical specimens lepid . heterocera colln . br . mus 4 : 13 . tl : usa , california , san francisco . holotype : bmnh . male .\ncitrana fernald , 1889 ( tortrix ) , ent . am . 5 : 18 . tl : usa . california . syntype ( s ) : usnm : 1 male . unknown .\ngogana kearfott , 1907 ( olethreutes ) , trans . am . ent . soc 33 : 8 . tl : canada , british columbia , wellington . holotype : amnh . male .\ncrepuscularis meyrick , 1912 ( olethreutes ) , ent . mon . mag . 48 : 35 . no type\nguatemalica walsingham , 1914 ( tortrix ) , biol . centr . - am . lepid . heterocera 4 : 280 . tl : guatemala , totonicapam . holotype : bmnh . female .\nhaemothicta meyrick , 1926 ( eulia ) , exotic microlepid . 3 : 257 . tl : colombia , monte del eden . lectotype : bmnh . male .\nheureta walsingham , 1914 ( tortrix ) , biol . centr . - am . lepid . heterocera 4 : 281 . tl : guatemala , quiche mountains . holotype : bmnh . male .\niopsamma meyrick , 1931 ( tortrix ) , exotic microlepid . 4 : 150 . tl : brazil , so paulo , alto da serra . holotype : nhmv . male .\nivana fernald , 1901 ( tortrix ) , j . new york ent . soc . 9 : 51 . tl : usa , florida . holotype : usnm . male .\njuglandana fernald , 1879 ( tortrix ) , can . ent . 11 : 155 . tl : usa , canada , usa , massachusetts / ohio / wisconsin ; canada , ontario . syntypes : usnm . male , female .\nlignea meyrick , 1917 ( tortrix ) , trans . ent . soc . lond . 1917 : 9 . tl : ecuador , chimborazo province , huigra . lectotype : bmnh . male .\nljungiana thunberg , 1797 ( tortrix ) , kngl . svenska vetenskakad . handl . 18 : 168 . tl : europe , syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nlepidana herrich - schaffer , 1855 ( uninomial ) , syst . bearbeitung schmett . eur . 4 : pl . 58 , fig . 413 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nmicantana lucas , 1937 ( olethreutes ) , bull . soc . ent . fr . 42 : 127 . tl : france . ardche , la voulte . holotype : mnhn . male .\nmicanthana razowski , 1961 ( olethreutes ) , acta zool . cracov . 5 : 661 no type\npolitana haworth , 1811 ( tortrix ) , lepid . br . ( 3 ) : 465 . tl : united kingdom . great britain . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\npulchellana haworth , 1811 ( tortrix ) , lepid . br . ( 3 ) : 429 . tl : united kingdom . great britain . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\nsylvana hubner , [ 1796 - 1799 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 20 , fig . 128 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nloxonephes meyrick , 1937 ( eulia ) , exotic microlepid . 5 : 128 . tl : argentina , pampa . lectotype : bmnh . female .\nmariana fernald , 1882 ( lophoderus ) , trans . am . ent . soc 10 : 67 . tl : usa , maine / florida . lectotype : usnm . male .\nmontezumae walsingham , 1914 ( tortrix ) , biol . centr . - am . lepid . heterocera 4 : 280 . tl : mexico , guerrero , amula . holotype : bmnh . male .\nimpositana walsingham , 1914 ( tortrix ) , biol . centr . - am . lepid . heterocera 4 : 279 . tl : guatemala . senahu , vera paz . holotype : bmnh . female .\nniscana kearfott , 1907 ( eulia ) , trans . am . ent . soc 33 : 94 . tl : usa , california , carmel . lectotype : amnh . male .\ncamerata meyrick , 1912 ( eulia ) , ent . mon . mag . 48 : 35 . no type\noligachthes meyrick , 1932 ( eulia ) , exotic microlepid . 4 : 257 . tl : costa rica , orosi . holotype : nhmv . female .\noriphanes meyrick , 1930 ( tortrix ) , exotic microlepid . 3 : 608 . tl : peru , agualani . holotype : bmnh . male .\npinatubana kearfott , 1905 ( eulia ) , can . ent . 37 : 9 . tl : usa , new jersey , essex co . park . lectotype : amnh . male .\npinitubana meyrick , in wytsman , 1913 ( eulia ) , genera insectorum ( lepid . heter . tort . ) 149 : 39 . no type\nponera walsingham , 1914 ( tortrix ) , biol . centr . - am . lepid . heterocera 4 : 279 . tl : mexico , puebla , popocatepetl park . holotype : usnm . male .\nprovana kearfott , 1907 ( olethreutes ) , trans . am . ent . soc 33 : 16 . tl : canada , british columbia . lectotype : amnh . unknown .\ninvidana barnes & busck , 1920 ( tortrix ) , contrib . nat . hist . lepid . n . am 4 : 215 : tl : canada . british columbia , vancouver island , duncans . holotype : usnm . male .\npurata meyrick , 1932 ( tortrix ) , exotic microlepid . 4 : 254 . tl : costa rica , irazu . lectotype : nhmv . male .\nquadrifasciana fernald , 1882 ( lophoderus ) , trans . am . ent . soc 10 : 67 . tl : usa , maine . syntypes : usnm . 2 males .\nquercifoliana fitch , 1858 ( argyrolepia ) , rep . ins . new york : 826 . tl : usa , new york . syntype ( s ) : usnm . 1 male .\ntrifurculana zeller , 1875 ( tortrix ) , verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 25 : 226 . tl : usa . texas , dallas . syntypes : bmnh : 1 ; mcz : 1 . unknown .\nsphaleropa meyrick , 1909 ( tortrix ) , trans . ent . soc . lond . 1909 : 15 . tl : bolivia , sapago . lectotype : bmnh . male .\nfletcheriella khler , 1940 ( eulia ) , an . soc . cient . argent . 128 : 371 . tl : argentina . tigre . holotype : bourc . male , female .\ntristriata meyrick , 1931 ( eulia ) , exotic microlepid . 4 : 151 . tl : brazil , so paulo , alto da serra . holotype : nhmv . male .\nurbana busck , 1912 ( tortrix ) , proc . ent . soc . wash . 14 : 86 . tl : mexico , mexico city . holotype : usnm . male .\nincertana clemens , 1865 ( tortrix ) , proc . ent . soc . philad . 5 : 138 . tl : usa . virginia . holotype : ansp . female .\nlutosana clemens , 1865 ( tortrix ) , proc . ent . soc . philad . 5 : 138 . tl : usa . virginia . holotype : ansp . male .\ntriferana walker , 1863 ( cacoecia ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus 28 : 314 . tl : north america . holotype : bmnh . female .\nvenezuelana walker , 1863 ( dichelia ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus 28 : 319 . tl : venezuela , holotype : bmnh . female .\nunless noted , all images on these pages are copyright \u00a9 2003 - 14 by todd gilligan . please do not download , copy , print , or otherwise distribute any images from these pages without the permission of the author . contact form .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nlike most websites we use cookies . this is to ensure that we give you the best experience possible .\ncontinuing to use urltoken means you agree to our use of cookies . if you would like to , you can learn more about the cookies we use .\nwe\u2019d value your feedback on the tool . our survey takes only five minutes to complete .\nthe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available . when several references are cited , they may give conflicting information on the status . further details may be available for individual references in the distribution table details section which can be selected by going to generate report .\none or more of the features that are needed to show you the maps functionality are not available in the web browser that you are using .\nplease consider upgrading your browser to the latest version or installing a new browser .\nforewing ground color ranges from pale brown to golden brown . the most conspicuous wing marking is the reddish - brown median fascia , which is the basis for the species ' common name . other markings can be quite variable , although generally there is a dark mark or partial fascia at the base of the wing , a reddish - brown outer costal spot , and a row of near - white scales along the termen that may extend to the median fascia in some individuals . hindwings are grayish brown . males lack a forewing costal fold .\nlate instar larvae are 13 - 18 mm in length with a green to yellowish green abdomen . the head , prothoracic shield , and thoracic legs are yellowish green and unmarked .\nin new york , adults of the overwintering ( second ) generation are present in april and may . those of the first generation are present in late june to july . in southern indiana and virginia , adults of the overwintering ( fourth ) generation are present in march and april . those of the first generation are present in late may to june , those of the second generation are present in july , and those of the third generation present in august and september .\nin the spring , females lay eggs in masses on smooth bark of the trunk and lower limbs of host trees . during the summer , females lay egg masses on the upper surface of leaves . each egg mass contains approximately 40 - 45 individual eggs . egg development time ranges from 7 - 12 days in the south to 14 - 21 days in the north . first instar larvae crawl up limbs in search of food or disperse on silk threads to other parts of the host or to other plants . early instars skeletonize the upper surface of a leaf along the midrib , concealed by a patch of silk . they remain under the silk patch until the penultimate instar , at which point they move to feed on other leaves or fruit . late instar larvae of the summer generations will often construct a shelter by webbing a leaf to fruit , and feeding underneath directly on the fruit . larval feeding damage causes fruit rot and early drop in hosts such as apple . larvae will continue to feed on fallen fruit and may be dispersed in this manner if fallen fruit is moved to a different location . larvae complete development in approximately 30 days and move to the ground to pupate in a folded leaf under other leaves and debris . adults of the first two generations eclose in 7 - 13 days ; those of the last generation eclose the following spring .\nchapman , p . j . and s . e . lienk . 1971 . tortricid fauna of apple in new york ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) ; including an account of apple ' s occurrence in the state , especially as a naturalized plant . spec . publ . geneva , ny : new york state agricultural experiment station . 122 pp .\nfreeman , t . n . 1958 . the archipinae of north america ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) . the canadian entomologist supplement 7 ( vol . 90 ) : 1 - 89 .\nprentice , r . m . 1966 . forest lepidoptera of canada recorded by the forest insect survey . vol . 4 . microlepidoptera . publication 1142 , department of forestry , canada , ottawa . 543 - 840 .\nsummerland , s . a . and d . w . hamilton . 1955 . biology of the red - banded leaf roller in southern indiana . journal of economic entomology . 48 : 51 - 53 .\ntortricids of agricultural importance by todd m . gilligan and marc e . epstein interactive keys developed in lucid 3 . 5 . last updated august 2014 .\na red - banded leafroller moth in howard co . , maryland ( 8 / 1 / 2017 ) . photo by anthony vanschoor . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in baltimore co . , maryland ( 4 / 12 / 2014 ) . photo by emily stanley . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 7 / 23 / 2016 ) . determined by roger downer / bamona . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 4 / 2 / 2016 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in anne arundel co . , maryland ( 4 / 18 / 2015 ) . determined by roger downer / bamona . photo by bill hubick . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 7 / 14 / 2017 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in harford co . , maryland ( 4 / 19 / 2014 ) . photo by mike burchett . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in worcester co . , maryland ( 6 / 13 / 2013 ) . photo by scott housten . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 4 / 4 / 2017 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 9 / 6 / 2016 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in baltimore co . , maryland ( 5 / 6 / 2014 ) . photo by scott housten . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 7 / 29 / 2016 ) . verified by roger downer / bamona . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 6 / 16 / 2014 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in cecil co . , maryland ( 5 / 3 / 2015 ) . verified by roger downer / bamona . photo by shannon schade . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in anne arundel co . , maryland ( 6 / 20 / 2014 ) . verified by roger downer / bamona . photo by bill hubick . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in howard co . , maryland ( 8 / 7 / 2016 ) . photo by anthony vanschoor . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in dorchester co . , maryland ( 7 / 6 / 2016 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 8 / 18 / 2015 ) . verified by roger downer / bamona . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in worcester co . , maryland ( 8 / 7 / 2013 ) . photo by scott housten . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 8 / 14 / 2015 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in dorchester co . , maryland ( 4 / 17 / 2015 ) . photo by jonathan willey . ( mbp list )\na female red - banded leafroller moth in prince george ' s co . , maryland ( 4 / 2 / 2010 ) . determined by bob patterson / bugguide . photo by eric gofreed . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 6 / 18 / 2018 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in baltimore co . , maryland ( 4 / 21 / 2014 ) . photo by scott housten . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in prince george ' s co . , maryland ( 7 / 23 / 2014 ) . verified by marcia morris / bugguide . photo by jesse christopherson . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 7 / 8 / 2016 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 5 / 3 / 2015 ) . verified by roger downer / bamona . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in prince george ' s co . , maryland ( 3 / 23 / 2016 ) . photo by rod burley . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 9 / 11 / 2015 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in baltimore city , maryland ( 8 / 10 / 2016 ) . determined by paul dennehy / bugguide . photo by derek hudgins . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 6 / 29 / 2016 ) . determined by roger downer / bamona . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in harford co . , maryland ( 8 / 2 / 2015 ) . verified by roger downer / bamona . photo by dave webb . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 9 / 10 / 2016 ) . verified by roger downer / bamona . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na male red - banded leafroller moth in prince george ' s co . , maryland ( 4 / 15 / 2006 ) . photo by bob patterson . ( mbp list )\na female red - banded leafroller moth in prince george ' s co . , maryland ( 3 / 26 / 2004 ) . photo by bob patterson . ( mbp list )\na male red - banded leafroller moth in howard co . , maryland ( 2003 ) . photo by larry line . ( mbp list )\na female red - banded leafroller moth in prince george ' s co . , maryland ( 0 / 0 / 2004 ) . specimen provided by bob patterson . photo by larry line . ( mbp list )\na red - banded leafroller moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 6 / 13 / 2017 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\nuse of images featured on maryland biodiversity project is only permitted with express permission of the photographer ."]}
{"id": 2196, "summary": [{"text": "the kerry slug or kerry spotted slug , scientific name geomalacus maculosus , is a rare species of medium-sized to large air-breathing land slug .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusc in the family arionidae , the roundback slugs .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "an adult kerry slug generally measures 7 \u2013 8 cm ( 2.8 \u2013 3.2 in ) in length and is dark grey or brownish in colour , with yellowish spots .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the internal anatomy of the slug shows some unusual features , and some characteristic differences from the genus arion , which is the type genus of the family arionidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the kerry slug was described in 1843 , rather late compared to many other relatively large land gastropods that form a part of the fauna of the british isles ; this is one indication of this slug 's rarity and its secretive habits .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "although the distribution of this slug species does include some wild habitats in southwestern ireland ( e.g. in county kerry ) , the species is more widespread in north-west spain and from central to northern portugal .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "however , it is not found anywhere between ireland and spain .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the species appears to require environments that have high humidity and acidic soil ( soil with no calcium carbonate in it ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the slug is mostly nocturnal or crepuscular , although in ireland it is active on overcast days .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "it feeds on lichens , liverworts , mosses and fungi , which grow either on boulders or on tree trunks .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "this rare species is officially protected by conservation laws in each of the three countries in which it occurs .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "however , the survival of the kerry slug is nonetheless threatened because it lives only in completely wild , unspoiled habitat of a particular type : acidic woodlands and moorlands that support the species of lower plants on which the slug relies for food .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "this habitat type is itself at risk from a number of different factors , ranging from climate change to the construction of roads .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "attempts have been made to establish breeding populations in captivity , to help ensure the survival of this slug species , but with only limited success . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "kerry slug", "paragraphs": ["the kerry slug is found in spain , portugal , west cork and kerry . a new survey , run from\nspecies of the week kerry slug . . . - irish wildlife trust | facebook\noffspring of three species of arionid slug , resulting in a loss of \u2018species - specific\u2019 colour characteristics . the kerry spotted slug\nkerry slug ( geomalacus maculosus allman , 1843 ) recorded at lettercraffroe , co . galway\nthat is the explanation accepted by academics who studied the genetics of the kerry slug .\nspecies of the week kerry slug - . . . - irish wildlife trust | facebook\nhowever , the kerry slug\u2019s habitat can be endangered by \u201cinvasive\u201d plants such as rhododendrons .\nplatts ea , speight mcd ( 1988 ) . the taxonomy and distribution of the kerry slug\nfreshwater white - clawed crayfish , the freshwater pearl mussel and the kerry slug are protected under the act .\ni am currently investigating the influence of habitat and diet on the gut microbiome of the slug with the aim of distinguishing kerry slug populations through microbial signatures .\nthe kerry slug is not one of our most glamorous species . but biodiversity is not just about glamorous species .\nlovely diversity of kerry slug phenotypes . juvenile above shows an intermediate stage between brown and black adult colour morphs . urltoken\nthe kerry slug or kerry spotted slug , scientific name geomalacus maculosus , is a rare species of medium - sized to large air - breathing land slug . it is a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusc in the family arionidae , the roundback slugs . an adult kerry slug generally measures 7\u20138 cm ( 2 . 8\u20133 . 2 in ) in length and is dark grey or brownish in colour , with yellowish spots .\nunlike many other slug species , the kerry slug is not a pest species and is associated with wild habitats away from the influence of man , according to the npws .\nif slugs are your thing , then the kerry slug should be looked out for in wet weather . apparently it is the only slug that can roll into a ball .\nmeasures to protect the habitats of the otter and the kerry slug have been announced by minister for the environment john gormley .\nthe rare kerry slug - found only in ireland & spain - is a protected species . | snails and slugs | pinterest\nthe national biodiversitydata centre is trying to improve our knowledge on the distribution of the kerry slug in ireland . should you observe this species , please submit sightings to add to the database . detailed observations will assist us gaining a betterinsight into where the kerry slug\nanon , ( 2010 ) threat response plan , kerry slug , geomalacus maculosus . department of environment , heritage and local government .\n( kerry slug ) : what are the factors affecting catch returns in open and forested habitats ? ecol res . 2016 ; doi :\ndrawing of the jaw of the kerry slug geomalacus maculosus . the jaw of this species measures about 1 mm and has broad ribs .\nthe kerry slug displays a not very common response to disturbance in that it will detach from the substrate and roll into a ball .\nthe kerry slug is a rare slug that was first discovered in county kerry , ireland back in 1842 . since then they have also been found in parts of northern spain and portugal . they are medium sized slugs that are easy to identify by their spotted pattern .\nkerry slugs are found only in wild habitats in both woodlands and heath lands .\nfor marine slugs , see sea slug . for snails , see snail . for other uses , see slug ( disambiguation ) .\nresearcher , rory mcdonnell recently visited the m\u00fascra\u00ed gaeltacht village to search for the kerry slug as part of his research for the npws ( national parks and wildlife service ) to establish the distribution of the kerry slug in the south west . he visited cascade wood and st gobnait ' s wood in baile bh\u00fairne and has spent time on beara including glengarriff where the slug has been found in the past and a variety of location in south kerry .\none wrote : \u201cyou look bloody amazing kerry , love . keep it going . \u201d\nand the scheduled bypass for macroom had ar be forgotten about because of the kerry slugs .\ni meant before it was flooded . although a bit of an indirect route to kerry .\nthe forest service , department of agriculture , food and the marine , has published the forestry and otter guidelines and the forestry and kerry slug guidelines on this site .\naidan o ' hanlon on twitter :\nlovely diversity of kerry slug phenotypes . juvenile above shows an intermediate stage between brown and black adult colour morphs . \u2026 urltoken\nre : working on okenia zoobotryon from : dr kerry b . clark , may 18 , 1998\n\u2019the origin of the irish geomalacus maculosus - is the \u201ckerry slug\u201d really a \u201ckerryman\u201d ? \u2019 oral presentation at the molluscan forum 2013 , natural history museum , london , england .\n\u2019kerry slug - recent research findings\u2019 oral presentation at \u2019the state of insect conservation in ireland\u2019 meeting 2013 , national botanic gardens , glasnevin , dublin , ireland ( invited speaker ) .\n' the kerry slug : how should we manage a protected species in commercial conifer plantations ? \u2019 oral presentation at environ 2013 , national university of ireland , galway , ireland .\nthe irish yellow slug ( limacus maculatus ) is quite different from the kerry slug ( geomalacus malaculosus ) , albeit for its rather similar name . the first is a keel back slug from the limacidae family , recognizable by the keel at the end of its foot . also its respiratory hole is located in the rear half of its mantle shield . the kerry slug , on the other hand , is a round back slug of the arionidae family without a keel and with the respiratory hole in the front half of the mantle shield . both have in common their spotted exterior and their greenish colour , fitting the island they come from . but most likely on the british isles , the irish yellow slug might be confounded with the yellow slug ( limacus flavus ) .\nthe part of a slug behind the mantle is called the ' tail ' .\nthe bottom side of a slug , which is flat , is called the ' foot ' . like almost all gastropods , a slug moves by rhythmic waves of\n) a portion of their tail to help the slug escape from a predator .\nthat ' s a 3d printed shell around a sea - slug mouth muscle .\nbackground information on the kerry slug the kerry slug ( scientific name : geomalacus maculosus ) was first discovered beside caragh lake in co . kerry in 1842 . it is an easily recognizable , spotted , medium sized slug ( up to 9cm in length ) which is unlikely to be confused with any other species . specimens can be brown with yellow spots ( see photo ) or black with white spots ( see photo ) . unlike many other slug species , the kerry slug is not regarded as a pest and is associated with wild habitats away from humans . in ireland this invertebrate ( no backbone ) is protected under the wildlife act 1976 and under the eu habitats directive ( as an annex ii and annex iv species ) . in addition , seven special areas of conservation have been designated for the protection of the species .\nthe kerry slug ( geomalachus maculosus ) is found only in kerry and nw iberia . along with 15 plant types that occur in ireland and not in brittan the question of a land bridge between iberia and ireland after the 500 year cold snap which happened around 13000 years ago must be asked .\nthis highway would have seen traffic in the form of not only the kerry slug but humans too who gradually inched north from the south . so the first irish people would have first set up camp of the coast of what is now cork / kerry on now submerged land known as doggerland .\namong the six species of snail specifically protected by eu legislation , only one is considered safe in ireland . the kerry slug ( geomalacus maculosus ) which is \u201crestricted to sandstone areas of kerry and west cork\u201d , has \u201ca strong viable population and may be capable of expanding its range with global warming\u201d .\n. in contrast to the general behavioral pattern , the kerry slug retracts its head , lets go of the substrate , rolls up completely , and stays contracted in a ball - like shape .\nmcdonnell rj , gormally mj . a live trapping method for the protected european slug ,\n\u2022 it\u2019s the name of an environmental musical group , the banana slug string band .\nthanks kerry , look forward to seeing your site on west atlantic opisthobranchs finished . . . . bill rudman .\nit is an easily recognisable , spotted , medium - sized slug , up to nine centimetres in length , and is unlikely to be confused with any other species . it can be coloured brown with yellow spots , or black with white spots . unlike many other slug species , the kerry slug is not regarded as a pest and is associated with wild habitats away from humans .\n\u2019the impact of forestry management practices on the distribution of the kerry slug geomalacus maculosus allman and the investigation of other possible factors limiting its occurrence\u2019 poster presentation at environ 2012 , university college dublin , ireland .\na terrestrial slug between 6cms and 9 cms in length . it occurs in two colour varietys\nthe little - known kerry slug , which hit the headlines two years ago after getting in the way of a proposed bypass road in ballyvourney , co cork , is about to get back in the news .\nreich , i . , o\u2019meara , k . , mc donnell , r . j . and gormally , m . j . ( 2012 ) an assessment of the use of conifer plantations by the kerry slug (\nis documented , but varies greatly among slug species . slugs often resort to aggression , attacking both\nthe irish yellow slug can be found in literature under different synonyms . apart from the systematic name\n\u2022 it\u2019s the star of several community celebrations , including the nationally\u2013publicized russian river banana slug festival .\nslug is required for cell survival during partial epithelial - mesenchymal transition of hgf - induced tubulogenesis .\nso just as the road selection process appeared to nearing completion , the route had to be moved and the snail protected . that was duly done \u2013 along with excoriation of the environmentalists and ridicule of an innocent spotted slug . the kerry slug can be easily identified because it is the only slug that curls into a ball when poked . one can hardly blame it , given the angry councillors roaming the countryside .\na protected species under eu legislation , the slug was first discovered beside caragh lake , in co kerry , in 1842 . seven special areas of conservation ( sacs ) have been designated for the protection of the species .\nthe kerry slug is not one of our most glamorous species ,\nmr gormley said .\nbut biodiversity is not just about glamorous species . my department is committed to protecting all species of conservation concern .\na separate plan aims to protect the kerry slug , geomalacus maculosus , first discovered beside caragh lake in 1842 and described as a species new to science in 1843 . it is a protected species under the eu habitats directive .\nfree - living slugs were photographed from six sites in ireland across the western counties of galway , kerry and cork ( fig .\nbill , there ' s a shot of okenia zoobotryon at : urltoken this site ' s not quite finished , but you can use the image on your site if you like . kerry dr kerry b . clark florida institute of technology melbourne , florida usa\ngeomalacus maculosus kerry slug a rare slug found only in sw ireland , spain and possibly still in portugal . two colour versions are found , black with white marks in upland habitats and brown with yellow spots in damp woodland . it is a lusitanian species , protected in ireland by the wildlife act 1976 and the eu habitats directive .\nreich i , mcdonnell rj , mcinerney c , callanan s , gormally mj . eu - protected slug\nmccrone ej , sokolove pg . brain - gonad axis and photoperiodically - stimulated sexual maturation in the slug\nhow will i know if it is the kerry slug ? the kerry slug has a number of characteristics which make it relatively easy to identify . firstly it is only found in oak dominated woodland and unimproved open moor or blanket bog in co . kerry and west cork . secondly , specimens are either brown with yellow spots ( typical of woodland specimens ) or black with white spots ( typical of peatland specimens ) . lastly , when disturbed , the slug curls itself up into a defensive ball ( see photo ) . we encourage observers to submit a photograph with their records . attach photos to emails and send to info [ at ] biology . ie , ( just remove the square brackets ) .\nyoung ag , port gr , emmett bj , green di ( 1991 ) development of a forecast of slug activity : models to relate slug activity to meteorological conditions . crop prot 10 : 413\u2013415 . doi :\nkerry katona has been taking on gruelling workouts in recent weeks and today she flaunted the fruits of her labour in a new photo .\nanother life : in 1842 , a few years before the famine and while co kerry still had a few native sea eagles to poison , a naturalist named william andrews found a large and unfamiliar spotted slug among mossy rocks beside lough caragh .\nthreatened invertebrates such as the kerry slug ( geomalacus maculosus ) , the freshwater pearl mussel ( margaritifera margaritifera ) , the freshwater white - clawed crayfish ( austropotamobius pallipes ) and the damselfly ( coenagrion lunulatum ) can be found in irish wetlands .\ndescription : concerning its body colour , the irish yellow slug is quite similar to the yellow slug . usually , though , it is a bit darker and more greenish in colour . the spots dispersed over its body are irregular and may sometime melt together . generally , the irish yellow slug has more spots than the yellow slug and they reach further down the body sides . where the spotty pattern is limited at the foot margin by a light coloured zone near the foot margin in a yellow slug , this light coloured zone is missing in an irish yellow slug . between the centreline of the mantle shield and its margin , 23 wrinkles can be counted . an irish yellow slug ' s mucus is greenish in colour and so are its juveniles .\nkerry spoke last year about her desire to get into shape , after saying she gained weight following her temporary split from third husband george .\nwhen is the best time to spot it ? the best time to find the kerry slug is on wet , cloudy days when specimens are often seen crawling over bryophyte or moss - covered tree trunks or sandstone outcrops in suitable habitat . during sunny , warm weather the kerry slug takes refuge under bryophytes ( esp . mosses ) , in cracks on sandstone boulders and behind the vegetation at the base of sandstone rocks . surveys at dawn , dusk and during the night in spain have also proved successful .\nthe effect of these regulations is to add three species of invertebrates namely the kerry slug , freshwater crayfish and freshwater pearl mussel and all species of marine turtles to the list of protected species mentioned in the fifth schedule to the wildlife act , 1976 .\nmcdonnell rj , gormally mj . distribution and population dynamics of the kerry slug geomalacus maculosus ( arionidae ) . irish wildlife manuals , 2011 ; 54 . national parks and wildlife service , department of arts , heritage and the gaeltacht , dublin , ireland .\nirish yellow slug ( limacus maculatus ) from cambridgeshire , england . picture : brian eversham , ( source ) .\nirish yellow slug ( limacus maculatus ) from cambridgeshire , england . pictures : brian eversham , ( source ) .\nwebley d ( 1964 ) slug activity in relation to weather . ann app biol 53 : 407\u2013414 . doi :\nthe project is in two phases . the first is to survey suitable areas in cork and kerry to get a distribution map for the species .\n. . . historically , within ireland , g . maculosus was thought to be restricted to the devonian old red sandstone strata of west cork and kerry . however , during july 2010 , the species was collected on granite outcrops and on the trunks of conifer trees in cloosh forest , a conifer plantation near oughterard , co . galway ( kearney , 2010 ) . the widespread planting of commercial conifer forestry was originally thought to have had a detrimental effect on populations of given that the kerry slug was not found at the above sites , research focused on the recently discovered kerry slug population in the conifer plantation in cloosh forest , co . galway . . . .\nreich , i . , o\u2019meara , k . , mc donnell , r . , gormally , m . ( 2012 ) : \u2019an assessment of the use of conifer plantations by the kerry slug ( geomalacus maculosus ) with reference to the potential impacts of forestry operations\u2019\ncurrent known main populations are located in the south west ( cork and kerry ) with a recently ( 2010 ) discovered population in co . galway .\nthe kerry slug is too recent an arrival , just a few thousand years , so continental drift is not the reason . one of the alternative explanations is that it arrived in the boats of the first settlers in ireland , genetic evidence indicates the people who first populated ireland came from northern iberia . we ' re most closely related to the basques . we brought the slug with us .\nmonday\u2019s meeting of kerry county council was treated to a re - run of the \u2018environmentalist and the snail\u2019 story , with council officials quipping about the \u2018snail\u2019s pace\u2019 of the macroom by pass and a healy rae claiming the snail was \u2018looking over the ditch\u2019 and laughing at the traffic jams between cork and kerry .\nthe kerry violet is the common name given to the greater butterwort which sits in the bog lands , digesting any unfortunate insects which fall into its grasp .\nthe kerry slug gained some notoriety when it was discovered at cascade wood in baile bh\u00fairne diverting the proposed bypass to a different route . despite its high profile little is actually known about the mysterious creature which the south west of ireland shares with spain , portugal and possibly brittany .\nreich , i . , o\u2019meara , k . , cush , e . , tierney , f . , mc donnell , r . , gormally , m . ( 2013 ) : ' the kerry slug : how should we manage a protected species in commercial conifer plantations ? '\nit wasn\u2019t true . the judicial review that is currently delaying the road has been taken by residents near carrigaphooca castle . the grounds are an error in law relating to the assessment of the impact and rights of way . it has nothing to do with the protected kerry slug .\nnew roads can isolate and split up slug habitats , along with new building development . land \u201creclamation\u201d could mean clearing the slug\u2019s upland rocks , and grazing by \u201cescaped\u201d sheep , resident goats and wild deer all threaten the mossy interior of the woods .\n] . the mechanisms involved in determining slug colouration most likely vary with species and local adaptations may arise within populations of slugs exposed to different environmental conditions . pigmentation has been explained as a simple mendelian - inherited trait for some species of slug [\n, rather than in gardens . their need for wild habitats in one of the reasons the slug has become so rare .\nwhere is it found ? the global distribution of the kerry slug is ireland , spain and portugal and although the species has been reported from france , its presence there has never been confirmed . in ireland , the slug is restricted to west cork and co . kerry . here it is found in two habitat types , oak dominated woodland and unimproved open moor or blanket bog . within these habitats it is only present if there are sandstone outcrops and boulders largely bare of vegetation except for lichens , mosses and liverworts on which the species is thought to feed .\nin ireland , the slug is found only in west cork and kerry , as far as is known , and it is hoped the survey , being conducted by dr rory mcdonnell , of university college galway , will determine if it is also present in other parts of the country .\nkerry had spent the morning doing an hour of yoga before enjoying an early walk with husband george kay . she told fans she felt \u201camazing\u201d after her busy morning .\nthe banana slug has two pairs of tentacles functioning as sensory organs . the upper , longer pair are periscope - like eyestems . the lower , shorter pair ( above the slug\u2019s mouth ) is for feeling and smelling . photo by greg bodi via wikimedia commons .\nif the kerr slug made its way from iberia it would have done so along the coast which would have acted as a highway .\nkerry slugs are protected in all of the locations that they are found in . habitat loss and loss of some of their favorite foods ( lichens and mosses ) have been hurting the populations of the unique little slug . protection , monitoring , and captive breeding of the species have helped to keep them going .\nanatomy : like other slugs the kerry spotted slug has basic organs . it has an internal shell . the muscles of this animal includes muscles that pull the eyespot tentacles back , and have ommatophores as the only eye tentacle muscle darkly pigmented . other muscles include its paryngeal , furacate , buccalbulb , and cephalic reactors .\nmc donnell , r . j . and gormally , m . j . ( 2011 ) . distribution and population dynamics of the kerry slug , geomalacus maculosus ( arionidae ) . irish wildlife manuals , no . 54 . national parks and wildlifeservice , department of arts , heritage and the gaeltacht , dublin , ireland .\nthere are now known to be 46 species of slugs in britain and ireland with 37 confirmed to date in ireland . arion vulgaris is a new arrival in ireland and has the potential to become a serious pest as it spread . in the us it is referred to as the \u201cspanish slug\u201d because of its western european origin and while it appears to be currently restricted to some of northerly mid - west states it appears to be spreading rapidly . the kerry slug\nquigley , d . t . g . & k . flannery ( 2014 ) notes and records . plants . an exceptionally large \u201cseaball\u201d discovered on inch strand , co . kerry .\none significant finding was that , contrary to previous opinion , the kerry slug was found in coniferous woodland often at quite high densities . this has implications for the species as it means that there is potentially more habitat for it but that as a legally protected species , the impact of forestry operations need to be mitigated for .\nwhen attacked , slugs can contract their body , making themselves harder and more compact and more still and round . by doing this , they become firmly attached to the substrate . this , combined with the slippery mucus they produce , makes slugs more difficult for predators to grasp . the unpleasant taste of the mucus is also a deterrent . some species present different response behaviors when attacked , such as the kerry slug . in contrast to the general behavioral pattern , the kerry slug retracts its head , lets go of the substrate , rolls up completely , and stays contracted in a ball - like shape . this is a unique feature among all the arionidae , and among most other slugs . some slugs can self - amputate ( autotomy ) a portion of their tail to help the slug escape from a predator . some slug species hibernate underground during the winter in temperate climates , but in other species , the adults die in the autumn .\ncamouflage implies selective pressure from a visual predator . although passerine birds are known to prey upon a number of medium - large arionid slug species [\nthe slug is also found in spain and portugal . the species has been reported from france , though its presence has never been confirmed there .\nhabitat and distribution : on the crimea peninsula , in the caucasus mountains , as well as in bulgaria , the irish yellow slug inhabits deciduous forests . in northern and central europe , on the other hand , the species lives in natural habitats , often in woody places , below stones and fallen logs . contrary to the yellow slug , the irish yellow slug is not a commensal species , but prefers habitats near to nature . on the british isles , however , limacus maculatus is often found in the same habitats , as its relative , the yellow slug . the slugs often hide in fallen logs , often whole tree trunks are covered with mucus . the irish yellow slug feeds on mushrooms , lichens and dead plants .\nreich , i . , o ' meara , k . , cush , e . , tierney , f . , mc donnell , r . , gormally , m . ( 2012 ) : \u2019the impact of forestry management practices on the distribution of the kerry slug geomalacus maculosus allman and the investigation of other possible factors limiting its occurrence\u2019\n/ u / seandalai you ' re the divil , when you get behind the keys . it was a sad day for the kerry gastropods , when your lithic tools they did feel .\nreich i , o\u2019meara k , mcdonnell rj , gormally mj . an assessment of the use of conifer plantations by the kerry slug ( geomalacus maculosus ) with reference to the impact of forestry operations . irish wildlife manuals . 2012 ; 64 . national parks and wildlife service , department of arts , heritage and the gaeltacht . theatr irel .\n) are a commercially available biological control method that are effective against a wide range of common slug species . the nematodes are applied in water and actively seek out slugs in the soil and infect them , leading to the death of the slug . this control method is suitable for use in organic growing systems . other slug control methods are generally ineffective on a large scale , but can be somewhat useful in small gardens . these include beer traps ,\nthe slug mouth muscle comes from a california sea slug , aplysia californica , and was put into a 3d - printed body . sea slug muscles can apparently handle changes in environment better than many other muscles , which is a good baseline to start designing robots around . right now , the robots can only move one direction when stimulated . in future versions , the researchers hope to incorporate more nerves , so they can make the robots move forward and backward .\nhand search is the obvious option \u2013 \u201clabour intensive , but not excessively so\u201d \u2013 if there are certain problems about the underside of large boulders and the higher reaches of trees . while alternatives are assessed , the merits of just looking carefully inspire the kerry slug survey of ireland ( go to urltoken or kerryslug . com ) . here the npws , with dr rory mcdonnell of the applied ecology unit of nui galway , are appealing for volunteer sightings , with photos of the slug\u2019s two colourways to help .\n] ) . however , there is also evidence that different colour morphs in slug species can arise as local adaptations to different environmental conditions . while evans [\n- tests were used to test whether rgb reflectance values differed significantly between woodland and blanket bog substrate and between each of the two slug colour morphs . students\nsnail and slug promote epithelial - mesenchymal transition through beta - catenin - t - cell factor - 4 - dependent expression of transforming growth factor - beta3 .\nthe findings of the first research project have been published as an irish wildlife manual no . 54 [ 4 , 832kb ] . more research is being undertaken with npws funding on the distribution of kerry slug in conifer plantations and the impact of clear felling on these populations . national university of galway is also carrying out research on the diet and genetics of the species .\nslug , or land slug , is a common name for any apparently shell - less terrestrial gastropod mollusc . the word slug is also often used as part of the common name of any gastropod mollusc that has no shell , a very reduced shell , or only a small internal shell , particularly sea slugs and semislugs ( this is in contrast to the common name snail , which applies to gastropods that have a coiled shell large enough that the animal can fully retract its soft parts into the shell ) .\nslug , or land slug , is a common name for any apparently shell - less terrestrial gastropod mollusc . the word slug is also often used as part of the common name of any gastropod mollusc that has no shell , a very reduced shell , or only a small internal shell , particularly sea slugs and semislugs ( this is in contrast to the common name snail , which applies to gastropods that have a coiled shell large enough that the animal can fully retract its soft parts into the shell ) .\nmost people heard of the kerry slug for the first time two years ago , when it was found on the route of a planned bypass road at the cascade wood site , near ballyvourney . environment minister john gormley then agreed to extend a conservation area , so that the site could be saved . that would call for a re - routing of a small section of the road .\nbranson , b . a ( 1980 ) .\nthe recent gastropoda of oklahoma , part viii . the slug families limacidae , arionidae , veronicellidae , and philomycidae\n.\nwherever you find banana slugs , you\u2019ll recognize them when you see them . nothing in the forest looks quite like a banana slug . ( see the accompanying photo . )\nthe national parks and wildlife service ( npws ) felt confident that the slug was secure and might even expand its range as climate warms . but it had little actual data on how it was faring , especially outside the sac boundaries . as new development began to threaten its iberian populations , the animal was moved up in priority under the eu\u2019s habitats directive . in 2007 , in one of many commission actions against laggardly states , the european court of justice ordered ireland to establish a system of strict protection for the kerry slug , including monitoring of its population .\none of the wonders of kerry is its diversity . coast and mountain is a magical mix and this is one of europe\u2019s whale watching hotspots \u2013 even giant humpbacks have been seen in the atlantic waters to the west .\nkerry , thanks for reminding me that point reyes has banana slugs . i forgot to include pore in my list the first go - around , but i ' ve taken care of that now . btw , although it ' s totally none of my business , i have to admit that i ' m curious to know what your spouse or significant other thinks of your slug - kissing dispositions .\njordaens k , van riel p , geenen s , verhagen r , backeljau t . food - induced body pigmentation questions the taxonomic value of colour in the self - fertilizing slug\ni commented about a banana slug i saw on the stairway from one of the beaches at olympic np . it had black spots and looked a lot like a ripe banana .\nmeanwhile , kerry said this week that she ' d love a sixth child to add to her brood of five : molly , 15 , lilly - sue , 14 , heidi , max , eight , and dylan , two .\nthe aim of the kerry slug survey the aim of the survey is to accrue modern records for this internationally important invertebrate with the overall objective of producing an up - to - date distribution map . in ireland , there are five 10km grid squares where the species has not been recorded since pre - 1950 and other areas where the last records are pre - 1980 . the survey will help to address these important\nshould have the status of a genus on its own . the polish malacologist and slug specialist andrzej wiktor disagrees . in that case , the species would have to be added to the\nthe mucus secreted by the foot contains fibres that help prevent the slug from slipping down vertical surfaces . the\nslime trail\na slug leaves behind has some secondary effects : other slugs coming across a slime trail can recognise the slime trail as produced by one of the same species , which is useful in finding a mate . following a slime trail is also part of the hunting behaviour of some carnivorous slugs . body mucus provides some protection against predators , as it can make the slug hard to pick up and hold by a bird ' s beak , for example , and the mucus itself can be distasteful . some species of slug , such as limax maximus , secrete slime cords to suspend a pair during copulation .\nthere will soon be some extra space in the family home as kerry ' s eldest daughter molly wants to be a surgeon and will move to ireland to do a transition year . there she\u2019ll be staying with dad brian mcfadden\u2019s parents .\nkerry said : \u201cmolly wants to be a surgeon . she wants to get really good grades in her gcses so she\u2019s going to ireland to do a transition year . this will give her an extra year of biology and sciences . \u201d\nop is suggesting the existence within the last 20 , 000 years of a direct land bridge from northern spain to kerry . one look at a topographic map of the area would have told him why that ' s utterly and completely impossible\nthe ring takes in a great variety of landscapes \u2013 the famous mountains and lakes of kerry , rolling farmland and rugged heath and moor , ancient woodlandsand some of europe\u2019s most beautiful coastline \u2013 and is home to a huge variety of wildlife .\ni am looking at the impact of clear felling on the species inhabiting a commercial conifer plantation in connemara , investigating its habitat preferences , abundance and impact on the sympatric slug species lehmannia marginata .\nthe slime also contains pheremones that help slugs find mates . since the banana slug is a hermaphrodite - - each animal having both male and female reproductive organs \u2013 the task is not especially difficult .\nironically , neither the kerry slug nor the castle need have caused any delay to the macroom by - pass , which is at the heart of the intense local pressure to build this road . the castle is 6 kilometres from macroom and the snail more than twice that . the macroom by - pass is actually part of the planned cork \u2013 killarney dual carriageway . if the council had settled for a by pass it could have been build 10 years ago .\n= 6 of each colour morph ) were sacrificed using chloroform vapour and 1 cm \u00d7 1 cm skin samples from the slug mantle ( effectively all the mantle ) were removed following rowson et al . [\n\u201cthis will be the first full survey in 30 years and we\u2019re asking people to be the lookout for the slug , \u201d said dr mcdonnell , who is starting work in the glengarriff area this week .\nbut the road , which would have been part of the 21km macroom bypass project , has been shelved because of budgetary cutbacks . so , slug is safe for a few more years , at least .\nbody mucus provides some protection against predators , as it can make the slug hard to pick up and hold by a bird ' s beak , for example , and the mucus itself can be distasteful .\na brown and yellow spotted slug curled up into a tight ball so that its head is withdrawn completely , its mantle edge and tail are nearly touching , and none of its foot surface is exposed .\nthe mucus coating that most folks call slime is certainly a signature attribute . it actually serves many useful purposes . in addition to helping the slug avoid dehydration , the mucus helps the slug slide along the ground on the muscular foot covering its lower body , protects the animal\u2019s soft body from sharp rocks , twigs , and other hazards , and discourages predators with its foul taste and mouth - numbing anesthetic effects .\nmost mammals native to ireland and long established introduced species are found in the park . the bank vole was first identified in 1964 in northwest kerry . its range has now expanded and now includes the park . pine marten is another notable species in the park .\nhesse , the slight darkening of juveniles observed after 84 days of feeding trials in this study is likely to be a natural result of growth . as in some other slug species ( e . g . in\nthe mucus secreted by the foot contains fibres that help prevent the slug from slipping down vertical surfaces . the\nslime trail\na slug leaves behind has some secondary effects : other slugs coming across a slime trail can recognise the slime trail as produced by one of the same species , which is useful in finding a mate . following a slime trail is also part of the hunting behaviour of some carnivorous slugs .\na three - year research project has been completed on the kerry slug , the first of its kind on the species . this has developed a safe method of trapping and locating slugs using baited refuge traps . the project also provided information on the movements of slugs in woodland and on boulder fields . unsurprisingly , the research found that most slugs do not appear to move far . however more information is needed to determine whether the species can recolonise areas it has become extinct in .\nreich i , gormally mj , allcock al , mcdonnell rj , castillejo j , iglasias j , quinteiro j , smith cj . genetic study reveals close links between irish and northern spanish specimens of the protected lusitanian slug\n( a 180\u00b0 twisting of the internal organs ) during development . internally , slug anatomy clearly shows the effects of this rotation\u2014but externally , the bodies of slugs appear more or less symmetrical , except for the positioning of the\ncan a small , slimy , shell - less , forest - dwelling gastropod whose diet includes animal droppings and other dead stuff develop an enthusiastic fan following ? you\u2019re darn right . consider these facts about the banana slug :\n. . . free - living slugs were photographed from six sites in ireland across the western counties of galway , kerry and cork ( fig . 1 ) . sites were selected on the basis that previous surveys had found high numbers of kerry slugs in these areas [ 30 , 33 , 34 , 35 ] . forested sites were a combination of conifer plantations and oak woodlands ( fig . 1 : sites 1 , 3 and 5 ) , and open habitats surveyed were blanket bog areas ( fig . 1 : sites 2 , 4 and 6 ) . . . .\nits distribution and status in ireland is summarised by platts & speight ( 1988 ) . it is common in parts of west cork , south kerry and north kerry , in areas where acidic devonian sandstone rocks outcrop . its presence there is an old biogeographical puzzle but , along with other so - called lusitanian elements of the irish fauna and flora , it is possible that it was accidentally introduced at an early date by man . in the stone and early bronze ages commerce between iberia and south - west ireland was well - developed and could have provided the mechanism for transfer .\nslugs do not have a good public profile and most would consider them at best unpleasant and at worst , pests . the kerry slug cannot be accused of being a pest as it is only found in the wild landscapes of the south and west . the animals themselves are attractively marked with white or cream spots on a black or brown background . black slugs predominate in heathlands , whereas the brown form is only found in woodlands . however this is not fixed and the black slugs can be seen in wooded areas .\nscientists assume that the irish yellow slug originally came from the black sea region ( north - eastern turkey , caucasus , crimea peninsula and bulgaria ) . from there it has been introduced in several other parts of the former soviet union . besides , the irish yellow slug , as its name indicates , is present in ireland , as well as in parts of great britain . in continental europe , the species is expected to be found , especially in france .\nshirley mdf , rushton sp , young ag , port gr ( 2001 ) simulating the long - term dynamics of slug populations : a process - based modelling approach for pest control . j appl ecol 38 : 401\u2013411 . doi :\nthe basis for my research is the kerry slug geomalacus maculosus . this species is only found in ireland and northern spain and portugal , exhibiting a typical disjunct \u2019lusitanian\u2019 distribution . due to this narrow range it is listed as a protected species in article 17 of the eu habitats directive and has further protection under irish legislation . there is a lack of quantitative data on favourable management practices , the habitat size required to sustain populations and genetic variation across its home range , so my work is focusing on closing these knowledge gaps :\nirish yellow slug a medium to large slug with pale greenish - grey body overlaid with large irregular dark green markings . keel very short , sole whitish or yellowish . mucus pale yellow to deep orange . tentacles grey to bluish . a common variant has the dark mottling broken up into fine spots which create a spotted appearance rather similar to that of limacus flavus which it appears to displace . a late introduction from south - east europe , now widespread and common .\n. ) , demonstrating greater levels of boldness and exploratory behaviour , respectively . such consistent intraspecific behavioural types may also be common to other slugs , and studying their occurrence could have useful practical implications . for example , the grey field slug\nduring sunny , warm weather the slug takes refuge under mosses , in cracks on boulders , and behind the vegetation at the base of sandstone rocks . surveys at dawn , dusk , and during the night in spain have also proved successful .\nwe are delighted that you have recognized and publicized our charisma . thank you , thank you ! . . . seriously , though , thanks for your great fun facts on our namesake , the banana slug . keep up your great blog .\nlarge black slug arion ater a large roundback slug varying in colour through browns to black , with a similarly coloured , dull foot fringe and exhibiting a strong rocking response when stimulated . ubiquitous up to moderate altitudes . it is predominantly olive - , yellow - , reddish - to dark - brown or black with sole of more or less the same shade or lighter . a jet black form occurs on peatlands . the foot fringe is lined and coloured a similar shade to the back .\nalmost as impressive : his laundry list of on - field incidents , from kicking cardinals running back larry centers in the head , to spitting in the face of 49ers wide receiver j . j . stokes , to breaking the jaw of panthers quarterback kerry collins on a vicious helmet - to - helmet hit .\nireland . normally it is found in oak dominated woodland and unimproved open moor or blanket bog . within these habitats it is only present if there are sandstone outcrops and boulders largely bare of vegetation except for lichens , mosses and liverworts on which the species is thought to feed . ' we need to get the public involved in this survey to extend our knowledge of the kerry slug ' s distribution within ireland ' says dr . rory mc donnell , applied ecology unit , national university of ireland , galway . ' this is an easily identifiable slug ' says rory , ' with two colourations , both with spots . they are either brown with yellow spots , typical of woodland specimens or black with white spots , typical of peatland specimens . lastly , when disturbed , the slug curls itself up into a defensive ball . we encourage observers to submit a photograph with their records . rory heads up the collaboration between the national parks and wildlife service ( npws ) the applied ecology unit at the national university of ireland , galway and biology . ie .\nsnails ' veliger larvae already have primordial organs of an adult snail , such as eyes , tentacle stumps and the shell lid ( operculum ) . there is also a shell , which is reduced later in shell - less ( slug ) species .\n\u2019 geomalacus maculosus : why is this lusitanian slug species thriving in a commercial forestry plantation 200km north of its previously known distribution ? \u2019 oral presentation at the world congress of malacology 2013 , ponta delgada , sao miguel , azores islands , portugal .\nandrews managed , however , to get his specimen to another young naturalist , george allman , graduating in medicine at trinity college . after some dissection , allman introduced the slug to science as a new species , geomalacus maculosus , or \u201cspotted earth mollusc\u201d .\nthe more we learn about banana slugs , the more we come to appreciate that their presence enriches and helps to stabilize the ecosystems they inhabit . by feeding on detritus , they help to recycle nutrients and make them available for new growth . slug excretions not only provide nitrogen - rich fertilizer , but also help to disperse spores and seeds needed for forest plant regeneration . since the banana slug\u2019s ecological niche is not yet fully understood , we shouldn\u2019t be surprised to learn that there are other praiseworthy contributions .\npartial map of ireland showing survey sites ( black circles ) inside the distribution range of g . maculosus ( shaded area ) . conifer ( 1 ) and blanket bog ( 2 ) habitats at oughterrard , co . galway ; conifer habitat at tooreenafersha , co . kerry ( 3 ) ; blanket bog habitat adjacent to uragh woods , co . kerry ( 4 ) ; oak forest habitat at glengarriff nature reserve , co . cork ( 5 ) and blanket bog at leahill bog , co . cork ( 6 ) . black squares show the locations of galway , cork and dublin cities for reference . map modified from g . kindermann , 2016\u00a9\ntoday , its range in kerry and parts of cork is mostly on moors and in woods between the mountains , from killarney west to the dingle peninsula . the humid air and high rainfall of the region lets it roam among the rocks of open bog and lake shores ( where it is generally greeny - black with creamy white spots ) , as well as in the oakwoods ( where it is more typically ginger , with yellowy spots ) . it shares with its spanish and portuguese ancestors an affinity with old , weathered rocks , such as kerry\u2019s acid red sandstone , with rich rugs of lichens , mosses and liverworts for both food and shelter .\nthere are many species of sea slugs in irish waters that are usually only seen by scuba divers . however , sometimes a few get washed up on the shore and are easily overlooked once they are encrusted in sand . the internal shells of the sea slug"]}
{"id": 2200, "summary": [{"text": "agonopterix perezi is a moth of the depressariidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found on the canary islands and madeira .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 16 \u2013 20 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are tawny reddish fuscous with smoky black suffusion and speckling .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are shining pale cinereous .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on ruta pinnata .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they roll the leaves of their host plant .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the larvae are pale green . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "agonopterix perezi", "paragraphs": ["agonopterix perezi walsingham , [ 1908 ] ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1907 : 957 , pl . 52 , f . 8\nredescription of agonopterix selini ( heinemann , 1870 ) with description of agonopterix lessini sp . n . and agonopterix paraselini\nagonopterix kuznetzovi lvovsky , 1983 ; ent . obozr . 62 ( 3 ) : 594\nagonopterix flurii sonderegger , 2013 ; contr . nat . history 21 : ( 1 - 14 )\nagonopterix banatica georgesco , 1965 ; rev . roum . biol . ( zool . ) 10 : 113\nagonopterix dumitrescui georgesco , 1965 ; rev . roum . biol . ( zool . ) 10 : 111\nagonopterix abditella hannemann , 1959 ; dt . ent . z . 6 ( 1 - 3 ) : 40\nagonopterix graecella hannemann , 1976 ; dt . ent . z . 23 ( 4 - 5 ) : 233\nagonopterix inoxiella hannemann , 1959 ; dt . ent . z . 6 ( 1 - 3 ) : 38\nagonopterix ordubadensis hannemann , 1959 ; dt . ent . z . 6 ( 1 - 3 ) : 34\nagonopterix subumbellana hannemann , 1959 ; dt . ent . z . 6 ( 1 - 3 ) : 42\nagonopterix chaetosoma clarke , 1962 ; ent . news 73 : 93 ; tl : japan , hoshu , kii , nati\nagonopterix cluniana huemer & lvovsky , 2000 ; nachr . ent . ver . apollo nf 21 ( 3 ) : 135\nagonopterix issikii clarke , 1962 ; ent . news 73 : 96 ; tl : japan , honshu , sinano , tobira\nagonopterix ( subagonopterix ) vietnamella subgen . nov . et spec . nov , of flat moths from south - eastern asia\nagonopterix socerbi sumpich , 2012 ; nota lepid . 35 ( 2 ) : 162 ; tl : slovenia , crni kal - socerb\nagonopterix dierli lvovsky , 2011 ; zoosyst . rossica 20 ( 1 ) : 149 ; tl : nepal , east khumjung , 3800m\nagonopterix medelichensis buchner , 2015 ; zootaxa 3986 ( 1 ) : 107 ; tl : italy , prov . verona , monte , 300m\nagonopterix mendesi corley , 2002 ; nota lepid . 24 ( 4 ) : 26 ; tl : portugal , algarve , praia de castelejo\nagonopterix heracliana ; karsholt , lvovsky & nielsen , 2006 , nota lepid . 28 ( 3 / 4 ) : 184 ; [ fe ]\nagonopterix mikkolai lvovsky , 2011 ; zoosyst . rossica 20 ( 1 ) : 151 ; tl : nepal , kathmandu , phulchoki mt . , 1700m\nagonopterix paraselini buchner , 2017 ; gortania 38 : 94 ; tl : austria , lower austria , eichkogel near m\u00f6dling , 48\u00b04 . 8n ; 16\u00b016 . 6e\nagonopterix parinkini lvovsky , 2011 ; zoosyst . rossica 20 ( 1 ) : 151 ; tl : nepal , e . bujan , dudh kosi tal , 2900m\n= agonopterix nigrinotella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 26 ; [ nacl ] , # 868 ; [ nhm card ]\nagonopterix ( depressariini ) ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 15 , 9 ; [ nacl ] , 11 ; [ fe ]\nagonopterix bipunctifera ; ridout , 1981 , ins . matsumurana 24 : 32 , pl . 1 , f . 3 , pl . 3 , f . 13 ; [ nhm card ]\nagonopterix takamukui ; ridout , 1981 , ins . matsumurana 24 : 34 , pl . 1 , f . 6 , pl . 3 , f . 14 ; [ nhm card ]\nagonopterix toega hodges , 1974 ; moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 30 , pl . 1 , f . 38 - 40 ; tl : san clemente island , california\nagonopterix l - nigrum ; ridout , 1981 , ins . matsumurana 24 : 32 , pl . 1 , f . 4 , pl . 4 , f . 18 ; [ nhm card ]\nagonopterix sapporensis ; ridout , 1981 , ins . matsumurana 24 : 33 , pl . 1 , f . 5 , pl . 3 , f . 15 - 16 ; [ nhm card ]\nagonopterix hesphoea hodges , 1975 ; j . lep . soc . 29 ( 2 ) : 89 ; tl : texas , culberson co . , sierra diablo 20 mi . nnw van horn , 6000ft\nagonopterix amyrisella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 42 ; [ nacl ] , # 898 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix psoraliella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 39 ; [ nacl ] , # 891 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix caucasiella karsholt , lvovsky & nielsen , 2006 ; nota lepid . 28 ( 3 / 4 ) : 180 ; tl : russia , caucasus , 44\u00b009 ' n , 40\u00b004 ' e , majkop , 1300m\nagonopterix cinerariae walsingham , [ 1908 ] ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1907 : 955 , pl . 52 , f . 7 ; tl : tenerife , arafo ; barranco lorez , near orotava\nagonopterix dammersi clarke , 1947 ; j . wash . acad . sci . 37 ( 1 ) : 4 , f . 1 - 1a , 8 ; tl : forest home , san bernardino co . , california\nagonopterix chrautis hodges , 1974 ; moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 28 , f . 2d - e , h , pl . 1 , f . 33 ; tl : jemez springs , new mexico\nagonopterix paulae harrison , 2005 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 107 ( 1 ) : 164 ; tl : illinois , piatt co . , univ . of illinois - robert allerton park , lost garden trail\nagonopterix thelmae clarke , 1941 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 90 ( 3107 ) : 96 , pl . 44 , f . 259 ; tl : oak station , allegheny co . , pennsylvania\nagonopterix oregonensis clarke , 1941 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 90 ( 3107 ) : 65 , pl . 31 , f . 176 , pl . 42 , f . 241 ; tl : salem , oregon\nagonopterix cajonensis clarke , 1941 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 90 ( 3107 ) : 82 , pl . 31 , f . 180 , pl . 42 , f . 244 ; tl : cajon valley , california\nagonopterix amissella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 39 , pl . 2 , f . 27 ; [ nacl ] , # 890 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix arnicella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 33 , pl . 2 , f . 7 ; [ nacl ] , # 879 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix clarkei ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 24 , pl . 1 , f . 19 ; [ nacl ] , # 863 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix clemensella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 24 , pl . 1 , f . 18 ; [ nacl ] , # 862 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix costimacula ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 39 ; harrison & berenbaum , 2005 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 107 ( 1 ) : 164 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix gelidella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 20 , pl . 1 , f . 4 ; [ nacl ] , # 855 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix hyperella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 22 , pl . 1 , f . 5 ; [ nacl ] , # 856 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix latipalpella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 42 , pl . 3 , f . 4 ; [ nacl ] , # 897 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix lecontella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 37 , pl . 2 , f . 35 ; [ nacl ] , # 886 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix muricolorella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 23 , pl . 1 , f . 13 ; [ nacl ] , # 860 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix pergandeella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 38 , pl . 2 , f . 41 ; [ nacl ] , # 888 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix senicionella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 34 , pl . 2 , f . 6 ; [ nacl ] , # 881 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix walsinghamella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 27 , pl . 1 , f . 30 ; [ nacl ] , # 869 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix nervosa ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 41 , pl . 2 , f . 42 - 47 ; [ nacl ] , # 895 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; [ fe ]\nagonopterix curvilineella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 23 , pl . 1 , f . 11 - 12 ; [ nacl ] , # 859 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix dimorphella clarke , 1941 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 90 ( 3107 ) : 97 , pl . 31 , f . 179 , pl . 40 , f . 229 ; tl : henry , putnam co . , illinois\nagonopterix eupatoriiella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 25 , pl . 1 , f . 24 - 25 ; [ nacl ] , # 866 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix flavicomella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 34 , pl . 2 , f . 4 - 5 ; [ nacl ] , # 880 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix fusciterminella clarke , 1941 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 90 ( 3107 ) : 80 , pl . 28 , f . 167 , pl . 44 , f . 258 ; tl : dunca , vancouver island , british columbia\nagonopterix lythrella ; [ nacl ] , # 857 ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 22 , pl . 1 , f . 6 - 8 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix nebulosa ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 40 , pl . 2 , f . 25 - 26 ; [ nacl ] , # 894 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix nigrinotella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 26 , pl . 2 , f . 13 - 15 ; [ nacl ] , # 868 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix nubiferella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 23 , pl . 1 , f . 9 - 10 ; [ nacl ] , # 858 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix posticella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 41 , pl . 3 , f . 1 - 3 ; [ nacl ] , # 896 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix pteleae ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 25 , pl . 1 , f . 22 - 23 ; [ nacl ] , # 865 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix pulvipennella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 26 , pl . 1 , f . 26 - 29 ; [ nacl ] , # 867 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix robiniella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 34 , pl . 2 , f . 29 - 33 ; [ nacl ] , # 882 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix rosaciliella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 32 , pl . 1 , f . 41 - 45 ; [ nacl ] , # 876 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix sabulella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 29 , pl . 1 , f . 24 - 35 ; [ nacl ] , # 872 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix sanguinella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 37 , pl . 2 , f . 11 - 12 ; [ nacl ] , # 885 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix jezonica ; kuroko , 1959 , 35 ; [ nhm , ( nom nud . ) card ] ; ridout , 1981 , ins . matsumurana 24 : 34 , pl . 2 , f . 7 - 8 , pl . 4 , f . 17\nagonopterix ciliella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 32 , pl . 1 , f . 46 ; [ nacl ] , # 877 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; [ fe ]\nagonopterix cratia hodges , 1974 ; moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 35 , pl . 2 , f . 34 ; tl : walnut canyon , 6500 ' , 6 1 / 3 mi e by s . flagstaff , coconino co . , arizona\nagonopterix argillacea ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 38 , pl . 2 , f . 8 - 10 , 16 , 28 ; [ nacl ] , # 889 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix atrodorsella ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 25 , f . 1a , pl . 1 , f . 20 - 21 ; [ nacl ] , # 864 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix canadensis ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 33 , pl . 1 , f . 47 , pl . 2 , f . 1 - 3 ; [ nacl ] , # 878 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix cajonensis ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 28 ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 29 , pl . 1 , f . 37 ; [ nacl ] , # 874 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix dammersi ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 43 ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 29 , pl . 1 , f . 36 ; [ nacl ] , # 873 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix antennariella ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 15 ; [ nhm card ] ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 40 , pl . 2 , f . 22 - 24 ; [ nacl ] , # 893 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix dimorphella ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 47 ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 38 , pl . 2 , f . 38 - 40 ; [ nacl ] , # 887 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix oregonensis ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 103 ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 24 , pl . 1 , f . 14 - 17 ; [ nacl ] , # 861 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix thelmae ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 137 ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 37 , pl . 2 , f . 36 - 37 ; [ nacl ] , # 884 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nagonopterix fusciterminella ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 60 ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 27 , f . 2a - b , g , pl . 1 , f . 31 - 32 ; [ nacl ] , # 870 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nenter the name or part of a name you wish to search for . the asterisk character * can be used as wildcard . e . g . ' papilio * ' . keep in mind that the search is only based on the full taxon name .\nwe are still having problems with the search feature . unfortunately we cannot give a timeline when the advanced search will be fixed .\nthe id resolving service for stable taxon ids is currently under maintenance . meanwhile , please use the name search in order to find the taxon page .\nmuseum f\u00fcr naturkunde leibniz - institut f\u00fcr evolutions - und biodiversit\u00e4tsforschung invalidenstr . 43 10115 berlin germany e - mail : fauna - eu ( at ) mfn - berlin . de website : urltoken\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 15 ; [ nacl ] , 11 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; [ afromoths ]\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 15\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 15 ; [ nacl ] , 11 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\n312x662 ( ~ 85kb ) russia , moscow area , 26 . 4 . 2008 , photo \u00a9 d . smirnov\nthe exact identification of this species is still unknown , but tentatively assumed to belong into this group .\ndepressaria abjectella christoph , 1882 ; bull . soc . imp . nat . moscou 57 ( 1 ) : 16 ; tl : wladiwostok\ndepressaria acerbella walker , 1864 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 29 : 564 ; tl : cape\nacuta stringer , 1930 \u00b2 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 10 ) 6 ( 34 ) : 416\ndepressaria agyrella rebel , 1917 ; dt . ent . z . iris 30 : 193 ; tl : r . agyr [ ? ] , tannuola\nlarva on conium , conium maculatum berenbaum & passoa , 1983 , j . lep . soc . 37 ( 1 ) : 38\ndepressaria amissella busck , 1908 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 9 ( 1 - 4 ) : 89 ; tl : kissimmee , florida\nlarva on amyris floridana hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 42\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 40 ; [ nacl ] , # 893 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nlarva on antennaria luzuloides hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 40\ndepressaria anticella erschoff , [ 1877 ] ; horae soc . ent . ross . 12 ( 4 ) : 344 ; tl : irkutsk\naperta hannemann , 1959 ; dt . ent . z . 6 ( 1 - 3 ) : 43\ndepressaria archangelicella caradja , 1920 ; dt . ent . z . iris 34 ( 1 / 2 ) : 131 ; tl : kasakewitsch\n669x637 ( ~ 88kb ) russia , moscow area , 11 . 9 . 2010 ( 36\u00b025 ' e , 56\u00b000 ' n ) , photo \u00a9 d . smirnov\ncalifornia - british columbia , manitoba , ontario , new brunswick , nova scotia , michigan , south dakota , illinois , texas , florida , utah . see [ maps ]\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 38 ; [ nacl ] , # 889 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nlarva on salix lasiolepis , s . bebbiana , amorpha fruticosa , ptelea trifoliata hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 39\ndepressaria arnicella walsingham , 1881 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1881 : 314 , pl . 36 , f . 3 ; tl : mt . shasta , california\nlarva on erigeron hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 34\ns . quebec , ontario , wisconsin , n . illinois . see [ maps ]\ndepressaria atrodorsella clemens , 1863 ; proc . ent . soc . philad . 2 : 124 ; tl : [ pennsylvania ? ]\nlarva on eupatorium spp . , coreopsis spp . , bidens frondosa , myrica asplenifolia hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 25\nbabaella amsel , 1972 \u00b2 ; beitr . naturk . forsch . s\u00fcdwdtl . 31 : 136\nagonopteryx bakriella amsel , 1958 ; sber . \u00f6st . akad . wiss . ( 1 ) 167 : 559 ; tl : deh bakri , prov . kirman , iran\ndepressaria baleni zeller , 1877 ; horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 253 ; tl : bogota\ndepressaria bipunctifera matsumura , 1931 ; 6000 illust . insects japan . - empire : 1089 ; tl : japan , sapporo\ndepressaria cadurciella chr\u00e9tien , 1914 ; bull . soc . ent . fr . 1914 : 159 ; tl : causse de gramat\nconnecticut , new york , manitoba , s . british columbia - colorado , washington - california , utah , arizona . see [ maps ]\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 33 ; [ nacl ] , # 878 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nlarva on senecio terra hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 33\ncanuflavella ( hannemann , 1953 ) ( agonopteryx ) ; mitt . zool . mus . berl . 29 : 292\ndepressaria caprella stainton , 1849 ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 5 : 157 , pl . 17 , f . 9 ; tl : near lewes\ntinea carduella h\u00fcbner , [ 1817 ] ; samml . eur . schmett . [ 8 ] : pl . 66 , f . 439\nlarva on heracleum mantegazzianum karsholt , lvovsky & nielsen , 2006 , nota lepid . 28 ( 3 / 4 ) : 181\ndepressaria cervariella constant , 1885 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . ( 6 ) 4 : 251 , pl . 10 , f . 13\ndepressaria chironiella constant , 1893 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . 62 : 392 , pl . 11 , f . 4\nalberta - to ( new mexico , california , alberta ) . see [ maps ]\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 32 ; [ nacl ] , # 877 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nlarva on angelica silvestris , a . archangelica , peucedanum palustre , selinum , sium , cicuta , pimpinella saxifraga , seseli , heracleum , ligusticum , carum\nlarva on senecio populifolius , s . heritieri walsingham , [ 1908 ] , proc . zool . soc . lond . 1907 : 956\nagonopteryx [ sic ] clarkei keifer , 1936 ; bull . south calif . acad . sci . 35 : 10 , pl . 4 , pl . 7 , f . 6 ; tl : missouri flat , placerville district , california\nlarva on artermisia vulgaris hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 25\ns . quebec , s . ontario , wisconsin , illinois , ohio . see [ maps ]\ngelechia clemensella chambers , 1876 ; can . ent . 8 ( 9 ) : 173 ; tl : easton , pennsylvania\nlarva on pastinaca sativa hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 24 , heracleum mantegazzianum karsholt , lvovsky & nielsen , 2006 , nota lepid . 28 ( 3 / 4 ) : 184\nhaemylis cnicella treitschke , 1832 ; in ochsenheimer , schmett . eur . 9 ( 1 ) : 237\ndepressaria coenosella zerny , 1940 ; zs . wiener entver . 25 ( schlu\u00df ) : 45 , pl . 11 , f . 14 \u2642 ; tl : pelur ( 2000m ) ; rehde - demawend\ndepressaria comitella lederer , 1855 ; verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 5 : 232 , pl . 5 , f . 5\ndepressaria communis meyrick , 1920 ; ann . s . afr . mus . 17 ( 4 ) : 288 ; tl : cape colony , table mtn\ndepressaria compacta meyrick , 1914 ; ann . s . afr . mus . 10 ( 8 ) : 249 ; tl : cape colony , capetown\nlarva on salix , ( wide leafed ) s . caprea , s . aurita , s . cinerea , s . repens\ndepressaria crassiventrella rebel , 1891 ; verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 41 : 627\ndepressaria crypsicosma meyrick , 1920 ; ann . s . afr . mus . 17 ( 4 ) : 287 ; tl : cape colony , table mountain , 2500ft\ncuillerella amsel , 1972 \u00b2 ; beitr . naturk . forsch . s\u00fcdwdtl . 31 : 137\ne . ontario , manitoba , massachusetts , new york - south carolina . see [ maps ]\ndepressaria curvilineella beutenm\u00fcller , 1889 ; ent . amer . 5 : 10 ; tl : new york\ndepressaria cyclas meyrick , 1910 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 1 ) : 166 ; tl : dalhousie , kashmir\ncynarivora meyrick , 1932 \u00b2 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 8 - 9 ) : 280\ndepressaria cyrniella rebel , 1929 ; verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 79 : 45\nlarva on senecio douglasii , eriophyllum hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 29\nagonopteryx demissella hannemann , 1958 ; dt . ent . z . 5 1 : 456\ndeliciosella turati , 1924 \u00b2 ; atti soc . ital . sci . nat . 63 : 174 , pl . 5 , f . 61\ndeltopa meyrick & caradja , 1935 \u00b2 ; mat . microlep . fauna chin . prov . : 80\ndideganella amsel , 1972 ; beitr . naturk . forsch . s\u00fcdwdtl . 31 : 136 , pl . 1 , f . 3\nsouth carolina , illinois , e . nebraska , kansas , arkansas . see [ maps ]\nlarva on amorpha fruticosa hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 38\ndepressaria divergella caradja , 1920 ; dt . ent . z . iris 34 ( 1 / 2 ) : 128 ; tl : tjutjuje\ndepressaria dryocrates meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 100 ; tl : natal , kirkloof\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 15 ; [ nhm card ]\nelbursella hannemann , 1976 ; dt . ent . z . 23 ( 4 - 5 ) : 234\ndepressaria encentra meyrick , 1914 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 8 ) : 252 ; tl : japan\ndepressaria epichersa meyrick , 1914 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 8 ) : 253 ; tl : china , ta - tsien - lon\npennsylvania , illinois , north carolina , kentucky , maryland . see [ maps ]\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 25 ; [ nacl ] , # 866 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nlarva on eupatorium , actinomeris alternifolia , carya ovata hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 26\ndepressaria erythrella snellen , 1884 ; tijdschr . ent . 27 : 161 , pl . 8 , f . 7 , 7a ; tl :\nchanka - meer\n; suifun\ndepressaria exquisitella caradja , 1920 ; dt . ent . z . iris 34 ( 1 / 2 ) : 132 ; tl : kasakewitsch\nfarsensis hannemann , 1958 ; dt . ent . z . 5 1 : 457\ndepressaria ( schistodepressaria ) ferocella chr\u00e9tien , 1910 ; schmett . eur . 2 : 340\nlarva on cirsium ferox spuler , 1910 , schmett . eur . 2 : 340\nconnecticut , s . manitoba , north carolina , indiana , illinois . see [ maps ]\ndepressaria flavicomella engel , 1907 ; ent . news 18 ( 7 ) : 276 ; tl : new brighton , pennsylvania\nlarva on heracleum lanatum , taenidia integerrima hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 34\nlarva on bupleurum fruticosum walsingham , 1903 , ent . mon . mag . 39 : 267\nhungary , dalmatia , asia minor , . . . . see [ maps ]\nlarva on senecio aronicoides , cacaliopsis nardosmia hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 28\ndepressaria fuscovenella rebel , 1917 ; verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 67 ( s . b . ) : 18 ; tl : ain draham , tunis\ngalbella hannemann , 1959 ; dt . ent . z . 6 ( 1 - 3 ) : 36\ndepressaria gelidella busck , 1908 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 9 ( 1 - 4 ) : 90 ; tl : winnipeg , manitoba , canada\nlarva on salix , betula papyrifera hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 22\ndepressaria glabrella turati , 1921 ; naturalista sicil . 23 ( 7 - 12 ) : 338 , pl . 4 , f . 45 ; tl : tangier , morocco\ndepressaria glyphidopa meyrick , 1928 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 14 - 15 ) : 475 ; tl : natal , weenen\ndepressaria grammatopa meyrick , 1920 ; ann . s . afr . mus . 17 ( 4 ) : 287 ; tl : cape colony , table mountain , 2500ft\n= ; [ nhm card ] ; karsholt , lvovsky & nielsen , 2006 , nota lepid . 28 ( 3 / 4 ) : 184\n= ; [ nhm card ] ; karsholt , lvovsky & nielsen , 2006 , nota lepid . 28 ( 3 / 4 ) : 184 ; [ fe ]\n= ; karsholt , lvovsky & nielsen , 2006 , nota lepid . 28 ( 3 / 4 ) : 184\ndepressaria homogenes meyrick , 1920 ; ann . s . afr . mus . 17 ( 4 ) : 288 ; tl : cape colony , gt . winthoek , 4500ft\ndepressaria hypomarathri [ = hippomarathri ] nickerl , 1864 ; wiener ent . monat . 8 ( 1 ) : 3 , pl . 5 , f . 8\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 22 ; [ nacl ] , # 856 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nlarva on hypericum prolificum , h . perforatum hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 22\ndepressaria conterminella var . atrella caradja , 1920 ; dt . ent . z . iris 34 ( 1 / 2 ) : 131 ; tl : kasakewitsch\ndepressaria iliensis rebel , 1936 ; dt . ent . z . iris 50 : 96\nintersecta filipjev , 1929 \u00b2 ; ann . mus . zool . leningrad 30 : 11 , pl . 1 , f . 10 , pl . 2a , f . 2\ninvenustella ( hannemann , 1953 ) ( agonopteryx ) ; mitt . zool . mus . berl . 29 : 293\ndepressaria lacteella caradja , 1920 ; dt . ent . z . iris 34 ( 1 / 2 ) : 130 ; tl : kasakewitsch\nagonopteryx [ sic ] latipalpella barnes & busck , 1920 ; contr . nat . hist . lepid . n . am . 4 ( 3 ) : 233 ; tl : san benito , texas\nlatipennella zerny , 1934 \u00b2 ; dt . ent . z . iris 48 : 24 , pl . 1 , f . 8\ndepressaria lecontella clemens , 1860 ; proc . acad . nat . sci . philad . 12 : 174\nlarva on baptisia tinctoria hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 38\ncroatia , france , greece , italy , slovenia , turkey . see [ maps ]\ndepressaria leucadensis rebel , 1932 ; zs . \u00f6st . entver 17 ( 8 ) : 55 ; tl : greece\ndepressaria l - nigrum matsumura , 1931 ; 6000 illust . insects japan . - empire : 1091 ; tl : japan , sapporo\nnova scotia , new brunswick , ontario , illinois , north carolina . see [ maps ]\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 22 ; [ nacl ] , # 857 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nlarva on lythrum alatum , hypericum punctatum , h . virginicum hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 23\nastria , italy , slovakia , hungary , greece , . see [ maps ]\ndepressaria melanarcha meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 316 ; tl : barberton\nlarva on centaurea sphaerocephala corley , 2002 , nota lepid . 24 ( 4 ) : 26\nmetamelopa meyrick , 1931 \u00b2 ; bull . acad . roum . 14 : 72\nmiyanella amsel , 1972 ; beitr . naturk . forsch . s\u00fcdwdtl . 31 : 136 , pl . 1 , f . 1\nmonotona caradja , 1927 \u00b2 ; mem . sect . stiint . acad . rom . 4 ( 8 ) : 33\ndepressaria muricolorella busck , 1902 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 24 ( 1268 ) : 741 ; tl : golden , colorado\nlarva on lomatium macrocarpum , l . grayi , leptotaenia multifida hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 24\ndepressaria nanatella stainton , 1849 ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 5 : 154 , pl . 17 , f . 2 ; tl : charlton sand - pit\ndepressaria aridella mann , 1869 ; verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 19 : 385 ; tl : brussa ; spalato\ndepressaria nebulosa zeller , 1873 ; verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 23 ( abh . ) : 237 ; tl : cambridge , massachusetts\nlarva on antennaria plantaginifolia hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 40\ndepressaria neoxesta meyrick , 1918 ; ann . transv . mus . 6 ( 2 ) : 31 ; tl : zululand , eshowe\nbritish columbia - california , nevada , . . . , eu , . . . , ? . see [ maps ]\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 41 ; [ nacl ] , # 895 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; [ fe ]\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 41 ; [ nacl ] , # 895 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nlarva on ulex europaeus , cytisus scoparius , laburnum , genista hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 41\nnew york , s . quebec , s . ontario , nw . wisconsin , arkansas . see [ maps ]\ndepressaria nigrinotella busck , 1908 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 9 ( 1 - 4 ) : 88 ; tl : cincinnati , ohio\nlarva on carya , ptelea trifoliata , zanthoxylum americanum hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 27\ndepressaria nodiflorella milli\u00e8re , 1866 ; icon . desc . chenilles lepid . 2 : 214 , pl . 73 , f . 8 - 11\ndepressaria nubiferella walsingham , 1881 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1881 : 316 , pl . 36 , f . 6 ; tl : rogue river , oregon\nlarva on hypericum perforatum hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 23\ndepressaria nyctalopis meyrick , 1930 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 18 - 20 ) : 621 ; tl : comoro is . , grand comoro\ndepressaria occaecata meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 13 ) : 391 ; tl : syria , beirut\nlarva on salix , s . repens , ( middle europe also ) betula , quercus\ndepressaria oinochroa turati , 1879 ; bull . soc . ent . ital . 11 : 200 , pl . 8 , f . 13\nomelkoi lvovsky , 1985 ; trudy zool . inst . leningr . 134 : 97\nlarva on lomatium caruifolium , l . marginatum , l . nudicaule , l . utriculatum , angelica hendersonii , a . lucida , eryngium vaseyi , oenanthe sarmentosa , sanicula bipinnatifida , sanicula laciniata , s . nevadensis , s . tuberosa hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 24\npallidior stringer , 1930 \u00b2 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 10 ) 6 ( 34 ) : 417\npanjaoella amsel , 1972 \u00b2 ; beitr . naturk . forsch . s\u00fcdwdtl . 31 : 137\naustria , france , germany , slowenia , switzerland , turkey . see [ maps ]\nlarva on zanthoxylum americanum harrison & berenbaum , 2005 , proc . ent . soc . wash . 107 ( 1 ) : 166\ndepressaria pavida meyrick , 1913 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 4 ) : 114 ; tl : asia minor , taurus mts\ndepressaria pergandeella busck , 1908 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 9 ( 1 - 4 ) : 89 ; tl : nebraska\ndepressaria petasitis standfuss , 1851 ; zs . ent . breslau ( lepid . ) ( 16 ) : 51\nsyllochitis petraea meyrick , 1910 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 2 ) : 462 ; tl : maskeliya , madulsima , matale , wellawaya , kegalle , puttalam , ceylon\ndepressaria posticella walsingham , 1881 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1881 : 315 , pl . 36 , f . 5 ; tl : lake co . ; mendocino co . , california , s . oregon\nlarva on psoralea physodes , p . macrostachya , p . tenuiflora hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 42\nprobella ( hannemann , 1953 ) ( agonopteryx ) ; mitt . zool . mus . berl . 29 : 292\npseudorutana turati , 1934 \u00b2 ; atti soc . ital . sci . nat . 73 : 201 , pl . 3 , f . 26\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 39 ; [ nacl ] , # 891 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nlarva on psoralea lanceolata , p . physodes hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 40\nagonopteryx [ sic ] pteleae barnes & busck , 1920 ; contr . nat . hist . lepid . n . am . 4 ( 3 ) : 231 , pl . 28 , f . 13 , pl . 38 , f . 1 ; tl : decatur , illinois\nlarva on ptelea trifoliata hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 25\nnew hampshire , s . manitoba , missouri , lousiana , colorado . see [ maps ]\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 26 ; [ nacl ] , # 867 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nlarva on solidago , urtica hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 26\ndepressaria pupillana wocke , 1887 ; bresl . ent . z . 12 : 62\nceu , seu , asia minor , iran , palestine . see [ maps ]\ndepressaria remota meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 13 ) : 392 ; tl : palestine , haifa\ndepressaria rimulella caradja , 1920 ; dt . ent . z . iris 34 ( 1 / 2 ) : 128 ; tl : kasakewitsch\nrhododrosa meyrick , 1934 \u00b2 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 15 ) : 476\nrhodogastra meyrick , 1935 \u00b2 ; mat . microlep . fauna chin . prov . : 80\nnova scotia , s . michigan , na . georgia , w . arkansas . see [ maps ]\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 34 ; [ nacl ] , # 882 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nlarva on robinia pseudoacacia hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 35\nalaska , w . saskatchewan - washington - california , arizona . see [ maps ]\n: skyline ridge , 2500 - 3000 ' , mt baker district , whatcom co . , washington\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 32 ; [ nacl ] , # 876 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nlarva on angelica arguta , a . hendersonii , conioselinum chinense , ligusticum apiifolium , oenanthe sarmentosa , osmorhiza chilensis , osmorhiza occidentalis , echinopanax horridum hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 32\nroseocaudella stringer , 1930 \u00b2 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 10 ) 6 ( 34 ) : 417\nagonopteryx rubristricta walsingham , 1912 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 136 , pl . 4 , f . 31 ; tl : guatemala , totonicapam , 8500 - 10500ft\nrubrovittella caradja , 1926 \u00b2 ; dt . ent . z . iris 40 : 168\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 29 ; [ nacl ] , # 872 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nlarva on eriophyllum confertiflorum , e . lanatum , eriophyllum stachaediflorum hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 29\nsalangella amsel , 1972 \u00b2 ; beitr . naturk . forsch . s\u00fcdwdtl . 31 : 137 , pl . 1 , f . 5\ndepressaria sanguinella busck , 1902 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 24 ( 1268 ) : 738 ; tl : pinal mts . , arizona\nlarva on robinia neoxmexicana hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 37\ndepressaria sapporensis matsumura , 1931 ; 6000 illust . insects japan . - empire : 1092 ; tl : japan , sapporo\nscopariella calycotomella ( amsel , 1958 ) ( depressaria ) ; zs . wiener ent . ges . 43 ( schlu\u00df ) : 73\naustria , croatia , finland , france , germany , greece , hungary , italy , romania , slovakia , slovenia , spain , turkey . see [ maps ]\ndepressaria selini heinemann , 1870 ; schmett . dtl . scweitz . ( 2 ) 3 : 167\nlarva on peucedanum palustre , p . oreoselinum , selinum carvifolium , ligusticum lucidum buchner , 2017 , gortania 38 : 81\ndepressaria senicionella busck , 1902 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 24 ( 1268 ) : 742 ; tl : district of columbia\nlarva on senecio aureus hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 34\ndepressaria septicella snellen , 1884 ; tijdschr . ent . 27 : 162 , pl . 8 , f . 8 ; tl : chabarowska\ndepressaria seraphimella chr\u00e9tien , 1929 ; amat . papillons 4 : 194 , pl . 5 , f . 9\ndepressaria silerella stainton , 1865 ; ent . mon . mag . 1 : 221\nlarva on siler aquilegifolium stainton , 1865 , ent . mon . mag . 1 : 222\ndepressaria squamosa mann , 1864 ; wien . ent . mon . 8 ( 6 ) : 185 , pl . 4 , f . 13\ndepressaria stigmella moore , 1878 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 5 ) 1 ( 3 ) : 237 ; tl : yangihissar ( 4320ft ) , kashgar\ndepressaria straminella staudinger , 1859 ; stettin ent . ztg 20 ( 7 - 9 ) : 238 ; tl : chiclana\nnaf , seu , ceu , asia minor , syria . see [ maps ]\nsutschanella caradja , 1926 \u00b2 ; dt . ent . z . iris 40 : 43\ntabghaella amsel , 1953 \u00b2 ; mitt . zool . mus . berlin 20 : 294 , pl . 10 , f . 69\ndepressaria takamukui matsumura , 1931 ; 6000 illust . insects japan . - empire : 1902 ; tl : japan , chikugo\ndepressaria thurneri rebel , 1941 ; isv . tsarsk . prirodonauch . inst . sofia 14 : 7\nlarva on sanicula hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 30\ntolli hannemann , 1959 ; dt . ent . z . 6 ( 1 - 3 ) : 37\ntriallactis meyrick , 1935 \u00b2 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 18 - 19 ) : 594\ndepressaria trimenella walsingham , 1881 ; trans . ent . soc . 1881 ( 2 ) : 251 , pl . 11 , f . 19 ; tl : spring valley\ndepressaria tschorbadjiewi rebel , 1916 ; verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 66 : 45 ; tl : burgas\nvasta amsel , 1935 \u00b2 ; mitt . zool . mus . berl . 20 ( 2 ) : 294 , pl . 10 , f . 58\nnova scotia , s . quebec , s . ontario , wisconsin , connecticut , new york , pennsylvania . see [ maps ]\n= ; hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 27 ; [ nacl ] , # 869 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nlarva on myrica aspleniifolia , m . gale , l . pensylvanica hodges , 1974 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 2 : 27\nxylinopis caradja , 1931 \u00b2 ; bull . acad . roum . 14 : 14\nn . africa , canary is . , seu , . . . . see [ maps ]\ncryptolechia eoa meyrick , 1910 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 1 ) : 165 ; tl : khasis\nleptopa ( diakonoff , 1952 ) ( cryptolechia ) ; ark . zool . ( 2 ) 3 ( 6 ) : 84\nmalaisei ( diakonoff , 1952 ) ( cryptolechia ) ; ark . zool . ( 2 ) 3 ( 6 ) : 86\ntinea deplanella h\u00fcbner , [ 1805 ] ; samml . eur . schmett . [ 8 ] : f . 274\ndepressaria furvella f . jezonica matsumura , 1931 ; 6000 illust . insects japan . - empire : 1090 ; tl : japan , saghalin\ntinea rubidella h\u00fcbner , 1796 ; samml . eur . schmett . [ 8 ] : pl . 32 , f . 221\ndepressaria urzhumella krulikowsky , 1909 ; dt . ent . z . iris 21 ( 4 ) : 266 ; tl : kasan\n[ afromoths ] de prins , j . & de prins , w . , 2013\nsangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;\n[ spl ] varis , v . ( ed ) , ahola , m . , albrecht , a . , jalava , j . , kaila , l . , kerppola , s . , kullberg , j . , 1995\n[ \u00b2 ] this may require parentheses or not . i don ' t have the necessary information for this taxon .\nergebnisse der \u00f6sterreichischen iran - expedition 1949 / 50 . lepidoptera ii . ( microlepidoptera )\nicones insectorum rariorum cum nominibus eorum trivialibus , locisque e c . linnaei . . . systema naturae allegatis . holmiae\nthe natural history of british insects ; explaining them in their several states . . . with the history of such minute insects as require investigation by the microscope\ngenera insectorum eorumque characters naturales secundum numerum , figuram , situm et proportionem . . .\nspecies insectorum exhibentes eorum differentia specifica , synonyma auctorum , loca natalia , metamorphosin adiectis , observationibus , descriptionibus . tom ii\nneuere beitr\u00e4ge zur schmetterlingskunde mit abbildungen nach der natur . ( 17 - 32 )\nlepidoptera britannica , sistens digestimen novam lepidopterorum quae in magna britannica reperiunter . . . adjunguntur dissertationes variae ad historiam naturalam spectantes\nsystematische bearbeitung der schmetterlinge von europa , zugleich als text , revision und supplement zu j . h\u00fcbner ' s sammlung europ\u00e4ischer schmetterlinge , die schaben und federmotten , ( 1847 - ) 1853 - 1855 )\nthe moths of america north of mexico including greenland . fascicle 6 . 2 . gelechioidea , oecophoridae\n) in the caucasus , with a discussion of the nomenclature of a . heracliana ( linnaeus )\nsystema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum clases , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , symonymis , locis . tomis i . 10th edition\nsystema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , . . . . editio duocecima reformata . tom . 1 . part ii .\nlepidoptern gesammelt w\u00e4hrend dreier reisen nach dalmatien in den jahren 1850 . 1862 und 1868\ndescriptions of lepidopterous insects collected the late dr . f . stoliczka during the indian - government mission to yarkund in 1873\nmicrol\u00e9pidop\u00e8res de la haute syrie , r\u00e9colt\u00e9s par m . ch . delagrange , et , et descriptions de 27 esp\u00e8ces nouvelles\nzerny , 1940 mikrolepidopteren aus dem elburs - gebirge in nord - iran zs . wiener entver . 25 : 20 - 24 , ( schlu\u00df ) : 42 - 48\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more"]}
{"id": 2202, "summary": [{"text": "aethes rubigana , the burdock conch , is a moth of the family tortricidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by treitschke in 1830 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in most of europe , except the iberian peninsula and part of the balkan peninsula .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "outside of europe , it is found in china ( beijing , hebei , heilongjiang , jilin , liaoning , ningxia ) , japan and russia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 15 \u2013 19 millimetres ( 0.59 \u2013 0.75 in ) .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on wing from late june to august in western europe .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on the seedheads arctium species ( including arctium lappa and possibly arctium minus ) .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "full-grown larvae overwinter from october in a cocoon on the ground or occasionally in the seedhead .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "pupation takes place within this cocoon . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "aethes rubigana", "paragraphs": ["aethes rubigana ( burdock conch ) - norfolk micro moths - the micro moths of norfolk .\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\ntakiaisk\u00e4tk\u00f6k\u00e4\u00e4ri\u00e4inen\nto\naethes rubigana treitschke 1830\n.\nhans - martin braun added the english common name\nburdock conch\nto\naethes rubigana treitschke 1830\n.\naethes rubigana \u00a72 ; ham fen , kent ; 10 / 08 / 2010 ; fw 6 . 8mm \u00a9 chris lewis\nmale genitalia : comparing images in mbgbi5 . 1 ( p206 figs 60 , 61 ) the most apparent difference between a . cnicana and a . rubigana occurs in the shape of the valva . the ventral margin comprises a short anterior portion and a long lateral portion , the two meeting at a rounded angle . the anterior portion is longer in a . rubigana than in a . cnicana ( moth dissection refers to this by indicating a relatively broad base to the valva in a . rubigana ) . i have been unable to find a more absolute way of describing this difference ( the lateral : anterior portion ratio is ~ 3 in both species ) . the base of the valva between its anterior and posterior attachments to the vinculum is also longer in a . rubigana than in a . cnicana , such that this distance is > the distance between the two posterior attachments in a . rubigana and < = this distance in a . cnicana . pierce and metcalfe gives : ' sacculus well - rounded ' in a . cnicana and ' hardly rounded ' in a . rubigana - i think this refers to the junction between the anterior and lateral portions of the ventral margin of the valva - and there is no difference in either the rounding or the angle between the two portions in the illustrations in mbgbi5 . 1 ; p & m also gives : socii longer in a . rubigana ; transtilla broader in a . cnicana . the illustrations in mbgbi5 . 1 show a small cornutus in the aedeagus of a . cnicana but not in a . rubigana - moth dissection indicates that this cornutus is variable but leaves open the possibility that when it is present the species should be a . cnicana .\nid : very similar to a . cnicana which averages smaller ( ws : 14 - 17mm ) and has a slightly earlier flight season ( jun - jul ) , however there is overlap for most of the size range and for most of the flight season . they can be separated by the following features : 1 . colour of fascial markings : ferruginous in a . cnicana , dark brown in a . rubigana . ( may not be reliable ? ) 2 . breadth of dorsal portion of median fascia : fairly constant without a dorsal expansion and relatively narrow in a . cnicana ( median fascia occupies < 1 / 5 of length of dorsum ) ; expands at dorsum and relatively broad in a . rubigana ( median fascia occupies > = 1 / 5 of length of dorsum ) . 3 . angle of dorsal portion of median fascia : shallower in a . cnicana - a line drawn along the centre of the dorsal portion of the median fascia and extended to the costa cuts the costa near the distal end of the costal portion of the median fascia in a . cnicana and at some distance distal to this point in a . rubigana ( see images opposite ) . 4 . interruption of median fascia at its angle between the dorsal and costal portions : not usually interrupted completely in a . cnicana , usually interrupted completely in a . rubigana . norfolk moths also gives the presence of a distinct sub - terminal blotch edged black along its dorsal edge and dark spots along the costa between the median fascia and proximal costal bar as being diagnostic of a . rubigana . the former seems unconvincing to me and the latter may be present in both species as far as i can see .\na rather attractive species , with more distinct markings than some of its close relatives , it is locally but widely distributed throughout the british isles .\nthe moths fly from late june to august , from dusk into the night .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 07 - 07 12 : 20 : 43 page render time : 0 . 2365s total w / procache : 0 . 3065s\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\napprox length ( c . 9 . 5mm ) wingspan ( 15 - 19 mm . )\nrecorded in 55 ( 80 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1874 . last recorded in 2018 .\nunderlying maps using digital map data \u00a9 norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola\u2122 2018 . \u00a9 james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data \u00a9 nola\u2122 2018\n\u00a75 romansleigh , devon ; 28 / 06 / 2016 ; male ; fw 7 . 4mm all images \u00a9 chris lewis\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\noccasionally at light in monks soham during july 1917 - 35 ( mly ) ; not uncommon among burdock at brandon ( barrett ) ; bentley woods in 1901 ( pyett ) , orford in 1903 ( emm . 1904 , 80 ) , bred at hollesley in 1933 ( whit ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nclick here to support naturespot by making a donation - small or large - your gift is very much appreciated . thank you .\nwingspan 15 to 19 mm . a rather attractive species , with more distinct markings than some of its close relatives .\nit is locally but widely distributed throughout the british isles . in the butterfly conservation ' s microlepidoptera report 2011 this species was classified as common .\nfairly frequent but not common in leicestershire and rutland . l & r moth group status = b ( scarce resident or restricted distribution or regular migrant ) .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .\nbl\u00e5 punkter visar fynd registrerade i artportalen och \u00f6vriga databaser anslutna till lifewatch . kan inneh\u00e5lla observationer som inte \u00e4r validerade . kartan uppdateras var fj\u00e4rde vecka .\ni det avancerade verktyget kan man s\u00f6ka ut och f\u00e5 fram artlistor , t ex arter i ett visst l\u00e4n , i en viss biotop , substrat , som p\u00e5verkas av en hotfaktor , eller som \u00e4r knutna till en sk v\u00e4rdart , t ex tr\u00e4det alm . dessa kan \u00e4ven kombineras .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , knutna till alm , \u00e4r beroende av d\u00f6d ved och som finns i kronobergs l\u00e4n .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , lever i sm\u00e5vatten och som p\u00e5verkas negativt av igenv\u00e4xning .\ndefaultl\u00e4get i verktyget \u00e4r arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade 2015 och dessa \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga s\u00f6kfaktorer . under fliken r\u00f6dlistekategori kan man dock v\u00e4lja att \u00e4ven inkludera arter som inte \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade . om man v\u00e4ljer att inkludera icke r\u00f6dlistade arter beh\u00f6ver man vara medveten om att samtliga arter inte \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga faktorer . nedan en sammanst\u00e4llning av vad som \u00e4r komplett .\ndenna funktion anv\u00e4nds n\u00e4r du vill skapa din egen lista av arter att hantera . du kan t . ex . navigera mellan arterna i listan genom att klicka p\u00e5 deras namn . du kan ocks\u00e5 v\u00e4lja att anv\u00e4nda knappen \u201dj\u00e4mf\u00f6r arter\u201d f\u00f6r att se bilder , kartor och k\u00e4nnetecken i en j\u00e4mf\u00f6relsevy .\ndu kan komponera ditt eget urval av arter genom att klicka dig fram via sl\u00e4kttr\u00e4det och d\u00e4r v\u00e4lja arter eller artgrupper till din lista . ett annat s\u00e4tt att g\u00f6ra ditt urval \u00e4r att anv\u00e4nda fliken \u201dfiltrera\u201d , d\u00e4r du kan s\u00f6ka p\u00e5 olika egenskaper . ovanf\u00f6r listan med s\u00f6kresultatet finns en knapp \u201dl\u00e4gg i mitt urval\u201d .\nthe mit license copyright ( c ) 2014 - 2016 google , inc . urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\nthe mit license ( mit ) copyright ( c ) 2011 - 2015 twitter , inc permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright ( c ) 2008 - 2013 sprymedia limited urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright 2008 - 2015 martin wendt , urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright jquery foundation and other contributors , urltoken this software consists of voluntary contributions made by many individuals . for exact contribution history , see the revision history available at urltoken the following license applies to all parts of this software except as documented below : = = = = permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software . = = = = all files located in the node _ modules and external directories are externally maintained libraries used by this software which have their own licenses ; we recommend you read them , as their terms may differ from the terms above .\nthe mit license ( mit ) - urltoken copyright ( c ) steven sanderson , the knockout . js team , and other contributors urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright ( c ) 2009\u20132015 permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright 2005 - 2014 openlayers contributors . all rights reserved . redistribution and use in source and binary forms , with or without modification , are permitted provided that the following conditions are met : 1 . redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice , this list of conditions and the following disclaimer . 2 . redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice , this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and / or other materials provided with the distribution . this software is provided by openlayers contributors ` ` as is ' ' and any express or implied warranties , including , but not limited to , the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose are disclaimed . in no event shall copyright holder or contributors be liable for any direct , indirect , incidental , special , exemplary , or consequential damages ( including , but not limited to , procurement of substitute goods or services ; loss of use , data , or profits ; or business interruption ) however caused and on any theory of liability , whether in contract , strict liability , or tort ( including negligence or otherwise ) arising in any way out of the use of this software , even if advised of the possibility of such damage . the views and conclusions contained in the software and documentation are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as representing official policies , either expressed or implied , of openlayers contributors .\nfirst for dumfries & galloway was found at barony college at parkgate on 9th july 1982 during a scottish entomologists ' meeting .\nfirst was found at kirkdale bank on 10th july 1999 during a ' grey daggers ' moth group field meeting .\nother sites : auchenshore on auchencairn bay , bar hill near knockbrex , clifton , mersehead rspb ."]}
{"id": 2205, "summary": [{"text": "the green chromide ( etroplus suratensis ) is a species of cichlid fish from freshwater and brackish water in southern india and sri lanka .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "other common names include pearlspot cichlid , banded pearlspot , and striped chromide .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "in kerala in india it is known locally as the karimeen .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "this fish is native to sri lanka and coastal regions of india .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "many populations are likely introductions .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is also introduced in singapore , where it occurs in estuaries .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the adult is oval in shape with a short snout .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is gray-green in colour with dark barring and a dark spot at the base of the pectoral fin .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "it commonly reaches 20 centimetres ( 7.9 in ) in length , and the maximum length is twice that .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "this species lives in brackish water habitat types , such as river deltas .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it eats mainly aquatic plants , but it consumes the occasional mollusc , diatoms , and other animal matter .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "this species engages in attentive parental care in which several adults care for each brood .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "in 2010 this species was named the official state fish of kerala .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the following year was declared \" the year of the karimeen \" .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "karimeen pollichadhu , a fried dish , is a delicacy served in restaurants .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "it is familiar to tourists , but because it is very expensive it is not easily accessible to the common man .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "production of the species for food is expected to increase in the near future .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "they are more closely related to the paretroplus fishes from madagascar . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "green chromide", "paragraphs": ["the green chromide has a green or gold tinted oval shaped body with dark vertical bars . there are often gold spots found on the upper half of the body . the green chromide stays slender compared to other cichlid species .\nthe green chromide ( etroplus suratensis ) is also known by tropical fish keeping enthusiasts as the pearl spot , banded pearl spot , banded chromide , banded etroplus , karimeen , or pearlspot cichlid .\nsouthern india : green chromides are found in the fresh and brackish water habitats .\netroplus suratensis can tolerate freshwater for short periods of time but prefers brackish conditions . use fine sand for the substrate and provide hiding places with caves or wood . open swimming spaces must be provided . green chromide lives in a brackish water . even though they are aggressive in small tanks , they are peaceful in big tanks when there are at least 6 of green chromide fish .\nthe green chromide has a green , greenish brown , or gold tinted oval shaped body with six dark vertical bars on the body ( excluding those on the head and caudal peduncle ) . gold spots are distributed over the body of the fish , primarily on the upper half .\nthe green chromide cichlid inhabits brackish estuaries , coastal lagoons , the lower reaches of rivers and a number of freshwater habitats including a number of inland lakes . it is a hardy species that can breath atmospheric air .\ngreen chromide ( etroplus suratensis ) from lim , kelvin k . p . & jeffrey k . y . low , 1998 . a guide to the common marine fishes of singapore . singapore science centre . 163 pp .\nit\u2019s sometimes referred to using alternative vernacular names , most commonly \u2018pearl spot\u2019 , \u2018banded pearl spot\u2019 , \u2018banded chromide\u2019 , or \u2018karimeen\u2019 .\nthe green chromide is a relative peaceful species that can be kept in fresh or brackish water aquariums with other asian cichlids , archer fish , or similar sized loaches with the same water parameters . etroplus suratensis can live in freshwater environments , but they prefer brackish water conditions .\ncompared to other cichlid species , the green chromide keeps a \u201cslender\u201d body profile . although there is no sure visible way to determine the sex of green chromides ; males that are the same age as females tend to be larger and during breeding , the males develop more intense colors and black occipital stripes between the eye and opercle . females will develop a reddish , swollen , modified ovipositor during breeding .\ntan heok hui and lionel ng chin soon . 28 oct 2016 . green chromides spawning at sentosa . singapore biodiversity records 2016 : 141 - 142 .\nof the ten green chromide fry i obtained about 11 months ago , a pair has formed and they have spawned for the second time . here they are just finishing up , their pink eggs hanging from tiny threads . this second time , the parents chose exactly the same place on an artificial tree stump to deposit them , apparently sensing it to be the safest , most easily defended site .\nsuneetha gunawickrama , k . b . , 2007 - ruhuna journal of science 2 : 70 - 81 morphological heterogeneity and population differentiation in the green chromid etroplus suratensis ( pisces : cichlidae ) in sri lanka .\nquality flakes and pellets can provide the staple diet . vegetable matter should also be given in the form of spinach , peas , and lettuce . green chromides will also accept treats of blood worms and brine shrimp .\ngreen chromides are substrate spawners that may also use caves as spawning sites . wild fish in sri lanka breed twice a year from december to april and again from june to september during the pre monsoon and monsoon seasons . during these periods , water salinity increases and the water becomes cleaner .\ngreen chromide etroplus suratensis family cichlidae updated oct 2016 where seen ? this large colourful fish is often seen in groups in our mangroves at sungei buloh wetland reserve and pasir ris . the fish is native to india and sri lanka and was introduced to singapore , possibly through the aquarium trade . it has since escaped and are now breeding in our waters . features : up to 30cm , usually about 20cm long . oval with a short snout and small mouth . greyish green with 6 to 8 dark bars , a dark spot at the base of the pectoral fins , many scales with a pearly spot . it is sometimes called the pearlspot . what does it eat ? it is mainly herbivorous feeding on filamentous algae , plant material . it may also eat insects . at sungei buloh , often seen nibbling on jetty legs and mangrove roots . baby chromides : several adults may take care of a single brood that presumably were spawned by only two of the adults . human uses : elsewhere , it is raised in aquaculture and also in the aquarium trade .\ngreen chromides are classed as open water spawners but may use caves as their spawning sites . normally the eggs will be deposited on a flat rock which has previously been cleaned by the parents . the eggs should hatch after 36 hours and the fry will be free swimming a few days later . the fry can be fed on newly hatched brine shrimp , rotifers or crushed flake .\n: an oval - shaped fish with a pointed head . the coloration is olive green to greenish brown . the body is marked with six to eight transverse bars which may at times , be indistinct . each scale has a golden spot and the fins are body - colored . the anal fins may have some blue iridescence . at spawning times , all the colors are enhanced , making the normal dull - coloring look more impressive .\nin an aquarium environment , because they are sexually mature within a year , it is best to place a group of juvenile green chromides together until they pair off . spawning can be induced by gradually increasing the salinity in the breeding tank to replicate the seasonal monsoons . put several flat rocks in the aquarium and slowly increase the salinity in the tank to a brackish level . as the water becomes brackish , pairs will begin digging pits to use as nests .\nminimum tank size : 100 gallons care level : moderate temperament : relatively peaceful with similar sized fish aquarium hardiness : moderately hardy water conditions : 72\u00b0f - 80\u00b0f\u00b0 f , kh 10 - 25 , ph 7 . 0 - 8 . 0 max . size : 16 inches color form : green , yellow , brown diet : carnivorous compatibility : ok with other asian cichlids or loaches of similar size origin : sri lanka family : cichlidae lifespan : 6 - 12 years aquarist experience level : advanced\nis a euryhaline species that inhabits mainly brackish water and river mouths . it is an oval - shaped cichlid with a short snout , small mouth not extending past the front margin of the eye with a greyish - green colouration on the flanks , with 6 to 8 dark bars and a dark spot at base of the pectoral fin . most scales on the sides are with a pearly spot ( costa 2007 ) . macrophytic fragments form the most important component of its diet along with molluscs , although detritus , diatoms , and animal matter are also ingested ( de silva\nsides with 6 to 8 dark bars , a dark spot at base of pectoral fin , many scales on sides with a pearly spot . largely herbivorous , in small groups apparently confined to estuaries along north coast of singapore . to 30 cm . popular aquarium fish , introduced ( native to india and sri lanka ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nmadhusoodana kurup , b . , basheer , v . s . , raghavan , r . & cox , n . a .\netroplus suratensis is assessed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large overall population , even though it has a relatively declining trend in the wild , in kerala .\nis distributed in the coastal regions of peninsular india and sri lanka . in india , the wild populations have been recorded from the states of kerala and tamil nadu . there are also populations in goa , andhra pradesh , orissa and west bengal ( jayaram 1981 & 2010 , biju 2005 ) . these are likely introduced populations ( v . s . basheer pers . comm . ) . the species has now been introduced to dam reservoirs in the mountains and lakes and culture ponds ( rema devi\n( 1990 ) . adults engage in altruistic multiple parental care where several adults care for a single brood that presumably were spawned by only two of the adults ( ward and wyman 1977 ) .\netroplus suratensis is a popular foodfish . it is known locally as karimeen and is considered a delicacy . the species has been introduced to various other man - made habitats like tanks , ponds and dam reservoirs for culture and export .\nare subject to various pressures brought on by people like habitat deterioration brought on by the disposal of solid and liquid wastes and the discharge of human fecal matter from adjacent habitations and an increasing number of tourism resorts and houseboats , which are going beyond the carrying capacity of the backwaters / estuaries . a major threat is from exotic species like\n2009 ) . there have also been reports in the past , of the epizootic ulcerative syndrome ( eus ) disease outbreak , which has been to have spread in south and south - east asia since 1980 ( pathiratne & rajapakshe 1998 ) .\ndespite the species being in high demand , the wild populations of the species have not been given sufficient conservation attention . there have been attempts in the past to create ' no fishing zones ' within some of the larger estuaries and the species did seek refuge in these protected zones . such no - fishing zones should be extrapolated to other regions as well , to guarantee effective genetic preservation . this is declared as the state fish by the government of kerala . captive breeding has been undertaken by padmakumar et al . ( 2004 ) . an aquatic sanctuary was made in vembanad lake for this species . the vembanad lake protection forums has started ' matsyatavalam ' ( home of fishes ) for the sustainable fisheries of this species . cage culture of this species is being practiced in vembanad lake and vypin islands .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nall time favourite : fishermen in kerala , who have been hit by the trawler ban and bad weather , are trying to make a living by operating in the backwaters where the all - time favourite fish , karimeen , is still available . they fetch anywhere between rs . 120 and rs . 180 a kg . photo : h vibhu\nkarimeen ( pearl spot ) , the \u2018upper - middle class ' fish which is a favourite with tourists , is getting a profile uplift .\nkerala fisheries minister s . sarma announced in the assembly this week that the oval - shaped fish , which often serves as kerala ' s icon in the minds of gourmets , will be the official state fish . and , 2010 - 11 is being observed as \u2018the year of karimeen . ' the measure is expected to boost the production of karimeen ( etroplus suratensis ) .\nalready , a dozen states have an official fish . the national bureau of fish genetics resources had in 2008 suggested that states adopt a state fish , \u00e0 la state bird and animal .\nfried pearl spot ( karimeen pollichadhu ) is a delicacy that tops menus at restaurants . few tourists leave without having tasted it . a boat ride in the backwaters while relishing the karimeen pollichadhu is an integral part of an average tourist ' s kerala experience .\nhowever , for the common man , karimeen is too hot a delicacy \u2014 it is one of the most expensive fish . karimeen too is beyond the pocket of the poor .\nthe kuttanad region in alappuzha district is considered the tharavad ( family home ) of the fish . kerala now produces only 2 , 000 tonnes of karimeen . \u201cbecause of the new initiative , the production is expected to go up to 5 , 000 tonnes in a year , \u201d fisheries director p . i . sheikh pareeth said .\ntojo mathew was leaving the uae for good to join his wife in delhi .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nname from the words ' etron ' meaning belly and ' oplon ' for arms ; referring to the spines on the lower side ; that is , the long spinour anal - fin .\nbrackish ; benthopelagic ; depth range 10 - ? m . tropical ; 23\u00b0c - 26\u00b0c ( ref . 2060 ) ; 11\u00b0n - 6\u00b0s\nmaturity : l m 15 . 0 range ? - ? cm max length : 40 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 41236 ) ; common length : 20 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 6028 )\nprimarily found in brackish water but known to tolerate fresh or marine waters for short periods ( ref . 48490 ) . found in large rivers , reservoirs , lagoons and estuaries . feed on filamentous algae , plant material and insects .\nafter spawning , about 500 eggs are laid and attached to a submerged log , rock or sometimes roots and weeds , in still or slow flowing water . parents guard and fan the eggs until hatching , usually about 4 days . the fry shoal around their parents during the first weeks of growth . parents refrain from feeding from the time of spawning until the fry become independent .\npethiyagoda , r . , 1991 . freshwater fishes of sri lanka . the wildlife heritage trust of sri lanka , colombo . 362 p . ( ref . 6028 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 6250 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01660 ( 0 . 00974 - 0 . 02827 ) , b = 2 . 94 ( 2 . 79 - 3 . 09 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 9 \u00b10 . 26 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( tm = 2 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 32 of 100 ) .\nfrom the day we opened the first store in maidenhead , we\u2019ve firmly believed that one key to our success is employing fish keepers .\nno obvious external differences . when spawning , it may be possible to observe the more pointed genital papillae of the male .\n: to 18\n( 46 cm ) in nature , although not larger than 12\n( 30 cm ) in aquaria .\n: southeastern asia ; lives in brackish water river estuaries and moves in schools between pure freshwater and sea water at different times during the year .\n: a 45 - 55 gallon ( 170 - 209 l ) or 40 ( 101 cm ) is sufficient for fish under 8\n( 20 cm ) in length . adult fish need at tank of at least 56\n( 142 cm ) or 75 gallons ( 285 l ) to prosper . use a substrate of coral sand or less ideally , fine gravel . the tank can be well - planted with large , robust plants , although this species is a known plant eater . provide hiding places and retreats with large caves and wood . leave open swimming areas .\n: ph 7 - 9 ( 8 . 0 ) , 12 - 30 dh ( 20 ) , 73 - 81\u00b0f ( 23 - 27\u00b0c ) . a 1 to 1 . 5 % addition of sea salt is necessary . to obtain this dilution rate see suggestions under\n: a shoaling fish that should be kept in groups of at least 6 fish . in smaller schools , quarrels may break out . this fish may be more suitable to salt water community tanks than freshwater tanks . this fish can be kept with other brackish water species including\n, crustaceans , insects ; chopped meat ; pellets ; large flakes ; oatmeal ; plant matter ; vegetables ; spinach , peas , lettuce .\nsex : the only definite difference is the shape of the genital papilla which is visible at spawning times .\n: an open water spawner that lays up to 1000 eggs on a previously cleaned rock or in a cave . they hatch in 36 to 50 hours and are carefully guarded by the parents . the young are free - swimming after 7 - 8 more days . start feeding with\nnauplii , roftiers , and dry foods . the young are susceptible to fungal infections if kept in freshwater , and are difficult to raise even in brackish water . their coloring is different from that of the adults . they have a single transverse band around the mid - section . this band disappears , and for several weeks the fry are just silver . eventually they develop the adult coloring .\n: sexually mature from 6\n( 15 cm ) . this fish ' s colors are enhanced when they are kept in pure sea water .\n: 6 . a large fish that needs to be kept in brackish water .\ncarbon dioxide ( co2 ) emissions generated from urltoken operations ( server , data transfer , travel ) are mitigated through an association with anthrotect , an organization working with afro - indigenous and embera communities to protect forests in colombia ' s darien region . anthrotect is protecting the habitat of mongabay ' s mascot : the scale - crested pygmy tyrant .\nrainforest\nis used interchangeably with\nrain forest\non this site .\njungle\nis generally not used .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nspecimens collected by fishermen in chilika lake in odisha state , india , the world ' s second largest coastal lagoon .\netroplus : from the ancient greek \u1f26\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd ( etron ) , meaning \u2018belly , lower abdomen\u2019 , and \u1f45\u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd ( hoplon ) , meaning \u2018weapon , armour\u2019 , in reference to the prominent spinous anal - fin rays in members of the genus .\nsuratensis : named for the type locality \u201csuratte\u201d , now the city of surat .\ngenerally considered native to peninsular india and sri lanka although some sources state that it is only native to sri lanka and was introduced to india for aquaculture purposes in 1950 .\ngiven that it was described from india in 1790 this would seem unlikely , however , and one of the publications often quoted ( welcomme , 1988 ) refers only to \u2018aquaculture and stocking lakes\u2019 in 1950 , suggesting it was simply introduced to land - locked freshwater environments at that time .\nin addition day ( 1877 ) wrote \u201ci have taken it inland in the wynaad\u201d , i . e . , wayanad district in northeastern kerala .\nin india its range stretches southwards down the western coast from the state of gujarat through maharashtra , goa , karnataka , and kerala states as far as the southern part of the peninsula in tamil nadu state .\nthere also exist records from andhra pradesh , odisha and west bengal states on the eastern coast with these populations also thought to have been introduced for aquaculture .\noccurrences in sri lanka are mostly limited to the western coast and pertain to north , north western , north central , western and southern provinces but there is at least one record from batticaloa in eastern province suggesting it might be distributed around much of the island .\ne . suratensis has also been introduced to peninsular malaysia and singapore where feral populations appear to be thriving .\ntype locality is \u2018suratte , india , 21\u00b012\u2019n , 72\u00b055\u2019e\u2019 , referring to modern - day surat which lies on the lower tapti river in gujarat state , western india .\nthis species is euryhaline and mostly inhabits brackish estuaries , coastal lagoons and the lower reaches of rivers .\nit also occurs in freshwater habitats , however , including a number of inland lakes in sri lanka although it appears to have been introduced intentionally .\nthere exists observational evidence to suggest that it can breathe atmospheric air to an extent , probably an adaptation to conditions of low dissolved oxygen .\nthe congener e . maculatus typically occurs in the same habitats and there exists evidence to suggest that this sympatry is not random and may represent a mutually beneficial relationship with a little cheating on the part of e . maculatus ( see \u2018notes\u2019 ) .\nthis is a gregarious species that is best - maintained in a sizeable group ( see \u2018behaviour and compatibility\u2019 ) meaning only the very largest home aquaria or public installations are suitable for long - term care .\nthis species can be maintained in fresh or brackish water so long as acidic conditions are avoided .\nd\u00e9cor is largely down to personal choice although a degree of structure , perhaps incorporating a sandy substrate , variably - shaped rocks and some driftwood branches , would adequately simulate natural conditions .\nit is intolerant to accumulation of organic pollutants and requires spotless water meaning weekly water changes of 25 - 50 % volume should be considered routine .\nph : 7 . 0 \u2013 8 . 5 , although in sri lanka it has been recorded in brackish lagoons where the salinity ranges from 0 . 02 to 28 . 00 with ph values of 5 . 0 to 9 . 6 .\nobservations of wild fish suggest it to be something of a generalist with a tendency to graze aufwuchs and filamentous algae from solid surfaces .\nthe stomachs of feral specimens in singapore were found to contain detritus , most of the algae groups , crustacean larvae and appendages , animal and plant organic matter , and sand , for example , while the fish themselves were seen biting at floating twigs , grazing submerged plant roots , the bottom of sluice gates and the sides of submerged pillars .\nin the aquarium it can be offered high quality prepared foods but displays a preference for small live or frozen items such as chironomid larvae ( bloodworm ) , tubifex , artemia , mosquito larvae , etc .\nat least some of the dried products should contain a significant proportion of vegetable matter such as spirulina or similar , while chopped peas and suchlike are also useful supplements .\nrelatively peaceful unless breeding and will not predate on any but the smallest fishes .\nin a community setting the addition of a group or two of gregarious , pelagic species to act as \u2018 dithers \u2018 is recommended .\nin freshwater cyprinids such as certain dawkinsia , devario or rasbora spp . are ideal for this purpose while in the brackish aquarium salt - tolerant poeciliid livebearers , e . g . , poecilia sphenops , can be used .\nbest avoided are territorial or otherwise aggressive species , including other cichlids unless the aquarium is very large , and those that require soft , acidic water .\netroplus species are loosely gregarious and tends to form groups unless spawning with juveniles in particular displaying a strong social response when threatened .\na group of 8 + individuals should therefore be the minimum purchase and these will form a noticeable dominance hierarchy once sexual maturity is reached .\nwhen maintained in smaller numbers weaker specimens can become the target of excessive abuse by dominant individuals or the group may fail to settle and behave nervously .\nmales tend to be larger than females of equivalent age but sexing of non - nuptial individuals can be tricky .\nin nuptial males the colour pattern becomes generally more intense and this is normally accompanied by the appearance of black occipital stripes between the eye and opercle .\nthe genital papillae in males is longer and more pointed than of females in which it is broader and rounder .\nin nuptial females the papillae becomes reddish , swollen and appears modified into an ovipositor .\nthis species is a biparental substrate spawner which forms temporary pair bonds when reproductively active .\nobservations of wild fish in sri lanka suggest that there are two such periods each year represented by the dry pre - monsoonal ( december to april ) and monsoonal ( june to september ; the monsoon season is dry in parts of sri lanka ) seasons when water salinity increases and turbidity decreases , the latter thought to benefit the fish via improved visual contact between adults and fry .\nadult e . suratensis were not observed to forage during broodcare , both remaining with the eggs and subsequently fry at all times .\nthis allowed them to select spawning sites with better chances of fry survival whereas during peak breeding season ( july ) e . maculatus laid its eggs in sparser vegetation and exhibited colonial reproductive behaviour , seemingly a \u2018trade - off\u2019 between fry protection and food for the adults .\nthe benefit of the latter behaviour is that one parent would normally remain with the brood while the other left the territory to forage with the roles reversed every few minutes , thus reducing the amount of time and energy devoted to fry care by half compared with e . suratensis but increasing the risk of predation .\nin the aquarium it\u2019s recommended to purchase a group of fish and allow them to select their own partners with young fish normally sexually mature by the age of a year .\nduring courtship a particular site , normally a rock although even the aquarium glass will do , is selected and the surrounding area defended against intruders from that point on .\neggs are deposited in typical fashion and attached via short filaments permitting a degree of movement .\nboth parents participate in guarding the territory and general brood - care such as fanning and mouthing the eggs to keep them sediment - free .\nincubation is approximately 48 - 72 hours depending on temperature with the fry swimming freely in a further 3 - 4 days .\nprior to hatching the adults excavate a number of nursery pits in the substrate surrounding the spawning site and the fry are moved between these until their yolk sacs are absorbed .\nif the fry remain with the adults they will graze on their parents\u2019 body mucus when they are 1 - 3 days free - swimming .\nparental care normally extends until the fry are 30 - 40 mm in length .\nsome breeders prefer to remove the eggs prior to hatching as they \u2018re often eaten by tankmates or the parents themselves , with the most common method being to remove the rock with eggs attached and place it in a separate container with water from the adults\u2019 tank .\nwater movement across the eggs is maintained by placing an air - line or filter outlet close to the rock while any displaying signs of fungus should be removed as they\u2019re noticed .\nonce free - swimming the fry are large enough to accept artemia nauplii and similar immediately .\nthis species is not especially popular in the aquarium hobby but is an important food fish across the majority of its range with some populations having crashed since the turn of the 21st century due to over - exploitation .\nit exhibits a widespread sympatry with the congener e . suratensis throughout its natural range and observations of wild fish provide evidence of a symbiotic relationship between the two in the tidal negombo lagoon , southwestern sri lanka .\ne . maculatus acted as a cleaner for the larger e . suratensis , removing parasites and suchlike by grazing the body and fins but the nutrition these provide is considered debatable and therefore not the benefit gained from the task .\nmore remarkably , the advantage to e . maculatus is hypothesised to be overall health , and therefore reproductive success , of e . suratensis because it is an active predator of its relative\u2019s offpsring .\ngroups of e . maculatus were seen consuming entire batches of e . suratensis eggs and fry while the latter displayed an apparently altruistic behaviour in which adult individuals unrelated to the parents would help defend the territory .\netroplus is the only cichlid genus native to the indian subcontinent and sri lanka and currently comprises three species among which e . canarensis is uniquely limited to freshwater and restricted in range while e . maculatus and e . suratensis are euryhaline and relatively widespread .\ne . maculatus can easily be told apart from the others since dark markings on the body are reduced to 1 - 3 dark blotches just above midbody ( unless stressed when short bars may appear in the upper portion of the body with a solid dark posteroventral patch ) and is much paler overall , with the majority of body scales having an orange - red centre .\nthe remaining species both possess a series of normally 6 dark vertical bars on the body ( excluding those on the head and caudal peduncle ) but in e . canarensis the anterior 3 bars tend to bifurcate as the fish mature , base body colour is buff - grey , and some body scales have a yellowish central patch , whereas in e . suratensis the bars remain solid throughout life , base body colour is greenish - brown , and numerous body scales have a pearly - white central spot .\ne . suratensis is also much the larger fish and capable of exceeding 300 mm sl .\nits closest relative among other cichlids is the malagasy endemic genus paretroplus and these two are sometimes grouped together under the putative subfamily etroplinae .\nthey are an ancient , morphologically distinct lineage and represent the evolutionary sister group to all other cichlids ( sparks and smith , 2004 ) with several unique specialised characters ( sparks , 2001 ; stiassny et al . , 2001 ) .\nthese include complex paired anterior swim bladder chambers that are located within enlarged exoccipital recesses forming a direct otophysic ( mechanical ) connection between the gas bladder and inner ear , highly modified supraoccipital and exocippital bones of the neurocranium , and specialized ligaments associated with the suspensorium and oral jaws .\netroplus can be told apart from paretroplus by a number of characters including : possession of tricuspid ( vs . unicuspid in paretroplus ) teeth ; teeth present in multiple rows in both upper and lower jaws ( vs . a single row of teeth in upper and lower jaws ; teeth numerous in both upper and lower jaws ( vs . teeth few in number ( < 18 in upper jaw , < 14 in lower ) ; paired anterior gas bladder extensions rather typical and tubelike ( vs . paired anterior gas bladder extensions highly - modified with multiple anterior polyplike chambers possessing a tough and thickened tunica externa , and extremely narrow connections ( diverticula ) to the main gas bladder chamber ) ; an elevated number of anal - fin spines ; configuration of the anal - fin pterygiophore \u2044hemal spine complex ( sparks , 2001 ; stiassny et al . , 2001 ) .\nbloch , m . e . , 1790 - berlin : i - xii + 1 - 128 , pls . 217 - 252 naturgeschichte der ausl\u00e4ndischen fische v . 4 .\nday , f . , 1877 - william dawson & sons , london : 369 - 552 the fishes of india ; being a natural history of the fishes known to inhabit the seas and fresh waters of india , burma , and ceylon . part 3 .\nde silva , s . s . , p . maitipe , and r . t . cumaranatunge , 1984 - environmental biology of fishes 10 ( 1 - 2 ) : 77 - 87 aspects of the biology of the euryhaline asian cichlid , etroplus suratensis .\nng , t . h . and h . h . tan , 2010 - journal of fish biology 76 ( 9 ) : 2238\u20132260 the introduction , origin and life - history attributes of the non - native cichlid etroplus suratensis in the coastal waters of singapore .\npadmakumar , k . g . , l . bindu and p . s . manu , 2012 - journal of biosciences 37 ( 1 ) supplement : 925 - 931 etroplus suratensis ( bloch ) , the state fish of kerala .\nsamarakoon , j . i . , 1983 - mahagasar \u2013 bulletin of the national institute of oceanography 16 : 357 - 362 breeding patterns of the indigenous cichlids etroplus suratensis and etroplus maculatus in an estuary in sri lanka .\nsparks , j . s . , 2008 - bulletin of the american museum of natural history 314 : 1 - 151 phylogeny of the cichlid subfamily etroplinae and taxonomic revision of the malagasy cichlid genus paretroplus ( teleostei , cichlidae ) .\nsparks , j . s . , and w . l . smith , 2004 - cladistics 20 : 501 - 517 phylogeny and biogeography of cichlid fishes ( teleostei : perciformes : cichlidae ) .\nward , j . a . and j . i . samarakoon , 1981 - environmental biology of fishes 6 ( 1 ) : 95 - 103 reproductive tactics of the asian cichlids of the genus etroplus in sri lanka .\nward , j . a . and r . l . wyman , 1977 - environmental biology of fishes 2 ( 2 ) : 137 - 145 ethology and ecology of cichlid fishes of the genus etroplus in sri lanka : preliminary findings .\nwelcomme , r . l . , 1988 - fao fisheries technical paper 294 : 1 - 318 international introductions of inland aquatic species .\nit is native to sri lanka and possibly peninsular india , peninsular malaysia and singapore however , it is believed to have been introduced to india and malaysia for aquaculture in the early 1950s .\nbecause of their size , they need a large aquarium of at least 100 gallon capacity with a fine sand or gravel substrate , lots of rock caves and driftwood for them to hide among , and plenty of open swimming space . they are a shoaling species and in an aquarium environment should be housed with at least 8 or more of their own kind to minimize any aggressive behavior . they become aggressive and will eat smaller tank mates when confined in a smaller sized aquarium .\nonce the pair select a rock or other site to lay their eggs on , they will defend the surrounding area against all intruders until the eggs are deposited . the female will deposit her eggs on the flat rocks where they are attached to the substrate with short filaments and will hatch , depending on water temperature , within 48 to 72 hours .\nafter the fry have hatched out , the parents will move the fry for their protection , to the \u201cnursery pits\u201d that they excavated around the spawning site until their egg sacs are absorbed and they become free swimming ( in about 3 to 4 days ) .\nduring this time , like discus , the fry remain with the adults and will graze on their parents\u2019 body mucus until they are fully free swimming . the fry can be then be fed newly hatched baby brine shrimp , rotifers , or finely crushed flake food . both parents stay with the eggs and brood at all times until they are capable of fending for themselves .\nadult etroplus suratensis are easy to feed and will accept a quality flake and pellet food as a staple diet , along with vegetable matter in the form of lettuce , spinach , peas , spirulina wafers , and fresh , frozen or freeze dried bloodworms and brine shrimp .\nunfortunately questions regarding fish , plants , diseases or tank setup will be ignored if submitted via the form below ! in order to ask such a question , please click this link ! the form below shall be used to ask about the website , functionality , issues or to give feedback . thanks a lot !\nwork properly ! please , consider enabling javascript in order to maximise your user experience while browsing .\nwork properly ! please , consider enabling cookies in order to maximise your user experience while browsing .\nusual size in fish tanks : 25 - 30 cm ( 9 . 84 - 11 . 81 inch )\nrecommended water hardness ( dgh ) : 12 - 26\u00b0n ( 214 . 29 - 464 . 29ppm )\nrather don\u2019t breed your fish if you don\u2019t know what to do with fry .\nif you\u2019re about to breed some fish , get parents from different sources to avoid inbreeding .\npufferfish often look cute , however they\u2019re predators and often kill tankmates as they mature ( there are exceptions ) .\nall comments must be submitted by registered members . please , click this link to login or register !\nplease , verify whether your login and password are valid . if you don ' t have an account here , register one free of charge , please .\nunfortunately this page doesn ' t allow discussion . please , find any other page that fits your area of interest as over 99 % of our pages allow discussion . the reason why no discussion is allowed here is this page is too general . thanks a lot for understanding ! click here to search , please !\namong mangrove roots . pasir ris park , feb 12 nibbling on mangrove roots . pasir ris park , feb 12\npearlspot ( etroplus suratensis ) from fishbase : technical fact sheet on the family , including fact sheets on the species .\nbackyard farm aquaculture ( ras ) vlog . . moving the fish , feed rates , ph & cycling the system . .\ncan only be sexed when spawning by viewing the shape of the genital papilla .\nundemanding cave spawners . female lays up to 200 small eggs ( 1 - 1 . 5 mm ) inside large flower pot or similar . both parents tend the eggs .\nthe female secretes a mucus layer on her sides , which the fry feed on . large clutches will sometimes cause damage to mother ' s skin and scales . eventually she chases them away at a size of 10 - 12mm .\nthe other adults generally stay out of the way and do not molest the youngsters much as they grow , but older juveniles will sometimes eat a complete batch of eggs or fry .\nthis is a shoaling fish that should be kept in groups of 6 or more . smaller groups can result in the fish fighting amongst themselves . can be kept with other peaceful but robust brackish tank mates such as\nfeed often with diverse vegetable matter such as frozen chopped spinach , peas or grated carrot . some flake and pellet food is appropriate but minimize protein to avoid overloading the filter .\nwater with good filtration and aeration . salt can inhibit good filter function so plan excess capacity .\nsalt levels should be about 1 / 10 of normal sea - salt concentration . use only aquarium - grade sea salt and not food - grade . increased salt levels can help fight / prevent infection , but reduce filter efficiency . ones suited to complete freshwater are available .\nthey tend to swim in circles so tank width is important - 60cm ( 23 . 6\n) x 60cm ( 23 . 6\n) x 90cm ( 35 . 4\n) minimum tank size for a group of six .\nsome references cite sizes up to 40cm ( 15 . 7\n) , but even large installations such as the london aquarium include few specimens over 20cm ( 7 . 9\n) .\nthis page was last edited on 13 december 2017 , at 02 : 49 .\ncontent is available under creative commons attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license unless otherwise noted .\ncarnivorous - does well with flake or pellet foods supplimented with frozen or live worms .\nother asian cichlids or loaches of similar size ; other fish with similar water parameters .\nto induce breeding , put several flat rocks in the aquarium and slowly increase the salinity of your aquarium to a brackish level . once the water has become brackish , pairs will begin digging pits to use as nests . the female will lay the eggs on the flat rocks or another flat surface ) . after the fry have hatched , the parents will move them to the nesting area for protection ."]}
{"id": 2210, "summary": [{"text": "the short-billed miner ( geositta antarctica ) is a species of bird in the family furnariidae , probably the most southerly breeding passerine in the world .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it weighs around 37 grams ( 1.3 oz ) and is typically around 14 centimetres ( 5.5 in ) in length including the tail , which when in flight is distinctively black with white edges .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "geositta antarctica can be distinguished for the more widespread common miner by its much shorter bill and the absence of any rufous in the flight feathers .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "its natural habitat is entirely within the patagonian steppe , and it breeds only in areas rain shadowed by the icy andes in santa cruz province and tierra del fuego .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "geositta antarctica migrates as far north as mendoza during the autumn and winter seasons , but keeps to arid areas , and it is most numerous on heavily grazed grassland on the leeward side of tierra del fuego .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "most of its habitat is in sandy soils where it forages for insects singly or in pairs .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the nest is a woven cup of grass-like material , placed usually in a subterranean burrow and three eggs are laid .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "there are reports of mixed-species nesting colonies with other furnariidae species . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "short - billed miner", "paragraphs": ["the short - billed miner is distributed on the patagonian foothills of the andes in argentina and in tierra del fuego . it is found in grasslands and coastal scrub .\ncontrary to what the scientific name suggests , the short - billed miner has never been seen in antarctica . however it is one of the two southernmost miners , broadly sympatric with the similar common miner ( geositta cunicularia ) . the short - billed miner is fond of dry and sandy patagonian steppe , and its center of distribution is the north section of tierra del fuego island , although it does breed in low densities on the continent as well . apart from being shorter - billed than the common miner , the short - billed miner is also quite long - winged . the long wings may be an adaptation to migration , as this species is migratory and moves as far north as mendoza in argentina during the non - breeding period . while similar visually to the common miner , molecular data as well as similarities in song clarify that the andean creamy - rumped miner ( geositta isabellina ) is its closest relative .\ngently rolling plain with short grass . bird was collected ( zmuc 104195 ) .\n15\u201316 cm ; 34\u201340 g . moderate - sized miner with relatively short bill , and no prominent wing markings . has pale supercilium , dark line behind eye ; dull greyish - brown . . .\nremsen , j . v . , jr ( 2018 ) . short - billed miner ( geositta antarctica ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nit has longer wings and a shorter bill . at rest , the primary projection is considerably longer than that of common miner and is about twice the length of the bill . otherwise there are few distinguishing features apart from indistinct streaking on the breast .\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\ns argentina ( s santa cruz s to n tierra del fuego ) and s chile ( magallanes ) ; in non - breeding season w & s argentina ( n to mendoza ) .\na series of doubled notes , \u201cweetuk - weetuk - weetuk - weetuk - weetuk\u201d ; flight call a shrill . . .\nsouthern temperate grassland ; barren plains with sparse grassland , scattered shrubs ; also in sandy . . .\nbreeds in austral summer ; nests with eggs in nov and young in jan in s chile . presumably monogamous . nest at end of tunnel 0\u00b75\u20131\u00b75 m . . .\nmainly resident , e . g . present on tierra del fuego all year round . in argentina , some post - breeding . . .\nnot globally threatened . restricted - range species : present in southern patagonia eba . abundant to fairly common . habitat occupied appears to be reasonably safe from . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\ngenetic data # r # r support earlier findings that sclerurus and geositta are sisters , and are basal to all other furnariid genera ; in recent years , sometimes treated as a separate family .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\na number of birds foraging and chasing each other on a small beach beside a lagoon , about 50ft away .\nvarious calls from a small flock , about 50ft away on edge of lagoon , foraging .\npart of a small flock , about 50ft away on edge of lagoon , foraging .\nflushed from ground in patagonian steppe and flying away , initially at about 40ft .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nthis species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : geositta antarctica . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 298 , 478 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\ntake a look at what you can get upgrading to our premium dictionary for a very low fee . click here for premium dictionary preview\nthis word is part of our premium dictionary version contents . these contents include thousands of difficult , technical , and special - use words and word phrases , including their translations , synonyms and definitions .\nfor a very low fee , gain access to these contents and to the vast lexicon of word magic software , completely ad - free .\nword usage ( idiomatic , slang , colloquial , figurative , formal , etc . . )\nthank you for subscribing to the free trial . please check your email and click on the confirmation link to start your trial .\nthere was an error when trying to login . please be sure to have an active account with us .\nthe email entered is not valid . please enter a valid format email like [ email protected ]\nwelcome to the trial version of our premium online dictionary . you have now limited access to our vast dictionary - 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window synonyms , idiom search facilities plus a unique collection of 40 , 000 color pictures associated with noun entries .\nenter conjugated entries , even spanish enclitic verb conjugations ( i . e . hazlo ; c\u00f3metelo , etc . )\nwe offer you several types of english - spanish translators , the best of which combine automatic , context - sensitive translation plus interactive , user - guided translation . our top version , the translator professional plus 5 , comprises the following features : images for easier meaning selection , a translation options module using a multiple - choice wizard that lets you choose among all possible variations for your translation , voice recognition for dictation capabilities and voice commands that allow you to call out the tasks you need without using mouse or keyboard . download a test trial version below !\n* english definitions from : wordnet 2 . 0 copyright 2003 by princeton university . all rights reserved .\nif you need english to spanish or spanish to english translation software , dictionaries or professional translation services , you ' ve come to the right place .\ndata and apps idaho fish and wildlife information system bringing information to bear on the management and conservation of fish , wildlife , and plants in idaho .\nif you do not see a menu on the left , you may have arrived at this page from another site . please click home to get to my main page .\nif there is no family list to the left , you may have arrived at this page from a direct link . please select\nmangoverde world bird guide\nto view the entire bird site ."]}
{"id": 2218, "summary": [{"text": "spix 's guan ( penelope jacquacu ) is a species of bird in the cracidae family .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is found in bolivia , brazil , colombia , ecuador , guyana , peru , and venezuela .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "its estimated global range is approximately 5,000,000 km \u00b2 and is common in at least parts of this range .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is therefore considered a least concern species by the iucn .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the common name commemorates the german naturalist johann baptist von spix ( 1782-1826 ) . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "spix ' s guan", "paragraphs": [". the spix\u2019s guan is all brown with pale specks on the neck , upper back , and breast . they have grayish bare skin around the eyes and face . sexes are similar and have a bright red throat and dewlap . the spix\u2019s guan is distinguished from the structurally similar\nby much larger size , and larger and more conspicuous red dewlap . the spix\u2019s guan favors mature interior forest while the speckled chachalaca is confined to forest edges and second growth . also see\nthe spix\u2019s guan can be fairly common in lowland amazonia , but has been recorded at elevations of up to 1700 m along the foothill of the andes . this large guan can be fairly common , but it has been extirpated in forest surrounding human settlements due to subsistence hunting pressure by human .\nperhaps the best known member of the cracid family in western south america , the spix\u2019s guan is the prototypical cracid of the amazonian lowlands . it is found in most undisturbed sites in the upper orinoco basin and in the western amazon basin . spix ' s guans primarily feed on fruits in the upper strata of rainforest . its calls are typical sounds of the amazonian dawn chorus .\nmaterial published in urltoken belongs to the author ( s ) and is protected by copyright laws . contributor ( s )\ndel hoyo , j . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . spix ' s guan ( penelope jacquacu ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\n\u2013 suriname , guyana and adjacent e venezuela s of r orinoco ( extending as far w as nw amazonas ) .\ntodd , 1932 \u2013 se venezuela ( c & s amazonas ) and nw brazil n of r amazon and r solim\u00f5es .\n\u2013 amazonia s of r amazon and r solim\u00f5es in w brazil , e colombia , e ecuador , peru and n bolivia .\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nmostly jan\u2013may in s venezuela ; one nest in apr and one male in breeding condition in aug in colombia ; said to begin in aug\u2013sept . . .\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\nschulenberg , t . s . , d . f . stotz , and l . rico . 2006 . distribution maps of the birds of peru , version 1 . 0 . environment , culture & conservation ( ecco ) . the field museum .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' fairly common ' ( stotz et al . ( 1996 ) . trend justification : this species is suspected to lose 8 . 7 - 10 . 4 % of suitable habitat within its distribution over three generations ( 10 years ) based on a model of amazonian deforestation ( soares - filho et al . 2006 , bird et al . 2011 ) . given the susceptibility of the species to hunting and / or trapping , it is therefore suspected to decline by < 25 % over three generations .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nclosely related to p . purpurascens , p . perspicax , p . albipennis and p . obscura . has been considered conspecific with p . obscura , and formerly with p . purpurascens , but tracheal morphology different . has hybridized with p . pileata in captivity . race granti has been considered a separate species , including orienticola as race , but there is extensive intergradation throughout present species . race speciosa formerly treated as a race of p . obscura . four subspecies recognized .\nwing - whirring display given at dawn or dusk , when one bird ( the presumed male ) also gives loud . . .\nfew detailed , long - term studies of diet , but mainly small fruits , e . g . of palms ( including\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . common in many parts of range , except in densely populated areas or where forest has been cleared . in populated areas has changed its . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\njuan sanabria , josep del hoyo , pieter de groot boersma , jonathan , thore noernberg , will carter .\njoe tobias , margareta wieser , oswaldocortes , samantha klein , dubi shapiro , agustin carrasco , thore noernberg , ken havard , mauricio rueda , lochfitty , jacqueserard , allan hopkins , josep del hoyo , lars petersson , luis r figueroa , pedro h ramos , holger teichmann , jacob . wijpkema .\nfor the record ; don ' t like guans . low - pass filtered at 400 hz .\nwhen flushed from ground . humid primary forest . reference : jn1 . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .\nid certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 2 side a track 28 seq . a )\nalong the union trail in secondary forest undergrowth , not far from the clay lick and near the lake . was about 20m from my position . signal increases later into the recording .\nalarm calls . habitat : evergreen lowland forest , flood plain forest . ref : cc11a539\nrecorded at night . probably the bird was frightened by the presence of lophostrix cristata , and my flashlight .\ncertainty : 99 % . not seen . a party of several birds . consists of two parts , taped 80 seconds apart . at forest edge .\nid certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 543 side a track 84 seq . a )\nid certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 543 side a track 80 seq . a )\nid certainty 90 % . ( archiv . tape 57 side a track 34 seq . a )\nid certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 5 side a track 42 seq . a )\nid certainty 90 % . ( archiv . tape 392 side b track 36 seq . a )\nterra firme forest . calls by one of a pair of birds flushed by my approach but which stayed fairly close and then came closer . probably young were nearby .\nperch height 20 m . distance to mike : 45 m . response to playback . bird approached on playback . series of terriorial songs interspersed with alarm calls . habitat : evergreen lowland forest , terra firme forest . ref : nkm03a240\ncalls by single individual . habitat : evergreen lowland forest , flood plain forest . ref : cc12a574\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\n: l . pene = quasi or similar to , and lothos = crest .\n: tupi ( native brasilian ) jacu = native name for this bird , and gua\u00e7u = large .\ncontribute to the knowledge and undertanding of bird distribution in peru . report your rare and unusual sightings :\ncorbidi is a peruvian non - profit organization , whose goal is to develop foundations that support biodiversity conservation .\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : penelope jacquacu . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 297 , 223 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nwe noticed that you ' re using an unsupported browser . the tripadvisor website may not display properly . we support the following browsers :\nmy third trip to shiripuno had not been planned . after staying at shiripuno lodge and siona lodge i planned to go on another trip but that trip was cancelled due to an emergency and , upset and confused , i phoned jungal tour and talked to maria wijkmans . this lady was amazing ! she not only organized my tour in less than one day . . .\n* tripadvisor llc is not a booking agent and does not charge any service fees to users of our site . . . (\ntripadvisor llc is not responsible for content on external web sites . taxes , fees not included for deals content ."]}
{"id": 2236, "summary": [{"text": "the caspian snowcock ( tetraogallus caspius ) is a snowcock in the pheasant family phasianidae of the order galliformes , gallinaceous birds .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in the mountains of eastern turkey , armenia , azerbaijan and throughout the alborz mountains of northern iran .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it breeds at altitudes from 1,800 \u2013 3,000 m ( 5,900 \u2013 9,800 ft ) on bare stony ground with some alpine scrub .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it nests in a bare ground scrape and lays 6 \u2013 9 greenish eggs , which are incubated only by the female .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "its diet consists of seeds and vegetable matter .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it forms small flocks when not breeding . ", "topic": 16}], "title": "caspian snowcock", "paragraphs": ["a caspian snowcock walks on a rocky crag near the chromium mine in the aladag mountain area near \u00e7ukurbag .\na caspian snowcock walks on a rocky crag near the chromium mine in the aladag mountain area near \u00e7ukurbag . | peter horrell photography\nturkey july 21 2011 : a caspian snowcock walks on a rocky crag near the chromium mine in the aladag mountain area near \u00e7ukurbag . copyright 2011 peter horrell\na pair of caspian snowcock feeding on a slope . vayots dzor mountains , armenia . other birds heard in the background : cuckoo , mistle thrush , black redstart , wren , red - billed chough , red - fronted serin .\nsome of the rarest western palearctic birds require a lot of effort and determination to see them . russell slack recounts a trip in july to see one of the rarest resident species , caspian snowcock , an denizen of the mountains of turkey and adjoining countries .\nthe state game reserve of the glinani ( clay ) island was established on an island in the caspian sea near the apsheron peninsula . it is referred to as a fauna type of protected area and serves to protect migratory and wintering waterfowl birds , sea - gull colonies and caspian seal rookeries .\nestablished upon decree of the supreme assembly of the autonomous republic of nakhchyvan of june 22 , 2009 . purpose : conservation of nature complexes or their components , to keep an ecologic balance . location : territories along dereleyi range ( administrative territories of districts of sharur , kangarli , babek and shahbuz ) . area : 68911 ha . vegetation : juniper , himantoglossum formosum , iris . animals : leopard , polecat , bezoar goat , moufflon , caspian snowcock , bearded eagle .\nmcgowan , p . j . k . , kirwan , g . m . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . caspian snowcock ( tetraogallus caspius ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\ndescription location and general description this ecoregion covers the lenkoran lowland and talysh mountains of southeast azerbaijan and adjoining territories of northwest iran along the caspian shoreline . part of the iranian - turanian biogeographic subregion , this area represents the hyrcanian refuge of tertiary flora representatives .\nseveral hundred bird species are found here . some examples are the graylag goose ( anser anser ) , white - fronted goose ( anser albifrons ) , little bustard ( otis tetrax ) , glossy ibis ( plegadis falcinellus ) , eurasian spoonbill ( platalea leucorodia ) , night heron ( nycticorax nycticorax ) , red - breasted goose ( branta ruficollis ) , peregrine falcon ( falco peregrinus ) , pelecanidae , buff - backed heron ( bubulcus ibis = ardeola ibis ) , squacco heron ( ardeola ralloides ) , greater flamingo ( phoenicopterus roseus ) , white - headed duck ( oxyura leucocephala ) , and caspian snowcock ( tetraogallus caspius ) .\nthe lenkoran region occupies lowland areas on the southwestern coast of the caspian sea . a peculiar , semi - subtropical climate with prolonged summer draughts and heavy precipitation in other seasons of the year is typical for this region . the annual average temperature is + 140c , and precipitation ranges from 900 - 1600 mm increasing from south to north .\njustification of ecoregion delineation this ecoregion includes the south caspian coastal plain and northern slopes of the elburz mountains at lower altitudes . ecoregion boundaries were defined using hyrcanian and sub - hyrcanian mesic forests from zohary\u2019s ( 1973 ) geobotanical map of the middle east . there is a strong correspondence to the hyrcanian forests in davis et al . ( 1994 ) .\nhas been included with t . caucasicus and t . himalayensis in a \u201cdark - bellied snowcock\u201d group . races intergrade , and all three may be merely extremes of clinal variation # r ; species has been treated as monotypic # r . race tauricus should not be confused with another proposed taxon of identical name ( tauricus buturlin , 1933 ) , but with different type and type locality ( caucasus ; clearly in error ) # r # r . three subspecies recognized .\nthe caspian tiger ( panthera tigris virgata ) is now extinct . other mammals which still inhabit the area are critically endangered leopard ( panthera pardus ciscaucasica ) , lynx ( lynx lynx ) , brown bear ( ursus arctos ) , wild boar ( sus scrofa ) , wolf ( canis lupus ) , jackal ( c . aureus ) , jungle cat ( felis chaus ) , badger ( meles meles ) , and otter ( lutra lutra ) .\nthe mixed forests of the southern coast of the caspian sea represent a key habitat for many different species of avifauna . migratory species visit the area on stopovers between russia and africa . other species , such as little bustard ( otis tetrax ) , peregrine falcon ( falco peregrinus ) , and squacco heron ( ardeola ralloides ) use it as breeding grounds . hyrcanian forests are relicts from the tertiary . consequently , they are rich in relic and endemic plant species . several protected areas such as the gizil - agach strict nature reserve , the zuvand conservation area and girkan strict nature reserve have been set up to protect threatened flora and fauna . habitat destruction for agriculture use is the main threat to the ecoregion .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\naerc tac . 2003 . aerc tac checklist of bird taxa occurring in western palearctic region , 15th draft . available at : urltoken _ the _ wp15 . xls # .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size may be moderately small to large , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe european population is estimated at 4 , 500 - 10 , 800 pairs , which equates to 9 , 100 - 21 , 700 mature individuals ( birdlife international 2015 ) . europe forms approximately 55 % of the global range so a very preliminary estimate of the global population is 16 , 500 - 39 , 500 mature individuals although further validation of this estimate is needed . the population is therefore placed in the band 16 , 000 - 39 , 999 mature individuals . trend justification : the population is declining owing to habitat degradation caused by over - grazing and , in azerbaijan , conflict and also over - hunting throughout much of its range ( del hoyo et al . 1994 ) . the population trend in europe is unknown ( birdlife international 2015 ) .\nthe following information refers to the habitats of the european population only . the species uses meadows in the sub - alpine and alpine zones between altitudes of 2 , 400 and 4 , 000 m ( tucker and heath 1994 ) and occasionally down to 1 , 800 m . birds are found on steep slopes lacking snow cover and gorges and crags with patches of snow and some herb and grass cover ( mcgowan 1994 ) . birds prefer south - facing slopes in summer and north - facing ones in winter . during winter they avoid areas with a covering of snow and use open ground with steppe - like vegetation instead ( tucker and heath 1994 ) . courtship usually begins in april , with laying in late april and may . typically five to nine eggs are laid ( mcgowan 1994 ) . nests are found on steep slopes in the open , beneath overhanging rocks , amongst stones or in tufts of grass ( tucker and heath 1994 ) . birds feed exclusively on plant material , particularly legumes , feeding on bulbs , flowers , fruit and seeds ( baziev 1978 ) . the species is mainly sedentary and in some areas does not even descend to lower altitudes during heavy snowfall . however some altitudinal movement has been observed in turkey ( mcgowan 1994 ) .\nin europe its alpine habitat is threatened by overgrazing , which is easily reached by shepherds with guns , and with their sheep and dogs . in 1993 most of the species ' s range in azerbaijan was suffering with intensive military activity , and it was feared that poaching and the spread of long range firearms could have drastic effects ( mcgowan et al . 2015 ) .\nconservation actions underway least concern ( fuller et al . 2000 ) . mace - lande : vulnerable . cites i although it is proposed for downgrading to appendix ii ( anon 2012 ) . included on ussr red list in 1978 . considered vulnerable in turkey ( kirwan et al . 2010 ) , as well as georgia , where the population , at the edge of the species ' s range is believed to be very small . the species is found in five important bird areas in armenia , five in azerbaijan , four in georgia and six in turkey ( anon 2012 ) . conservation actions proposed habitat protection is needed and an extensive survey should aim to locate healthy populations in turkey . species does not adapt well to captivity ( mcgowan et al . 1995 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ni ' m very happy to share this sound after couple of months . this sound and the species is very important in my life and as sure i will never forget .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nthis species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size may be moderately small to large , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : tetraogallus caspius . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\n( s . g . gmelin , 1784 ) \u2013 w azerbaijan and nw iran e to s transcaspia .\n55\u201361 cm ; male 2500\u20132684 g , female 1800\u20132344 g ; wingspan 95\u2013105 cm . similar to\nterritorial call a repeated , far - carrying , drawn - out modulated whistle , \u201cwu - oo - wee - lee - uh\u201d , with a . . .\nmountain slopes , mostly from 2400 m up to snowline , but in some places down to 1800 m , and up to . . .\nlays in late apr and may ; courtship usually begins in apr . believed to be monogamous . nests in the open or under a rocky overhang , in a . . .\nmainly sedentary , but some altitudinal movement recorded in turkey . in some areas does not descend . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . mace lande : vulnerable . cites i . included on ussr red list in 1978 . poorly known : based on extent of available habitat and abundance . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nincludes , in tetraonini , all taxa that have commonly been separated in families meleagrididae and tetraonidae .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 290 , 232 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhuge snow partridge found only in alpine and subalpine zones . appears gray overall with fine red - brown , yellow - brown , and black markings on wing coverts and underparts . chin and throat white , with gray cheek stripe and necklace . upper breast bluish - gray sparsely spotted with brown . white wing stripe very conspicuous in flight . females and juveniles smaller , more yellowish - brown on head and neck .\nglides rapidly down slopes on stiff wings before landing on broken rocky ground where very difficult to see ; walks slowly back uphill , feeding along the way . sunbathes on huge boulders . usually indicates presence with a loud piercing whistle , audible for up to one kilometer .\nsteep alpine meadows with numerous rock outcroppings and stony slopes . occurs at 2400 - 3900m , remaining at high elevations even during winter .\ncup of dry grass lined with feathers , usually placed under overhanging rock , in crevice , or within tussock of grass .\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nstatus . a vulnerable species of low numbers . listed in the red data book of the former ussr . listed in the iucn red list of threatened species ( ver . 3 . 1 ) as least concern . according to iucn criteria categorized as vulnerable vu b1a + 2a ; c2a ( i ) ; d1 .\ndistribution . the subspecies is distributed in southern and eastern turkey , lesser caucasus and south caucasus , azerbaijan and northwestern iran .\ndistribution in armenia . occurs in almost all upland landscapes with cliffs and rocks .\nhabitats . lives in high mountains , on steep slopes with rocky outcrops at 2500\u20133500 m above sea level .\nbiological traits . nestles on the ground , beneath the stones . lays eggs once a year , 5\u20138 / clutch . feeds on plants , searching for them on slopes .\npopulation size and its trends . available information is insufficient to judge about the population size . the population density is 0 . 05 individuals / ha on the zangezur ridge and twice as lower on the vardenis , pambak and bazum ridges .\nmajor threats . overgrazing , disturbance inflicted by plant gatherers and shepherd dogs , poaching .\nconservation measures . habitats are partly protected in khosrov forest reserve and shikahogh reserve . listed in appendix i of the cites . it is essential to reconsider the approaches of livestock grazing in uplands , strengthen anti\u2013poaching activities and to raise local awareness . it looks expedient to establish seasonal sanctuaries or temporary safety zones .\nthe territory of the talysh region is formed from paleogenic volcanic and volcanogenic - sedimentary deposits . sulfate - carbonate and hydrocarbon mineral thermal springs are common in this region . hyrcanian forests are relicts from the tertiary . consequently , they are rich in relic and endemic species .\nlowland has been covered by alder ( alnus barbata ) forests : now this areas are almost totally under agricultural and urban lands . characteristic vegetation on the talysh mountain consists of humid oak forests rich in relic and endemic species . for instance , quercus castaneifolia with parrotia persica , zelkova carpinifolia , albizzia julibrissin , diospiros lotus , etc . with shrubs / semi - shrubs ilex hyrcana , ruscus hyrcanus , dana\u00eb racemosa , and lianas - smilax excelsa , hedera pastuchowii , etc . are found in the lower mountain zone . these are replaced by oriental beech forests ( fagus orientalis ) in the middle mountains . upper mountain - subalpine elevations are occupied by steppes and xeric dwarf semi - shrubs ( prilipko , 1970 ) and oriental oak ( quercus macranthera ) which is also characteristic for the elburz mountains . alpine meadows occur at the highest elevations .\nbiodiversity features the distinctive forests of this region include many range - restricted species as quercus castaneifolia , zelkova carpinifolia , parrotia persica , albizzia julibrissin , buxus hyrcana , dana\u00eb racemosa , etc . the region is outstanding for its rich agrobiodiversity with numerous endemic cultivated taxa .\ncurrent status the natural landscape has been considerably altered by intensive agriculture development . tea , vegetables , subtropical fruit , and vine production are main agricultural activities ( azerbaijan 1997 ) . the most important protected protected areas areas in azarbaijan part of this ecoregion are : the gizil - agach strict nature reserve ( 88 , 400 ha wetlands and marine area , designated to protect waterfowl ) , the zuvand conservation area ( 15 , 000 ha , mountain meadows and forests , designated to protect game birds , bear , leopard , and rare reptiles ) , and the girkan strict nature reserve ( 3 , 000 ha , humid thermophilous hyrcanian forests , designated to protect the unique plant communities rich in relic and endemic species ) ( vinogradov et al . 1990 ; gasanov , 1990 ) .\ntypes and severity of threats the main threats to this ecoregion are agriculture , unsustainable forestry practices , and poaching .\nreferences azerbaijan . 1997 . state of the environment report . state committee for the environment , and undp , baku .\ndavis , s . d . , v . h . heywood , and a . c . hamilton , editors . 1994 . centres of plant diversity : a guide and strategy for their conservation . volume 1 . wwf and iucn , cambridge , uk . europe , africa , sw asia , middle east\ngasanov , kh . n . 1990 . girkan strict nature resrve ( zapovednik ) . zapovedniks of the caucasus . publishing house\nmisl\n, moscow .\nmillington s . , and r . gokhelashvili . 2000 . biodiversity assessment for azerbaijan . report to usaid . chemonics international inc , washington , dc .\nworld wildlife fund 1250 24th street , n . w . washington , dc 20037\nthe state game reserve of barda established on the base of the ayridjan protected area , which had existed since 1930 on forestry lands . the main purpose of the area is the preservation and restoration of the number of phasianus , francolinus and hare . this protected area is reffered to as a fauna type area .\nwithin the territory of sheki administrative district , at the basin of the river ayrichay , between the roads yevlakh - sheki and sheki - oghuz .\nit is referred to as a fauna type of protected area , and serves to protect and restore the number of pheasants ( phasianus ) and other valuable birds .\nthe state game reserve of bandovan is referred to as of the fauna type and has been established for the protection and restoration of the number of persian gazelle ( gazella sulgutturosa ) , waterfowl birds and little bustard ( otis tetrax ) . it borders the shirvan national park . in its fauna and flora it is similar to the shirvan park .\nstate game reserve of gerchay was established for the protection of the population of persian gazelle ( gazella sulgutturosa ) .\nthe state game reserve of lachin \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d was established for the preservation and restoration of the number of bezoar goat ( capra aegagrus ) , caucasian brown bear , wild boar and hare . at present the territory of the game reserve is under occupation .\nthe state game reserve of gusar was established for the preservation and restoration of the number of grey partridge ( perdix perdix ) , pheasants ( phasianus ) , roe , wild boar and hare .\nthe state game reserve of shamkir was established for the preservation and restoration of the number of pheasants ( phasianus ) , francolinus francolinus , partridge ( alektoris kakelik ) , waterfowl birds .\nthe state game reserve of zuvand was established for the protection and restoration of the number of pheasant ( phasianus ) , partridge ( alectoris kakelik ) , roe , wild boar , transcaucasian brown bear , leopard and rare reptile species .\nthe state game reserve of ismailli was established for the protection and restoration of the number of caucasian red deer , chamois , goat , roe , wild boar , transcaucasian brown bear , marten , caucasian black cock , tetraogallus and others . the flora and fauna are similar to those of the ismailli reserve .\nthe state game reserve of gubadly was established for the preservation and restoration of the number of caucasian brown bear , bezoar goat ( capra aegagrus ) , wild boar , roe and others . at present the territory of the game reserve is under occupation .\nwithin the territory of lankaran administrative district , in the middle and south parts of the small gyzyl - agach bay .\nthe state game reserve of small gyzyl - agach was established for the portection and restoration of the number of wintering , migrating , and wintering waterfowl - wader and coastal birds , including rare and endangered species . it borders the gyzyl - agach reserve and has similar flora and fauna .\nwithin the territory of gedabey administrative district , in the area of the gyzylja forestry .\nthe state game reserve of gyzylja was established for the protection and restoration of natural complexes on the eastern slopes of the minor caucasian ridge , also for the restoration of the number of rare and endemic species of plants and animals .\nwithin the territory of shusha administrative district , in the outskirts of shusha city .\nthe state game reserve of dashalty was established for the preservation of the unique natural complex and landscape of the minor caucasus . from 1992 it is under occupation and was severely damaged during the military operations .\nthe state game reserve of arazboyu was established for the protection and restoration of the unique natural complexes of the araks tugay forests . at present it is under occupation and is only on the verge of complete degradation .\nthe state game reserve of gabala was established for the preservation of forest landscapes on the southern slopes of the major caucasus ridge and the restoration of the number of rare and endangered species of flora and fauna .\nwithin the territory of gakh administrative district , on the border with the ilisu state reserve .\nthe state game reserve of gakh was established for protection of endangered species of animals .\nwithin the territory of agstafa administrative district , in the area of garayazi forests .\nthe state game reserve of garayazi - agstafa was established for protection of forest landscapes , animals and birds . there are marals , wild boars , wolves , foxes and hares .\nrestrictions : hunting and fishery of protected fauna species conservation values : endemic species and unique flora and fauna hirkan public game reserve was established in december 2005 within 2252 hectares on the basis of forest fund in administrative territories of districts of lankaran and astara . the key goal is the preservation of forests adjoining hirkan national park , the routes of migration of unique and endangered animals included in the red list of the republic of azerbaijan , integrity of ecosystem and biodiversity in those areas . important species leopard , a large number of endemic species , sub - tropical forests , ironwood .\nzagatala public game reserve was established in november 2008 within 6557 hectares on the basis of summer pastures , forest fund of the forest conservation and restoration agency of balakan district in administrative territories of districts of zagatala and balakan . the key objective is coverage of the unified ecosystem in the areas neighboring zagatala public reserve , protection of biodiversity , the routes of migration of unique and endangered animals .\nrvarud public game reserve was established by the order of the cabinet of ministers of the republic of azerbaijan of october 2 , 2009 within 510 hectares in the district of lerik .\nyear of foundation : july 18 , 1969 ( 40 000 ha ) as ordubad state nature sanctuary , in june 16 , 2003 12 131 ha was given to ordubad national park .\nestablished in july 1969 in ordubad district of the autonomous republic of nakhchyvan . 12131 hectares of administrative territory of ordubad district was declared a national park upon the order of the president of the republic of azerbaijan of june 16 , 2003 . the game reserve covers 27869 hectares . the goal is to preserve such unique and precious animals in the area as bezoar goat , chamois , rock squirrel , wolf , jackal , fox , turaj , partridge , pheasant , quail , wood - pigeon . important species black francolin , chucar , wood pigeon , quail , pheasant , bezoar goat , marten , wolf , jackal , fox , leopard .\nestablished on september 23 , 2005 upon order of the speaker of the supreme assembly of the autonomous republic of nakhchyvan . purpose : conservation of nature complexes or their components , to keep an ecologic balance . location : territories along araz river ( administrative territories of districts of sederek , sharur , kangarli , babek , julfa and ordubad ) . area : 9118 ha . vegetation : araz oak , celtis , iris . animals : curly - feather and pink pelicans , spoonbill , bearded eagle , cane cat , manul cat .\nit should be noted that two state natural reserves ( beshitchay and gara gol ) and four state reserves ( lachyn , gubadly , dashalty , arazboylu ) ( total area of 44 thousand hectares ) are no longer operating as a result of the armenian aggression ."]}
{"id": 2258, "summary": [{"text": "biston strataria , the oak beauty , is a moth of the family geometridae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is native to europe , but is primarily found in the united kingdom .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "b. strataria is found in a variety of habitats , but is mostly found in woodlands where it rests on the bark of trees , camouflaged by its mottled black and grey wings .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the male has feather-like antennae while those of the female are more thread-like .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the moth has a wingspan of 40 to 56 mm ( 1.6 to 2.2 in ) .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the larvae are mainly brown with three lumps near the end of the abdomen .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they have evolved to resemble sticks which helps protect them from predators .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "the larvae feed on many species of trees , but the most commonly used host plants are oaks . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "biston strataria", "paragraphs": ["aedeagus of biston . 105 biston bengaliaria 106 biston pustulata 107 biston suppressaria 108 biston regalis 109 biston brevipennata 110 biston quercii 111 biston falcata falcata ( holotype of amphidasis erilda ) 112 biston falcata falcata 113 biston falcata satura 114 biston thibetaria 115 biston panterinaria panterinaria 116 biston panterinaria exanthemata . scale bar = 1 mm .\noak beauty ( biston strataria ) - norfolk moths - the macro and micro moths of norfolk .\nmale genitalia of biston . 70 biston melacron 71 biston marginata 72 biston thoracicaria 73 biston betularia parva 74 biston betularia nepalensis 75 biston robustum . scale bar = 1 mm .\nmale genitalia of biston . 76 biston mediolata sp . n . 77 biston contectaria 78 biston bengaliaria 79 biston pustulata 80 biston suppressaria 81 biston regalis . scale bar = 1 mm .\nmale genitalia of biston . 95 biston panterinaria panterinaria . from chebaling , shixing , guangdong 96 biston panterinaria exanthemata . scale bar = 1 mm . aedeagus of biston . 97 biston melacron 98 biston marginata 99 biston thoracicaria 100 biston betularia parva 101 biston betularia nepalensis 102 biston robustum 103 biston mediolata sp . n . 104 biston contectaria . scale bar = 1 mm .\nhabitat : biston strataria colonizes deciduous trees rich stocks of all kinds , especially forests , but also grasslands with trees , hedges and gardens .\nremarks : the distribution extends from morocco across europe and most of temperate asia . in central europe biston strataria is common in most regions .\nmale genitalia of biston . 82 biston brevipennata 83 biston quercii 84\u201388 . biston falcata 84 biston falcata falcata ( holotype of amphidasis erilda ) 85 biston falcata falcata ( nyalam , tibet ) 86 biston falcata falcata ( mainling , tibet ) 87 biston falcata satura ( zhouqu , gansu ) 88 biston falcata satura ( shalin , gansu ) . scale bar = 1 mm .\nfemale genitalia of biston and enlarged view of signum . 117 biston marginata 118 biston thoracicaria 119 biston betularia parva 120 biston betularia nepalensis . scale bar for female genitalia = 1 mm . ( s = signum )\nfemale genitalia of biston and enlarged view of signum . 121 biston mediolata sp . n . 122 biston bengaliaria 123 biston suppressaria 124 biston regalis . scale bar for female genitalia = 1 mm . ( s = signum )\nbiston leach , 1815 , brewster\u2019s edinburgh encyclopaedia , 9 : 134 . type species : geometra prodromaria denis & schifferm\u00fcller , 1775 ( = phalaena strataria ( hufnagel , 1767 ) ) , by subsequent designation by westwood , 1840 .\nantennae of biston . 1 bipectinate , with long rami ( male of biston melacron ) 2 bipectinate , with short rami ( male of biston thibetaria ) 3 filiform ( female of biston betularia ) . scale bar = 1 mm .\nfemale genitalia of biston and enlarged view of signum . 125 biston falcata falcata ( diqing , yunnan ) 126 biston falcata falcata ( gyirong , tibet ) 127 biston falcata satura ( zhouqu , gansu ) 128 biston thibetaria . scale bar for female genitalia = 1 mm . ( s = signum )\nfemale genitalia of biston and enlarged view of signum . 129 biston panterinaria panterinaria 130 biston panterinaria exanthemata . scale bar for female genitalia = 1 mm . ( s = signum )\nadults of biston . 4 \u2013 6 biston melacron . 4 male ( holotype 5 male 6 ditto , underside 7 \u2013 10 biston marginata . 7 male 8 ditto , underside 9 female 10 ditto , underside 11 \u2013 12 biston thoracicaria . 11 male 12 female 13 \u2013 16 biston betularia parva . 13 male ( holotype of biston huberaria tienschana ) 14 male ( holotype of biston cognataria sinitibetica ) 15 mal 16 female 17 \u2013 18 biston betularia nepalensis . 17 male 18 female 19 \u2013 20 biston robustum . 19 male ( holotype of biston robustum kiangsua ) 20 male . scale bar = 1 cm .\nhere , we divide the chinese biston into three species groups based on morphological characters . group i includes the \u201ctypical\u201d species of biston . group ii includes biston brevipennata inoue , 1982 and the species which were treated in the subgenus eubyjodonta of biston by wehrli ( 1941 ) . group iii includes biston perclara ( warren , 1899 ) , biston thibetaria ( oberth\u00fcr , 1886 ) and biston panterinaria ( bremer & grey , 1853 ) which was considered slightly different from the typical species of biston by sato ( 1996 ) .\nthe external characters of this species are close to those of biston suppressaria and biston inouei holloway , 1994 ( borneo ) , but it can be distinguished from those species by the following differences : this species ( length of forewing : 27\u201328 mm in male ) is larger than biston suppressaria and smaller than biston inouei ; the protrusion between m 1 and m 3 of the forewing postmedial line is relatively acute , but blunt or bilobed in biston suppressaria and biston inouei ; the hindwing basal line is more distinct in biston contectaria and biston inouei ; the projection between m 1 and m 3 of the the hindwing postmedial line is relatively acute in biston contectaria and biston suppressaria , but blunt in biston inouei . in the male genitalia , the apex of the uncus is broader than that of biston suppressaria and biston inouei , and is almost not bifurcated ; the median process of the gnathos is shorter and round distally , whereas it is longer and pointed in biston suppressaria and biston inouei ; the costa and the ventral margin of the valva are curved , while those of biston suppressaria and biston inouei are less curved or even incurved or concavely curved ; the costa is expanded and has dense setae basally , while it is straight in biston suppressaria and biston inouei ; the juxta is shorter and less pointed apically .\nbiston luculentus inoue , 1992 , described from se . thailand , is similar to biston suppressaria benescripta , but has the transverse lines even more clearly expressed ( e . g . see fig . 37 which is almost identical with biston luculentus ) . like biston suppressaria benescripta , also the biston luculentus form occurs sympatrically with typical biston suppressaria suppressaria or with biston suppressaria benesparsa wehrli , the latter being a rather rare form , at many places . also at the type locality of biston luculentus ( prov . chanthaburi , khao soi dao ) it occurs together with typical suppressaria ( coll . zfmk ) comparison of the genitalia of the two revealed no differences . thus we follow st\u00fcning ( in litt . ) and synonymize biston luculentus with biston suppressaria . besides , we also believe that the strange , almost patternless female figured by inoue ( 1992 ) as paratype of biston luculentus , belongs to another , still unidentified species .\nadults of biston . 43 biston brevipennata , male 44 \u2013 45 biston quercii . 44 female ( holotype ) 45 male 46 \u2013 53 biston falcata . 46 male ( holotype of amphidasis erilda ) 47 male ( holotype of biston erilda satura ) 48 female ( holotype of biston emarginaria ) 49 female ( holotype of amphidasis clorinda ) 50 male ( lijiang , yunnan ) 5 1 female ( gyirong , tibet ) 52 male ( zhouqu , gansu ) 53 female ( zhouqu , gansu ) . scale bar = 1 cm .\nthe genus biston leach , 1815 is reviewed for china . seventeen species are recognized , of which biston mediolata sp . n . is described . biston pustulata ( warren , 1896 ) and biston panterinaria exanthemata ( moore , 1888 ) are newly recorded for china . the following new synonyms are established : biston suppressaria suppressaria ( guen\u00e9e , 1858 ) ( = biston suppressaria benescripta ( prout , 1915 ) , syn . n . = biston luculentus inoue , 1992 syn . n . ) ; biston falcata ( warren , 1893 ) ( = amphidasis erilda oberth\u00fcr , 1910 , syn . n . = amphidasis clorinda oberth\u00fcr , 1910 , syn . n . = biston emarginaria leech , 1897 , syn . n . ) ; biston panterinaria panterinaria ( bremer & grey , 1853 ) ( = biston panterinaria abraxata ( leech , 1889 ) , syn . n . = biston panterinaria lienpingensis ( wehrli , 1939 ) , syn . n . = b . panterinaria szechuanensis ( wehrli , 1939 ) , syn . n . ) . biston falcata satura ( wehrli , 1941 ) , comb . n . is proposed . a key to chinese biston and diagnoses for chinese species are provided . illustrations of external features and genitalia are presented .\nadults of biston . 31 \u2013 32 biston pustulata . 31 male 32 ditto , underside . 33 \u2013 40 biston suppressaria . 33 male ( holotype of biston suppressaria benesparsa ) 34 ditto , underside 35 male ( cili , hunan ) 36 ditto , underside 37 male ( diaoluoshan , hainan ) 38 male ( bawangling , hainan ) 39 female 40 ditto , underside ; 41 \u2013 42 biston regalis . 41 male 42 female . scale bar = 1 cm .\nbiston perclara : prout , 1914 , ent . mitt . , berlin 3 : 264 .\nadults of biston . 64 \u2013 65 biston panterinaria panterinaria . 64 female ( fangshan , beijing ) 65 female ( yingtaogou , beijing ) ; 66 \u2013 69 biston panterinaria exanthemata . 66 male 67 ditto , underside 68 female 69 ditto , underside . scale bar = 1 cm .\nadults of biston . 21 \u2013 24 biston mediolata sp . n . 21 male ( holotype ) 22 ditto , underside 23 female ( paratype ) 24 ditto , underside . 25 \u2013 26 biston contectaria . 25 male 26 ditto , underside ; 27 \u2013 30 biston bengaliaria . 27 male 28 ditto , underside 29 female 30 ditto , underside . scale bar = 1 cm .\nbiston quercii : prout , 1915 , in seitz , macrolepid . world , 4 : 359 .\nfinal instar larva and metamorphosis of biston pustulata in singapore ( lepidoptera : geometridae : ennominae ) .\ntwo new species of the genus biston ( lepidoptera , geometridae , ennominae ) from central asia .\nmale genitalia of biston . 89 biston thibetaria ; 90 \u2013 94 . biston panterinaria panterinaria . 90 from sanpu , beijing 91 from dayu , jiangxi 92 from wuyanling , taishun , zhejiang 93 from taiyuan , pengshui , sichuan 94 from chebaling , shixing , guangdong . scale bar = 1 mm .\nbiston suppressaria : hampson , 1895 , fauna br . india ( moths ) , 3 : 247 .\nbiston falcata : hampson , 1895 , fauna br . india ( moths ) , 3 : 246 .\ntwo new species of the genus biston leach from malaysia and the philippines ( lepidoptera , geometridae ) .\nbiston contectaria : yazaki , 1992 , in haruta , tinea , 13 ( suppl . 2 ) : 33 .\nbiston bengaliaria : yazaki , 1992 , in haruta , tinea , 13 ( suppl . 2 ) : 33 .\nadults of biston . 54 biston perclara , male 55 \u2013 57 biston thibetaria . 55 male ( syntype ) 56 male 57 female 58 \u2013 63 biston panterinaria panterinaria . 58 male ( syntype of culcula panterinaria lienpingensis ) 59 female ( syntype of culcula panterinaria szechuanensis ) 60 male ( dayu , jiangxi ) 61 male ( jiulianshan , jiangxi ) 62 male ( shixing , guangdong ) 63 male ( pengshui , sichuan ) . scale bar = 1 cm .\nbiston contectaria walker , sensu xue , 1992a ; in liu , iconography of forest insects in hunan china : 880 .\nbiston ( cusiala ) bengaliaria : hampson , 1895 , fauna br . india ( moths ) , 3 : 247 .\nbiston panterinaria : sato , 1996 , trans . lepid . soc . japan , 47 ( 4 ) : 223\u2013236 .\nthe subspecies of biston regalis from china is biston regalis comitata ( warren , 1899 ) ( eubyjodonta comitata warren , 1899 , novit . zool . , 6 : 50 . syntypes 2\u2642 , russia : amurland , sidemi . ( bmnh ) ) .\nbiston thibetaria : parsons et al . , 1999 , geometrid moths of the world , a catalogue , 1 : 88 .\npeppered moth - biston betularia f . insularia - thierry - mieg , 1886 - 30w skinner - fleet - 9 june 2015\nlatin name : biston strataria size : wingspan approximately 55mm distribution : found throughout england and wales . less common in scotland and n . i . months seen : march to may . habitat : woods , parks and gardens . food : caterpillars feed on various trees including oak ( hence the name ) , hazel and alder . special features : the oak beauty is mostly white , dappled with alternate bands of brown and black . it flies at night and is readily attracted to light . uk safari moth section\nbiston thoracicaria : prout , 1915 , in seitz , macrolepid . world , 4 : 359 , pl . 19 : g .\nbiston betularia : prout , 1915 , in seitz , macrolepid . world , 4 : 358 , pl . 19 : g .\nbiston regalis : prout , 1915 , in seitz , macrolepid . world , 4 : 359 , pl . 19 : h .\nbiston falcata clorinda : parsons et al . , 1999 , geometrid moths of the world , a catalogue , 1 : 86 .\nthe external characters of this species are close to those of biston marginata as follows : the male antennae are partially bipectinate and filiform at tip ; the forewing postmedial line bilobedly protrudes between m 1 and m 3 , and slightly protrudes outwards between cua 2 and 1a + 2a . but it can be distinguished from biston marginata by the following characters : the hindwing outer margin is concave between m 1 and m 3 , whereas it is evenly round in biston marginata ; the transverse lines are black but dark brown in biston marginata ; the hindwing postmedial line is waved after m 3 , but straight in biston marginata ; the transverse lines on the underside of the wings are more conspicuous . the most distinct differences are in the male genitalia : the apex of the uncus is broader and bifurcated , whereas it is narrower and round in biston marginata ; the median process of the gnathos is broader and round terminally , while in biston marginata , it is slenderer and acute apically ; the setose area of the valva is much weaker ; the juxta is narrower , and sharply pointed apically , while in biston marginata , it is broader and round apically ; the cornutus is shortly digitiform , but is thornlike in biston marginata . in the female genitalia ( inoue 1977 ) , the signum is much longer than in biston marginata .\nbiston ( cusiala ) bengaliaria f . contectaria : hampson , 1895 , fauna br . india ( moths ) , 3 : 248 .\nbiston pustulata : holloway , 1994 , malay . nat . j . , 47 : 210 , pl . 12 , fig . 452 .\nbiston ( buzura ) suppressaria : wehrli , 1941 , in seitz , gross - schmett . erde , 4 ( suppl . ) : 436 .\nthere are two chinese subspecies of biston robustum , they are biston robustum robustum butler , 1879 and biston robustum subrobustum inoue , 1964 ( biston robustum subrobustum inoue , 1964 , konty\u00fb , 32 ( 2 ) : 338 , pl . 8 , fig . 3 . holotype \u2642 , taiwan ( central ) : puli . ( bmnh ) ) . the former is distributed in the mainland china , the latter is distributed in taiwan . the description of biston robustum kiangsua wehrli was based on a single , rather aberrant specimen , with a single printed label \u201cshanghai china\u201d . similar forms occur in japan , as mentioned by wehrli ( 1941 ) . so this name very probably does not denote a valid subspecies and it is synonymized correctly .\nthe external characters of this species are close to those of biston betularia as follows : the male antennae are partially bipectinate and filiform at apex ; the forewing postmedial line protrudes outwards between m 1 and m 3 and between cua 2 and 1a + 2a ; the discal spots of both wings are stripe - like . but it can be distinguished from biston betularia by the following characters : distinctly smaller ; the wing colour is dark brown , but greyish black in biston betularia ; the hindwing basal line is present , but absent in biston betularia ; the forewing r 1 and r 2 are separate , but stalked in biston betularia . in the male genitalia , the apex of the uncus and the median process of the gnathos are more slender than those of biston betularia ; the valva is more slender and longer ; the juxta is much narrower ; the cornutus is small and spine - like , whereas biston betularia has two kinds of cornuti , one is a large bundle of spines , the other is a small tuft of spines . in the female genitalia , the corpus bursae is curved in the anterior half , while in biston betularia , it is expanded posteriorly and narrow medially ; the signum is elliptic , with several small marginal spines , whereas it is bar - like and without marginal spines in biston betularia .\nother beautiful bark mimics include the closely related , large and impressive oak beauty ( biston strataria ) ( photo 5 ) whose larvae also develop on a range of tree species ( including oak ) , and the somewhat smaller common carpet ( epirrhoe alternata ) ( photo 6 ) . the latter often finds its way into houses at night when the lights are on and the wind - ows have been left open . despite its name it does not pose any danger to floor coverings , the name solely based on its appearance not its feeding habits , the larvae being found on bedstraws and cleavers .\nthe genus biston resembles cusiala moore and iulotrichia warren in : the postmedial lines of both wings often protrudes outwards between m 1 and m 3 ; the apex of the uncus is often bifurcated . but biston differs from cusiala and iulotrichia in the following characters : the forewing fovea of the male is absent in biston but present in cusiala and iulotrichia ; in the male genitalia , the aedeagus vesica has numerous , very small , spine - like cornuti , arranged as two pair of longitudinal combs in cusiala and iulotrichia , which is absent in biston . the members of biston also resemble lycia h\u00fcbner , 1825 and cochisea barnes & mcdunnough , 1916 , both of which belong to the former bistonini . but both of these genera can be distinguished from biston by the single pair of spurs on the hind tibia , as well as apterous or brachypterous female in lycia , and absence of the tongue in cochisea .\nthe purpose of this paper is , to review all known chinese biston species , to determine their diagnostic characters , to develope a key for their determination and to provide illustrations of external features and genitalia ; furthermore , one new species , biston mediolata sp . n . , will be described , biston pustulata ( warren , 1896 ) will be recorded as new for the fauna of china and several new synonyms and a new combination will be proposed . this results , to our present knowledge , in 17 species and nine subspecies of biston for the fauna of china and 52 species with 33 subspecies worldwide .\nthe diagnostic characters of external morphology of the species can be seen in the previous species . the male genitalia of the species are close to those of biston suppressaria . but it can be distinguished from the latter by the following characters : the vesica is less strongly sclerotized posteriorly ; the cornutus is small and spine - like but absent in biston suppressaria . the female genitalia are similar to those of biston betularia , but they differ in the following characters : the ductus bursae is shorter and the antrum is absent ; the corpus bursae is almost even in width , while in biston betularia it is enlarged , wrinkled and weakly sclerotized posteriorly , narrow medially and swollen anteriorly ; the signum is oval with several marginal spines , but a transverse bar in biston betularia .\nbiston robustum kiangsua wehrli , 1941 , in seitz , gross - schmett . erde , 4 ( suppl . ) : 433 , pl . 36 : b . holotype \u2642 , china : shanghai . ( zfmk ) ( treated as a synonym of biston robustum robustum by parsons et al . ( 1999 ) )\nbiston cognataria alexandrina wehrli , 1941 , in seitz , gross - schmett . erde , 4 ( suppl . ) : 432 , pl . 36 : a . syntypes 4\u2642 , kirghizstan : alexander mountains . ( zfmk ) ( treated as a synonym of biston betularia betularia by parsons et al . ( 1999 ) )\ndescriptions of a new species and a new subspecies of the genus biston leach from the philippines , with notes on the two known species ( geometridae , ennominae ) .\nthe external characters of this species are close to those of biston contectaria , but it can be distinguished from that species by the following differences : the wings are pale yellow but white in biston contectaria ; the forewing postmedial line is much narrower and protruding outwards between cua 2 and 1a + 2a , while in biston contectaria , it is broader and without such a protrusion ; the discal spot on the hindwing upperside is large , round , black , while in biston contectaria it is almost absent ; the discal spots on the underside of both wings are larger and heavier . the male genitalia are close to those of biston suppressaria , but it can be distinguished by the square apex of the juxta , the shorter median process of the gnathos and the presence of a cornutus which is a short spinous patch . the female genitalia are similar to those of biston suppressaria . but it differs in that the corpus bursae is coiled anteriorly ; the signum is longer and narrower ; the ostium bursae is more strongly sclerotized .\nholloway ( 1994 ) proposed a very broad concept of the tribe boarmiini which also subsumed the previously separate tribe bistonini , and provided the diagnostic characters for the genus biston .\nbiston cognataria sinitibetica wehrli , 1941 , in seitz , gross - schmett . erde , 4 ( suppl . ) : 433 , pl . 36 : a . syntypes \u2642 , \u2640 , china ( west ) : kangding . ( zfmk ) ( treated as a synonym of biston betularia parva leech , 1897 by parsons et al . ( 1999 ) )\nbiston ( eubyjodonta ) quercii : wehrli , 1941 , in seitz , gross - schmett . erde , 4 ( suppl . ) : 434 , pl . 36 : f .\nbiston ( eubyjodonta ) huberaria tienschana wehrli , 1941 , in seitz , gross - schmett . erde , 4 ( suppl . ) : 435 , pl . 36 : d , g . holotype \u2642 , china : xinjiang , \u00fcr\u00fcmqi , tian - shan . ( zfmk ) ( treated as a synonym of biston huberaria by parsons et al . ( 1999 ) )\nbiston robustum butler , 1879 , ann . mag . nat . hist . , ( 5 ) 4 : 371 . syntype ( s ) , japan : yokohama . ( bmnh )\nexperiments were made to find out whether caterpillars of ennomos alniaria , biston strataria and b . hirtaria are protected from jays and chaffinches by their resemblance to sticks . being used to the inedibility of sticks , the birds do not peck at the larvae . however , once it has found one by accident , a bird will usually peck at all similar objects until it is discouraged by finding only sticks . the original situation is then restored . the caterpillars are confused only with sticks of their own food plants , and some birds are able to distinguish them even from these . even in its present highly refined form , therefore , the adaptation does not yet give the maximum possible protection , and all steps in its evolution will have had a considerable selective advantage .\nthe larva is often twig - like with the characteristic 45 degree resting posture and an obtusely cleft head ( holloway 1994 ) . singh ( 1953 ) recorded the larva of biston suppressaria ( guen\u00e9e , 1858 ) . issiki et al . ( 1977 ) illustrated the larva of biston robustum butler , 1879 . yamamoto et al . ( 1987 ) described and illustrated the larvae of biston betularia ( linnaeus , 1758 ) , biston robustum , biston regalis ( moore , 1888 ) and biston panterinaria . wagner ( 2001 ) recorded the larva of biston betularia . sato ( 2001 ) described the larva of biston marginata shiraki , 1913 . leong ( 2009 ) gave a description of the final instar larva and metamorphosis of biston pustulata . most species are highly polyphagous . the larval host plants have been recorded from the families aceraceae , adoxaceae , anacardiaceae , apocynaceae , aquifoliaceae , asteraceae , berberidaceae , betulaceae , bombacaceae , cannabaceae , caprifoliaceae , celastraceae , compositae ( asteraceae ) , cornaceae , corylaceae , cupressaceae , elaeagnaceae , ericaceae , euphorbiaceae , fagaceae , ginkgoaceae , grossulariaceae , guttiferae ( clusiaceae ) , iridaceae , juglandaceae , lardizabalaceae , lauraceae , leguminosae ( fabaceae ) , lythraceae , meliaceae , melianthaceae , myricaceae , myrtaceae , oleaceae , palmae , pinaceae , platanaceae , rhamnaceae , rosaceae , rutaceae , salicaceae , sapindaceae , sterculiaceae , styracaceae , solanceae , theaceae , tiliaceae , ulmaceae , verbenaceae ( summarized from inoue 1965 ; holloway 1994 ; zhang 1994 ; parsons et al . 1999 ; sato 2001 ; robinson et al . 2004 ) . pato\u010dka ( 2004 ) and pato\u010dka and turcani ( 2005 ) construct a key for the pupae of central european species . nakamura ( 2004 ) described and gave a key for the pupae of japanese species .\ndasyphara billberg , 1820 , enumeratio insect . mus . g . j . billberg : 89 . type species : geometra prodromaria denis & schifferm\u00fcller , 1775 . [ junior objective synonym of biston leach . ]\n\u00fcbersicht \u00fcber die afrikanischen arten der gattung biston leach , [ 1815 ] 1830 ( lepidoptera : geometridae : boarminae : boarmini ) . lambillionea 105 ( 1 ) ( supplement ii ) , mars : 1\u201334 .\namphidasis treitschke , 1825 , in ochsenheimer , schmett . eur . , 5 ( 2 ) : 434 . type species : geometra prodromaria denis & schifferm\u00fcller , 1775 . [ junior objective synonym of biston leach . ]\nthe wing pattern of this species is similar to that of biston exalbescens inoue , 2000 ( philippines ) as follows : the forewing postmedial line is weakly waved , broadly protruding outwards between r 5 and m 3 and below cua 2 ; the hindwing outer margin is concave between m 1 and m 3 ; the hindwing postmedial line protrudes outwards between m 1 and m 3 ; dark brown bands are present basally of the forewing antemedial line and distally of the postmedial line of both wings , and usually absent at apical area and between m 3 and cua 1 of the forewing . but the species can be distinguished from biston exalbescens by the following characters : the forewing antemedial line is thinner , the dark brown band basally of it is narrower ; the medial lines of both wings are less conspicuous . in the male genitalia , it differs in the much stronger central setose area of the valva ; the median process of the gnathos is spatulate terminally , but pointed in biston exalbescens ; the juxta is longer and narrower ; the vesica with two cornuti , a basal , oval plate with a lateral tooth and an elongate , sclerotized , spined fold . the female genitalia of this species are close to that of biston betularia , but it has a nearly triangular lamella postvaginalis , which is absent in biston betularia ; the ductus bursae is broader and sclerotized , without antrum ; the corpus bursae is pouched , but enlarged posteriorly and narrow medially in biston betularia ; the signum is almost oval , but bar - like in biston betularia .\nbiston marginata shiraki , 1913 , spec . rep . formosa agric . exp . stn , [ special reports no . 8 ] publication no . 68 : 433 , pl . 44 . syntypes , china : taiwan .\nthe wing pattern of this species is similar to that of biston contectaria as follows : the forewing outer margin is almost straight anteriorly ; the antemedial line is black , broad and almost straight ; the postmedial line acutely protrudes between m 1 and m 3 ; the medial lines of both wings are greyish yellow and indistinct ; pale yellow bands are present basally of the forewing antemedial line and distally of the postmedial line of both wings ; the hindwing basal line is black and distinct . but this species is smaller and can be distinguished by the following characters : the postmedial lines of both wings are narrower ; the forewing postmedial line weakly protrudes outwards between cua 2 and 1a + 2a , while in biston contectaria , it is straight ; the protrusion between m 1 and m 3 of the hindwing postmedial line is round but sharply angled in biston contectaria ; the discal spots on the underside of both wings are larger and heavier . in the male genitalia : the much broader uncus and valva of the new species are distinctly different from biston contectaria . the female genitalia are similar to those of biston panterinaria as follows : the apophyses posteriores are long ; the ostium bursae is sclerotized ; the ductus bursae is very short ; the corpus bursae is curved medially ; the signum is elliptic and narrow . but it can be distinguished from biston panterinaria by presence of the lamella postvaginalis .\nthis species is very close to biston pustulata , but we can distinguish it by the following characters : the protrusion between m 1 and m 3 of the forewing postmedial line is shorter , shallowly bilobed and sometimes round ; the projection between m 1 and m 3 of the hindwing postmedial line is round . in the male genitalia , it differs in the round apex of the juxta . the diagnostic characters of the female genitalia can be seen in biston bengaliaria .\nbiston brevipennata inoue , 1982b , bull . fac . domestic sci . , otsuma woman\u2019s univ . , 18 : 176 , figs 40e , 41b . holotype \u2642 , nepal : lete , 2400 m near nilgiri . ( bmnh )\nbiston fragilis inoue , 1958 , tinea , 4 ( 2 ) : 254 , pl . 34 , fig . 30 . holotype \u2642 , japan : oita prefecture , saeki . ( bmnh ) ( synonymized by inoue ( 1965 ) )\n? marmoraria sepp , 1792 , nederlandsche insecten , 2 : pl . 10 , pl . 11 , syntype ( s ) , netherlands . ( treated as a synonym of biston betularia betularia by parsons et al . ( 1999 ) )\nphalaena ( geometra ) ulmaria borkhausen , 1794 , natur . eur . schmett . , 5 : 181 . syntype ( s ) , europe . ( treated as a synonym of biston betularia betularia by parsons et al . ( 1999 ) )\nthe hainan specimen is different from specimens of bornean material in the distinct transverse lines and the more acute projection between m 1 and m 3 of the hindwing postmedial line . however , the male genitalia of the hainan specimen are almost indentical to those of biston pustulata from borneo which were illustrated by holloway ( 1994 ) . thus we classify the hainan specimen as biston pustulata . if these differences prove constant in a larger number of specimens , the hainan population should be described as a separate subspecies .\npachys h\u00fcbner , 1822 , syst . - alphab . verz . : 38 \u2013 44 , 46 , 47 , 49 , 50 , 52 . type species : geometra prodromaria denis & schifferm\u00fcller , 1775 . [ junior objective synonym of biston leach . ]\nbiston melacron wehrli , 1941 , in seitz , gross - schmett . erde , 4 ( suppl . ) : 430 , pl . 35 : h . syntypes 3\u2642 , china : west tien - mu - shan , 1600 m . ( zfmk )\nthe external characters of this species are similar to those of biston thibetaria as follows : the forewing antemedial line and the postmedial lines of both wings are black and thick ; black patches are present distally of the forewing postmedial line between m 1 and m 3 , reaching the outer margin ; another smaller black patch is present distally of the forewing postmedial line below m 3 . but in this species the broad bands placed basally of the antemedial line of the forewing and distally of the postmedial lines of both wings are pale yellow and indistinct , whereas they are yellowish green and distinct in biston thibetaria ; the discal spots of both wings are less distinct or have completely vanished ; the forewing postmedial line is straight between cua 2 and 1a + 2a , while it is slightly excurved in biston thibetaria . the male genitalia of the species are almost identical to those of biston thibetaria . but the median process of the gnathos of the species is truncate apically and the incision of posterior margin of the juxta is less deep .\nbiston indeed has some typical features in common with the boarmiini : the postmedial lines of both wings often protrudes outwards between m 1 and m 3 ; in the male genitalia , the socii are usually absent ; the valva has a strong cucullus . however , biston also has some features atypical for boarmiini : a fovea is absent in the male forewing ; in the male genitalia , the valva is simple , without any ornamentation ( holloway 1994 ; pitkin 2002 ; viidalepp et al . 2007 ; young 2008 ) .\nbiston exotica inoue , 1977 , bull . fac . domestic sci . , otsuma woman\u2018s univ . , 13 : 322 , figs 65\u201367 . holotype \u2642 , japan : kochi prefecture , kubokawa . ( bmnh ) ( synonymized by heppner and inoue ( 1992 ) )\nbiston ( buzura ) suppressaria f . benesparsa wehrli , 1941 , in seitz , gross - schmett . erde , 4 ( suppl . ) : 436 , pl . 36 : f . holotype \u2642 , china : hunan , h\u00f6ng - shan . ( zfmk )\nbiston emarginaria leech , 1897 , ann . mag . nat . hist . , ( 6 ) 19 : 322 , pl . 7 , fig . 8 . holotype \u2640 , china : sichuan , pu - tsu - fong . ( bmnh ) , syn . n .\nthe external characters of this species are close to those of biston porphyria ( butler , 1889 ) ( india ) as follows : the male antennae are bipectinate to tip ; greyish brown bands are present basally of the antemedial line of the forewing and distally of the postmedial lines of both wings ; the forewing medial line converges with the postmedial line at 1a + 2a ; the hindwing postmedial line acutely protrudes between m 1 and m 3 ; the submarginal lines of both wings are dark grey . but the species can be distinguished by the following characters : this species ( length of forewing : 28\u201330 mm in male ) is larger than biston porphyria ; the wings are broader ; the hindwing medial line is more conspicuous . the male genitalia of the species are similar to those of biston betularia as follows : the apex of the uncus is bifurcated ; the median process of the gnathos is about one - half length of the uncus ; the juxta is long , narrow , and acute apically . but it can be distinguished from biston betularia by the longer and narrower valva and the absence of cornuti .\nbiston luculentus inoue , 1992 , bull . fac . domest . sci . otsuma wom . univ . , 28 : 171 , figs 59 , 60 , 62\u201364 . holotype \u2642 , thailand : chanthaburi , khao soi dao , 400 m . ( uos ) , syn . n .\nthis species is very distinct and is easily recognizable by the thick black lines and yellowish green bands placed basally of the antemedial line of the forewing and distally of the postmedial lines of both wings , the large , black ringed and pale - centred discal spots on both wings , as well as the black - belted abdomen and the fresh yellow anal tuft . the male genitalia of biston thibetaria are close to those of biston panterinaria : the apex of the uncus is bifurcated and about four - fifths as long as the basal width ; the median process of the gnathos is short and round apically ; the valva is broad basally and narrow apically ; the ventral margin of the valva is slightly sinuous ; the juxta has a deep incision at the middle on the posterior margin ; the cornutus is stick - like ; a narrow sclerotized band is present on lateral side of the aedeagus . but it can be distinguished from that species by the strongly rounded basal half of the valva . the female genitalia of the species are close to those of biston panterinaria as follows : the ostium bursae is weakly sclerotized ; the ductus bursae is very short ; the corpus bursae is curved medially , striated in the posterior half and enlarged at tip ; the signum is oval and with marginal spines . it differs in having an oval lamella postvaginalis , which is absent in biston panterinaria .\nthe wing pattern of this species is similar to that of biston falcata as follows : the forewing antemedial line is black , slightly waved ; the postmedial lines of both wings are black and dentate ; broad brown bands are present basally of the forewing antemedial line and distally of the postmedial lines of both wings ; the speckles scattered on the wings are black , and often gather to a black patch basally of the submarginal lines ; the hindwing medial line is black and double . but it can be distinguished by the following characters : the outer margins are more undulating , there are distinct marginal processes in the centre of both wings , absent in biston falcata ; the hindwing discal spot is present . the male genitalia are similar to those of biston falcata as follows : the apex of the uncus is round ; the median process of the gnathos is broad and round apically ; the juxta is long , narrow , acute and with a longitudinal arris apico - ventrally ; the cornutus is shaped as a spinous patch . but this species is characterized by the narrower juxta and the longer spines of the cornutus .\nchina , shanghai ( zfmk ) : 1\u2642 ( holotype of biston robustum kiangsua ) . shandong ( izcas ) : gujiding , 13 . iv . 1981 , 3\u2642 . jiangsu ( izcas ) : nanjing , qixiaqu , yaohuamen , 16 . iii . 2006 , coll . lang songyun , 3\u2642 . more material from shaanxi , 2\u2642 from taiwan , many from japan , 2\u2642 from korea and many from vietnam in coll . zfmk .\nvenation . forewing : sc free , r 1 and r 2 usually stalked ( separate in biston thoracicaria ) , diverging before anterior angle of cell ; r 2 sometimes connected by a short transverse bar with r 3\u20134 or r 3\u20135 ; r 3\u20135 before or from anterior angle of cell , not stalked with m 1 ; m 1 from anterior angle of cell ; m 3 from posterior angle of cell ; cua 1 before posterior angle of cell . hindwing : sc + r 1 close to cell less than onehalf length of cell ; rs before anterior angle of cell ; m 1 from anterior angle of cell ; m 2 absent ; m 3 from posterior angle of cell ; cua 1 before or from posterior angle of cell ; 3a absent .\nmale genitalia . uncus short and broad , ratio of length to basal width variable , often bifurcate terminally , sometimes bifurcation very shallow or on ventral side below apex , so the latter apparently square or round . arms of gnathos connected medially , with median process robust or slender , round , acute or square terminally . valva simple ; costa sclerotized , straight or incurved , with terminal half often broadened , bearing long setae from center to apex ; sacculus sometimes sinuous . saccus round or semicircular . juxta well developed , pointed , or round or flat apically , sometimes elongate , without lateral brushes of long setae , except in biston melacron wehrli , 1941 . aedeagus often cylindrical , sclerotized dorsally ; vesica usually wrinkled , scobinate , with or without cornuti ; shape of cornuti various .\nmany other geometrid larvae are similarly well camouflaged and often rest in a stretched out rigid position to perfect the illusion , like the peppered moth larva ( biston betularia ) in photo 3 , which feeds on a range of different shrubs and trees . at first glance , adult peppered moths ( photo 4 ) do not appear to be particularly well camouflaged until one realizes that they prefer to rest on light coloured tree bark mottled with lichens . when , in the middle of last century , heavy industrial pollution in parts of the country caused lichens to die off and tree bark to darken , the lighter coloured peppered moths became much more obvious to predators and only the darkest specimens survived , giving rise to almost all - black populations in the areas of the worst pollution . as air quality improved , lighter coloured individuals were once again seen in the population .\nspecimens of biston were obtained from institute of zoology , chinese academy of sciences , beijing , china ( izcas ) and zoologisches forschungsmuseum alexander koenig , bonn , germany ( zfmk ) . the other museums cited here , where types are deposited , are the natural history museum , london , united kingdom ( bmnh ) , the linnean society of london , united kingdom ( lsl ) , the zoologische staatssammlung muenchen , munich , germany ( zsm ) and the zoological institute , russian academy of sciences , saint - petersburg , russia ( zisp ) . terminology for wing venation followed the comstock - needham system ( comstock 1918 ) as adopted for geometridae by scoble ( 1992 ) and hausmann ( 2001 ) , and that of the genitalia was based on pierce ( 1914 ) , klots ( 1970 ) and nichols ( 1989 ) . photographs of adult moths and their genitalia were taken with digital cameras . composite images were generated using auto - montage software version 5 . 03 . 0061 ( synoptics ltd ) . the plates were compiled using adobe photoshop software .\nwe wish to express our hearty thanks to dr . dieter st\u00fcning , the zoologisches forschungsmuseum alexander koenig , bonn , germany , for providing help on many aspects , for example , suggesting the synonymies of b . falcata and b . suppressaria , preparation of the data and photographs of zfmk material of chinese biston , description of the male genitalia of b . perclara and making many linguistic corrections and comments . special thanks go to sir anthony galsworthy , the natural history museum , london , united kingdom and mr manfred sommerer , munich , germany , for providing the photos of some type material deposited at bmnh . we are grateful to all collectors whose contributions made our work possible . we appreciate the work of ms yang chao and ms yan keji for preparing some specimens and photographs . our thanks are also due to the reviewers for their valuable comments and corrections on the manuscript . we also appreciate mr . william oosterman , 132 pine street , oxford , pa 19363 , united states , for making many linguistic corrections . this work was supported by the key project of scientific innovation of cas ( kscx2 - yw - z - 0909 ) , the national science foundation of china ( no . 31172127 , 20870320 ) , the national science fund for fostering talents in basic research ( nsfc - j0930004 ) and a grant from the key laboratory of the zoological systematics and evolution of the chinese academy of sciences ( no . o529yx5105 ) .\ndescription : wingspan 51 - 56mm . forewings are generally a mixture of mottled brown and white , with a distinct darkish band running across the outer edge of the forewing . the males have long feathery antennae and the body is quite hairy .\nflight period : from mid - march to early april , although in some milder years the emergence can be earlier .\nstatus : mainly confined to western counties at well - trapped sites such as , crom and garvary , where it is taken regularly in most years . increased fieldwork in the east has led to its discovery at the argory and peatlands in the late 1990 ' s and its rediscovery at rostrevor in south east down , where it hadn ' t been seen since the early part of the twentieth century . an early spring species , which may exist in small isolated populations at a few other woodland sites , particularly in antrim around glenarm and banagher in londonderry , where suitable habitat exists .\necology : an attractive species associated mainly with old established woodland . adult males are frequently seen at light , females less so . their mottled appearance aids their concealment when at rest during the day on the trunks of trees . the larvae can be found on a variety of trees including oak quercus spp . , elm ulmus spp . , hazel corylus avellana , aspen populus tremula and alder alnus glutinosa from late spring onwards . it overwinters in the pupal stage .\nclick here to support naturespot by making a donation - small or large - your gift is very much appreciated . thank you .\nwingspan 40 - 50 mm . a large - bodied , attractive species with alternate bands of chestnut and white , speckled with black .\nthe caterpillars feed on a number of deciduous trees ; the species is not restricted to oak .\nreasonably common in england and wales , scarcer in scotland and ireland . lycia hirtaria . in a recent survey to determine the status of all macro moths in britain this species was classified as common .\nfairly frequent but not common in leicestershire and rutland . l & r moth group status = b ( scarce resident or restricted distribution or regular migrant ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nrecorded in 60 ( 87 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1873 . last recorded in 2018 .\nunderlying maps using digital map data \u00a9 norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola\u2122 2018 . \u00a9 james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data \u00a9 nola\u2122 2018\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhost plants : the species is polyphagous on deciduous wood . noteworthy are salix , quercus , prunus .\nlife cycle : the moths overwinter in part developed in the pupal case and hatch early from february to april . the caterpillar lives from april to early july .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\nthe larva lives on various deciduous trees , with a preference for quercus . hibernates as a pupa underground .\nthe adults fly in one generation a year ; usually from early march till early may , but in mild conditions , the first moths can be seen from mid february onwards . they are attracted to light .\nbelgium , luxembourg , nassogne , 25 february 2007 . male ( photo \u00a9 chris steeman )\nreceive our free weekly newsletter which includes our popular photo of the week and review of the week features , plus competitions , special offers and much more . hide message .\nview thousands of photos and video of butterflies and moths from around the world , or upload your own . to search by species , use the species guide ( change\nioc\nto\nbutterflies & moths\nbefore searching by taxon ) .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\neubyja h\u00fcbner , 1825 , verz . bekannter schmett . : 318 . type species : phalaena betularia linnaeus , 1758 , by subsequent designation by grote , 1902 .\namphidasys sodoffsky , 1837 , bull . soc . imp . nat . moscou , 10 : 90 . [ emendation of amphidasis treitschke . ]\namphidasea unger , 1856 , arch . ver . freunde naturg . - mecklenb . , 10 : 61 . [ emendation of amphidasis treitschke . ]\nbuzura walker , 1863 , list specimens lepid . insects colln br . mus . , 26 : 1531 . type species : buzura multipunctaria walker , 1863 , by monotypy .\nculcula moore , 1888 , in hewitson & moore , descr . new indian lepid . insects colln late mr w . s . atkinson , ( 3 ) : 266 . type species : culcula exanthemata moore , 1888 , by monotypy .\neubyjodonta warren , 1893 , proc . zool . soc . lond . , 1893 : 416 . type species : eubyjodonta falcata warren , 1893 , by original designation .\nblepharoctenia warren , 1894 , novit . zool . , 1 : 428 . type species : amphidasys bengaliaria guen\u00e9e , 1858 , by original designation .\nepamraica matsumura , 1910 , thousand insects japan , ( suppl . ) 2 : 130 . type species : epamraica bilineata matsumura , 1910 , by monotypy .\n) . frons not protruding , smooth - scaled . tongue well developed . labial palpus small , with hair - scales , not extending beyond frons . compound eyes setose .\nthorax . legs covered with hair - scales . hind tibia slightly dilated , with two pairs of spurs in both sexes , without hair - pencil . frenulum developed . forewing without basal fovea in male , triangular , outer margin straight or waved , hindwing round , outer margin smooth , sometimes concave between m 1 and m 3 or protruding between m 1 and cua 1 . wings white , pale yellow or greyish brown , transverse lines black , brown or white . pattern of forewing : antemedial line slightly waved , often accompanied by a band basally ; medial line waved , usually inconspicuous ; postmedial line waved or dentate , sometimes protruding outwards between m 1 and m 3 and between cua 2 and 1a + 2a , often accompanied by a band posteriorly ; submarginal line sometimes indistinct ; terminal line sometimes appearing as a series of short stripes between veins ; discal spot black or grey , shortly strip - like , dot - like or elliptic , pale - centred . hindwing sometimes with basal line ; medial line often indistinct , sometimes double ; postmedial line waved or dentate , sometimes protruding outwards between m 1 and m 3 ; terminal line similar to those of forewing ; discal spot sometimes smaller and less conspicuous than on forewing . terminal spots occasionally present on both wings , wedge - shaped . underside paler , transverse lines often similar to those of dorsal surface ."]}
{"id": 2262, "summary": [{"text": "the mohave ground squirrel ( xerospermophilus mohavensis ) is a species of ground squirrel found only in the mojave desert in california .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the squirrel was discovered in 1886 by frank stephens of san diego ( after whom the stephens soft-haired ground squirrel is named ) .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "it is listed as a threatened species under the california endangered species act , but not under the federal endangered species act .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the iucn lists this species as vulnerable .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the mojave ground squirrel measures about nine inches from nose to tail and feeds on leaves and seeds from february to july .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "near the end of july , the squirrels begin a period of estivation , but this may occur as early as april in drought years .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "litters do not survive if drought years force an early hibernation .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "local populations can be wiped out if a drought lasts for multiple years .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "this squirrel inhabits the western mojave desert in portions of inyo , kern , los angeles , and san bernardino counties .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it can occupy joshua tree woodlands , creosote scrub , saltbush scrub and mojave mixed woody scrub .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "typical forage plants are those that meet nutritional and water content requirements .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "these can include shrubs such as winterfat , spiny hopsage , and boxthorn ( lycium spp. ) .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "preferred annuals include coreopsis spp. , eremalche spp. , astragalus spp. , and lupine .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "soils are usually friable and conducive to burrow excavation .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "areas of preferred habitat include habitat types that provide ample forage to allow mohave ground squirrels to persist during drought periods .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "these persistent populations may act as core areas from which populations expand from during adequate rainfall years which are required for mohave ground squirrels to reproduce .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "this dynamic expansion and contraction in populations can make it challenging to determine whether the species is present since extended periods of drought can cause a die-off on local populations until surrounding populations expand during consecutive reproductive years .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "mohave ground squirrels emit a high-pitched \" peep \" as an alarm call , when startled or when young begin to emerge from their natal burrows .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the vocalization is sometimes confused with that of the horned lark .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "mohave ground squirrels can occasionally be sighted perched in lycium cooperii or in creosote bush ( larrea tridentata ) during mid-morning ( 9-11 a.m. ) hours ( april \u2013 june ) basking in the sun .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "males emerge from hibernation in early february and females are soon to follow .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "reproduction occurs in early march and gestation lasts for about four weeks .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "litters range from 4-6 individuals .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "juveniles emerge from the natal burrows in late may to mid june .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "predators include badgers , coyotes , snakes , falcons and hawks . ", "topic": 10}], "title": "mohave ground squirrel", "paragraphs": ["burt , w . 1936 . notes on the habits of the mohave ground squirrel .\nkrzysik , a . 1994 . the mohave ground squirrel at fort irwin , california .\nthe male , female and juvenile mohave ground squirrel are all similar in appearance ( 3 ) .\nthe mohave ground squirrel is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 2 ) .\nmohave ground squirrels are generally solitary . usually only one squirrel is observed harvesting seeds from a particular joshua trees (\nthe mohave ground squirrel is endemic to the northwest mohave desert in california , united states ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 8 ) .\nmohave ground squirrels are generally solitary . zembal and gall ( 1980 ) only observed one squirrel harvesting seeds from a particular joshua tree (\nthe mohave ground squirrel is a diurnal species found in the mojave desert in san bernardino , los angeles , kern , and inyo counties .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - mohave ground squirrel ( xerospermophilus mohavensis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - mohave ground squirrel ( xerospermophilus mohavensis )\ntitle =\narkive species - mohave ground squirrel ( xerospermophilus mohavensis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe mohave ground squirrel was listed as \u2018threatened\u2019 in 2011 by the california department of fish and game and is therefore protected under the california endangered species act ( 10 ) .\nthere is little information regarding predators specific to mohave ground squirrels . common predators in the mohave desert , such as the\nenvironmental stressors and encroaching urbanization has threatened the population of mohave ground squirrels , causing a moderate decline in their numbers . habitat fragmentation is the primary threat to the ground squirrel\u2019s existence but erosion caused by grazing livestock and orv use has impacted their habitat . due to the decline in mohave ground squirrels ' numbers\nthe mohave ground squirrel ( xerospermophilus mohavensis ) is a calm , solitary ground squirrel ( 3 ) , with a uniformly brown or pink - brown upperside , which contrasts with its cream - white underside ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . the lack of markings on its back makes this species one of the only uniformly - coloured ground squirrels throughout most of its range ( 5 ) .\nin order to monitor and manage populations of mohave ground squirrels , a mohave ground squirrel conservation strategy has been prepared through the cooperation of several management groups . the overall goals of this strategy were to protect the mohave ground squirrel by fostering communication among parties interested in the conservation of this species , determining their range , determining their ecological requirements , developing effective long - term conservation methods and developing and implementing an adaptive management plan . the plan outlined preliminary measures to monitor and restore the population of mohave ground squirrels . this plan has not yet been implemented .\nthe mohave ground squirrel occupies all major desert scrub habitats in the western mojave desert . the mainly solitary mohave ground s quirrel hibernates from august to march , when food is scarce . it carries its tail over its back when running ; the white underside helps reflect the sun ' s rays .\nthe west mojave coordinated management plan could provide protection for certain areas within the mohave ground squirrel\u2019s range , although areas of suitable habitat must first be identified for this method of conservation to be successful ( 9 ) .\nare social by comparison , and are found in overlapping areas with mohave ground squirrels . however , mohave ground squirrels are dominant , as antelope ground squirrels have been observed retreating from them . although solitary and very intolerant of their own species , mohave ground squirrels are described as calm , docile and readily approached .\nin spring and early summer ( 5 ) , the mohave ground squirrel is active above ground , coinciding with the growing season of green plants ( 3 ) . during this time , seeds , fungi , fruits and forbs are most abundant , which are the primary components of the mohave ground squirrel\u2019s diet ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 6 ) ( 9 ) . however , this species is omnivorous ( 3 ) , and arthropods such as caterpillars are also taken ( 4 ) . the late winter months and early summer are spent accumulating fat for aestivation ( 9 ) , with some individuals gaining up to 200 grams in weight ( 3 ) . during the time the mohave ground squirrel is active , it is diurnal , and although it is a ground squirrel , it is occasionally known to climb joshua trees while foraging ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .\nnatural predators to mohave ground squirrels include badgers , coyotes , snakes , falcons and hawks .\n) , the mohave ground squirrel is less common , making them an unlikely prey species upon which their predators are significantly dependent . the burrows constructed by this species may contribute to soil aeration , based on similar practices by\n) are social organisms by comparison , and are found in coinciding regions with mohave ground squirrels . however , mohave ground squirrels are dominant , as antelope ground squirrels have been observed retreating from them . although solitary and very intolerant of their own species , mohave ground squirrels are described as placid , docile and readily approached .\ndetermining population size of the mohave ground squirrel is difficult due to its elusive nature . the species is inactive throughout much of the year , and abundance as well as the period of surface activity varies from year to year .\nlittle is known about the reproductive behavior of mohave ground squirrels . all knowledge on the subject is based strictly on above - ground observations .\nmake up 5 to 8 % of mohave ground squirrels ' diet . plants in their diet include\nhave opportunistically expanded their range into the range of mohave ground squirrels . these two ground squirrels are close relatives ; the only organisms found in the subgenus\nthe mohave ground squirrel ( spermophilus mohavensis ) is one of the more elusive animals of the california desert . their highly developed desert survival skills allow them to avoid the extremes of the hostile climate . they are very hard to find and even more difficult to observe and study . mohave ground squirrels are small brown squirrels with white bellies and thin tails .\nbell , k . c . and matocq , m . d . ( 2010 ) development and characterisation of polymorphic microsatellite loci in the mohave ground squirrel . conservation of genetic resources , 2 ( 2 ) : 197 - 199 . available at : urltoken\nthe tail of the mohave ground squirrel is short and tufted ( 3 ) , and is generally narrower at the base and somewhat banded near the tip ( 4 ) . the underside of the tail is creamy - white ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) ( 7 ) , and the tail is often held up against the squirrel\u2019s back , hiding the grey - brown upperside ( 3 ) ( 6 ) . the ears of the mohave ground squirrel are small ( 4 ) and the large , round eyes are surrounded by a pale ring ( 3 ) , which is conspicuous against its brown cheeks ( 3 ) ( 7 ) .\nthe patchy and fragmented distribution of mohave ground squirrel populations increases this species\u2019 vulnerability to local extinctions , especially during times of drought when most reproduction is halted ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 9 ) . the range of the mohave ground squirrel has been greatly reduced due to urbanisation , agriculture and military land use ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) ( 8 ) . off - road vehicle use is permitted in certain parts of this species\u2019 range , and is highly destructive to the habitat ( 2 ) .\npart of the mohave ground squirrel\u2019s range falls within a number of protected areas , offering it a certain degree of protection , although this may be insufficient for its future conservation ( 2 ) . the habitat of the mohave ground squirrel needs protection from development and off - road traffic to prevent local extinctions from occurring ( 2 ) ( 9 ) . improving the existing habitat by restoring disturbed vegetation , modifying grazing practices and banning rodenticide use could be vital to the survival of this threatened rodent ( 2 ) ( 9 ) .\nmake up 5 to 8 % of mohave ground squirrels ' diet . plants in their diet include spotted locoweed (\nthe mohave ground squirrel occupies portions of inyo , kern , los angeles and san bernardino counties in the western mojave desert . the species ranges from near palmdale on the southwest to lucerne valley on the southeast , olancha on the northwest and the avawatz mountains on the northeast .\nrodenticides are used in areas occupied by the mohave ground squirrel , especially in alfalfa plantations , which are an important food source for some populations ( 3 ) . the specific habitat requirements of this species means that many areas throughout its range are unsuitable for it ( 2 ) .\nmohave ground squirrels eat a variety of foods , but feed primarily on the leaves and seeds of forbs and shrubs .\nthe mohave ground squirrel is found between elevations of 610 and 1 , 800 metres ( 2 ) , where there are plenty of creosotebush ( larrea tridentate ) , saltbush ( atriplex spp . ) and joshua trees ( yucca brevifolia ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) ( 8 ) .\n, likely prey upon mohave ground squirrels . if danger is imminent , mohave ground squirrels quickly find a burrow , but they have been observed immediately poking their heads back out for observation . sometimes these ground squirrels freeze in the presence of danger and wait , relying on their cryptic coloration for protection .\naestivation begins in august and ends in february or march ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) , with males generally emerging up to two weeks earlier than females ( 3 ) . the mohave ground squirrel occupies three different burrows : a home burrow used to sleep in during the active period , an accessory burrow which is used for social interactions and thermoregulation , and an aestivation burrow , where it spends six or seven months aestivating ( 3 ) . the burrows built by the mohave ground squirrel are usually around 5 . 5 metres long and 1 metre deep ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .\nthe u . s . army corps of engineers developed an assessment of mohave ground squirrels at fort irwin , california in 1993 . they concluded that mohave ground squirrels may be extinct from numerous sites on the base and strict management plans were proposed to protect the regions where these ground squirrels may still be found .\nthe mohave ground squirrel is found in open areas ( 3 ) , such as deserts ( 2 ) , where there is an abundance of herbaceous , shrubby plants and sandy or gravelly soil , which this species uses to build burrows ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 7 ) .\nthe feet of the mohave ground squirrel are large with long , curved claws on the toes and a long , blunt claw on the thumb ( 3 ) . the front feet are pink - brown or pink - cinnamon and have hairless palms , while the palms of the hind feet are heavily furred ( 3 ) .\nalthough it is usually silent , the mohave ground squirrel sometimes produces both low and shrill whistles , as well as a high - pitched \u2018peep\u2019 ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . the young of this species are capable of producing a high - pitched squeak , which is thought to be associated with feeding ( 3 ) .\nmore research needs to be done into various aspects of the mohave ground squirrel\u2019s biology , including studies on its reproduction , dispersal , feeding habits , population size , the genetic variation within populations and the effects of certain threats , to ensure that effective conservation measures can be established and implemented ( 2 ) ( 9 ) .\nlittle information is available about the ecosystem services provided by mohave ground squirrels . they may provide seed dispersal , specifically for joshua trees (\ndue to the limited distribution of mohave ground squirrels , this species is threatened . major threats and causes of decline are development ( most notably urbanization , agriculture and military uses ) , habitat fragmentation and habitat degradation . in 1971 , the state of california first listed mohave ground squirrels as rare , stimulating population assessments and management activities . population estimates are ineffective due to the inactivity of the mohave ground squirrel for most of the year and their uneven distribution , which is due partly to the annual variation in food availability . thus habitat quality is deemed the best indicator for the health of the population . in order to preserve mohave ground squirrels , preservation of large tracts of land , with a minimum size of 24 , 281 ha is emphasized .\nhelgen , k . m . , cole , f . r . , helgen , l . e . and wilson , d . e . 2009 . generic revision in the holarctic ground squirrel genus spermophilus . journal of mammalogy 90 ( 2 ) : 270 - 305 .\na generally solitary species ( 3 ) ( 4 ) , the mohave ground squirrel is only gregarious during the mating season in early spring , when the male and female will enter a burrow within the male\u2019s territory for several hours to mate ( 3 ) . after copulation , the female usually stays within the male\u2019s territory the following day , then leaves to establish its own home range ( 3 ) . in march or april ( 2 ) , the female gives birth to a litter of between 4 and 9 young , after a gestation period of 29 or 30 days . the young ground squirrels are usually weaned after around 32 days ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . in years of drought , the mohave ground squirrel may not reproduce ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .\n2013 .\nbasic facts about mohave ground squirrels\n( on - line ) . defenders of wildlife . accessed may 02 , 2013 at urltoken .\nhelgen , k . m . , cole , f . r . , helgen , l . e . and wilson , d . e . ( 2009 ) generic revision in the holarctic ground squirrel genus spermophilus . journal of mammalogy , 90 ( 2 ) : 270 - 305 .\nmohave ground squirrels emit a high - pitched\npeep\nas an alarm call , when startled or when young first begin to emerge from their burrows .\n. when they perceive danger , mohave ground squirrels go inside their burrow , but they poke their heads out for observation . sometimes these ground squirrels freeze in the presence of danger and wait , relying on their cryptic coloration for protection .\n. mohave ground squirrels are usually found on flat , non - hilly land . they have been seen in all major scrub habitats in the western mojave desert .\n) , and store them in their burrow . mohave ground squirrels make frequent trips to their burrows to stash seeds , at intervals of 15 to 20 minutes .\nlittle is known about communication between mohave ground squirrels , such as scent or physical displays , as much of the year they are aestivating or hibernating . when active , they are generally solitary , which makes observations difficult . reproductive rituals are also difficult to document as the activity takes place below ground . the call of mohave ground squirrels is described as a \u201cshrill whistle . \u201d there is a high pitched beep accompanied by a slight rasping sound , similar to a horned lark . neonatal mohave ground squirrels produce high - pitched squeaky noises , presumably associated with suckling .\n) mohave ground squirrels exhibit reduced body temperature , reduced oxygen consumption , prolonged periods of apnea , a state of deep sleep greater than torpor and arousal stimulated by heat .\nobservations of mohave ground squirrels ' activities show that they are more calm during cloudy weather than on warm , sunny days . if threatened , mohave ground squirrels typically hold their tail over their back when running . however , they rarely run long distances , as most of their time is spent near burrows . when danger is perceived , they may also remain still , blending into their environment due to their cryptic coloration . if disturbed while feeding , mohave ground squirrels stand on their hind legs to better survey the area .\n. mohave ground squirrels are less common than the other ground squirrels found in their habitat , due to this , it is less likely that predators are dependent on them as a significant food source . their burrows may contribute to soil aeration , based on similar practiced by\n) , were collected and stored in the animal ' s burrow . zembal and gall ( 1980 ) observed the behavior of mohave ground squirrels and reported that these ground squirrels make frequent trips to their burrows to stash seeds , at intervals of 15 to 20 minutes .\nobservations of mohave ground squirrels ' activities have revealed that they are more subdued during cloudy weather than on warm , sunny days . if threatened , mohave ground squirrels typically carry their tail over their back when running . however , they rarely run any extended distances , as most of their time is spent near burrows . their cryptic coloration offers them another option when danger is perceived , remain still and blend into the environment instead of fleeing . if disturbed while feeding , mohave ground squirrels stand erect on their hind legs to better survey the area .\nit seems that that the mohave ground squirrel controls its population and food sources by refusing to mate when there is significantly low rainfall . they will often hibernate early , sometimes as early as april , and wait until the next year to try again . this leads to near extinction in the areas with little or no rain , but the population seems to increase steadily after the rains return . breeding occurs soon after they emerge from hibernation .\nthe lifespan of wild mohave ground squirrels is not known , but it is thought to be about 5 years or more . in captivity , they have lived up to 7 . 8 years .\n) have a patchy distribution throughout the northwestern mohave desert in california . they are found in portions of inyo , kern , los angeles and san bernardino counties . a small population of mohave ground squirrels can also be found in the coso hot springs area , about 13 kilometers northeast of inyo county .\nmohave ground squirrels spend much of their year in aestivation or hibernation , so little is known about their communication . these animals are generally solitary , which makes observations difficult . even mating behavior is difficult to observe because it takes place below ground . their call is described as a \u201cshrill whistle . \u201d it is a high pitched ' beep ' , with a slight rasping sound , similar to a horned lark . newborn mohave ground squirrels produce high - pitched squeaky noises , likely associated with suckling .\n. mohave ground squirrels eat flowers , seeds and leaves . they may eat different foods at different times of the year ; some plants are highly valued at certain times of year for their water content .\ndue to their limited distribution , mohave ground squirrels are considered threatened . major threats to this species include development , habitat fragmentation and habitat degradation . in 1971 , the state of california first listed mohave ground squirrels as rare , which led to studies about their population , however , estimating their population size is difficult because this species is inactive most of the year and they are unevenly distributed , due partly to the yearly change in food availability . so the quality of their habitat is probably the best indicator of a healthy population . in order to preserve mohave ground squirrels , preserving large areas of land is encouraged .\nmohave ground squirrels typically enter aestivation in july or september , after building up their fat reserves , when temperatures decrease to between 20 and 30 degrees celsius and their food sources are reduced due to lack of water . this period of inactivity continues until february . during hibernation mohave ground squirrels have reduced body temperature , reduced oxygen consumption , prolonged periods of apnea ( a state of deep sleep ) and are awakened by heat .\nthere is limited information regarding the longevity of wild mohave ground squirrels , but their lifespan is speculated to be about 5 years or more . their maximum lifespan in captivity , however , is 7 . 8 years .\n) , which , when available , appear to be their preferred food , however , joshua trees do not flower annually . seed harvesting occurs during the day , from about three hours after sunrise until one hour prior to sunset . mohave ground squirrels demonstrate larder hoarding of seeds , storing them in their burrows . mohave ground squirrels are omnivorous , the majority of their diet is composed of various plants as well as a smaller percentage of\n) growth . mohave ground squirrels are often seen in areas with level topography and few ravines . however , they have been documented in all major scrub habitats in the western mojave desert including mojave creosote scrub ( dominated by\ngrinnell , j . , j . dixon . 1910 . natural history of the ground squirrels of california .\n) have a patchy distribution throughout approximately 20 , 000 square kilometers of the northwestern mohave desert in california . their range includes portions of inyo , kern , los angeles and san bernardino counties . a small subpopulation of mohave ground squirrels can also be found in 39 square kilometers of the coso hot springs area , about 13 km northeast of inyo county .\nmohave ground squirrels ' burrows enter the ground at a 35 degree angle . excavated dirt is presumably scattered , as none was observed at the entrance of a burrow system by burt ( 1936 ) . however , it was noted that when squirrels entered a burrow , a plug of dirt and grasses was used to cover the entrance from within .\n) . various parts of the plants are consumed including the flower , seed or leaves . their diet varies seasonally ; different plants are valued at certain times of year for their water content . shrub species consumed by mohave ground squirrels include\nthe entrance to mohave ground squirrels ' burrows is at a 35 degree angle . when they dig their burrow , they likely scatter the dirt . however , when squirrels entered a burrow , they plug the entrance from within using dirt and grasses .\n, when they are available , they seem to be their preferred food , unfortunately , joshua trees do not flower every year . mohave ground squirrels harvest seeds during the day , from three hours after sunrise until one hour before sunset . these animals are\nmale mohave ground squirrels have large territories , averaging 6 . 7 hectares , immediately after emerging from hibernation in february , probably to mate with as many females as possible . males maintain their territories until june , at which time dominant ground squirrels take the best foraging areas . this allows the dominant individuals to occupy smaller home ranges , while juveniles may be forced to roam an area twice the size of their dominant counterparts . home range sites and sizes are dependent on food quality , which is related to rainfall . after the mating season , the average home range size of mohave ground squirrels is 1 . 24 hectares for males and 1 . 20 hectares for females .\nmohave ground squirrels occupy an area with hot , rainless summers and moderate winters , although temperatures may occasionally fall below freezing . these squirrels are most often found at elevations from 600 to 1 , 800 meters above sea level , in hot deserts known as the lower sonoran zone . mohave ground squirrels are found in areas with 10 to 19 % plant cover . they are often found in lower elevation deserts , but these squirrels can also be found in the joshua tree belt , at elevations from 400 to 1 , 800 meters . their preferred habitat seems to include sandy soil or a sandy gravel mix , with\nthe overall body length of mohave ground squirrels ranges from 210 to 230 mm in adults , their tail lengths range from 42 to 72 mm . they weigh about 85 to 130 grams . these squirrels are uniformly brown and have no distinguishing spots or stripes . they have a short , broad , flat , furred tail . the underside of their tail is white with some black hairs near the tip . mohave ground squirrels ' winter pelage is a drab cinnamon color , with a silvery white underside . their summer pelage is \u201cbrowner\u201d , with shorter hair length . seasonal molts occur in early may and in autumn . mohave ground squirrels are cryptically colored to match their sandy environment . this is very advantageous because when they are threatened , they often crouch and wait . their forefeet are hairless , but their rear feet have long hairs . their ears tend to blend into the rest of their head and they have white eyelids . sexual dimorphism is not displayed by this species .\nmohave ground squirrels occupy an area with hot , rainless summers and moderate winters , although temperatures may occasionally fall below freezing . these squirrels are most often found at elevations from 600 to 1 , 800 m above sea level , occupying the lower sonoran zone . mohave ground squirrels are found in perennial plant communities , with plant cover ranging from 10 to 19 % . their range seems to be restricted to lower elevation deserts , but these squirrels can also be found in the joshua tree belt , at elevations from 400 to 1 , 800 m . their preferred habitat seems to include sandy soil or a sandy gravel mix , with infrequent sage brush (\nthis species biggest threat is habitat loss and fragmentation ( harris and leitner 2004 ) . the primary cause of the decline is the conversion of habitat to urban , suburban , agricultural , military , and other human uses ( gustafson 1993 ) , including livestock grazing , off - highway vehicle use , energy production , and transportation infrastructure ( california department of fish and game 1990 , stewart 2005 ) . over 78 % of the habitat within the species ' range is either naturally unavailable , severely degraded , or is in a land - use category that represents a threat to the ground squirrel ; the remainder is under threat from continued development and habitat fragmentation ( stewart 2005 ) . the planned fort irwin expansion would fragment one of four remaining populations that appear to be stable , posing a serious threat to the species ' persistence ( stewart 2005 ) . current regulatory mechanisms are believed to be inadequate to protect this species ( stewart 2005 ) . this species may be expanding its range at the expense of the mohave ground squirrel ( wessman , in hafner 1992 ) . this species fails to reproduce during years of drought rather than risking a delay in accumulating fat reserves for aestivation . periods of prolonged drought therefore is a potential threat to the population . the taxon exists as isolated populations with a scattered distribution . recruitment from neighbouring colonies is thought to be rare ( hafner et al . 1998 ) .\ngustafson , j . , s . harris , r . jones , s . juarez , t . moore , d . racine , a . tenneboe , j . vance , t . dayak , c . bernis , p . leitner , t . recht , l . oviatt , r . scott , c . wilkerson , c . everly , s . collis , b . wood , m . quillman , b . shomo , s . ellis , l . lapre , b . parker , c . sullivan , r . mcmorran , c . gonzalez , m . joia , t . campbell , j . o ' gara . 2006 .\nmohave ground squirrel conservation strategy\n( on - line ) . desert mangers group . accessed march 21 , 2013 at urltoken .\nmohave ground squirrels typically enter aestivation in july or september , after building up their fat reserves , when temperatures decrease to between 20 and 30 degrees celsius and their food sources diminish due to lack of water . this period of dormancy continues until february . during hibernation ( a descriptor used interchangeably with aestivation in the literature when describing\n, and are not found in coinciding ranges , but contact one another along a competitive zone . due to the close genetic and morphologic relationship of these two ground squirrels , hafner and yates ( 1983 ) investigated hybridization of the two species but found limited cases . hafner ( 1992 ) investigated the persistence of the contact zone between these two species , despite the presence of appropriate habitat for each on either side of the division and no known reason for their separation . in an effort to explain the distribution of mohave ground squirrels and round - tailed squirrels , hafner mentioned a remarkable geographic similarity between the current contact zone of these ground squirrels and the wisconsinan pluvial maximum , a former aquatic feature present during the pleistocene epoch .\nmale mohave ground squirrels establish large territories , averaging 6 . 7 ha , immediately after emerging from hibernation in february , presumably to mate with as many females as possible . territories of the males remain consistent until june , at which time dominant individuals take possession of the best foraging areas . this characteristic allows the dominant individuals to occupy smaller home ranges , while juveniles may be forced to roam an area twice the size of their dominant counterparts . home range sites and sizes are dependent on forage quality , which is directly related to rainfall . post - mating , the average home range size of mohave ground squirrels is 1 . 24 ha for males and 1 . 20 ha for females ; however , there is no significant difference between male and female home range size .\nmohave ground squirrels are diurnal . after emerging from their burrow in the morning , they bask in the sun , periodically rotating to warm different parts of their bodies . they feed continuously during daylight hours , from three hours after sunrise until one hour prior to sunset . they forage in shaded areas in the middle of the day , due to the extreme heat . they collect food , such as joshua tree seeds (\nthis species is rare throughout much of its range . significant population declines have been recorded across most of the range between 1980 and 2000 , and this decline is not correlated with winter rainfall , which generally increased between 1984 and 1998 ( leitner 2001 , brooks and matchett 2002 ) . hafner ( 1992 ) hypothesized that low dispersal ability might be one of several possible explanations for the persistence of a stable contact zone between s . mohavensis and s . tereticaudus , the species is relatively mobile compared to other ground squirrel species . harris and leitner ( 2004 ) found that the size of female home ranges in years of no reproduction appears to vary in response to food availability , and that alternating size of the home range may be an adaptive response to an arid , variable environment . total adult population size is unknown but may exceed 100 , 000 ( assuming an average density of about one adult per hectare ( leitner and leitner 1998 ) and 430 , 000 hectares of occupied habitat ) . however , the spatial and temporal distribution of this species is highly dynamic , which makes it difficult to make a reliable estimate of overall population size . stewart ( 2005 ) mapped 22 locations in which this species was captured during trapping surveys in 2002 - 2004 ( leitner 2005 ) . these represent four core areas plus two additional areas in which squirrels are present at low densities ( stewart 2005 ) . this ground squirrel exhibits large fluctuations in local population size . further information on overall trend is needed . recent monitoring data reveal that over twenty percent of the historical range of this species is no longer occupied ( stewart 2005 ) .\nmohave ground squirrels exhibit diurnal activity patterns . after emerging in the morning , they have been observed basking in the sun , periodically rotating to warm different parts of their bodies . feeding occurs continuously during daylight hours , from three hours after sunrise until one hour prior to sunset . the extreme heat during the middle of the day dictates that foraging occurs in shaded areas , well protected from the sun . choice foods , such as joshua tree seeds (\nthe mohave ground squirrel inhabits desert areas with deep sandy or gravelly friable soils and an abundance of annual herbaceous vegetation . this species prefers arid flat terrains with desert shrubs ( harris and leitner 2004 ) . habitats include alluvial fans where desert pavement is absent . habitats in order of decreasing favourability : ( 1 ) creosotebush association , ( 2 ) shadscale association , ( 3 ) alkali sink association , and ( 4 ) joshua tree association . nests are in underground burrows . individuals may use several different burrows . mating occurs in february - march ( harris and leitner 2004 ) . litter size is 4 - 6 ; young are born in late march or early april ( biosystems analysis 1989 ) . no reproduction occurs during the driest years ; for example , harris and leitner ( 2004 ) found that no reproduction occurred at their study site when early winter precipitation ( october - january ) was less than 30 mm . populations fluctuate with environmental conditions ( leitner and leitner 1998 ) . populations in marginal habitats may become extirpated during extended droughts . after the return of favourable conditions , those areas may be recolonized from adjacent areas following the resumption of reproduction and dispersal of offspring from core habitats ( gustafson 1993 ) . long - distance movement by juveniles might be critical for connecting local populations and recolonizing sites after local , drought - related extirpation ( harris and leitner 2005 ) . mohave ground squirrels feed on green vegetation and seeds , and may also eat carrion . this species remains underground august until late winter or early spring ( reportedly emerges in february or march , or , according to biosystems analysis [ 1989 ] , march in the south and may in the north ) . active during the spring and summer .\noffspring are altricial at birth ; they are generally blind and unable to hear , with scarce hair , found only on their heads . young make high - pitched squeaking noises , likely associated with suckling . litters emerge from the burrows from late april to mid may . females continue lactating through may . during years with drought and limited resources , mohave ground squirrels may not reproduce . this may continue for several years . choosing not to reproduce when conditions are poor may help the animals maintain fat reserves for aestivation and hibernation .\noffspring are altricial at birth ; they are generally blind and unable to hear , with scarce hair , found only on their heads . young are able to make high - pitched squeaking noises , presumably associated with suckling . litters emerge from the burrows from late april to mid may . lactation may persist through may . during years with substantial drought and reduced resources , mohave ground squirrels may fail to reproduce . suspending reproduction may occur for several years if conditions are not adequate . this may help maintain fat reserves for aestivation and hibernation .\nthe overall body length of mohave ground squirrels ranges from 210 to 230 mm in adults , their tail lengths range from 42 to 72 mm and they weigh 85 to 130 grams . these squirrels have all brown fur , with no spots or stripes . they have a short , broad , flat , furry tail . the underside of their tail is white with some black hairs near the tip . during their winter coloration , most of their body is a drab cinnamon color and their underside is silvery white . in the summer , their fur is shorter and their coloration is \u201cbrowner\n. they molt some of their fur each year during early may and in autumn . mohave ground squirrels are cryptically colored , meaning their fur matches their environment , making them difficult to find . when they are threatened , they often crouch and wait , blending into their surroundings . their front feet are hairless , but their rear feet have long hairs . their ears blend in to the rest of their head and they have white eyelids . males and females of this species are about the same size .\nthe young are usually weaned after only about a month and will leave the nest . often , the young ground squirrels will settle close to their mother\u2019s burrow , but sometimes a young male will travel far , often up to four miles , to establish his own territory .\nmohave ground squirrels emerge from hibernation in february ; the males emerge up to two weeks before the females and begin establishing and defending territories . during the breeding season , the average male territory size is 6 . 7 hectares , this helps males mate with multiple females . mating is believed to take place in the male\u2019s burrow . the annual breeding season takes place during february and march . they have about a one month gestation period and young are generally born in late march or early april . litters may range from 4 to 9 offspring . females can usually begin mating at 1 year of age , while males do not begin mating until two years of age .\nmohave ground squirrels emerge from hibernation in february ; the males emerge up to two weeks prior to the females and may establish and defend territories , with an average size of 6 . 7 ha , in an attempt to mate with multiple females . copulation is believed to take place in the male\u2019s burrow . the annual mating season takes place during february and march . they have about a one month gestation period and birth generally occurs in late march or early april . litters may range from 4 to 9 offspring . females are capable of reproduction at 1 year of age ( if conditions allow ) , while males do not generally reach sexual maturity until two years of age .\nharris and leitner 2004 ) . its range coincides with a cool mesic wisconsinan refugium in the mohave desert . this species occurs in southwestern inyo , eastern kern , extreme northeastern los angeles , and northwestern san bernardino counties ( wessman 1977 , california department of fish and game 1990 , best 1995 ) from olancha , inyo county , south to victorville , san bernardino county , and from the tehachapi mountains of kern county to the granite mountains in san bernardino county ( biosystems analysis 1989 ) . the mojave river generally defines the extreme southeastern boundary of the range , but the species historically occurred east of the river in lucerne valley ( stewart 2005 , see list of specimens examined by hafner 1992 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nhybridize along a small , narrow , stable contact zone ( helendale , coyote dry lake ) that coincides with a wisconsinan pluvial barrier ; the two taxa exhibit a consistent difference in diploid number ( hafner and yates 1983 , hafner 1992 ) . this species is now recognized under a new genus\njustification : listed as near threatened because its extent of occurrence is approximately 27 , 000 km\u00b2 , yet its range is severely fragmented , and there is ongoing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat . only 9 % of habitat in protected areas is deemed suitable . populations also experience extreme fluctuations , partly due to the effects of drought which deters the species from breeding in some years . further population studies may merit a vulnerable listing using criterion b1 or a .\nonly 9 % of the suitable habitat within the historical range exists in a protected state . stewart ( 2005 ) determined that this species occurs on a large number of protected areas ( federal wilderness areas , state parks , state ecological reserves , etc . ) on lands encompassing about 1 , 800 km\u00b2 . nearly two - thirds of the range is in federal ownership ( stewart 2005 ) . habitat needs to be protected from development and excessive grazing . off - road vehicle traffic should be restricted or eliminated at inhabited sites . consideration of this species in federal land use decisions should be promoted . obtain data on reproduction , dispersal , demography , food habits , habitat needs , and the effects of fire , grazing , and off - road vehicle use .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\nmating season : spring . gestation : less than a month . litter size 6 - 9 young .\nthe golden state is home to millions of wild birds , mammals , amphibians , reptiles and fish that need our help .\nmsg & data rates may apply . text stop to opt out or help for info . no purchase necessary . expect 4 msgs / mo . terms and conditions\nhafner , d . j . , yensen , e . and kirkland jr , g . l . ( 1998 ) north american rodents : status survey and conservation action plan . iucn / ssc rodent specialist group , iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk . available at : urltoken\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\naestivation period of dormancy occurring the summer or dry season , comparable to hibernation in winter . arthropods a major grouping of animals that includes crustaceans , insects and arachnids . all arthropods have paired jointed limbs and a hard external skeleton ( exoskeleton ) . diurnal active during the day . endemic a species or taxonomic group that is only found in one particular country or geographic area . forb any herbaceous ( non - woody ) flowering plant that is not a grass . genetic diversity ( genetic variation ) the variety of genes within a particular species , population or breed causing differences in morphology , physiology and behaviour . gestation the state of being pregnant ; the period from conception to birth . herb a small , non - woody , seed bearing plant in which all the aerial parts die back at the end of each growing season . home range the area occupied by an animal during routine activities , which is not actively defended . omnivorous feeding on both plants and animals . territory an area occupied and defended by an animal , a pair of animals or a group . thermoregulate to control body temperature .\nreid , f . ( 2006 ) a field guide to the mammals of north america , north of mexico . peterson field guides , new york .\nbowers , n . , bowers , r . and kaufman , k . ( 2007 ) kaufman field guide to mammals of north america . houghton mifflin harcourt , new york .\nfeldhamer , g . a . , thompson , b . c . and chapman , j . a . ( eds . ) wild mammals of north america : biology , management , and conservation . second edition . the johns hopkins university press , baltimore .\nkays , r . w . and wilson , d . e . ( 2009 ) mammals of north america . princeton university press , princeton .\nhafner , d . j . , yensen , e . and kirkland jr , g . l . ( 1998 ) north american rodents : status survey and conservation action plan . iucn / ssc rodent specialist group , iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk . available at : urltoken\ncalifornia department of fish and game ( 2011 ) state and federally listed endangered and threatened animals of california . california department of fish and game , california . available at : urltoken\nb . moose peterson po box 2628 , mammoth lakes ca 93546 united states of america tel : 760 . 924 . 8632 info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken / blog /\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nof seeds , meaning they store them in their burrows . they are omnivorous , the majority of their diet is composed of plants as well as a smaller percentage of\ncaleb eckloff ( author ) , northern michigan university , john bruggink ( editor ) , northern michigan university , leila siciliano martina ( editor ) , animal diversity web staff .\n2012 .\nthe animal ageing and longevity database\n( on - line ) . human ageing genomic resources . accessed february 16 , 2013 at urltoken .\nmorton , s . 1979 . diversity of desert - dwelling mammals : a comparison of australia and north america .\nwaitman , b . , s . vander wall , t . esque . 2012 . seed dispersal and seed fate in joshua tree (\neckloff , c . 2013 .\nspermophilus mohavensis\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nbiokids is sponsored in part by the interagency education research initiative . it is a partnership of the university of michigan school of education , university of michigan museum of zoology , and the detroit public schools . this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation under grant drl - 0628151 . copyright \u00a9 2002 - 2018 , the regents of the university of michigan . all rights reserved .\n- - natureserve explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50 , 000 plants , animals and ecological communtities of the u . s and canada . natureserve explorer provides in - depth information on rare and endangered species , but includes common plants and animals too . natureserve explorer is a product of natureserve in collaboration with the natural heritage network .\nitis reports - - itis ( the integrated taxonomic information system ) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants , animals , fungi , and microbes of north america and the world .\nfws digital media library - - the u . s . fish and wildlife service ' s national digital library is a searchable collection of selected images , historical artifacts , audio clips , publications , and video .\nliving in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .\nyoung are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nhaving markings , coloration , shapes , or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment ; being difficult to see or otherwise detect .\nin deserts low ( less than 30 cm per year ) and unpredictable rainfall results in landscapes dominated by plants and animals adapted to aridity . vegetation is typically sparse , though spectacular blooms may occur following rain . deserts can be cold or warm and daily temperates typically fluctuate . in dune areas vegetation is also sparse and conditions are dry . this is because sand does not hold water well so little is available to plants . in dunes near seas and oceans this is compounded by the influence of salt in the air and soil . salt limits the ability of plants to take up water through their roots .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\nthe state that some animals enter during winter in which normal physiological processes are significantly reduced , thus lowering the animal ' s energy requirements . the act or condition of passing winter in a torpid or resting state , typically involving the abandonment of homoiothermy in mammals .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) ."]}
{"id": 2268, "summary": [{"text": "keiferia elmorei is a moth in the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by keifer in 1936 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from california .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is 4-5.9 mm for males and 3.4-5.3 mm for females .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the larvae feed on solanum species .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they mine the leaves of their host plant . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "keiferia elmorei", "paragraphs": ["keiferia elmorei ( keifer , 1936 ) is elevated from synonymy of 2047 keiferia lycopersicella .\nhome \u00bb guide \u00bb arthropods ( arthropoda ) \u00bb hexapods ( hexapoda ) \u00bb insects ( insecta ) \u00bb butterflies and moths ( lepidoptera ) \u00bb twirler moths and kin ( gelechioidea ) \u00bb twirler moths ( gelechiidae ) \u00bb gelechiinae \u00bb gnorimoschemini \u00bb keiferia \u00bb keiferia elmorei - hodges # 2047 . 1 ( keiferia elmorei )\nkeiferia elmorei ; powell & povoln\u00fd , 2001 , holarctic lepidoptera 8 ( suppl . 1 ) : 14 ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 28 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nkeiferia brunnea povoln\u00fd , 1973 ; acta univ . agric . 21 ( 3 ) : 610\nkeiferia educata povoln\u00fd , 2004 ; acta univ . agric . brno 52 : ( 15 - 22 )\nkeiferia powelli povoln\u00fd , 2004 ; acta univ . agric . brno 52 : ( 15 - 22 )\nkeiferia rusposoria povoln\u00fd , 1970 ; j . lep . soc . 24 : 6 ; tl : west indies , grenada , balthazar\nkeiferia dalibori king & montesinos , 2012 ; acta zool . cracov . 55 ( 1 ) : 61 ; tl : hualpen , 12m , chile\nkeiferia altisolani ; powell & povoln\u00fd , 2001 , holarctic lepidoptera 8 ( suppl . 1 ) : 13 ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 28\nkeiferia ( gnorimoschemini ) ; zimmerman , 1978 , ins . hawaii 9 ( 2 ) : 1724 ; [ sangmi lee ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 28 ; [ me6 ] , 206 , 31 ; [ fe ]\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nrestriction of the genus gelechia ( lepidoptera : gelechiidae ) , with descriptions of new genera august busck . 1939 . proceedings of the united states national museum , 86 ( 3064 ) : 563 - 593 .\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 3 april , 2014 - 11 : 57am last updated 5 april , 2014 - 12 : 02am\n= ; [ sangmi lee ] ; powell & povoln\u00fd , 2001 , holarctic lepidoptera 8 ( suppl . 1 ) : 13 ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 28\ngnorimoschema altisolani kieffer , 1937 ; bull . dep . agric . calif . 26 : 179\naristotelia chloroneura meyrick , 1923 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 1 - 2 ) : 6 ; tl : brazil , obidos , santarem\ncolombiana povoln\u00fd , 1975 ; acta univ . brno 23 ( 1 ) : 109\nlarva on solanum powell & povoln\u00fd , 2001 , holarctic lepidoptera 8 ( suppl . 1 ) : 14\ntildenia georgei hodges , 1985 ; j . lep . soc . 39 ( 3 ) : 151 ; tl : illinois , mason co . , sand ridge state forest\ngelechia gudmannella walsingham , 1897 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1897 : 77 ; tl : west indies , san domingo , puerto plata\nlarva on solanum carolinense murtfeldt , 1881 , can . ent . 13 ( 12 ) : 244\ncalifornia , cuba , mexico , hawaii , . . . , introduced ( italy ) . see [ maps ]\n= ; sattler , 1973 , bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent . ) 28 ( 4 ) : 216 ; [ nacl ] , # 2047 ; powell & povoln\u00fd , 2001 , holarctic lepidoptera 8 ( suppl . 1 ) : 14 ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 28 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; [ me6 ] , 207\nlarva on lycopersicon esculentum , solanum melongena var ' esculentum ' , s . tuberosum , s . carolinense , s . xanthii , s . bahamese , s . umbelliferum [ me6 ] , 208\nparasites apanteles dignus , horogenes blackburni , panhormius pallidipes zimmerman , 1978 , ins . hawaii 9 ( 2 ) : 1728\nvorax ( meyrick , 1939 ) ( phthorimaea ) ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 89 ( 4 ) : 53\nsangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nn . sp . , ( family gelechiidae ) a leaf feeder on tomato ( lep . )\nzimmerman , 1978 insects of hawaii . microlepidoptera . ( 1 ) : monotrysia , tineoidea , tortricoidea , gracillarioidea , yponomeutoidea , and alucitoidea , ( 2 ) : gelechioidea ins . hawaii 9 ( 1 ) : 1 - 396 , ( 1 ) : 397 - 882 , ( 2 ) : 883 - 1430 , ( 2 ) : 1431 - 1903\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome ."]}
{"id": 2272, "summary": [{"text": "pyrgotis humilis is a species of moth of the family tortricidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is endemic to new zealand .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "this species was first described by alfred philpott in 1930 from a specimen collected by c. e. clarke on mount maungatua in otago .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 12 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are bright ochreous , suffused with purplish fuscous towards the termen .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are fuscous .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults have been recorded in december . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "pyrgotis humilis", "paragraphs": ["have a fact about pyrgotis humilis ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for pyrgotis humilis ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhumilis philpott , 1930 ( pyrgotis ) , rec . auckland inst . mus . 1 : 4 . tl : new zealand , mount maungatua , dunedin . holotype : amnz . male .\neudorana meyrick , 1885 ( pyrgotis ) , trans . new zealand inst . 17 : 143 . tl : new zealand , taronaki . holotype : bmnh . female .\nplinthoglypta meyrick , 1892 ( pyrgotis ) , trans . new zealand inst . 24 : 218 . tl : new zealand , wellington . holotype : bmnh . male .\ntornota meyrick , 1907 ( pyrgotis ) , trans . new zealand inst . 39 : 115 . tl : new zealand . invercargill , southland . holotype : bmnh . female .\nzygiana meyrick , 1882 ( pyrgotis ) , new zealand j . sci . 1 : 277 . tl : new zealand , christchurch , mid canterbury . holotype : bmnh . male .\npyramidias meyrick , 1901 ( pyrgotis ) , trans . ent . soc . lond . 1901 : 571 . tl : new zealand , invercargill , southland . holotype : bmnh . male .\nconsentiens philpott , 1916 ( pyrgotis ) , trans . proc . new zealand inst . 48 : 421 . tl : new zealand , mt . cleughearn , hunter mountains , fiordland . holotype : nzac . male .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nbugz : hudson , g . v . 1939 : a supplement to the butterflies and moths of new zealand . ferguson & osborn ltd . , wellington : ii , 94 pp ; pls liii - lxii\nhudson , g . v . 1939 : a supplement to the butterflies and moths of new zealand .\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\narcuata philpott , 1915 ( capua ) , trans . proc . new zealand inst 47 : 198 . tl : new zealand , invercargill , southland . holotype : nzac . male .\ncalligypsa meyrick , 1926 ( catamacta ) , trans . new zealand inst . 56 : 415 . tl : new zealand , wellington . holotype : bmnh . female .\nvariegata philpott , 1930 ( capua ) , rec . auckland inst . mus . 1 : 4 . tl : new zealand . wairakei , taupo . holotype : amnz . male .\nchrysomela meyrick , 1914 ( catamacta ) , trans . new zealand inst . 46 : 103 . tl : new zealand , kaeo , northland . holotype : bmnh . male .\nplagiatana walker , 1863 ( conchylis ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus 28 : 370 . tl : new zealand , auckland , nelson . holotype : bmnh . male .\nluciplagana walker , 1863 ( paedisca ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus 28 : 381 . tl : new zealand . auckland , nelson . holotype : bmnh . female .\nparallela salmon & bradley , 1956 ( epagoge ) , rec . dom . mus . 3 : 72 . tl : new zealand . auckland , nelson . holotype : mnz . male .\npunana felder & rogenhofer , 1875 ( grapholitha ) , reise st . fregatte novara ( zool . ) ( 2 ) 5 : pl . 137 , fig . 43 . tl : new zealand . nelson . holotype : bmnh . male .\nrecusana walker , 1863 ( conchylis ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus 28 : 371 . tl : new zealand . auckland , nelson . holotype : bmnh . male .\ntrichroa meyrick , 1902 ( adoxophyes ) , trans . ent . soc . lond . 1901 : 578 . tl : new zealand . whangarei heads , northland . holotype : bmnh . female .\nxylinana felder & rogenhofer , 1875 ( grapholitha ) , reise st . fregatte novara ( zool . ) ( 2 ) 5 : pl . 137 , fig . 44 . tl : new zealand . nelson . holotype : bmnh . female .\nsiderantha meyrick , 1905 ( epagoge ) , j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 16 : 588 : tl : sri lanka , ceylon [ sri lanka ] ( maskeliya ) . lectotype : bmnh . male .\ntransfixa meyrick , 1924 ( catamacta ) , trans . new zealand inst . 55 : 203 . tl : new zealand , wellington . holotype : bmnh . male .\nunless noted , all images on these pages are copyright \u00a9 2003 - 14 by todd gilligan . please do not download , copy , print , or otherwise distribute any images from these pages without the permission of the author . contact form .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nthis search function lets you find records from auckland museum\u2019s natural sciences , human history and documentary heritage collections .\nthe development of the auckland war memorial museum online collection is an ongoing process ; updates , new images and records are added weekly . in some cases , records have yet to be confirmed by museum staff , and there could be mistakes or omissions in the information provided .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more"]}
{"id": 2274, "summary": [{"text": "the fiery-throated hummingbird ( panterpe insignis ) is a medium-sized hummingbird which breeds only in the mountains of costa rica and western panama .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is the only member of the genus panterpe .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "this is a common to abundant bird of montane forest canopy above 1400 m , and also occurs in scrub at the woodland edges and clearings .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "this bird is 11 cm long and weighs 5.7 g .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it has a straight black bill and dusky feet .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the adult fiery-throated hummingbird has shiny green body plumage , a blue tail , and a white spot behind the eye .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it often looks dark , but when the light catches it at the right angle , it shows a brilliant blue crown , yellow-bordered bright orange throat , and blue chest patch .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the sexes are similar , but young birds have rufous fringes to the head plumage .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the call is a high-pitched twittering .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the female fiery-throated hummingbird is entirely responsible for nest building and incubation .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "she lays two white eggs in a bulky plant-fibre cup nest 2 \u2013 4 m high at the end of a descending bamboo stem or on a rootlet under a bank .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "incubation takes 15 \u2013 19 days , and fledging another 20-26 .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the food of this species is nectar , taken from a variety of small flowers , including epiphytic ericaceae and bromeliads .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "like other hummingbirds it also takes small insects as an essential source of protein .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "male fiery-throated hummingbirds defend flowers and scrubs in their feeding territories , and are dominant over most other hummingbirds .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "they will , however , allow females to share their food resources . ", "topic": 10}], "title": "fiery - throated hummingbird", "paragraphs": ["the fiery - throated hummingbird ( panterpe insignis ) - also known as irazu hummingbird - is a common , medium - sized hummingbird that occurs naturally in in the mountains of costa rica and western panama .\nthe fiery - throated hummingbird averages 11 cm or 4 . 3 inches in length and weighs about 5 . 7 g or 0 . 2 oz . it has a straight black bill and dusky - colored feet .\nthe fiery - throated hummingbirds primarily feed on nectar taken from a variety of brightly colored , scented small flowers of trees , herbs , shrubs and epiphytes , ericaceae and bromeliads .\nthe adult fiery - throated hummingbird has iridescent green body plumage , a dark blue tail , and a white spot behind each eye . it has a brilliant blue crown , yellow - bordered coppery orange throat , and blue chest patch . its sides and the back of the head are velvety black .\nstiles , f . g . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . fiery - throated hummingbird ( panterpe insignis ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nhummingbird was perched about 8 m from us . i merged two recordings of the same bird taken about 1 minute apart . recording was normalized to - 3 db .\nthe female fiery - throated hummingbird is responsible for building the bulky cup - shaped nest out of plant fibers woven together and green moss on the outside for camouflage in a protected location , typically about 2 - 4 m high at the end of a descending bamboo stem or on a rootlet under a bank . she lines the nest with soft plant fibers , animal hair and feather down , and strengthens the structure with spider webbing and other sticky material , giving it an elastic quality to allow it to stretch to double its size as the chicks grow and need more room . the nest is typically found on a low , thin horizontal branch .\nfirst capture of a hummingbird . taken near kilometer 70 on the cerro de la muerte in central costa rica at paraiso de quetzal in june 2011 . these large hummingbirds were mobbing the feeders along with magnificent hummingbirds\nthey may also visit local hummingbird feeders for some sugar water , or drink out of bird baths or water fountains where they will either hover and sip water as it runs over the edge ; or they will perch on the edge and drink - like all the other birds ; however , they only remain still for a short moment .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : although this species may have a small range , it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend is not known , but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' common ' ( stotz et al . ( 1996 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthey are usually found in cloud forests at elevations of 1 , 400 m ( 4 , 600 feet ) or above ; as well as frequenting scrub at the woodland edges and clearings .\nspanish : colibr\u00ed garganta de fuego , colibr\u00ed insigne . . . french : colibri insigne . . . italian : colibr\u00ec goladifiamma , colibr\u00ec golaflammea . . . german : feuerkehlkolibri , feuerkehl - kolibri . . . czech : kolib ? \u00edk ohnivobrad\u00fd , kolibr\u00edk ohniv\u00fd . . . danish : ildstrubet kolibri . . . finnish : tulikurkkukolibri . . . japanese : hinodohachidori . . . dutch : irazukolibrie , irazu - kolibrie . . . norwegian : ildstrupekolibri . . . polish : duszek kraterowy . . . russian : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? . . . slovak : medovec horsk\u00fd . . . swedish : eldstrupekolibri\nfound in north - central costa rica ( cordillera de tilar\u00e1n ) , south to extreme western panama .\nboth males and females look alike . immature birds have rufous - colored fringes to their head feathers .\nhummingbirds are named after the humming sound made by the beat of their wings . their wings make up to 100 beats per second , moving so rapidly that the naked eye cannot detect them . they are the only birds that can generate power on both the forward and backward wing strokes , which makes backward fly possible .\nhummingbirds are solitary in all aspects of life other than breeding ; and the male ' s only involvement in the reproductive process is the actual mating with the female . they neither live nor migrate in flocks ; and there is no pair bond for this species . males court females by flying in a u - shaped pattern in front of them . he will separate from the female immediately after copulation . one male may mate with several females . in all likelihood , the female will also mate with several males . the males do not participate in choosing the nest location , building the nest or raising the chicks .\nthe average clutch consists of 2 white eggs , each being about the size of a coffee bean . the female alone incubates ( broods ) the eggs for about 15 - 19 days . during this time , the male continues to defend his territory and the flowers he feeds on . the female is also the only one that protects and feeds the chicks with regurgitated food ( mostly insects since nectar is an insufficient source of protein for the growing chicks ) . as is the case with other hummingbirds , the chicks are only brooded for the first week or two . after about 12 days , the young are left alone even on cooler nights - probably due to the small nest size . the young leave the nest when they are about 20 - 26 days old .\nthey favor flowers with the highest sugar content ( often red - colored and tubular - shaped ) and seek out , and aggressively protect , those areas containing flowers with high energy nectar . they use their long , extendible , straw - like tongues to retrieve the nectar while hovering with their tails cocked upward as they are licking at the nectar up to 13 times per second . sometimes they may be seen hanging on the flower while feeding .\nmany native and cultivated plants on whose flowers these birds feed heavily rely on them for pollination . the mostly tubular - shaped flowers actually exclude most bees and butterflies from feeding on them and , subsequently , from pollinating the plants .\nthey also take some small spiders and insects - important sources of protein particularly needed during the breeding season to ensure the proper development of their young . insects are often caught in flight ( hawking ) ; snatched off leaves or branches , or are taken from spider webs . a nesting female can capture up to 2 , 000 insects a day .\nmales establish feeding territories , where they aggressively chase away other males as well as large insects - such as bumblebees and hawk moths - that want to feed in their territory . they use aerial flights and intimidating displays to defend their territories .\nmales are fiercely territorial . aerial battles between males are frequently observed and are usually very entertaining to the observer . even though males will defend the flowers and scrubs in their feeding territories against other male hummingbirds ; they usually tolerate females .\nfor updates please follow beautyofbirds on google + ( google . com / + avianweb )\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nrichard garrigues , keith blomerley , keith and lynn youngs , bill wayman , peter nash .\nmartin flack , marc fasol , holger teichmann , jacqueserard , r\u00f3ger rodr\u00edguez , paul cools , auf , manakincarmelo , gunnar pettersson , michael schmitz , anthony villaume , phil kindermann , tadeusz rosinski , klaus lachenmaier , euclides campos , joseph c . boone , joe tobias , hal and kirsten snyder , kevinguse , henrik brings\u00f8e , ken havard , juan fdo . alvarez castro , keith and lynn youngs , luis vargas , dusan m . brinkhuizen .\ncabanis & heine , 1860 \u2013 nc costa rica ( cordillera de tilar\u00e1n ) s to extreme w panama ( bocas del toro , chiriqu\u00ed ) .\n10\u00b75\u201311 cm ; male 5\u00b79\u20136\u00b72 g , female 4\u00b79\u20135\u00b72 g . sexes alike . bill black except basal part of mandible pink , feet dusky grey . . .\napparently lacks true song . calls include a repeated nasal , squeaky \u201ckek . . . kek . . . \u201d , given in fast . . .\naug\u2013jan in costa rica . during breeding males do not lek but defend rich patches of flowers , usually of ericads (\nfollowing breeding at least part of population moves to lower elevations , down locally to 1400 . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . cites ii . restricted - range species : present in costa rica and panama highlands eba . species is generally common to abundant over most . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 290 , 154 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nalthough this species may have a small range , it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend is not known , but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : panterpe insignis . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nnatural vocalization ; the faster calls given while the bird was hovering in front of me , the slower paced ones given once it had perched . bird seemed alarmed by my presence .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict ."]}
{"id": 2280, "summary": [{"text": "the chestnut-throated seedeater ( sporophila telasco ) is neotropical songbird in the family thraupidae .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is found in along the western seaboard of south america , from southwestern colombia to far northern chile .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the natural habitats of the chestnut-throated seedeater are subtropical or tropical dry shrubland , subtropical or tropical moist shrubland , swamps , sandy shores , and heavily degraded former forest along the pacific coast and montane uplands of western south america , primarily ecuador , peru and chile .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the species serves as an indicator of declining forest health , as their populations appear to increase following deforestation and land use change .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "males possess a rich chestnut patch on the throat in breeding season , while females share a similar color pattern , but lack the throat patch , with a lighter bill , but moult into drab plumage outside of the breeding season .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this occurs because the cost of predator attracting , colorful plumage is no longer worth taking when breeding activities are completed .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "these songbirds are among the smallest members of the tanager family at approximately 4.0 inches in length , and possess powerful bills to harvest grass seeds . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "chestnut - throated seedeater", "paragraphs": ["click the button below to add the chestnut throated seedeater to your wish list .\ntemperament : no information founds but in watching the chestnut - throated seedeater , it appears to be a sweet and docile bird .\nthe chestnut - throated seedeater ( sporophila telasco ) is neotropical songbird in the family thraupidae . one local name in chile is \u201ccorbatita\u201d meaning little tie , as if it wears a little chestnut tie on a white shirt .\nthe chestnut - throated seedeater is common along the coastal lowland and also the mara\u00f1on drainage where it is known to range up to 700 m along the foothill of the andes . it also occurs in\nthe natural habitats of the chestnut - throated seedeater are subtropical or tropical dry shrubland , subtropical or tropical moist shrubland , swamps , sandy shores , and heavily degraded former forest along the pacific coast and montane uplands of western south america , primarily ecuador , peru and chile .\nbut is distinguished by a smaller size , chestnut throat , no white wing bars and no white wing speculum . also , see\njaramillo , a . ( 2018 ) . chestnut - throated seedeater ( sporophila telasco ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\n. the breeding male chestnut - throated seedeater has bluish gray upperparts . the throat is chestnut with white on the rest of the underparts . the bill is black . the female has brown upperparts streaked and mottled with dusky . the underparts are brownish with faint brown streaking on the breast . the non - breeding male has a dull plumage with little chestnut on the throat and brown bill . the juvenile and the female in fresh plumage have warm brown to buff shades on the breast and back . both sexes show a white wing speculum . it forages in open areas with scattered shrubs as well in grasslands , fallow agricultural fields , and river edges . it is similar to the\nthis seedeater is a relatively unusual looking for a seedeater , and one that is restricted to the arid pacific slope from southernmost colombia to northernmost chile . this is not a species of the desert , but it does well in arid areas where there is shrubbery or a moister riparian area or irrigated farmland . likely its distribution and abundance has increased through the aid of humans , as it does well in agricultural landscapes that are taking over from desert habitats . the male has a few oddities in plumage for a seedeater , it is streaked above which is unusual , it also has a very dark chestnut throat patch , restricted to a small area of the chin and throat . one local name in chile is \u201ccorbatita\u201d meaning little tie , as if it wears a little chestnut tie on a white shirt . the rest of the underparts are white . otherwise above it is grayish , including the face , and it has a big bold white wing stripe . females are more distinctive than that of typical seedeaters as they show a trace of the wing stripe , and some may look moderately streaked above . this seedeater has a relatively large and rounded bill , although it is clearly smaller billed than the parrot - billed seedeater . that rather different species may in fact be the chestnut - throated\u2019s closest relative . this seedeater breeds in the rainy season , where there is one , taking advantage of new grass and its seeds as a food source for the young .\nother synonyms catalan : menjagr\u00e0 gola - roig czech : kn\u011b\u017e\u00edk malink\u00fd danish : brunstrubet klerkefinke german : braunkehlpf\u00e4ffchen , braunkehlspelzer english : chestnut - throated or tumaco seedeater , chestnut - throated seedeater spanish : corbatita , corbatita del norte , espiguero corbat\u00f3n , espiguero pechiblanco , semillero gorjicasta\u00f1o spanish ( chile ) : corbatita , corbatita del norte spanish ( colombia ) : espiguero pechiblanco spanish ( spain ) : semillero gorjicasta\u00f1o spanish ( peru ) : espiguero de garganta casta\u00f1a finnish : ruskokurkkusirkkunen french : sporophile t\u00e9lasco , sporophile t\u00e9lasco ou s . de tumaco hungarian : tumako - t\u00f6rpepinty italian : beccasemi golacastana japanese : kurinodohimeuso japanese : \u30af\u30ea\u30ce\u30c9\u30d2\u30e1\u30a6\u30bd latin : pyrrhula telasco , sporophila [ telasco or insulata ] , sporophila telasco lithuanian : rudagurkl\u0117 kikilin\u0117 starta dutch : grijsneksaffraangors , roodkindikbekje , roodkin - dikbekje norwegian : brunhakefr\u00f8eter polish : ziarnojadek rudobrody russian : \u043a\u0430\u0448\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0440\u043b\u0430\u044f \u0432\u044c\u044e\u0440\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u043e\u0432\u0441\u044f\u043d\u043a\u0430 slovak : kna\u017e\u00edk hnedohrdl\u00fd , k\u0148a\u017e\u00edk hnedohrdl\u00fd swedish : brunhakad fr\u00f6sparv , brunstrupig fr\u00f6fink chinese : \u6817\u5589\u98df\u7c7d\u96c0 chinese ( traditional ) : \u6817\u5589\u98df\u7c7d\u96c0\nbreeding : this seedeater breeds in the rainy season , where there is one , taking advantage of new grass and its seeds as a food source for the young .\n10\u201310\u00b75 cm ; two males 8\u00b74 g and 10\u00b79 g . typical seedeater , tiny and with thick bill approximately as long as it is deep , with distinct rounded . . .\nmales possess a rich chestnut patch on the throat in breeding season , while females share a similar color pattern , but lack the throat patch , with a lighter bill , but moult into drab plumage outside of the breeding season . this occurs because the cost of predator attracting , colorful plumage is no longer worth taking when breeding activities are completed . these songbirds are among the smallest members of the tanager family at approximately 4 . 0 inches in length , and possess powerful bills to harvest grass seeds .\ncombined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : sporophila telasco . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\n3 males . desert all green with herbs owing to\nel ni\u00f1o\n. reference : clxxia 293 - 310 marantz counter ( spotel2 ) . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .\ndesert all green with herbs owing to\nel ni\u00f1o\n. reference : clxxb 365 - 384 ( spotel1 ) . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .\ndesert all green with herbs owing to\nel ni\u00f1o\n. reference : b : 435 - 450 ( spotelx4 ) . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .\ndesert all green with herbs owing to\nel ni\u00f1o\n. reference : b : 424 - 427 ( spotelx3 ) . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .\nid certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 522 side a track 112 seq . a )\nseveral birds singing from roadside grasses before we made the turn towards the mountains .\nmale singing about 7 m away from mic . in grassy and high herbal vegetation with scattered bushes . the bird was sitting in some dry sticks and preened while singing .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nyo\u00ebl jimenez , josep del hoyo , greg baker , desmond allen , dani\u00eal jimenez .\nluis r figueroa , c castellani , carlos gussoni , paul van giersbergen , wromero77 , delareina , pfmack , lars petersson , ken havard , david weaver , dusan m . brinkhuizen .\ntaxonomic status of \u201c s . insulata \u201d ( known only from tumaco i , off nari\u00f1o , in sw colombia ) , with rufous rump and underparts , is uncertain , but most likely to be a race or morph of present species # r . monotypic .\npacific coast and coastal slope from s colombia ( sw cauca ) s through coastal lowlands of ecuador ( inland as far as s loja ) and peru ( where also in upper mara\u00f1\u00f3n valley ) to n chile ( desert valleys of arica\u2013parinacota ) .\nsong a short and staccato musical warble , sometimes with sputter towards end , quality sharp and . . .\nshrubby and open areas , including edge of dry grassland , agricultural areas , desert oasis valleys , . . .\ndiet largely of grass seeds ; feeds nestlings with grass seeds . forages both on ground and , more usually , while perched on grass stalks or . . .\nnot globally threatened . common to abundant throughout its range . has a large range from n to s . agriculture in desert areas is likely increasing the amount of suitable . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nin past , included in a much broader emberizidae . probably sister to cardinalidae , with these two perhaps sister to mitrospingidae # r # r # r # r . family limits and internal structure extensively revised in recent years on basis of numerous genetic studies # r # r # r # r # r # r . these have led to subdivision into 15 subfamilies , as well as numerous other notable changes ( as compared to hbw ) including : relocation herein of parkerthraustes and saltator from cardinalidae , and of charitospiza , coryphaspiza , embernagra , emberizoides , incaspiza , porphyrospiza , tiaris , euneornis , loxipasser , loxigilla , melanospiza , certhidea , platyspiza , pinaroloxias , geospiza , volatinia , coryphospingus , rhodospingus , sporophila , piezorina , xenospingus , poospiza , donacospiza , sicalis , phrygilus , nesospiza , rowettia , melanodera , haplospiza , acanthidops , idiopsar , catamenia , lophospingus , diuca , gubernatrix and paroaria from emberizidae ( = passerellidae ) ; and also removal of chlorophonia and euphonia to fringillidae , of rhodinocichla to rhodinocichlidae , of chlorospingus to passerellidae , of phaenicophilus to phaenicophilidae , of spindalis to spindalidae , of nesospingus to nesospingidae , of calyptophilus to calyptophilidae , of lamprospiza , mitrospingus and orthogonys to mitrospingidae , and of habia , chlorothraupis and piranga to cardinalidae . generic limits within family also extensively revised , and associated sequence of species followed herein # r .\nsmall - bodied , conical - billed , seed - eating birds with melanin - based plumages ; until recently assumed to belong in emberizidae # r .\ngenera oryzoborus and dolospingus found to be embedded in present genus and are therefore subsumed herein # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is described as fairly common ( restall 2006 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be increasing as ongoing habitat degradation is creating new areas of suitable habitat .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 297 , 238 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\n: telasco , an inca warrior in jean fran\u00e7ois marmontel\u2019s novel \u2018les incas , ou la destruction de l\u2019empire du p\u00e9rou\u2019 .\nschulenberg , t . s . , d . f . stotz , and l . rico . 2006 . distribution maps of the birds of peru , version 1 . 0 . environment , culture & conservation ( ecco ) . the field museum .\nmaterial published in urltoken belongs to the author ( s ) and is protected by copyright laws . contributor ( s )\ncontribute to the knowledge and undertanding of bird distribution in peru . report your rare and unusual sightings :\ncorbidi is a peruvian non - profit organization , whose goal is to develop foundations that support biodiversity conservation .\nsexing : easy to sex when in breeding plumage but difficult when not when the males and females look similar .\nwe promise to never spam you , and just use your email address to identify you as a valid customer .\nthis product hasn ' t received any reviews yet . be the first to review this product !"]}
{"id": 2284, "summary": [{"text": "dichomeris vigilans is a moth in the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by meyrick in 1914 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in guyana .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 9-11 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are light ochreous-bronzy with a black dot on the base of the costa and an irregular black dot in the disc at one-fourth .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the stigmata is black , the discal large , pale-edged , with the plical small , beneath the first discal .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "there is a whitish-ochreous spot on the costa at three-fourths , where a slightly curved indistinct whitish-ochreous line runs to the tornus .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is also a row of black dots around the posterior part of the costa and termen .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are dark grey . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "dichomeris vigilans", "paragraphs": ["dichomeris - species dictionary - global : ispot nature - your place to share nature . ispot is a website aimed at helping anyone identify anything in nature . once you ' ve registered , you can add an observation to the website and suggest an identification yourself or see if anyone else can identify it for you .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnb : the taxon name search is for single names only . for example , to locate dysodia vitrina flammata warren , 1904 you should enter flammata only .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy ."]}
{"id": 2290, "summary": [{"text": "heliocausta floridula is a moth in the oecophoridae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by meyrick in 1913 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in australia , where it has been recorded from western australia , new south wales and victoria .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 25 \u2013 35 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are rosy-grey or dull rosy with a narrow bright rosy costal line .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the extreme edge is whitish except towards the base .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the stigmata is reddish , usually minute or more often absent .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the hindwings are pale yellow . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "heliocausta floridula", "paragraphs": ["this is the place for floridula definition . you find here floridula meaning , synonyms of floridula and images for floridula copyright 2017 \u00a9 urltoken\nhere you will find one or more explanations in english for the word floridula . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word floridula and , of course , floridula synonyms and on the right images related to the word floridula .\nhave a fact about heliocausta episarca ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for heliocausta episarca ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nheliocausta - species dictionary - hong kong : ispot nature - your place to share nature . ispot is a website aimed at helping anyone identify anything in nature . once you ' ve registered , you can add an observation to the website and suggest an identification yourself or see if anyone else can identify it for you .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnb : the taxon name search is for single names only . for example , to locate dysodia vitrina flammata warren , 1904 you should enter flammata only .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : b627352b - 3d3c - 4218 - a4ea - da8815e240db\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : dddd05ff - accf - 4aac - 8b57 - 6114c0c4da48\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 966f439d - f80e - 43f0 - 9ec8 - 5bf6d8315ffa\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 267383\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\nthere are no photos of this species on the website yet . you can offer your photo by logging into your account\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .\nhampson , 1910 la * * * * pseudola * * * * hering . . .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more"]}
{"id": 2294, "summary": [{"text": "cleonymia yvanii is a moth of the noctuidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in portugal , north-eastern spain , southern france and north-eastern italy .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the wingspan is 18 \u2013 25 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are variable in colour , ranging from ochre to greyish brown .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing from the end of april to mid july in one generation per year .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on helianthemum species .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they can be found in late summer .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the species overwinters in the pupal stage . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "cleonymia yvanii", "paragraphs": ["fauna europaea 2 . 4 [ 449173 ] de jong , y . s . d . m . ( ed . ) : fauna europaea [ urltoken ] [ as cleonymia yvanii ( duponchel , 1833 ) ] data retrieved on : 9 march 2012\nenter the name or part of a name you wish to search for . the asterisk character * can be used as wildcard . e . g . ' papilio * ' . keep in mind that the search is only based on the full taxon name .\nwe are still having problems with the search feature . unfortunately we cannot give a timeline when the advanced search will be fixed .\nthe id resolving service for stable taxon ids is currently under maintenance . meanwhile , please use the name search in order to find the taxon page .\nmuseum f\u00fcr naturkunde leibniz - institut f\u00fcr evolutions - und biodiversit\u00e4tsforschung invalidenstr . 43 10115 berlin germany e - mail : fauna - eu ( at ) mfn - berlin . de website : urltoken\nin continuing your browsing of this site , you accept the use of cookies to offer you suitable content and services and realize visits statistics . learn more about cookies .\n: angiospermivora regier , c . mitter , kristensen , davis , van nieukerken , rota , simonsen , k . t . mitte , kawahara , yen , cummings & zwick , 2015\n: euheteroneura regier , c . mitter , kristensen , davis , van nieukerken , rota , simonsen , k . t . mitte , kawahara , yen , cummings & zwick , 2015\nnational inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .\nthe data comes from archaeological sites , essentially directly related to human activity . species presence can have a varied origin : food leftovers ( farming , hunting , fishing or harvesting ) ; crafts ( working shell , horn , but also bones preserved inside prepared skin , etc . . . ) with the possibility of interaction between human group ; commensal anthropophilic species ( rat , mouse , sparrow , cockroach ) ; or accidentally present species .\ndo not be surprised to find cod or mackerel in paris in the late middle ages ( 14th - 15th c . ) . . . the sea did not come that far , but trade did .\nin compliance with laws and intellectual property practices in the scientific world , unpublished data under five years ( from excavation reports , analyses , but also academia ) is never communicated .\nthe dots represent the sites for which a study ( or a simple recording ) of fauna and / or flora was performed ; these sites were recorded in the database zooarchaeological and archaeobotanical inventories of france ( i2af ) . the lack of dots can mean both a lack of data and / or lack of recording .\nthe dots remain gray when the selected species is absent from the site . symbols of different colour mark the presence of the species in different periods .\nto select / deselect one or more periods or to remove the dots corresponding to the listed sites , check / uncheck in the right side .\nhovering a dot reveals in the left corner at the bottom of the map , the name of the department or municipality . one click enables the list of sites present on the municipality .\nthe selection of a site opens a new page that displays general information relating thereto ( other name ( s ) known , location . . . ) , the bibliographical reference ( s ) connected to the species , and a summary of plant and animal species identified per large time period .\na timeline summarizes all known information on the species . the relevant periods or sub - periods when the detail is known , are highlighted in red . tool tip : passing over a period ( palaeolithic for example ) displays the date range of the period .\naccess to more detailed information is accessible only by convention , after login , for scientists affiliated to groups or institutional programs ( national center of scientific research , national institute of preventive archaeological research , for example ) or associations ( international council for archaeozoology , for example ) .\nwarning : the data available reflects the progression status of knowledge or the availability of the inventories . it should never be considered as comprehensive .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhelp us to expand this encyclopedia ! if you are logged in , you can add new subtaxa , vernacular and scientific names , texts , images or intertaxon relationships for this taxon ."]}
{"id": 2307, "summary": [{"text": "the cocinero , caranx vinctus ( also known as the barred jack and striped jack ) , is a species of small marine fish classified in the jack family , carangidae .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the cocinero is distributed through the tropical eastern pacific ocean , ranging along the west american coastline from baja california in the north to peru in the south .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is a pelagic species , inhabiting the upper water column in both coastal and offshore oceanic waters , occasionally making its way into estuaries .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the species may be identified by its colouration , having 8 or 9 incomplete dark vertical stripes on its sides , with scute and gill raker counts also diagnostic .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is small compared to most other species of caranx , reaching a length of 37 cm in total .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the cocinero is a predatory fish , taking small fishes , crustaceans , as well as various benthic invertebrates in shallower waters .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "little is known of the species reproductive habits .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the cocinero is of moderate importance to fisheries along the west coast of south america , and the species has been used in aquaculture trials .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it is taken by various netting methods and by spear , and is sold fresh , dried and salted at market . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "cocinero", "paragraphs": ["save 10 % each on qualifying items offered by quick cocinero when you purchase 2 or more . here ' s how ( restrictions apply )\nsave 15 % each on qualifying items offered by quick cocinero when you purchase 3 or more . here ' s how ( restrictions apply )\nsave 20 % each on qualifying items offered by quick cocinero when you purchase 5 or more . here ' s how ( restrictions apply )\nsave 25 % each on qualifying items offered by quick cocinero when you purchase 7 or more . here ' s how ( restrictions apply )\nwhat made you want to look up cocinero ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\ndo you have dull knives that need to be sharpened ? say goodbye to those sore wrists and strenuous chopping in three easy steps with the quick cocinero 3 stage knife sharpening system . revive your dull kitchen knives\nspanish : cataco , chicharro oj\u00f3n , cocinero , cojinoa , cojinua , jiguagua , jurel de ojo grande , medregal , oj\u00f3n , ojona , ojot\u00f3n , olho largo , pepona , s\u00e1balo de ojo grande , tamalito .\ngallardo - cabello , m . , e . espino - barr , a . garc\u00eda - boa , e . g . cabral - sol\u00eds & m . puente - g\u00f3mez . 2006a . algunos par\u00e1metros biol\u00f3gicos del cocinero\nthe quick cocinero knife sharpener is amazing ! i bought this for my mother - in - law as a gift , tested it on one of her large knives , the results were so incredible , i actually decided to post a video with my review .\nsiempre consider\u00e9 que la termodin\u00e1mica era esencialmente una teor\u00eda econ\u00f3mica de la naturaleza y trabaj\u00e9 en ello creando una extensi\u00f3n l\u00f3gica del segundo principio que incluyera las ideas de coste y de irreversibilidad , y con ellas los conceptos de prop\u00f3sito , eficiencia y causalidad . lo hice con mis colaboradores al viejo estilo carnotiano , fij\u00e1ndonos en\nmejorar las m\u00e1quinas t\u00e9rmicas\n, pero nuestra sorpresa fue que d . nicholas , desde el campo totalmente opuesto de la econom\u00eda ya hab\u00eda criticado a este cuerpo de doctrina porque no inclu\u00eda ( ni incluye ) el concepto de irreversibilidad y s\u00ed en cambio el concepto de total sustitutibilidad del capital por recursos naturales . jocosamente , herman daly se refiere en esto al truco de magia de hacer un pastel s\u00f3lo con cocinero y cocina pero sin ingredientes .\nbar jack , black jack , blue runner , blue - striped cavalla , crevalle jack , crevalle , greenback , jack , neverbite , passing jack , point nose , rainbow crevalle , red jack , runner , skip jack , and skip - jack are common english names . other names include carangue comade ( french ) , carbonera ( spanish ) , carbonero ( spanish ) , cavally ( french ) , chibi aguadillo ( spanish ) , cibi ( spanish ) , cibi carbonero ( spanish ) , cibi cocinero ( spanish ) , cibi mancho ( spanish ) , civil ( spanish ) , cojinua ( spanish ) , cojinua carbonera ( spanish ) , cojinua lomo azul ( spanish ) , cojinua negra ( spanish ) , cojinuda ( spanish ) , guaymen ( spanish ) , guaymen blanco ( spanish ) , jaag ( papiamento ) , jager ( dutch ) , karanks baretka ( polish ) , kawang filet ( creole ) , negrito ( spanish ) , xareu - carvoeiro ( portuguese ) , yag ( papiamento ) , and yaru ( papiamento ) .\nrecently , the question of ambiguity in translation has been raised in several studies ( schonpflug , 1997 ; tokowicz & kroll , 2007 ; tokowicz , prior , & kroll , 2007 ) . translation equivalents may have a one - to - many mapping for different reasons . in some cases , within language ambiguity might lead to multiple translations . for example , the english word glass has two distinct meanings : the material and the drinking vessel . each of these translates onto a different spanish word : vidrio for the former and vaso for the latter . within language , synonymy can also lead to multiple translations : the spanish word sof\u00e1 may be translated into english as either sofa or couch . part of speech , or grammatical class , ambiguity also often results in multiple translations . the english word cook can mean either the action ( i . e . , the verb ) , in which case it translates into the spanish cocinar , or the person ( i . e . , the noun ) , in which case it translates to the spanish cocinero . finally , there are cases in which multiple translations are a result of the differences in the conceptual\u2013lexical mappings of the two languages . the spanish noun reloj covers the concepts denoted by both clock and watch in english , each of which is a correct translation . in the same way , the meaning of the english verb know , which covers both knowing facts and knowing people , is carried by two distinct verbs in spanish : saber for the former and conocer for the latter .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwe ' ve combined the most accurate english to spanish translations , dictionary , verb conjugations , and spanish to english translators into one very powerful search box .\nspanishdict is devoted to improving our site based on user feedback and introducing new and innovative features that will continue to help people learn and love the spanish language . have a suggestion , idea , or comment ? send us your feedback .\nmerriam - webster references for mobile , kindle , print , and more . see all \u00bb\n\u00a9 2018 merriam - webster , incorporated some example sentences from\ncollins spanish dictionary - complete & unabridged\n9th edition 2011 \u00a9 william collins sons & co .\nlove words ? you must \u2014 there are over 200 , 000 words in our free online dictionary , but you are looking for one that\u2019s only in the merriam - webster unabridged dictionary .\nthe story of an imaginary word that managed to sneak past our editors and enter the dictionary .\ntake this quiz and discover 12 words for things you didn ' t know had words .\nfulfilment by amazon ( fba ) is a service we offer sellers that lets them store their products in amazon ' s fulfilment centres , and we directly pack , ship , and provide customer service for these products . something we hope you ' ll especially enjoy : fba products qualify for free shipping\nif you ' re a seller , fulfilment by amazon can help you increase your sales . we invite you to learn more about fulfilment by amazon .\nstep 1 : repair and straighten damaged blades using the diamond surface . it can also be used to fine hone ceramic blades . - step 2 : sharpen the blade and restore it to its original state using the ceramic steel tungsten carbide surface . perfect for knives ranging from paring , specialty , utility , carving , pocket , and hunting knives . - step 3 : clean and polish the blade surface using the ceramic surface . this stage finishes the blade to a razor sharp edge .\nsafe and easy to use - this professional knife sharpener allows you to sharpen knives with ease and without damaging your counter tops due to its anti - slip resistant base and contoured handle for a more secure grip . this manual knife sharpening system is truly the best kitchen knife sharpener on the market today . forget all other electric knife sharpeners . this is the only knife sharpening kit that you need .\nergonomic design \u2013 this 3 stage knife sharpener is made of solid abs material and is resistant to moisture and corrosion . ergonomically designed allowing for both right and left hand usage . the anti - skid rubber pad ensures the sharpener is comfortable , stable , and secured when using .\nunparalleled precision knife sharpening - restore your straight - edge and ceramic knives to a precision edge like a pro . this amazing 3 stage knife sharpening tool makes it easier to sharpen straight - edge and ceramic knives quickly and effectively ( no serrated knives . you could be a professional chef , a homemaker , or simply someone who needs a sharp kitchen knife . click \u2018add to cart\u2019 now and enjoy our no - hassle lifetime warranty !\nceramic knife set zirconium blade shuangchuang kitchen cutlery chef knife set with . . .\nross henery professional 5 piece kitchen knife set with black blades in clear folda . . .\ntuo cutlery chefs kitchen knife - japanese aus10 damascus steel - g10 handle - proffes . . .\nlatest knife sharpener - keep all your kitchen knives razor sharp with the best rat . . .\nkitchen knife sharpener with 3 stage tungsten diamond knife sharpener ninonly for s . . .\nleather strop honing sharpening knives chisel tools 3 x 8 inch double - sided vegetab . . .\ncadrim ceramic chef knife set , professional kitchen chef ' s knife for kitchen chef 4 . . .\nsponsored products are advertisements for products sold by merchants on amazon . ca . when you click on a sponsored product ad , you will be taken to an amazon detail page where you can learn more about the product and purchase it .\nthis shopping feature will continue to load items . in order to navigate out of this carousel , please use your heading shortcut key to navigate to the next or previous heading .\nplease make sure that you ' ve entered a valid question . you can edit your question or post anyway .\nthere was a problem completing your request . please try your search again later .\nnew release version 3 . 0 hd diy oil painting by numbers kit theme pbn kit for adults girls kids white christmas decor decorations gifts - girl ( without frame )\nvictorinox fibrox 8 - inch chef ' s knife 40520 , 47520 , 45520 , 5 . 2063 . 20\nknife sharpener , yiloyal professional kitchen sharpening tool for straight and serr . . .\n6 - inch professional damascus boning knife by kamosoto with high carbon japanese 67 . . .\nhapstone pro v7 sharpening system with silicon carbide sharpening stones included f . . .\nknife and scissor sharpener riversong scissors sharpener knife sharpener multi - func . . .\ni also really liked the handle for gripping the knife sharpener if you are left handed or right handed . it made it easy to use the 3 stage knife sharpener , and in my humble opinion , a lot safer as well . great product . i highly recommend it ! check out the video for more !\ni ' ve had this knife sharpener about 2 weeks now . it appears to be well constructed ( time will tell ) , it has good weight , the surface feels lightly rubberized and feels balanced holding it . i ' ve found placing the sharpener on a table and then drawing the knife through it makes it easier to use . i used it on 2 stainless steel 12\nkitchen knives purchased at walmart that were very dull and getting dangerous to use . after sharpening the knives they are way sharper now . they are not razor blade sharp , which wouldn ' t last long but sharp enough that both my wife and i are saying / thinking why didn ' t we do this sooner ! i even tried this on my pocket knife and it worked , but this sharpener was designed for large blades .\ndoes the job , just need to do it a couple more times than instructed . be careful when sharpening , might want to do it over a cutting board , so you don ' t accidently cut down on your table when pulling off the edge .\nthis unit oozes quality . the handle is ergonomic . the three stage process sharpens the blade just like it came from the factory . i ' ve sharpened every knife i have and each and every one is actually razor - sharp . i am certain that the unit will last for a very long time . highly recommended .\nthis sharpener truly earns its name . a couple passes through its three stages and i have a brand new knife . i always sharpen my knife before i begin cooking .\nthis is a great product . i would recommend it to anyone . works on both steel and ceramic blades . i have both henkel steel knives and ceramic knives . this sharpener works great on both . the henkel takes longer to sharpen , but once it has been sharpened , it ' s just a matter of sharpening each knife each time you use it . the henkels just don ' t seem to hold an edge ( and i do have the expensive ones , not the entry level ) .\ngood for maintaining knives . our knives had never been sharpened & this made a big difference . not capable of fixing all the flaws in a well use knife but if used while the blade is still in decent shape it will keep the edge in good condition .\nincredibly sturdy and safe feel with the long , rubber handle . never felt unsafe when sharpening with it . the 3 slots make for quick and easy sharpening with very good results . definitely recommend to keep your kitchen knives sharp and functional .\ndoesn ' t do a proper job . the blade of the knife does get worked on but at the end , after trying to slice a sheet of paper to see the effectiveness of the sharpener , i end up . . .\ni ' ve used it on 3 knives so far and what a big difference ! the sharpened knives are great to work with . thank you\nit doesn ' t sharpen as well as some of the others on the market .\nseems to sharpen well but the metal cover came off within a few weeks . the sharpeners still works but obviously quite poorly made .\nfell apart almost immediately . the silver faceplate broke right away and the plastic handle is now splitting too . sharpens knives , at least !\nprime members enjoy free two - day shipping , free same - day or one - day delivery to select areas , prime video , prime music , and more .\nafter viewing product detail pages , look here to find an easy way to navigate back to pages that interest you .\neste sitio hace uso intenso de javascript . por favor habilita javascript en tu navegador .\npor curiosidad . cuanto aumenta la velocidad ? sera que cocinas instantaneamente para que sea tan caro dicho gorro .\nflavor items can often cost a lot , like the cenarion war hippgryph when it was first introduced and the those mammoths from the sons of hodir . we don ' t feel the the need to add special function to things just because they are expensive . i know a number of players who are interested in the hat just for the look and that ' s what we were going for .\nsome people may have a load of dca saved up , already have every recipe and dont really need all those northen spices .\npeople like me ; who have enough northern spices for a lifetime , have all the recipies and alot of spare dca ' s will be using em to that . great afkin ' hat : )\n, and a\ncook book\nto go with it . i ' m looking at\nthere is also the bloody apron item from sfk , i believe same boss , that could help complete the set . nobody wants to be on the bad side of a good butcher with a bloody apron ; p\nbut be careful , it ' s too low level for the kirin tor one .\nhere ' s the best outfit i could piece together with in - game clothing for those who are interested .\nis an obvious choice for anyone that can wield maces . . . if you don ' t like the tenderizer , go for some\nsadly , for us clothies , there does not seem to be much in terms of cooking accessories for the weapon slots .\ndropped by cookie . . . it doesn ' t look as chef - tastic as the mace he drops , but it ' s got a chef reference in the name at least , so non - priest clothies might look into it . . .\nfor your main hand , coupled with any other fish in game . you also might consider a\n. . . no one actually uses them as a cooking utensil , but it ' s got a culinary flare to it .\np . s . dont bring runescape junk into wow , no - one cares at all .\nbe sold back to the vendor for the tokens . definately worth getting for all of the keen chef ' s out there - and a nice alternative to bunny ears if you like messing around with silly outfits whilst waiting for raids to get together !\ni guess if you ' re a good enough chef to get the hat , you don ' t run as much a risk of burning yourself . but still . . .\nyou can not sell this back after you have gotten it . it is soulbound and does not show the 2 hour resell timer so no cheating there for achievement : )\nin patch 3 . 2 this will become a blue ( superior ) item , and will also increase the speed at which you cook .\n\u25a0chef ' s hat is now superior quality and allows the chef to cook faster .\n\u25a0increased the chance to get a bonus dalaran cooking award from the spice bag .\n\u25a0the recipe for captain rumsey ' s lager can now be randomly found in the quest reward crate , barrel , or spice bag from the cooking dailies .\nin 3 . 2 blizzard is adding a passive equip to this item that decreases cooking time .\ncannot be enchanted with arcanum of flame ' s soul ( 25 fire resist / 30 stam ) .\nmy idea of the perfect chef ' s outfit . of course if you can ' t dual wield maces , i ' d go with any off - hand fish .\ni recently tested this item by cooking 6 salmon . with this hat unequipped it took me aprox . 9 seconds to cook 3 salmon and with the hat equipped it took me under 3 seconds .\nwhile not insta cast , it ' s fast enough to be worth getting in my oppinion .\nmy name is boyardee in - game , and i have the chef title . : p ( zul ' jin realm )\nnow they just need to make a\nkiss the chef\ntabard purchasable with dcas . . . that would be pretty sweet : )\nsadly i thought the same thing running someone through sfk , bloody apron looks absolutely nothing like a real apron .\nin 3 . 2 this will increase your cooking speed by 4 times . what normally took 2 seconds to cook took only 0 . 5 seconds with this hat .\n, the hat now reduces the cast time of any cooking recipe to 0 . 5 seconds , be it\ngodly for the current thanksgiving event if you don ' t want to spend 4x the time waiting to cook up everything .\n: i actually just tested it and saved me 1 . 5 seconds per spiced bread : < saddo : nice : ) : lol : so 100 tokens saved you 30 secs roughly : well no , i wasted more than 30 seconds working out the maths : net result it wasted time\nif you have the dca , and you buy this hat , i promise you . . .\nand put it instead of you cooking icon . whenever you ' ll open cooking with this you ' ll also automaticaly equip the hat . the icon will also automaticaly be set to the cooking icon . speeds up cooking big time .\nmakes cooked food a lucrative profession for earning gold . buy spices , buy fish , cook thousands - profit .\nactually is straight up with pleats ( nothing floppy ) . the taller the\nstove pipe\nthe more important the chef .\ni ' m sure i ' ll get reamed or extremely down voted for pointing this out , but having a father that ' s an executive chef , i had to get it off my chest somewhere .\nthe mind amplification dish - as of 4 . 0 . 3a - has been changed from a head - slot engineering tinker\nfeel free to downrate this original post on account of this change . i thought it would be best however to update this post for accuracy ' s sake . : p\nif you are starting to cook on cataclysm and wished to farm this only to save time when cooking large amounts of food , i don ' t think it ' s a good idea , since it will demand hours and hours to farm a hat to save hours cooking only after years playing wow . unless you plan on cooking hundreds of stuff everyday , of course .\nit ' s just better to take a little bit more time to cook stuff and do it while you ' re doing anything else on the pc or out of it , since it ' s automaticaly done after you start the process .\nunfortunately cannot be transmogrified with anything , because it has no armor type to match with ( cloth , plate , etc ) .\ncurrently in the mists of pandaria beta , orgrimmar / thunder bluff / undercity ( or whatever there are for alliance . . stormwind and ? ) tokens , the chef ' s award , along with the dalaran cooking award , are merged into one currency . if you farm now and get 50 / 50 ( or 70 / 30 , or any variation thereof ) you will be able to purchase the hat when 5 . 0 goes live .\nnow if only they ' d make it account bound so i could get one for my monk . . . . . / sigh\n- all cooking awards have been combined into a single currency : epicureans awards . this not only cleans up your currency list a bit , but means that doing the daily quests in stormwind can help you buy the chef\u2019s hat in dalaran .\nso i ' m guessing this waterlogged recipe will have those 5x epicurean award instead cuz i was saving these to quickly gain my hat on my fresh panda on day one in mop . ( repeatable 20 recipes x 5 awards = 100 awards = hat in one day , daily cap 25 quest )\nedit : yep , if you we ' re saving waterlogged recipe like me they ' re still fine . they give 5 x epicurean award so you can spend it in dala , org / sw , but the chef ' s hat is only purchaseable in dala .\na word of warning , i know that before this item was not able to be disenchanted , i tried on an alt and the game said so . i use the addon trade skill master and was using the destroyer to de a bunch of items , i ' ve done it many times before including yesterday and it did not de them . today it did . be careful .\n- there may be some more white head items with green armor stat , that also work , if you happen to find any , please post .\nthis hat works great if you ' re looking to make a cooking outfit . i personally used this one with the frying pan , rolling pin and apron heirlooms obtained from the tillers . i also used black tuxedo pants and dress shoes .\ni think they should make an iron chef ' s hat that is made of ( you guessed it ) iron and has a much higher armor stat . maybe also an instant cook time . : - )\ni ' m surprised that i ' m not finding anyone else here , wishing this was boa or\ntoy box\n- able . the amount of tokens you need to collect . . for just 1 hat for 1 toon , is a lengthy process ( weeks if not months ) . there ' s more easily accessible items then this that ' s boa or toy box - able . come on blizz !\nso that it gives you a helm graphic and a buff that lasts until you dispel it .\ni figured it ' s better now than later to start farming the old items that will be converted to toys in legion . who knows if they ' ll lower drop rates or how heavily they will be camped once they ' re added to the toybox .\ni made myself a google sheets document to track all the toys being converted and it has the ability to mark off the item once you ' ve found it . with the filters i can then hide any marked off toys . this has really helped me find and track the long list of items and i wanted to share it with the community . i ' ve heavily cleaned it up for sharing purpose , so feel free to use it as you please !\nalternatively you can download it as a . xlxs or . ods file , but i haven ' t checked this for compatibility .\nseems to have disappeared from my bank on the ptr . hope this is just a bug . i ' ll be a bit peeved if i have to get it again on live .\ndoes anyone know how to get this hat back after you accidentally deleted it . well other than grinding the dailies again !\nas of 7 . 0 the chef ' s hat is now a toy . it seams to have lost it ' s ability to increase cooking speed ( bug , intended ? )\ni added it to my toys , and now its completely gone , lots of other legion toys show as uncollected , but this is not in toy list at all collected or not . bug ?\ntook me a long time on my starter account . but now the toy requires 400 cooking where the item use to have no requirement . wtf ! my level 20 priest named chef boyardee uses cookie ' s tenderizer and unidentified utensil , but now has no chef ' s hat after grinding out the cooking dailies . please remove the 400 cooking requirement . it wasn ' t there before !\nget a refund for your 100 epicurean ' s awards , for those of you like me that just wanted the achievement and then to get your coin back .\npor favor , pon tus preguntas en nuestro foro para obtener una respuesta m\u00e1s r\u00e1pida .\nen general , las capturas de pantalla que contienen elementos de iu se rechazan de inmediato , al igual que las capturas provenientes del visor de modelos o de la pantalla de selecci\u00f3n de personajes .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ncorrespondence concerning this article should be addressed to : a . prior , department of psychology , 254p baker hall , carnegie mellon university , 5000 forbes ave . , pittsburgh , pa 15217 ( ude . umc . werdna @ roirpa )\nwe present a set of translation norms for 670 english and 760 spanish nouns , verbs and class ambiguous items that varied in their lexical properties in both languages , collected from 80 bilingual participants . half of the words in each language received more than a single translation across participants . cue word frequency and imageability were both negatively correlated with number of translations . word class predicted number of translations : nouns had fewer translations than did verbs , which had fewer translations than class - ambiguous items . the translation probability of specific responses was positively correlated with target word frequency and imageability , and with its form overlap with the cue word . translation choice was modulated by l2 proficiency : less proficient bilinguals tended to produce lower probability translations than more proficient bilinguals , but only in forward translation , from l1 to l2 . these findings highlight the importance of translation ambiguity as a factor influencing bilingual representation and performance . the norms can also provide an important resource to assist researchers in the selection of experimental materials for studies of bilingual and monolingual language performance . these norms may be downloaded from urltoken .\nthe study of bilingual language processing exploits the presence of translation equivalents in the bilingual speaker\u2019s two languages as an important research tool . the impact of different lexical characteristics in both the source and the target language on performance in translation recognition and production has been taken as evidence regarding the organization of the bilingual lexicon and conceptual system ( e . g . , de groot , 1992 ; kroll & tokowicz , 2005 ; s\u00e1nchez - casas & garc\u00eda - albea , 2005 ) . the translation task itself allows one to study the dynamic online interaction between the two language systems and to examine specific cross - linguistic relations between words .\nfurthermore , studies using the picture\u2013word stroop task consider the way in which the presence of a translation in one language affects production in the other language ( e . g . , costa , miozzo , & caramazza , 1999 ; hermans , bongaerts , de bot , & schreuder , 1998 ) . in studies of bilingual word recognition , cross - language priming across translation equivalents has also been used to determine the degree to which aspects of lexical form and meaning are shared for a bilingual\u2019s two languages even when the two languages do not share the same script ( e . g . , chen & ng , 1989 ; gollan , forster , & frost , 1997 ; jiang , 2000 ; keatley , spinks , & de gelder , 1994 ) . in addition , researchers interested in general mechanisms of language production have started to use translation tasks as a tool that allows them to avoid some of the shortcomings of picture naming , which is necessarily restricted to a limited set of concrete nouns ( e . g . , gumnior , bolte , & zwitserlood , 2006 ; jescheniak & levelt , 1994 ; vigliocco , lauer , damian , & levelt , 2002 ) .\neven among the relatively small set of objects that are nameable , there is often disagreement within and across languages regarding the most appropriate name for a given object . in developing picture norms and materials for research , name agreement has been considered a critical variable ( e . g . , bates et al . , 2003 ; cuetos et al . , 1999 ; sanfeliu & fernandez , 1996 ; snodgrass & vanderwart , 1980 ; szekely et al . , 2004 ; yoon et al . , 2004 ) . ironically , although words are potentially more ambiguous than pictures , most past studies that have examined words in one language and their translation in another language have relied on materials judged subjectively to have only one , or a clearly dominant , translation .\nin developing norms for the number of translations for words in dutch and in english , tokowicz et al . ( 2002 ) examined items used in previous research that had been carefully selected to have only a single or at least a clearly dominant translation . however , of these items , in fact 25 % were given more than one translation in each direction of translation . this finding leads to several interesting questions .\nan important theoretical issue is the actual prevalence of single - translation items in the bilingual lexicon . if most past research studies used items that apparently had a single translation , whereas in fact most of the translation equivalents in the bilingual lexicon are not unique , then perhaps models developed on the basis of these studies do not adequately represent the varieties of bilingual conceptual and lexical representation . as stated above , tokowicz et al . ( 2002 ) found 25 % of items to have more than a single translation , but this is likely to be an underestimation of the actual prevalence of ambiguity in translation because the items sampled in that study had been pre - selected by experimenters to have only a single translation .\nnevertheless , even within their sample , tokowicz et al . ( 2002 ) demonstrated the implications of ambiguity by showing that words that have more than a single translation are judged to be less semantically similar to each of their possible translations than are words that have only a single translation . furthermore , the number of translations across languages has recently also been shown to affect performance in both recognition and production tasks ( e . g . , prior , kroll , & macwhinney , 2006 ; tokowicz & kroll , 2007 ; tokowicz et al . , 2007 ) . therefore , models of bilingual processing must account for the effects of response competition at various levels .\nin this article , we present a set of translation norms for english and spanish words , based on bilingual participants providing a single written translation for each word presented to them . to our knowledge , this is the first compilation of such norms to be published for these languages . in addition to providing a valuable resource to bilingualism and language production researchers working with this common language pairing , this study addresses several important issues , outlined below , by sampling a wide range of lexical items in the two languages . we also examine the relations between translation likelihood or probability and a host of psycholinguistic lexical variables that have been previously studied in the monolingual and bilingual literature .\nas has been noted by both linguists ( levin & rappaport hovav , 1996 ; wierzbicka , 1988 ) and psycholinguists ( e . g . , gentner , 1981 ) , lexical items belonging to different grammatical classes encode different types of meaning . nouns typically encode entities , tend to be more perceptually grounded , and their meaning is usually less context - dependent ( but see barsalou , 1982 ) . verbs , on the other hand , usually encode relations ( ferretti , mcrae , & hatherell , 2001 ) , have more senses ( miller & fellbaum , 1991 ) , and can be more easily adjusted by contextual demands .\nof special importance for the present discussion , the meanings of verbs and the conceptual aspects encoded in them have greater interlanguage variation than do nominal concepts as demonstrated by gentner ( 1981 ) . in the same vein , van hell and de groot ( 1998 ) found greater cross - language associative similarity for nouns than for verbs , hinting that nominal translation equivalents share more conceptual features than do verbal concepts .\ndespite these word class differences , psycholinguistic bilingual investigations to date have focused almost exclusively on nouns , and with a great emphasis on concrete nouns ( e . g . , kroll & stewart , 1994 ; la heij , hooglander , kerling , & van der velden , 1996 ; potter , so , von eckardt , & feldman , 1984 ) . a goal of the present research is to provide more information concerning the generalization of such results to the representation of other grammatical classes , namely verbs . to address this issue , we examine the relation between grammatical class and number of translations . the work of gentner ( 1981 ) and van hell and de groot ( 1998 ) suggests that verbs may be more ambiguous in translation than nouns . the present sample included words from both grammatical classes in order to investigate this possibility .\nthe words in our sample were selected to cover a range of printed frequency , imageability , concreteness and age of acquisition ( aoa ) , enabling us to examine whether these within language factors impact the number of different translations a word may have across languages . tokowicz et al . ( 2002 ) reported significant correlations between concreteness and number of translations , such that the concrete nouns in their sample tended to have fewer translations than did the abstract nouns . in the current study we revisit this issue , to see whether it is replicated in our sample . we also examined additional possible predictors for number of translations , including word class as discussed above , word frequency , imageability and aoa .\na second topic of interest concerns those words that can be translated in multiple ways . for these items , we tried to identify factors that might predict translation choice\u2014that is , which of the possible translations is more likely to be produced . the translation of these words allows the participant the freedom of response choice as long as the meaning of the original word is preserved , and in that sense has some similarity to a within - language free association task . we therefore examined variables known to exert their influence in the free association task , and specifically the frequency of the response word ( nelson , mcevoy , & dennis , 2000 ) . free associations given to a certain word tend to have higher frequency than the stimulus word , which might reflect a production bias toward high frequency words , a phenomenon that has been observed in picture and object naming as well ( cuetos , ellis , & alvarez , 1999 ; snodgrass & yuditsky , 1996 ) . if this is the case , we would expect to find a similar pattern in translation . given that for specific multiple translation words there are several possible translations , we set forth to investigate whether the probability of participants providing each of the different translations is related to their frequency in the target language .\na further issue , which is unique for translation generation as opposed to within - language free association , is the question of the form similarity of the translation response to the original word . translation pairs that overlap in lexical form as well as meaning are considered to be cognates . cognates typically include a range of similarity across the orthography and phonology of the words in each language . there is a large body of evidence showing that cognate translations are produced more rapidly and accurately than noncognate translations ( e . g . , de groot , 1992 ) . further , when bilinguals perform picture naming exclusively in one of their languages , there is reliable facilitation when the name of the picture in the other language is a cognate ( costa , caramazza , & seb\u00e1stian - gall\u00e9s , 2000 ) . in light of these findings , we examined whether in cases where there are several possible translations the probability of giving a specific translation was influenced by its cognate status in relation to the stimulus word . since cognate translation pairs overlap both in form and in meaning , there might be a bias toward producing a cognate translation , if such a translation exists for a specific item .\nin this study , we collected translation data from a mixed bilingual population to effectively separate the direction of translation from the specific languages . thus , english translations for spanish words were collected from both english - dominant bilinguals ( who performed backward translation from their l2 to their l1 ) and spanish - dominant bilinguals ( who performed forward translation from their l1 into their l2 ) , and the reverse was true for spanish translations of english words . this choice enables us to isolate language - specific characteristics . for example , word class ambiguity is far more prevalent in english than in spanish , and in our sample half of the participants encountered its effect in forward translation ( from l1 to l2 ) and the other half encountered its effect in backward translation ( from l2 to l1 ) . in addition , the participants in both dominance groups varied in their l2 proficiency , allowing us to examine what role this factor might have on translation choice and translation variation .\nforty spanish - dominant and 40 english - dominant bilinguals participated in the study , and were paid for their participation . we recruited highly proficient bilinguals\u2014selection criteria included studying the second language for a minimum of 5\u20136 college semesters or having commensurate language experience . all of the spanish - dominant bilinguals were immersed in their l2 environment , since the study was conducted in pittsburgh , for periods ranging from 6 weeks to 34 years , with a median of 4 years . of the english - dominant bilinguals , 31 had immersion experience in the l2 environment , for periods ranging from 2 weeks up to 20 years , with a median of 7 . 5 months . in the original sample , there were 7 subjects who reported their first language to have been spanish but their current dominant language to be english , by virtue of spending long periods of time in the us . we were concerned that these switched - dominance participants might differ from the rest of the english - dominant bilinguals in various aspects , and so replaced them with participants more similar to the rest of the group .\nparticipants completed a language history questionnaire ( lhq ) prior to completing the translation task . language dominance was assessed as follows : if there were differences in the self - ratings of proficiency in the two languages on the lhq scales , the language rated by the bilingual as his or her stronger language was assumed to be the dominant language . participants who rated themselves equally proficient in english and in spanish were questioned orally , and asked if they had to make a forced choice , which language they would select as being their stronger language . if they were able to make such a choice , their assigned dominance reflected this choice . finally , those few participants who were unable to make the determination were assumed to be english dominant , by virtue of currently residing in a predominantly english speaking environment .\n* excluding a single subject who had been immersed in l2 for 20 years .\n* * excluding two subjects who had been immersed in l2 for 34 and 28 years , respectively .\nhalf of the participants from each dominance group performed english to spanish translation , and the rest translated in the opposite direction . importantly , for both dominance groups there were no significant differences between the subgroups that performed each direction of translation ( all p values > . 10 ) .\ntranslations were collected first for a set of english words . as a second step , all spanish translations produced by at least two participants were then normed back and translated by a second group of participants into english . the original set included 670 english words : 241 nouns , 79 verbs , and 350 word - class ambiguous items ( e . g . , dress , which can be both the action and the garment ) . words had a frequency of 1\u20131 , 290 per million ( ku\u010dera & francis , 1967 ) , with a mean of 109 . 3 and a sd of 148 . 9 . 1 ratings of imageability ( bird , franklin , & howard , 2001 ) , concreteness ( coltheart , 1981 ; wilson , 1988 ) , familiarity ( coltheart , 1981 ; wilson , 1988 ) , and aoa ( bird et al . , 2001 ; coltheart , 1981 ; wilson , 1988 ) were available for a majority of the items in the set .\nthe spanish items included 762 words : 525 nouns and 237 verbs . words had a frequency of 0 . 5\u20132 , 053 per million , with a mean of 82 . 9 and a sd of 161 . 3 ( p\u00e9rez , alameda , & cuetos , 2003 ) . ratings of imageability , concreteness , and familiarity were available for a substantial subset ( from lexesp sebasti\u00e1n - gall\u00e9s , mart\u00ed , cuetos & carreiras , 2000 ; using b - pal , davis & perea , 2005 ) . aoa ratings were not available for a large enough portion of the sample .\ncognate ratings were generated by having a separate group of 30 native english speakers , who did not have any knowledge of spanish , portuguese , french , or italian , perform the translation - elicitation task described by kroll and stewart ( 1994 ; see also dufour & kroll , 1995 ) . cognate ratings based on translation - elicitation from monolingual speakers have been shown to be comparable to ratings obtained from bilingual speakers ( friel & kennison , 2001 ) . participants were presented with a list of words in spanish , and instructed to guess their translation in english . each word was presented to 10 participants , so that cognate ratings ranged from 0 ( none of the english speakers correctly guessed the translation , due to the fact that there was no cross - language form overlap , such as mu\u00f1eca \u2013 doll ) to 10 ( all the participants correctly guessed the translation , for translation equivalents with highly similar lexical form , such as concepto \u2013 concept ) .\ntwo versions of a lexical decision task were developed , one in english and one in spanish . the procedure for selecting the words was based on that described by\n. each list included 168 word and 168 orthographically and phonotactically legal nonwords . participants performed the lexical decision task in the l2 . the task took approximately 15 min to complete .\nparticipants completed the lhq , followed by the lexical decision task in the l2 . they then received a typed booklet containing either english or spanish words . the english list was divided into two versions , each of 335 words , and each including half of the items from each word - class category . the spanish stimulus pool was also divided into two lists , each of 381 words , again dividing nouns and verb equally between the versions . the spanish list was longer , because it was compiled only after the translation data for the english items had been collected , and it included all spanish words that had been produced by at least two participants . participants were requested to write down the first translation they could think of for each item on the list . participants worked at their own pace , and took breaks as necessary .\ntranslations were coded for accuracy using the larousse spanish\u2013english and english\u2013spanish dictionary , and by two native english speakers who are instructors of spanish in the department of modern languages at carnegie mellon university . each translation was also assigned a grammatical category . conjugated forms of verbs were accepted as correct responses , and were converted to the infinitive for the purpose of counting the number of different translations . similarly , plural forms of nouns were accepted as correct responses , and were combined with the singular forms for computing number of translations . spelling mistakes were also accepted , as long as the intention of the participant was clear and the mistake did not result in a different word in the language .\nin this analysis we explored the factors that are correlated with a particular word having more than a single translation . the dependent variable was the number of distinct , correct translations that each word had received from different participants ( collapsed across both language dominance groups ) . since aoa ratings were only available for the english words , we analyzed the english and the spanish items separately .\ngives the percent of items from each category that received more than a single translation . for the spanish words , number of translations ranged from 1 to 7 . verbs were found to have significantly more translations than nouns [\n< . 001 ] , probably due to the large percentage of word class ambiguous items in english ( over 50 % of the sample ) .\nthese significant effects of word class confirm our initial hypothesis that verbs would be more ambiguous in translation than nouns . however , items from the different word classes were not matched on various lexical properties , and these might be confounded with word class . we therefore examined several possible predictors of number of translations using hierarchical linear regression , and entered the possibly confounding factors into the equation before examining any residual effects of word class . the following analyses examined only the lexical properties of the word in the source language . the properties of the given translation and their influence on translation choice are examined in the following section .\nin the analysis of english words , the following variables were entered into the model . word length and log frequency were entered on the first step and were found to be significant predictors of number of translations [ \u03b4 r 2 = . 029 ; f ( 2 , 629 ) = 9 . 1 , p < . 001 ] . both factors were negatively correlated with number of translations , such that shorter words were in general more ambiguous in translation , while highly frequent words tended to have fewer translations . the possible contributions of imageability , concreteness , familiarity and aoa as predictors of number of translations were examined next . since these four lexical properties tended to be highly correlated with each other ( r s ranging from 0 . 53 to 0 . 89 , all p values < . 001 ) , the procedure suggested by cohen et al . ( 2003 ) was used and identified imageability as the best predictor of number of translations . therefore , imageability ratings were entered on the second step and were found to significantly predict number of translations [ \u03b4 r 2 = . 028 ; f ( 1 , 628 ) = 18 . 3 , p < . 001 ] , such that highly imageable words tended to have fewer translations ."]}
{"id": 2308, "summary": [{"text": "eutane terminalis , the banded lichen moth , is a moth of the arctiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by walker in 1854 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is known from australia ( queensland and new south wales ) .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 15 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are black and yellow .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on lichen .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they are dark grey and yellow and reach a length of about 15 mm when full-grown .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "they live communally . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "eutane terminalis", "paragraphs": ["eutane walker , 1854 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 2 : 531 ; ts : eutane terminalis walker\ntype - species : eutane terminalis walker , 1854 . list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . : 531 . [ bhl ]\neutane terminalis ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 495 , f . 356 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ]\neutane margarita bucsek , 2012 ; malaysia inst . zool . : ( 1 - 170 )\neutane virginalis bucsek , 2012 ; malaysia inst . zool . : ( 1 - 170 )\neutane trimochla turner , 1940 ; proc . r . soc . qd 51 ( 6 ) : 77\neutane\nnivea ; [ mob7 ] : 375 , pl . 6 , f . 434 , 459\nspecies of lichen moth are found all over the world , but most australian species are endemic ( only occur in australia ) . common species in the sydney region include the banded lichen moth eutane terminalis , manulea replana , the lydia lichen moth asura lydia , the alternating footman tigroides alternata , and the dimunitive footman scoliacma nana ,\neutane triplagiata pagenstecher , 1900 ; zoologica , stutt . 12 ( 29 ) : 59 , pl . 2 , f . 24\ngenus : eutane walker , 1854 . list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . ( 2 ) : 531 . [ bhl ]\neutane nivea hampson , 1905 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 15 ( 89 ) : 439 ; tl : pulo laut\neutane triplagiata ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 832 ( unrecognized ) ; [ nhm card ]\neutane alba hampson , 1900 ; cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 496 , pl . 33 , f . 9 ; tl : borneo , sandakan\nthe small , tufted caterpillars of the banded lichen moth ( eutane terminalis ) are often found crawling on house walls and ceilings in sydney suburbs . they have been found in great numbers during and after wet weather , especially on older woodwork and roofs , where lichens tend to grow . they manage to get into houses through ventilation grilles and other holes , looking for places to spin a cocoon and pupate . the caterpillars eventually pupate , to emerge as black and orange moths that congregate in gardens .\neutane aglaea hampson , 1914 ; cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 786 , f . 256 ; tl : br . n . guinea , mambare r . , biagi\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nedwards , e . d . 1996 ,\narctiidae\n, ed . nielsen , e . s . , edwards , e . d . & rangsi , t . v . ( eds ) , checklist of the lepidoptera of australia . monographs on australian lepidoptera , vol . 4 , pp . pp . 278 - 286 , csiro publishing , collingwood\nbutler , a . g . 1877 ,\non lepidoptera of the family lithosiidae , in the collection of the british museum\n, transactions of the entomological society of london , vol . 1877 , pp . 325 - 377\nlucas , t . p . 1890 ,\non queensland and other australian macro - lepidoptera , with localities , and descriptions of new species\n, proceedings of the linnean society of new south wales , ser . 2 , vol . 4 , no . 4 , pp . 1065 - 1099\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 87299c1c - 38b7 - 45c0 - 8b68 - 51981b638ad5\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : eec12b6b - 7e75 - 40fb - 9c63 - eb801d15dae2\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 7591b3ce - 86ed - 4501 - 883c - 112273befc06\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 474253\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nlichen moth caterpillars are typically dark coloured with clumps of black setae ( spiny hairs ) often with tufts on the back of the larva . adult moths have a wingspan up to 60 mm , but most species are much smaller .\nadult lichen moths can be recognised by their wing colouration , and the way they hold their wings . many rest with the wings rolled around the abdomen rather than holding them in the shape of a roof , leading to the common name of\nfootman\n.\nadult moths often have bright orange , yellow , red , black and white wing markings . in the related sub - family arctiinae the same colouring occurs in some species , giving those moths the common name of ' tiger moths ' .\nlichen moth species are found in areas where conditions favour the development of lichen and other encrusting algae . these habitats include everything from rainforests to alpine regions , and even deserts , where algae and lichen often form encrusting ' carpets ' on the ground . lichens are often important components of natural habitats , providing nutrients and preventing erosion , and lichen moths may provide a means of measuring environmental health .\nlichen moths can be found all year round except in colder southern regions . humid summers may be responsible for sudden population explosions of these moths .\nlichens , but other encrusting algae and moss may be eaten . mature larvae are sometimes reared from plant samples where they have been feeding on lichens on branches , leading to incorrect food plant records .\nskin irritation ( urticaria ) can result from handling some lichen moth caterpillars , but this is rare compared to larvae from some other moth families such as anthelidae and lymantriidae .\nthe bright colours of the adults may warn potential predators such as birds that the moths taste bad . lichens have many toxic chemicals , and the caterpillars which feed on them can store these chemicals as a defence mechanisms . these defensive chemicals are retained in the adult moths .\nlichen moths may also be good environmental indicators of pollution . pollutants such as acid rain and heavy metals often kill lichens , and absence , or reduced diversity of lichen moth species in affected areas may indicate that damage to the lichen community has occurred .\ncommon , i . f . b . 1990 . moths of australia . melbourne university press .\nnsw department of agriculture . 1976 . lichen - eating caterpillars . entomology branch insect pest bulletin 98 .\nhesbacher , s . , giez , g . embacher , k . fiedler , w . max , a . trawoger , r . turk , o . l . lange and p . proksch . 1995 . sequestration of lichen compounds by lichen - feeding members of the arctiidae ( lepidoptera ) . journal of chemical ecology 21 ( 12 ) : 2079 - 2089 .\nmarriott , p . 2009 . moths of victoria . part 2 - tiger moths and allies - noctuoidea ( a ) . 36pp . + cd rom . entomological society of victoria , melbourne .\nlithosiinae asura lydia male view full size photographer : d . britton \u00a9 australian museum\nthe source code for museums victoria collections is available on github under the mit license .\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nwalker , 1854 list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 1 : 1 - 278 ( 1854 ) , 2 : 279 - 581 ( 1854 ) , 3 : 583 - 775 ( 1855 ) , 4 : 777 - 976 ( 1855 ) , 5 : 977 - 1258 ( 1855 ) , 6 : 1259 - 1508 ( 1855 ) , 7 : 1509 - 1808 ( 1856 )\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\n( a question mark next to a word above means that we couldn ' t find it , but clicking the word might provide spelling suggestions . )\nnot helpful ? you might try using the wildcards * and ? to find the word you ' re looking for . for example , use\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ntype specimens : type ( s ) [ australia ] new holland : new holland , specimens from unstated localities and from new south wales , ( ? depository ) . .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nlisted below are a number of moth species , found in australia and which , in the larval stage , eat lichens . captive larvae may be made to eat foods other than what they would eat naturally . however , for the species listed below there is evidence ( or strong suspicion ) that the larvae eat lichens in the wild . some of the species listed below are also found outside australia but i have given only the australian distribution .\nthese are small moths , with body lengths between about 5 and 10 millimetres , depending on the species .\nthe species is found in southern australia . the larvae feed on lichens growing on trunks , fence posts or rocks and lichen fragments are incorporated in the larval cases .\nthis moth is found from central queensland to southern new south wales . the larvae can appear in large numbers on the outside walls of older wooden houses and often enter houses ( probably in search of pupation sites ) . such numbers or activities may cause concern but the larvae are not harmful and feed on the fine lichens that can be found on old woodwork .\nthis species is found between northern new south wales and cairns in northern queensland . its larvae have been found feeding on lichens growing on the trunks of pawpaw trees .\nthe first species is known from southern queensland to victoria and the adults rest on lichen - covered rocks . the larvae of both species are thought to eat lichens .\nthe moth ' s wing pattern matches the lichens on which it rests . the species is found from southern queensland to southern new south wales and the range probably extends into victoria . the larvae feed on lichens and shelter in tubes constructed from silk and lichen fragments .\nthis species is found from southern queensland to southern new south wales and feeds on lichens that grow in shady places on rocks or cliff faces .\nthe larvae of many narcyia species feed on lichens and make cases which incorporate lichen fragments . narcyia basiferana is found in new south wales and southern queensland while narcyia cataphracta is found in victoria , tasmania and south - east south australia . the latter is sometimes common in pine plantations where it feeds on the lichens growing on the trees .\nthe species ranges from southern queensland to victoria , tasmania and south - eastern south australia . the larvae are found on the trunks or branches of various plants and feed on lichens and possibly algae as well .\nthe species is found from southern queensland to south australia . the larvae live in silk - lined vertical tunnels in the ground . across the soil surface the larva constructs a soil - encrusted , silken tube that is attached firmly to the tunnel mouth and open at the other end . when not occupied by the larva this tube collapses . at night time the larva takes up position at the tube ' s open end and browses on terrestrial lichens . the larva also collects lichen fragments which it stores in a chamber just below the soil surface , so giving the larva a food supply for times when conditions are unsuitable for surface browsing .\nthis species has been found in north and south queensland and from there south to victoria , tasmania and south - east south australia . near adelaide larvae of this species have been seen eating moss and , less frequently , lichens on rocks in grassy areas .\nthe first species is found in southern queensland and new south wales and feeds on the lichens found on sandstone rock faces . the larval cases are ornamented with sand grains . the second species is found from southern queensland to victoria . the larvae feed on tree - trunk lichens and construct cases ornamented with lichen fragments .\nthis species , found from southern queensland to victoria , is thought to feed on lichens .\ncommon , ifb . ( 1993 , repr . of 1990 ed . ) . moths of australia . melbourne university press , melbourne\nwritten by heino lepp , updated on web 10 january , 2014 , webmaster , anbg ( anbg - info @ urltoken ) \u00a9 2012 australian national botanic gardens and australian national herbarium , canberra . all rights reserved"]}
{"id": 2309, "summary": [{"text": "pleurotomariacea is one of two names that are used for a taxonomic superfamily of sea snails that are an ancient lineage and are well represented in the fossil record .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the name pleurotomariacea is used by paleontologists , who , because they usually have only the hard parts of mollusks to study , often use a slightly different scheme of classification from that used by scientists who study living mollusks .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the name pleurotomariacea is based on swainson , 1840 ( pleurotomariae ) and was described in 1960 in the treatise on invertebrate paleontology , ( i197 ) the taxon was established for mostly conispiral , but also discoidal and auriform ( ear-like ) shells which have a nacreous , aragonite , inner layer .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the pleurotomariacea , now often seen as pleurotomarioidea , has been included in the archaegastropoda .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "although more recent classifications put it in a more restricted sense in the vetigastropoda the evolutionary derivation of the group is thought to be from the bellerophontacea and to have happened late in the cambrian .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "earlier gastropods belonged to the helcionellacea , bellerophontacea , and questionably to the palegiellacea .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the treatise lists the following families , here in alphabetical order .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "catantostomatidae , eotomariidae , euomphalopteridae , gosselitinidae , haliotidae , kittlidiscidae , laubellidae , lophospiridae , luciellidae , phanerotrematidae , phymatopleuridae , pleurotromariidae , polytremerida , portlockiellidae , rhaphischismatidae , raphystomatidae , scissurellidae , sinuopeidae , tremnotropidae , trochotomidae , zygitidae .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "bouchet & rocroi , 2005 , with a greater emphasis on molecular characteristics than shell characters , limited the pleurotomariacea , as pleurotomarioidea , to the pleurotomariidae , catantostomatidae , kittilidacidae , phymatopleuridae , portlockiellidae , rhaphischismatidae , trochotomidae , and zygitidae .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "the other families that are included in this superfamily in the treatise have been reassigned by bouchet & rocroi to other higher taxa . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "pleurotomariacea", "paragraphs": ["add tags for\nwest american prosobranch gastropoda : superfamilies patellacea , pleurotomariacea , and fissurellacea .\n.\nwest american prosobranch gastropoda : superfamilies patellacea , pleurotomariacea , and fissurellacea . / james h mclean ; 1966 .\nwest american prosobranch gastropoda : superfamilies patellacea , pleurotomariacea , and fissurellacea . ( book , 1966 ) [ worldcat . org ]\npermian gastropoda of the southwestern united states . 7 . pleurotomariacea : eotomariidae , lophospiriidae , gosseletinidae . american museum novitates ; ; no . 2958 .\npermian gastropoda of the southwestern united states . 2 , pleurotomariacea : portlockiellidae , phymatopleuridae , and eotomariidae . bulletin of the amnh ; v . 114 , article 2\ndetails - permian gastropoda of the southwestern united states . 7 . pleurotomariacea : eotomariidae , lophospiriidae , gosseletinidae . american museum novitates ; ; no . 2958 . - biodiversity heritage library\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : west american prosobranch gastropoda : superfamilies patellacea , pleurotomariacea , and fissurellacea . author : james h mclean publisher : 1966 . oclc : 25718265\nthe\npleurotomariacea\nor slit shells and their relatives have traditionally [ knight , et al . , 1960 ] been considered among the earliest and most primitive of the gastropods , first appearing in the furongian .\nty - book ti - permian gastropoda of the southwestern united states . 7 . pleurotomariacea : eotomariidae , lophospiriidae , gosseletinidae . american museum novitates ; ; no . 2958 . ur - urltoken py - 1989 au - batten , roger lyman . er -\ndr peter wagner however [ wagner 1999 ] has used cladistic methodology to try to determine the phylogeny of early palaeozoic gastropods , and his findings indicate that the early paleozoic pleurotomarioids are actually a polyphyletic assemblage . a diverse assemblage of forms that have traditionally been placed in the\npleurotomariacea\nactually belong among the euomphalida and the murchisoniida .\nnotes : knight , et al . , 1960 includes this genus under the subfamily ophiletinae of the family raphistomatidae and superfamily pleurotomariacea . but cladistic analysis by wagner 1999 indicates that the species schizopea typica is actually a member of an unresolved tetrachotomy that includes the most basal helically - coiled gastropods . it may be that related species may also belong in this clade\nnotes : knight , et al . , 1960 includes euconia under the subfamily ophiletinae of the family raphistomatidae and superfamily pleurotomariacea . but cladistic analysis by wagner 1999 places this genus as part of off - shoots an unresolved tetrachotomy that includes the most basal helically - coiled gastropods . i have informally coined the family name\neuconiidae\nto distinguish this clade from other early gastropods\n@ book { bhl171025 , title = { permian gastropoda of the southwestern united states . 7 . pleurotomariacea : eotomariidae , lophospiriidae , gosseletinidae . american museum novitates ; ; no . 2958 . } , url = urltoken note = urltoken publisher = { } , author = { batten , roger lyman . } , year = { } , pages = { 0 } , }\nnotes : this is a paraphyletic grouping . knight , et al . , 1960 includes sinuopea in the subfamily sinuopeinae ( furongian to late silurian ) of the family sinuopeidae ( furongian to middle permian ) in the superfamily pleurotomariacea , and taenospira as the earliest member of the tribe ptychomphalides ( furongian to early jurassic ) of the subfamily eotomariinae of the family eotomariidae ( also furongian to early jurassic ) . but cladistic analysis by wagner 1999 indicates that these forms are basal members of the clade that includes both the murchisoniida and the bellerophontoidea . it may be that some other members of the sinuopeinae and eotomariinae may also belong here , extending the stratigraphic range of this assemblage\nthe diagram ( click the thumbnail for larger image ) shows the suggested relationships among late dolgellian and early tremadocian ( latest cambrian and earliest ordovician ) gastropods , according to cladistic analysis [ wagner 1999 ] , which is the one adopted here . the colors in the diagram refer to taxonomic assignments based on knight , et al . , 1960 , the rather dated treatise of invertebrate paleontology . taxa previously considered pleurotomariacea ( green ) are actually more closely related to the euomphaloidea ( red ) or murchisoniida ( blue ) . even the torted bellerophontiforms ( orange ) are here shown to diphyletic ( streptodiscus . for the sake of convenience the order bellerophontoidea is here defined as a monophyletic crade that begins at node 10 .\n< mods xmlns : xlink =\nurltoken\nversion =\n3 . 0\nxmlns : xsi =\nurltoken\nxmlns =\nurltoken\nxsi : schemalocation =\nurltoken urltoken\n> < titleinfo > < title > permian gastropoda of the southwestern united states . 7 . pleurotomariacea : eotomariidae , lophospiriidae , gosseletinidae . american museum novitates ; ; no . 2958 . < / title > < / titleinfo > < name > < namepart > batten , roger lyman . < / namepart > < / name > < typeofresource > text < / typeofresource > < genre authority =\nmarcgt\n> book < / genre > < origininfo > < dateissued > 1989 < / dateissued > < / origininfo > < physicaldescription > < form authority =\nmarcform\n> print < / form > < / physicaldescription > < language > < languageterm authority =\niso639 - 2b\ntype =\ntext\n> english < / languageterm > < / language > < identifier type =\nuri\n> urltoken < / identifier > < / mods >\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nthe latest cambrian ( late dolgellian age ) and earliest ordovician ( early tremadoc saw a tremendous radiation of early gastropods . during this period the gastropods , like the cephalopods , underwent a tremendous evolutionary radiation . from one or two planispiral types , represented by a tropidodiscid ancestor , there developed several distinct taxa , including high spired , lower spired , planispiral , and hyperstrophic types . these could be grouped in three main clades : eogastropoda , orthogastropoda , and the extinct bellerophontoidea . by the earliest ordovician the three main clades of gastropods had already established themselves and were continuing to diversify into a range of different morphotypes and lifestyles .\ncharacteristics : $ larval operculum ; $ cephalic and epipodial tentacles ; $ post - torsional right gonad only ; $ radular cartilages not hollow ; $ oesophagus showing torsion ; $ hypoathroid nervous system ( adjacent pleural and pedal ganglia ) [ all from haszprunar 1988 p . 9 ] ; anisotrophic ( helically coiled ) shell ; body asymmetry . some of these characters may also pertain to\ngastropodiformes\nin general .\ngeographic distribution : laurentia [ = n . am - knight , et al . , 1960 p . i 200 ]\ncharacteristics : spire low , widely phaneromphalus , sutures deep , sinus culminating at blunt anggulation that forms the periphery [ knight , et al . , 1960 p . i200 ]\ncharacteristics : conical trochiform shell , sutures shallow , sinus culminating at angular periphery just above upper suture [ knight , et al . , 1960 p . i 200 ]\nimage \u00a9 mcgraw hill book company , from moore , et al . 1952 , p . 291\ngeographic distribution : laurentia [ = n . am - knight , et al . , 1960 p . i 198 , 203 ]\noriginal material creative commons attribution m . alan kazlev this material may be freely used all other material \u00a9 original authors or sources\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\njavascript is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .\nfull - text is provided in portable document format ( pdf ) . to view articles you must have the free adobe acrobat reader . click here to download the latest version . the . epub version displays best on an ipad , but may work on other devices that accept . epub format . download directly to your device\u2019s book reader ( e . g . , ibooks ) or drag into your e - books collection on your computer .\nbulletin of the american museum of natural history the bulletin , published continuously since 1881 , consists of longer monographic volumes in the field of natural sciences relating to zoology , paleontology , and geology . current numbers are published at irregular intervals . the bulletin was originally a place to publish short papers , while longer works appeared in the memoirs . however , in the 1920s , the memoirs ceased and the bulletin series began publishing longer papers . a new series , the novitates , published short papers describing new forms .\ndepartment of library services american museum of natural history central park west at 79th st . , new york , ny 10024 \u00a9 american museum of natural history , 2011\nall content on this website , including dictionary , thesaurus , literature , geography , and other reference data is for informational purposes only . this information should not be considered complete , up to date , and is not intended to be used in place of a visit , consultation , or advice of a legal , medical , or any other professional .\nbiodivlibrary july is # nationalblueberrymonth ! the w . a . cox nursery co . of mississippi ' s 1920s catalog proclaimed # blueberries to\u2026 urltoken\nbiodivlibrary @ jzed _ trees @ kew _ laa awesome ! we ' re so honored to have this treasure in # bhlib . thanks @ kew _ laa ! now we can enjoy p\u2026 urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nsorry , we just need to make sure you ' re not a robot . for best results , please make sure your browser is accepting cookies .\nin order to access this website , please configure your browser to support cookies .\n877 . 705 . 1878 ( toll - free , u . s . & canada ) 773 . 753 . 3347 ( international )\nutica , new york - demographics - organized crime in utica . . . cosa nostra family and at least three other families , including the scranton , colombo , and genovese family which had and likely still have a local presence . . . after the death of boss stefano magaddino and other families and influences jockeyed for power and influence , and multiple gangland style homicides took place between 1979 . . . multiple and somewhat ambiguous ties to the buffalo , scranton , and colombo families ) ran the rackets , until they were decimated by federal indictments and convictions . . .\nthunderbird ( mythology ) - in oral history . . . in human form marrying into human families some families may trace their lineage to such an event . . . families of thunderbirds who kept to themselves but wore human form were said to have lived along the northern tip of vancouver island . . . the story goes that other tribes soon forgot the nature of one of these thunderbird families , and when one tribe tried to take them as slaves the thunderbirds put on their feather blankets and transformed to take . . .\n331 model . . . the 331 model in particle physics offers an explanation of why there must exist three families of quarks and leptons . . . offers no explanation of why there are three families , or indeed why there is more than one family . . . the perfect cancellation of the anomaly , per family , and to make the three families transform differently under an extended gauge group , and to arrange that the anomaly cancel , only for three . . .\nlist of anuran families - families . . . archaeobatrachia - 4 families , 6 genera , 27 species family genera common names example species example photo ascaphidae 1 tailed frogs tailed frog ( ascaphus truei ) bombinatoridae 2 fire - belly . . .\nkitchener , ontario - history - settlement . . . of great interest to german mennonite farming families from pennsylvania . . . were built , and over the next decade several families made the difficult trip north to what was then known as the sand hills . . . one of these mennonite families , arriving in 1807 , was the schneiders , whose restored 1816 home ( the oldest building in the city ) is now a museum located in the heart of kitchener . . .\nhave always been in flux and often in crisis ; they have never lived up to nostalgic notions about \u0093the way things used to be . \u0094 but that doesn\u0092t mean the malaise and anxiety people feel about modern\nare delusions , that everything would be fine if we would only realize that the past was not all it\u0092s cracked up to be . . . . even if things were not always right in\nof the past , it seems clear that some things have newly gone wrong .\n. parents need to be parented . grandparents , aunts , and uncles are back in fashion because they are necessary . stresses on many\nthe vertical , latitudinal , and circumcontinental zonality of the distribution of the species , genera , and families of recent brachiopods is considered . the distortions of the latitudinal and meridional symmetry of the biogeographic structure of the ocean are analyzed in view of the patterns of the global circulation of the surface and intermediate waters . thus ancient faunas may be reconstructed based on data on the structural characteristics of the taxocene of recent brachiopods . the features of the paedomorphic evolution of brachiopods from the different families in extreme habitats ( interstitial , underwater caverns , submarine rises , abyssal depths , hydrothermal areas , and margins of habitats ) are discussed . the biogeographic structure of bottom dwellers is shown to simplify with depth as well as with simplification of the hydrological structure of the ocean . the important role of the bathyal oceanic zone ( slopes of continents , islands , submarine mountains , ridges , and rises ) in the preservation of faunal relicts is shown . the historical change from brachiopods to bivalves that occurred from the paleozoic to the mesozoic and cenozoic is shown to have resulted not from competitive exclusion , but from complex and global changes in the plankton composition , which were unfavorable for articulate brachiopods , which had already developed specialized feeding habits , feeding on food that led to the production of almost no metabolic waste products ; they had even partly lost their alimentary canal . the development of shelly plankton and , especially , of diatoms hampered the post - paleozoic revival of large assemblages of articulate brachiopods in shallow - water habitats . the unfilled ecological niches were colonized by bivalves , which were widely adapted to feeding on live phyto - and zooplankton . recent articulate brachiopods , which are adapted to feeding on the products of decay of dead plankton , form a belt of densely populated settlements of the organic biofilter outside the photic zone on the seaward edge of shelves and on the upper parts of the slopes of continents , islands , and submarine rises throughout the world .\nthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .\ng . a . afanasjeva and l . a . nevesskaja , \u201cthe analysis of cause and effect of various consequences of crisis situations using articulate brachiopods and bivalves as an example , \u201d in\n( nedra , moscow , 1994 ) , pp . 101\u2013108 [ in russian ] .\na . i . agatova and yu . a . bogdanov , \u201cbiochemical composition of the suspended organic matter in the tropical part of the pacific ocean , \u201d okeanologiya\n, ed . by a . p . moiseev ( nauka , moscow , 1979 ) , pp . 117\u2013138 [ in russian ] .\nsea lilies cyrtocrinids : proceedings of the paleontological institute of the academy of sciences of the ussr , vol . 144\n( nauka , moscow , 1967 ) , pp . 98\u2013169 [ in russian ] .\ng . m . belyaev and p . v . ushakov , \u201csome regularities in the quantitative distribution of the benthic fauna in the antarctic waters , \u201d dokl . akad . nauk sssr\ng . m . belyaev , n . g . vinogradova , r . ya . levenshtein , et al . , \u201cregularities in the distribution of deep - water benthic fauna in the light of the development of the ideas on the biological structure of the ocean , \u201d okeanologiya\n( nauka , moscow , 1964 ) , pp . 245\u2013249 [ in russian ] .\n, ed . by a . v . gebruk ( kmk scientific press , moscow , 2002 ) [ in russian ] .\nya . a . birshtein , \u201cthe concept of \u2018relict\u2019 in biology , \u201d zool . zh .\nj . p . bourseau , n . ameziane - cominardi , and m . roux , \u201cun crinoide p\u00e9doncule nouveau ( \u00e9chinodermes ) , repr\u00e9sentant actuel de la famille jurassique des hemicrinidae :\nnov . sp . des fonds bathyaux de nouvelle - caledonie ( s . w . pacifique ) , \u201d c . r . acad . sci . paris , s\u00e9r . 3 ,\nr . n . bulatov , \u201ccirculation of water masses in the atlantic ocean at various spatiotemporal scales , \u201d okeanol . issled . , no . 22 , 7\u201393 ( 1971 ) .\n( nauka , moscow , 1968 ) , pp . 206\u2013281 [ in russian ] .\np . e . cloud , \u201cassemblages of diminutive brachiopods and their paleoecological significance , \u201d j . sediment . petrol .\np . j . doherty , \u201cthe contribution of dissolved amino acids to the nutrition of articulate brachiopods , \u201d new zealand j . zool .\nsp . nov . , padiculariina relique du bathyal de nouvelle - caledonie et de la r\u00e9union , \u201d m\u00e9m . mus . natl . hist . nat . s\u00e9r . a .\n( academische verlags - gesellschaft , leipzig , 1935 ) , pp . 12 , 512 .\nz . a . filatova , \u201cquantitative assessment of benthic fauna in the southwestern part of the barents sea , \u201d tr . polyarn . nauchno - issled . inst . rybn . khoz . okeanograf . , issue 2 , 3\u201358 ( 1938 ) .\nz . a . filatova , m . n . sokolova , and r . ya . levenshtein , \u201con the record of a mollusk from the cambrian - devonian class monoplacophora in the central part of the northern half of the pacific ocean , \u201d dokl . akad . nauk sssr\nm . r . gregory and d . e . lee , \u201ca new cancellothyroid brachiopod from the abyssal sea - floor , southeast indian ridge , and possible environmental implication , abstract , \u201d geol . soc . new zealand misc . publs .\nt . a . grunt and o . n . zezina , \u201con latitudinal biological zoning in the late paleozoic seas , \u201d okeanologiya\n( nauka , leningrad , 1972 ) , pp . 8\u201321 [ in russian ] .\na . v . gusev and a . f . pasternak , \u201csome remarks on the benthic fauna of the antarctic waters , \u201d dokl . akad . nauk sssr\nc . s . hammen , \u201cmetabolism of brachiopods and bivalve mollusks , \u201d acta salmant . ser . cienc . , no . 36 , 471\u2013478 ( 1971 ) .\nc . s . hammen , \u201cbrachiopod metabolism and enzymes , \u201d am . zool .\nk . hatai , \u201cthe cenozoic brachiopoda of japan , \u201d sci . repts . tohoku univ . ser . 2 . geol .\nd . s . haven and r . morales - almo , \u201caspects of biodeposition by oysters and other invertebrate filter feeders , \u201d limnology and oceanography\nj . g . helmke , \u201cvaldiviathyrididae , eine neue brachiopodenfamilie , \u201d zool . anzeiger\nr . r . hessler and w . m . smithey , \u201cthe distribution and community structure of megafauna at galapagos rift hydrothermal vents , \u201d in\n, ed . by p . a . rona ( plenum press , new york , 1983 ) , pp . 735\u2013770 .\nn . n . iordansky , \u201cpaedomorphosis , neoteny , and evolution , \u201d zool . zh .\n( prentice hall , englewood cliffs , new jersey , 1982 ; mir , moscow , 1987 ) .\n( akad . nauk sssr . , moscow , 1963 ) [ in russian ] .\nw . la barbera , \u201cwater flow patterns in and around three species of articulate brachiopods , \u201d j . exper . mar . biol . and ecol .\nr\u00e9sultats des campagnes musorstom : m\u00e9moires du mus\u00e9um nationale d\u2019histoire naturelle , 1997 , vol . 176\nd . e . lee and m . gregory , \u201ca new deep - sea cancellothyrid brachiopod from volcanic substrates of midocean ridge system , \u201d in\nc . t . s . little , r . j . herrington , v . v . maslennikov , et al . , \u201csilurian hydrothermal - vent community from the southern urals , \u201d nature\nc . t . s . little , r . j . herrington , v . v . maslennikov , et al . , \u201cthe fossil record of hydrothermal vent communities , \u201d in\n, ed . by r . a . mills and k . harrison ( geol . soc . spec . publ . , london , 1998 ) , vol . 148 , pp . 259\u2013270 .\nc . t . s . little , r . j . herrington , r . m . hymon , et al . , \u201cearly jurassic hydrothermal vent community from franciscan complex , san rafael mountains , california , \u201d geology\nc . t . s . little , v . v . maslennikov , n . j . morris , et al . , \u201ctwo palaeozoic hydrothermal vent communities from the southern ural mountains , russia , \u201d paleontology\n, ed . by n . eldridge and s . m . stanley ( springer - verlag , new york , berlin , 1984 ) .\na . logan and h . zibrovius , \u201ca new genus and species of rhynchonellid ( brachiopoda , recent ) from submarine caves in the mediterranean sea , \u201d publ . staz . zool . napoli . mar . ecol .\ns . loven , \u201com crustaceer i venern och vettern , \u201d ofv . kngl . vet . - akad . fohrhandel .\nc . luter , g . worheide , and j . reitner , \u201ca new thecideid genus and species ( brachiopoda , recent ) from submarine caves of osprey reef ( queensland plateau ) , coral sea , australia , \u201d j . nat . hist .\nbrachiopods past and present : the systematic association special volumes series , vol . 63\n, ed . by c . h . c . brunton , l . r . m . cocks , and s . l . long ( taylor and frencis , london , 2001 ) , pp . 229\u2013239 .\n( kmk scientific press ltd . , moscow , 1998 ) [ in russian ] .\nh . m . mccammon , \u201cthe food of articulate brachiopods , \u201d j . paleontol .\na . n . mironov , \u201ccircumcontinental zoning in the distribution of sea urchins in the atlantic ocean , \u201d tr . inst . okeanol . akad . nauk sssr\na . n . mironov and o . a . sorokina , \u201csea lilies of the order hyocrinida ( echinodermata , crinoidea ) , \u201d in\na . n . mironov , a . v . gebruk , and a . j . southward ,\nl . i . moskalev , ya . i . starobogatov , and z . a . filatova , \u201cnew data on monoplacophorans from the abyssal zone of the pacific and the southern part of the atlantic ocean , \u201d zool . zh .\nn . motchurova - dekova , m . saito , and k . endo , \u201cthe recent rhynchonellide brachiopod\ngen . et sp . nov . from the submarine caves of okinawa , japan , \u201d paleontol . res .\nv . g . neiman , v . a . burkov , and a . d . shcherbinin ,\nl . a . nevesskaja , \u201cgeological history of the class bivalvia , \u201d paleontol . zh . , no . 3 , 43\u201355 ( 1972 ) .\n, ed . by i . s . barskov , t . b . leonova , and a . g . ponomarenko ( paleontol . inst . ross . akad . nauk , moscow , 2004 ) , pp . 25\u201341 [ in russian ] .\n( brokgauz i efron , st . petersburg , 1902 ) [ in russian ] .\nn . p . pakhorukov , \u201cfishes of the seamounts of the tropical zone of the world\u2019s oceans , \u201d extended abstract of candidate\u2019s dissertation in biology ( moscow , 2003 ) .\nabstracts of papers of the 2nd all - union congress of oceanologists ( yalta , 1982 ) . issue 5 . marine biology\nn . v . parin , \u201coceanic ichthyologeography : an attempt to review the distribution and origin of pelagic and bottom fishes outside continental shelves and neritic zones , \u201d arch . fisch . wiss . berl .\nm . a . radzikhovskaya and v . v . leont\u2019eva , \u201cthe structure of waters and water masses , \u201d in\n( nauka , moscow , 1968 ) , pp . 20\u201368 [ in russian ] .\nm . roux , \u201cd\u00e9couverte d\u2019un repr\u00e9sentant actuel ; des crinoides peduncules pal\u00e9ozoiques dans l\u2019\u00e9tage bathyal de 1\u2019ile de la r\u00e9union , \u201d c . r . acad . sci . paris , s\u00e9r . 3 ,\nm . roux , \u201cnew hyocrinid crinoids ( echinodermata ) from submersible investigations in the pacific ocean , \u201d pacific sci . univ . of hawaii\nm . roux , ph . bouchet , j . p . bourseau , et al . , \u201cl\u2019\u00e9tagement du benthos bathyal observ\u00e9 \u00e0 l\u2019aide de la soucoupe \u2018cyana\u2019 , \u201d doc . et trav . igal , paris , no . 15 , 151\u2013165 ( 1991 ) .\n, ed . by c . h . c . brunton , l . r . m . cocks , and s . l . long ( taylor and frencis , london , 2001 ) , pp . 261\u2013267 .\nm . saito , n . motchurova - dekova , and k . endo , \u201crecent brachiopod fauna from the submarine caves of okinawa , japan , \u201d in\nm . r . sandy , \u201ca review of some paleozoic and mesozoic brachiopods as members of cold seep chemosynthetic communities : \u2018unusual\u2019 palaeoecology and anomalous palaeobiogeographic patterns explained , \u201d f\u00f6ldtani k\u00f6zl .\n, ed . by c . h . c . brunton , l . r . m . cocks , and s . l . long ( taylor and frencis , london , 2001 ) , pp . 394\u2013410 .\nm . r . sandy and k . a . campbell , \u201ca new rhynchonellid genus from tithonian ( upper jurassic ) cold seep deposits of california and its palaeoenvironmental setting , \u201d j . paleontology\nl . v . sanina , \u201cthe rate of the filtration and the diet of caspian mollusks at different concentrations of suspended material , \u201d extended abstract of candidate\u2019s dissertation in geology and mineralogy ( moscow , 1983 ) .\nthe development and change of marine organisms at the paleozoic - mesozoic boundary : proceedings of the paleontological institute , academy of sciences of the ussr , vol . 108\n( nauka , moscow , 1965 ) , pp . 62\u201381 [ in russian ] .\nc . r . scotese and w . s . mckerrow , \u201crevised world maps and introduction , \u201d palaeogeogr . biogeogr . geol . soc . memoir , no . 12 , 1\u201321 ( 1990 ) .\n( nauka , moscow , 1967 ) , pp . 27\u201385 [ in russian ] .\n, ed . by h . lange - bertalet ( gantner verlag , frankfurt am main , 2003 ) , pp . 36\u201364 .\n, 2nd ed . ( harper & row , new york , 1963 ; nedra , leningrad , 1969 ) .\n( jeffreys , 1859 ) and other brachiopods from submarine caves in croacia , \u201d bulletin de l\u2019institut royal des sciences naturelles de belgique , biologie , no . 69 , 15\u201321 ( 1999 ) .\nj . l . b . smith , \u201ca living coelacanthid fish from south africa , \u201d trans . r . soc . south africa\nm . n . sokolova , \u201con the regularities in the distribution of deep - sea benthos : the effect of the macrorelief and the distribution of suspended material on the feeding groups of benthic invertebrates , \u201d dokl . akad . nauk sssr\nyu . i . sorokin , \u201cthe abundance and production of bacteria in the water and bottom sediments in the central part of the pacific ocean , \u201d dokl . akad . nauk sssr\n( nauka , moscow , 1971 ) , pp . 92\u2013122 [ in russian ] .\nf . g . stehli , a . l . mcalester , and c . e . heisley , \u201ctaxonomic diversity of recent bivalves and some implications for geology , \u201d bull . geol . soc . am .\nd . l . stepanov , \u201cpermian brachiopods of the spitsbergen archipelago , \u201d tr . arkticheskogo inst .\nd . l . stepanov , \u201cdimorphism and neoteny in paleozoic brachiopods , \u201d ezhegodn . vses . paleontol . o - va\nh . tappan , \u201cprimary production , isotopes , extinctions and the atmosphere , \u201d palaeogeogr . , palaeoclimatol . , palaeoecol .\nproc . north american paleontol . convention ( sept . 1969 ) , part h\nj . a . thomson , \u201cbrachiopoda , \u201d australian antarctic expedition 1911\u20131914 scientific report , ser . c , zool . and bot .\nvan c . l . dover , j . e . grassle , and m . boudrais , \u201chydrothermal vent fauna of escanaba trough ( gorda ridge ) , \u201d in\n, ed . by g . r . mcmurray ( springer - verlag , new york , 1990 ) , pp . 253\u2013264 .\nn . g . vinogradova , \u201czoogeographic zoning of the abyssal zone of the world\u2019s oceans , \u201d dokl . akad . nauk sssr\nk . a . voskresenskii , \u201cthe belt of filter feeders as a biohydrological system of the sea , \u201d tr . okeanogr . inst .\na . williams and j . m . hurst , \u201cbrachiopod evolution , \u201d in\n, ed . by a . hallam ( amsterdam , 1977 ) , pp . 79\u2013121 .\n, ed . by a . p . kuznetsov ( inst . okeanol . akad . nauk sssr , moscow , 1976b ) , pp . 101\u2013105 [ in russian ] .\n( nauka , leningrad , 1978 ) , pp . 45\u201347 [ in russian ] .\no . n . zezina , \u201con the formation of the modern fauna of brachiopods on the shelves and slopes of the world ocean , \u201d byull . mosk . o - va ispyt . prirody . otd . biol .\n( nauka , moscow , 1979b ) , pp . 21\u201322 [ in russian ] .\n, ed . by o . g . kusakin ( nauka , moscow , 1979c ) , pp . 222\u2013233 [ in russian ] .\n, ed . by a . p . kuznetsov and a . n . mironov ( inst . okeanol . akad . nauk sssr , moscow , 1981b ) , pp . 141\u2013149 [ in russian ] .\no . n . zezina , \u201con hypomorphic characters in deep - sea benthic animals , \u201d tr . inst . okeanol . akad . nauk sssr\no . n . zezina , \u201ccomposition and distribution of articulate brachiopods on the submarine plateaus in the eastern part of the pacific ocean , \u201d tr . inst . okeanol . im . p . p . shirshova akad . nauk sssr\no . n . zezina , \u201ca new species of cancellothyroid brachiopods from the \u2018atlantis\u2019 fracture zone of the mid - atlantic ridge , \u201d zool . zh .\n( paleontol . inst . ross . akad . nauk , moscow , 1997 ) [ in russian ] .\nabstracts of papers of the international workshop in memory of academician e . m . kreps ( murmansk , may 11\u201313 , 1999 )\n( murmansk . morsk . biol . inst . ross . akad . nauk , apatity , 1999 ) , pp . 68\u201370 [ in russian ] .\n, ed . by a . p . kuznetsov and o . n . zezina ( vseross . nauchno - issled . inst . rybov . okeanogr . , moscow , 2001a ) , pp . 58\u201362 [ in russian ] .\no . n . zezina , \u201cnew data on the occurrence of brachiopods in the regions of submarine volcanic activity , \u201d byull . mosk . o - va ispyt . prirody . otd . geol .\n, ed . by c . h . c . brunton , l . r . m . cocks , and s . l . long ( taylor and francis , london , 2001c ) , pp . 102\u2013107 .\n, ed . by a . v . gebruk ( kmk scientific press , moscow , 2002 ) , pp . 226\u2013227 [ in russian ] .\no . n . zezina , \u201con the ecological , morphological , and evolutionary features of brachiopods living in marginal and extreme environments , \u201d paleontol . zh . , no . 3 , 42\u201348 ( 2003 ) [ paleontol . j .\no . n . zezina , \u201con the systematic position of some species of the modern brachiopods from the submarine norfolk ridge ( western pacific ) , \u201d invertebrate zool . mgu\n, ed . by a . n . mironov , a . v . gebruk , and a . j . southward ( kmk scientific press ltd . , moscow , 2006 ) , pp . 67\u201375 .\no . n . zezina and o . n . morozova , \u201con homeomorphy and shell structure in deep - sea brachiopods , \u201d tr . inst . okeanol . akad . nauk sssr\no . n . zezina and a . v . pakhnevich , \u201cthe find of modern articulate brachiopods in the submarine volcanic activity area near the antarctic peninsula , \u201d dokl . akad . nauk\no . n . zezina and n . l . semenova , \u201csome data on the ecology and distribution of brachiopods\n( inst . okeanol . akad . nauk sssr , moscow , 1979 ) , pp . 88\u201392 [ in russian ] .\na . m . ziegler , m . l . hulver , and d . b . rowley ,\nfull text of\nrhodopetalinae , a new subfamily of acmaeidae from the boreal pacific : anatomy and systematics .\nfull text of\nrhodopetalinae , a new subfamily of acmaeidae from the boreal pacific : anatomy and systematics ."]}
{"id": 2315, "summary": [{"text": "the crescent-tail hogfish , bodianus sepiacaudus , is a species of wrasse native to the pacific ocean from sulawesi to the line islands .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it can be found in groups at depths from 20 to 75 m ( 66 to 246 ft ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "this species can reach 8.7 cm ( 3.4 in ) in standard length .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "juveniles are white and black .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "adults are white with four broad red stripes , suffused with black on caudal peduncle and caudal fin .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it can be found in the aquarium trade .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the crescent-tail hogfish differs from bodianus masudai by having white pelvic fins . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "crescent - tail hogfish", "paragraphs": ["the crescent - tail hogfish differs from bodianus masudai by having white pelvic fins .\nthe holotype of the crescent - tail hogfish , bodianus sepiacaudus , possibly from bali , indonesia , 70 . 0 mm sl , nmv a18420 . source : s . michael , in gomon 2006 a revision of the labrid fish genus bodianus , rec aus mus , suppl 30 . license : all rights reserved\na small slender hogfish with red and white stripes , the broader reddish stripes becoming blackish towards the rear , and a black spot on the gill cover . the pelvic fins are whitish and the tail has a large black spot often followed by white , yellow , red and / or black crescent - shaped bands posteriorly .\nhogfish are quite hardy and in time eat all the most common available fish foods . they do however , demand plenty of space to swim and for concealment .\nname from latin nouns ' sepia ' for ink and ' cauda ' for tail , refers to the inky black caudal peduncle and base of the caudal fin that distinguish this species .\nthe specific name sepiacaudus : is from the latin ' sepia ' ( ink ) and ' cauda ' ( tail ) in reference to the inky black caudal peduncle and base of the caudal fin that distinguish this species .\nhogfish ( bodianus ) get their name from the way they look for food in the substrate using their snout . they can regularly be seen blowing water down into the sand and in their natural habitat they often follow other fish which have disturbed it .\nthey can hide for long periods of time if kept with more aggressive species . hogfish can also be aggressive towards more docile species or those that resembles themselves . when fully grown they can become a threat to various invertebrates , e . g . worms , snails , small bivalves and crustaceans amongst others .\nbodianus after bodiano or pudiano , from the portuguese pudor , meaning modesty ( jordan & evermann , 1896 ) .\nmarine ; reef - associated ; depth range 20 - 75 m ( ref . 90102 ) , usually 20 - 50 m ( ref . 75973 ) . tropical\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 8 . 7 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 75973 )\nthis species has been photographed at depths of 25 - 50 m , with adults occurring in groups along ledges on steep dropoffs at depths greater than 20 m , and juveniles observed at about 50 m ( ref . 75973 ) . oviparous , distinct pairing during breeding ( ref . 205 ) .\ngomon , m . f . , 2006 . a revision of the labrid fish genus bodianus with descriptions of eight new species . rec . aust . mus . suppl . 30 : 1 - 133 . ( ref . 75973 )\n) : 25 . 6 - 29 , mean 27 . 8 ( based on 72 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01000 ( 0 . 00244 - 0 . 04107 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 \u00b10 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 19 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : little is known of population and life history characteristics of this species . it has a widespread distribution but is only known from a few scattered localities in the pacific . it is found in deeper water and is uncommon so it has likely not been discovered in between areas . it sought by aquarium fish collectors . the population status is unknown . it is listed as data deficient .\nthis species is known conclusively from indonesia : sulawesi ( near maluku ) and flores ( pomana besar ) , in the western pacific , and fiji and kiritimati atoll , line islands in the central pacific ( b . russell pers . comm . 2008 ) . it was recorded from sogod , cebu , philippines ( b . stockwell pers . comm . 2009 ) . the photograph was confirmed by m . gomon ( r . myers pers . comm . 2009 ) .\nthere is no population information avaiable for this species . this is an uncommon species .\na small species to at least 87 mm sl . it has photographed it at depths of 25 - 50 m , noting that adults occur in groups along ledges on steep dropoffs at depths greater than 20 m , with juveniles observed at about 50 m ( b . russell pers comm . 2008 ) .\nthere are no known threats to this species . however , species is sought after by aquarium trade collectors .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nfrom the day we opened the first store in maidenhead , we\u2019ve firmly believed that one key to our success is employing fish keepers .\nholmes reef in the coral sea . the species occurs elsewhere in the tropical west - central pacific , from indonesia , the philippines , fiji , kiritimati atoll and the line islands .\ndiffers from the similar bodianus masudai ( not found in australian waters ) in having white pelvic fins , white interspaces , whereas they are yellow to white in b . masudai .\nbodianus sepiacaudus gomon 2006 , rec . aust . mus . suppl . 30 : 33 , fig . 16 , pl . 2g - h . type locality : bali ( ? ) , indonesia .\n. the iucn red list of threatened species 2010 : e . t187576a8573103 . urltoken downloaded on 27 november 2015 .\nthis species searches through the sand for food , which can make the water cloudy and shakes up detritus .\nwhen a male is needed , a female changes sex and takes on the role .\nwrasses are nearly always seen in reef aquaria , since many of the species are both attractive and useful in battling a range of unwanted invertebrates like i . e . flatworms , pyramide snails . these fish live of everything from zooplankton to large crustaceans , sea urchins and the like .\nthe needs and behaviour of wrasses vary greatly , so it is vital to familiarize oneself with the specific species before buying one .\nbob fenner . the wrasses we call hogfishes - wet web media - ( english ) scott michael . 2002 . aquarium fish : the hogfishes , family labridae - advanced aquarist - ( english )\nscott w . michael . 2009 . wrasses and parrotfishes ( reef fishes series book 5 ) - tfh publications / microcosm ltd . - ( english )\nfroese , r . and d . pauly . editors . 2014 . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . urltoken , version ( 08 / 2014 ) .\nminimum volume\nindicates the size of the tank needed to house this species under optimal conditions .\nthis is based on a medium size animal , which you want to keep for several years . it might be possible to keep smaller specimens for a limited period in a smaller tank . a larger tank might be needed for fully - grown specimens .\nhardiness\nindicates how resistant this species is to disease and how well i tolerates bad conditions in general . some species doesn ' t handle transportation very well , but that doesn ' t mean that the species isn ' t hardy under the right conditions .\nin this case , a\nnormal\naquarium is a reef aquarium with mixed corals or a fish only aquarium with an approximately salinity of 1 . 026 ( sg ) and a temperature close to 26\u00b0c . species requiring more than a 4000 - liter tank are considered not suitable for home aquarium .\nspecial aquariums may cover tanks with low salinity , sub - tropical temperature , deep sand bed , sea grass etc .\nalways reef safe : no sources indicate that this species will harm corals or other invertebrates .\noften reef safe : only a few aquarists has reported problems keeping this species with corals and other invertebrates .\nreef safe with caution : this species may be a threat to some types of invertebrates .\nreef safe with luck : most specimens will harm corals and / or other invertebrates , but you might be lucky .\nnot reef safe : this species is a threat to most corals and / or other invertebrates .\nthis species has been photographed at depths of 25 - 50 m , with adults occurring in groups along ledges on steep dropoffs at depths greater than 20 m , and juveniles observed at about 50 m ( ref . 75973 ) . oviparous , distinct pairing during breeding ( ref . 205 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\neastern indian ocean , western pacific : bali ( indonesia ) , line islands ( kiribati ) ; probably more widespread .\n8 . 7 cm sl ( male / unsexed ; ( ref . 75973 ) )\nreef - associated ; marine ; depth range 20 - 75 m ( ref . 90102 ) , usually 20 - 50 m ( ref . 75973 )\nlittle is known of population and life history characteristics of this species . it has a widespread distribution but is only known from a few scattered localities in the pacific . it is found in deeper water and is uncommon so it has likely not been discovered in between areas . it sought by aquarium fish collectors . the population status is unknown . it is listed as data deficient .\n. it can be found in groups at depths from 20 to 75 m ( 66 to 246 ft ) . this species can reach 8 . 7 cm ( 3 . 4 in )\njuveniles are white and black . adults are white with four broad red stripes , suffused with black on\nrussell , b . ( 2010 ) . bodianus sepiacaudus . in : iucn 2014 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2014 . 2 . < urltoken > . downloaded on 22 august 2014 .\nfroese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2014 ) .\nbodianus sepiacaudus\nin fishbase . august 2014 version .\nmartin f . gomon ( 2006 ) .\na revision of the labrid fish genus bodianus with descriptions of eight new species\n. records of the australian museum , supplement 30 : 1\u2013133 .\nticking this option will unlock the ' my dive shop ' area for you . there you will be able to claim or create a business entity .\nmuch like a facebook page - you need to first have a personal account through which you can login and manage the business page .\nafter creating a personal account , you will be directed to ' my dive shop ' section where you can claim existing listing or create a new one .\nthis is your personal profile - we advise the username to relate to you . if you own or operate a business it will have its own page that you manage .\nplease use your real name - not the name of your business or nick name .\nurltoken is a site tailor made for the needs of the global scuba diving community . it is a completely neutral project , funded by independent entrepreneurs and not . . ."]}
{"id": 2317, "summary": [{"text": "oroya aurora is a moth in the dalceridae family , and the only species in the genus oroya .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it was described by miller in 1994 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in southern peru and adjacent bolivia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of tropical premontane wet , tropical premontane moist and subtropical ( lower ) montane wet forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is 9 \u2013 10 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are orange , with uniform deep orange forewings .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "adults are on wing in january , march , may and from october to december . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "oroya aurora", "paragraphs": ["type - species : oroya aurora miller , 1994 . descr . phys . r\u00e9pub . argent . 5 : 427 . [ bhl ]\nthe genus name refers to la oroya , peru , the type locality of the type species . the species name refers to the orange colour of a sunrise and is derived from latin aurora . [ 2 ]\noroya fever and verruga peruana : bartonelloses unique to south america . - pubmed - ncbi\noroya aurora is a moth in the dalceridae family , and the only species in the genus oroya . it was described by miller in 1994 . [ 1 ] it is found in southern peru and adjacent bolivia . the habitat consists of tropical premontane wet , tropical premontane moist and subtropical ( lower ) montane wet forests .\nwell , apparently you\u2019ve attracted a blood disease rarely seen in the united states , oroya fever .\ngenus : oroya miller , 1994 . bull . mus . comp . zool . harv . 153 ( 4 ) : 382 . [ bhl ]\noroya fever is another name for what is known as carrion ' s disease , which belongs to a set of bacteria - related diseases known as bartonellosis .\noroya fever is a deadly blood disease that is rare in the united states , but more common in continents such as south ameria and africa . it is transmitted through the bite of a sand fly .\nbiostor is built by @ rdmpage , code on github . page images from the biodiversity heritage library .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe source code for the wiki 2 extension is being checked by specialists of the mozilla foundation , google , and apple . you could also do it yourself at any point in time .\nwould you like wikipedia to always look as professional and up - to - date ? we have created a browser extension .\nit will enhance any encyclopedic page you visit with the magic of the wiki 2 technology .\ni use wiki 2 every day and almost forgot how the original wikipedia looks like .\nof perfecting techniques ; in live mode . quite the same wikipedia . just better .\nthe length of the forewings is 9\u201310 mm . adults are orange , with uniform deep orange forewings . adults are on wing in january , march , may and from october to december .\nbasis of this page is in wikipedia . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 unported license . non - text media are available under their specified licenses . wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation , inc . wiki 2 is an independent company and has no affiliation with wikimedia foundation .\npiper halliwell contracted the disease in 2000 . she was bitten in the shoulder by a sand fly that had survived the transport of a batch of kiwano fruit from south america . she eventually fainted and was taken to the hospital , where she was questioned by dr . curtis williamson . he prescribed her antibiotics and wanted to run more tests and blood work .\npiper later slipped into a coma and her sisters asked leo to heal her . when he informed them that he couldn ' t help , the sisters cast a spell that transported the disease into a doll . this caused the doll to come alive and spread the disease across the hospital . the sisters eventually reversed the spell to save the lives of others , causing piper to slip back into her coma . when piper was about to die and move on into the afterlife , leo healed her after all . [ 1 ]\nthe dvd subtitles and various websites incorrectly spell the disease name as either oroyo or arroyo fever .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nplos negl trop dis . 2014 jul 17 ; 8 ( 7 ) : e2919 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pntd . 0002919 . ecollection 2014 jul .\nminnick mf 1 , anderson be 2 , lima a 2 , battisti jm 1 , lawyer pg 3 , birtles rj 4 .\ndivision of biological sciences , university of montana , missoula , montana , united states of america .\ndepartment of molecular medicine , morsani college of medicine , university of south florida , tampa , florida , united states of america .\nlaboratory of parasitic diseases , national institute of allergy and infectious diseases , national institutes of health , bethesda , maryland , united states of america .\nschool of environment and life sciences , university of salford , salford , united kingdom .\npmid : 25032975 pmcid : pmc4102455 doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pntd . 0002919\n( a ) erythrocyte infection during of , as observed in a blood smear stained with wright ' s stain ( reprinted by permission from ) . ( b ) vp lesions on a child in peru ( reproduced from future microbiology 4 ( 6 ) : 743\u2013758 ( 2009 ) with permission of future medicine , ltd ) .\nplos negl trop dis . 2014 jul ; 8 ( 7 ) : e2919 .\n( a ) female l . verrucarum at 16 h post - feeding with an artificial blood feeder containing human blood and gfp - expressing b . bacilliformis ( low - passage strains 14866 and 14868 ) . ( b ) light micrograph of l . verrucarum midgut at five days post - feeding on human blood containing gfp + b . bacilliformis . central brown area is residual blood meal . ( c ) corresponding uv light micrograph of ( b ) . note the gfp + b . bacilliformis in residual blood meal and elsewhere in the midgut .\nmonthly sand fly collection results from three villages in the cusco region , peru .\nresults show a unimodal annual population distribution pattern with : ( a ) corresponding mean morning ( blue line ) and evening ( pink line ) temperatures and ( b ) corresponding mean morning ( green line ) and evening ( red line ) relative humidity . collections were made during two nights per month at case homesteads from march 2001 to august 2004 . the data gap between october 2001 and january 2002 is due to a cessation of activity mandated by the peruvian ministry of health .\nresults of collection - bottle - rotator ( cbr ) trap collections of sand flies in peru .\nresults show that : ( a ) nightly sand fly activity is limited to early evening ( 1800\u20132000 hrs ) from march through july , the coldest part of the year , which represents the peruvian winter , and ( b ) as nighttime temperatures increase in late august through november ( late winter and spring ) , sand fly activity extends throughout the night . \u201cinside\u201d and \u201coutside\u201d refer to trap locations within and outside a domicile , respectively .\nbacteria were grown three days on heart infusion agar containing 4 % sheep erythrocytes and 2 % sheep serum at 30\u00b0c and 100 % relative humidity . cells were subsequently fixed in 2 % glutaraldehyde in cacodylate ( ph 7 . 2 ) , epoxy embedded by standard methods , then sectioned and stained with uranyl acetate ( ua ) and lead citrate stains . micrographs show b . bacilliformis ( strain kc583 ) : ( a ) from a thin section ; ( b ) applied directly to a grid stained with ua to show flagella . scale bars represent 100 nm in ( a ) and 500 nm in ( b ) .\nhas the lowest gc % ( 35 . 7 % ) . several virulence - related orfs have been used to infer phylogeny (\n) and black circles indicate their presence in a particular species . ( b ) multiple alignment of seven complete genomes using pm . location , orientation and position of\nlocks ( lcbs ) shared amongst all chromosomes are color - coded and connected by lines . user can analyze location , orientation , and size of lcbs in multiple chromosomes simultaneously ( red arrowheads ) . local rearrangements , duplications , and inversions are easily identified . abbreviations correspond to the\nb . bacilliformis colonization of cell membrane deformations is readily apparent . reprinted by permission from .\ntype specimens : type ( s ) peru : ? locality , ( ? depository ) . .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\nthis is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .\naids , transmissible disease of the immune system caused by the human immunodeficiency virus ( hiv ) . hiv\u2026\na generalized , acute , febrile , endemic , and systemic form of bartonellosis ; marked by high fever , rheumatic pains , progressive , severe anemia , and albuminuria .\na generalized , acute , febrile , endemic , and systemic form of bartonellosis ; marked by high fever , rheumatic pains , progressive , severe anemia , and albuminuria . synonym ( s ) : carri\u00f3n disease .\nall content on this website , including dictionary , thesaurus , literature , geography , and other reference data is for informational purposes only . this information should not be considered complete , up to date , and is not intended to be used in place of a visit , consultation , or advice of a legal , medical , or any other professional .\n\u00a9 2018 urltoken by ancestry . all rights reserved . terms and conditions \u00b7 privacy statement \u00b7 site map \u00b7 contact\njavascript required : we ' re sorry , but urltoken doesn ' t work properly without javascript enabled . you will need to enable javascript by changing your browser settings . learn how to enable it .\ncookies required : we ' re sorry , but urltoken doesn ' t work properly without cookies enabled . you will need to enable cookies by changing your browser settings ."]}
{"id": 2320, "summary": [{"text": "parasesarma leptosoma ( hilgendorf , 1869 ) , aka the arboreal crab , is an arboreal , leaf-eating mangrove crab , found on rhizophora mucronata and bruguiera gymnorhiza , but not on avicennia marina , and occupying an ecological niche similar to that of another sesarmid , aratus pisonii , from the americas .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "crabs of the family sesarmidae are some of the most diverse and important components of mangrove estuary communities in the tropics and are not found in europe .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "two genera common in african , asian and australian mangroves are parasesarma ( 26 species ) and perisesarma ( 23 species ) .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "often colourful , they have a squarish appearance and have two transverse pectinated crests on the upper edge of the male chelar carpus .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the two genera are separated by the absence in parasesarma or presence in perisesarma of an anterolateral tooth .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "parasesarma leptosoma occurs in mangrove estuaries along the coasts of kenya , tanzania , mozambique and south africa .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "in order to escape low tide predators , this species twice daily climbs mangrove stems to the canopy and feeds on fresh leaves , and is commonly found on rhizophora mucronata , but studies suggest that it prefers the foliage of bruguiera gymnorhiza .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "its diet also includes algae , mollusks , insects and annelids .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "its aversion to avicennia marina may be due to its secreting salt from its leaves , while both r. mucronata and b. gymnorhiza are salt excluders .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "distinguishing characters are its propodus being three times the length of its dactylus , and the carapace width only some 2 cm .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "females carry the eggs , which remain attached to the swimming legs or pleopods until hatching .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "important physiological adaptations enable these crabs to feed on leaves , with no evidence of fermentation in the gut , a solution common in other animals . ", "topic": 4}], "title": "parasesarma leptosoma", "paragraphs": ["remark also subgenus parasesarma in dahdouh , 1994 < 247 > . [ details ]\nmorphological differences among described zoeal stages of the genera perisesarma and parasesarma [ perisesarma fasciatum , this study ; perisesarma guttatum ( pereyra lago , 1993 ; flores et al . , 2003 ) * ; perisesarma bidens ( fukuda and baba , 1976 ) ; perisesarma messa ( greenwood and fielder , 1988 ) ; parasesarma leptosoma ( flores et al . , 2003 ) ; parasesarma acis ( terada , 1976 ) ; parasesarma catenata ( pereyra lago , 1987 ; flores et al . , 2003 ) * ; parasesarma pictum ( pasupathi and kannupandi , 1987 ) ; parasesarma erythrodactyla ( greenwood and fielder , 1988 ) ; parasesarma plicatum ( fukuda and baba , 1976 ; selvakumar , 1999 ) * ]\nemmerson , w . , cannicci , s . , porri , f . , 2003 . new records for parasesarma leptosoma ( hilgendorf , 1869 ) ( crustacea : decapoda : brachyura : sesarmidae ) from mangroves in mozambique and south africa . african zoology 38 ( 2 ) : 351 - 355 .\nvannini , m . and r . k . ruwa , 1994 . vertical migrations in the tree crab sesarma leptosoma ( decapoda , grapsidae ) . marine biology 118 : 271 - 278 .\n( of sesarma leptosoma hilgendorf , 1869 ) hartnoll , r . g . ( 1975 ) . the grapsidae and ocypodidae ( decapoda : brachyura ) of tanzania . j . zool . london 177 , 305 - 328 [ details ]\nvannini , m . , s . cannicci and r . k . ruwa , 1995 . effect of light intensity on vertical migration of the tree crab , sesarma leptosoma hilgendorf ( decapoda , grapsidae ) . journal of experimental marine biology and ecology 185 : 181 - 189 .\nit has already been observed that the conserved morphological characteristics of the larvae of sesarmidae make differentiation at generic levels difficult in this family ( cuesta , 1999 ) . likewise , differentiation at species level are only possible , if at all , using a combination of several morphological features ( schubart and cuesta , 1998 ; cuesta and anger , 2001 ) . tables i and ii summarize the morphological differences of all described zoeal stages and the megalopa stage among species of perisesarma and parasesarma . we here included the larvae of the genus parasesarma because p . fasciatum was originally described as a member of parasesarma and because of the morphological similarity of the two genera ( see introduction ) . preliminary molecular comparisons also suggest a close phylogenetic relationship of these genera ( fratini et al . , 2004 ) . in the present study , we provide evidence that larval stages of perisesarma and parasesarma are very similar , to the point that it is impossible to distinguish the larvae consistently at the generic level . the first zoeal stage of parasesarma species bears five setae on the coxal endite of the maxillule ( table i ) , while p . fasciatum and perisesarma guttatum bear six setae on the coxal endite ( cf . pereyra lago , 1993 ) . however , the first zoeal stages of perisesarma messa and perisesarma bidens bear five setae , as the species of parasesarma ( fukuda and baba , 1976 ; greenwood and fielder , 1988 ) . it needs to be taken into account that the number of larval stages is variable ( 4\u20135 zoeal stages ) in both genera , and part of the variability in the setation of appendages could be due to this variability . for example , the number of scaphognathite setae on the maxilla of the zoea iv is reduced in species with five zoeal stages as compared with species with four zoeal stages ( table i ) . the zoea iv of p . guttatum is the only fourth stage with five setae on the distal segment of the endopod of the first maxilliped ; the sixth seta does not appear before the last zoeal stage ( zoea v ) . in contrast , parasesarma erythrodactyla and parasesarma plicatum , both species with five zoeal stages , show the sixth seta on the distal segment of the endopod of the first maxilliped already in stage iv . overall , the larval data ( zoea and megalopa ) support previous morphological and molecular indications and confirm a very close relationship between the genera perisesarma and parasesarma .\n( of sesarma leptosoma hilgendorf , 1869 ) ruwa , r . k . ( 1989 ) . macrofaunal composition and zonation on sandy beaches at gazi , kanamai and malindi bay , kenya . kenya journal of sciences ( series b ) 10 ( 1 - 2 ) : 31 - 45 [ details ]\nthe complete larval development of the sesarmid crab perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) from singapore was obtained from laboratory culture . all four zoeal stages , the megalopa and the first crab stage are described and illustrated . the morphological characteristics of the larvae of p . fasciatum are compared with those of other known larvae of the genera perisesarma and parasesarma . the larval morphology of p . fasciatum clearly presents the typical combination of features that characterize sesarmid larvae . overall , larval stages are very similar in perisesarma and parasesarma and it is impossible to distinguish these two genera by larval morphology .\nguillermo guerao , klaus anger , u . w . e . nettelmann , christoph d . schubart ; complete larval and early juvenile development of the mangrove crab perisesarma fasciatum ( crustacea : brachyura : sesarmidae ) from singapore , with a larval comparison of parasesarma and perisesarma , journal of plankton research , volume 26 , issue 12 , 1 december 2004 , pages 1389\u20131408 , urltoken\ntwo of the more conspicuous and species - rich genera of african , asian and australian mangroves are parasesarma ( 26 species ) and perisesarma ( 23 species ) . they are often colourful crabs , similar in their overall squarish appearance and even sharing the defining morphological characteristic of two transverse pectinated crests on the upper border of the male chelar carpus . the only distinguishing characteristic between the two genera is the absence ( parasesarma ) or presence ( perisesarma ) of an anterolateral tooth . in american sesarmid crabs , it has been shown that the anterolateral tooth is not a very consistent characteristic and it is often weakly pronounced or absent in some of the species ( von hagen , 1978 ; abele , 1992 ) . also in one asian species of perisesarma , perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) , the anterolateral tooth is not always clearly defined . therefore , lanchester ( 1900 ) originally placed this species in the subgenus parasesarma , however , noticing that one of the females has \u2018indications of a tooth behind the orbital angle\u2019 . also tweedie ( 1936 ) states that the \u2018epibranchial tooth is always low and obtuse , often obscure , and in one adult male , scarcely indicated\u2019 .\necological notes : adapted an aerial strategy where they can climb trees to avoid the incoming tide ; never seen on the forest floor . both true arboreal species , the american aratus pisonii milne - edwards , 1837 and the east african s . leptosoma , show morphological adaptations to life in the trees , namely a flat carapace , relatively long walking leg carpus and propodus and short dactylus ( hartnoll , 1988 ; vannini et al . , 1997 ) .\nin this study , we newly describe the complete larval and early juvenile development of p . fasciatum from singapore and compare it with other published larval descriptions of species of parasesarma and perisesarma to test whether there are consistent larval differences between these two genera ( fukuda and baba , 1976 ; terada , 1976 ; pasupathi and kannupandi , 1987 ; pereyra lago , 1987 , 1993 ; greenwood and fielder , 1988 ; selvakumar , 1999 ; flores et al . , 2003 ) . this is only the fourth species of the genus perisesarma for which zoeal stages are described , the third megalopal description , and the second which includes the first juvenile .\nsesarmid crabs are among the most diverse and important faunal components of mangrove forest communities worldwide . their importance for ecological processes related to leaf turnover is only recently being revealed ( macintosh , 1988 ; lee , 1989 , 1998 ; emmerson and mcgwynne , 1992 ; micheli , 1993a , b ; schrijvers et al . , 1996 ) . otherwise , very little is known about the biology of most of these tropical crabs , and even the systematic classification is far from being resolved . for a long time , most of the sesarmids were included in the genus sesarma say , 1817 . in 1895 , de man ( de man , 1895 ) introduced three subgenera ( i . e . episesarma , parasesarma and perisesarma ) based on the presence or absence of an anterolateral tooth and the type of tuberculation on the chelar carpus . ser\u00e8ne and soh ( ser\u00e8ne and soh , 1970 ) elevated these subgenera to full genus level and created a large number of new genera , thereby establishing a taxonomic system which even today is not fully accepted , only slowly adopted and still being revised ( davie , 1992 , 1994 ; ng and schubart , 2003 ) .\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\naccording to the new taxonomy of ser\u00e8ne and soh ( ser\u00e8ne and soh , 1970 ) , the genus sesarma is now restricted to the american continent , which has an impoverished sesarmid fauna compared to the indo - westpacific ( < 30 species in america as compared with > 200 species in the indo - westpacific ) . there are no sesarmid crabs in europe . many larval stages of sesarma and its sister genera aratus h . milne edwards , 1853 and armases abele , 1992 have been described over the past 50 years from american waters ( costlow and bookhout , 1960 , 1962 ; d\u00edaz and ewald , 1968 ; warner , 1968 ; fransozo and hebling , 1986 ; schubart and cuesta , 1998 ; cuesta and anger , 2001 ) . in contrast , there are only very few larval descriptions of sesarmid crabs from africa , asia and oceania ( fukuda and baba , 1976 ; terada , 1976 ; krishnan and kannupandi , 1987 ; pasupathi and kannupandi , 1987 ; pereyra lago , 1987 , 1993 ; greenwood and fielder , 1988 ; selvakumar , 1999 ; flores et al . , 2003 ; schubart et al . , 2003 ) , especially considering the large number of species that are present in the mangroves of these continents .\nperisesarma fasciatum is a relatively small and rounded representative of its genus . it lives in the upper , often dry , fringes of mangroves on relatively hard and sandy substratum and was repeatedly observed scurrying on mounds of the burrowing decapod thalassina ( c . d . schubart , personal observation ) . the known distribution of this species ranges from thailand [ rathbun , 1909 as sesarma ( chiromantes ) siamense ] , malaysia ( sasekumar , 1972 ) , singapore ( tweedie , 1936 ) and indonesia ( ser\u00e8ne and moosa , 1971 ) to hong kong ( soh , 1978 ) . otherwise , there is no published information on the biology of this crab species .\nseveral adult specimens of p . fasciatum were collected in the lim chu kang mangroves in singapore in january 2002 . they were transported alive to regensburg ( germany ) where they were slowly acclimated to fresh water . two females and two males were transported to the biologische anstalt helgoland ( germany ) in july 2002 , where they were maintained at a salinity of 5 ( 24\u00b0c ) and in an artificial 12 : 12 h light : dark cycle . the extrusion and incubation of eggs took place at the same conditions . larval rearing of one hatch was carried out at identical conditions of temperature and light , but at a salinity of 25 . the larvae were fed freshly hatched nauplii of artemia sp . ( great salt lake ) . water and food were changed daily . exuviae and specimens of each developmental stage were preserved in 70 % alcohol . first zoeal stages from three additional females were obtained in regensburg and barcelona ( spain ) for comparative purposes .\na wild binocular microscope , equipped with an ocular micrometer , was used for the dissection and measurements of individuals ( 10 individuals of each hatch and larval stage were measured ) . an olympus microscope was used for the determination of the setal formula and measurements of the appendages . the following measurements were taken : total length ( tl ) as the distance between the tips of the dorsal and rostral spines ; carapace length ( cl ) from the base of the rostral spine to the posterolateral carapace margin ; antennal exopod length ( el ) from the base of the antennal exopod to the distal margin ( without setae ) ; protopodal process length ( pl ) from the base of the antennal exopod to the tip of the protopodal process ; furcal length ( fl ) from an imaginary line across the base of the outer seta on the posterior margin of the telson to the furcal tip ; and basal telson length ( bt ) , from a line across the anterior margin to the posterior margin of the telson ( base of the outer seta ) . the proportions of the zoeal measurements el , pl , fl and bt were shown to be useful for separating species and genera of the sesarmidae ( cuesta , 1999 ) . for the megalopa , cl was measured as the distance from the frontal margin to the posterior margin of the carapace ; carapace width ( cw ) as the greatest distance across the carapace .\nall drawings were made with the aid of a camera lucida and microscope photography . the number of individuals of each larval stage examined to describe the morphology varied between 5 and 10 . the long aesthetascs of the antennules and the long plumose setae on the distal exopod of the maxillipeds and pleopods are not fully illustrated and are drawn truncated , instead . larval descriptions followed the basic malacostracan body pattern , and setal armature on appendages is described from proximal to distal segments and from endopod to exopod ( clark et al . , 1998 ) .\nsamples of all larval stages were deposited in the biological collections of reference of the institut de ci\u00e8ncies del mar ( csic ) in barcelona , under the catalogue numbers icmd 52 - 56 / 2004 .\nthe larval development of p . fasciatum was found to consist of four zoeal stages and one megalopa . the development through the zoea i stage lasted on average 4 . 6 \u00b1 1 . 2 d , the zoea ii stage took 3 . 7 \u00b1 0 . 7 d , the zoea iii 3 . 4 \u00b1 0 . 5 d , the zoea iv 4 . 7 \u00b1 0 . 5 and the megalopa 8 . 0 \u00b1 0 . 7 d ( values are mean \u00b1 sd ; initial n = 100 ) . total larval development from hatching to metamorphosis lasted 23 . 9 \u00b1 1 . 2 d . the comparison of zoeae i from four different hatches allowed to determine morphological and morphometric homogeneity ( i . e . no significant differences ) . the first zoeal stage is described in detail , while in subsequent stages only differences and changes are described .\nglobose , smooth and without tubercles . dorsal spine present , well developed and strongly curved posteriorly with sparsely minute protuberances . rostral spine present , straight and similar in length to spinous process of the antenna . lateral spines absent . pair of setae on the posterodorsal and anterodorsal regions . posterior and ventral margin without setae . eyes sessile .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . total animal , lateral view . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea ii ; ( c ) zoea iii ; ( d ) zoea iv . ( a 1 ) detail of the dorsal spine . scale bars = 0 . 15 mm .\nuniramous . endopod absent . exopod unsegmented with three terminal aesthetascs and two terminal seta .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . antennule . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea ii ; ( c ) zoea iv ; ( d ) megalopa ; ( e ) first crab . scale bars = 0 . 05 mm .\nsimilar in size to rostral spine . protopodal process with one row of 12\u201315 spines of different size . exopod elongated , with two terminal simple setae ( one long and one medium - sized ) and two minute spines . pl / el = 2 . 35\u20132 . 40 .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . antenna . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea ii ; ( c ) zoea iii ; ( d ) zoea iv ; ( e ) megalopa ; ( f ) first crab . ( e 1 ) modified basal segment ; ( e 2 ) modified basal segment . mandible . ( g ) zoea i ; ( h ) zoea iv ; ( i ) megalopa . scale bars = 0 . 05 mm .\nexopod and epipod seta absent . coxal endite with six setae . basial endite with five setae and with two teeth . endopod two - segmented , with one seta on the proximal segment and one subterminal seta and four terminal setae on the distal segment .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . maxillule . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea ii ; ( c ) zoea iii ; ( d ) zoea iv . scale bars = 0 . 05 mm .\ncoxal endite bilobed , with 5 + 3 setae , distal lobe terminates in a spine . basial endite bilobed with 5 + 4 setae . endopod unsegmented , bilobed , with 2 + 3 long setae on the proximal and distal lobe respectively . scaphognathite ( exopod ) with four plumose marginal setae and long setose posterior process .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . maxilla . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea ii ; ( c ) zoea iii ; ( d ) zoea iv . ( a 1 ) detail of the distal lobe of the coxal endite . scale bars = 0 . 05 mm .\ncoxa with one seta . basis with 10 medial setae arranged 2 , 2 , 3 , 3 on the inner side , and a mat of long dorsobasal microtrichiae on the outer side . endopod five - segmented , with 2 , 2 , 1 , 2 , 5 ( one subterminal and four terminal ) . exopod two - segmented ( incipient ) ; distal segment with four long plumose natatory setae .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . first maxilliped . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea iii , endopod ; ( c ) zoea iv , endopod ; ( d ) megalopa ; ( e ) first crab . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .\ncoxa without setae . basis with four medial setae arranged 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 . endopod three - segmented , with 0 , 1 , 6 setae . exopod two - segmented ( incipient ) ; distal segment with four long plumose natatory setae .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . second maxilliped . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea iv ; ( c ) megalopa ; ( d ) first crab . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .\nfive somites . somites 2 and 3 with pairs of dorsolateral processes . somites 3\u20135 with posterolateral processes . somites 2\u20135 with pairs of posterodorsal setae .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . abdomen , dorsal view . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea ii ; ( c ) zoea iii ; ( d ) zoea iv ; ( e ) megalopa ; ( f ) first crab . ( a 1 ) detail of the furca ; ( e 1 ) modified telson ; ( e 2 ) modified telson . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . abdomen , lateral view . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea ii ; ( c ) zoea iii ; ( d ) zoea iv . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .\nlateral and dorsal medial spines absent . furca large , slightly divergent with three pairs of serrate setae on the posterior margin . two rows of arrow - shaped small spines on the margins of furcal arms . fl / bt \u2264 2 ( 1 . 8\u20132 . 0 ) .\ntwo pairs of anterodorsal setae . each lateroventral margin with two setae . eyes stalked .\nscaphognathite with eight ( 3 + 5 ) plumose marginal setae , without long setose posterior process present in zoea 1 .\nbasis without a mat of long dorsobasal microtrichiae . exopod distal segment with six long plumose natatory setae .\nsegments 2 and 3 of endopod with additional setae ( 2 , 2 + 1 , 2 , 2 , 1 + 4 ) . exopod distal segment with eight long plumose natatory setae .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . pereiopods 1\u20135 . ( a ) zoea iii ; ( b ) zoea iv . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .\nprotopodal process with one row of 15\u201319 spines of different size . exopod with two terminal setae ( one long and one medium - sized ) . endopod segmented , slightly more than half the length of spinous process . pl / el = 2 . 0\u20132 . 1 .\ncoxal endite bilobed , with 6 + 4 setae . basial endite bilobed with 6 + 5 setae . scaphognathite with 20 plumose marginal setae .\nfifth segment of endopod with an additional subterminal seta ( 2 + 4 ) . exopod distal segment with nine long plumose natatory setae .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . third maxilliped . ( a ) zoea iv ; ( b ) megalopa ; ( c ) first crab . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .\nlonger than broad . with two lateral and longitudinal carinae . rostrum ventrally deflected with median cleft . setal arrangement as figured .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . ( a ) megalopa , lateral view ; ( b ) megalopa , detail of frontal view of the rostrum ; ( c ) megalopa , dorsal view ; ( d ) first crab , dorsal view . scale bars = 0 . 2 mm .\npeduncle three - segmented , with 2 , 1 , 1 setae respectively . endopod absent . exopod three - segmented , with 0 , 4 and 3 aesthetascs , respectively , and 0 , 1 , 2 setae .\npeduncle three - segmented , with 0 , 1 , 1 setae respectively . in several cases , exopod and spinous process present in different degrees of development . flagellum six - segmented , with 0 , 2 , 0 , 5 , 0 , 3 setae respectively .\ncoxal endite with 10 setae . basial endite with 17 ( 15 + 2 ) \u221218 ( 16 + 2 ) setae . endopod two - segmented , proximal segment with two setae , distal segment with three setae . two setae on the outer propodal margin .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . maxillule . ( a ) megalopa ; ( b ) first crab . scale bars = 0 . 05 mm .\ncoxal endite bilobed , with always 8 + 4 setae . basial endite bilobed with 8\u20139 + 6\u20137 setae . endopod unsegmented , with variable setation ( 2 + 3 , 1 + 3 , 2 + 2 , 0 + 0 setae ) . scaphognathite with 29\u201333 plumose marginal setae and two anterior setae and one posterolateral seta .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . maxilla . ( a ) megalopa ; ( b ) first crab . ( a 1 ) modified endopod . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .\nepipod with four long setae . coxal endite with seven to eight setae . basial endite with 10\u201311 setae . endopod very variable and different degrees of reduction with zero to nine setae ( 0 , 3 , 4 , 9 setae ) . exopod two - segmented , proximal segment with three distal setae , distal segment with five long terminal plumose setae .\nepipod rudimentary . coxa and basis not differentiated , with three to four setae . endopod four - segmented , with 0 , 1 , 4 , 7 setae respectively . exopod two - segmented , proximal segment with one medial seta , distal segment with seven terminal plumose setae .\nepipod elongated with 12 long setae . coxa and basis not differentiated with nine setae . endopod five - segmented , ischium , merus , carpus , propodus and dactylus with 8\u20139 , 7 , 3 , 3\u20134 , 4 setae respectively . exopod two - segmented , proximal segment without seta and distal segment with three long terminal plumose setae and one simple seta .\nall segments well differentiated , chelipeds and pereiopods 2\u20134 without spines . dactylus of fifth pereiopod with three long terminal setae and one short terminal spine . setal arrangement as figured .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . pereiopods 1\u20135 . ( a \u2013 e ) megalopa ; ( f \u2013 j ) first crab . ( e 1 ) detail of the distal part of dactyl of the fifth pereiopod ; ( j 1 ) detail of the distal part of dactyl of the fifth pereiopod . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .\nsomites 2\u20135 each with pairs of biramous pleopods , endopod unsegmented , with two terminal hooks ; exopod unsegmented with 13 , 13 , 13 , 10 long marginal plumose natatory setae respectively .\nperisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . ( a ) megalopa , pleopod 1 ; ( b ) megalopa , pleopod 4 ; ( c ) megalopa , uropod ; ( d ) carapace of crabs 1\u20133 . scale bars of a and b , 0 . 1 mm ; scale bar of d , 0 . 5 mm .\nuropods two - segmented on somite 6 , proximal segment with one and distal segment with five long plumose setae respectively .\nsquare - shaped , setation as figured . in two examined individuals , telson with two to three pairs of long setae and furcal branches present in two different degrees of development ( fig . 14 e 1 and e 2 ) .\nlonger than broad . frontal region broad , measuring one half of carapace width . anterolateral margins with three teeth , first largest and third smallest . setal arrangement as figured .\npeduncle three - segmented , with 5 , 1 , 1 setae respectively . endopod absent . exopod three - segmented , with 0 , 0 and 2 aesthetascs , respectively , and 0 , 0 , 2 setae .\npeduncle four - segmented , with 1\u20132 , 1 , 1 , 1 setae respectively . flagellum five - segmented , with 0 , 2 , 0 , 4\u20135 , 3 setae respectively .\ncoxal endite with 11 setae . basial endite with 19 setae . endopod two - segmented , proximal segment with two setae , distal segment with three setae .\ncoxal endite bilobed with 7 + 1 seta . basial endite bilobed with 6\u20137 + 6 setae . endopod unsegmented , without setae . scaphognathite with 34\u201336 plumose marginal setae and eight lateral setae .\nepipod with 6\u20137 long setae . coxal endite with 10 setae . basial endite with 11\u201312 setae . endopod with six setae . exopod two - segmented , proximal segment with one distal seta , distal segment with four long terminal plumose setae .\ncoxa and basis undifferentiated , with 1\u20132 setae . endopod four - segmented with 0\u20132 , 1 , 4\u20135 , 7 setae respectively . exopod three - segmented , proximal segment with five setae , second segment without setae and distal segment with five terminal plumose setae .\nepipod elongated with 20 long setae . coxa and basis undifferentiated with 14 setae . endopod five - segmented with 14 , 8 , 4 , 4\u20135 , 4 setae respectively . exopod two - segmented , proximal segment with seven setae and distal segment with four long terminal plumose setae .\nsetation as figured . propodus of pereiopods 2\u20135 with one long seta . dactylus of fifth pereiopod with one long terminal plumose seta .\nsecond to fourth crab stages are similar in morphology to the first stage , differing only in size ( fig . 16 d ) and in most of the setal counts .\noverall , the zoeal morphology of p . fasciatum is similar to that known of other sesarmid species . it conforms very closely to the characteristic listed by rice ( rice , 1980 ) and cuesta ( cuesta , 1999 ) for sesarmid larvae : ( 1 ) carapace without lateral spines ; ( 2 ) a 2 , 3 setation of the maxillar endopod ; ( 3 ) a 2 , 2 , 3 , 3 setation of the first maxilliped basis ; ( 4 ) a 0 , 1 , 6 setation of the second maxilliped endopod ; and ( 5 ) an abdomen with dorsolateral processes in somites 2 and 3 .\nlikewise , the morphology of the megalopal stage is similar to that known from the other species of the family sesarmidae ( cuesta , 1999 ) : ( 1 ) antennule without endopod ; ( 2 ) an antennular flagellum with 5\u20136 segments ; ( 3 ) a 0 , 4 mandibular palp setation ; ( 4 ) scaphognathite with 25\u201350 marginal plumose setae ; ( 5 ) endopod of the pleopods with two terminal hooks and exopod with seven and 14 plumose setae ; ( 6 ) propodus of the uropod with one seta and exopod with \u22647 setae .\nfor a species\u2013specific identification , there is one very useful characteristic by which megalopae of p . fasciatum can be distinguished from those of all other so - far described sesarmid megalopae : the presence of only five setae on the exopod of the uropod ( table ii ) . this is a useful characteristic , since these setae can be observed and counted easily with a microscope and since the uropod setation normally is characterized by low intraspecific variability ( cuesta , 1999 ) .\nsome megalopal features described in the present study for p . fasciatum appear to represent remnants of zoeal morphology : ( 1 ) the first segment of the antennular peduncle with a rudimentary exopod and / or spinous process in different stages of reduction ; ( 2 ) the bilobed endopod of the maxilla with a similar setation as in the zoeal stages ( 2 + 3 , 1 + 3 , 1 + 2 ) ; ( 3 ) the telson with a rudimentary furca and / or with three pairs of serrulate setae on the posterior margin in different stages of reduction . these features have been observed in only some of the studied individuals . similar traits were also found in the megalopae of other grapsoid species : aratus pisonii ( warner , 1968 ) , sesarma reticulatum ( costlow and bookhout , 1962 ) , p . plicatum ( selvakumar , 1999 ) , p . erythrodactyla ( greenwood and fielder , 1988 ) and armases angustipes ( cuesta and anger , 2001 ) . cuesta and anger ( 2001 ) suggested that retainment of zoeal characteristics in the megalopa could be due to unfavourable conditions during larval culturing . however , this still remains to be tested .\nknowledge of the first juvenile of sesarmid crabs is very limited . the first crab stage was previously only described for p . bidens ( fukuda and baba , 1976 ) . the overall morphology of p . fasciatum and p . bidens is very similar , and some morphometric and meristic features are summarized in table iii .\nthis study confirms that there is a useful set of morphological characteristics that allows to distinguish larvae of the crab family sesarmidae sensu ( schubart et al . , 2002 ) from all other decapod larvae , and these characteristics are shared by the asian mangrove crab p . fasciatum , as described here . however , for the identification of larval stages from the plankton at a genus and species level , descriptions of many more larvae of sesarmid crabs will be necessary and taxonomic revisions of the genera currently comprised within this family will need to be continued .\n( crustacea : decapoda : grapsidae ) in america , with the description of a new genus .\n, calazans , d . k . and pohle , g . w . (\n) morfolog\u00eda larval de la familia grapsidae ( crustacea , decapoda , brachyura ) . phd thesis . universidad de sevilla , sevilla , spain .\ndana ( crustacea : brachyura : sesarminae ) with descriptions of three new species .\nser\u00e8ne and soh ( crustacea : brachyura : sesarminae ) with description of two new species .\nh . milne edwards ( brachyura , grapsidae ) reared under similar laboratory conditions .\nde man in relation to leaf - litter production in mgazana , a warm temperate southern african mangrove swamp .\n) first zoeal stages of grapsoid crabs ( crustacea : brachyura ) from the east african coast .\n, vannini , m . , cannicci , s . and schubart , c . d . ( 2004 ) tree - climbing mangrove crabs , a case of convergent evolution .\n( de haan , 1853 ) in the laboratory ( brachyura : grapsidae : sesarminae ) .\n) on a collection of crustaceans made at singapore and malacca . part i . brachyura .\n( l . ) druce ) leaf litter turnover in a hong kong tidal shrimp pond .\n) the ecology and physiology of decapods of mangrove swamps . in fincham , a . a . and rainbow , p . s . ( eds ) ,\n. symposia of the zoological society of london 59 . clarendon press , oxford , pp .\n) bericht \u00fcber die von herrn schiffscapit\u00e4n storm zu atjeh , an den westlichen k\u00fcsten von malakka , borneo und celebes sowie in der java - see gesammelten decapoden und stomatopoden .\nh . milne edwards , 1853 ( crustacea : decapoda : brachyura : sesarmidae ) .\nde haan , 1853 ( brachyura : grapsidae ) . in palanichamy , s . ( ed . ) ,\na . milne edwards ( decapoda : brachyura : grapsidae ) reared in the laboratory , with comments on larval generic and familial characters .\nspecies from panama , with identification keys and remarks on the american sesarminae ( crustacea : brachyura : grapsidae ) .\n, cuesta , j . a . and felder , d . l . (\n) glyptograpsidae , a new brachyuran family from central america : larval and adult morphology , and a molecular phylogeny of the grapsoidea .\n, liu , h . - c . and cuesta , j . a . (\n, a new genus and new species of tree - climbing crab ( crustacea : brachyura : sesarmidae ) from taiwan with notes on its ecology and larval morphology .\n( latreille , 1806 ) ( decapoda : brachyura : grapsidae ) reared in the laboratory .\n) on a collection of sesarmine crabs ( decapoda , brachyura , grapsidae ) from hong kong .\n) comparison of the larval developments of nine crabs belonging to the subfamily sesarminae .\n) on the crabs of the family grapsidae in the collection of the raffles museum .\n( h . milne - edwards ) reared in the laboratory ( brachyura , grapsidae ) .\n1 departament de biologia animal ( artr\u00f2podes ) , facultat de biologia ( u . b . ) , av . diagonal 645 , 08028 barcelona , spain , 2 alfred - wegener - institut f\u00fcr polar - und meeresforschung , biologische anstalt helgoland , meeresstation , 27498 helgoland , germany and 3 biologie 1 : zoologie , universit\u00e4t regensburg , 93040 regensburg , germany\njournal of plankton research vol . 26 no . 12 \u00a9 oxford university press 2004 ; all rights reserved\noxford university press is a department of the university of oxford . it furthers the university ' s objective of excellence in research , scholarship , and education by publishing worldwide\nfor full access to this pdf , sign in to an existing account , or purchase an annual subscription .\nzone : rhizophora mucronata and bruguiera gymnorrhiza forests - very common in dabasso kenya ( mida creek ) .\nhabitat : climbs on rhizophora mucronata and bruguiera gymnorrhiza trees ; strictly mangrove dependent .\nfood : consumes fresh leaves from the tree . usually found on rhizophora mucronata ( vannini and ruwa , 1994 ) , but a preliminary experiment hints that they prefer bruguiera gymnorrhiza leaves ( gillikin , 2000 ) . also eats algae , mollusks , insects and annelids ( dahdouh - guebas et al . , 1999 ) .\ndistinguishing characteristics : found climbing trunks of trees to canopy ; propodus three times longer than dactylus , carpace width ~ 2 cm .\ngeographical range : east africa , including mozambique and south africa ( emmerson et al . , 2003 ) .\ncannicci , s . , f . dahdouh - guebas and l . montemagno , 1993 . field keys for kenyan mangrove crabs . museo zoologico\nla specola\n, dipartimento di biologia animale e genetica dell ' universit\u00e0 degli studi di firenze , via romana 17 , i - 50125 firenze , italia .\ndahdouh - guebas , f . , m . giuggioli , a . oluoch , m . vannini & s . cannicci , 1999 . feeding habits of non - ocypodid crabs from two mangrove forests in kenya . bull . mar . sci . 64 ( 2 ) : 291 - 297 .\ngillikin , d . p . , 2000 . factors controlling the distribution of kenyan brachyuran mangrove crabs : salinity tolerance and ecophysiology of two kenyan neosarmatium species . m . sc . thesis , free university of brussels , brussels , belgium .\nhartnoll , r . g . , 1988 . evolution , systematics , and geographical distribution . in : w . w . burggren and b . r . mcmahon ( eds . ) biology of the land crabs cambridge university press . cambridge , uk . pp 6 - 54 .\nvannini , m . , a . oluoch and r . k . ruwa , 1997 . tree - climbing decapods of kenyan mangroves . in kjerfve , bj\u00f6rn , luiz drude de lacerdaand el hadji salif diop ( eds . ) . mangrove ecosystem studies in latin america and africa . unesco technical papers in marine science , paris , france : 325 - 338 .\nruwa , r . k . ( 1989 ) . macrofaunal composition and zonation on sandy beaches at gazi , kanamai and malindi bay , kenya . kenya journal of sciences ( series b ) 10 ( 1 - 2 ) : 31 - 45 [ details ]\nhartnoll , r . g . ( 1975 ) . the grapsidae and ocypodidae ( decapoda : brachyura ) of tanzania . j . zool . london 177 , 305 - 328 [ details ]\nthis research was funded by a national research foundation ( nrf ) natural resources , utilisation , ecology and management grant ( gun number 2050973 ) . the assistance of tshawe makanandana , mzo nkaitshana and sintu hola in the field and for collecting additional soil and leaf samples for analysis is greatly appreciated . this paper is for thandi my post - graduate student , friend and colleague who died tragically in october 2003 .\n) on the coastlines of kuwait . wetlands ecol manage 9 ( 5 ) : 421\u2013428\nallen ja , ewel kc , jack j ( 2001 ) patterns of natural and anthropogenic disturbance of the mangroves on the pacific island of kosrae . wetlands ecol manage 9 ( 3 ) : 291\u2013301\naraujo dsd , maciel nc ( 1979 ) os manguezais do reconcavo da baia de guanabara . serie tecnica 10 / 79 , decam\u2013depol , feema , rio de janeiro , 113 pp\nbranch gm , grindley jr ( 1979 ) ecology of southern african estuaries . part xi . mngazana : a mangrove estuary in transkei . s afr j zool 14 : 149\u2013170\n( decapoda ; oziidae ) , an ambush predator among the mangroves . j crustacean biol 18 : 57\u201363\n( decapoda , grapsidae ) in a sub - tropical estuary . interciencia 25 : 151\u2013158\ndahdouh - guebas f , verneirt m , cannicci s , kairo jg , tack jf , koedam n ( 2002 ) an exploratory study on grapsid crab zonation in kenyan mangroves . wetlands ecol manage 10 ( 3 ) : 179\u2013187\ndavie pjf ( 2002 ) crustacea : malacostraca : eucarida ( part 2 ) : decapoda - anomura , brachyura . in : wells a , houston wwk ( eds ) zoological catalogue of australia 193b . csiro publishing , melbourne australia , pp 641\nde boer wf ( 2002 ) the rise and fall of the mangrove forests in maputo bay , mozambique . wetlands ecol manage 10 ( 4 ) : 313\u2013322\n( brachyura , grapsidae ) in a marine environment . bull mar sci 45 : 148\u2013163\nfrom the subtropical / warm temperate transkei coast , eastern cape , south africa . fifth international crustacean congress , melbourne , australia 9\u201313 july 2001 ( abstract )\nemmerson wd ( 2005 ) the nutrient status of mngazana , a warm temperate mangrove estuary in the transkei , eastern cape , south africa . wetlands ecol manage 13 : 405\u2013418\ndeman in relation to leaf - litter production in mngazana , a mangrove estuary in transkei , southern africa . j exp mar biol ecol 157 : 41\u201353\n( hilgendorf , 1869 ) ( crustacea : decapoda : brachyura : sesarmidae ) from mangroves in mozambique and south africa . afr zool 38 : 351\u2013355\nerikson aa , saltis m , bell ss , dawes cj ( 2003 ) herbivore feeding preferences as measured by leaf damage and stomatal ingestion : a mangrove crab example . j exp mar biol ecol 289 : 123\u2013138\nfaraco lfd , da cunha lana p ( 2004 ) leaf - consumption levels in subtropical mangroves of paranagua bay ( se brazil ) . wetlands ecol manage 12 ( 2 ) : 115\u2013122\nfarnsworth ej , ellison am ( 1991 ) patterns of herbivory in belizean mangrove swamps . biotropica 23 : 555\u2013567\nford r ( 2003 ) mngazana social and natural resource utilisation survey . institute of natural resources report , 20 pp\nglaser m ( 2003 ) . interrelations between mangrove ecosystem , local economy and social sustainability in caete estuary , north brazil . wetlands ecol manage 11 ( 4 ) : 265\u2013272\ngrasshoff k , kremling k , ehrhardt m ( 1999 ) methods of seawater analysis , 3rd edn . vch publishers , 600 pp\njin - eong o ( 1995 ) the ecology of mangrove conservation and management . hydrobiologia 295 : 343\u2013341\nmacintosh dj , ashton ec , havanon s ( 2002 ) mangrove rehabilitation and intertidal biodiversity : a study in the ranong mangrove ecosystem , thailand . estuar coast shelf sci 55 : 331\u2013345\nmaclvor cc , smith tj ( 1995 ) differences in the crab fauna of mangrove areas at a southwest florida and a northeast australia location : implications for leaf litter processing . estuaries 18 : 591\u2013597\nmendes m , berger u , worbes m ( 2003 ) annual growth rings and long - term growth patterns of mangrove trees from the braganca peninsula , north brazil . wetlands ecol manage 11 ( 4 ) : 233\u2013242\nodum we , heald e ( 1975 ) the detritus - based food web of an estuarine mangrove community . in : cronin le ( ed ) estuarine research , vol 1 . academic press , new york , usa , pp 264\u2013286\nomodei zorini l , conti c , jiddawi n , ochiewo j , shunula j , cannicci s ( 2004 ) participatory appraisal for potential community - based mangrove management in east africa . wetlands ecol manage 12 ( 2 ) : 87\u2013102\nonuf cp , tel jm , valiela i ( 1977 ) interactions of nutrients , plant growth and herbivory in a mangrove ecosystem . ecology 58 : 514\u2013526\nquinn gp , keough mj ( 2002 ) experimental design and data analysis for biologists . cambridge university press , cambridge uk , pp 537\nrajkaran a , adams jb , dayimani v ( 2003 ) the effect of harvesting on the mangroves in the mngazana estuary . joint conference of the sasaqs and zssa , university of cape town , south africa , 30 june\u20134 july 2003 ( abstract )\nrasolofo mv ( 1997 ) use of mangroves by traditional fishermen in madagascar . mangroves salt marsh 1 : 243\u2013253\nrobertson ai , duke nc ( 1987 ) insect herbivory on mangrove leaves in north queensland . aust j ecol 12 : 1\u20137\nschories d , bergan ab , barletta m , krumme u , mehlig u , rademaker v ( 2003 ) the keystone role of leaf - removing crabs in mangrove forests of north brazil . wetlands ecol manage 11 ( 4 ) : 243\u2013255\nsivasothi n ( 2000 ) . niche preferences of tree - climbing crabs in singapore mangroves . crustaceana 73 : 25\u201338\nsivasothi n , murphy dh , ng pkl ( 1993 ) tree climbing and herbivory of crabs in the singapore mangroves . in : sasekumar a ( ed ) mangrove fisheries and connections . proceedings of the asean\u2013australian marine science project : living coastal resources workshop , malaysia , pp 220\u2013237\nsmith tj , boto kg , frusher sd , giddins rl ( 1991 ) keystone species and mangrove forest dynamics : the influence of burrowing by crabs on soil nutrient status and forest productivity . estuar coast shelf sci 33 : 419\u2013432\nsteinke td ( 1999 ) mangroves in south african estuaries . in : allanson ba , baird d ( eds ) estuaries of south africa . cambridge university press , cambridge , uk , pp 110\u2013440\nstoll - kleemaan s ( 2004 ) the rationale of socio - economic research for the successful protection of wetlands : the example of participatory management approaches . hydrobiologia 527 : 15\u201317\nturpie j , adams jb , joubert a , harrison td , collotty bm , maree ak , whitfield ak , wooldridge th , lamberth sj , taljaard s , van niekerk l ( 2002 ) assessment of the conservation priority status of south african estuaries for use in management and water allocation . water sa 28 : 191\u2013206\nunderwood aj ( 1997 ) experiments in ecology , their logical design and interpretation using analysis of variance . cambridge university press , cambridge , uk , pp 504\nhilgendorf ( decapoda , grapsidae ) . j exp mar biol ecol 185 : 181\u2013189\nward cj , steinke td ( 1982 ) a note on the distribution and approximate areas of mangroves in south africa . s afr j bot 1 : 51\u201353\nemmerson , w . d . & ndenze , t . t . wetlands ecol manage ( 2007 ) 15 : 13 . urltoken\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ndatabase contains : 10 . 643 species ( 763 with photo ) , 1 . 682 genera , 124 families\nella mai \u2013 boo ' d up ( remix ) ft . nicki minaj & quavo"]}
{"id": 2322, "summary": [{"text": "the black drongo ( dicrurus macrocercus ) is a small asian passerine bird of the drongo family dicruridae .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is a common resident breeder in much of tropical southern asia from southwest iran through india and sri lanka east to southern china and indonesia .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it is a wholly black bird with a distinctive forked tail and measures 28 cm ( 11 in ) in length .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it feeds on insects , and is common in open agricultural areas and light forest throughout its range , perching conspicuously on a bare perch or along power or telephone lines .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the species is known for its aggressive behaviour towards much larger birds , such as crows , never hesitating to dive-bomb any bird of prey that invades its territory .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "this behaviour earns it the informal name of king crow .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "smaller birds often nest in the well-guarded vicinity of a nesting black drongo .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "previously grouped along with the african fork-tailed drongo ( dicrurus adsimilis ) , the asian forms are now treated as a separate species with several distinct populations .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the black drongo has been introduced to some pacific islands , where it has thrived and become abundant to the point of threatening and causing the extinction of native and endemic bird species there . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "black drongo", "paragraphs": ["local name of black drongo ( dicrurus macrocercus ) is bhujanga . classification of black drongo ( dicrurus macrocercus ) . habit and habitat of black drongo ( dicrurus macrocercus ) .\nblack drongo ( dicrurus macrocercus ) complete detail \u2013 updated . description of black drongo ( dicrurus macrocercus ) . habit and habitat of\n\u608d\u5c07 \u5927\u6372\u5c3e ( \u70cf\u9d96 ) \u51fa\u751f black drongo birthday 2015 . 7 . 8 - 9\nblack drongo ( dicrurus macrocercus ) is a species of bird in the dicruridae family .\nthe black drongo is a common sight across the country . photo courtsey : raju kasambe\nblack drongo - parent fed immature and both started calling after the latter flew to a different perch .\nenglish : papuan drongo ; french : drongo papou ; german : rundschwanzdrongo ; spanish : drogo pap\u00faa .\nblack drongo is a beautiful indian bird . it is a wholly black bird with a distinctive forked tail . size of black drongo is between 22 cm to 30 cm including the tail . the weight of adult is between 40 g . to 80 g .\nthe white - breasted kingfisher , indian roller , common myna and black drongo fed predominantly at 0 - 3m .\nthe black drongo is discerned from the ashy drongo ( dicrurus leucophaeus ) by its shiny blue - black throat and breast , which merge into black on the remainder of the underparts . it is separated from the white - bellied drongo ( dicrurus caerulescens ) by its black belly , flanks , and undertail - coverts . the black drongo could be confused with the crow - billed drongo ( dicrurus annectans ) , except that the latter has a shorter and less deeply forked tail and a heavier bill than the former . additionally , crow - billed drongos occur in dense forest whereas black drongos reside in more open country . the black drongo could also be confused with an adult drongo cuckoo ( surniculus lugubris ) , the habitat for which can overlap that of the black drongo . however , the cuckoo has a fine , down - curved black bill , a slightly indented square ended tail , and a clean black belly and vent with white - barring on the under - tail coverts and on the underside of the shorter , outer - tail feathers .\nserrao js , 1971 . black drongo dicrurus adsimilis fishing . newsletter for birdwatchers , 11 ( 7 ) . 10 .\nnext , the researchers played recorded drongo calls for captive southern pied babblers ( turdoides bicolor ) , white - and - brown birds frequently targeted by drongo deception . two calls were drongo calls ; one was a drongo mimicking a pied babbler alarm call , and one was a drongo mimicking a starling alarm call .\nsharma sk , 1991 . nocturnal feeding by black drongo . newsletter for birdwatchers , 31 ( 3 , 4 ) . 8 .\n\u201cwhile exploring the countryside in thailand in october 2012 , the black drongo ( dicrurus macrocercus ) was frequently encountered ( above ) .\ndiet : black drongo feeds mainly on insects such as ants and termites , locusts and crickets , beetles , bees , moths and butterflies . it also consumes small reptiles , birds and bats . black drongo feeds on flower nectar too , playing an important role in plant pollination .\nenglish : large racket - tailed drongo ; french : drongo \u00e0 raquettes ; german : flaggendrongo ; spanish : drogo de cola raqueta grande .\nactually , possible attack from above , from below , from the right , from the left , and especially from the rear . it\u2019s a bird ; it\u2019s a plane\u2013 no ! it\u2019s the black drongo ! the black drongo is a large , loud , black bird that has absolutely no fear of humans . this flying object is exclusive to the marianas islands . it has some distinct characteristics ; such as a shiny black coat with a long split \u201cv\u201d shaped tail . the black drongo , also known as the king crow , rocks and rules on the marianas !\nrange : black drongo is resident in southern asia , from sw iran , through india and sri lanka , east to southern china and indonesia .\nflight : black drongo performs agile , acrobatic evolutions and buoyant flights when it pursues a flying prey . usually , it has an undulating flight .\nconcluded that the black drongo served as little direct competition for any native species of birds on guam because of the drongos choice of foraging habitat .\none of my favourite birds to see when out walking in the bush is a rather conspicuous little black bird called the fork - tailed drongo .\nchange the english name for calyptorhynchus latirostris from \u201cslender - billed black - cockatoo\u201d to carnaby\u2019s black - cockatoo\u201d , following christidis and boles ( 2008 ) .\nchange the english name for calyptorhynchus baudinii from \u201cwhite - tailed black - cockatoo\u201d to \u201cbaudin\u2019s black - cockatoo\u201d , following christidis and boles ( 2008 ) .\nblack drongo breeds from february to august , earlier or later according to the place . female lays 2 to 5 white , pinkish or creamy eggs , spotted with reddish - brown . incubation lasts about two weeks . both parents share domestic duties and protect the nest . black drongo\u2019s nest is often parasitized by cuckoos .\nmaben af , 1982 . the feeding ecology of the black drongo ( dicrurus macrocercus ) on guam . long beach , california , usa : california state university .\nblack drongo has glossy blue - black or green - black plumage , with semi - translucent primaries visible in flight . adults usually have a small white spot at the base of the gape and the iris is dark brown in color . the tail is long and deeply forked , and curves out at the end of outer tail feathers . head is black , with only very small white patch at bill\u2019s commissures . bill is black . eyes are reddish . legs and feet are dark grey .\nthe native range of the black drongo includes afghanistan , india and sri lanka , to southeast asia , southern and eastern china , taiwan , malaysia , java and bali .\ndecandido r , nualsri c , allen d , 2004 . migration of black drongo dicrurus macrocercus in southern thailand in autumn 2003 . forktail , 20 : 143 - 144 .\nthere is a lot to love about the spangled drongo . for starters the name .\nus fish and wildlife service ( 2005 ; 2007 ) states the need for research pertaining to the following on rota : assessing the impact of black drongos upon both mariana crows and rota white - eyes ; evaluation and development of black drongo control techniques ; evaluation of the expected costs , benefits , and results of black drongo control ; and testing the effectiveness of habitat restoration that benefits the crow and white - eye but not the black drongo . the us fish and wildlife service ( 2005 ; 2007 ) suggests that such research is needed to determine if drongo control on rota is warranted and if it should be a priority , based upon other conservation needs of both the mariana crow and the rota white - eye .\nprotection / threats / status : black drongo populations are not threatened . this species is beneficial to agriculture , because it destroys large variety of insects which are pests for cultivated areas .\nthe white - breasted kingfisher , small bee - eater , indian roller and black drongo in our study typically perched at the height category of 6 - 9m to scan an area .\na rare seen bird . . . . . . . . greater racket - tailed drongo\nfork - tailed drongo - cuckoo ( surniculus dicruroides , with subspecies dicruroides and stewarti ) .\nfrench : drongo de ludwig ; german : geradschwanzdrongo ; spanish : drogo de cola cuadrada .\nsavannas , fields , and urban habitats outside forest , in more open environments than occupied by other drongos ; over much of its range the black drongo has become a commensal of man .\n: the indian roller and black drongo had the highest overlap ( 0 . 99 ) while the lowest overlap was between small bee - eater and common myna ( 0 . 11 ) .\nchange the english name of garrulax cachinnans from \u201crufous - breasted laughingthrush\u201d to \u201cblack - chinned laughingthrush\u201d .\nan african fork - tailed drongo , which can mimic the alarm cries of dozens of species .\nadult has glossy blue - black or green - black plumage , with semi - translucent primaries visible in flight . tail is long and deeply forked , and curves out at the end of outer tail feathers . head is black , with only very small white patch at bill\u2019s commissures . bill is black . eyes are reddish . legs and feet are dark grey . both sexes are similar .\nthe final mystery , of course , is what the birds on the right actually are . unfortunately , i failed to track down the original poster , but as best i can tell they\u2019re black drongo chicks . black drongos are members of the drongo family ( dicruridae ) and are native to southern and eastern asia . here\u2019s another photo i found that looks consistent with the previous one . if any drongo experts read this blog though and want to correct me , i\u2019d love to hear from you !\n: the niche overlap in perching height was highest between white - breasted kingfisher and black drongo ( 0 . 99 ) while the lowest was between indian roller and common myna ( 0 . 19 ) .\nto the unobservant , the black drongo could appear rather unremarkable . apart from the swift , balletic dives that it makes to pursue its prey , nothing about the drongo\u2019s physical appearance \u2014 the small squat body , the glossy black feathers or even the distinctive forked tail \u2014 is spectacular . but to merely glance and then ignore this bird is to lose sight of a bird truly remarkable , fearless and aggressive .\nfrench : drongo de nouvelle - irlande ; german : bandschwanzdrongo ; spanish : drogo de nueva irlanda .\nenglish : king crow ; french : drongo royal ; german : k\u00f6nigsdrongol ; spanish : drogo real .\n\u201cnearby to where i witnessed the black drongos feeding amongst the cattle , other species of drongos were sighted as well , but they never ventured anywhere near the herd . these include the ashy drongo ( dicrurus leucophaeus leucogenis ) ( above ) and the hair - crested drongo ( dicrurus hottentottus ) ( below ) . \u201d\nblack drongo is a beautiful indian bird . it is a wholly black bird with a distinctive forked tail . they are aggressive and fearless in nature . adults usually have a small white spot at the base of the gape and the iris is dark brown in color . the tail is long and deeply forked , and curves out at the end of outer tail feathers . head is black , with only very small white patch at bill\u2019s commissures . bill is black . eyes are reddish . legs and feet are dark grey\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026 . .\nbe careful not to confuse the fork tailed drongo with a similar looking bird , the black flycatcher . the flycatcher has only a slight indentation in the tail compared to distinct fork in the drongo\u2019s tail . drongo has a red - brown eye which shows when it catches the light , while the flycatcher has a dark brown eye . one of the ways to separate them them is whether the bird is bold and noisy , which will be the drongo or relatively quiet and unobtrusive , which is more likely to be the flycatcher .\nthe japanese originally introduced the black drongo to rota in 1935 to serve as a form of biological crop pest control to help increase the productivity of the sugar cane industry on the island . black drongos consume a large number of insect species in india that are considered serious pests of various important agricultural crops , including rice (\nin total , 1194 foraging observations of white - breasted kingfisher , 1052 of small bee - eater , 700 of indian roller , 1277 of common myna and 1186 of black drongo were recorded in the study area .\nthe drongo , seen here in flight , impersonates the calls of other birds in order to steal food .\nour results indicate that the white - breasted kingfisher , indian roller and black drongo foraged exclusively by gleaning , which suggests that these species adopted a foraging technique suitable to capturing slow moving insect prey on herbs and shrubs .\nglossy black with iridescent blue - green spots , red eye and a long forked , \u201cfish - like\u201d tail .\nl . ) : acute bee paralysis virus , black queen cell virus and sacbrood virus . j . invertebr pathol\ndicrurus macrocercus , commonly known as the black drongo , is a medium sized passerine bird native to much of southern asia and parts of indonesia . the species was introduced to rota , northern mariana islands , f . . .\nenglish : king crow ; french : drongo royal ; german : konigs - drongol ; spanish : drogo real .\nthe spangled drongo has glossy black plumage , with iridescent blue - green spots ( spangles ) , a long forked tail and blood red eyes . sexes are similar , but the female is slightly smaller . occasional white spotting can be seen on the upper wings of both sexes . young birds are more sooty black without the spangles and the eye is brown . the spangled drongo is noisy and conspicuous , usually active , and frequently aggressive to other species .\n\u201c drongo \u201d is even better and refers to \u201c 1 any black bird of the family dicruridae , native to india africa and australia , having a long forked tail . \u201d and of course the australian colloquial \u201c 2 a fool ; a simpleton . [ malagasy ; sense 2 probably from drongo an unsuccessful racehorse of the 1920s ] \u201d .\nthe red - eyed , black - feathered fork - tailed drongo is an irrepressible mimic , capable of reproducing the calls of everything from other birds to mongoose - like meerkats . now , a new study finds that these drongo birds are strategic copycats : they\ncry wolf\nabout potential danger , startling other animals and stealing their food .\nhigh niche overlap was recorded between indian roller and black drongo ( perch type , foraging height , foraging substrate and foraging method ) and white - breasted kingfisher and indian roller ( foraging height , foraging substrate and foraging method ) .\nsometimes drongos can deceive their victims by using their drongo alarm call . but after a while , if the drongo has called repeatedly , the targets stop responding . that ' s when the bird tries another tactic : vocal mimicry .\ncorrect the spelling of the name of the subspecies of black - crowned tchagra of northern somalia from wardangliensis to warsangliensis .\nthe highest niche overlap was recorded between indian rollers and black drongos and between white - breasted kingfishers and indian rollers .\nhabitat : black drongo is common in open areas , savannahs and countries . it lives in open forests , habitation , farmlands and slightly wooded habitats , near water . it may be found from sea level to 2000 metres of elevation .\nblack - crested tit ( periparus melanolophus ) is lumped with coal tit ( periparus ater ) , following gill et al . ( 2005 ) , but is retained as a group : coal tit ( black - crested ) periparus ater melanolophus .\nthe white - breasted kingfisher , small - bee - eater , indian roller and black drongo perched predominantly on electric power lines but common myna used mostly ground ( table 1 ) . the perching and foraging heights varied from 0 to 12m .\nin this study the white - breasted kingfisher , indian roller , common myna and black drongo foraged mainly at 0 - 3m above the ground , and the small bee - eater foraged at wide range of heights ( 0 - 12m ) .\nsugarcane , groundnut , green gram , black gram , cotton , etc . are other major crops cultivated in the area .\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto black drongo has powerful and varied calls . they include scrapings and raucous calls , also metallic sounds . call is a harsh , throaty \u201cschweep - schweep\u201d . but we can also hear beautiful and clear whistles .\nthe white - breasted kingfisher , indian roller and black drongo used plants ( herbs , shrubs and trees ) as foraging substrate to find insect prey while small bee - eaters used air and common mynas used ground as substrates ( table 3 ) . foraging by gleaning was relatively higher than other methods in white - breasted kingfisher , indian roller and black drongo . the small bee - eater foraged mainly by aerial feeding and the common myna was shown to use ground feeding ( table 4 ) .\nso the black bird ' s first attempt was unsuccessful . he went back again to have another go at fetching the fire from yummani . so this time the spangled drongo waited for yummani to go to sleep , then he would swoop down and pick up the wood of fire . but just as he was flying away he made a noise and awoke yummani up so yummani whacked the black bird on the tail . that ' s how the spangled drongo got a fork in his tail .\n) . it therefore appears that both meerkats and pied babblers are deceived by drongo - specific and mimicked false alarm calls .\nlusk mr , 1993 . black drongo research . five - year progress report , fiscal year 1988 - 1992 . saipan , commonwealth of the northern mariana islands : division of fish and wildlife , department of lands and natural resources , 371 - 373 .\nthe scientific name for black - headed parrotbill changes from paradoxornis margaritae to psittiparus margaritae , following penhallurick and robson ( 2009 ) .\nthe scientific name for black - throated parrotbill changes from paradoxornis nipalensis to suthora nipalensis , following penhallurick and robson ( 2009 ) .\nthe black drongo appears to have little to no negative economic impact upon agriculture , aquaculture , forestry or horticulture . evidence from india indicates that the species actually has a positive impact upon agriculture by consuming large quantities of insects considered to be serious crop pests (\nali ams , asokan s , manikannan r , nithiyanandam gt , 2010 . nest - site characteristics and breeding biology of the black drongo dicrurus macrocercus in cauvery delta , southern india . world applied sciences journal , 9 ( 11 ) : 1280 - 1285 .\n: the highest overlap was found between white - breasted kingfisher and indian roller and indian roller and black drongo ( 0 . 98 ) while the lowest was found between small bee - eater and common myna ( 0 . 07 ) ( table 5 ) .\nso the drongo really is the bird that cried wolf , but it remains successful by crying wolf in lots of different ways .\nthere are no published data pertaining to predators or natural enemies of the black drongo within its native range . however , given their similar choice of habitat and the drongo\u2019s foraging activities at or shortly after dark , barn owls ( tyto alba ) could opportunistically prey upon them ( sharma , 1991 ; p . radley , commonwealth of the northern mariana islands division of fish and wildlife , saipan , personal observation , 2007 - 2011 ) . brown tree snakes have been documented killing black drongos on guam but the effect of the snake upon drongo populations on the island is unknown ( savidge , 1988 ) . de mello ( 1935 ) identified and described a species of haemoproteus blood parasite for the black drongo ( h . dicruri ) in india but its clinical or physiological effects upon the species are unknown . however , the genus of the parasite is known to be host specific ( savage and greiner , 2005 ) .\nfoundation for ecological security , 2012 . dicrurus macrocercus - vieillot , 1817 ( black drongo ) in deomurari . avis - ibis ( avian information system - indian biodiversity information system ) v . 1 . 0 . gujarat , india : foundation for ecological security . urltoken\nbanks , r . c . 1978 . nomenclature of the black - bellied whistling - duck . auk 95 : 348 - 352 .\nthe black drongo is primarily insectivorous and typically forages from exposed perches in open areas , from where it frequently makes sallies at prey in mid - air or on the ground . it often hunts insects at dusk and where insects are attracted at night to artificial lights (\nworthington dj , taisacan em , 1994 . rota bridled white - eye / black drongo research . annual report , fiscal year 1994 . saipan , commonwealth of the northern mariana islands : division of fish and wildlife , department of lands and natural resources , 17 - 20 .\ncorrect the spelling of the scientific name for black sicklebill from epimachus fastuosus to epimachus fastosus , following david et al . ( 2009 ) .\nfor starlings and meerkats in the kalahari desert , the fork - tailed drongo , a songbird with glossy black feathers and garnet - red eyes , is like the neighborhood dog : a trustworthy pal that ' s always on the alert and ready to warn you about dangerous predators .\nandamans in the bay of bengal . of the other two , the velvet - mantled drongo ( d . modestus ) occurs in west central africa and the sumatran drongo ( d . sumatranus ) is endemic to sumatra , indonesia . destruction of forest habitat is their primary threat .\nthe range of the black drongo is tropical to subtropical , extending mostly north of the equator between 45 degrees north latitude and 8 degrees south latitude . the species prefers more open countryside than other drongo species , including areas of cultivation , grasslands and savannas , open scrub and broken forest , and urban and residential areas , up to 1500 - 2000 m in elevation in the summer . it breeds mostly in lowland areas .\nthe babblers also ignored alarm calls after they heard one type\u2014such as a drongo ' s alarm\u2014three times . they dashed away , however , if the third alarm was made by a species they ' d not previously heard , such as a starling ( again , imitated by a drongo ) .\nsubspecies suthora verreauxi beaulieu belongs with black - throated parrotbill ( suthora nipalensis ) and becomes suthora nipalensis beaulieu . position this subspecies following suthora nipalensis ripponi .\nfollowing payne ( 2005 ) and erritz\u00f8e et al . ( 2012 ) , we recognize three subspecies of philippine drongo - cuckoo ( surniculus velutinus ) :\n: the highest niche overlap in foraging height was between white - breasted kingfisher and indian myna ; white - breasted kingfisher and common myna and indian roller and black drongo ( 0 . 99 ) while the lowest niche overlap ( 0 . 62 ) was found between small bee - eater and common myna .\nit is no wonder then that the black drongo should have the epithet \u2018king crow\u2019 bestowed on it , or that it should be called kotwal ( cop ) in hindi \u2014 given its no - nonsense approach to predators such as crows and kites , many small birds such as babblers , golden orioles and bulbuls nest in the vicinity of a drongo\u2019s nest . with the 24 - hour security service that comes with the location , they can hatch their eggs in peace .\ndrongos occur throughout the old world tropics and subtropics : there are four species in tropical and subtropical sub - saharan africa , four in madagascar and nearby island archipelagos , 11\u201313 centered in southern and southeast asia , from east iran and india to south manchuria ( bol hai ) , the philippines and central indonesian archipelagos , and just four ( possibly five ) from the east indonesian archipelagos to the solomon islands and north and east australia . most species are sedentary , but populations of those that breed in more temperate latitudes , of the black drongo ( dicrurus macrocercus ) , ashy drongo , and hair - crested drongo ( d . hottentottus ) in china , and the spangled drongo ( d . bracteatus ) in east australia , are migratory , shifting to the tropics in winter .\nthe drongos are a family , dicruridae , of passerine birds of the old world tropics . the 25 species in the family are placed in a single genus dicrurus . the drongo fantail ( chaetorhynchus papuensis ) , formerly named the pygmy drongo , is not closely related and is now placed in the family rhipiduridae .\nthe researchers found that the babblers were slower to resume foraging after abandoning their food when they heard a recording of a drongo mimicking their own species ' alarm call than when they heard drongo - specific alarm calls . that explains why the drongos have learned to mimic rather than just producing their own false alarm calls\nso he ' s often there when a drongo utters its loud , metallic alarm cries . because drongos perch on tree limbs , they ' re often in good positions to spot raptors\u2014and wise meerkats and other birds pay attention . they eavesdrop on the drongos , racing for cover if a drongo shouts a warning .\nthe fork - tailed drongo ( dicrurus adsimilis ) is a beautiful , shiny black - feathered bird with crimson red eyes . this sneaky birds steal food from others by making false alarm calls . stolen food makes up nearly a quarter of their entire food intake , so it turns out to be a decent strategy .\nthe drongo - monarch group is a core branch in a massive radiation of crow - like songbirds that appears to have exploded in australia some 20\u201330 million years ago , and quickly spread through the old world tropics . the drongo lineage would have been in the vanguard , reaching africa and radiating into 11\u201313 species in southeast asia and fringing archipelagos . left behind in montane new guinea , signposting the source of radiation as it were , was the pygmy drongo ( chaetorhynchus papuensis ) , the most monarch - like and ancestrally structured drongo of all . the fossil record , limited to the pleistocene for drongos , preserves little of this information .\nif a drongo is following a meerkat , for instance , and the small mammal turns up juicy larvae or a gecko , the drongo is likely to switch from honest sentry to deceptive thief . indeed drongos get as much as 23 percent of their daily food by making false alarms and stealing their target ' s dinner .\nedolius megarhynchus quoy and gaimard , 1830 ,\ndor\u00e9rei\n= port praslin , new ireland . monotypic member of spangled drongo ( d . bracteatus ) superspecies .\nall i can say is : whadda rool bloody drongo . the bloke is clearly a few sausages short of a barbecue and has kangaroos in his top paddock .\nthere\u2019s a type of bird \u2013 the african fork - tailed drongo \u2013 that belongs to a group of animals called kleptoparasites . kleptoparasites steal food from other animals .\ndespite their extrovert behavior , drongos have made little impact on human society and culture except for the black drongo . this species , a familiar urban commensal across southern asia , is often cultivated in captivity there . black drongos from taiwan were also introduced successfully to rota in the southern marianas ( micronesia ) in the 1930s , and from there had colonized neighboring guam by the early 1960s . its other vernacular name\u2014king crow\u2014celebrates its nerve and pugnacity in driving off predatorial birds much larger than itself .\nthree major foraging substrates , namely air , plants and ground , were recognized of which , the white - breasted kingfisher , indian roller and black drongo fell under the plant - guild because plant offers a greater variety of insect food . the small bee - eater used air and common myna used ground as major foraging substrates .\nthe drongos take advantage . sometimes , when a babbler or a meerkat finds a particularly tasty looking piece of food , a drongo lies by producing a false alarm call . when that happens , the meerkat drops the food and flees to find cover , leaving the drongo to steal the food , the meerkat none the wiser .\nput spangled and drongo together and you\u2019ve really got a name that gives more than the sum of its parts and that rolls off the tongue with a laughing question .\nreproduction : black drongo\u2019s nest is located high in tree . it is a loose cup made with twigs , grass , leaves and fibres , woven with spider webs . nest is usually built in a horizontal fork , at tip of a branch in an isolated tree . nest may be at about 4 to 10 metres above the ground .\nnest is usually built in a horizontal fork , at tip of a branch in an isolated tree . the cup nest is typically situated in a tree . the breeding season is from february to july . the cup nest is similar to that of the black drongo but is usually made up of more twigs and is well lined with grass .\ndrongo\n, entry in 1970 , bill wannan , australian folklore , lansdowne press , reprint 1979 , isbn 0 - 7018 - 1309 - 1 , page 200 .\nearly morning enjoy spotting birds in the others national park area . birds possible to be seen ; short \u2013 billed minivet , bar \u2013 winged flycatcher \u2013 shrike , grey treepie , lesser \u2013 racket tailed drongo , verditer flycatcher , chestnut \u2013 bellied leafbird , grey \u2013 throated babbler , black \u2013 throated parrotbill . ashy bubul , mountain bulbul , striated bulbul\nthe scientific name of the group black - bellied whistling - duck ( northern ) is dendrocygna autumnalis fulgens ( and not dendrocygna autumnalis autumnalis ) , following banks ( 1978 ) .\nthe word drongo is used in australian as a mild form of insult meaning\nidiot\nor\nstupid fellow\n. this usage derives from an australian racehorse of the same name ( apparently after the spangled drongo , dicrurus bracteatus ) in the 1920s that never won despite many places . [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] [ 15 ]\nthey generally react the same way to a drongo ' s alarm call as they do to the alarm call of a member of their own species ,\nflower says .\nin an effort to evaluate control measures necessary to reduce black drongo numbers on rota , craig ( 1999 ) reported shooting over 1000 drongos over eight mornings in 1991 . he estimated that continued control efforts over at least 40 mornings would reduce the drongo population on the island by 80 - 90 % . both lusk ( 1993 ) and worthington and taisacan ( 1994 ) , however , found it difficult to control drongos on rota using firearms . in the early 1990s the commonwealth of the northern mariana islands\u2019 division of fish and wildlife conducted a study to determine if the removal of black drongos on rota would increase the abundance of white - eyes on the island ( lusk , 1993 ; worthington and taisacan , 1994 ) . with repeated exposure to firearms drongos became wary of humans and fled when approached , well before being within shotgun range . no other efforts to control black drongos on rota have been attempted .\n11\u201313 in ( 26\u201332 cm ) ; 1 . 5\u20132 . 2 oz ( 40\u201360 gm ) . the archetypal drongo , slender bodied , jet black with blue or green gloss , red eye , uncrested and without hackles but well bristled around bill , and tail deeply forked ; sexes are similar , and immatures dull , shorter - tailed , and brown - eyed .\nglossy black plumage , with iridescent blue - green spots ( spangles ) , a long \u201cfish - like\u201d tail and blood red eyes . sexes are similar , but the female is slightly smaller . occasional white spotting can be seen on the upper wings in both sexes . young birds are more sooty black in colour , without the spangles , and the eye is brown .\nsimilarly , the scientific name of the group black - bellied whistling - duck ( southern ) is dendrocygna autumnalis autumnalis ( and not dendrocygna autumnalis discolor ) , following banks ( 1978 ) .\nafter lunch , will visit different habitat such as , huaw sai luang waterfall , farm land etc . in the national park area . birds possible to be seen ; plumbeous redstart , white \u2013 capped water redstart , slaty \u2013 backed forktail , black \u2013 backed forktail , blue whistling thrush , silver \u2013 breasted broadbill , black \u2013 napped monarch , asian paradise \u2013 flycatcher and more\u2026\ndrongo survival is only threatened when total treed habitat is limited in area . this is the case for species confined to small islands , such as those in the comoro group off the central east coast of africa . both the comoro drongo ( d . fuscipennis ) on grand comoro island and mayotte drongo ( d . waldenii ) on mayotte island are listed by iucn as endangered . two of the four species in the near threatened category also occur on small islands : d . aldabranus on aldabra island just north of the comoros , and d . andamanensis in the\nthe spangled drongo is usually seen perched on an open branch or telegraph wire , where it awaits a passing insect . once seen , its prey is pursued in an acrobatic display , and is caught in the drongo ' s slightly hooked bill . the spangled drongo then returns to its perch to eat its victim . the prey is guided into the bill with the assistance of sensitive , long , wire - like bristles bordering the bill ( rictal bristles ) . insects are also taken from foliage and from under bark ; fruit and nectar also form part of its diet .\nin accord with sacc ( proposal 570 ) and nacc ( chesser et al . 2013 ) , change the english name of thamnophilus atrinucha from western slaty - antshrike to black - crowned antshrike .\nblack - chinned babbler is transferred from the genus stachyridopsis to cyanoderma , following moyle et al . ( 2012 ) ; the scientific name for this species changes from stachyridopsis pyrrhops to cyanoderma pyrrhops .\nblack - browed babbler is transferred from the genus malacocincla to turdinus , following moyle et al . ( 2012 ) ; the scientific name for this species changes from malacocincla perspicillata to turdinus perspicillatus .\nblack - throated laughingthrush is transferred from the genus garrulax to ianthocincla , following moyle et al . ( 2012 ) ; the scientific name for this species changes from garrulax chinensis to ianthocincla chinensis .\nblack - chinned laughingthrush is transferred from the genus garrulax to trochalopteron , following moyle et al . ( 2012 ) ; the scientific name for this species changes from garrulax cachinnans to trochalopteron cachinnans .\nblack - faced laughingthrush is transferred from the genus garrulax to trochalopteron , following moyle et al . ( 2012 ) ; the scientific name for this species changes from garrulax affinis to trochalopteron affine .\nthe scientific name for black - chested mountain - tanager ( buthraupis eximia ) is changed to cnemathraupis eximia , following sacc proposal 437 , which is based on sedano and burns ( 2010 ) .\none of the best descriptions of the drongo\u2019s aggression can be found in colonial era civil servant and naturalist edward hamilton aitken\u2019s book , the common birds of bombay , which was published in 1900 .\nfor instance , the scientists measured the length of time a pied babbler stayed away from a tasty tidbit it had been handling after it heard a recording of a drongo making a warning cry , or a drongo imitating a babbler ' s alarm call , or that of a starling . tellingly , the babblers stayed away longest when the mimicked alarm was their own or a starling ' s .\nthe black drongo ( dicrurus macrocercus ) is common across the country , often seen perched high on power cables and exposed branches , keeping a keen eye out for passing insects , its chief form of nourishment . it can also be spotted perched on grazing animals and picking grub off their hides . though often colloquially called \u2018king crow\u2019 , the bird is not related to the crow family at all .\nforages by drongo - like sallying in more open mid and lower strata of forest , capturing a range of insects ; commonly associates with feeding flocks of other bird species , benefiting from insects disturbed .\nthe black drongo was introduced to rota , northern mariana islands , from taiwan by the japanese in 1935 as a form of biological crop pest control ( baker 1951 ) . the species is thought to have self - colonized guam , which is separated from rota by only 48 km ( jenkins , 1983 ) . it is now the most abundant avian species on guam and remains well established on rota .\nthe black drongo has no fear of humans , cars , or animals . they\u2019re among the first birds to wake up in the morning and the last birds to retire in the evening . they eat mostly insects and sometimes even lizards , and drink nectar from flowers . the most common places to find the drongos are perched on telephone lines , atop bare trees , or flying straight for your face !\nblack - necklaced scimitar - babbler is transferred from the genus pomatorhinus to megapomatorhinus , following moyle et al . ( 2012 ) ; the scientific name for this species changes from pomatorhinus erythrocnemis to megapomatorhinus erythrocnemis .\nblack - streaked scimitar - babbler is transferred from the genus pomatorhinus to megapomatorhinus , following moyle et al . ( 2012 ) ; the scientific name for this species changes from pomatorhinus graviox to megapomatorhinus graviox .\ninsert the newly added subspecies chrysothlypis chrysomelas titanota olson 1981 immediately following the species heading for black - and - yellow tanager ; the range of this subspecies is \u201ccaribbean slope of costa rica and western panama\u201d .\n11 - 13 in ( 26 - 32 cm ) ; 1 . 5 - 2 . 2 oz ( 40 - 60 gm ) . the archetypal drongo , slender bodied , jet black with blue or green gloss , red eye , uncrested and without hackles but well bristled around bill , and tail deeply forked ; sexes are similar , and immatures dull , shorter - tailed , and brown - eyed .\nthe white - breasted kingfisher , small bee - eater , indian roller and black drongo were sit - and - wait predators and they used perches mainly to locate prey and launch their attack . brookers et al . ( 1990 ) , asokan ( 1995 ) and yosef ( 2004 ) documented the importance of perches for prey detection / hunting , vigilance , resting as well as other activities of insectivorous birds .\ni caught up with this bird a few years ago at a bat\u2019s wing coral tree erythrina verspertilio that flowers in the late dry season . you can see the pollen from the flowers on the drongo\u2019s beak .\nthe pied babblers responded more strongly to fake starling and pied babbler calls than to drongo alarm calls , suggesting that taking on the voices of others benefits the drongos . in a follow - up experiment , the researchers again played various drongo calls to pied babblers . this time , they either played the same calls three times in a row or played two of the same calls followed by a third , different call .\ndicrurus macrocercus , commonly known as the black drongo , is a medium sized passerine bird native to much of southern asia and parts of indonesia . the species was introduced to rota , northern mariana islands , from taiwan by the japanese in the mid - 1930s as a form of biological crop pest control . from rota the species apparently self - colonized the nearby island of guam . the black drongo has been implicated as a predator and held at least partially responsible for the decline of one of the iucn\u2019s critically endangered red - listed avian species on rota , and has been observed as a source of frequent harassment to another . however , these assertions are supported by anecdotal evidence and no data indicate that drongos have a significant negative effect , or have played a significant role , in the decline of any bird species on guam or rota .\nthe drongos mimicked the alarm calls of other species for almost half their false alarms , and the birds that used a variety of alarm calls were more successful at not only tricking their targets , but tricking them over and over again . for instance , if a southern pied babbler recognized that a drongo was lying and ignored his alarm call , the drongo changed his approach and started mimicking a starling or another local bird .\nwith the transfer of black - throated laughingthrush from the genus garrulax to ianthocincla , the spelling of the scientific name for subspecies lochmius to lochmia , and the spelling of the scientific name for subspecies propinquus to propinqua .\nto determine what strategies drongos used in kleptoparasitism and what proportion of their food they obtained from kleptoparasitism , i conducted 294 approximately 1 h focal observations ( 55 \u00b1 1 min ; mean \u00b1 1 s . e . ) on 25 specific drongo individuals . a minimum of six focals were collected per drongo ( mean total observation time per drongo : 10 . 47 h , range : 4 . 02\u201320 . 10 ) between march 2008 and july 2008 . during focal observations i recorded the time drongos spent foraging when alone and when following target species , defined as watching the species at a distance of less than 20 m . i also recorded all foraging attempts ; whether the drongo was foraging alone or attempting to kleptoparasitize a food item found by a target individual of another species ; and what strategy drongos employed in kleptoparasitism . drongos used two strategies to kleptoparasitize food : ( i ) attack , the drongo flew directly at a target that was handling a food item and chased or attacked it ; and ( ii ) call from perch , the drongo called from a perch while watching a target that was handling a food item , in response to which the target commonly fled to cover abandoning the food . in all cases , i recorded whether the foraging attempt was successful . food items were categorized by size relative to drongo bill length ; the corresponding wet mass of items of these sizes has been previously established [ 21 ] which enabled the calculation of food mass intake per hour for each focal observation .\nrocamora , g . & yeatman - berthelot , d . ( 2018 ) . black drongo ( dicrurus macrocercus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nduring breeding season , some displays may be observed . pairs , or competitive trio , are perched close to each other , or face to face . they perform duets , singing with harsh scolding notes , while they strongly bow their heads up and down . they also perform fluttering aerial chases . most of tropical populations are resident and may be nomadic outside breeding season . however , populations living in northern areas are strongly migratory . black drongo is a gregarious bird , roosting in flocks outside breeding period . then , they disperse at dawn to their feeding areas . black drongo is very territorial , defending vigorously feeding and breeding territories . it is fearless in front of larger birds , and will attack much larger species if nest or young are threatened . it can chase large crows or kites . this species may even chase other birds , in order to steal their preys .\ninsert a newly added subspecies of black - striped sparrow , arremonops conirostris pastazae , immediately following arremonops conirostris umbrinus ; the range of pastazae is \u201csoutheastern ecuador ( pastaza river drainage ) \u201d ( krabbe and stejskal 2008 ) .\nbreakfast then check out birding in different part of doi angkhang area , then drive to chiang dao rice field area , looking for birds in the shrubs and the rice fields . wat tum phaplong . the possibility birds that can find is pin - tailed parrotfinch , pin - tailed green - pigeon , asian drongo cuckoo , banded bay cuckoo , black - naped monarch , plaintive cuckoo , blue \u2013 eared barbet , wire \u2013tailed swallow etc .\ntropical and subtropical forests , secondary growth , and forest edge to mangroves , open woodlands , and even urban environs are the habitat of drongos , according to species . some , such as the new guinean pygmy drongo , the african shining drongo ( d . atripennis ) , and sulawesi drongo ( d . montanus ) are confined to primary rainforest ; but others , notably the widespread asian black drongo , occupy towns , gardens , and open areas , and are a familiar sight perched on electric lines . where different species occur together , they co - exist by occupying different habitats . thus in southeast asia , the black , ashy , and greater racket - tailed ( d . paradiseus ) drongos live in more open woods , urban areas , and marshes , while the bronzed ( d . aeneus ) , lesser racket - tailed ( d . remifer ) , and hair - crested drongos keep to denser forests , often replacing one another altitudinally . in africa , square - tailed ( d . ludwigii ) , velvet - mantled ( d . modestus ) , and shining ( d . atripennis ) drongos replace one another in different strata in different structural habitats . wherever they occur , both resident and migratory populations are well dispersed at densities of about 5\u201340 birds per mi 2 , depending on productivity and connectivity of habitat .\nkrabbe , n . , and d . j . stejskal . 2008 . a new subspecies of black - striped sparrow arremonops conirostris from south - eastern ecuador . bulletin of the british ornithologists\u2019 club 128 : 126 - 130 .\nsexes alike . glossy black plumage ; long , deeply forked tail . diagnostic white spot at base of bill . the ashy drongo d . leucophaeus ( 30cm ) is grey - black , and more of a forest bird , breeding in himalaya and a winter visitor to the peninsula . usually solitary , sometimes small parties ; keeps lookout from exposed perch ; most common bird seen on rail and road travel in india ; drops to ground to capture prey ; launches short aerial sallies ; rides atop grazing cattle ; follows cattle , tractors , grass - cutters , fires ; thus consumes vast numbers of insects ; bold and aggressive species , with several birds nesting in same tree .\nintriguingly , when a meerkat came across a particularly delicious snack , such as a scorpion or fat larva , the drongos would sometimes let loose with an alarm call . sometimes the call would mimic that of the meerkat or another species , and sometimes it would be a drongo cry . this would typically spook the meerkat , making it drop the tasty morsel and retreat , at which point the drongo was free to swoop in for a free meal .\n\u201cnot only did the black drongos seem to be more alert during this foraging frenzy , they also appeared to be more aggressive , as regular squabbles were observed as they bickered over choice perches that would guarantee close proximity and quick access to insect prey . while this association with domestic cattle has previously been reported for black drongos ( lekagul & round , 1991 ) , nothing compares to being a front row spectator to all this action ! i also wonder if the black drongos have been known to have similar associations with other cattle ( semi - domesticated or wild ) , such as water buffalo ( bubalus bubalis ) , banteng ( bos javanicus ) or gaur ( bos frontalis ) ?\nthe black drongo is a medium sized passerine bird that is 27 - 28 . 5cm in length . its plumage is black with a slight blue iridescent gloss , and its tail is relatively long and deeply forked . the species usually exhibits a white rictal spot , located below and in front of the eye , at the base of the bill . juveniles tend to be duller than the adults with a sooty - brown tinge to their plumage and no gloss . they also exhibit vague pale scales on the breast and belly , and often show white fringing on the secondary or inner flight feathers . the tail of juvenile birds is shorter than those of adults and is only slightly forked .\nthe bright blue eyes and pink bill tell you right away that this is a baby crow . within about a week the bill will turn black like and adults\u2019 but the eyes and mouth corners with remain blue and pink respectively .\nso far 18 species of australian native birds have been identified as tool users , often in relation to getting food . noisy pittas and white - winged choughs know how to use implements to open hard - shelled gastropods . black - breasted buzzards place a rock in their beak and use it as a hammer to crack open emu eggs . black kites may pick up glowing sticks in and around bushfires to start a fire elsewhere and gain access to more food .\nthe problem , in aesop ' s famous story , is that the villagers eventually catch on to the boy who cried wolf , and learn to ignore his alarm calls . how does the drongo avoid the boy ' s mistake ?\n\u201cthese hungry black drongos appeared to display a heightened level of alertness , as they kept their eyes peeled for any hint of movement from a grasshopper or cricket that may be displaced by the advancing wave of grazing cows ( above ) ."]}
{"id": 2334, "summary": [{"text": "dichorragia nesmachus , the constable , is a species of nymphalid butterfly found in asia .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the genus was earlier considered to belong to the subfamily cyrestinae and sometimes the apaturinae , but is now considered as an sister of the genus stibochiona in the subfamily pseudergolinae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "several geographical forms with variations in colour are noted within the wide distribution range extending from india in the west to japan in the east .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "in vietnam , it is thought to show hill topping behaviour and is typically found in dense forest habitats .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "they may also be found mud puddling with other species .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "a closely related species dichorragia ninus is found in new guinea and surrounding islands although some authors include it as a subspecies of d. nesimachus . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "dichorragia nesimachus", "paragraphs": ["these are nice photos of dichorragia nesimachus ( constable , wachtmeister ) . dichorragia nesimachus is a member of the\n[ thailand ] dichorragia nesimachus nesimachus ; davidson & macbeth , 1938 : 76 . ( koon tarn ) dichorragia nesimachus nesimachus ; pinratana , 1979 : 88 , fig . n152a , \u0081\u0089 , \u0081\u0089 ( un ) . ( chiang mai ) dichorragia nesimachus nesimachus ; pinratana , 1996 : 94 , pl . 70 , fig . 179a , \u0081\u0089 . ( chiang mai / kanchanaburi ) dichorragia nesimachus nesimachus ; ek - amnuay , [ 2007 ] : 474 , pl . 211 , fig . n192a , \u0081\u0089 , \u0081\u008a , \u0081\u008a ( un ) . ( chiang mai : chiang dao ) [ laos ] dichorragia nesimachus f . nesimachus ; dubois & vitalis de salvaza , 1924 : 44 . ( nam - tie ) dichorragia nesimachus nesimachus ; motono & negishi , 1989 : 61 , not fig . ( muong kassy ) dichorragia nesimachus nesimachus ; osada , u\u00e9mura & uehara , 1999 : 208 , pl . 76 , figs . \u0081\u0089 , \u0081\u008a . ( oudomxay / phong saly ) [ vietnam ] dichorragia nesimachus f . nesimachus ; dubois & vitalis de salvaza , 1924 : 44 . ( tonkin ) dichorragia nesimachus ; lemee , 1950 : 15 . ( langson ) dichorragia nesimachus nesimachus ; metaye , 1957 : 97 . ( north ) dichorragia nesimachus ; monastyrskii et al . , 2006 : 41 . ( thua thien hue : bach ma ) dichorragia nesimachus nesimachus ; miyazaki , saito & saito , 2006b : 32 , figs . n - 103\u0081\u0089 , \u0081\u008a . ( lam dong : dambri )\ndichorragia nesimachus ( asian constable butterfly ) | treasures of mt . takao | takao 599 museum\nno one has contributed data records for dichorragia nesimachus pelurius yet . learn how to contribute .\ndichorragia nesimachus ( doy\u00e8re , [ 1840 ] ) = adolias nesimachus doy\u00e8re , [ 1840 ] = argynnis hippomenes herrich - sch\u00e4ffer , 1850 .\ndichorragia nesimachus derdas fruhstorfer , 1903 : deut . ent . zeit . [ iris ] 16 ( 1 ) : 24 . tl . borneo . dichorragia nesimachus deiokes fruhstorfer , 1913 : in seitz , grossschmett erde . 9 : 697 . tl . perak . * palawanus\n[ thailand ] dichorragia nesimachus deiokes ; pinratana , 1979 : 88 , fig . n152b , \u0081\u008a , \u0081\u008a ( un ) . ( yala ) dichorragia nesimachus deiokes ; pinratana , 1996 : 94 , pl . 70 , fig . 179b , \u0081\u0089 [ \u0081\u008a ] . ( ranong / surat thani / yala ) dichorragia nesimachus machates ; ek - amnuay , [ 2007 ] : 474 , pl . 211 , fig . n192b , \u0081\u0089 , \u0081\u0089 ( un ) . ( yala )\nbaidya , s . 2018 . dichorragia nesimachus doy\u00e8re , 1840 \u2013 constable . kunte , k . , s . sondhi , and p . roy ( chief editors ) . butterflies of india , v . 2 . 38 . indian foundation for butterflies .\nthe constable ( dichorragia nesimachus ) is a butterfly of the australasia / indomalaya ecozone ( australia ) and the palaearctic ecozone ( asia ) . the distribution extend from the east of india to japan and from the south of china to myanmar to thailand , philippines and indonesia .\n{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . dichorragia nesimachus boisduval , 1836 . [ online ] india biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 10 , 2018 ] .\non : dichorragia nesimachus machates fruhstorfer , 1903 od : deut . ent . zeit . [ iris ] 16 ( 1 ) : 23 - 24 . tl : deli , n . o . sumatra . ( bmnh ) distribution : p . thailand , malay pen . , sumatra , borneo , palawan .\non : adolias nesimachus doyere , [ 1840 ] od : in cuvier , regne anim . ( disciptes ' ed . ) 6 ( 4 ) : pl . 139bis , fig . 1 . tl : no loc . distribution : n . india to myanmar , thailand , laos , vietnam , s . yunnan .\ndoy\u00e8re , 1840 \u2013 constable . kunte , k . , s . sondhi , and p . roy ( chief editors ) .\nif mentioning specific images please give media code ( s ) . for misidentifications please list reasons to assist in diagnosis .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 , all rights reserved . national centre for biological sciences ( ncbs ) holds copyright for all the original material and compilations on this website , although contributing writers and photographers may hold copyright for their material as cited . material from this website can be used freely for educational , basic research and conservation purposes , provided that this website is acknowledged and properly cited as the source . contact us to obtain prior permission for any other use , including for large data downloads and collaborative research .\n. the first description was in 1846 by bouisduval . with a wingspan of 7 . 0 \u2013 8 . 0 cm the constable is a small member of the family nymphalidae . the butterfly is very dark and marmorate with white sinuous line and spots .\nthe forewings are dark brown , dark green and marmorate . at the margin there is a white sinuous line . at the wing leading edge there is a broad white band . there are some little white spots on wing . the underside is dark brown . all white spots and bands and sinuous lines from upside are also there . at the wing leading edge there are two bluish spots .\nthe hind wings are dark brown , dark green and marmorate . hind wings have no tails . the margin is ridged . at the margin there are a white sinuous line and a chain of black spots . there are some bluish spots on wing . the underside is a copy of upside , but the chain of black spots is broader than upside .\nthe first description of this butterfly was in 1846 by boisduval . there are many subspecies .\ncites : ( convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ) : - no entry - ( as at 14 . 06 . 2006 )\neu regulation on trading with species of wild fauna and flora - no entry - ( as at 19 . 08 . 2005 )\ntakao 599 museum has all kinds of animals inhabit in mt . takao in various ways of exhibitions such as seasonal wild plants preserved in acrylic and all kinds of animals specimens inhibits in mt . takao . on the\nnature wall ,\nstuffed animals are displayed and shows the movie to introduce the dynamic nature of mt . takao .\nmain region : honshu , shikoku , kyushu , okinawa , sado island , tsushima and nansei islands . found in sunny woods and mountain trails from flatlands to low elevations . the patterns on wings are like marbling with indian ink , hence the japanese name suminagashi literally meaning marbling with indian ink . wing colors on the front is light indian ink with shiny blue - green that is unique color and patterns . and wing colors on the back is dark brown with distinct white patterns . proboscis is red this is also unique feature of this species . during daytime , fly fast and gathers around sap of sawtooth oak , rotten fruits and dungs of animals . also suck water on the ground . caterpillars feed on leaves of meliosma myrianth . male shows territorial habit at mountain peak of open spaces in forests . \u25cfwingspan about 55 to 65 mm \u25cfadult flight season may to about august\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\n[ thailand ] chiang mai , doi suthep . 1988 . 03 . 02 4\u0081\u008a y . inayoshi ( yi ) chiang mai , doi suthep . 1988 . 03 . 13 4\u0081\u008a y . inayoshi ( yi ) chiang mai , doi suthep . 1988 . 03 . 15 1\u0081\u0089 2\u0081\u008a y . inayoshi ( yi ) chiang mai , doi suthep . 1986 . 03 . 18 1\u0081\u008a y . inayoshi ( yi ) chiang mai , doi suthep . 1986 . 03 . 19 1\u0081\u0089 3\u0081\u008a y . inayoshi ( yi ) chiang mai , doi suthep . 1987 . 03 . 31 1\u0081\u008a y . inayoshi ( yi ) chiang mai , doi suthep . 1987 . 04 . 02 2\u0081\u0089 1\u0081\u008a y . inayoshi ( yi ) chiang mai , doi suthep . 1987 . 04 . 06 1\u0081\u0089 y . inayoshi ( yi ) nan , doi phu kha . 1992 . 03 . 23 1\u0081\u008a p . sukkit ( yi ) nan , doi phu kha . 1991 . 04 . - - 1\u0081\u0089 local catcher ( yi )\ndoyere , l . , [ 1840 ] : in cuvier 1836 - 1849 , le regne animal , edn . 3 ( disciples ' ) .\ncowan , c . f . , 1976 : on the disciples ' edition of cuvier ' s regne animal .\n[ thailand ] ranong , muang chone . 1984 . 03 . 28 2\u0081\u0089 y . inayoshi ( yi ) surat thani , khao poata . 1988 . 04 . 02 1\u0081\u0089 y . inayoshi ( yi ) surat thani , khao poata . 1987 . 04 . 14 1\u0081\u0089 y . inayoshi ( yi ) surat thani , khao poata . 1987 . 04 . 16 1\u0081\u0089 y . shiraishi ( yi )\namazing shades of nave blue , blue and turquoise . just beautiful . . .\nno need to think , that ' s a definite . in normal light this butterfly is black and white with a tiny blue tinge .\nthis is a bluish olive green butterfly with white spots and a white zig - zog pattern at the wing borders . on the underside , the forewing is purplish black and hindwing dull black and their markings are similar to the upperside but larger and clearer . purplish blue bars are formed by the spots joinin n the cel of the forewing .\ncompiled from secondary sources listed in references by poornima viswanathan for the assam biodiversity portal project .\ndescribes average size , max , range ; type of size ( perimeter , length , volume , weight . . . ) .\ndescribes the general appearance of the taxon ; e . g body plan , shape and color of external features , typical postures . may be referred to as or include habit , defined as the characteristic mode of growth or occurrence associated to its environment , particularly for plants . comprising its size , shape , texture and orientation . example : tree , shrubs , herbs . may also be referred to include anatomy .\nmale and female : - - upperside dark green , the apex and terminal margin of fore and anterior third of hind wing purplish black . fore wing : cell and wing posteriorly up to vein 4 with green basal and outward white spots , a discal oblique series of narrow stripes from costa to interspace 4 , a postdiscal transverse row of white spots succeeded by a series of slender white stripes forming inwardly - pointed loops , and a subterminal row of minute transverse white spots ; the row of white slender loops in the 2 is doubled , and sometimes also in the male . hind wing : apex of cell and disc of wing with bluish - green spots ; the anterior subcostal spot large and white ; a postdiscal series of elongate oval velvety - black spots , succeeded by a series of slender white loops and beyond by a row of slender transverse white spots as on the fore wing , the space enclosed by the loops and the outer row of transverse white spots or short lines velvety black . underside : fore wing purplish black ; hind wing dull opaque black ; the markings much as on the upperside but larger , more clearly defined , except the spots on the disc of the hind wing , which are obscure . on the fore wing the spots in the cell join and form prominent transverse purplish - blue bars , and on the hind wing the postdiscal series of velvety - black spots are more conspicuous . antennae , head , thorax and abdomen dull black .\ngeneral description of the sites where the species is found ( ecosystem , forest , environment or microhabitat ) . includes realm ( e . g terrestrial etc ) and climatic information ( e . g boreal ) ; also includes requirements and tolerances ; horizontal and vertical ( altitudinal ) distribution . also includes information referring to territorial extension of the individual or group in terms of its activities ( feeding , mating , etc . ) , associated mostly to vertebrates .\nenumerates geographic entities where the taxon lives . covers ranges , e . g . , a global range , or a narrower one ; may be biogeographical , political or other ( e . g . , managed areas like conservencies ) ; endemism ; native or exotic . does not include altitudinal distribution , which is covered under habitat .\nantram chas , b . 1924 . butterflies of india . thacker , spink and co . calcutta . 239p . urltoken\nbingham , c . t . ( 1905 ) . the fauna of british india , including ceylon and burma butterflies . vol . 1 ( 1st ed . ) . london : taylor and francis , ltd . urltoken\nthe paper describes some of the rare butterfly species recorded during february 2010 - october 201 . . .\nthe seasonality of butterflies in a semi - evergreen forest : gibbon wildlife sanctuary , assam , northeast . . .\na study spanning 3 . 7 years on the butterflies of gibbon wildlife sanctuary gws ( 21km2 ) , a semi - ever . . .\na checklist of 147 species of butterflies recorded from kedarnath musk deer reserve in chamoli and . . .\n| | best supported on google chrome , firefox 3 . 0 + , internet explorer 8 . 0 + , safari 4 . 0 + , opera 10 + . powered by the open source biodiversity informatics platform . technology partner strand life sciences\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution , non - commercial , no derivative works cc by - nc - nd licence .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . ."]}
{"id": 2339, "summary": [{"text": "the porcupine ray ( urogymnus asperrimus ) is a rare species of stingray in the family dasyatidae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "this bottom-dweller is found throughout the tropical indo-pacific , as well as off west africa .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it favors sand , coral rubble , and seagrass habitats in inshore waters to a depth of 30 m ( 100 ft ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "a large and heavy-bodied species reaching 1.2 \u2013 1.5 m ( 3.9 \u2013 4.9 ft ) in width , the porcupine ray has a nearly circular , plain-colored pectoral fin disc and a thin tail without any fin folds .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "uniquely within its family , it lacks a venomous stinging spine .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "however , an adult ray can still defend itself ably with the many large , sharp thorns found over its disc and tail .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the diet of the porcupine ray consists mainly of benthic invertebrates and bony fishes , which it digs up from the sea floor .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it is aplacental viviparous , in which the developing embryos are nourished by histotroph ( \" uterine milk \" ) produced by the mother .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "the porcupine ray has long been valued for its rough and durable skin , which was made into a shagreen leather once used for various utilitarian and ornamental purposes , such as to cover sword hilts and shields .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is caught incidentally by coastal fisheries .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "because it must be handled carefully due to its thorns , its commercial significance is limited .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "unregulated fishing has led to this species declining in many parts of its range , and thus has been listed as vulnerable by the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "porcupine ray", "paragraphs": ["it has also been called the roughskin stingaree , rough - skinned ray , solander\u2019s ray and thorny ray .\nporcupine ray reaches a maximum length of 4 . 8 feet ( 147 cm ) .\nthe strange - looking porcupine ray is covered with plate - like tenticles and sharp thorns .\nexamines wnt3a - porcupine interactions and the importance of fdh - related and other mutations on porcupine activity .\nrare porcupine ray ( urogymnus asperrimus ) in marsa alam , egypt . shot on lumix tz10 while snorkelling .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive video - porcupine ray - overview\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive video - porcupine ray - overview\ntitle =\narkive video - porcupine ray - overview\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - porcupine ray ( urogymnus asperrimus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - porcupine ray ( urogymnus asperrimus )\ntitle =\narkive species - porcupine ray ( urogymnus asperrimus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\na porcupine ray , urogymnus asperrimus , in the seychelles . source : olivier cochard - labb\u00e9 / wikimedia commons . license : cc by attribution - sharealike\nporcupine ray populations are declining today , and the species is considered vulnerable to extinction . porcupine rays are not targeted by commercial fisheries , but they are often caught accidently by vessels in nearshore waters . fewer porcupine rays are caught today as bycatch compared to years past , and researchers believe this means the species has been overexploited in its range and there are fewer individuals . further , a porcupine ray\u2019s preferred habitat is in populated coastal areas that are more susceptible to human activity .\ndetermine whether porcupine rays exhibit consistent and predictable patterns when using specific habitats and locations .\na layer of sharp thorns on its back gives this ray a considerable edge over any predators looking for a bite . the spikes , which are a mixture of large , cone - shaped thorns and smaller , pointed scales known as denticles , are critical for the porcupine ray that lacks the venomous barb most stingray species use for warding off larger animals . the porcupine ray is a rarely seen and distinctive ray species that unfortunately faces many threats in its range .\ndata was obtained through pilot study on ' crowd sourcing ' where divers were asked through different source egg . dive magazine to report sightings of the porcupine ray .\nassess how the porcupine ray\u2019s habitat use and movement patterns affect the species\u2019 exposure and sensitivity to impacts , and its potential to adapt to impacts through movement and dispersal .\nresearchers at the save our seas foundation d\u00e1rros research centre have a pretty tough time trying to capture a porcupine ray for research purposes . porcupine rays are well camouflaged , as they are a similar colour as the sand - this makes spotting them from the surface a challenge .\nrough skin of this ray has been used as leather by many different cultures .\nalthough the porcupine ray urogymnus asperrimus is widespread in the indian ocean and indo - west pacific , it is rare and has declined in at least parts of its range . furthermore , very little is known about the species . by investigating the porcupine ray\u2019s movement patterns and habitat dependencies , this project will contribute to better understanding the species\u2019 vulnerability to habitat degradation and environmental change .\nandrew wants to know more about the \u2018spiky pancakes\u2019 that are porcupine rays , but to do this , he needs to find them first . armed with underwater cameras , a kayak , and snorkelling and fishing gear he is on a mission to seek out the elusive porcupine ray in the great barrier reef .\nreports a click - based technology to visualize palmitoylated forms of wnt proteins in cells , porcupine fatty acid substrate preference , incorporation of fatty acids of different chain lengths by wnts , and s - palmitoylation of human porcupine .\nthe porcupine ray inhabits coral reefs , preferring sandy , coral rubble and seagrass areas , and is often seen near caves and overhangs ; also near mangroves , in depths to at least 30 m .\nthe porcupine ray is aptly named for its prickly body that acts as armor against a litany of predators . stingray species are often vulnerable to the appetites of h ammerhead and bull sharks , killer whales and other carnivorous fish . though the porcupine ray has a signature whip - like tail similar to other stingrays , theirs does not hold venom for stunting predators . the porcupine ray ' s body is flattened into an oval - shaped disc with a rounded snout , and is usually shaded brown or grey above and white below . its black tail stands out against its light body , and appears darker towards the tip . the porcupine ray inhabits the indian ocean and the indo - west pacific , concentrating around east africa , the red sea and parts of australia where tropical , inshore waters give way to coral reefs and sandy seafloors .\nestablished the first connection between mutations in porcupine and the x - linked dominant disorder focal dermal hypoplasia ( fdh ) .\ninformation on the undulate ray is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly . \u2026\nbrisson ba , bersenas a , etue sm . ultrasonographic diagnosis of septic arthritis secondary to porcupine quill migration in a dog .\nprovides proof of concept for pharmacological targeting of porcupine by using the small - molecule inhibitor c59 in mouse mammary xenograft models .\ndescribes the identification of a small - molecule inhibitor of porcupine that shows efficacy and is well tolerated in rodent tumor models .\ntaken as incidental bycatch in trawl nets , tangle nets , and beach seines throughout its range . although occasionally taken in northern australian trawl fisheries , turtle exclusion devices on trawl nets appear to exclude the porcupine ray from capture .\ninformation on the japanese electric ray is currently being written and researched and will appear here shortly . \u2026\ninformation on the caribbean electric ray is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly . \u2026\ninformation on the golden cownose ray is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly . \u2026\ninformation on the brazilian cownose ray is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly . \u2026\nlittle is known about the life history of the porcupine ray . it forages on and around the sea - bed for bottom - dwelling crustaceans , polychaete worms and fish ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . prey is grasped in the ray\u2019s downward - facing jaws , which bear rows of flattened teeth capable of crushing hard , outer shells ( 6 ) . like other stingrays , the porcupine ray probably retains its eggs internally during development , so that once the egg hatch , the female gives birth to a litter of live young ( 6 ) ( 7 ) .\nthe porcupine ray is found on or near the sea - bed in shallow inshore water , often in association with coral reefs . it commonly occurs over sand or coral rubble substrates , frequently in caves ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .\nas discussed in communication , several groups of ray - finned fishes have quite peculiar methods of capturing prey .\njohnson md , magnusson kd , shmon cl , et al . porcupine quill injuries in dogs : a retrospective of 296 cases ( 1998\u20132002 )\n\u00a9 2018 porcupine musings | a common sense libertarian ( voluntary polycentrist ) perspective on whatever topic i feel particularly compelled to debunk that day .\nthe porcupine ray has an oval - shaped disc that is covered with plate - like tenticles and sharp thorns . the tail lacks stinging spines and skin folds . the fish is brown to grey above and white below . the tail tip is dark .\nthe porcupine ray is a really interesting and unusual critter that gets its name from the sharp thorns covering its skin . these rays look something like spiky pancakes , which if you think about it makes a lot of sense . stingrays are really big , flat \u2018meat\u2026\ninformation on the fake round ray ( urotrygon simulatrix ) is being researched and written and will appear here shortly . \u2026\nthe pmnhs is an informal society interested in marine natural history and recording , particularly in the north east atlantic region and the mediterranean sea . the name \u201cporcupine\u201d is taken from the naval survey vessel hms porcupine which was engaged on scientific expeditions in the north east atlantic and mediterranean in 1869 and 1870 .\ninformation on the common shovelnose ray ( glaucostegus typus ) is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly . \u2026\nthere are no known conservation measures in place for the porcupine ray ( 1 ) . individuals have , however , been recorded in the nature reserve of the glorieuses islands ( 8 ) , and given this species\u2019 large range , it almost certainly occurs in other protected areas ( 9 ) .\na distinctive but uncommon stingray named for its protective covering of thorns and denticles . the porcupine ray has a thick oval - shaped body with a rounded snout and a long - whip - like tail . unlike other stingrays in the family dasyatidae , there is no venomous barb on the tail .\nthe flapper skate ( dipturus batis ) is the largest european ray . the undersurface is dark grey with black spots or stripes and the\u2026\nray - finned fishes exhibit quite a variety of mating systems . the four major types , along with a few examples , are :\nis the most important means of communication and foraging for many ray - finned fishes . the eyes of fish are very similar to terrestrial\n) , combined with pollution and habitat alteration have proven particularly disastrous for groups of endemic ray - finned fishes ( i . e .\nthe key objective of this research is to document the movement and habitat use patterns of the porcupine ray in coral reef environments and thus determine how the species\u2019 behaviour and habitat use affect its vulnerability to habitat loss and environmental change , and identify potential management responses to reduce impacts and increase the species\u2019 resilience .\nvery little is known about this mysterious ray , as just ten specimens have been identified and studied in museums . named for the pale margin\u2026\nthe spotted eagle ray is very distinctive with a flattened body and triangular corners to the wing - like pectoral fins . the snout is rounded\u2026\nconcepts and terminology , as well as numerous examples from a diverse range of ray - finned fish families . a section of particular interest is\nray - finned fishes inhabit a variety of extreme environments . these include high altitude lakes and streams , desert springs ( e . g .\ntheiss , s . m . , kyne , p . m . & chisholm , l . a . 2010 . distribution of the porcupine ray urogymnus asperrimus ( bloch & schneider , 1801 ) in australian waters , with new records from queensland . memoirs of the queensland museum - nature 55 : 101 - 105 .\ntheiss , s . m . , kyne , p . m . and chisholm , l . a . 2010 . distribution of the porcupine ray urogymnus asperrimus ( bloch & schneider , 1801 ) in australian waters , with new records from queensland . memoirs of the queensland museum - nature 55 : 101 - 105 .\nthe reproductive habits of porcupine rays have rarely been observed , but females most likely retain their eggs internally as most other stingrays do until the eggs are fully developed and then the female can give birth to a live litter . newborn porcupine rays lack the species\u2019 characteristic sharp thorns , but are still equipped with countless denticles on the upper part of the body . porcupine rays forage for bottom - dwelling crustaceans , marine worms and fish that burrow into soft , sandy bottoms . sharp rows of teeth in the ray ' s downward - facing jaws are ideal for breaking the hard , outer shells of its prey . porcupine rays are benthic , which means they live near the sediment surface of the ocean . benthic rays tend to\nripple\ntheir fins to move around above the seafloor , in contrast to pelagic rays that flap their pectoral fins .\nray - finned fishes are essential components of most ecosystems in which they occur . while many ray - finned fishes prey on each other , they can also have significant impacts on nearly all other animals in their habitats . zooplanktivorous fishes , for instance , select for specific types and sizes of\nin many ways , the pygmy devilray resembles its larger and more iconic relative , the manta ray . large pectoral fins , fused to the sides of\u2026\nray - finned fishes perceive the external environment in five major ways \u2013 vision , mechanoreception , chemoreception , electroreception and magnetic reception , and to humans several of these sensory systems are entirely alien . many types of perception are also used by ray - finned fishes to communicate with individuals of the same (\n) , which make up nearly all existing ray - finned fishes , have repeated and extended early trends . many of the sections , such as physical description , reproduction , behavior and ecosystem roles merely scratch the surface , but there are numerous links to family - level ray - finned fish accounts . (\nmagee aa , ragle ca , howlett mr . use of tenoscopy for management of septic tenosynovitis caused by a penetrating porcupine quill in the synovial sheath surrounding the digital flexor tendons of a horse .\nthe porcupine ray is widely distributed throughout the indian ocean and the indo - west pacific , occurring from the coast of east africa and the red sea , east as far as marshall islands and fiji , and south as far as northern australia ( 1 ) ( 4 ) . it also occurs in tropical inshore waters of the east atlantic , around central west africa ( 4 ) .\nthe knifetooth sawfish is an unusual type of ray , with a shark - like body and a distinctive , elongated snout , or rostrum , known as a saw . in\u2026\n( wheeler , alwyne 1985 : viii ) . detecting sound in water can be difficult because waves pass through objects of similar density . therefore , ray - finned fishes have\nmobulids ( family mobulidae ) , commonly referred to as devil rays , are cartilaginous fishes found circumglobally in tropical , subtropical , and warm temperate waters . these pelagic species exhibit low fecundity and slow maturation ; however , their life history remains poorly understood , yet these species are highly exploited worldwide . this family includes the genus manta and the genus mobula with 11 identified species . five of these species have been confirmed in the philippines , namely : the spine - tail devil ray ( mobula japanica ) , bent - fin devil ray ( mobula thurstoni ) , sickle - fin devil ray ( mobula tarapacana ) , the oceanic manta ray ( manta birostris ) and the reef manta ( manta alfredi ) . two other species the pygmy devilray ( mobula eregoodootenkee ) and the shortfin devil ray ( mobula kuhlii ) are thought to occur in philippine waters though these sightings have not yet been officially confirmed .\nmany ray - finned fishes exhibit migratory behavior ; daily migrations are usually related to feeding or predator avoidance while longer migrations are usually for reproduction purposes . some fishes stay within saltwater (\nand siphonophores ( colonies of organisms , e . g . man - o - war ) , also regularly consume various ray - finned fish . there is even some unlikely predators like\nfreshwater groups , however , account for the vast majority of actual extinctions in ray - finned fishes . the most significant threats are to families with restricted distribution ( i . e .\n, resulting in even more extinctions . the latter example illustrates the complexity of ecological interactions and the fact that ecological interactions are not confined to aquatic organisms . because ray - finned fishes are often important food source to terrestrial organisms ( see below ) , including humans ( see economic importance and conservation ) , changes in ray - finned fish communities can have significant ecological implications .\nray - finned fishes have significant aesthetic , cultural , scientific and transformative value to humans . to many native people , especially in the united states , fish are symbols of cultural tradition and the subject of works of art . snorkeling , scuba diving , and sport fishing are increasingly popular around the world and , of course , ray - finned fishes have significant scientific and educational value .\nthe porcupine ray is a distinctive and unusual stingray associated with coral reefs . it appears to play an important role in bioturbation and habitat formation in reef lagoons . it is widely distributed from the indian ocean to the indo - west pacific , but relatively rare and very little is known about its biology or ecology . a recent review of the species in australia located only 25 records in museums and scientific databases . the lack of information about the porcupine ray\u2019s biology and ecology is a significant issue given its rarity and the serious threats it faces from habitat degradation and environmental change , especially considering both the documented and projected declines in coral reefs throughout its range . lack of information about the species\u2019 habitat use and movement compromises scientific understanding of its exposure to risks , sensitivity to these risks and ability to adapt to impacts through compensatory behaviours , such as reaching and colonising alternative habitats and locations should coral reefs in one area become degraded . while the species is rare , its highly unusual appearance makes it easy to identify and contributes to its potential role as a charismatic coral reef species . capitalising on these traits , a pilot study was carried out in 2012 using citizen scientists to identify hot spots of porcupine ray distribution . this facilitated the identification of two potential study sites in the great barrier reef . this project will focus on one of these sites , one tree island in the southern great barrier reef .\nporcupine\u2019s annual conference and agm takes place over the weekend of saturday / sunday with a two - day conference of talks and posters at plymouth university , followed by a field meeting nearby at wembury on monday [ low tide 0 . 7m @ 12 : 30 ] .\nthe spiny butterfly ray is under great pressure from fishing in the canary islands , a paradise in the atlantic ocean . david will work with citizen scientists to expand our knowledge about the lives of these vulnerable rays .\n, which have greater density than the rest of the fish , in the inner ear attached to sensory hair cells . since gas bubbles increase sensitivity to sound , many ray - finned fish ( e . g .\n. while many ray - finned fishes migrate well outside their home range \u2013 in many cases hundreds of kilometers , against current and even up waterfalls \u2013 they have remarkable abilities to find their way back . for instance ,\nanother common characteristic of ray - finned fishes is aggressive behavior , which results from competition for valuable resources , such as feeding , refuge and mating territories , mates , eggs , and young . one form of aggressive behavior is\nnot surprisingly , the lifespan of ray - finned fishes varies widely . in general , smaller fish have shorter lives and vice versa . for instance , many smaller species live for only a year or less , such as north american\nwnt proteins are critical regulators of signaling networks during embryonic development and in adult tissue homeostasis . the generation of active wnt proteins requires their regulated secretion into the extracellular space . once secreted , wnts signal through the cell surface via receptor binding on wnt - receiving cells , a mechanism that is prevalent in stem cell and cancer biology . important to both wnt secretion and receptor recognition is their post - translational fatty acylation . in this perspective , we highlight progress in elucidating the biochemistry of wnt fatty acylation and provide a molecular view on the enzymology of substrate recognition and catalysis , with a focus on the wnt o - acyltransferase porcupine . special emphasis is given to wnt fatty acid biosynthesis , wnt - porcupine interactions , clinical mutations of porcupine and emerging therapeutics for perturbing wnt fatty acylation in cancer . finally , we discuss models for the functional role of the unsaturated fatty acyl chain in mediating lipid - protein interactions and in wnt trafficking .\nalthough very wide ranging , this ray appears to be uncommon compared to various species of dasyatid rays which are sympatric with it . occurrence appears to be patchy with localised hotspots ( chin 2014 ) . juveniles appear to be site - attached , and highly resident to small areas of shallow coastal mud and mangrove habitats ( cerutti - pereyra et al . 2014 ) . it has been recorded from coral reefs , sandy reef lagoons , beaches , mud flats and mangroves , at depths of ~ 1 m to at least 30 m ( o ' shea 2013 , cerutti - pereyra et al . 2014 , chin 2014 ) . there is virtually no information available on life history parameters for this species . age at maturity , longevity , average reproductive age , generation time and average annual fecundity are all unknown . attempts to collect size - at - age data from vertebral counts have proved difficult due to the fragile nature of vertebra ( o ' shea 2013 ) . the porcupine ray reaches a maximum size of at least 115 cm disc width ( dw ) with females mature by ~ 100 cm dw and males at ~ 90 cm dw ( last and stevens 2009 ) . using data from the brown stingray ( dasyatis lata ) , a related species of similar size from the pacific as a proxy , generation time for the porcupine ray is inferred to be 21 . 5 years .\ndespite its large range , the porcupine fish is not regularly recorded by fisheries surveys , and is therefore believed to have a relatively small population . the population data that is available for this species indicates that it has undergone a significant population decline in parts of the centre of its range ( 1 ) . the reason for this is unclear , as while the meat , skin and cartilage all have commercial value , the porcupine fish typically has little or no importance to fisheries . it is , however , often caught as bycatch in trawls and beach seines , which may be having a detrimental effect on its population . ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .\na 17 - month - old holstein heifer was presented for persistent enlargement above the right hind fetlock of 1 - month\u2019s duration . diffuse plantar soft tissue swelling was present on the radiographs and ultrasonography revealed the presence of multiple porcupine quill extremities embedded in the subcutaneous tissue within the flexor tendon sheath wall . surgical removal was performed .\nporcupine representations of the different eigenvectors derived from the md simulations demonstrated less evidence of long range concerted motions . moreover , porcupine analysis of intermediate subtrajectories ( 3 - 15 ns , 6 - 15 ns , 9 - 15 ns , 3 - 12 ns ) showed little mutual similarity . taken together , these results suggest that the modes of motion generated by analysis of concoord ensembles might emerge on a time scale that is longer than that of our simulation . interestingly , however , in an analysis of the full 15 - ns trajectory of au , a motion resembling eigenvector 1 of the concoord ensemble appeared as eigenvector 3 ( fig . 2 c ) .\n. in this situation , smaller males attempt to ' sneak ' fertilize the eggs of females as peak spawning is occurring ; the smaller males release gametes simultaneously in the vicinity of the spawning pair . hermaphroditism in ray - finned fishes involves individuals containing ovarian and testicular tissue (\nspecies , which grow primarily in the sea but return to aquatic areas before they , spreading nutrients from the ocean up and down rivers . during rainy periods in tropical watersheds , ray - finned fish forage in flooded areas , consuming seeds and dispersing them throughout the floodplain .\nlittle is known about the population status , trends or structure of this species , although the porcupine ray is considered to be an uncommon species . globally , shark and ray landings have declined by at least 20 % since 2003 , but the indo - pacific is amongst the regions where this decline has been more severe ( dulvy et al . 2014 ) . catches of sharks and rays in southeast asia are very high but are declining and fishers are travelling much further from port in order to increase catches ( chen 1996 ) . net and trawl fisheries in indonesia ( especially the java sea ) and elsewhere are very extensive and as a result , many shark and ray species are highly exploited and stocks of most species have declined by at least an order of magnitude ( blaber et al . 2009 ) . batoids are heavily exploited ( white and dharmadi 2007 ) and datasets from as early as 1963\u20131972 show the considerable decline in batoids in the gulf of thailand ( pauly 1979 ) . trawl and gill net fisheries are also moving further afield . for example , in jakarta the gillnet fishery at muara baru travels to waters around kalimantan due to the decline in local populations ( w . t . white , unpubl . data ) . while species - specific data on long - term declines in elasmobranchs in the southeast asian region are lacking , declines of he porcupine ray in southeast asia and elsewhere in the indo - west pacific are inferred given the widespread historical and continuing declines of demersal fisheries in this region ( stobutzki et al . 2006 ) . furthermore , the extensive loss and degradation of habitats such as coastal mangroves are another key threat to coastal and inshore species ; southeast asia has seen an estimated 30 % reduction in mangrove area since 1980 ( fao 2007 , polidoro et al . 2010 ) .\n) have modified gas bladders and swimbladders adjacent to the inner ear . most ray - finned fishes have keen hearing ability and sound production is common but not universal . in groups that do utilize sound for communication , the most common purpose is territorial defense ( e . g .\n) . at this point , approximately 90 species of ray - finned fishes are known to be extinct or only survive in aquaria , 279 are critically endangered or endangered , and another 506 are listed as vulnerable or near threatened . families of particular concern ( in descending order ) are\none of our primary research sites has been the monitoring of a century - old ray fishery site in bohol , with the goal of understanding the reproductive biology of the devil rays to assess the sustainability of the fishery . our team has been working with the local fishing community since 2012 .\njustification : the porcupine ray ( urogymnus asperrimus ) is a shallow water species occurring inshore to at least 30 m depth , often associated with sandy and coral reef habitats . this species is widespread in the indo - west pacific region where intensive and largely unmanaged net and trawl fisheries occur ( with the exception of australia ) . while life history data are not available , the life history of a related species , the brown stingray ( dasyatis lata ) , suggests that this species may have a long generation length ( 21 . 5 years ) . fishing pressure is heavy in its known , shallow - water habitat , and fisheries are likely to catch this species if present . many shark and ray fisheries and stocks in the region are known to be over - exploited , with catches declining . market surveys indicate that this species has decreased in abundance in parts of the centre of its range for which comparative data are available such as the gulf of thailand . it is also a commonly caught and heavily used species in indonesia which is a global centre for intense shark and ray fishing and over - exploitation . based on its shallow water habitat preferences , long estimated generation time , global declines in chondrichthyan landings of at least 20 % over the past 12 years , and the fact that the indo - west pacific region is a region with some of the most poorly managed and intensely fished waters , a population reduction of greater than 30 % over three generations is inferred for the porcupine ray , resulting in an assessment of vulnerable . in australia , the species is assessed as least concern as has no commercial value in australian waters and is seldom caught . while the species was occasionally captured in commercial trawl fisheries , the introduction of trawl exclusion devices has significantly decreased the bycatch of large batoids in australian trawl fisheries . marine protected areas at ningaloo reef and the great barrier reef are likely to provide effective protection for this species .\nduring courtship ray - finned fishes exhibit a wide range of complex behaviors , reflecting their evolutionary heritage and the particular environments they inhabit . for instance , pelagic spawners tend to have more elaborate courtship rituals than benthic spawners . some of the behaviors include sound production , nest building , rapid swimming patterns , the formation of large schools , and many others . in addition , ray - finned fishes frequently change color at specific points in their reproductive cycle , either intensifying or darkening depending on the species , release pheromones , or grow tubercles ( tiny bumps of keratin ) on the fins , head or body .\nclearly ray - finned fishes display considerable complexity in their ability to perceive their environment and communicate with other individuals , yet until recently it was assumed that fish had negligible cognitive ability . current research , however , indicates that learning and memory are integral parts of fish development and rely on processes very similar to those of terrestrial\nsome species of stingrays have evolved the amazing ability to crush and consume hard - shelled marine critters like clams , scallops , oysters and snails . these durophagous ( meaning \u2018hard - eating\u2019 ) stingrays can be found in subtropical to temperate waters worldwide , and they include the cownose and eagle rays . unfortunately , because their diets occasionally include economically valuable shellfish , durophagous stingrays are often considered \u2018pest\u2019 species by fishermen . this has led to the development of uncontrolled kill tournaments for these rays and advertising campaigns to increase ray consumption ( such as , \u2018save the bay , eat a ray\u2019 ) despite these species having some of the lowest reproductive rates among marine fishes .\nbenthic ray - finned fishes also utilize numerous methods of camouflage ( for both hunting and predator avoidance ) . a common and elaborate method in tropical seas is mimicking the background of the habitat ( protective resemblance ) , which involves variable color patterns as well as peculiar growths of the skin that may resemble pieces of dead vegetation ,\nin 2015 lamave started a collaborative project with the tubbataha reefs natural park to assess the abundance and diversity of rays within the park . using bruv systems and visual identification a number of different species have been reported in the park including : porcupine , marble , cowtail , whiptail , mobula and manta rays . recently we started a tagging project , using acoustic tags to determine the local movements of reef mantas around the atolls .\nconsume the scales of the dead fish as they sink . ray - finned fishes also have significant impacts on a variety of plant species . the trophic cascade example ( above ) illustrated an indirect connection between microscopic plants ( phytoplankton ) and fish , but fish also excrete soluble nutrients into the water , such as phosphorus . phosphorus is essential for phytoplankton growth , and fish secretions may provide significant amounts of nutrients in some lakes . a more direct connection is simply the consumption of numerous plant species ( see food habits ) . finally , fish may significantly alter the geological dynamics of their habitats . many ray - finned fish build nests or burrows ( e . g . several\nap\u2014 the x - ray structure determined for phosphorylated cdk2 , bound to cyclin a ( pdb accession id : 1jst ) was reduced to a single dimer with associated atp and water of crystallization , as for iu . in this case a metal ion , manganese , was already in place . for the simulation the manganese was replaced with a magnesium 2 + ion in the same location .\na 17 - month - old heifer was referred to the veterinary hospital for a persistent enlarged flexor tendon sheath on the right hind limb of 1 - month\u2019s duration . the anamnesis revealed the heifer had been injured by porcupine quills in this area 1 mo ago . quills were removed by the owner several hours after the initial injury and penicillin procaine ( depocillin ; intervet canada , whitby , ontario ) , 20 000 iu / kg body weight ( bw ) , im was administered for 5 d .\ndynamic modes\u2014 fig . 2 a shows , in porcupine representation , the most significant motion of the cdk2 - cyclin a complex predicted by concoord for the ap state : a twist about an axis that runs from the cdk2 to cyclin a , pivoting approximately about residue p155 . however this gross twisting motion of the cdk2 - cyclin a dimer masks a flexing motion of the cdk2 . we can isolate the dynamics of the cdk2 within the complex by considering only cdk2 atoms in the pca analysis of the dimer .\nbased on feeding habits , researchers broadly classify ray - finned fishes as herbivores , carnivores , omnivores , zooplanktivores and detrivores . there is considerable nuance within each of these categories because many fish are opportunistic feeders \u2013 they tend to consume whatever is around , especially when food is scarce . however , primary feeding habits are often associated with body form , mouth type and digestive apparatus , as well as teeth . for instance ,\nthe porcupine ray is a highly distinctive , but little known species , which is named for the unusual thorny projections that are found on the upperside of its body ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . this species has a thick , oval , disc - shaped body , a rounded snout and a long , whip - like tail , which does not possess the venomous barb that is characteristic of most members of the stingray family ( dasyatidae ) ( 2 ) . instead , this species is protected from predators by its armoured body , which is covered with a mixture of large , sharp , conical thorns and smaller , pointed projections known as \u201cdenticles\u201d . the young lack the thorns , but bear numerous large , flat denticles on the upper surface of the body ( 2 ) ( 5 ) . the colouration of this species is brown to light grey above and white below , while the tail is blackish , becoming darker towards the tip ( 2 ) ( 5 ) .\nin this report we use a two letter code to identify a cdk2 - cyclin a structure in a given state of phosphorylation and activity as in table i . according to this nomenclature therefore , ap ( for active form , phosphorylated ) corresponds to the x - ray structure for thr 160 phosphorylated ( and therefore active ) cdk2 - cyclin a with the phosphate group intact . au ( for active structure , manually edited so as to be unphosphorylated ) is the same structure with the phosphate group removed in silico . likewise iu ( for inactive form , unphosphorylated ) corresponds to the x - ray structure for unphosphorylated ( and therefore inactive ) cdk2 - cyclin a with no addition of phosphate group , and ip ( for inactive structure , manually edited so as to be phosphorylated ) is the same structure with a phosphate group added in silico to thr 160 before simulation . the four starting configurations were prepared as follows .\nfor the peak at residue 11 , this is consistent with the proposed biological function of this loop : it opens and closes to allow entrance and exit of atp and adp respectively . the second loop at around residue 35 is often difficult to model in x - ray structures of both monomeric cdk2 and cdk2 in complex with cyclin a , and may play a role at the edge of the interface between the pstaire helix and the cdk - proximal domain of cyclin a .\ndifferential roles for the cluster of arginines that bind phospho - thr 160 \u2014 as discussed above , examination of the x - ray structure of phosphorylated cdk2 shows that the negatively charged phosphate group on phospho - thr 160 is docked into a triad of positive arginines : arg 50 , arg 126 , and arg 150 . the natural interpretation is that there is a coulomb attraction between these entities , which anchors the phospho - thr 160 in place and maintains the functional phosphorylated configuration .\nthe species is presumably largely taken as bycatch in unregulated fisheries in nearshore waters . it has been recorded as a high value catch in indonesian net fisheries ( white et al . 2006 ) . it appears to have disappeared or become extremely rare ( compared to certain other batoids ) in the batoid catches landed in bangkok from the gulf of thailand in recent decades ( compagno and cook , unpubl . data ) . this suggests probable local over - exploitation here and possibly also in the bay of bengal . similar trends are likely to be occurring or will occur in other areas where batoids are taken in multi - species fisheries . certainly , demersal fishery resources in the gulf of thailand and southeast asia have been severely depleted from historical levels ( stobutzki et al . 2006 ) . human modification and degradation of the ray ' s habitat is also possibly occurring in some of the more highly populated and polluted coastal areas as a result of human influences . the loss of coastal habitats such as mangroves may be of particular concern for this species which is suspected to have highly localized habitat use ( a . chin , unpubl . data ) . this species was occasionally taken in northern australian trawl fisheries ( brewer et al . 2006 ) . however , the introduction of turtle exclusion devices appears to have successfully excluded this species from continuing capture in trawl nets ( brewer et al . 2006 ) . the porcupine ray is considered to be potentially one of the most vulnerable chondrichthyans to the impacts of climate change in northern australia ( chin et al . 2010 ) .\nfishes are obviously of enormous economic import to humans . primarily , humans consume fish through fishing and aquaculture , and fish are an essential form of protein for millions of people around the world . the farmed salmon industry alone is valued at over 2 billion dollars a year , but unfortunately , aquaculture operations can have serious ecological consequences . similarly , ray - finned fishes are quite popular in the aquarium trade , and those with high cash value , such as many tropical fishes , are removed in highly damaging ( i . e . using poisons ) and exploitive ways ( see conservation and other comments ) . televised sport fishing events are also popular on rivers , lakes , coastal areas and reefs around the world . the fast - growing scuba industry relies heavily on thriving coral reefs with diverse and abundant communities of ray - finned fishes . finally , of less direct ( and severely underappreciated ) economic importance are the ecological roles that fishes fill , like controlling insect populations ( e . g . many still - water groups like\nthree specimens of the porcupine ray urogymnus asperrimus ( bloch & schneider , 1801 ) are reported from heron island on the great barrier reef , qld . these are the first records from the southern great barrier reef and represent the southernmost records for this species on the east coast of australia . an immature male with a disc width ( dw ) of 650 mm and two females measuring 620 mm dw and 545 mm dw were caught on the eastern side of the island using hand or seine nets . the two females were released alive after examination . some morphometric data from two of the individuals are provided . the distribution , biology and ecology of this species are poorly - known , with only five catalogued australian specimens held in australian museums . the majority of these are not whole specimens and are in poor condition . there is further scattered information from photographs and live sightings . all known australian records of u . asperrimus are summarised here . there are records of the species across tropical northern australia , from ningaloo reef , wa ( 22 [ degree ] 43 [ minute ] s ) to heron island , qld ( 23 [ degree ] 26 [ minute ] s ) .\nthe porcupine ray is a widely distributed but relatively uncommon species found in the indo - west pacific ; it is also possibly tropical west africa ( senegal , guinea , ivory coast ) and as an invasive in the eastern mediterranean ( via the suez canal ) ( last and stevens 2009 ) . localities include south africa , madagascar , kenya , seychelles , red sea ( koseir ) , saudi arabia , oman ( muscat ) , gulf of oman , arabian sea and persian gulf , pakistan , india ( bombay , madras , malpe , south canara on malabar coast ) , sri lanka , myanmar , malaysia ( malay peninsula , penang ) , singapore , taiwan , thailand , indonesia ( jakarta , java , kalimantan ) , possibly the philippines , viet nam ( cholon ) , australia ( queensland , western australia , northern territory ) , new guinea and melanesia ( fowler 1941 , herre 1953 , capape and desoutter 1990 , last and stevens 1994 , last and compagno 1999 , theiss et al . 2010 , ebert et al . 2013 ) . the species appears to have patchy localized distributions with local hotspots recorded at d ' arros island in the seychelles , and specific sites in ningaloo reef and the great barrier reef , australia ( theiss et al . 2010 , chin 2014 ) .\nactinopterygians , or \u2018ray - finned fishes , \u2019 are the largest and most successful group of fishes and make up half of all living vertebrates . while actinopterygians appeared in the fossil record during the devonian period , between 400 - 350 million years ago ( ma ) , it was not until the carboniferous period ( 360 ma ) that they had become dominant in freshwaters and started to invade the seas . at present , approximately 42 orders , 431 families , and nearly 24 , 000 species are recognized within this class but there are bound to be taxonomic revisions as research progresses .\nkey to interpreting these eigenvectors is a helpful visualization of them . we have based our visualizations on the porcupine plots of ( 30 ) . in that study , a stick was drawn for all residues corresponding to the movement implied for that residue for a given eigenvector . for example to visualize eigenvector 1 a stick is drawn for each residue starting from the c\u03b1 and projecting in the direction of the component of the first eigenvector that corresponds to that residue . we have found that cones are easier for the eye to interpret than sticks and a script was written to allow the molecular graphics program vmd ( 32 ) to automatically plot these cones onto the protein , given the eigenvectors of the pca decomposition . 2 we have described elsewhere ( 29 ) a web - service 3 in which we have made these analyses and visualizations available to other researchers .\n) . the key to electrical communication is not simply the ability to detect electrical fields , but to produce a mild electrical discharge and modify the amplitude , frequency , and pulse length of the signal . this makes electrical signals individually specific , in addition to being sex and species - specific . consequently , \u201celectrical discharges can have all the functions that visual and auditory signals have in other fishes , including courtship , agonistic behavior and individual recognition\u201d ( moyle and cech 2004 : 206 ) . finally , a few highly migratory ray - finned fishes can apparently detect earth - strength magnetic fields directly , in much the same way sensation occurs with the lateral line . while the specific mechanisms of\nour results show that the charge on the phosphate accounts for much , but not all of the tendency of the phospho - thr 160 not to unfold from its active conformation . however , the full 2 - charge is not required for this effect over the timescales considered : little difference is observed in simulations where the phosphate is given a single negative charge . as expected , removal of the phosphate from a simulation of the phosphorylated x - ray structure leads to a significant loosening of the association between the arginine triad ( arg 50 , arg 126 , and arg 150 ) and thr 160 . indeed , in one simulation , a rapid partial unfolding of the t - loop was observed .\nray - finned fishes generally avoid predators in two ways , through behavioral adaptation and physical structures , such as spines , camouflage and scents . usually , several behavioral and structural tactics are integrated because it is advantageous for fishes to break the predation cycle ( 1 - 4 ) in as many places as possible , and the earlier the better . for instance , ( 1 ) the primary goal of most fish is to avoid detection , or avoid being exposed during certain times of the day . if detected , ( 2 ) a fish might try to hide very quickly , blend in with the surroundings , or school ; ( 3 ) if the fish is about to be attacked then it must try to deflect the attack , and if attack is unavoidable ( 4 ) the fish will try to avoid being handled and possibly escape . therefore , many fishes avoid even the chance of attack through particular cycles of activity , shading ( or lighting , see below ) and camouflage , mimicking , and warning coloration .\n( including chemoreception , electroreception , magnetic reception and a \u201cdistance - touch\u201d sensation \u2013 see communication ) , and some even produce their own light or electricity . in addition , color diversity in ray - finned fishes is \u201cessentially unlimited , ranging from uniformly dark black or red in many deepsea forms , to silvery in pelagic and water - column fishes , to countershaded in nearshore fishes of most littoral [ near - shore ] communities , to the strikingly contrasted colors of tropical freshwater and marine fishes\u201d ( helfman et al . 1997 : 367 ) . of course , extravagant coloration is not helpful for fish at risk of being eaten , yet bright coloration is environment - specific ( see helfman et al . 1997 : 367 ) and bright colors at one depth are cryptic at others due to light attenuation ( see communication ) . further , color change is common in brightly colored ( as well as many other ) fishes and occurs under a variety of circumstances . pigments are responsible for a many types of color change , but there are also\nmonomeric cdk2 has negligible activity because the residues that should form its catalytic and substrate - recognition sites are disordered ( 3 ) . full activation requires both binding by cyclin a or cyclin e and phosphorylation of residue thr 160 on a loop ( the \u201ct - loop\u201d ) by a cdk - activating kinase ( cak ) activity ( 4 \u2013 6 ) . the structure of cyclin a ( 7 ) does not change significantly , but many of the cdk2 residues are realigned toward their active configuration ( 8 ) . in this state the cdk2 has 0 . 4 % of its full activity : 100 % activity is achieved when thr 160 is phosphorylated ( 9 ) . x - ray structural data shows that phosphorylated thr 160 turns in to contact three arginine residues ( arg 50 , arg 126 , arg 150 ) , twisting the t - loop and stabilizing the conformation of residues linked to the catalytic apparatus of the kinase ( 6 ) . fig . 1 shows the experimentally determined structures of phosphorylated and unphosphorylated cdk2 in complex with cyclin a , emphasizing the arginines and the phosphorylated threonine .\nprincipal dynamic modes of the cdk2 - cyclin a dimer . a , porcupine plot of principal motion of the dimer calculated using concoord . the view is from cdk2 along the cdk2 - cyclin a axis . the motion is primarily an interdomain twist . b , same motion recast to show only motions internal to the cdk2 . the motion is seen to be a relative flexing of the n - and c - terminal domains causing the active site to open and close . c , similar motion is sometimes observed in a corresponding analysis of a subset of the trajectories generated by molecular dynamics , although in this case it appears as the 3rd ranked eigenvector . d , when an ensemble of structures taken from the pdb of cdk2 bound to a range of ligands is subjected to the same analysis the result obtained is similar to that of the concoord ensemble : the dominant mode is shown here . e , relative contributions of different modes ( eigenvectors ) to the overall motion is shown for the three analyses : concoord ( short dashed line ) , md ( long dashed line ) , and experimental ensemble ( solid line ) . the data are renormalized so that the eigenvalues for each set add up to unity . f , second most significant motion for cdk2 is a relative twist of the n - and c - terminal domains . this view is looking \u201cdown\u201d from the n - terminal domain , and was generated from the concoord ensemble ."]}
{"id": 2346, "summary": [{"text": "the dunlin ( calidris alpina ) is a small wader , sometimes separated with the other \" stints \" in erolia .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the english name is a dialect form of \" dunling \" , first recorded in 1531 \u2013 2 .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it derives from \" dun \" , \" dull brown \" , with the - ling suffix meaning \" concerned with \" .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the genus name is from ancient greek kalidris or skalidris , a term used by aristotle for some grey-coloured waterside birds .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the specific alpina is from latin and means \" of high mountains \" , in this case referring to the alps .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it is a circumpolar breeder in arctic or subarctic regions .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "birds that breed in northern europe and asia are long-distance migrants , wintering south to africa , southeast asia and the middle east .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "birds that breed in alaska and the canadian arctic migrate short distances to the pacific and atlantic coasts of north america , although those nesting in northern alaska overwinter in asia .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "many dunlins winter along the iberian south coast . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "dunlin", "paragraphs": ["black - breast , black - breast dunlin , purre , red - backed sandpiper .\nthe dunlin is a very rare vagrant to new zealand , with four accepted records .\nmarthinsen g , wennerberg l . lifjeld jt . phylogeography and subspecies taxonomy of dunlin (\nroberts , g . ( 1983 ) . a sighting of dunlin calidris alpina in north queensland and a review of australian dunlin records . sunbird . 13 : 15 - 19 .\nseasonal variation in harvestable density and biomass of main dunlin prey species in winter and spring .\ntable 1 : the development of the population of the dunlin in denmark 1964 - 2011 .\nequations used to calculate biomass ( ash free dry weight , afdw ) of dunlin invertebrate prey .\nrather cold tolerant for a shorebird , dunlin winter well to the north along the atlantic coast .\n\u200bpopulation development of baltic bird species : southern dunlin ( calidris alpina schinzii l . , 1758 )\none weird observation regarding the dunlin is their close association with the golden plover , there are several accounts of a single dunlin joining a flock of plover or even accompanying single plovers on feeding forays .\n( 5 ) dunlin x purple sandpiper ( calidris alpina x calidris maritima ) . see millington 1994 .\nthe dunlin is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nhabraken , a . 1980 . a dunlin at karaka shellbanks . notornis 27 : 300 - 301 .\nwennerberg l , holmgren nma , j\u00f6nsson pe . von schantz tv . genetic and morphological variation in dunlin\nfigure 1 : the breeding population of the southern dunlin in mecklenburg - western pomerania 1970 - 2011 .\nbrown , b . 1979 . dunlin in the firth of thames . notornis 26 : 202 - 203 .\nkelsey , m . , m . hassall . 1989 . patch selection by dunlin on a heterogeneous mudflat .\nthe dunlin nests on the tundra and winters on beaches , river and lake shores , mudflats and sandflats .\n) . five subspecies of dunlin breed in the east asia and alaska region known as beringia ( fig .\nas will be discussed below , the most parsimonious combinations seems to be dunlin x white - rumped sandpiper but it is worth keep other possibilities in mind such as dunlin x western sandpiper or white - rumped x western sandpiper .\ndiet of dunlin in winter and spring assessed by ( a ) field observations and ( b ) dropping analyses .\nthe dunlin has rapid , low flight when flushed . larger flocks twist and turn in unison while flying together .\ndunlin . overwintering bird moulting into breeding plumage . manukau harbour , april 2006 . image \u00a9 phil battley by phil battley\noutside the breeding season , dunlin are typically found in the company of other waders , on muddy estuaries and coastlines .\nbrown , b . 1975 . sight record of a dunlin in new zealand . notornis 22 : 241 - 243 .\nwe collected 370 dunlin blood or tissue samples from 18 breeding areas during the 2003 to 2009 breeding seasons ( fig .\naudubon ( 2005 ) . dunlin calidris alpina . conservation status . viewed 2 may 2008 . available from : urltoken .\ndunlin breeding in northern alaska apparently move west , migrating down the eastern side of siberia and asia to japan and china .\ndunlin mainly eat small invertebrates ( worms , crustaceans , molluscs and insects ) obtained by probing . no new zealand data .\nbaker , m . 1982 . individuality of vocalizations in dunlin : a possible acoustic basis for recognition of parent by offspring .\nshepherd , p . , d . lank . 2004 . marine and agricultural habitat preferences of dunlin wintering in british columbia .\n] than the dunlin in greenland ! ) the first observations listed for svalbard often come from adventfjorden , e . g .\n( 4 ) dunlin x white - rumped sandpiper ( calidris alpina x calidris fuscicollis ) . see mclaughlin and wormington 2000 for discussion .\nthe oldest recorded dunlin was at least 12 years , 5 months old when it was recaptured and rereleased during banding operations in california .\nthe dunlin eats insects and larvae , marine worms , small crustaceans , snails and small fish . sometimes the dunlin is called the\nsewing machine\nbecause of the way it bobs its head up and down and pokes into the ground when it probes for food .\ndunlin : rock sandpiper has less black on belly and has yellow legs . purple sandpiper is darker gray above and has yellow legs .\nclark na ( 1983 ) the ecology of dunlin ( calidris alpina l . ) wintering on the severn estuary : university of edinburgh .\nthe feeding strategy of the dunlin ( calidris alpina l . ) in artificial and non - artificial habitats at ria de aveiro , portugal\nthe pilothouse version of the dunlin 22 is available as downloadable study and construction plans , and printed construction . imperial and metric units .\nthe dunlin eats insects and larvae , marine worms , small crustaceans , snails , and small fish . the dunlin is sometimes called the\nsewing machine\nbecause of the way it bobs its head up and down and pokes into the ground as it probes for food .\na conservation priority for the dunlin is the development of monitoring across its range so that overall population trends may be determined ( 2 ) .\nthe female dunlin lays four eggs . the chicks hatch in 21 - 22 days and fledge when they are 19 - 21 days old .\nthere is a report of a dunlin at the same site on 6th february 1979 , when the pond was then concrete - lined and called the model yacht pond , and the following year i observed a dunlin that was present by alexandra lake from 31st august to 3rd september .\nclark , n . a . ( 1987 ) . a probable hybrid dunlin / sanderling . scottish birds . 14 : 211 - 213 .\nsterbetz , i . ( 1992 ) . foods of dunlin ( calidris alpina ) in hungary . aquila . 99 : 49 - 57 .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - dunlin ( calidris alpina )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - dunlin ( calidris alpina )\ntitle =\narkive species - dunlin ( calidris alpina )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nsaunders , g . c . 2012 . dunlin . in miskelly , c . m . ( ed . ) new zealand birds online . urltoken\nstockholm 350xx12 , migrant 2c male , ljunghusen , 2 . 7 . 05 . sometimes the dunlin male ( in this case belonging to the subspecies\n) are plausible hypotheses that may explain differences between data sets . however , adult male dunlin usually exhibit higher breeding site fidelity relative to females ( soikkeli\ngromadzka , j . ( 1989 ) . breeding and wintering areas of dunlin migrating through southern baltic . ornis scandinavica . 20 : 132 - 144 .\nsimilar species : the bane of twitchers ; dunlin can be , and has been , confused with almost every other small wader , from least sandpiper to curlew sandpiper . the black belly in breeding plumage is diagnostic . in non - breeding plumage the longer bill is sufficient to distinguish dunlin from stints . the significantly shorter legs should be sufficient to distinguish dunlin from curlew sandpiper ( individuals of the subspecies pacifica are almost the same size as , and have a bill of similar length to , curlew sandpiper . ) dunlin also appears horizontal when feeding and roosting ; in contrast to the more upright curlew sandpiper . the similar - sized white - rumped and baird\u2019s sandpipers have wings that extend beyond the tail . the former , with which dunlin has been known to interbreed , has a white rump . in non - breeding plumage dunlin is darker than sanderling , with less white in the wings , and has a longer bill .\nthe dunlin is a medium sized shore bird about seven to eight inches in length . it has a long , dark bill with a little downward dip at the end . it has a black patch on its belly and black legs . its back and wings are reddish - brown and its head and chest are white with brownish specks . in the winter the dunlin is a grayish color . the dunlin used to be known as the red - backed sandpiper .\nthe dunlin is one of the world\u2019s most abundant waders , with an estimated population between 4 , 600 , 000 and 6 , 500 , 000 birds .\nthe dunlin is a medium , rather stocky shorebird with a black patch on the belly and a long , decurved bill . breeding birds are reddish above .\n) . in contrast to past genetic studies of dunlin that included limited sampling of beringia - associated subspecies ( e . g . , wenink et al .\nthe dunlin is a conventionally accepted species ( christidis & boles 2008 ; cramp & simmons 1983 ; sibley & monroe 1990 ) . there are nine subspecies :\n. this bird is east siberian or alaskan , a true\nred - back\n- holmes ' nickname for alaskan dunlin . cf . right side of\nthe dunlin is a medium - sized shore bird about 7 to 8 inches in length . it has a long , dark bill with a little downward dip at the end . it has a black patch on its belly and black legs . its back and wings are reddish - brown , and its head and chest are white with brownish specks . in the winter , the dunlin is a grayish color . the dunlin used to be known as the red - backed sandpiper .\nwenink pw , baker aj . tilanus mgj . hypervariable - control - region sequences reveal global population structuring in a long - distance migrant shorebird : the dunlin (\nerritzoe , j . ( 1994 ) . first record of the dunlin from the philippines . bulletin of the british ornithologists club . 114 : 128 - 129 .\ngreenwood , j . g . ( 1983 ) . dunlin calitris alpina in south america . bulletin of the british ornithologists club . 103 : 110 - 111 .\nworrall , d . h . ( 1984 ) . diet of the dunlin calidris alpina in the severn estuary . bird study . 31 : 203 - 212 .\nsoikkeli , m . ( 1964 ) : the distribution of the southern dunlin ( calidris alpina schinzii ) in finland . ornis fennica 41 : 13 - 21 .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive video - dunlin nest being raided by hedgehog , chicks already hatched\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive video - dunlin nest being raided by hedgehog , chicks already hatched\ntitle =\narkive video - dunlin nest being raided by hedgehog , chicks already hatched\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe microsatellite analyses provided varying insights regarding genetic differentiation patterns in dunlin . structure suggested no evidence of differentiation among subspecies . although the greatest average likelihood score was observed for the\nhill bl . 2012 . fairbanks , ak university of alaska fairbanks factors affecting survival of arctic - breeding dunlin ( calidris alpina arcticola ) adults and chicks . ms thesis .\nkelsey , m . g . & m . hassall ( 1989 ) . patch selection by dunlin on a heterogeneous mudflat . ornis scandinavica . 20 : 250 - 254 .\nconservation plan for dunlin with breeding populations in north america ( calidris alpina arcticola , c . a . pacifica and c . a . hudsonia ) , version 1 . 0 .\nwenink pw , baker aj . tilanus mgj . mitochondrial control - region sequences in two shorebird species , the turnstone and the dunlin , and their utility in population genetic studies .\nmclaughlin , k . a . & a . wormington ( 2000 ) . an apparent dunlin \u00d7 white - rumped sandpiper hybrid . ontario birds . 18 : 8 - 12 .\nthis is the vanishing meadow dunlin , the one the danes call\nengsryle\n(\ny\nlike in cylinder ; the word\nryle\nmust be onomatopoetic ) .\nwalking from home across the flats to enjoy a coffee in the sun in the cemetery ( ! ) , my ' phone rang . . .\nthere ' s a dunlin on the jubilee pond\nsaid jonathan lethbridge , so instead of a short walk and sit in the sun , i had a long walk and an excellent view of a dunlin .\nthe 2000 study showed that in south uist and benbecula , numbers of breeding snipe , dunlin and ringed plover fell by 60 % , redshank declined by 40 % and lapwing by 30 % . this contrasted with an increase in lapwing and redshank numbers on north uist and although dunlin declined by 30 % here , it was half the decline in the south .\nblomqvist , d . , o . johansson , u . unger , m . larsson , l . flodin . 1997 . male aerial displayand reversed sexual size dimorphism in the dunlin .\nthere are nine different subspecies of the dunlin ( cramp & simmons 1983 ) , and though these breed separately , there is much intermingling on passage and in non - breeding areas .\nwennerberg , l . ( 2001 ) . breeding origin and migration pattern of dunlin ( calidris alpina ) revealed by mitochondrial dna analysis . molecular ecology . 10 : 1111 - 1120 .\ndunlin breed as monogamous pairs in coastal grassland , saltmarsh , upland moorland and arctic tundra . the clutch of 4 eggs is laid in a scrape ; incubation and chick - rearing are shared , and the young leave the nest soon after hatching . dunlin have been recorded to have interbred with white - rumped sandpiper , sanderling and purple sandpiper ( c . maritima ) .\n) , genetic analyses from our investigation revealed marked genetic differentiation among some dunlin subspecies based on mtdna analyses . phylogenetic analysis revealed four separate phylogroups with high levels of statistical support ( fig .\nhobson , k . , g . slater , d . lank , r . milner , r . gardiner . 2013 . agricultural lands subsidize winter diet of the dunlin at two major estuaries .\nwarnock , n . , g . w . page & b . k . sandercock ( 1997 ) . local survival of dunlin wintering in california . condor . 99 : 906 - 915 .\nfigure 2 : the distribution of the southern dunlin ( calidris alpina schinzii ) in the baltic sea area 2000 - 2010 ( including the north sea coast of denmark and schleswig - holstein ) .\nthe southern sub - species of the dunlin , calidris alpina schinzii , colonises south - eastern greenland , iceland , the faeroe islands , great britain and ireland , southern norway , and the baltic . in the southern north sea ( belgium , netherlands and germany ) , the dunlin has been a breeding bird in the past , but in recent times breeding records have been few and irregular .\nbrowning , m . r . ( 1991 ) . taxonomic comments on the dunlin calidris alpina from northern alaska and eastern siberia . bulletin of the british ornithologists club . 111 : 140 - 145 .\ngerasimov , y . n . & n . n . gerasimov ( 2001 ) . records of northward migration of dunlin calidris alpina through kamchatka , russia . stilt . 39 : 37 - 40 .\nthe dunlin breeds from western and northern alaska east to the hudson bay . it winters along the coast from southern alaska and massachusetts south to mexico . it is also found in northern europe and asia .\nhall js , franson jc , gill re , meteyer cu , teslaa jl , nashold s , dusek rj , et al . experimental challenge and pathology of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus h5n1 in dunlin (\nas hedgehog numbers increased , ground nesting birds including lapwing , dunlin , ringed plover , snipe and redshank have seen their numbers decline . research demonstrates this is mostly due to the non - native hedgehogs .\nyesterday ' s photographs ( digital cameras not being around in 1980 ) captured the dunlin almost always with its head in the water . it was still there at 3pm , but not seen just after 5pm .\ngiven its vagrant status , there are no estimates of the extent of occurrence of the dunlin in australia . the estimated global extent of occurrence is 1 000 000\u009610 000 000 km\u00b2 ( birdlife international 2007a ) .\ngoede , a . a . & m . de bruin ( 1985a ) . selenium in a shore bird , the dunlin , from the dutch waddenzee . marine pollution bulletin . 16 : 115 - 117 .\nthe southern subspecies of the dunlin ( calidris alpina schinzii ) was once an abundant and widespread breeding bird of the baltic sea area . however , during the 20 th century the population declined rapidly and counts currently not more than 500 - 640 bp . from many parts of its former baltic range the dunlin has disappeared . an extinction of the species in the baltic region during the next few decades cannot be excluded .\nthorup , o . , z . preiksa , h . pehlak , m . altem\u00fcller & h . drews ( submitted ) : status of the baltic dunlin calidris alpina in lithuania . wader study group bull .\nwarnock , n . , r . gill . 1996 .\ndunlin ( calidris alpina )\n( on - line ) . the birds of north america online . accessed march 10 , 2014 at urltoken .\ni can honestly say that despite tramping over dartmoor for a few decades i have never seen sight nor sound of the elusive dunlin . the dunlin or calidris alpina if one wants to be official is a small wading bird that tends to breed in upland bogs and then migrate to low lying mud flats in the winter . it has been said that winter dunlin numbers have declined by around 50 % during the past 25 years . however the uk breeding population remains fairly static but none the less the species appears on the birds of conservation concern red list . it is estimated that the entire uk population numbers around 9 , 600 pairs .\nsuch a striking project by alexandra kidd . a smokey pallet offsets the natural sydney sandstone of this landmark terrace house . lighting from dunlin is used throughout , including the btc cranton pendant and the btc walter pendant .\nother names : red - backed sandpiper ; black - bellied sandpiper ; american dunlin ; blackcrop ( bent 1962 ; dement ' ev & gladkov 1951 ; grinnell et al . 1918 ; higgins & davies 1996 ) .\nthorup , o . ( 1997 ) : langtidsstudier af baltisk ryle p\u00e5 tipperne . [ long - term studies of baltic dunlin at tipperne ] - dansk orn . foren . tidsskr . 91 : 50 - 51 .\nschulenberg , t . s . ( 2010 ) dunlin ( calidris alpina ) . in : schulenberg , t . s . ( ed ) neotropical birds online . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca . available at : urltoken\nperhaps we could see more dunlin - and other things - visiting the wanstead park area , as careful management could see an increasing number of the wide variety of migrants and residents that we already know visit wanstead flats .\ngoede , a . a . & m . de bruin ( 1985b ) . arsenic in the dunlin ( calidris alpina ) from the dutch waddenzee . bulletin of environmental contamination and toxicology . 34 : 617 - 622 .\nlowry , r . j . , r . jensen , j . payne & r . payne ( 1999 ) . a wintering dunlin in north queensland . australian birding . 5 ( 3 ) : 11 - 12 .\npienkowski , m . w . & w . j . a . dick ( 1975 ) . the migration and wintering of dunlin calidris alpina in north - west africa . ornis scandinavica . 6 : 151 - 167 .\nshepherd , p . c . f . & d . b . lank ( 2004 ) . marine and agricultural habitat preferences of dunlin wintering in british columbia . journal of wildlife management . 68 : 61 - 73 .\nthe good news for dartmoor is that its upland bogs and mires are the most southerly breeding area in the world . not only that but dartmoor is the home to the only breeding population of dunlin in southern england . so it should come as no surprise that various bodies are making concerted efforts to maintain the dartmoor dunlin population . one of these major efforts , and i might add controversial , is the notorious ( in some eyes ) \u2018\n- although it ' s turning the other flank . ( dates support this assumption ) . my thanks to pavel tomkovich , who sent them ; the site is gradually approaching a full hand in dunlin subspecies ! [ cp ]\nthe dunlin breeds in northern russia , europe , greenland , canada and alaska , and migrates to the coasts of southern north america , south and west europe , north and west africa , the middle east , china and japan .\nlu\u00eds , a . & j . d . goss - custard ( 2005 ) . spatial organization of the dunlin calidris alpina l . during winter - the existence of functional units . bird study . 52 : 97 - 103 .\nruiz , g . m . , p . g . connors , s . e . griffin & f . a . pitelka ( 1989 ) . structure of a wintering dunlin population . condor . 91 : 562 - 570 .\nfedorov v . a . ( 2009 ) : nest record of the dunlin calidris alpina schinzii in the kurgalsky zakaznik , leningrad oblast . russian journal of ornithology 486 , express issue 18 : 351 - 354 ( in russian ) .\non the breeding grounds , insects and insect larvae are the most important source of food . in coastal habitats , dunlin also eat marine worms , small crustaceans , mollusks , and other aquatic creatures . they sometimes eat seeds and leaves .\nthere is no published information on the generation length of the dunlin , but they first breed when one year old , and the oldest bird recorded was 24 years old ( etheridge & taylor 1982 ; van gils & wiersma 1996 ) .\npetersen , w . r . , p . k . donahue & n . atkins ( 1981 ) . first record of dunlin ( calidris alpina ) for peru and continental south america . american birds . 35 : 342 - 343 .\nkus , b . e . , p . ashman , g . w . page & l . e . stenzel ( 1984 ) . age - related mortality in a wintering population of dunlin . auk . 101 : 69 - 73 .\nwarnock , n . , j . y . takekawa & m . a . bishop ( 2004 ) . migration and stopover strategies of individual dunlin along the pacific coast of north america . canadian journal of zoology . 82 : 1687 - 1697 .\nthe canadian wildlife service estimates the dunlin population at 3 , 934 , 000 birds worldwide , with 1 , 325 , 000 in north america . of that group , 500 , 000 birds make up the pacific coast population . dunlin are currently the second most common shorebird in washington , and the most common of washington ' s wintering shorebirds , but numbers have declined in the northwest in recent decades . there has been little habitat destruction or disturbance on the breeding grounds to date , but the migration and wintering grounds are threatened by destruction of habitat . there is currently no reliable information about population status or trends for dunlin range - wide , so it is unknown if the trend in the northwest is due to a decrease in population or a shift in range . dunlin are considered an indicator species for assessing the health of holarctic ecosystems , so determining range - wide population trends should be of high priority as reduction in their numbers could indicate that other species that use these ecosystems are at risk .\nperched above the waves of bronte , this elegant coastal home by lane and grove strikes the perfect balance between beachside chic and classic elegance . dunlin assisted with pendant lighting including the davey box family , along with all the outdoor lighting . . . .\nwennerberg l , n . m . a . holmgren , p . e . j\u00f6nsson , t . von schantz ( 1999 ) . genetic and morphological variation in dunlin calidris alpina breeding in the palearctic tundra . ibis . 141 : 391 - 398 .\non the 9th of september 2007 during a full - day birdwatching tour through madeira nature with madeira wind birds , one dunlin of the subspecies alpina was observed in ribeira da janela , seixal . the observers were helen & paul colto from uk , catarina & hugo from madeira wind birds . the main characteristics that allow the observers to identify it as the ssp alpina of a dunlin were its longer bill , its clearer head and breast with the distinct black belly and the bright rufous colour near the wing .\nalthough our new findings do not specifically identify strategies for preventing the transmission of hpai into north america , they nonetheless reveal a mechanism by which dunlin could facilitate the spread of hpai into north america and mexico . this is particularly pertinent given that dunlin are highly susceptible to infection with the h5n1 hpai , and that some individuals may live to spread the disease , possibly after undergoing a migration ( hall et al . 2011 ) . although only a few dunlin sampled in western north america have been documented with actively shedding ai ( ip et al . 2008 ; iverson et al . 2008 ; usfws and usgs 2011 ) , the continued emergence of new hpai strains ( e . g . , h5n8 , h7n9 ) and the fact that most efforts to date have detected prior exposure ( i . e . , antibodies , see pearce et al . 2012 ; johnson et al . 2014 ) indicates that the evolution of new strains remains problematic and that dunlin are a potential route for hpai to reach and spread within north america .\nlavers , c . p . & r . h . haines - young ( 1997 ) . the use of satellite imagery to estimate dunlin calidris alpina abundance in caithness and sutherland and in the shetland islands . bird study . 44 : 220 - 226 .\nat the baltic coast of schleswig - holstein , germany , the dunlin has been a widespread breeder in the past ( e . g . , boie 1822 ) , but disappeared during the 1990s . however , at the north sea coast it re - established as a breeding bird in 2007 in the rickelsb\u00fcller koog close to the danish border . in this area ( rickelsb\u00fcller koog and the adjacent margrethe kog ) , the dunlin had already disappeared in 1996 . the number of breeding pairs were 1 bp in 2007 , 2 bp in 2008 , 5 bp in 2009 and 4 bp in 2010 . the return of the dunlin to the rickelsb\u00fcller koog is probably related to dispersal or interchange of birds from the danish breeding sites on r\u00f8m\u00f8 ( distance c . 25 km ) .\nwith an extremely large range and a relatively large population , the dunlin is not at immediate risk of extinction . however , there are a great number of threats to this species , with the loss of its breeding habitat through afforestation particularly problematic ( 5 ) .\nwarnock , n . d . and gill , r . e . ( 1996 ) dunlin ( calidris alpina ) . in : poole , a . ( ed ) the birds of north america online . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca . available at : urltoken\nlavers , c . p . & r . h . haines - young ( 1996 ) . the pattern of dunlin calidris alpina distribution and abundance in relation to habitat variation in the flow country of northern scotland . bird study . 43 : 231 - 239 .\ngene and control region along with eight nuclear microsatellite loci to address multiple questions associated with the differentiation of dunlin subspecies and the extent of gene flow and interactions among groups from asia and north america . ( i ) do genetic data provide evidence for differentiation among dunlin subspecies and breeding populations from the region ? while prior work has examined phylogeographic patterns in the northern hemisphere , most studies were based on small sample sizes and had limited ( or no ) sampling within beringia - associated subspecies ( e . g . , wenink and baker\nmany thanks to dennis paulson for bringing this wonder bird to my attention and of course to wayne richardson for his stunning photographs . thanks also to norman deans vans swelm for the bringing the dutch dunlin ( ? ) to our attention and providing his very useful photograph .\nbuchanan , j . b . , c . t . schick , l . a . brennan & s . g . herman ( 1988 ) . merlin predation on wintering dunlins : hunting success and dunlin escape tactics . wilson bulletin . 100 : 108 - 118 .\ndurell , s . e . a . le v . dit & c . p . kelly ( 1990 ) . diets of dunlin calidris alpina and grey plover pluvialis squatarola on the wash as determined by dropping analysis . bird study . 37 : 44 - 47 .\nlesterhuis , a . j . & r . p . clay ( 2003 ) . the first record of dunlin ( calidris alpina ) in paraguay and a summary of south american records of the species . el hornero ( b . aires ) . 18 : 65 - 67 .\nthe southern dunlin ( calidris alpina schinzii ) is a characteristic bird of grazed coastal meadows , but small numbers also breed on peat bogs . nowadays , the breeding sites are almost exclusively found in coastal areas , whereas in the past the species was also common in the inland .\ntable 2 : population numbers of the dunlin in the baltic sea area 1994 - 1998 and 2007 - 2011 . data for 1994 - 1998 according to helcom ( 2002 ) . for denmark and schleswig - holstein , the numbers include the breeding pairs at the north sea coast .\nwarnock , nils d . and robert e . gill . 1996 . dunlin ( calidris alpina ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .\nthe dunlin is a familiar shorebird around the world , where its bright reddish back and black belly , and long , drooping bill distinguish it from nearly all other shorebirds . it breeds across the top of both north america and eurasia , and winters along coasts around the northern hemisphere .\ntundra - breeders , dunlin typically nest in wet meadow tundra with low ridges , vegetation hummocks , and nearby ponds . during migration and winter , they prefer mudflats , but can also be seen on sandy beaches , coastal grasslands , estuaries , and occasionally in muddy , freshwater areas .\nthe dunlin is a small migratory wader that exhibits great variability in body and bill size , and plumage , leading to it being easily confused with a number of other small waders . in particular it is similar to the slightly larger curlew sandpiper , but with shorter legs and bill .\nthe global population is estimated to number 4 , 600 , 000 / 6 , 500 , 000 individuals ( wetlands international 2006 ) . the overall population trend is decreasing , but some races such as arctica and shinzii are considered stable . the dunlin is currently evaluated as least concern .\npairwise and global estimates of f st for dunlin ( calidris alpina ) subspecies . f st values are shown below matrix diagonals while p - values are above matrix diagonals . ( a ) mtdna ; ( b ) microsatellite analyses ; ( c ) microsatellite analyses assuming a stepwise mutational model\nthe dunlin is a small ( length : 16\u009622 cm ; weight : 60 g ) sandpiper with a shortish drooping bill , short wings and legs , and a hunched posture . the sexes are similar in both breeding and non - breeding plumage , but juveniles are separable from adults .\nblomqvist , s . , a . frank & l . r . petersson ( 1987 ) . metals in liver and kidney tissues of autumn - migrating dunlin calidris alpina and curlew sandpiper calidris ferruginea staging at the baltic sea . marine ecology progress series . 35 : 1 - 13 .\nthe population decline of the dunlin in the baltic sea area should be stopped or , if possible , even reversed by an appropriate management ( habitat management / management of predators ) of the still existing breeding sites and other appropriate sites , especially those where the species has disappeared recently .\nbecause the dunlin have been and are so rarely encountered on dartmoor there is no folklore attached to them which is a shame . maybe in future years when their numbers on dartmoor have increased they will become a \u2018 legendary \u2018 success story for the various bodies concerned with their conservation ?\ngoss - custard , j . d . & m . e . moser ( 1988 ) . rates of change in the numbers of dunlin , calidris alpina , wintering in british estuaries in relation to the spread of spartina anglica . journal of applied ecology . 25 : 95 - 109 .\nthis entry was posted in biodiversity , birds , wildlife management and tagged biodiversity , bird , birds , coast , conservation , dunlin , hedgehogs , lapwing , nest predation , redshank , ringed plover , scottish natural heritage , snh , snipe , waders , wildlife management . bookmark the permalink .\nintroduction : the dunlin is a circumpolar breeder . it breeds far north in the arctic and winters southwards in more temperate regions . this species is common , but the overall population trend is decreasing , due to the usual threats including habitat loss on the breeding grounds , nest predation by introduced mammals on some islands , disturbances , pollution\u2026 the dunlin has currently ten subspecies , but some of them are still uncertain . this species is gregarious outside breeding , and they often gather in huge flocks . if they are disturbed , they all fly off together , turning and flying in unison .\nthis study is concerned with the ability of two wader species , the sanderling , calidris alba and the dunlin , c . alpina to determine the presence of prey in a sediment by using their sense of taste , and whether they use this information while foraging for prey hidden in the sediment .\nstockholm 350xx20 , migrant 3c + female , ljunghusen , 8 . 7 . 05 . the female dunlin has much more dots and shades in her face , her indicated lores are wider and in most cases she lacks the bill - base\ngoggles\n( seen from above , cf . picture\nin finland , the southern dunlin has never been numerous . the first documented breedings date back to the 1880s . in the 1960s , the dunlin was still considered increasing , with a country total of 150 - 200 bp ( soikkeli 1964 ; perttula 1998 ) . new breeding sites were still found in the mid - 1980s when the population peaked at 200 pairs . however , until the early 1990s the population had declined to 100 bp . in 1999 the number of confirmed breeding pairs was 71 , and in recent years ( 2003 - 2009 ) the number was about constant between 50 and 60 bp .\nthe name , first applied long ago , simply means\nlittle dun - colored ( gray - brown ) bird ,\na good description of the dunlin in winter plumage . spending the winter farther north than most of its relatives , this species is a familiar sight along the outer beaches during the cold months , as far north as new england and even southern alaska . it is often in large flocks ; in flight , these flocks may twist and bank in unison , in impressive aerial maneuvers . in breeding plumage , the dunlin is so much more brightly colored as to seem like a different bird .\nthe dunlin ( calidris alpina ) is one of the hardiest of all shorebirds , breeding far north in the arctic region and migrating southwards before the onset of winter ( 3 ) . this species is also renowned for its beautiful breeding plumage , which is distinguished by the reddish cap , bright reddish - brown back and black belly patch , which extends behind its black legs . the head and breast are pale brown . outside of the breeding season , the dunlin is light brownish - grey with a brownish back , white underparts and a brownish band streaking across the upper breast ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .\ndunlin : breeds along the arctic coast from western and northern alaska east to hudson bay . spends winters along coastlines from southern alaska and massachusetts southward to mexico ; also found in parts of eurasia . nests on tundra and winters on beaches , mudflats , sand flats , inland lakes , and river shores .\nprobably much to the annoyance of those who disapprove of the mires project , the findings of this survey proved very encouraging as far as the dunlin numbers go . it has been reported that there has been a thirty seven percent increase in territorial pairs over the past four years . in 2010 it was thought that there were sixteen pairs living on dartmoor , in 2014 these numbers had increased to twenty two pairs . if one looks at the \u2018restored\u2019 sites , i . e . those that have been the subject of mire restoration , again the results are encouraging . at one site the numbers of breeding pairs had increased from two to three . at another they had increased from three to six and at a third a pair had been recorded for the first time . needless to say these findings have been quickly used as ammunition in the debate as to whether or not the mires project should have been instigated . the dartmoor national park authorities director of conservation and communities , alison kohler has commented that ; \u201c the project partners are really excited to see such a rapid response by our dunlin population . this is a fantastic success story for the dunlin ( which particular dunlin she does not say ) and for the dartmoor mires project . \u201d\nthe dunlin is migratory and performs short coastal flights to long , non - stop flights overland in broad front . they moult in large concentrations on or near the wintering areas . some immature birds may spend all the year in the non - breeding range , but most of them return to the breeding grounds .\nthe dunlin has a very wide distribution , occurring across nearly all arctic regions . its breeding range stretches from east greenland , across the russian arctic to the alaskan coast of the bering sea . there is also an isolated population that breeds in the east canadian arctic ( 5 ) ( 6 ) ( 7 ) .\ndunlin : call is a simple\nkree .\nsong is a series of frog - like wheezing calls and long trills , such as\nwrrrrrah wrrrrrah wrrrrrah\nand twittering\nchrri - i - i - i - i - i - ri - ri - ri - ri - ri - ri .\nmigratory birds may facilitate the spread of hpai from asia to north america ( winker and gibson 2010 ) . in this investigation , we used large sample sizes and two genetic data sources ( mitochondrial dna and microsatellites ) to determine genetic structure patterns among six dunlin subspecies that reside in and migrate through eastern asia and north america . we specifically focused on determining whether the four subspecies of dunlin that winter in asia can be differentiated and if genetic evidence for gene flow among beringian subspecies exists . we suggest that our results may be useful for documenting potential hpai transmission routes and the pathways that may facilitate the spread of disease across continents .\nin the st petersburg region of russia the dunlin is obviously still a rare or sporadic breeder . in 2008 , a nest was found on the shore of kurgalsky peninsula ( fedorov 2009 ) . in 2010 , an adult bird with typical breeding behaviour was seen on a small islet near sescar island ( fedorov , pers . comm . ) . in the kaliningrad region the dunlin was known as a breeding bird until 2001 ( 1989 - 93 : 4 - 5 bp ; 1996 - 99 : 3 pairs ; 2001 : 2 pairs ) . after that year , no further breeding could be confirmed ( grishanov & lykov 2008 ) .\nthe dunlin has also been extensively hunted in the past , although this is now a lesser threat ( 2 ) , and it is susceptible to avian influenza ( 5 ) . in some areas , introduced predators such as the hedgehog ( erinaceus europaeus ) have greatly reduced the breeding success of this species ( 6 ) .\nassuming that our sample of individuals and subspecies is representative of dunlin from east asia , our analysis suggests that we can use our data to obtain rudimentary estimates of the probability of correctly distinguishing asian - versus alaskan - breeding birds with mtdna when sampling takes place in the east asian nonbreeding areas . with the exception of seven\nwenink , p . w . , a . j . baker , & m . g . j . tilanus ( 1994 ) . mitochondrial control - region sequences in two shorebird species , the turnstone and the dunlin , and their utility in population genetic studies . molecular biology and evolution . 11 : 22 - 31 .\nironically , although the dunlin can be considered as a dartmoor rarity they are in fact one of the commonest coastal waders . in winter it is possible to see feeding flocks of around one thousand birds roosting in salt marshes and shorelines . their preferred diet is one that consists of insects , worms and snails and their breeding season lies between april and july . they are ground nesting birds which i suppose is obvious when looking at dartmoor blanket bog \u2013 not many other options there . the typical dunlin clutch consists of four eggs which when hatched are left to the male bird to feed , after about three to four weeks they are airborne and self supporting .\nhabitat : the dunlin breeds in a wide variety of habitats including boggy tundra , moorland often close to pools , wet coastal grassland and salt marshes , tussock tundra and peat - hummock in arctic . after breeding , it frequents tidal mudflats , freshwater lakes , brackish lagoons , sandy beaches and flooded fields , and also estuarine mudflats .\nbehaviour in the wild : the dunlin feeds by walking or running , while picking rapidly at the surface . it is sometimes called the \u201csewing machine\u201d because it bobs the head up and down and pokes into the ground with the bill while feeding . it forages in open mud near the water\u2019s edge , and wades in shallow water .\nsikora , a . , m . wieloch , m . zieli\u0144ska , t . mokwa , p . chylarecki , p . zieli\u0144ski & z . rohde ( 2008 ) : monitoring of rare species ( whooper swan , ferruginous duck , dunlin , and mediterranean gull ) , report for the chief inspectorate of environmental protection 2007 , gdansk .\nas a breeding bird of coastal , grazed meadows which are exposed to regular flooding the dunlin maybe considered as an indicator for the quality of this habitat type . since several other waders ( e . g . , ruff , black - tailed godwit , redshank , avocet , lapwing ) are breeding in the same or similar habitats , the dunlin is an indicator for the habitat availability and quality for this group of coastal birds . the coastal waders are a bird group of special conservation concern in the baltic sea area , since several species meet the criteria for a threat category according to the helcom red list of baltic breeding birds ( helcom , in prep . ) .\nbreeding distribution the dunlin has a virtually circumpolar breeding distribution , with populations breeding in greenland , iceland , britain , scandinavia , northern russia , alaska and northern canada ( barter 2005b ; browning 1991 ; cramp & simmons 1983 ; dement ' ev & gladkov 1951 ; gromadzka 1989 ; maclean & holmes 1971 ; van gils & wiersma 1996 ) .\nthe dunlin is protected by the provisions of the eu birds directive ( directive 2009 / 147 / ec of the european parliament and of the council of 30 november 2009 on the conservation of wild birds ; this is the codified version of directive 79 / 409 / eec ) , which are implemented by the member states into national law . this means , the legal protection status of the species is similar in all baltic sea states , which are members of the european union . it is listed in annex i of the bird directive , i . e . , eu member states are obliged to establish special protected areas ( spa ) . in russia , the dunlin is also protected .\na migratory species , the dunlin has a number of sub - populations that each has differing migration behaviours . for instance , the sub - population that breeds in north - east greenland migrates through iceland , britain and western france to arrive in its west african wintering grounds from late july , returning again between march and early april ( 5 ) .\nin north america , the dunlin is protected by the north american migratory bird treaty act of 1918 , which protects this species and its eggs from hunting and collection ( 2 ) . in the uk , this species is also well protected in special protected areas , with around 74 percent of the total breeding population found in such reserves ( 6 ) .\nthe dunlin is an indicator for habitat changes , which not only affect this species , but also other wader species which live in the same or similar habitats , such as ruff ( philomachus pugnax ) , black - tailed godwit ( limosa limosa ) , redshank ( tringa totanus ) , avocet ( recurvirostra avosetta ) , and lapwing ( vanellus vanellus ) .\nother topics in shorebird identification ( complete listing here ) eastern or western willet ? age and sexing of a bar - tailed godwit . pacific versus american golden - plover . black - tailed godwit - islandica or limosa ? black - tailed godwit - identification of the asiatic subspecies melanuroides . red - necked stint and little stint identification . curlew sandpiper or dunlin ?\nduring the breeding season , they perform a low display flight with quivering wingbeats interspersed with glides . they circle slowly over the breeding territory . they are monogamous and solitary nesters , with usually 3 - 30 birds / km\u00b2 . in front of a rival or an intruder , the dunlin reacts by advancing , then pausing to raise one wing vertically high over back .\nthe key management documentation for the species in the east asian - australasian flyway is keeping the common shorebirds common : action planning to save the dunlin by barter ( 2005b ) . there is a detailed summary of all that is known of the species in europe in cramp and simmons ( 1983 ) and a briefer summary in van gils and wiersma ( 1996 ) .\nwenink , p . w . , a . j . baker , & m . g . j . tilanus ( 1993 ) . hypervariable - control - region sequences reveal global population structuring in a long - distance migrant shorebird , the dunlin ( calidris alpina ) . in : proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the usa . 90 : 94 - 98 .\nthere are no confirmed breeding records of the dunlin in latvia from recent times . during the elaboration of the second latvian breeding bird atlas 2000 - 2004 ( in preparation , results are available online : urltoken ) breeding of dunlins has been suspected for 3 sites : ainazi and randu plavas , teich bog and daugavgriiva . the population is estimated at 0 - 7 bp .\na : consumption rate ( prey / min ) of main prey . b : occurrence of shell remains of h . ulvae in dunlin droppings . values represent mean \u00b1 se . differences between seasons were tested with ( a ) mann - whitney ( b ) and chi - squared tests ( * p < 0 . 05 ; * * * p < 0 . 001 ) .\ncalls and songs : sounds by xeno - canto the dunlin gives a shrill , rasping \u201ckreeep\u201d in flight . while feeding in flocks , they produce a low \u201cbeep\u201d and a soft twittering at roost . on the breeding grounds , it utters prolonged , reedy , descending trilled whistles while displaying . when alarmed , it produces a sharp \u201cquoi\u201d and a low \u201cwurt - wurt - wurt\u201d .\nprotection / threats / status : the dunlin has large range . it is threatened by habitat loss in its breeding grounds , and drainage of wetlands involving changes in estuaries where it often spends the winter . nest predation by introduced mammals on some islands is a problem too . some important migratory stopovers on the baltic sea coastline are threatened by petroleum pollution and various changes in the habitat .\nafter 1 june , what hasn ' t been exchanged then is suspended . some west - / north - palaearctic populations have a very lack - lustre breeding plumage , they may for example breed with three unmoulted winter scapulars . there seems to be some extra cost connected with belonging to a marginal dunlin population , lying a little apart from the main migration flyways and population\ncentres\n(\ndunlin flocks are often huge , most impressive when they display their coordinated aerial maneuvers trying to escape predation by peregrine falcons and merlins . when foraging , they either pick food from the surface or probe in the mud . they feed on exposed mud or in shallow water , making short runs interspersed with periods of feeding . they feed day or night , depending on the timing of low tide .\ntelling winter waders apart can be daunting . success in this ( and if you are keen to find rarer species ) is not difficult , provided you are familiar with two key species : knot and dunlin . this guide tackles these two \u2018confusing calidrids\u2019 , familiarity with these is essential in order to gain experience and confidence identifying the apparently bewildering range of waders on our coasts in autumn and winter .\nthere have been two confirmed records of the dunlin in australia : at cairns , queensland , on 4 january 1983 ( roberts 1983 ) ; and cape bowling green , queensland , on 1 july 1999 ( lowry et al . 1999 ) . there have been numerous other unconfirmed or doubtful reports , from queensland , victoria , tasmania , south australia and western australia ( higgins & davies 1996 ) .\ndear angus , the unidentified sandpiper shown on your website made me remember a dunlin my son charles and i found in may 2001 here in the sw netherlands ( see fig . 6 ) . in my opinion this long - billed individual is an american bird c . a . hudsonia and very similar to a bird photographed by richard chandler and shown on the cover of british birds some years ago .\nthe dunlin in breeding plumage has rufous upperparts with blackish , white , greyish and chestnut markings . mantle , scapulars and tertials are blackish with variable chestnut , grey or whitish fringes . the wing - coverts are grey - brown with pale grey to whitish fringes . the flight feathers are blackish - brown , whereas sides of rump and uppertail are white , and sides of tail are greyish - brown ."]}
{"id": 2355, "summary": [{"text": "the plain maskray or brown stingray ( neotrygon annotata ) is a species of stingray in the family dasyatidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in shallow , soft-bottomed habitats off northern australia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "reaching 24 cm ( 9.4 in ) in width , this species has a diamond-shaped , grayish green pectoral fin disc .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its short , whip-like tail has alternating black and white bands and fin folds above and below .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "there are short rows of thorns on the back and the base of the tail , but otherwise the skin is smooth .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "while this species possesses the dark mask-like pattern across its eyes common to its genus , it is not ornately patterned like other maskrays .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "benthic in nature , the plain maskray feeds mainly on caridean shrimp and polychaete worms , and to a lesser extent on small bony fishes .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it is viviparous , with females producing litters of one or two young that are nourished during gestation via histotroph ( \" uterine milk \" ) .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "this species lacks economic value but is caught incidentally in bottom trawls , which it is thought to be less able to withstand than other maskrays due to its gracile build .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "as it also has a limited distribution and low fecundity , the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has listed it as near threatened . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "plain maskray", "paragraphs": ["plain maskray , neotrygon annotata . source : australian national fish collection , csiro . license : cc by attribution - noncommercial\nthe plain maskray , neotrygon annotata , also known as the brown stingray , is a species of fish in the dasyatidae family .\nthe speckled maskray ( neotrygon picta ) was thought to be a regional colour variant of neotrygon ( formerly dasyatis ) leylandi ( last , 1987 ) until described as a new species by last and white ( 2008 ) . the latter publication also resurrected the genus neotrygon for the maskray species , bluespotted maskray ( n . kuhlii ) , painted maskray ( n . leylandi ) , plain maskray ( n . annotata ) , ningaloo maskray ( n . ningalooensis ) and the speckled maskray .\n* plain maskray , neotrygon annotata ( last , 1987 ) . * bluespotted stingray , neotrygon kuhlii ( m\u00fcller & henle , 1841 ) . * painted maskray , neotrygon leylandi ( last , 1987 ) . more\n* plain maskray , dasyatis annotata ( last , 1987 ) . * bennett ' s stingray , dasyatis bennetti ( m\u00fcller & henle , 1841 ) . more\nthe grouping of neotrygon spp . , and recent split of the speckled maskray from the painted maskray , has obscured species - specific population trends .\nn . sp . ( myliobatoidei : dasyatidae ) , a new maskray from australia .\nthe speckled maskray is not harvested commercially in australia ( last and stevens 2009 ) .\nthis annual report complies with parliamentary standards of presentation and printing , and uses plain english and clear design .\nthe plain maskray is found in australia and papua new guinea including the arafura sea and timor sea . the australian distribution extends from the gulf of carpentaria ( queensland ) through the northern territory to at least the bonaparte archipelago , western australia ( last and stevens 2009 ) . specimens from new guinea have also been reported from bycatch surveys in the gulf of papua ( w . white , pers . comm . 2015 ) . this species has yet to be recorded in the torres strait ( pitcher et al . 2007 , jacobsen and bennett 2010 ) , although the presence of this maskray in the gulf of carpentaria and the gulf of papua suggests it may inhabit these areas , albeit more sparingly . while a single plain maskray specimen was observed in east java ( indonesia ) , the original catch location was not known ( w . white , pers . comm . , 2015 ) . as such , further investigations are required into the presence of this species in indonesia . when compared to other maskray species , the distribution of this maskray overlaps with the bluespotted maskray ( n . kuhlii species - complex ) , the painted maskray ( n . leylandi ) and the peppered maskray ( n . picta ) . there appears to be no obvious depth partitioning between these species , although the plain maskray is rarely taken in the coastal zone and generally occurs further offshore . the extent of any overlap between the distributions of the plain maskray and the ningaloo maskray ( n . ningalooensis ) is currently unknown and requires further investigation .\nthe plain maskray , neotrygon annotata , also known as the brown stingray ( leading to easy confusion with the pacific dasyatis latus ) , is a species of fish in the dasyatidae family . it is endemic to northern australia . more\nmultiple cryptic species in the blue - spotted maskray ( myliobatoidei : dasyatidae : neotrygon spp . ) : an update\nplain maskray , dasyatis annotata ( last , 1987 ) . . . giant stumptail stingray , dasyatis gigantea ( lindberg , 1930 ) . . . urltoken 6 dasyatis izuensis species summary : dasyatis izuensis izu stingray , you can sponsor this page , . . . more\n\u2605 plain maskray , ' ' dasyatis annotata ' ' ( last , 1987 ) . \u2605 \u2605 bennett ' s stingray , ' ' dasyatis bennetti ' ' ( m\u00fcller & henle , 1841 ) . \u2605 \u2605 short - tail stingray or bull ray , ' ' dasyatis brevicaudata ' ' ( hutton , 1875 ) . more\nthe speckled maskray ( neotrygon picta ) is a small maskray species that is regularly caught as a bycatch of prawn trawl fisheries in northeast australian coastal waters . this species was previously regarded as a colour morph of the painted maskray ( n . leylandi ) . the speckled maskray appears to be reasonably common over much of its range , although species - specific population assessment is hampered by the lumping of catches into generic divisions and the recent split of this species from the closely - related painted maskray from western australia . recent studies indicate that the species has a low rate of fishing mortality overall in the northern prawn fishery . in addition , the speckled maskray is protected within some of the great barrier reef region in its east coast range . however , due to its small size , the speckled maskray is unlikely to be effectively excluded by the turtle exclusion devices presently used by the tropical australian prawn trawl fleet . individuals caught in these fisheries have a moderately high mortality rate . the species has a low fecundity of 1\u20133 pups , with preliminary results suggesting an annual reproductive cycle . the speckled maskray is listed as least concern , with a caveat that this is dependent on the presence of large unfished areas and minimal fisheries effort over some other parts of its range .\nn . sp . ( myliobatoidei : dasyatidae ) , a new maskray from australia . aqua intnl j ichthyol . 2010 ; 16 ( 2 ) : 37\u201350 .\na 2012 phylogenetic study , based on mitochondrial and nuclear dna , concluded that the ningaloo maskray and the plain maskray ( n . annotata ) are the most basal members of their genus . in addition , the coral bay population showed deep differences in mitochondrial dna from the shark bay population , indicating that they belong to different lineages . whether they represent separate species is ambiguous , as rays from the two locations do not differ physically or in known nuclear dna markers . this genetic divergence suggests that the ningaloo maskray population had once been divided by sea level changes ; using different methods of estimation , this event is thought to have occurred either c . 11 ma , during the miocene , or 3\u20132 ma , during the pliocene .\nkeywords : pisces , dasyatidae ; neotrygon australiae ; neotrygon caeruleopunctata ; neotrygon kuhlii ; neotrygon orientale ; n . varidens ; bluespotted maskray ; new species ; species complex ; indo - west pacific\ncompared to other maskrays , the ningaloo maskray has more protruding eyes that allow it to bury itself deeper in the substrate and still remain aware of its surroundings . within its favored habitat , its coloration makes it well camouflaged against predators .\n. . . this paper focuses on the blue - spotted maskray , previously neotrygon kuhlii ( m\u00fcller and henle , 1841 ) [ 7 ] , a stingray species that inhabits indo - west pacific coral reefs , lagoons and slopes [ 8 ] . the blue - spotted maskray is heavily exploited in southeast asia , but its catch rate and mortality rates are poorly known and its population trends are unknown [ 9 , 10 ] . authors have distinguished the\njava\n( java sea ) form of blue - spotted maskray from the\nbali\n( kedonganan ) form , based on differences in size at birth and male size at maturity and treated them as different species [ 9 ] . . . .\n. . . this paper focuses on the blue - spotted maskray , previously neotrygon kuhlii ( m ? ller and henle , 1841 ) [ 7 ] , a stingray species that inhabits indo - west pacific coral reefs , lagoons and slopes [ 8 ] . the blue - spotted maskray is heavily exploited in southeast asia , but its catch rate and mortality rates are poorly known and its population trends are unknown [ 9 , 10 ] . authors have distinguished the\njava\n( java sea ) form of blue - spotted maskray from the\nbali\n( kedonganan ) form , based on differences in size at birth and male size at maturity and treated them as different species [ 9 ] . . . .\nneotrygon indica sp . nov . , the indian ocean blue - spotted maskray ( myliobatoidei , dasyatidae ) = neotrygon indica sp . nov . , la raie masqu\u00e9e \u00e0 points bleus de l & 8217 ; oc\u00e9an indien ( myliobatoidei , dasyatidae )\nthere are no species - specific conservation measures in place for the plain maskray . the species will derive some benefit from broader management initiatives including fisheries - based spatial and temporal closures and the use of bycatch reduction devices . however , research has shown that bycatch reduction devices including turtle exclusion devices ( teds ) are less effective for smaller species ( griffiths et al . 2006 ) . furthermore , the effectiveness of fisheries closures ( spatial and temporal ) will be dependent on their location and the proportion of the plain maskray population protected from fishing effort . however , this cannot be quantified from the data currently available . the gulf of papua trawl the fishery is managed under national laws and regulations ( png ) , and there are some seasonal closures in place ; although bycatch reduction devices are not currently in place , there are plans to implement in the near future ( l . baje , national fisheries authority , pers . comm . 2015 ) . detailed species composition data for the bycatch is not currently available , but this is currently being investigated ( l . baje , national fisheries authority , pers . comm . 2015 ) .\nthe speckled maskray is found in northeastern australia ( possibly also new guinea ) from the wessel islands ( northern territory ) to hervey bay ( queensland ) . the western limit of its distribution has still not been well defined ( last and stevens 2009 ) .\na greyish - green maskray , becoming pinkish towards the disc margins , with a dark mask - like marking around the eyes , a pair of small dark blotches behind the spiracles , and alternating black and white variable bands and a black tip on the tail .\nningaloo reef is the largest fringing reef system in the southern hemisphere and extends along 270 km of coastline in the north of western australia . the reef is separated from the coast by a 0 . 2 to 7 km wide sandy lagoon , which is backed by a dry coastal plain [ 33 ] , [ 34 ] .\nthe speckled maskray is protected over some of its east coast range within no - fishing areas of the great barrier reef marine park . although turtle exclusion devices ( teds ) are mandatory within all australian prawn trawl fisheries , this small species is unlikely to be effectively excluded by current devices . the speckled maskray would benefit from a careful evaluation of alternative or additional ted options . generally , evaluation of the species ' conservation status would be facilitated by improved monitoring of bycatch , in terms of both the absolute numbers caught and trends in abundance .\n. . . the blue - spotted maskray is heavily exploited in southeast asia , but its catch rate and mortality rates are poorly known and its population trends are unknown [ 9 , 10 ] . authors have distinguished the\njava\n( java sea ) form of blue - spotted maskray from the\nbali\n( kedonganan ) form , based on differences in size at birth and male size at maturity and treated them as different species [ 9 ] . molecular population genetics offer the concepts and the practical tools for delineating populations , diagnosing closely related species , and detecting cryptic species . . . .\n. . . two batoid species were examined for this study ; the oriental bluespotted maskray ( neotrygon orientalis last , white & s\u00e9ret 2016 ) , and the bluespotted fantail ray ( taeniura lymmaforssk\u00e5l , 1775 ) . these species were selected because they were the two most frequently ob - served batoids on malaysian bruvs . . . .\nendemic to northwestern australia , the ningaloo maskray has been found from shark bay in western australia to the gove peninsula in northern territory . this bottom - dwelling species appears to have very restricted habitat preferences : it inhabits areas of fine reddish sand close to reefs , in inshore waters less than 5 m ( 16 ft ) deep .\n. . . two other species in the genus , the nominal n . kuhlii from vanikoro and n . trigonoides possess distinctive spot patterns [ 3 , 15 , 16 ] that tell them apart from the blue - spotted maskray as it was originally described by j . m\u00fc ller and f . g . j . henle [ 4 ] . based on the only available information on colour patterns , one cannot exclude that n . kuhlii as it has been redefined by last and co - authors [ 14 ] and n . trigonoides are synonyms [ 16 ] . the genetically distinctive indian ocean maskray reported in the recent phylogeographic literature [ 6 , 7 , 10 ] remains undescribed . . . .\n. . . two other species in the genus , the nominal n . kuhlii from vanikoro and n . trigonoides possess distinctive spot patterns [ 3 , 15 , 16 ] that tell them apart from the blue - spotted maskray as it was originally described by j . m\u00fcller and f . g . j . henle [ 4 ] . based on the only available information on colour patterns , one cannot exclude that n . kuhlii as it has been redefined by last and co - authors [ 14 ] and n . trigonoides are synonyms [ 16 ] . the genetically distinctive indian - ocean maskray reported in the recent phylogeographic literature [ 6 , 7 , 10 ] remains undescribed . . . .\n. . . the genetically distinctive indian ocean maskray reported in the recent phylogeographic literature [ 6 , 7 , 10 ] remains undescribed . some authors have attempted to use morphological characters as primary information for the description of cryptic species in the blue - spotted maskray complex [ 14 ] , and a recent revision has ostensibly ignored genetic evidence ( e . g . , [ 17 ] ) even though not a single morphological character among those utilized for the description or redescription of four species in the complex [ 14 ] was indisputably diagnostic of any of the species [ 7 ] . also , the apportion of environmental vs . genetic determination in these morphological characters had not been evaluated [ 7 ] . . . .\norsa p , arlyza is , chen w - j , durand j - d , meekan mg , shen k - n ( 2013 ) resurrection of new caledonian maskray neotrygon trigonoides ( myliobatoidei : dasyatidae ) from synonymy with n . kuhlii , based on cytochrome - oxidase i gene sequences and spotting patterns . comptes rendus biologies 336 ( 4 ) : 221 - 232\nsome abyssal species have been described from only one or two specimens captured during deep water trawls . this implies that in all likelihood there are many shark and ray species lurking on the abyssal plain that have not yet been seen or captured . the best example being the relatively recent discovery of the megamouth shark . if this large and slow moving shark could remain hidden until the 1980 ' s , who knows how many other elasmobranches have gone unnoticed .\n. . . puckridge et al . ( 2013 ) m ? ller and henle ( 1841 ) referred to . however , last et al . ( 2016 ) did not specify how they were able to identify this specimen as a blue - spotted maskray . actually , m ? ller and henle ' s ( 1841 ) leiden syntype cannot be traced with certainty . . . .\n. . . the blue - spotted maskray is an indo - pacific maskray of up to 50 cm in disc width ( w d ) ( last & stevens , 2009 ) . currently recognized as neotrygon trigonoides ( castelnau 1873 ) ( eschmeyer et al . , 2017 ) , in australia it has previously been known as neotrygon ( or dasyatis ) kuhlii , a name that is now reserved for individuals of this species complex found in the solomon islands ( last et al . , 2016b ) . this species inhabits coastal soft substratum environments , in association with coral and rocky reefs , to depths of 90 m ( last & stevens , 2009 ; pierce et al . , 2009 ; jacobsen & bennett , 2010 , 2012last et al . , 2016b ) . . . .\nbecause it lives in such shallow waters , the ningaloo maskray is generally not susceptible to fisheries . conversely , its narrow habitat preferences may render it vulnerable to habitat degradation . this species is protected to some extent as its range includes the world heritage sites of ningaloo reef and shark bay . the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) presently lacks sufficient data to assess its conservation status .\nin the scallop sector of the queensland east coast trawl fishery , fishery - independent surveys between yeppoon and hervey bay revealed that the speckled maskray was the third most common elasmobranch species by number in the bycatch ( 15 . 6 % of elasmobranch bycatch ) ( kyne 2008 ) . also , the effect of trawl fishing on the macrobenthos , which is the primary habitat of this species , is another concern .\nthe bluespotted maskray , neotrygon kuhlii ( muller & henle , 1841 ) , once thought to be widely distributed in the indo - west pacific , consists of a complex of several species and the type series consists of multiple species ; its nomenclature is discussed . a lectotype and paralectotype are designated and the species rediagnosed based on the types and a fresh specimen from honiara ( solomon islands ) , near to the collection locality of the lectotype ( vanikoro , solomon islands ) . molecular and morphological data provide confirmatory evidence that this maskray is distinct from some other regional forms . three members of the complex from the western pacific identified in earlier studies are confirmed to be new species ; neotrygon australiae sp . nov . ( australia , new guinea and eastern indonesia ) , n . caeruleopunctata sp . nov . ( indian ocean ) , and n . orientale sp . nov . ( north - west pacific ) . these species differ from each other and n . kuhlii in their adult size , anterior angle of the disc , number and distribution of blue spots on the dorsal disc , and other more subtle morphometric and meristic characters . another largely plain - coloured neotrygon , also currently misidentified as n . kuhlii , is sympatric with n . orientale sp . nov . in the south china sea and off taiwan . neotrygon varidens ( garman ) is resurrected as the valid name for this ray . a key is provided to species of the genus .\nthe bluespotted maskray , neotrygon kuhlii ( m\u00fcller & henle , 1841 ) , once thought to be widely distributed in the indo - west pacific , consists of a complex of several species and the type series consists of multiple species ; its nomenclature is discussed . a lectotype and paralectotype are designated and the species rediagnosed based on the types and a fresh specimen from honiara ( solomon islands ) , near to the collection locality of the lectotype ( vanikoro , solomon islands ) . molecular and morphological data provide confirmatory evidence that this maskray is distinct from some other regional forms . three members of the complex from the western pacific identified in earlier studies are confirmed to be new species ; neotrygon australiae sp . nov . ( australia , new guinea and eastern indonesia ) , n . caeruleopunctata sp . nov . ( indian ocean ) , and n . orientale sp . nov . ( north - west pacific ) . these species differ from each other and n . kuhlii in their adult size , anterior angle of the disc , number and distribution of blue spots on the dorsal disc , and other more subtle morphometric and meristic characters . another largely plain - coloured neotrygon , also currently misidentified as n . kuhlii , is sympatric with n . orientale sp . nov . in the south china sea and off taiwan . neotrygon varidens ( garman ) is resurrected as the valid name for this ray . a key is provided to species of the genus .\nthe bluespotted maskray , neotrygon kuhlii ( m\u00fcller & henle , 1841 ) , once thought to be widely distributed in the indo - west pacific , consists of a complex of several species and the type series consists of multiple species ; its nomenclature is discussed . a lectotype and paralectotype are designated and the species rediagnosed based on the types and a fresh specimen from honiara ( solomon islands ) , near to the collection locality of the lectotype ( vanikoro , solomon islands ) . molecular and morphological data provide confirmatory evidence that this maskray is distinct from some other regional forms . three members of the complex from the western pacific identified in earlier studies are confirmed to be new species ; neotrygon australiae sp . nov . ( australia , new guinea and eastern indonesia ) , n . caeruleopunctata sp . nov . ( indian ocean ) , and n . orientale sp . nov . ( north - west pacific ) . these species differ from each other and n . kuhlii in their adult size , anterior angle of the disc , number and distribution of blue spots on the dorsal disc , and other more subtle morphometric and meristic characters . another largely plain - coloured neotrygon , also currently misidentified as n . kuhlii , is sympatric with n . orientale sp . nov . in the south china sea and off taiwan . neotrygon varidens ( garman ) is resurrected as the valid name for this ray . a key is provided to species of the genus .\nthe speckled maskray is most common in shallow water less than 25 m depth but probably to about 100 m ( last and stevens 2009 , i . p . jacobsen , pers . obs . , 2010 ) . it is a small species , attaining a disc width ( dw ) of up to around 32 cm ( jacobsen and bennett 2010 ) . the most comprehensive analysis of the species ' biology was undertaken by jacobsen and bennett ( 2010 ) based on prawn trawl bycatch specimens from northeast australia . size at 50 % maturity in females was 18 . 1 cm dw , and age at maturity was 3\u20134 years . the smallest gravid female was 17 . 2 cm dw ( jacobsen and bennett 2010 ) . the species has a low fecundity with 1\u20133 embryos per litter ( jacobsen and bennett 2010 ) . preliminary investigation ( jacobsen 2008 ) suggested that the speckled maskray undergoes a single reproductive event annually .\ninhabiting inshore waters less than 5 m ( 16 ft ) deep , the bottom - dwelling ningaloo maskray has highly specific habitat preferences . it is found on reddish sand near reefs , upon which its coloration grants it excellent camouflage . it is able to bury itself deeper than other maskrays thanks to its protruding eyes . the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has listed this species as data deficient due to lack of information . it is not vulnerable to fisheries but may be impacted by habitat degradation .\nthe first known sighting of the ningaloo maskray was during a study of ningaloo marine park ' s sharks and rays ( hence its common name and scientific epithet ) , funded by the western australian marine science institute ( wamsi ) . it was described by peter last , william white , and melody puckridge in a 2010 article for the scientific journal aqua . the type specimens are two adult males , one 30 cm ( 12 in ) and the other 29 cm ( 11 in ) across , both collected from five fingers reef near coral bay , western australia .\n. . . in the present paper , we compile all co1 and cytochrome b gene sequences published thus far for the blue - spotted maskray and we add new sequences from samples collected in the western indian ocean and throughout the indo - malay archipelago , to construct a robust mitochondrial phylogeny and establish an updated distribution of the clades previously uncovered in the coral triangle region [ 14 , 15 , 17 , 19 ] . we assess whether the different clades , including those recently resurrected or erected as new species [ 24 ] correspond to evolutionary significant units that deserve the status of separate species . . . .\nthe plain maskray inhabits continental shelf waters between 12 and 62 m ( last and stevens 2009 ) , although the species is more prominent in deeper water environments . while the species can reach up to 45 cm disc width ( dw ) , it is more commonly encountered at smaller sizes . it is typically found in environments with sandy or soft substrates ( jacobsen and bennett 2012 ) . this species likely has an annual reproductive cycle ( jacobsen 2007 ) , producing 1 - 3 embryos ( jacobsen and bennett 2010 ) . size at birth is 12 - 14 cm dw ( last and stevens 2009 ) with the smallest recorded free - living animal measured at 13 . 7 cm dw ( jacobsen and bennett 2010 ) . age and size at 50 % maturity is estimated to be four years and 20 . 4 cm dw in males and 3 - 4 years and 19 . 1 cm dw for females ( jacobson and bennett 2010 ) . size at first sexual maturity is 19 . 2 cm dw in males and 18 . 4 cm dw in females ( jacobsen and bennett 2010 ) . males are estimated to live to at least 9 years and females to at least 13 years , both with an estimated maximum size of 45 . 2 cm dw ( stobutzki et al . 2002 ) . generation length is calculated as 8 . 5 years based on the above female age at maturity and maximum age figures .\nas with many other small demersal stingrays , the speckled maskray is highly susceptible to capture in trawl fisheries . it is a common component of prawn trawl bycatch ( which is discarded ) within its range . survivorship is generally unknown , and probably dependent on the method of capture . stobutzki et al . ( 2002 ) reports that 27 % of females and 95 % of males ( 57 % total ) captured in the northern prawn fishery ( npf ) died in the trawl net . this species does not appear to be robust in heavy trawl gear with scallop catch , where it is often crushed , resulting in reasonable mortality ( kyne 2008 ) .\nthe speckled maskray is a highly abundant species within some parts of its distribution ; commonly caught as trawl bycatch within the northern prawn fishery ( npf ) in the gulf of carpentaria ( zhou and griffiths 2008 ) . on the east coast , common on queensland scallop trawling grounds between yeppoon and hervey bay ( kyne et al . 2005 ) , but not commonly encountered on east coast prawn trawl grounds north of cairns ( kyne 2008 ) . also a prominent species in the torres strait ( pitcher et al . 2007 ) and a likely component of elasmobranch bycatch in the torres strait prawn fishery ( i . p . jacobsen , pers . obs . , 2010 ) .\nthe ningaloo maskray has a diamond - shaped pectoral fin disc about 1 . 1 times wider than long , with straight to slightly convex leading margins and rounded outer corners . the snout is short and rounded . the eyes are large and protruding , with large crescent - shaped spiracles behind . between the slender nostrils is a curtain - shaped flap of skin with a deeply fringed rear margin that is divided into two lobes . the small mouth has shallow grooves at the corners and is surrounded by papillae ; there are also two long papillae on the floor of the mouth . the teeth range from long and pointed to short and blunt . there are five pairs of s - shaped gill slits . the pelvic fins are narrow and triangular .\n. . . australiae , n . caeruleopunctata , n . orientale ) previously under n . kuhlii and resurrected a fourth one , n . varidens ( garman 1885 ) [ 25 ] . diagnostic morphological differences between the species were proposed but no in - depth assessment of inter - specific against infra - specific differences was included [ 24 ] . in the present paper , we compile all co1 and cytochrome b gene sequences published thus far for the blue - spotted maskray and we add new sequences from samples collected in the western indian ocean and throughout the indo - malay archipelago , to construct a robust mitochondrial phylogeny and establish an updated distribution of the clades previously uncovered in the coral triangle region [ 14 , 15 , 17 , 19 ] . . . .\n. . . the maskrays of genus neotrygon castelnau ( family : dasyatidae ) is resurrected as a valid generic name form the genus dasyatis ; have dispersed widely in the indo - west pacific and represented largely by an assemblage by a narrow - ranging coastal endemics ( last and white 2008 ; puckridge et al . 2013 ) . the species blue - spotted maskray / stingray , neotrygon kuhlii ( muller & henle , 1841 ) is consid - ered to be common across the indo - west pacific region forming an important component of artisanal and commercial fisheries in a number of areas ( compagno and last 1998 ; white and dharmadi 2007 ) . this species has lots of taxonom - ic ambiguity at present and it is classified as ' data deficient ' . . . .\na new maskray , neotrygon ningalooensis n . sp . , is described from material collected near coral bay in the ningaloo marine park , off the central coast of western australia , where its distribution appears to be restricted and patchy . however , other recently accessed material , collected further south ( shark bay , western australia ) and east ( gove , northern territory ) , suggest that this species is more widespread . like other members of the genus neotrygon , it lives primarily on sandy substrates but often hides partly concealed beneath small coral bommies during the day . its eyes are relatively more protrusible than its congeners enabling it to bury deeply in soft sediments with its eyes still exposed . the type specimens were speared in shallow water near the shore in close association with two congeners , n . leylandi and n . kuhlii , from which it differs in colour and morphology . neotrygon ningalooensis and n . ley\u00adlandi both have an ornate dorsal coloration but lack the vivid blue spots typical of n . kuhlii . molecular analysis has confirmed that the three sympatric species at ningaloo are specifically distinct .\n. . . this species complex consists of up to eleven parapatrically - distributed lineages representing separate species [ 6 , [ 9 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 12 ] of which nine have already been formally described [ 7 , [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] . these are n . australiae last , white and s\u00e9ret 2016 , n . bobwardi borsa , arlyza , hoareau and shen 2017 , n . caeruleopunctata last , white and s\u00e9ret 2016 , n . malaccensis borsa , arlyza , hoareau and shen 2017 , n . moluccensis borsa , arlyza , hoareau and shen 2017 , n . orientale last , white and s\u00e9ret 2016 , n . vali borsa 2017 , n . varidens ( garman 1885 , and n . westpapuensis borsa , arlyza , hoareau and shen 2017 . two other species in the genus , the nominal n . kuhlii from vanikoro and n . trigonoides possess distinctive spot patterns [ 3 , 15 , 16 ] that tell them apart from the blue - spotted maskray as it was originally described by j . m\u00fcller and f . g . j . henle [ 4 ] . . . .\nbody not wing - like ; disc length slightly shorter than width 90 . 4 % ( 82 . 6\u201397 . 6 % ) dw , snout to cloaca length 74 . 6 % ( 68 . 9\u201378 . 7 % ) dw , wide margin of granular or flat denticles , pearl thorns on mid disc ; tail whip - like , total length 338 . 5 % ( 297 . 4\u2013402 . 9 % ) dw , with long and large ventral skin fold , ventral skin fold length 102 . 7 % ( 74 . 0\u2013123 . 4 % ) dw , tail slightly depressed at base , tail width 10 . 9 % ( 9 . 1\u201311 . 9 % ) dw , tail height 6 . 5 % ( 5 . 7\u20137 . 2 % ) dw , plain in colour ; subtriangular pelvic fin length 23 . 2 % ( 20 . 5\u201326 . 9 % ) dw ; eye diameter 2 . 6 % ( 1 . 8\u20133 . 1 % ) dw ; spiracle length 6 . 9 % ( 5 . 9\u20137 . 7 % ) dw , interspiracular length 16 . 8 % ( 14 . 3\u201318 . 7 % ) dw ; distance between first pair of gill slits 19 . 8 % ( 17 . 8\u201321 . 9 % ) dw , distance between fifth pair of gill slits 13 . 1 % ( 12 . 2\u201313 . 8 % ) dw . genus : pastinachus .\nbody not wing - like ; disc length slightly longer than width 104 . 1 % ( 82 . 3\u2013120 . 0 % ) dw , snout to cloaca length 88 . 5 % ( 67 . 7\u2013107 . 0 % ) dw , wide margin of granular or flat denticles , with or without thorns on midline , thorns granular ( like pearl ) or sharp if present ; tail usually whip - like , total length 270 . 2 % ( 154 . 7\u2013468 . 0 % ) dw , without ventral skin fold , tail slightly depressed at base , tail width 9 . 2 % ( 4 . 1\u201312 . 3 % ) dw , tail height 5 . 9 % ( 3 . 4\u20139 . 0 % ) dw , plain in colour or with patterns ; subtriangular pelvic fin length 16 . 1 % ( 11 . 9\u201326 . 0 % ) dw ; eye diameter 4 . 3 % ( 1 . 0\u20136 . 7 % ) dw ; spiracle length 6 . 9 % ( 4 . 7\u201312 . 1 % ) dw , interspiracular length 18 . 5 % ( 12 . 9\u201325 . 8 % ) dw ; distance between first pair of gill slits 23 . 8 % ( 14 . 6\u201330 . 8 % ) dw , distance between fifth pair of gill slits 15 . 8 % ( 9 . 0\u201319 . 2 % ) dw . genus : himantura . adult female himantura walga however has short and bulbous tail .\nbody not wing - like , disc length slightly longer than width 101 . 0 % ( 79 . 9\u2013112 . 9 % ) dw , snout to cloaca length 87 . 9 % ( 66 . 4\u2013103 . 3 % ) dw , no denticles , thorns confined to midline of disc ; tail whip - like , total length 277 . 2 % ( 75 . 2\u2013346 . 1 % ) dw , long but low ventral skin fold , ventral skin fold length 56 . 1 % ( 31 . 7\u201399 . 3 % ) dw , tail slightly depressed at base , tail width 8 . 5 % ( 3 . 7\u201312 . 3 % ) dw , tail height 5 . 0 % ( 2 . 8\u20136 . 8 % ) dw , plain colour of either dark brown or black ; subtriangular pelvic fin length 17 . 8 % ( 11 . 1\u201323 . 1 % ) dw ; eye diameter 3 . 8 % ( 1 . 8\u20136 . 6 % ) dw ; spiracle length 7 . 5 % ( 5 . 1\u201310 . 4 % ) dw , interspiracular length 18 . 1 % ( 12 . 5\u201322 . 1 % ) dw ; distance between first pair of gill slits 21 . 4 % ( 11 . 7\u201325 . 0 % ) dw , distance between fifth pair of gill slits 13 . 7 % ( 8 . 3\u201316 . 0 % ) dw . genera : dasyatis and taeniurops . taeniurops meyeni has short tail , without body thorns .\ncharacter 1 : body disc shape : 0 = wing like ; pectoral fin greatly expanded , 1 = rhombus , quadrangular or oval ; pectoral fin not greatly expanded . character 2 : body denticles and thorns : 0 = no distinct denticles and thorns , 1 = no distinct denticles ; thorn confined to midline of disc , 2 = granular or flat denticles band very broad ; some may have thorns that either confine to center of body or midline , thorns can be blunt or sharp , 3 = with small spiny or star like denticles ; no thorns along central disc or tail . character 3 : head position and elevation : 0 = head extended anterior to pectoral fin ; head elevated , 1 = head not extended anterior to pectoral fin ; head not elevated . character 4 : rostrum or cephalic fin : 0 = rostral fin single and convex , 1 = rostral fin bilobate and broadly notched medially 2 = snout forming bilobate cephalic fin , laterally based on head , 3 = not as stated . character 5 : gill opening : 0 = six gill opening , 1 = 5 gill opening . character 6 : tail types : 0 = tail short and stout , not whip like , 1 = tail long , whip like . character 7 : tail pattern : 0 = plain , 1 = banded or striped . character 8 : ventral skin fold : 0 = no ventral skin fold , 1 = low ventral skin fold , with or without indistinct dorsal skin fold , 2 = large ventral skin fold , 3 = distinct dorsal and ventral skin fold . character 9 : caudal fin : 0 = no caudal fin , 1 = with well developed caudal fin .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\neschmeyer , w . n . and fricke , r . ( eds ) . 2015 . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . updated 1 october 2015 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 1 october 2015 ) .\nsister species to the more wide - ranging dasyatis kuhlii group members ( d . kuhlii and d . leylandi ) .\ncurrently there is no information available on population size or trend . however population reduction is suspected to have occurred over the last three generations ( see the rationale section for more details ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nage and growth of neotrygon picta , neotrygon annotata and neotrygon kuhlii from north - east australia , with notes on their reproductive biology . - pubmed - ncbi\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nage and growth of neotrygon picta , neotrygon annotata and neotrygon kuhlii from north - east australia , with notes on their reproductive biology .\nschool of biomedical sciences , university of queensland , brisbane , 4072 queensland , australia . i . jacobsen @ urltoken\nvertebral band formations were used to define age and growth in three neotrygon species caught regularly as by - catch in prawn trawl fisheries in north - east australia . centrum edge and marginal increment ratio analyses were used to validate annual band formations . age estimates ranged from 1 to 18 years , with the von bertalanffy growth function considered to have the best fit to neotrygon picta ( males , w ( d\u221e ) = 271 mm , k = 0\u00b712 ; females , w ( d\u221e ) = 360\u00b75 mm , k = 0\u00b708 ) and neotrygon kuhlii ( males , w ( d\u221e ) = 438\u00b76 mm , k = 0\u00b708 ; females , w ( d\u221e ) = 440\u00b76 mm , k = 0\u00b708 ) disc width ( w ( d ) ) - at - age data . the gompertz growth function had the best fit to neotrygon annotata w ( d ) - at - age data ( males , w ( d\u221e ) = 230\u00b74 mm , k = 0\u00b720 ; females , w ( d\u221e ) = 265\u00b75 mm , k = 0\u00b731 ) . age at sexual maturity ranged from 3 to 6 years , with n . picta having the smallest size at birth ( 100 mm w ( d ) ) , smallest w ( d ) at 50 % maturity ( w ( d50 ) : male , 172 mm , female , 180\u00b77 mm ) and lowest age at sexual maturity ( 3 - 4 years ) . this study helps redefine and improve the accuracy of fisheries - based risk assessments for these small species with relatively conservative life - history variables .\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range 10 - 62 m ( ref . 6871 ) . deep - water ; 8\u00b0s - 16\u00b0s\neastern indian ocean and southwest pacific : northern australia , southern new guinea and eastern indonesia .\nmaturity : l m ? , range 18 - 22 cm max length : 45 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 9840 )\nfound offshore on continental shelf and feeds on bony fishes and crustaceans . litters of 1 - 3 pups , born at 12 - 14 cm wd ( ref . 114953 ) . ovoviviparous ( ref . 50449 )\novoviviparous ( ref . 205 ) . distinct pairing with embrace ( ref . 205 ) .\nlast , p . r . and j . d . stevens , 1994 . sharks and rays of australia . csiro , australia . 513 p . ( ref . 6871 )\n) : 27 . 1 - 28 . 7 , mean 28 ( based on 140 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5039 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01096 ( 0 . 00347 - 0 . 03466 ) , b = 3 . 11 ( 2 . 85 - 3 . 37 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 4 \u00b10 . 3 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( assuming fecundity < 100 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 38 of 100 ) .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nyearsley , g . k . , last , p . r . & morris , g . b . 1997 ,\ncodes for australian aquatic biota ( caab ) : an upgraded and expanded species coding system for australian fisheries databases\n, pp . 15 pp . + appendices\nlast , p . r . 1987 ,\nnew australian fishes . part 14 . two new species of dasyatis ( dasyatididae )\n, memoirs of museum victoria , vol . 48 , no . 1 , pp . 57 - 61\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 3fba2fb1 - caa5 - 40ca - 80d4 - 431d067a9cc7\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 46aa84cc - 730f - 40bd - b686 - 3f2d7437f74a\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 52cfdad0 - 347e - 41a9 - adcd - 19528ddc7e61\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 46fb0c2b - 3ac6 - 4e9d - b777 - 301ea837ed25\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 347356\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nendemic to northern australia from the bonaparte archipelago , wa to wellesley islands qld . inhabits soft bottom substrates in depths of 12 - 62 m .\ndasyatis annotatus last , 1987 , mem . mus . vict . 48 ( 1 ) : 57 , fig . 1 . type locality : northwest shelf , wa .\nmarine fishes of north - western australia . a field guide for anglers and divers\n. perth , wa : western australian museum vi 201 pp . , 70 pls .\ngloerfelt - tarp , t . & kailola , p . j . 1984 .\n. jakarta : dir . gen . fish . ( indonesia ) , german tech . coop . , aust . dev . ass . bur . 406 pp . ( as\nlast , p . r . & compagno , l . j . v . 1999 . family dasyatidae . pp . 1479 - 1505 in carpenter , k . e . & niem , v . h . ( eds ) .\nthe living marine resources of the western central pacific . fao species identification guide for fisheries purposes\n. rome : fao vol . 3 pp . 1397 - 2068 . ( as\nin : iucn 2013 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2013 . 2 .\nsp . nov . , a new species from northern australia . 315 - 326 in last , p . r . , white , w . t . & pogonoski , j . j . ( eds ) . descriptions of new australian chondrichthyans .\nstobutzki , i . c . , miller , m . j . , heales , d . s . & brewer , d . t . 2002 . sustainability of elasmobranches caught as bycatch in a tropical prawn ( shrimp ) trawl fishery .\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range 10 - 62 m ( ref . 6871 ) . deep - water , preferred ? ; 8\u00b0s - 16\u00b0s\neastern indian ocean : timor sea . western pacific : arafura sea and off northern australia .\nmaturity : l m ? , range 20 - 22 cm max length : 45 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 9840 )\nfound on the continental shelf . ovoviviparous ( ref . 50449 ) . little is known of its biology .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\npicture of neotrygon annotata has been licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial . original source : fishbase permission : some rights reserved\nsize : disc width : at least 24 cm . total length : at least 45 cm .\nhabitat often found in along shallow coastal tropical waters . found on continental shelf at depths of 12 m - 62 m .\nhabits observed lying on the bottom of the flats and bays , shoal lagoons , river mouths and patches of sand between coral area . they could swim rapidly by undulating their pectoral fins . sometimes they are found swimming near the surface . most often they are completely or partially buried in the sand or mud with only tail , eyes and spiracles exposed . pectoral fins are used to dig in to the floor to excavate prey .\ngeneral : general systemic effects systemic symptoms are uncommon , but nausea , vomiting , hypotension and collapse can occur .\ngeneral : other in cases of major mechanical trauma , significant tissue damage can occur and if major vessels are severed , exsanguination can occur . similarly , if the chest or abdomen are punctured , severe , even lethal internal injury can occur . this injury may not be immediately apparent , delayed death being possible .\ntreatment summary stings by marine stingrays are generally associated with significant local pain and physical trauma . treatment is directed at dealing with these problems , as envenoming is not a major issue ( other than any pain - producing effects of the venom ) . initial pain is often responsive to immersion of the stung area in hot ( 45c , not scalding ) water for an hour ( ensure no thermal injury occurs ) . beyond this , analgesia can be provided by an escalating scale , from oral , through parenteral analgesics , to regional anaesthetic nerve block . the wound should be inspected for retained sting fragments and these removed . major bleeding following transection of vessels should be staunched . beware wounds where the sting has penetrated a body cavity , either the abdomen , or the chest . penetrating injuries over the heart can prove lethal . beware early or late haemopericardium . stingray wounds can develop late necrosis and secondary infection . beware tetanus .\nkey diagnostic features immediate severe local pain , lacerated wound after walking in shallow ( usually sandy ) water , rapid local swelling , development of local necrosis / chronic ulceration uncommon , but possible .\ngeneral approach to management first priority is relief of pain and staunching bleeding if major vessel transected . thereafter symptomatic care , good wound care .\n: the principle aim of this site is to provide information useful to improving outcomes for humans suffering from envenoming or poisoning by animals , plants or mushrooms . we make a reasonable attempt to verify accuracy of information listed on this site . however , we cannot access every published paper of potential relevance , either because they are not available to us or are in a language we cannot translate internally . equally , we cannot list knowledge which is not yet reported or known . it should not be assumed that humankind currently knows all there is to know about any species , even for common species . further , we cannot control how users will interpret the information provided on this site . we therefore do not accept legal responsibility for use of the information provided and we require that all users use information from this site at their own risk . the following should also be noted when reading information contained within the databases on this website : italics for scientific nomenclature cannot be displayed , and superscripting and subscripting is absent in some instances .\n( cc by - sa 3 . 0 ) , or the attribution - noncommerical - sharealike\n( cc by - nc - sa 3 . 0 ) , or the attribution - share alike\n( gpl3 . 0 ) , or in the public domain ( pd ) , as shown in the caption to the image displayed on www . toxinology . com .\ncopyright 2001 - 2018 toxinology , wch . all rights reserved . best viewed in 800x600 resolution or higher .\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\ncorrection : molecular and morphological analyses reveal phylogenetic relationships of stingrays focusing on the family dasyatidae ( myliobatiformes ) . plos one 10 ( 5 ) : e0129411 .\nelucidating the phylogenetic relationships of the current but problematic dasyatidae ( order myliobatiformes ) was the first priority of the current study . here , we studied three molecular gene markers of 43 species ( coi gene ) , 33 species ( nd2 gene ) and 34 species ( rag1 gene ) of stingrays to draft out the phylogenetic tree of the order . nine character states were identified and used to confirm the molecularly constructed phylogenetic trees . eight or more clades ( at different hierarchical level ) were identified for coi , nd2 and rag1 genes in the myliobatiformes including four clades containing members of the present dasyatidae , thus rendering the latter non - monophyletic . the uncorrected p - distance between these four \u2018dasytidae\u2019 clades when compared to the distance between formally known families confirmed that these four clades should be elevated to four separate families . we suggest a revision of the present classification , retaining the dasyatidae ( dasyatis and taeniurops species ) but adding three new families namely , neotrygonidae ( neotrygon and taeniura species ) , himanturidae ( himantura species ) and pastinachidae ( pastinachus species ) . our result indicated the need to further review the classification of dasyatis microps . by resolving the non - monophyletic problem , the suite of nine character states enables the natural classification of the myliobatiformes into at least thirteen families based on morphology .\ncitation : lim kc , lim p - e , chong vc , loh k - h ( 2015 ) molecular and morphological analyses reveal phylogenetic relationships of stingrays focusing on the family dasyatidae ( myliobatiformes ) . plos one 10 ( 4 ) : e0120518 . urltoken\ncopyright : \u00a9 2015 lim et al . this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited\ndata availability : all relevant data are within the paper and its supporting information files .\nfunding : we thank japan international centre for agricultural sciences ( jircas ) 57 - 02 - 03 - 1005 , um research grant ( umrg ) rg191 - 121sus and um ippp grant - pg103 - 2012b for the financial support of the study . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nthe family dasyatidae in the order myliobatiformes is one of the biggest families of batoid fishes . according to carpenter & niem [ 1 ] , the body of members of the dasyatids is characterized by a large , oval , circular or rhomboidal disc usually covered with denticles , thorns and tubercles on the dorsal surface and sometimes on the tail . given the large number of species described in the dasyatidae , the classification and status of the described species are still in flux owing to taxonomic uncertainties especially at the family level . the few comprehensive studies on the classification within the dasyatidae are based either on morphology , including their external morphological structures , squamation , tooth root vascularization and structure , lateral line canal , skeletal structure and cephalic and branchial musculature [ 2 ] , or molecular markers including mtgenome , rag1 and scfd2 [ 3 , 4 ] . nevertheless , these approaches fail to classify the dasyatidae such as the species of himantura and pastinachus into defined clusters since some still remain as incertae sedis or uncertain placements . the binary differentiation based on the absence and presence of placoid scales ( or more often terms such as thorns and denticles ) as adopted by mceachran & aschliman [ 2 ] is thought to be too general because there are instances of variable patterns of thorns and denticles among the dasyatids . on the other hand , some distinct characters such as the ventral tail fold and body and tail pigmentations , not included in mceachran & aschliman [ 2 ] , may be used to resolve the taxonomic uncertainties between himantura and pastinachus [ 5 ] ."]}
{"id": 2357, "summary": [{"text": "thectophila is a genus of moths in the cosmopterigidae family , although some sources place it in the blastodacnidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the genus contains only one species , thectophila acmotypa .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is endemic to new zealand , where it is only known from the arthur 's pass .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 12.5 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "all wings are lanceolate , with acutely pointed apices .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the forewings are creamy white , narrowly edged with ochreous , a black streak at the apex terminates in a tuft of black cilia .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the remaining cilia are whitish .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the adults appear in february and can be found amongst rough herbage on mountainsides .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "nothing is known about its biology or host plant . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "thectophila", "paragraphs": ["thectophila meyrick , 1927 ; trans . n . z . inst . 57 : 701 ; ts : thectophila acmotypa meyrick\nthectophila acmotypa meyrick , 1927 ; trans . n . z . inst . 57 : 701\nlandcare research is the custodian of a number of nationally significant biological and resource collections and databases .\n[ richard brown ] sangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ; gelechioidea families\nmeyrick , 1927 descriptions of new zealand lepidoptera trans . n . z . inst . 57 : 697 - 702\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . ."]}
{"id": 2359, "summary": [{"text": "the yellow-billed babbler or white-headed babbler ( turdoides affinis ) is a member of the leiothrichidae family endemic to southern india and sri lanka .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the yellow-billed babbler is a common resident breeding bird in sri lanka and southern india .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "its habitat is scrub , cultivation and garden land .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "this species , like most babblers , is not migratory , and has short rounded wings and a weak flight and is usually seen calling and foraging in groups .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "it is often mistaken for the jungle babbler , whose range overlaps in parts of southern india , although it has a distinctive call and tends to be found in more vegetated habitats .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "its name is also confused with t. leucocephala , which is also known as white-headed babbler . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "yellow - billed babbler", "paragraphs": ["yellow - billed babbler | for details check my blog www . drkris\u2026 | flickr\nenglish : yellow - billed scimitar babbler ; french : moineau friquet ; german : rotr\u00fcckens\u00e4bler .\nyellow - billed babbler ( turdoides affinis ) is a species of bird in the leiothrichidae family .\nthe orange - billed babbler ( turdoides rufescens ) also known as ceylon rufous babbler or sri lankan rufous babbler is a member of the leiothrichidae family .\na portion of the mural\nfrom so simple a beginning\nfocusing on the yellow - billed magpie .\nonce a pied cuckoo lays its egg in a yellow - billed babbler\u2019s nest , the latter has no way of telling the difference . the cuckoo eggs are turquoise blue like the poor babbler\u2019s .\nenglish : yellow - naped yuhina , yellow - collared ixulus ; french : yuhina \u00e0 cou roux ; german : gelbnackenyuhina .\npage 31 , yellow - billed pintail ( south georgia ) anas georgica georgica add a missing range statement : \u201csouth georgia i . \u201d\nthe orange - billed babbler is a resident breeding bird endemic to sri lanka . in the past , it was considered to be a race of jungle babbler , turdoides striatus .\npage 640 , yellow warbler dendroica petechia ruficapilla this subspecies is moved from the yellow warbler ( mangrove ) group dendroica petechia [ erithachorides group ] to the yellow warbler ( golden ) group dendroica petechia [ petechia group ] .\ni saw two birds ( yellow billed babbler ) frequenting a small tree in our garden . this tree is located almost in front of our main door . so we can observe them very easily from our living room .\nthroat , olive back , orange and yellow wings , and uniquely forked tail .\nother synonyms catalan : tordenc de bec groc czech : tim\u00e1lie \u017elutozob\u00e1 danish : lyshovedet larmdrossel german : gelbschnabeldrossling , gelbschnabel - drossling , gelbschnabel - schwatzh\u00e4herling english : white - billed babbler , white - headed babbler , yellow billed babbler , yellow - billed babbler , yellow - billed chatterer spanish : turdoide piquigualdo spanish ( spain ) : turdoide piquigualdo finnish : valkop\u00e4\u00e4timali french : crat\u00e9rope \u00e0 bec jaune , crat\u00e9rope affin italian : garrulo beccogiallo , garrulo testabianca japanese : kibashiyabuchimedori japanese : \u30ad\u30d0\u30b7\u30e4\u30d6\u30c1\u30e1\u30c9\u30ea latin : m [ alacocircus ] . affinis , turdoides affinis , turdoides affinis affinis lithuanian : geltonsnap\u0117 strazdin\u0117 timalija malayalam : \u0d2a\u0d42\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d3e\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d40\u0d30\u0d3f , \u0d2a\u0d42\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d3e\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d40\u0d30\u0d3f dutch : geelsnavelbabbelaar norwegian : gulnebbskriketrost polish : d\u017cunglotymal \u017c\u00f3\u0142todzioby , tymal z\u00f3ltodzioby , tymal \u017c\u00f3\u0142todzioby russian : \u0436\u0435\u043b\u0442\u043e\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0434\u0440\u043e\u0437\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0442\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043b\u0438\u044f , \u0436\u0435\u043b\u0442\u043e\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0434\u0440\u043e\u0437\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0434\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0442\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043b\u0438\u044f slovak : tim\u00e1liovec \u017eltozob\u00fd swedish : ljushuvad skriktrast tamil : venthalai silamban chinese : \u5370\u5ea6\u767d\u5934\u9e2b\u9e5b , \u767d\u5934\u9e2b\u9e5b chinese ( traditional ) : \u5370\u5ea6\u767d\u982d\u9d87\u9da5\ue00e\njamie , g . a . & de silva wijeyeratne , g . ( 2014 ) similarity of the calls of juvenile pied cuckoo clamator jacobinus and its sri lankan host species , yellow - billed babbler turdoides affinis . forktail 30 : 133 - 134\nthe backwaters waterbirds including cinnamon and yellow bitterns , bronze - winged and pheasant - tailed jacanas , and stork - billed kingfisher . also a chance of black - capped kingfisher .\nall day birding mang den where the primary target bird is the recently discovered and seldom seen endemic chestnut - eared laughingthrush . our guide has had very good success getting this species . other target birds are stripe - breasted woodpecker and black - hooded laughingthrush . other notable birds of the area are the scarce pale - capped pigeon , brown hornbill , yellow - billed nuthatch , rufous - faced warbler , red - billed scimitar - babbler , and short - billed scimitar - babbler . night at tba in mang den .\nenglish : yellow - bellied laughing thrush ; french : garrulaxe \u00e0 gorge jaune ; german : gelbbauchh\u00e4herling .\nenglish : pekin robin , red - billed hill tit ; french : l\u00e9iothrix jaune ; german : sonnenvogel .\nmudumalai np ( adjoining bandipur np ) including jungle hut cabins yellow - wattled lapwing , blue - faced malkoha , blue - bearded bee - eater , grey - headed and white - browed bulbuls , yellow - billed babbler and gold - fronted leafbird . also a chance of brown fish owl , jerdon ' s nightjar , white - naped woodpecker , indian pitta , white - bellied minivet and orange - headed thrush .\nbabbler with dark brown upperside , narrowly streaked pale underside , and variably whitish . . .\nblue - rumped & bar - bellied pitta , germain\u2019s peacock - pheasant , green peafowl , orange - necked partridge , great slaty woodpecker , lesser adjutant , grey - faced tit - babbler , collared , black - hooded , white - cheeked & orange - breasted laughingthrush , collared babbler , yellow - billed nuthatch , grey - crowned crocias , hume\u2019s treecreeper , grey - crowned tit , vietnamese cutia , indochinese cuckooshrike , slender - billed oriole , burmese shrike , vietnamese greenfinch , black - crowned fulvetta , black - crowned parrotbill , green peafowl , great slaty woodpecker , austen\u2019s brown hornbill , chestnut - eared , black - hooded & white - cheeked laughingthrush , yellow - billed nuthatch , pale - capped pigeon , coral - billed scimitar - babbler , white - winged magpie , grey - crowned crocias , golden - winged , red - tailed , black - hooded & white - cheeked laughingthrush , indochinese fulvetta , black - crowned barwing , annam partridge , blue - rumped & bar - bellied pitta , short - tailed scimitar babbler , austen\u2019s brown hornbill .\nas a result of these revisions , pomatorhinus erythrocnemis becomes a monotypic species , and the english name is changed to black - necklaced scimitar - babbler . the sequence of these species is : rusty - cheeked scimitar - babbler pomatorhinus erythrogenys spot - breasted scimitar - babbler pomatorhinus mcclellandi black - streaked scimitar - babbler pomatorhinus gravivox gray - sided scimitar - babbler pomatorhinus swinhoei black - necklaced scimitar - babbler pomatorhinus erythrocnemis reference : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\npage 136 , yellow rosella platycercus flaveolus adelaide rosella platycercus adelaidae in accord with raou , yellow rosella and adelaide rosella are lumped into a single species under the name crimson rosella ( platycercus elegans ) . the two former species continue to be recognized as groups : crimson rosella ( yellow ) platycercus elegans flaveolus crimson rosella ( adelaide ) platycercus elegans adelaidae / subadelaidae\npage 497 , long - billed wren - babbler rimator malacoptilus in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , this species is split into three species : \u2014 subspecies rimator malacoptilus pasquieri is elevated to species rank , with english name white - throated wren - babbler . \u2014 subspecies rimator malacoptilus albostriatus is elevated to species rank , with english name sumatran wren - babbler . rimator malacoptilus becomes monotypic , and retains the english name long - billed wren - babbler . the range statement for long - billed wren - babbler \u2013 e himalayas ( sikkim to e assam and ne myanmar ) \u2013 inadvertently was omitted from the clements checklist 6 . 5 spreadsheet ; we will reinstate the range statement in the next edition . reference : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\n4 . 3 in ( 11 cm ) . the most brilliantly colored member of a large genus of mostly brown birds . chest orange or yellow ; head black , with gray throat and whitish cheeks and crown . wings black with brilliant orange and yellow highlights . tail black , edged with orange or yellow . mantle grayish and rump yellow . sexes similar . shape typical of genus : rounded , like a titmouse or kinglet , with a short , sharp bill , and tail of moderate length .\npage 499 , wedge - billed wren - babbler sphenocichla humei in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , subspecies sphenocichla humei roberti is elevated to species rank , with english name chevron - breasted babbler . sphenocichla hume i becomes monotypic , and the english name is changed to blackish - breasted babbler . reference : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\nspecies shared only with sri lanka painted francolin , crested ( changeable ) hawk eagle , blue - faced malkoha , sri lanka frogmouth , jerdon\u2019s nightjar , indian swiftlet , malabar trogon , malabar pied hornbill , crimson - fronted barbet , orange ( scarlet ) minivet , jerdon\u2019s ( rufous - winged ) bush lark , hill ( pacific ) swallow , square - tailed black , white - browed and yellow - browed bulbuls , indian blackbird , indian ( white - browed ) scimitar babbler , dark - fronted and yellow - billed babblers , lesser hill myna , jerdon\u2019s ( blue - winged ) leafbird and long - billed ( loten\u2019s ) sunbird .\nmorning have the park ranger drive us up the mountain road on lang bien . key target birds there are black - throated tit , yellow - billed nuthatch , hume ' s treecreeper , black - crowned fulvetta , and vietnamese cutia . other interesting possibilities include mountain hawk - eagle , hodgson ' s hawk - cuckoo , dalat shrike - babbler , clicking shrike - babbler , bianchi ' s warbler , rufous - capped babbler , collared laughingthrush , and orange - bellied leafbird . afternoon return to the lake area to look for birds missed the previous day . night at dreams hotel .\nan additional aspect of my research involves understanding interspecific interactions and communication . originally i started investigating these interactions between pied babblers and fork - tailed drongos . more recently , i have begun investigating interspecific interactions in scimitar - bills , yellow - billed hornbills and wattled starlings .\nenglish : rough - templed tree - babbler ; french : lob\u00e9lia sp\u00e9ciosa ; german : goldstirn - buschtimalie .\nenglish : mount omei babbler ; french : garrulaxe de l ' omei ; german : omei - haeherling .\nenglish : golden - breasted tit babbler ; french : alcippe \u00e0 poitrine dor\u00e9e ; german : gold - alcippe .\nthis is a reupload - initially i had mistaken the turdoides affinis for turdoides striata , the jungle babblers , but a good youtube friend explained that it must be a yellow - billed babbler , so i had to change the title ; - ) well , whatever seven sisters they are - they are always noisy and funny , and come usually together with a gang of palm squirrels ( funambulus palmarum ) .\nenglish : lesser scaly - breasted wren - babbler , brown wrenbabbler ; french : turdinule mail\u00e9e ; german : moostimalie .\n5 . 25 in ( 13 . 2 cm ) . unique , rather bizarre appearance : black head with golden yellow forehead , lores , eye ring , and chin ; bright reddish orange tufts on side of head . streaked olive mantle with brown wings and tail . breast yellow with black spots .\npage 499 , long - tailed wren - babbler spelaeornis chocolatinus in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , the long - tailed wren - babbler is split into four species . \u2014 subspecies spelaeornis chocolatinus oatesi is elevated to species rank , with english name chin hills wren - babbler . \u2014 subspecies spelaeornis chocolatinus reptatus is elevated to species rank , with english name gray - bellied wren - babbler . \u2014 subspecies spelaeornis chocolatinus kinneari is elevated to species rank , with english name pale - throated wren - babbler . \u2014 spelaeornis chocolatinus becomes monotypic , and retains the english name long - tailed wren - babbler . reference : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\nkukri belur ( kokkare bellur ) spot - billed pelican and painted stork nesting colony in village . also a chance of red - naped ibis and painted stork .\npage 496 , spot - breasted scimitar - babbler pomatorhinus erythrocnemis in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , this highly polytypic species is split into four species : \u2014 subspecies pomatorhinus erythrocnemis mcclellandi is elevated to species rank , with english name spot - breasted scimitar - babbler . \u2014 subspecies pomatorhinus erythrocnemis gravivox is elevated to species rank , with english name black - streaked scimitar - babbler . subspecies odicus , decarlei , dedekensi , and cowensae also now are transferred to black - streaked scimitar - babbler . \u2014 subspecies pomatorhinus erythrocnemis swinhoei is elevated to species rank , with english name gray - sided scimitar - babbler ; subspecies abbreviatus also is included in gray - sided scimitar - babbler . in addition , subspecies ferrugilatus and haringtoni are transferred from pomatorhinus erythrocnemis to the rusty - cheeked scimitar - babbler pomatorhinus erythrogenys . we also add the two following subspecies of rusty - cheeked scimitar - babbler , both of which inadvertently had been omitted from previous editions of clements checklist : pomatorhinus erythrogenys imberbis karenni , e myanmar pomatorhinus erythrogenys celatus shan states , e myanmar and nw thailand\n5 in ( 12 cm ) . tiny , long - tailed , brownish bird with rufous accents , finch - like yellow bill , and dark eyes . sexes similar .\nenglish : white - necked bald crow , yellow - headed rockfowl , guinea picathartes ; french : picatharte de guin\u00e9e ; german : weisshals stelzenkraehe ; spanish : picatartes cuelliblanco .\npage 500 , pygmy babbler stachyris plateni in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , subspecies stachyris plateni pygmaea is elevated to species rank , with english name visayan pygmy - babbler . stachyris plateni becomes monotypic , and the english name changes to mindanao pygmy - babbler . reference : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\npage 499 , pygmy wren - babbler pnoepyga pusilla in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , subspecies pnoepyga pusilla formosana is elevated to species rank , with english name taiwan wren - babbler ; it also is repositioned to follow scaly - breasted wren - babbler pnoepyga albiventer . reference : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\npage 494 , puff - throated babbler pellorneum ruficeps indictinctum correct a typographical error in the scientific name : change \u201cindictinctum \u201d to \u201c indistinctum . \u201d\npage 498 , large wren - babbler napothera macrodactyla rusty - breasted wren - babbler napothera rufipectus black - throated wren - babbler napothera atrigularis marbled wren - babbler napothera marmorata in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , these four species all are transferred to the genus turdinus . please note that for one of these species we failed to change the spelling of the species name : turdinus macrodactyla should be turdinus macrodactylus . we will correct this oversight in the next edition . reference : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\nranganathitu bs mugger crocodile , waterbirds including a chance of spot - billed pelican , painted stork , great thick - knee and river tern , and raptors including a chance of indian spotted eagle .\npage 496 , indian scimitar - babbler pomatorhinus horsfieldii in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , subspecies pomatorhinus horsfieldii melanurus is elevated to species rank , with english name sri lanka scimitar - babbler . reference : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\npage 497 , streak - breasted scimitar - babbler pomatorhinus ruficollis in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , subspecies pomatorhinus ruficollis musicus is elevated to species rank , with english name taiwan scimitar - babbler . reference : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\nliocichla omeiensis riley , 1926 , mt . emei , sichuan . only recently recognized as full species , distinct from taiwanese endemic steere ' s babbler ( l . steerii ) .\nday 11 : yok don national park to mang den early morning birding at yok don before the scenic drive north to mang den in kontum province with a lunch stop en route . arrive in time for some late afternoon birding around mang den . overnight at mang den . day 12 : mang den a full day\u2019s birding at mang den where the recently - discovered and seldom - seen endemic , chestnut - eared laughingthrush , is the main target . other specialities of the mang den area include the scarce pale - capped pigeon , yellow - billed nuthatch , black - hooded laughingthrush and indochinese wren - babbler . overnight at mang den .\npreventing a nest parasite such as the pied cuckoo from laying eggs in its nest should be the first line of babbler defence . but babblers don\u2019t chase anything , let alone cuckoos .\npage 136 , bluebonnet ( yellow - vented ) northiella haematogaster / pallescens the scientific name of this new group is incorrect ; the name should be northiella haematogaster haematogaster / pallescens . we will correct this error in the next edition .\nthe pied cuckoo chick was a giant amongst its foster family of yellow - billed babblers . every morning for a few days , we watched the flock of dowdy brown birds frantically stuff leftover dog food , insects , and other tidbits from the garden into the gaping maw of the ever - hungry monster chick . the family must have been blind to think the fledgling with a pointed crest , prominent black and white plumage , and a long tail was its own .\n11 in ( 28 cm ) . slender grayish brown , long - tailed bird , which may remind americans of thrashers ( mimidae ) . plumage identical in both sexes , but male ' s eyes pale yellow , female ' s brown .\nfor the first picture common babbler ( turdoides caudatus ) might be a good place to start . i ' m not familiar with the group and there may be other species that look similar .\npage 289 , greater scythebill campylorhamphus pucherani in accord with sacc , the greater scythebill is transferred to the new genus drymotoxeres , and placed in a new position in the linear sequence of genera , immediately following the wedge - billed woodcreeper glyphorynchus spirurus .\npage 502 , miniature tit - babbler micromacronus leytensis in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , elevate subspecies micromacronus leytensis sordidus to species rank , with english name mindanao miniature - babbler . micromacronus leytensis becomes monotypic , and the english name changes to visayan miniature - babbler . we inadvertently used a different name , visayan tit - babbl er , in the clements checklist 6 . 5 spreadsheet ; we will correct this error in the next edition . reference : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\n9 . 1 in ( 23 cm ) ; 1 . 75 oz ( 50 g ) . elegant thrush - shaped bird with brown mantle , black mask , and yellow throat and underparts . sexes monomorphic . nominate subspecies , from the western part of the range , has an olive green nape and crown , while the two isolated eastern subspecies have brilliant dark blue napes and crowns instead . jiangxi population has a clear , brilliant yellow chest , while birds from yunan have yellowish gray chests .\npage 506 , white - hooded babbler gampsorhynchus rufulus torquatus in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , subspecies gampsorhynchus rufulus torquatus is elevated to species rank , with english name collared babbler . subspecies gampsorhynchus rufulus saturatior also should be transferred to gampsorhynchus torquatus ( thus leaving white - hooded babbler gampsorhynchus rufulus as monotypic ) , but we failed to implement this change in the clements checklist 6 . 5 spreadsheet ; we will correct this mistake in the next edition . reference : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\nthe orange - billed babbler lives in flocks of seven to ten or more . it is a noisy bird , and the presence of a flock may generally be known at some distance by the continual chattering , squeaking and chirping produced by its members . it is usually the first sign that a mixed - species feeding flock , so characteristic of asian wet forests , is in the vicinity . it feeds mainly on insects , but also eats jungle berries .\npage 30 , anas flavirostris altipetens anas flavirostris andium we announced in the updates and corrections of clements 6 . 4 that subspecies altipetens and andium were split from yellow - billed teal ( anas flavirostris ) to form a new species , andean teal ( anas andium ) . in the clements checklist 6 . 4 spreadsheet , we erected andean teal ( anas andium ) as a species , but we failed to change the species name of the two subspecies . this oversight is corrected in clements checklist 6 . 5 : andean teal anas andium altipetens anas andium andium\nparus fasciatus gambel , 1845 , monterey , california . six subspecies . while delacour long ago considered this species a babbler , many authorities have persisted in assigning it its own family or subfamily . however , the dna hybridization research\nclear distinguishable patterns are observed to be emerging in the responses of avian community structure to habitat characteristics in study , and undoubtedly this variation resulted in avian assemblages specific to the degree of anthropogenic distribution along the elevational gradient of the forest [ 8 ] . at forest edge and the juxtaposition of the edge support higher number of avian species than the other interior habitat . despite the anthropophilic species such as brown - headed barbet , red - vented bulbul , and yellow - billed babbler [ 26 , 31 ] some forest loving birds such as sri lanka wood pigeon and emerald - collared parakeet [ 21 ] were observed to actively utilize resources available in these habitats . although these observations are from our area of study , avian assemblages were typical to other neighborhood study systems available in literature [ 15 , 32 , 33 ] .\npage 480 , scarlet robin petroica multicolor in accord with raou , scarlet robin is split into two species : pacific robin ( petroica multicolor ) , including subspecies pusilla , feminina , similis , cognata , ambrynensis , soror , kleinschmidti , taveunensis , becki , polymorpha , septentrionalis , kulambangrae , dennisi , and multicolor ; and scarlet robin ( petrioca boodang ) , including subspecies campbelli , leggii , and boodang . page 481 , yellow robin eopsaltria australis in accord with raou , the english name is changed to eastern yellow robin . page 481 , gray - breasted robin eopsaltria griseogularis in accord with raou , the english name is changed to western yellow robin . page 481 , white - browed robin poecilodryas superciliosa in accord with raou , the two subspecies of white - browed robin are elevated to species rank : white - browed robin ( poecilodryas superciliosa ) and buff - sided robin ( poecilodyas cerviniventris ) .\nfollowing this , i worked as a research assistant for dr mandy ridley at the pied babbler project ( 2011 - 2013 ) . i carried out playback experiments and collected and analysed sound data from individuals and groups , throughout the breeding seasons .\nootacamund , nilgiri hills black - and - orange and nilgiri flycatchers , indian and nilgiri blue robins , black - chinned laughingthrush , indian scimitar babbler and nilgiri langur . also a chance of painted bush quail , nilgiri wood pigeon and forest wagtail .\nof sibley and ahlquist suggests the wrentit is the only new world babbler , whose ancestors crossed the bering land bridge in the mid - miocene ( 15\u201320 million years ago ) . sibley and ahlquist do place it in its own tribe , chamaeini .\n16 in ( 40 cm ) , 7 oz ( 200 g ) . elegantly proportioned bird of unmistakable appearance . head unfeathered , with unique black and orange - yellow skin pattern . eyes and powerful bill dark . mantle , wings , and tail black , or nearly so . neck and under - parts creamy white .\nall five endangered babblers are primarily threatened by habitat loss . all are forest birds . two are philippine endemics : the flame - templed babbler ( stachyris speciosa ) occurs only on negros and panay , while the negros striped - babbler ( s . negrorum ) is entirely restricted to that severely deforested island . the remaining three depend on high - elevation forests : the nilgiri laughing thrush ( garrulax cachinnnans ) , one of many imperiled inhabitants of india ' s nilgiri hills , the white - throated mountain babbler ( kupeornis gilberti ) , known to science only since 1949 , restricted to several places in nigeria and cameroon , and the gray - crowned crocias ( crocias lang - bianis ) , rediscovered in 1994 after 56 years of no records , from a few locations in vietnam .\npage 270 , straight - billed reedhaunter limnoctites rectirostris this species was placed in the genus limnornis in earlier editions of clements checklist . it was transferred to the genus limnotictes in the clements checklist 6 . 4 spreadsheet , in accord with sacc , but we did not acknowledge this change in taxonomy in the accompanying updates and corrections ( december 2009 ) .\npage 502 , striped tit - babbler macronous gularis in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , elevate the bornensis group of subspecies ( zopherus , zaperissus , everetti , ruficoma , javanicus , montanus , bornensis , argenteus , and cagayanensis ) to species rank , as bold - striped tit - babbler macronous bornensis . the remaining subspecies are retained in macronous gularis , but the english name changes to pin - striped tit - babbler . subspecies macronous bornensis javanicus , which previously did not exist in the clements checklist in the gularis / bornensis complex , is a new addition ; but we later realized that macronous flavicollis javanicus surely represents the same taxon . we will resolve this discrepancy in the next edition . reference : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\nearly morning birding at cat tien . then transfer to di linh area , a fairly short drive away . the main birding site is the forested mountain pass known as deo suoi lanh . it ' s an excellent site for several specialties of the dalat highlands , notably white - crested laughingthrush , black - hooded laughingthrush , orange - breasted laughingthrush , and the near endemic black - crowned parrotbill . the first two laughingthrushes often travel in mixed flocks and are reliably seen . the orange - breasted laughingthrush is much more difficult . groups sometimes spend days looking along the road for it without success , as it is quite secretive and hard to find . our guide knows an out of the way locale not known to other guides where the bird is more possible . other birds of the di linh area include pin - tailed pigeon , silver - backed needletail , red - headed trogon , golden - throated barbet , indochinese green - magpie , black - throated tit , gray - faced tit - babbler , red - billed scimitar - babbler , and spot - necked babbler . it can also be good for raptors such as black eagle and rufous - winged buzzard . night at mai khanh hotel in di linh .\npage 499 , mishmi wren - babbler spelaeornis badeigularis in accord with inskipp et al . ( 1996 ) , rasmussen and atherton ( 2005 ) , collar ( 2006a ) , and many other sources , the english name is changed from mishmi wren - babbler to rusty - throated wren - babbler . references : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 . inskipp , t . , n . lindsey , and w . duckworth . 1996 . an annotated checklist of the birds of the oriental region . oriental bird club , sandy , united kingdom . rasmussen , p . c . , and j . c . atherton . 2005 . birds of south asia : the ripley guide . smithsonian institution and lynx edicions , washington d . c . and barcelona , spain .\npage 147 , dusky - billed parrotlet forpus sclateri in accord with sacc , change the scientific name of dusky - billed parrotlet from forpus sclateri to forpus modestus . the respective subspecies name changes are : forpus sclateri eidos becomes forpus modestus modestus forpus sclateri sclateri becomes forpus modestus sclateri page 147 , orange - chinned parakeet brotogeris jugularis in accord with sacc , the orange - chinned parakeet should be moved to a new position in the linear sequence of species of brotogeris parakeets . we intended to position orange - chinned parakeet immediately following gray - cheeked parakeet brotogeris pyrrhoptera , but we failed to implement this change in the clements checklist 6 . 5 spreadsheet . we will correct this oversight in the next round of revisions to clements checklist .\nall day birding limestone forest . key target species include brown hornbill , red - collared woodpecker , limestone leaf warbler , and sooty babbler . also possible is tonkin partridge . there is a good chance of seeing the endangered ha tinh langur as well . night at accommodations in the park .\npage 498 , limestone wren - babbler napothera crispifrons in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , napothera crispifrons is transferred to the genus gypsophila . reference : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\npaleontology has , thus far , not served to clarify the origins and relationships of babblers , the only fossils being a middle pleistocene example of the modern species , the arabian babbler ( turdoides squamiceps ) . dna research seems to support asian origins in the oligocene , about 40 million years ago .\nnearly a century ago , ernst hartert , curator of the incredible rothschild collection of preserved birds , observed :\nwhat can ' t be classified is regarded as a babbling thrush .\nin the opinions of many of today ' s ornithologists , hartert then proceeded to confuse matters further . the convoluted history of babbler classification is well treated in sibley and ahlquist ' s phylogeny and classification of birds , and the reader is best referred to that book . suffice it to say that exactly what a babbler is , and how it should be classified , has been , and remains , a controversy among ornithologists .\npage 318 , thrush - like schiffornis ( southern ) schiffornis turdina [ turdina group ] with the recognition of a number of new groups within thrush - like schiffornis , the \u201csouthern\u201d group now is restricted to include just three subspecies : steinbachi , intermedia , and turdina . page 586 , tooth - billed catbird ailuroedus dentirostris in accord with raou , this species is transferred to the genus scenopoeetes .\npage 498 , luzon wren - babbler napothera rabori in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , subspecies napothera rabori sorsogonensis is elevated to species rank , with english name gray - banded babbler . subspecies napothera rabori mesoluzonica also should be transferred to napothera sorsogonensis , but we failed to implement this change in the clements checklist 6 . 5 spreadsheet ; we will correct this mistake in the next edition . additionally , in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , the two philippine species of napothera are transferred to a newly - described genus , robsonius . finally , collar also recommended changing the english name of robsonius rabori to \u201c rusty - faced babbler . \u201d we failed to implement this change to the english name in the clements checklist 6 . 5 spreadsheet ; we will correct this oversight in the next edition . reference : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\npage 700 , slender - billed white - eye zosterops tenuirostris stenurus in accord with raou , subspecies zosterops tenuirostris strenuus is elevated to species rank , with english name robust white - eye . this species is extinct ; the year of extinction is 1923 . also note that the spelling of the species name is \u201c strenuus , \u201d not \u201c stenurus ; \u201d we will correct this error in the next edition .\n8 in ( 20 cm ) . striking bird reminiscent of new world thrashers ( mimidae ) . bright chestnut mantle , flanks , and vent . brownish primaries and tail . white chest and throat . remainder of head black , except for well - defined white eyebrow . long curving bill bright yellow , with black at rear of upper mandible , extending along part of culmen . legs gray . melodious voice .\nmy research interests are centred on avian social and breeding behaviour , and during the course of my phd ( supervised by dr . matt bell & dr . per smiseth ) i hope to investigate intra - and interspecific signalling and communication in the southern pied babbler . utilising playback and feeding experiments i aim to ascertain the amount of information use by babblers in a social context .\ninsects are the core of babbler diets . some species appear to feed exclusively on them , while many also eat fruit , other invertebrates , and small frogs and reptiles . as with any huge family , there have evolved some peculiar specialists . while the bearded reedling feeds vigorously on insects for most of the year , and rears its young entirely on them , it subsists on seeds during the winter , its digestive tract making remarkable adjustments to this change in diet . as one might expect , the desert - adapted arabian babbler will eat practically anything . on the other hand , the fire - tailed myzornis ( myzornis pyyrhoura ) has come to resemble a hummingbird or sunbird , consuming nectar with its insects , and becoming a pollinator in the process .\n14 in ( 35 cm ) , 7 . 7 oz ( 220 g ) . appears obviously related to preceding species , but markedly distinct . uniquely beautiful blue , black , and red pattern of bare skin on head , blue extending to base of bill . neck , mantle , back , and tail gray . a patch of black bristles on crown , and short ruff at base of bald head , can be erected when bird is excited . primaries black ; underparts pale yellow .\ndelacour ' s description fits most of the forest - dwelling babblers fairly well . it is in other sorts of habitat that particularly interesting variations have evolved . the arabian babbler ( turdoides squamiceps ) , of the semi - desert , with its highly developed\ntribal\nsocial system , and the semi - aquatic bearded reedling ( panurus biarmicus ) of the marshes , are two striking examples .\nmorning back at ta nung valley . afternoon birding higher elevation roadside near lake area of hotuyen lam . this site features birds such as red - vented barbet , gray - capped woodpecker , sooty - headed bulbul , black bulbul , chestnut - capped babbler , mountain fulvetta , snowy - browed flycatcher , gray bushchat , fire - breasted flowerpecker , and gould ' s sunbird . night at dreams hotel .\ncollar , n . & robson , c . ( 2018 ) . spiny babbler ( acanthoptila nipalensis ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nmorning birding in bach ma national park looking for the endemic annam partridge and the near endemic short - tailed scimitar - babbler . also possible are brown hornbill , silver - breasted broadbill , blue - rumped pitta , bar - bellied pitta , indochinese green - magpie , and black - browed fulvetta . after lunch transfer to phong nha - ke bang national park , arriving by dark . night at accommodations in the park .\nat the moment i am a second - year phd candidate in a joint supervision program ( cotutelle ) between tel aviv university , israel and macquarie university , sydney , australia , and i also work as the director of the arava birding center in the dead sea & arava science centre . my thesis title is\nthe effect of group size and composition on individual behaviour , group dynamics and population regulation in the arabian babbler (\n) . to explore these relationships i conduct field experiments and observations on individual foraging success , foraging strategies and self versus social learning . together with this fieldwork i use the uniquely detailed 40 - year arabian babbler database to analyze long - term demographic effects . this database work involves finding what social or environmental factors promote group growth or extinction , and identifying critical group size effects in relation to eviction , dispersal and reproductive conflict behaviour .\npage 490 , yellow - throated laughingthrush garrulax galbanus courtoisi in accord with collar ( 2006a ) , subspecies garrulax galbanus courtoisi is elevated to species rank , with english name blue - crowned laughingthrush . subspecies garrulax galbanus simaoensis also should be transferred to garrula courtoisi , but we failed to implement this change in the clements checklist 6 . 5 spreadsheet ; we will correct this mistake in the next edition . reference : collar , n . j . 2006a . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\nday 15 : bach ma national park to ho chi minh city via hue a full morning for birding at bach ma national park . target species here include the near - endemic indochinese wren - babbler , silver pheasant , long - tailed & silver - breasted broadbills , indochinese green magpie , ratchet - tailed treepie , masked , lesser - necklaced & black - throated laughingthrushes . in the afternoon transfer to hue airport for the short flight to ho chi minh city to connect with international flight to europe .\nperiyar np nilgiri langur , oriental darter , black baza , malabar trogon , great and malabar grey hornbills , white - bellied treepie , asian fairy bluebird and indian scimitar babbler , as well as nilgiri langur . also a chance of heart - spotted woodpecker , indian pitta , orange - headed thrush , wynaad laughingthrush , forest wagtail , asian elephant , gaur , leopard and rusty - spotted cats , sloth bear , dhole , indian crested porcupine , and oriental small - clawed and smooth - coated otters .\nthe indian subcontinent , including sri lanka , is another babbler stronghold , and 131 species are recorded there . the majority are birds of the himalayas , shared with china , but a number are endemic to peninsular india or sri lanka . in the middle east , babblers are represented by three species of turdoides . europe , including the united kingdom , share the bearded reedling ( panurus biarmicus ) with temperate asia . finally , on the pacific coast of north america is the wrentit ( chamaea fasciata ) .\ni possess a great passion for scientific research and conservation . having interned at the pied babbler research project in 2009 , i jumped at the opportunity to study the behavioural and physiological effects of temperature on pied babblers for my master\u2019s degree . this research was especially fascinating as it combined components of multiple disciplines ( climate change , avian biology , behavioural ecology , physiology , and conservation biology ) to answer conservation questions . my supervisors on this project included : amanda ridley , rowan martin , susan cunningham , and phil hockey .\nafter arrival transfer to cat tien national park , about 3 hours drive on somewhat congested roads . then birding near the park headquarters and accommodations , where coppersmith barbet , lesser yellownape , red - breasted parakeet , common woodshrike , ashy woodswallow , common iora , greater racket - tailed drongo , buff - breasted babbler , tickell ' s blue flycatcher , and common hill myna are possible . the trees behind the park buildings harbor a local group of endangered black - shanked douc langurs . night in accomodations within the park near park entrance .\npage 369 , yellow - eyed cuckoo - shrike coracina lineata in accord with raou , change the english name to barred cuckoo - shrike . page 372 , white - shouldered triller lalage sueurii white - winged triller lalage tricolor in accord with raou , white - winged and white - shouldered trillers are lumped into a single species , white - winged triller lalage sueurii . both former species still maintain an identity as groups : white - winged triller ( white - shouldered ) lalage sueurii sueurii white - winged triller ( white - winged ) lalage sueurii tricolor page 375 , gray - chinned minivet pericrocotus solaris deignani correct a typographic error in the range statement : change \u201ca vietnam\u201d to \u201cs vietnam . \u201d\nearly morning drive out to grasslands area where green peafowl commonly forage in the open . bird along the jeep track looking for other species such as red junglefowl , oriental darter , red - wattled lapwing , oriental pratincole , red - collared dove , barred cuckoo - dove , lesser coucal , white - throated kingfisher , chestnut - headed bee - eater , indian roller , black - and - buff woodpecker , collared falconet , thick - billed flycatcher , and scarlet - backed flowerpecker . there ' s a good chance of seeing woolly - necked storks flying overhad and some chance of seeing the rare lesser adjutant . at dusk look for great - eared nightjar and large - tailed nightjar . night at accommodations near park entrance .\npages 269 - 270 , cinclodes cinclodes in accord with sacc , the sequence of species in the genus cinclodes is rearranged . the new sequence of species is as follows : long - tailed cinclodes cinclodes pabsti blackish cinclodes cinclodes antarcticus buff - winged cinclodes cinclodes fuscus chestnut - winged cinclodes cinclodes albidiventris cordoba cinclodes cinclodes comechingonus cream - winged cinclodes cinclodes albiventris olrog\u2019s cinclodes cinclodes olrogi stout - billed cinclodes cinclodes excelsior royal cinclodes cinclodes aricomae white - winged cinclodes cinclodes atacamensis white - bellied cinclodes cinclodes palliatus gray - flanked cinclodes cinclodes oustaleti dark - bellied cinclodes cinclodes patagonicus surf cinclodes cinclodes taczanowskii seaside cinclodes cinclodes nigrofumosus we failed to implement this change in the clements checklist 6 . 5 spreadsheet , however , but we will correct this oversight in the next revision .\nusing the sentinel system of the babblers i will investigate whether they make adjustments to personal contributions this public good given the state of others , and also investigate whether alarm caller reliability is monitored by other group members . additionally i intend to explore the role of vocalisations in the context of nestling provisioning , investigating whether nestling provisioners transfer information from the nest site to the foraging group , which may be several hundred metres away . finally , i will be undertaking observational work to see which other bird species may be found around babbler groups , and exploring whether the babblers utilise information from heterospecific sources when making foraging decisions using playback experiments .\nmorning back at deo suoi lanh looking for species listed above . mid - day transfer to dalat , a tourist mecca with numerous western style hotels and restaurants . afternoon birding ta tung valley outside dalat . this valley is mostly an open area down a gravel road adjacent to a local farm . the main target bird there is gray - crowned crocias , which is sometimes easily seen and sometimes quite challenging to find . other interesting birds there include green - billed malkoha , greater coucal , indochinese barbet , green - backed tit , chestnut - vented nuthatch , hill prinia , black - crowned parrotbill , black - headed sibia , rufous - backed sibia , asian fairy - bluebird , verditer flycatcher , blue - winged leafbird , black - throated sunbird , and vietnamese greenfinch . night at dreams hotel in dalat .\nfourteen island endemics , seven restricted to the philippines , are included among the 39 near threatened species , and of the remainder , nine occur only in the malay peninsula , sumatra , and borneo . again , loss of habitat , in often restricted ranges , is the cause for their designation . finally , there is one categorized as data deficient , the miniature titbabbler ( micromacronus leytensis ) , at 3 in ( 7 . 6 cm ) , the smallest babbler . restricted to the philippine islands of leyte , samar , and mindanao , it is a forest - dependent species in a land of increasing deforestation , and has remained rare , and little known since its discovery in 1961 .\ni am now a phd student at macquarie university , sydney , under the supervision of dr amanda ridley , dr matt bell and a / prof simon griffith . my current work on the southern pied babbler is looking at how group members recognise one another and the implications this has for their social behaviour . using a series of playback experiments i am investigating whether they are able to individually recognise each other\u2019s vocalisation . i also look at when group member recognition develops in young birds , a factor which may be crucial in explaining life history events such as kidnapping . in addition i look at how responses to the vocalisations of previously familiar individuals change over varying periods of continued separation . this may help to explain observations of prospecting and dispersal in this species . other work includes looking at whether the pied babblers are able to recognise kin and how this is affecting their social interactions with neighbouring groups .\ncat tien national park features a variety of habitats including primary and secondary lowland tropical forest , wetlands , lakes , and open grassland . the first day will focus on forest birds along the track leading to crocodile lake . the primary target birds are scaly - breasted partridge and germain ' s peacock - pheasant . the former is especially secretive , while the latter is most easily seen when calling . other key species orange - breasted trogon , great hornbill , blue - eared barbet , blue - rumped pitta , bar - bellied pitta , ashy minivet , blyth ' s paradise - flycatcher , black - headed bulbul , ochraceous bulbul , gray - faced tit - babbler , and blue - winged leafbird . a dozen woodpeckers are possible including laced woodpecker , heart - spotted woodpecker , and great slaty woodpecker , and three broadbills are possible , namely black - and - red broadbill , long - tailed broadbill , and silver - breasted broadbill . night at accommodations near park entrance .\nsouthern india endemics grey junglefowl , grey - fronted ( pompadour ) green pigeon , nilgiri wood pigeon , malabar parakeet , malabar grey hornbill , malabar ( crimson - fronted ) and white - cheeked barbets , white - bellied treepie , malabar ( large ) woodshrike , malabar lark , white - spotted ( white - throated ) fantail , indian ( chestnut - bellied ) nuthatch , flame - throated ( black - crested ) and grey - headed bulbuls , black - and - orange and nilgiri flycatchers , white - bellied blue flycatcher , nilgiri blue and white - bellied blue robins ( both formerly white - bellied shortwing ) , malabar whistling thrush , black - chinned ( nilgiri ) and grey - breasted ( kerala ) laughingthrushes , ( indian ) rufous babbler , malabar white - headed ( chestnut - tailed ) starling , nilgiri ( plain ) flowerpecker , crimson - backed sunbird , nilgiri pipit and rufous - bellied ( black - throated ) munia . also a chance of broad - tailed grassbird and wynaad laughingthrush .\nfor so diverse a group of birds , generalizations are difficult . as did bertram smythies in the first edition of this encyclopedia , one cannot do better than to quote jean delacour , from his monumental 1946 monograph of the babblers :\nthey move restlessly among twigs and on the ground ; they hop about and dig among fallen leaves . usually they live in the undergrowth , sometimes on the ground among dense plant growth , fallen branches , climbers and evergreen trees , where they can be observed searching for berries and insects . while doing so , they move busily , flutter the wings a great deal , wag their tails and utter noisy calls . as rule , they are loud and varied vocally , hence the name babbler , for they are virtually never quiet . some sing very well and their full melodies ring out far . outside the breeding season , they move about in small troops . often they join with other birds into the mixed flocks characteristic of tropical forest , all seeking food together .\nthe first online digital theses library covering more than 1000 theses in sanskrit , malayalam , hindi and english the digitilization project done for the mahatma gandhi university , kerala , india commemorating 25 year of achievement . website \u00a9 copyright mahatma gandhi university and beehive digital concepts\nnatural vocalization ; song from a pair of birds ( part of a larger flock of the species ) moving low through small trees at the edge of hotel grounds near second growth forest .\nthis bird is moving all the time ! l ' oiseau change souvent de place .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nthis species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : turdoides affinis . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 290 , 290 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be locally common ( grewal et al . 2002 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any current declines or substantial threats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nsong complex , varied , rich and full of mimicry , consisting of series of alternating , quickly . . .\nmainly insects . in one long - term study , 2295 food items ( from 316 birds ) consisted of 86 % invertebrates and 14 % fruit and seeds ; beetles ( . . .\napr\u2013jun . nest a deep cup of grass , placed in small bush or built into sturdy grass clump . clutch 3\u20134 eggs , pale blue ; nestlings . . .\nnot globally threatened . restricted - range species : present in central himalayas eba . frequent and locally fairly common within patchy range ; possibly extends at w of range . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nrecently split from a broader timaliidae . to date , traditionally recognized genera cutia , kupeornis , phyllanthus , turdoides , garrulax , babax ( now in garrulax ) , heterophasia , leiothrix , minla , liocichla and actinodura have been recovered as members of a clade separate from those now placed in timaliidae or pellorneidae ; however , garrulax , actinodura , minla , heterophasia and turdoides , as typically circumscribed , have also been discovered to be polyphyletic . as a result , genetic data available to date # r # r # r # r # r ( many species have not been screened ) can be interpreted in various ways , permitting for a smaller number of larger genera , or many more genera characterized by fewer species , so listing presented here is provisional and dependent on additional molecular data for most of the as yet untested taxa . family name has been spelt in variety of different ways ; above is the original spelling , which is correctly formed and so must be used # r ."]}
{"id": 2364, "summary": [{"text": "anarta myrtilli , the beautiful yellow underwing , is a moth in the noctuidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in most of europe including scandinavia , britain , france , germany , switzerland , spain , portugal , italy , and russia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 20 \u2013 22 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "forewing dull dark fuscous purple , with the lines slightly paler ; the stigmata obscure ; a subtriangular whitish blotch on base of vein 2 ; hindwing orange with broad black terminal border ; the costa and inner margin narrowly black and the base of wing often smoky blackish ; this , the type form , occurring in sweden , the north of england and scotland , and other northern localities is very different from the usual bright red form , which is the ab . rufescens tutt .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "in this the forewing is a mixture of bright red , and olive brown or olive yellow ; the transverse lines being more or less strongly whitish , the stigmata red brown with pale rings , and the white spot on vein 2 distinct ; ab . peralbata ab .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "nov. [ warren ] is an extreme form of this , in which the white lines are strongly developed , : and the central area is milk white from costa to inner margin , including the white blotch on vein 2 ; in the hindwing the yellow is ampler , the black of the costal , and inner margins and the basal suffusion being reduced ; - ab.albivena haw. , described from east anglian specimens , has the forewing suffused with olive brown , wing remaining normal ; while in alpina ractzer not only is the forewing olive brown , but the hindwing shows only a dull yellowish median band crossed by black veins ; - and again in olivacea fuchs the yellow of the hindwing is suffused with olive brown , while the coloration of the forewing remains of the normal bright red ; in ab . nigrescens ab .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "nov. [ warren ] occurring at hyeres , s.france , the usual red fusion is almost entirely replaced by black ; lastly , in subsp. citrina subsp. nov. [ warren ] ] from cintra , portugal , the whole forewing is suffused with blackish , leaving only the white blotch on vein 2 conspicuous , and the orange of the hindwing , both above and below , is pale lemon yellow ; as the insect is decidedly larger than average typical myrtilli , it may prove a distinct species ; at present i have seen only one - taken in the spring of 1909 by mr - n. c. rothschild , and now in the tring museum .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing between may to august depending on the location .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "there are probably two generations per year .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the larvae feed on calluna vulgaris and erica tetralix . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "anarta myrtilli", "paragraphs": ["kari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nkanervakangasy\u00f6kk\u00f6nen\nto\nanarta myrtilli linnaeus 1761\n.\nbeautiful yellow underwing ( anarta myrtilli ) - norfolk moths - the macro and micro moths of norfolk .\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\nheidekrauteule\nto\nanarta myrtilli linnaeus 1761\n.\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\nheidekrauteulchen\nto\nanarta myrtilli linnaeus 1761\n.\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\nheidekraut - bunteule\nto\nanarta myrtilli linnaeus 1761\n.\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\nheidekraut - bunteulchen\nto\nanarta myrtilli linnaeus 1761\n.\nhabitat : anarta myrtilli inhabits sunny calluna locations as heath bogs , silicate calluna heaths in the mountains or sandy heaths in the plane .\nendangerment factors : in the lowlands , for example in the upper rhine valley , anarta myrtilli has already lost almost all locations as a result of the intensification of agriculture and the increasingly rampant overbuilding by industry , transportation routes and settlements . in the mountains , anarta myrtilli is currently threatened even less , though here also constantly habitat area is lost by reforestation , ski runs and other tourist facilities . in the northern black forest anarta myrtilli could benefit from the storm areas in recent decades , but that is currently canceled again with their gradual overgrowth .\nremarks : anarta myrtilli is quite widespread in europe as a whole , but lacks many landscapes completely ( limestone areas , etc . ) . in the south , it is still more local and is missing e . g . in southern italy or greece .\nid : forewing ground colour reddish - brown or brownish - grey , marbled greyish - white ; white blotch at dorsal margin of oval ; hindwing yellow with a broad black termen and narrow black costal and dorsal margins . anarta cordigera ( small dark yellow underwing ) has a dark grey forewing ground colour and a conspicuous white - edged kidney mark .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ngaden s . robinson , phillip r . ackery , ian j . kitching , george w . beccaloni and luis m . hern\u00e1ndez\nrecords of caterpillar hostplants are scattered through published and manuscript sources worldwide and are difficult to retrieve . many rearing records are never published and so are not accessible to other entomologists . but collected hostplant records form a valuable scientific resource that can be used eventually to answer broader biological questions about how lepidoptera and plants interact ( eg , letourneau , hagen & robinson , 2001 ) . it provides information of immediate relevance to agriculture , ecology , forestry , conservation and taxonomy .\nhosts brings together an enormous body of information on what the world ' s butterfly and moth ( lepidoptera ) caterpillars eat . the web - based version presented here offers a synoptic data set drawn from about 180 , 000 records comprising taxonomically ' cleaned ' hostplant data for about 22 , 000 lepidoptera species drawn from about 1600 published and manuscript sources . it is not ( and cannot be ) exhaustive , but it is probably the best and most comprehensive compilation of hostplant data available .\nwe hope that it will be useful to a wide range of biologists and that it will act as a spur to further recording and analysis of caterpillar - plant interactions .\nhosts can be searched in two ways , using text search and drill - down search modes .\nin text search mode , use either lepidoptera or hostplant criteria or a combination of the two . hosts operates only using scientific names . it is not possible to search for the hostplants of the red admiral butterfly but a search for hostplants using its scientific name , vanessa atalanta , will be successful . enter the generic name ( vanessa ) in the - lepidoptera criteria - genus box ; enter atalanta in the species : box ; click search .\nhint : leave the ' starts with ' command as the default and in the species entry box omit the last few letters of the species - name ( eg , atalant ) . this will get around the problem of variable gender - endings . hosts uses original orthography of species - group names as far as possible , but some checklists follow the convention of altering the species - group name to accord with the presumed gender of the generic name ( eg flava , flavus ) .\nrestrict or refine searches using additional criteria ; choosing ' usa ' from the drop - down location box and entering [ starts with ] ' urt ' in the hostplant family box will return hostplant records of vanessa atalanta from urticaceae in the usa .\nhint : restricting location may deliver a very incomplete subset of records : in the previous example all records specified as from the nearctic region ( usa + canada ) would be missed .\ndrill - down search mode allows the user to home in from the starting - point of either the lepidoptera or the plant family . choose a family group from the drop - down box and allow time for all genera of that family in the database to load to the genus drop - down box ; choose a genus and wait for the species to load . the search button can be pressed at any time , but the record delivery limit may be exceeded at higher taxonomic levels . drill - down search allows the user to see by scrolling all the taxa that are represented in the database . following the previous example , choose nymphalidae , then choose vanessa from the genus drop - down box and then atalanta from the ten possible species of vanessa included in hosts .\nthe preliminary search results pages give family , genus and species of the caterpillar and its hostplant . note that many hostplants are recorded as a plant genus only . clicking the caterpillar name will give the full record . the full record listing gives , additionally , the author of the lepidoptera species , subspecific information on the insect and the plant , if available , together with details of larval damage . laboratory rearings where the food utilised may not be the natural hostplant are indicated . the status of the record ( whether considered true , erroneous or suspect ) is not currently implemented in this version of hosts .\nleguminosae ( c ) - caesalpinioideae . leguminosae ( m ) - mimosoideae . leguminosae ( p ) - papilionoideae .\nall lepidoptera groups are covered and subspecific taxa are differentiated . the original source of the record , original form of the names used ( prior to taxonomic ' cleaning ' and standardisation of nomenclature ) and validation and verification fields are not included . this information is , however , retained in the databases used to generate this site . while we have included species that do not feed on green plants , the known food substrates of these are not listed exhaustively . such species comprise detritophages and predators and include , for example , most tineidae and the stored - products pests . the published compilations from hosts ( see more detail - publications from hosts ) include record status and the sources of all records .\ndetailed published compilations from hosts are available in press . these books give greater detail than the website , together with comprehensive cross - indexes , record status and full bibliographies . they are indispensable tools for naturalists and professional entomologists .\nrobinson , g . s . , ackery , p . r . , kitching , i . j . , beccaloni , g . w . & hern\u00e1ndez , l . m . 2001 . hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of the oriental region . 744 pp .\nrobinson , g . s . , ackery , p . r . , kitching , i . j . , beccaloni , g . w . & hern\u00e1ndez , l . m . 2002 . hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of america north of mexico . 824 pp . [ memoirs of the american entomological institute , volume 69 . ]\nbeccaloni , g . w . , viloria , a . l . , hall , s . k . & robinson , g . s . 2008 . catalogue of the hostplants of the neotropical butterflies / cat\u00e1logo de las plantas hu\u00e9sped de las mariposas neotropicales . m3m - monograf\u00edas tercer milenio , volume 8 . zaragoza , spain : sociedad entomol\u00f3gica aragonesa ( sea ) / red iberoamericana de biogeograf\u00eda y entomolog\u00eda sistem\u00e1tica ( ribes ) / ciencia y tecnolog\u00eda para el desarrollo ( cyted ) / natural history museum , london , u . k . ( nhm ) / instituto venezolano de investigaciones cient\u00edficas , venezuela ( ivic ) . 1 - 536 pp . , 1 fig , 3 tabs .\ngaden robinson was responsible for the overall project design and management of the hosts database , and for records of lepidoptera exclusive of butterflies and bombycoid moths . phillip ackery and george beccaloni were responsible for butterfly data , including data drawn from card catalogues developed by ackery , whilst ian kitching was responsible for hostplant data of bombycoid moths . luis m . hern\u00e1ndez was responsible for abstracting in the latter two years of the project and for development of the bibliography for the hardcopy versions of the data .\nwe are extremely grateful to the many people who contributed their own rearing records of lepidoptera or personal accumulations of data for inclusion in the hosts database , particularly mike bigger ( uk ) , john w . brown ( usa ) , chris conlan ( usa ) , rob ferber ( usa ) , konrad fiedler ( germany ) , jeremy holloway ( uk ) , frank hsu ( usa ) , jurie intachat ( malaysia ) , alec mcclay ( canada ) , bill palmer ( australia ) , pierre plauzoles ( usa ) and the generous individuals who contributed rearing records through the worldwideweb and who are known to us only as an email address .\nwe are particularly grateful to julian donahue and the los angeles county museum of natural history for allowing us to include data on microlepidoptera from the card catalogue prepared by the late j . a . comstock and c . henne , and for access to manuscript records by noel mcfarland .\nmarian fricano ( santa clara university ) and aileen giovanello ( clark university , international internship 1996 ) made substantial contributions of abstracted data ; fran love ( north carolina ) painstakingly checked scanned texts and reformatted them for import to paradox .\nmuch of the immense task of data abstracting and entry from printed and manuscript sources as well as preliminary editing and name - checking was carried out by volunteers . many of these were school students on work - experience placements during 1993 - 2000 from , initially , the coopers ' company and coborn school , upminster , and later from other schools in greater london : christopher andrewes , simon bennett ( 1994 nhm vacation studentship ) , steven bond , michael brownlow , emma causer , laurence cooper , ailsa cranfield ( 1998 nuffield studentship ) , emily dwiar , andrew enever , jane feehan , madeleine ferry , max friedman , edward gold , jennifer hodgkinson , christopher joint , fateha khatun ( 1996 nuffield studentship ) , james lowe , louisa marchant , gemma millward , christopher milne , carolyn oughton , william perkins , rebecca reith , eleanor resheph , clare sambidge , neil shaftain , stephen sloan , helen stevens , samuel tarry , david taylor and thomas yeatman .\nwe are indebted to all our helpers for their diligence , accuracy and patience , and for their unswerving faith that this daunting project would reach a conclusion .\nour colleagues here and overseas provided substantial help , advice and assistance with the checking of names of lepidoptera and with many other aspects of this project : kim and david goodger and jeremy holloway ( macrolepidoptera families ) , martin honey ( noctuoidea ) , brian pitkin ( computing ) , malcolm scoble and linda pitkin ( geometroidea ) , klaus sattler ( gelechioidea ) , michael shaffer ( pyraloidea , thyridoidea , pterophoroidea ) , alma solis ( usda , washington - pyraloidea ) , fernley symons ( oxford university - technical support ) and kevin tuck ( tortricoidea ) . julie harvey and the staff of the bmnh entomology and general libraries provided sterling support in locating obscure source material and intuitively correcting bowdlerized references .\nwe thank the trustees of the loke wan tho memorial foundation for their generous support for this project .\nrobinson , g . s . , p . r . ackery , i . j . kitching , g . w . beccaloni & l . m . hern\u00e1ndez , 2010 . hosts - a database of the world ' s lepidopteran hostplants . natural history museum , london . urltoken . ( accessed : 18 aug . 2010 ) .\nbrummitt , r . k . 1992 . vascular plant families and genera . [ vi ] + 804 pp . , royal botanic gardens , kew .\nkartesz , j . t . 1994 . a synonymized checklist of the vascular flora of the unites states , canada and greenland . timber press , portland . 1 , checklist , lxi + 622 pp ; 2 , thesaurus , vii + 816 pp .\nkitching , i . j . & cadiou , j . - m . 2000 . hawkmoths of the world : an annotated and illustrated revsionary checklist . xx + 500 pp . , cornell university press , ithaca .\nkitching , i . j . & rawlins , j . e . 1999 . the noctuoidea . pp . 355 - 401 . in : kristensen , n . p . ( ed . ) lepidoptera , moths and butterflies . 1 . evolution , systematics and biogeography . handbook of zoology , 4 ( 35 ) . lepidoptera . x + 491 pp . de gruyter , berlin .\nletourneau , d . k . , hagen , j . a . & robinson , g . s . 2001 . bt crops : evaluating benefits under cultivation and risks from escaped transgenes in the wild . pp . 33 - 98 . in : letourneau , d . k . & burrows , b . e . ( eds ) , genetically engineered organisms : assessing environmental and human health effects . [ viii ] + 438 pp . , crc press , boca raton .\nmabberley , d . j . 1987 . the plant book . a portable dictionary of the higher plants . xii + 707 pp . , cambridge university press . [ the 1993 reprint edition is currently used in editing . ]\nnielsen , e . s . , edwards , e . d . & rangsi , t . v . ( eds ) 1996 . checklist of the lepidoptera of australia . monographs on australian lepidoptera . 4 . xiv + 529 pp . , csiro , melbourne .\nnye , i . w . b . ( ed . ) 1975 - 91 . the generic names of moths of the world . 1 : 568 pp . ( noctuoidea ( part ) - nye , i . w . b . , 1975 ) ; 2 : xiv + 228 pp . ( noctuoidea ( part ) - watson , a . , fletcher , d . s . & nye , i . w . b . , 1980 ) ; 3 : xx + 243 pp . ( geometroidea - fletcher , d . s . , 1979 ) ; 4 : xiv + 192 pp . ( bombycoidea to zygaenoidea - fletcher , d . s . & nye , i . w . b . , 1982 ) ; 5 : xv + 185 pp . ( pyraloidea - fletcher , d . s . & nye , 1984 ) ; 6 : xxix + 368 pp . ( microlepidoptera - nye , i . w . b . & fletcher , d . s . , 1991 ) . british museum ( natural history ) / the natural history museum , london .\nrawlins , j . e . 1984 . mycophagy in lepidoptera . pp . 382 - 483 . in : wheeler , q . & blackwell , m . ( eds ) fungus - insect relationships . perspectives in ecology and evolution . 514 pp . , columbia university press .\nrobinson , g . s . 1999 . hosts - a database of the hostplants of the world ' s lepidoptera . nota lepidopterologica , 22 : 35 - 47 .\nrobinson , g . s . , ackery , p . r . , kitching , i . j . , beccaloni , g . w . & hern\u00e1ndez , l . m . 2001 . hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of the oriental region . 744 pp . southdene sdn bhd , kuala lumpur .\nrobinson , g . s . , ackery , p . r . , kitching , i . j . , beccaloni , g . w . & hern\u00e1ndez , l . m . 2002 . hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of america north of mexico . memoirs of the american entomological institute , 69 : 1 - 824 .\nscoble , m . j . ( ed . ) 1999 . a taxonomic catalogue to the geometridae of the world ( insecta : lepidoptera ) . 2 vols . csiro publications , melbourne .\nroyal botanic garden edinburgh dipterocarpaceae database : http : / / 193 . 62 . 154 . 38 / diptero /\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\na quite small species , with a wingspan of only around 25mm , this is a diurnal moth , flying freely in warm sunshine , but tending to rest when the sun goes in .\nfrequenting acid moorland , there are probably two generations in the south , with moths on the wing from may to august . in the north it flies in june and july .\nit has a scattered distribution over most of britain , and the larvae feed mainly on heather ( calluna ) .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 06 - 15 12 : 26 : 11 page render time : 0 . 2731s total w / procache : 0 . 3354s\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nlife cycle : the moths fly in one or ( usually ) two generations from april to early september . the caterpillar lives from the summer to october also open on the plant during the day , but well camouflaged . the pupa overwinters .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nfw : 10 - 12mm ; apr - aug in south , jun - jul in north , diurnal ; common heather ( calluna vulgaris ) , bell heather ( erica cinerea ) ; common in heath and moor throughout gb .\n\u00a71 new forest , hampshire ; 31 / 08 / 2013 ; male ; fw 10 . 6mm \u200b\u00a72 duddon moss , cumbria ; 22 / 07 / 2016 ; female ; fw 10 . 0mm ; netted by day all images \u00a9 chris lewis\nrecorded in 18 ( 26 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1873 . last recorded in 2018 .\nunderlying maps using digital map data \u00a9 norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola\u2122 2018 . \u00a9 james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data \u00a9 nola\u2122 2018"]}
{"id": 2372, "summary": [{"text": "zelus luridus , also known as the pale green assassin bug , is a species of assassin bug native to north america .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is the most common zelus species in the eastern united states .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the size ranges from twelve and a half to eighteen millimeters long .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "on average , adult females are sixteen millimeters long , while males are fourteen millimeters long .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "though the base color is pale green , markings on the back can range from dark brown or red to bright yellow .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "nymphs are generally more solid green , wingless , and with narrower bodies than adults .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the most reliable feature to distinguish this species from others is the pair of spines on the rear corners of the pronotum .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "these spines are long on the lighter colored individuals and shorter on ones that are darker .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it can also be distinguished by dark bands on the distal ends of the femurs , but these can often be too light to be easily seen .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the egg masses , which are laid from late june to august , are conical in shape with a flat top .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "they are laid on leaves in groups of twenty to fifty and held together with a sticky , brownish material .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "like many other assassin bugs , zelus luridus preys on other insects .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it will often wait on leaves to ambush passing insects , but occasionally it also actively hunts .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "for this , it uses sticky traps , a common predation strategy to species within the genus zelus .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the sticky material is produced by a gland on the leg .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "this gland develops in the second instar .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "during the first instar , the nymphs use secretions deposited over the egg batch by the female as the source of their sticky material . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "zelus luridus", "paragraphs": ["this is an assassin bug in the genus zelus . moving to that guide page . update : z . luridus is the species .\ni found a zelus renardii nymph crawling on my bed on the second story . is there a chance that it emerged from eggs laid in my house ? also , what do zelus renardii nymphs eat ?\nthere are at least two generations annually here along the front range in colorado , probably three or more generations in southerly latitudes . i notice nymphs of z . luridus in spring , so it is likely that winter is passed in the egg stage .\nthere are currently five recognized species of zelus north of mexico , most with wide geographic distributions . few are readily identifiable to species just by looking at them , but common ones include : the lovely green zelus luridus with a sharp spine on either side of its thorax ; the bright red and black milkweed assassin bug , z . longipes found in the southeast u . s . ; and the non - descript z . tetracanthus with its four small\nknobs\nacross the top of its thorax . the leafhopper assassin bug , z . renardii , is common in the southwest u . s . and has been entertained as a potential biocontrol agent for pest reduction in agricultural settings .\ngenus zelus fabricius in the united states , canada , and northern mexico ( hemiptera : reduviidae ) hart e . r . 1986 . ann . ent . soc . am . 79 : 535 - 548 .\nassassin bugs in general are indiscriminate predators of other insects , and zelus is no exception . so , while they will dine on leafhoppers , small caterpillars , and other pests , they will also capture beneficial insects such as small bees .\nzelus species range from 14 - 21 millimeters in body length as adults , and are relatively easy to recognize with their slender build , long legs and antennae , and diurnal period of activity . they are largely arboreal , so you will find them mostly on foliage and flowers of trees , shrubs , and herbs .\nthis is a zelus luridus - or pale green assassin bug . i believe this is an immature one . being\ntrue bugs\n, the babies of these insects look like small versions of the adults - without wings . most insects go through different stages - egg , nymph , pupa , before appearing as an adult that most of us recognize . true bugs grow into adulthood without going through these changes . in addition they eat the same food as the adults ( unlike insects like butterflies , whose babies ( ( caterpillars ) ) eat leaves ) . here is an explanation of these processes : urltoken and here is information about the little bugger who bit your child : urltoken i hope this is helpful . please contact aae again if you have further questions .\nyour garden is full of amazing predators , easily overlooked among the foliage and flowers . no matter where you live in the u . s . and southern canada , save perhaps for the northern rocky mountains , you probably have sundew assassin bugs of the genus zelus lurking in the yard . these leggy insects move slowly about , or wait in ambush for potential prey .\neric , any idea how long it takes for zelus eggs to hatch ? i collected and kept a female z . renardii in a small jar for a few days and then let it go . while in the jar , she laid eggs that i did not notice . after what seemed like just a few days i noticed the nymphs crawling all over in the jar .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nis apple green , and markings on the back may be very dark or rather light . the legs sometimes have dark or red bands on the distal ends of the femurs , but these can often be so light as to be almost invisible . when i ' ve seen mating pairs , the males tend to be the darker ones , with the more pronounced red leg bands .\n, which are rather long on the light colored individuals and shorter on the dark .\ne na to rockies ( qc - fl to mb - wy - se . az ) / mex .\n1 . eggs . 2 . newly hatched nymphs . 3 . first instar nymphs . 4 . older nymph . 5 . adult\nhow to know the true bugs slater , james a . , and baranowski , richard m . 1978 . wm . c . brown company .\ncontributed by eric r . eaton on 28 september , 2006 - 3 : 20pm additional contributions by cotinis , hannah nendick - mason , beatriz moisset , bbarnd , mike quinn , v belov last updated 15 december , 2017 - 3 : 34pm\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nthis is a dead bug , since my wife put it in the sun . when it was alive , it was mostly green with a sort of long chevron shaped mark ( with the apex toward the head ) on it ' s back ( wings ) . it ' s about 5 / 8\nlong not including the front legs . i found it in the kitchen when it landed on my wife in the evening . she said she found another one in her car a day or two later . it ' s possible that we picked them up while camping at summersville lake , w . va . a week earlier . i was trying to be nice to the bug . instead of killing it , i began to carry it outside between my fingers . the little b _ _ _ _ _ _ bit or stung me on the tip of my ring finger . i ' m not sure it ' s related , but i ' ve had an aching feeling in that arm since about a day afterward .\nbefore it dried out , did it look something like this ? urltoken - - t . carter ross\nnope . it was mostly green , didn ' t have all that red . i ' ve found there are at least 3 , 000 species of assassin bug .\nthey have piercing sucking mouthparts so its more of a stab than a bite . when i was a kid i made the same mistake with a wheel bug that patrick mentioned and it seemed much worse than any bee or wasp sting .\nthanks for the comment . i too thought it seemed to have a sucking mouth apparatus similar to that of a fly .\nthis is an assassin bug , family reduvidae . they do bite in self defense , as well as being predatory on other insects , and some of them can inflict a fairly painful stab . the wheel bug , a large gray species , is infamous for inflicting painful wounds . i have a trick for removing insects and spiders from my house without killing them : i coax them into a large plastic cup laid on its side , say , with a wisk broom or a piece of paper . i then carry them outside in the cup . most things cannot climb the walls of the cup , so i know i won ' t get bitten or stung . again , assassin bugs are just about the only\ntrue bugs\nthat do bite . patrick coin durham , north carolina\nthanks for the name and comment . i ' ve used a similar method , putting a cup or glass over the bug and then sliding paper between the cup and the surface , for wasps and hornets , but this guy appeared so harmless . i won ' t assume that again !\nselect your preferred way to display the comments and click ' save settings ' to activate your changes .\nphotographed at the turtle river state park , north dakota ( 20 june 2011 ) .\nall about insects , spiders , and other arthropods , focusing on north america north of mexico .\nsundew assassins get their common name from the unique physiology that allows them to catch prey . while ambush bugs have extremely muscular front legs that snap shut on prey with stunning force , sundew assassins look like the 90 - pound weakling by comparison . their appendages are thin and seemingly delicate or flimsy . the tibiae (\nshins\n) of the front legs ( and to some degree the middle legs ) are densely covered in short hairs , and this is part of their secret weapon .\nspecial glands in the exoskeleton of the legs secrete a glue - like material that that the insect intentionally smears over those hairs . this creates a sticky layer that small prey cannot escape from once the assassin grabs them . the prey - catching scenario is analogous to the insect - eating plant known as the sundew , which inspires the name\nsundew assassin bugs .\nwhen they hatch from the egg , nymphs do not have the ability to produce the glue they need . no matter , mom has covered the egg cluster in sticky goo to help repel egg parasites like tiny wasps , and the nymphs simply wipe their\narms\nalong the base of the egg mass to gather some glue ( weirauch , 2006 ) .\nnymphs go through five instars ( an instar is the interval between molts ) on their way to adulthood . they are noticeably larger after each molt , with wing pads evident in the last couple of stages .\nthe egg mass reminds me of a tiny cr\u00e8me br\u00fbl\u00e9e , but perhaps i need to eat lunch and return to finish this post later . . . . i was delighted to stumble upon a couple of egg masses in the act of hatching at the cheyenne mountain zoo here in colorado springs back on july 21 . it seems remarkable that such long - legged creatures could be packaged in such small vessels .\ndespite our tendency to classify insects as\ngood\nor\nbad\nfor our own selfish reasons , sundew assassin bugs should be welcomed for the benefits they provide in occasional pest control , and their unique behavior and\npersonality ,\nif i dare use that word for an invertebrate .\nsources : > valerie . 2014 .\nreduviidae ~ assassin bugs ,\naustin bug collection .\n19 , zugleich kataloge der o\u00f6 . landesmuseen neue serie 50 ( 2006 ) , 1169 - 1180 .\nwolf , klaus werner and walton reid . 2001 .\nsurface morphology of legs in the assassin bug\nyou ' re welcome , ron ! yes , assassin bugs in general can give a painful bite in self - defense . the worst bite i ' ve ever experienced was from another kind of reduviid .\ni do not know the answer to that . i suspect it varies a bit , from species to species and region to region , but i imagine it takes a week or two for the eggs to hatch .\njust saw what i thought are my first samples of this species after more than 20 years in this area but saw two on the same day . funny how that works .\nnot likely that eggs were laid indoors . could have fallen off a tree , been blown in . . . . nymphs feed on any insect they can overpower .\nthat is a medical question and i am unqualified to answer it . seek a physician if you experience symptoms out of proportion to the bite ( beyond normal localized pain , inflammation ) .\nis this ok to have as a pet my son caught one and we thought it was a baby mantis . it just shed and we have been giving it ants to eat or should we just let it go ?\nyes , it is fine to keep as a pet , but don ' t feed it ants , especially after it has just molted . ants can kill it ! feed it aphids , leafhoppers , and other small insects that cannot bite or otherwise defend themselves easily .\ni found one in my kitchen , i think , but it doesn ' t have any wings . it looks like the pictures though . is it possible that it is one ?\nquite possible indeed . nymphs , which are probably already evident in southern latitudes by now , do not have wings .\ntell us about it and you ' ll be helping the big bug hunt citizen science project .\nplease book me now for your own events : bugeric247atgmaildotcom . i am happy to be a guest speaker , field trip leader , workshop facilitator , and sign copies of the kaufman guide . thank you .\ni now accept donations here . if you like what i am doing , please see the button at the bottom of this sidebar . thank you .\ngoogle book search provides previews of several pages of text and plates so that you can judge for yourself the quality of the book .\nis a large cosmopolitan family of about 7000 species of predatory insects in the suborder heteroptera . it includes assassin bugs ( genera :\nadult assassin bugs range from 4 - 40 mm , with an elongated head and distinct narrowed neck , long legs , and a prominent , segmented tube for feeding ( rostrum ) . the most distinctive feature of the family is that the tip of the rostrum fits into a groove in the prosternum , where it is rasped against ridges there (\n) to produce sound , a tactic often used to intimidate predators , rivals and attract mates .\nassassin bugs use their rostrum to inject a lethal saliva that liquefies the insides of the prey , which are then sucked out by means of a cybarial pump through another passage in the rostrum . the legs of some species are covered in tiny hairs that help them hold onto their prey while they feed . as nymphs , some species will cover and camouflage themselves with plant debris , or the remains of dead prey insects [ 1 ] . some species have been known to feed on cockroaches or bedbugs ( in the case of the masked hunter ) and are regarded in many locations as beneficial . some people breed them as pets and for insect control . some assassin bug groups specialize on certain prey groups , such as ants ( feather - legged bugs - holoptilinae ) , termites , or diplopods ( ectrichodiinae ) .\nthat causes chagas disease , also referred to as american trypanosomiasis . triatomines are primarily nocturnal and feed on the blood of mammals ( including humans ) , birds , and reptiles .\nchagas disease is named after the brazilian physician carlos chagas , who discovered the disease in 1909 . it is transmitted to animals and people by insect vectors that are found only in the americas . in the united states , chagas disease is considered a neglected infection of poverty ( nip ) , since it is found mostly in those with limited resources and limited access to medical care .\ninfection is most commonly acquired through contact with the feces of an infected triatomine bug , but can also be passed from mother to baby , by contaminated blood products , organ transplants , or , rarely , through contaminated food or drink . [ 2 ]\ntriatomine bugs are currently found over the lower 2 / 3rds of the u . s . , including hawaii . their range is expanding rapidly due to climate change , and they can live indoors and in a variety of outdoor venues : in chicken coops , dog houses , in rodent nest or animal burrows ; in rock or wood piles , beneath the bark of trees , or under concrete walkways and patios .\nbecause most indoor structures in the united states are built with insect - resistent sealed entryways , triatomine bugs rarely infest indoor areas of houses . however , in areas of latin america where human chagas disease is an important public health problem , the bugs nest in cracks and holes of substandard housing , i . e . those with thatched roofs or mud walls .\ndiscovery of immature stages of the bug ( wingless , smaller nymphs ) indoors may be an indication of infestation ; they are likely to be in one of the following settings : in pet bedding , areas of rodent infestation , and in bedrooms , especially under or near mattresses or night stands . in fact , the larvae of the assassin bug\ntransmission of chagas disease from a bug to a human is not easy . the parasite that causes the disease is in the bug feces . the bug generally defecates on or near a person while it is feeding on his or her blood , generally when the person is sleeping . transmission occurs when fecal material gets rubbed into the bite wound or into a mucous membrane ( for example , the eye or mouth ) , and the parasite enters the body [ 2 ] .\nroma\u00f1a ' s sign : swelling of the eyelid is a marker of acute chagas disease . the swelling is due to bug feces being accidentally rubbed into the eye , or because the bite wound was on the same side of the child ' s face as the swelling . [ 3 ] image : cdc\nit is important to note that not all triatomine bugs are infected with the parasite that causes chagas disease . the likelihood of getting chagas disease from a triatomine bug in the united states is low , even if the bug is infected [ 2 ] .\njames rennie , insect architecture , vol 2 . pg . 165\nstructure of larvae\norder hemiptera : true bugs number almost 5 , 000 species in north america , and 40 , 000 worldwide . they have mouthparts formed into a beak , adapted for sucking plant juices or the liquefied insides of their animal prey . suborder auchenorrhyncha - cicadas & planthoppers suborder sternorrhyncha - aphids , scales , mealybugs , jumping plant lice .\nmy little girl was bit or stung by a tiny green bug , a little bigger than a mosquito , lime green in color . the bit was painful and it swelled up but has since gone down . no one seems to know what this bug is . can you take a look at this photo and let me know please .\nwow , thank you so much for your fast reply and yes it ' s name sure does match it ' s bite . my daughter is 11 and it brought her to tears , she said it was worse than a bee sting . should i be on the look out for more of these critters ? this happened while she was just sitting in the living room . again , thank you for getting back to me to quickly . diette\nit ' s getting late in the year , so hopefully these bugs will soon cease to be a problem . in spite of the unhappy experience you ' ve had , these insects are beneficial in our gardens and fields . they consume lots of harmful insects . they are rather uncommon and it ' s possible that you and your daughter will live out the rest of your lives without ever encountering another one . here is a quote from a university of missouri article about assassin bugs :\navoiding our harmful assassins involves taking simple precautions . exclude them from your home by repairing window screens , applying weatherstripping , and sealing other openings . use yellow bulbs in porchlights , and dispense with bug zappers . do not camp or sleep inside caves , barns or other sheltered areas frequented by masked hunters , corsairs , and conenoses . to avoid a self - defense bite , gently brush away any bug that lands on you .\nthe beneficial qualities of assassin bugs far outweigh their negative potential , and learning to get along with these indispensable predators is in our own best interest .\ngood morning , i ' m pretty sure i just discovered an adult assassin bug in my house . i have to admit , freaks me out a bit ! how many are in here ? ? ? i ' ve attached a few photos , sorry . . . he ' s a bit smushed ! if it ' s not the assassan bug , what is this ? i was looking at the article you sent me back in october and it seems like it ' s the same bug , just an adult this time . please advise , diette\nthe critter in the photo is too mangled , and the resolution isn ' t good enough for me to pick out identifying details but if you google assassin bug and look at\nimages\nyou should be able to verify its identity . since these bugs produce only one generation per year - and they tend to be solitary and somewhat nomadic - there probably aren ' t lots of others in your house . they are coming in from the outside . controlling them indoors involves thorough cleaning and vacuuming to reduce other prey insects , caulking areas that may be open to the outdoor , keeping pets indoors . here is another publication that contains information about keeping them out of your house : urltoken\ndid not know if you can tell me what kind of insect this is and if it is bad . . . .\na pale green assassin bug with prey in frederick co . , maryland ( 9 / 13 / 2015 ) . photo by bonnie ott . ( mbp list )\na pale green assassin bug in worcester co . , maryland ( 6 / 16 / 2013 ) . photo by scott housten . ( mbp list )\na pale green assassin bug in worcester co . , maryland ( 6 / 4 / 2013 ) . photo by scott housten . ( mbp list )\na pale green assassin bug in howard co . , maryland ( 6 / 7 / 2015 ) . photo by richard orr . ( mbp list )\na pale green assassin bug in allegany co . , maryland ( 6 / 28 / 2015 ) . photo by ashley bradford . ( mbp list )\na pale green assassin bug in frederick co . , maryland ( 11 / 4 / 2017 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na pale green assassin bug in worcester co . , maryland ( 5 / 28 / 2014 ) . photo by scott housten . ( mbp list )\npale green assassin bug in washington co . , maryland ( 5 / 26 / 2014 ) . photo by hans holbrook . ( mbp list )\na pale green assassin bug nymph in prince george ' s co . , maryland ( 10 / 24 / 2014 ) . photo by jesse christopherson . ( mbp list )\na pale green assassin bug nymph feeding on chrysopilus modestus in montgomery co . , maryland ( 7 / 23 / 2015 ) . photo by steve scholnick . ( mbp list )\na pale green assassin bug in garrett co . , maryland ( 6 / 24 / 2013 ) . photo by matt tillett . ( mbp list )\npale green assassin bug in talbot co . , maryland ( 5 / 16 / 2015 ) . photo by jim brighton . ( mbp list )\na pale green assassin bug in dorchester co . , maryland ( 5 / 24 / 2015 ) . verified by john s . ascher / bugguide . photo by jonathan willey . ( mbp list )\na pale green assassin bug in prince george ' s co . , maryland ( 6 / 12 / 2016 ) . photo by robert aguilar , serc . ( mbp list )\na pale green assassin bug in frederick co . , maryland ( 6 / 8 / 2013 ) . photo by jim brighton . ( mbp list )\na pale green assassin bug in baltimore city , maryland ( 5 / 12 / 2009 ) . determined by v . belov / bugguide . photo by thomas wilson . ( mbp list )\na pale green assassin bug in city , maryland ( 6 / 1 / 2010 ) . determined by ken wolgemuth / bugguide . photo by thomas wilson . ( mbp list )\na pale green assassin bug in talbot co . , maryland ( 5 / 16 / 2015 ) . photo by jim brighton . ( mbp list )\na pale green assasin bug nymph in prince george ' s co . , maryland ( 7 / 22 / 2009 ) . photo by eric gofreed . ( mbp list )\na pale green assassin bug nymph photographed at the jemicy school in baltimore co . , maryland ( 10 / 10 / 2013 ) . photo by emily stanley . ( mbp list )\na pale green assassin bug in prince george ' s co . , maryland ( 6 / 5 / 2012 ) . photo by barbara thurlow . ( mbp list )\nthe nymph of pale green assassin bug in cecil co . , maryland ( 4 / 29 / 2017 ) . photo by ashley bradford . ( mbp list )\na pale green assassin bug nymph in baltimore co . , maryland ( 10 / 13 / 2017 ) . photo by pauline horn . ( mbp list )\na pale green assassin bug nymph in frederick co . , maryland ( 10 / 21 / 2017 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\nuse of images featured on maryland biodiversity project is only permitted with express permission of the photographer ."]}
{"id": 2384, "summary": [{"text": "bombus rufocinctus is a species of bumblebee known by the common name red-belted bumblebee .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is native to north america where it has a wide distribution across canada and the western , midwestern , and northeastern united states .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "it may occur in mexico .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the queen is 1.6 to 1.8 centimeters long and just under a centimeter wide at the abdomen .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it is black with scattered gray and yellowish hairs on the head .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the abdomen has many bright yellow hairs and areas of reddish hairs .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the worker is 1.1 to 1.2 centimeters long and half a centimeter wide at the abdomen .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it is similar to the queen but it may have longer hairs .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the male is 1.2 to 1.3 centimeters long and half a centimeter wide at the abdomen .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it is mostly black with more yellow on the head and abdomen .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this species displays four genetically-controlled color polymorphisms : the second and third abdominal terga may have red or black hairs , and the fourth and fifth may be either yellow or black .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this small , short-tongued bee lives in and around wooded areas and it can be found in urban parks and gardens .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it feeds on several kinds of plants , including chicories , snakeroots , strawberries , gumweeds , sunflowers , goldenrods , clovers , vetches , and goldeneyes .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it usually nests on or above ground level . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "bombus rufocinctus", "paragraphs": ["for further information about this species , see 21215145 _ bombus _ rufocinctus . pdf .\nthose with red on the metasoma are often confused with various pyrobombus whereas those without can be confused with bombus bimaculatus and various other species , but in rufocinctus the malar space is exceptionally short .\nbombus rufocinctus cresson : apidae ( bombini ) , hymenoptera ( observations are from macior and thomson et al . ) araliaceae : aralia hispida ( tmp ) ; primulaceae : dodecatheon meadia cp ( mc )\nlectotype for bombus rufocinctus cresson , 1863 catalog number : usnm collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of entomology sex / stage : male ; worker ; preparation : pinned locality : colo . , colorado , united states\nrichardson , l . l . 2013 . bumble bees of north america : a database of specimen records for the genus bombus . data contributors available : urltoken\nbombus rufocinctus cresson : apidae ( bombini ) , hymenoptera ( observations are from macior , thomson et al . , discover life ) araliaceae : aralia hispida ( tmp ) ; primulaceae : dodecatheon meadia cp ( mc ) ; rosaceae : spiraea tomentosa ( dl ) insect activities : cp = collects pollen scientific observers : ( mc ) = l . w . macior ( tmp ) = thomson , maddison , and plowright\nmacior , l . w . 1968 . bombus ( hymenoptera , apidae ) queen foraging in relation to vernal pollination in wisconsin . ecology 49 ( 1 ) : 20 - 25\ncarvell , c . 2002 . habitat use and conservation of bumblebees ( bombus spp . ) under different grasslands management regimes . biological conservation 103 ( 1 ) : 33 - 49 .\nno recent studies suggest that this species to be threatened on a large scale ( natureserve 2014 ) . the apparent decline around san francisco might be related in part to competition from b . vosnesenskii , a species which has increased dramatically in abundance in the region . it should be noted , however , that bombus rufocinctus was historically known from low numbers in the city of san francisco , so the lack of recent detection ( e . g . , mcfrederick and lebuhn 2006 ) is not very alarming .\nsavard , m . 2009 . aper\u00e7u sur la diversit\u00e9 des bourdons de la minganie , qu\u00e9bec ( hymenoptera : apidae : bombus ) . le naturaliste canadien 133 ( 2 ) : 31 - 36 .\nin females with red on the metasoma the red is on the apicolateral corners of t2 and on t3 and t4 , with t1 and most of t2 yellow , whereas in species such as ternarius and huntii t2 - t3 are entirely red and t4 is yellow . bombus centralis can be confusing in that its metasoma is yellow basally and red apically , but in that species t2 is entirely yellow and the facial hairs are all yellow ( also usually true of huntii and bifarius but not ternarius , sylvicola , or rufocinctus ) . the dorsum of the scutum has black as in other species , but this is often a rather diffuse blotch as opposed to a narrow , well - defined interalar band ( as in huntii ) or clearly extending to form a notch in the scutellum posteriorly ( as in bifarius and to a lesser degree ternarius ) . however , rufocinctus females can have a complete , broad interalar band .\nmcfrederick , q . s . , and g . lebuhn . 2006 . are urban parks refuges for bumble bees bombus spp . ( hymenoptera : apidae ) ? biological conservation 129 ( 3 ) : 372 - 382 [ includes corrigendum ] .\ncolla , s . , and l . packer . 2008 . evidence for decline in eastern north american bumblebees ( hymenoptera : apidae ) , with special reference to bombus affinis cresson . biodiversity and conservation 17 ( 6 ) : 1379 - 1391 .\nevans , e . , r . thorp , s . jepson and s . hoffman - black . 2008 . status review of three formerly common species of bumble bees in the subgenus bombus . the xerces society . 63 pp . accessed at urltoken\ngrixti , j . c . , l . t . wong , s . a . cameron , and c . favret . 2008 . decline of bumble bees ( bombus ) in the north american midwest . biological conservation 142 ; 75 - 84\ngolick , d . a . , and m . d . ellis . 2006 . an update on the distribution and diversity of bombus in nebraska ( hymenoptera : apidae ) . journal of the kansas entomological society 79 ( 4 ) : 341 - 347 .\ngrixti , j . c . , l . t . wong , s . a . cameron , and c . favret . 2009 . decline of bumble bees ( bombus ) in the north american midwest . biological conservation 142 ( 1 ) : 75 - 84 .\nhatfield , r . g . , and g . lebuhn . 2007 . patch and landscape factors shape community assemblage of bumble bees , bombus spp . ( hymenoptera : apidae ) , in montane meadows . biological conservation 139 ( 1 - 2 ) : 150 - 158 .\nsuper , p . e . , and a . t . moyer . 2003b . bombus affinis cresson , bumble bee - biodiversity of great smoky mountains national park . in : nps , dlia . 2007 . discover life in america , great smoky mountains national park , gatlinburg , tennessee . online . available : urltoken\nwilliams , p . h . 2008a . bombus , bumblebees of the world . web pages based on williams , p . h . 1998 . an annotated checklist of bumblebees with an analysis of patterns of description ( hymenoptera : apidae , bombini ) . bulletin of the natural history museum ( entomology ) 67 : 79 - 152 . online . available : urltoken accessed 2008 - oct .\ngenerally , bumble bees ( bombus spp . ) are threatened by a number of factors including habitat loss , pesticide use , pathogens from managed pollinators , competition with non - native bees , and climate change ( reviewed in goulson 2010 , williams et al . 2009 , williams and osborne 2009 , f\u00fcrst et al . 2014 , cameron et al . 2011 , hatfield et al . 2012 ) . reduced genetic diversity resulting from any of these threats can be particularly concerning for bumble bees , since their method of sex - determination can be disrupted by inbreeding , and since genetic diversity already tends to be low in this group due to the colonial life cycle ( i . e . , large numbers of bumble bees found locally may represent only one or a few queens ) ( goulson 2010 , hatfield et al . 2012 , but see cameron et al . 2011 , lozier et al . 2011 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nantweiler , g . , arduser , m . , ascher , j . , bartomeus , n . , beauchemin , a . , beckham , j . , cromartie , j . , day , l . , droege , s . , evans , e . , fiscus , d . , fraser , d . , gadallah , z . , gall , l . , gardner , j . , gill , d . , golick , d . , heinrich , b . , hinds , p . , hines , h . , irwin , r . , jean , r . , klymko , j . , koch , j . , macphail , v . , martineau , r . , martins , k . , matteson , k . , mcfarland , k . , milam , j . , moisan - deserres , j . , morrison , f . , ogden , j . , packer , l . , richardson , l . , savard , m . , scott , v . , scully , c . , sheffield , c . , sikes , d . , strange , j . , surrette , s . , thomas , c , thompson , j . , veit , m . , wetherill , k . , williams , n . , williams , p . , winfree , r . , yanega , d . & zahendra , s .\nfoltz jordan , s . , hatfield , r . , colla , s . & macphail , v .\njustification : according to our analysis , this widespread north american species has not exhibited rangewide decline in recent years ( hatfield et al . 2014 ) . specifically , the average decline of 0 % ( based on relative abundance , persistence , and range ) suggests a least concern category for this species . note that this analysis did not consider the mexican distribution of this species , however , since this species is known from very few records in a small area of mexico ( labougle 1990 , ecosur 2014 ) , the mexican data would not have significantly impacted the above results . our findings are consistent with other reports that the species is stable or increasing throughout the eastern and central portions of its range ( colla and packer 2008 , grixti et al . 2009 , colla et al . 2012 ) . based on the above calculations and trends , along with published reports of bumble bee decline and the assessors ' best professional judgement , we recommend this species for the least concern red list category at this time .\n2014 ) . it also occurs rarely in mexico , where it is limited in distribution to the trans - mexican volcanic belt ( eje volc\u00e1nico transversal ) , a volcanic belt that extends from west to east across central - southern mexico ( labougle 1990 ) . known mexican localities are from ( 1 ) the state of mexico ( estado de m\u00e9xico ) : toluca and santa elena - toluca ; ( 2 ) the federal district ( distrito federal ) ; ( 3 ) the volc\u00e1n , popocat\u00e9petl ( labougle 1990 ) ; and ( 4 ) the states of tlaxcala and hidalgo ( r . vandame pers . comm . 2014 ) . there are 21 records for this species in the current database of mexican bumble bee records ( ecosur 2014 , including holdings from ecosur and other collections ) .\nfor a graph and map of relative abundance and range changes of this species over time see the supplementary material .\ncanada ( alberta , british columbia , manitoba , new brunswick , newfoundland i , northwest territories , nova scotia , ontario , prince edward i . , qu\u00e9bec , saskatchewan ) ; mexico ( m\u00e9xico distrito federal , m\u00e9xico state ) ; united states ( alaska , arizona , california , colorado , idaho , illinois , iowa , kansas , maine , massachusetts , michigan , minnesota , missouri , montana , nebraska , nevada , new hampshire , new jersey , new mexico , new york , north dakota , ohio , oregon , south dakota , utah , vermont , washington , west virginia , wisconsin , wyoming )\npopulations of this bee appear to be stable in most of its range , and may even be increasing in some areas . in a study in illinois , 2007 surveys of 57 sites across the state revealed\n2009 ) . in another regional study in southern ontario , colla and packer ( 2008 ) found this species had over two times greater relative abundance in 2004 - 2006 than was exhibited during surveys at these same sites a few decades earlier ( 1971 - 1973 ) .\nrange - wide , this species also appears to be stable . in a large study considering over 69 , 000 bumblebee specimens representing 21 species collected from 1865 - 2010 in eastern north america , colla\n. ( 2012 ) assessed changes in relative abundance and occupancy of this species and ranked its conservation status throughout the entire united states and canadian range . this study found\npersisted in 67 % of re - sampled historically occupied 50 x 50 km grid cells throughout its united states and canada range , and significantly increased in relative abundance over the time periods examined .\ncommon throughout its range , but note that it had disappeared from the san francisco bay area by 2002 , an area where it was historically uncommon ( mcfrederick and lebuhn 2006 ) .\nthe population of this species in central mexico is apparently isolated from the united states populations , and with very few ( 21 ) records , its status is not well - known . surveys in this region from 2012 to 2014 were unable to detect this species ( r . vandame pers . comm . 2014 ) .\n2014 ) . we also assessed changes in the species\u2019 relative abundance ( see figure 1 in the supplementary material ) , which we consider to be an index of abundance relevant to the taxon , as specified by the iucn red list categories and criteria ( iucn 2012 ) . for all three calculations we divided the database into historical ( 1805 - 2001 , n = 128 , 572 ) and current ( 2002 - 2012 , n = 74 , 682 ) records . this timeframe was chosen to meet the iucn criteria stipulation that species decline must have been observed over the longer of three generations or 10 years . average decline for this species was calculated by averaging the change in abundance , persistence , and eoo . this analysis yielded the following results ( see also the graph of relative abundance and map of change in eoo over time in the supplementary material ) :\nconservation needs : specific conservation needs for this species have not been identified . due to the inherent vulnerability of many bumble bee species and importance of supporting wild bee populations for pollination services , the following general conservation practices are recommended :\nrestore , create and preserve natural high - quality habitats to include suitable forage , nesting and overwintering sites .\nrestrict pesticide use on or near suitable habitat , particularly while treated plants are in flower .\npromote farming practices that increase of nitrogen - fixing fallow ( legumes ) and other pollinator - friendly plants along field margins .\nresearch needs : in addition , the northern area of this species ' range is undersampled ( hatfield et al . 2014 ) . further surveys of this species are needed in mexico , where the status and population trends are not well - known ( r . vandame pers . comm . 2014 ) . additional research needs for north american bumble bees ( as a whole ) are summarized in cameron et al . ( 2011 ) , the final report for the 2010 north american bumble bee species conservation planning workshop .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\n80x5 - 240x3 - 240x4 - 320x1 - 320x2 - 320x3 - 640x1 - 640x2 set display option above . click on images to enlarge .\nreprinted with permission from : mitchell , t . b . 1962 bees of the eastern united states . north carolina agricultural experiment station technical bulletin no . 152 .\nworker\u2014length 11 - 12 . 5 mm . , breadth of abdomen 5 - 5 . 5 mm . ; quite similar to queen but pubescence relatively more elongate , with considerable variation in the pattern of pubescence on abdominal terga , with some black pubescence evident on the more median terga in some specimens .\na variety of organizations and individuals have contributed photographs to calphotos . please follow the usage guidelines provided with each image . use and copyright information , as well as other details about the photo such as the date and the location , are available by clicking on the\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthis species is a relatively widespread northern and western bumble bee that is not reported by any recent sources to be declining widely . while it seems to have disappeared around san franciso , it appears to be increasing in some places . it is also not a member of any subgenus in which declines have been reported or documented . it is secure for now but , like most bumblebees , its status should be monitored .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\nmitchell ( 1962 ) gives the range as pacific coast to michigan , maine and quebec , so apparently this is a rather northern species at least eastward . the urltoken site gives a very similar eastern range and indicates the species to be very widespread ( south to arizona ) in the west ( www . bumblebee . org ) . schmidt and jacobson ( 2005 ) confirm the species as widespread , mostly above 2500 meters , in northern arizona .\nno recent studies suggest this species to be threatened on a large scale . at a more localized scale habitat changes , pesticides etc . can have a negative impact . the decline around san francisco might be relate in part to competition from b . vosnesenskii .\nno recent sources report this species to be in serious range - wide decline , and colla and packer ( 2008 ) report a slight , but statistically significant , increase recently in southern ontario . see also williams et al . ( 2009 ) . it possibly has also increased in northern illinois , which would be at the southern edge of the eastern range ( grixti et al . , 2009 ) . tuell et al . ( 2008 ) also had this species in their samples in michigan . mcfrederick and lebuhn ( 2005 ) were unable to detect this recently common species in the san francisco area .\nqueens of this species begin activity later in the season than most others ( grixti et al . , 2009 ) , a trait that is shown by williams et al . ( 2009 ) to predispose bumblebees to declines in various parts of the world .\n( > 2 , 500 , 000 square km ( greater than 1 , 000 , 000 square miles ) ) mitchell ( 1962 ) gives the range as pacific coast to michigan , maine and quebec , so apparently this is a rather northern species at least eastward . the urltoken site gives a very similar eastern range and indicates the species to be very widespread ( south to arizona ) in the west ( www . bumblebee . org ) . schmidt and jacobson ( 2005 ) confirm the species as widespread , mostly above 2500 meters , in northern arizona .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nabbott , v . a . , j . l . nadeau , h . a . higo , and m . l . winston . 2008 . lethal and sub - lethal effects of imidacloprid on osmia lignaria and clothianidin on megachile rotundata ( hymenoptera : megachildae ) . journal of economic entomology 101 : 784 - 796 .\nascher , j . s . , s . kornbluth , and r . g . goelet . 2014 . bees ( hymenoptera : apoidea : anthophila ) of gardiners island , suffolk county , new york . northeastern naturalist 21 ( 1 ) : 47 - 71 .\nbhattacharya , m . , r . b . primack , and j . gerwein . 2003 . are roads and railroads barriers to bumblebee movement in a temperate suburban conservation area ? biological conservation 109 ( 1 ) : 37 - 45 .\nbowers , m . a . 1985 . bumble bee colonization , extinction , and reproduction in subalpine meadows in northeastern utah . ecology 66 ( 3 ) : 914 - 927 .\nbrown , m . j . f . , and r . j . paxton . 2009 . the conservation of bees : a global perspective . apidologie 40 ( 3 ) : 410 - 416 .\nbyrne , a . , and u . fitzpatrick . 2009 . bee conservation policy at the global , regional and national levels . apidologie 40 ( 3 ) : 194 - 210 .\ncane , j . 2009 . how to identify bumble bees of northern utah . agricultural research service , united states department of agriculture . available at : urltoken ; = 1 & cg ; _ id = 0\ncannings , r . 2009 . checklist of the bumble bees of british columbia . e - fauna bc , electronic atlas of the wildlife of british columbia . available : urltoken\ncolla , s . r , m . c otterstatter , r . j . gegear , and j . d . thomson . 2006 . plight of the bumble bee : pathogen spillover from commercial to wild populations . biological conservation 129 ( 4 ) : 461467 .\ncommittee on the status of pollinators in north america ( m . berenbaum , chair ) . 2007 . status of pollinators in north america . national research council of the national academies , the national academy press , washington , d . c . 307 pp .\ndanforth , b . n . and k . n . magnacca . 2002 . bees of new york state . new york state biodiversity clearinghouse , new york state biodiversity project and new york state biodiversity research institute . online at urltoken\ndevore , b . 2009 . a sticky situation for pollinators . minnesota conservation volunteer . 2 pp . accessed september 13 , 2009 at urltoken\ndramstad , w . e . 1996 . do bumblebees ( hymenoptera : apidae ) really forage close to their nests ? journal of insect behavior 9 ( 2 ) : 163 - 182 .\nentomological society of america . 2006 . insect common names proposed for membership consideration . esa newsletter 29 ( 1 ) : 4 - 6 .\nfederman , a . plight of the bumblebee . earth island journal , autumn , 2009 . earth island institute . online . available : urltoken\nfetridge , e . d , j . s . ascher , and g . a . langellotto . 2008 . the bee fauna of residential gardens in a suburb of new york city ( hymenoptera : apoidea ) . annals of the entomological society of america 101 ( 6 ) : 1067 - 1077 .\nfrankie , g . w . , r . w . thorp , j . hernandez , m . rizzardi , b . ertter , j . c . pawelek , s . l . witt , m . schindler , r . coville , and v . a . wojcik . 2009 . native bees are a rich natural resource in urban california gardens . california agriculture 63 ( 3 ) : 113 - 120 .\nfrison , t . h . 1919 . keys for the separation of the bremidae , or bumblebees , of illinois , and other notes . transactions of the illinois state academy of science 12 : 157 - 166 .\ngoulson d . , m . e . hanley , b . darvill , j . s . ellis , and m . e . knight . 2005 . causes of rarity in bumblebees . biological conservation 122 ( 1 ) : 1 - 8 .\nhines , h . , and s . d . hendrix . 2005 . bumble bee ( hymenoptera : apidae ) diversity and abundance in tallgrass prairie patches : the effects of local and landscape features . environmental entomology 34 ( 6 ) : 1477 - 1484 .\nhopwood , j . l . 2008 . the contribution of roadside grassland restorations to native bee conservation . biological conservation 141 ( 10 ) : 2632 - 2640 .\nhusband , r . w , r . l fischer , and t . w porter . 1980 . description and biology of bumblebees ( hymenoptera : apidae ) in michigan . great lakes entomologist 13 : 225 - 239 .\nintegrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . 2008 . world bee checklist project ( version 03 - oct - 2008 ) . integrated taxonomic information system : biological names . online . available : http : / / www . itis . gov .\njepsen , s . 2008 . invertebrate conservation fact sheet , bumble bees in decline . the xerces society for invertebrate conservation . available : urltoken\nkearns , c . a . , and d . m . oliveras . 2009 . boulder county bees revisited : a resampling of boulder colorado bees a century later . journal of insect conservation 13 ( 6 ) : 603 - 613 .\nlaberge , w . e . , and m . c . webb , 1962 . the bumblebees of nebraska . university of nebraska college of agriculture , agricultural experiment station , research bulletin 205 : 1 - 38 .\nlongcore , t . , c . rich , and l . m . sullivan . 2009 . critical assessment of claims regarding management of feral cats by trap - neuter - return . conservation biology 23 ( 4 ) : 887 - 894 .\nloose , j . l . , f . a . drummond , c . stubbs , s . woods , and s . hoffman . 2005 . conservation and management of native bees in cranberry . maine agricultural and forest experiment station . the university of maine , orono , maine , usa . technical bulletin 191 . 27 pp .\nmedler , j . t , and d . w carney . 1963 . bumblebees of wisconsin ( hymenoptera : apidae ) . university of wisconsin research bulletin 240 : 1 - 47 .\nmitchell , t . b . 1962 . bees of the eastern united states . ii . technical bulletin ( north carolina agricultural experiment station ) , 152 , 1 - 557 . [ megachilidae , anthophoridae , apidae s . s . ]\nnoordijk , j . , k . delille , a . p . schaffers , and k . v . s\u00fdkora . 2009 . optimizing grassland management for flower - visiting insects in roadside verges . biological conservation 142 ( 10 ) : 2097 - 2103 .\notterstatter , m . c . , and j . d . thomson . 2008 . does pathogen spillover from commercially reared bumble bees threaten wild pollinators ? plos one 3 ( 7 ) : e2771 .\nplath , o . e . 1922b . notes on the nesting habits of several north american bumblebees . psyche 29 : 189 - 202 .\nplath , o . e . 1927 . notes on the nesting habits of some of the less common new england bumble - bees . psyche 34 : 122 - 128 .\npoole , r . w . , and p . gentili ( eds . ) . 1996 . nomina insecta nearctica : a checklist of the insects of north america . volume 2 ( hymenoptera , mecoptera , megaloptera , neuroptera , raphidioptera , trichoptera ) . entomological information services , rockville , md .\npyke , g . h . 1982 . local geographic distributions of bumblebees near crested butte , colorado : competition and community structure . ecology 63 ( 2 ) : 555 - 573 .\nrussell , k . n , h . ikard , and s . droege . 2005 . the potential conservation value of unmowed powerline strips for native bees . biological conservation 124 ( 1 ) : pages 133 - 148 .\nschmidt , j . o . , and r . s . jacobson . 2005 . refugia , biodiversity , and pollination roles of bumble bees in the madrean archipelago . usda forest service proceedings rmrs - p - 36 . pages 127 - 130 .\nschweitzer , d . f . , n . a . capuano , b . e . young and s . r . colla . 2012 . conservation and management of north american bumble bees . natureserve , arlington , virginia , and usda forest service , washington , d . c . 17 pp .\nsheffield , c . s . , p . g . kevan , a . pindar , and l . packer . 2013 . bee ( hymenoptera : apoidea ) diversity within apple orchards and old fields in the annapolis valley , nova scotia , canada . the canadian entomologist 145 ( 01 ) : 94 - 114 .\nsheffield , c . s . , p . g . kevan , and r . f . smith . 2003 . bee species of nova scotia , canada , with new records and notes on bionomics and floral relations ( hymenoptera : apoidea ) . journal of the kansas entomological society 76 ( 2 ) : 357 - 384 .\nthorp , r . w . , d . s . horning , and l . l dunning . 1983 . bumble bees and cuckoo bumble bees of california ( hymenoptera : apidae ) . bulletin of the california insect survey 23 : viii + 79 pp .\ntuell , j . k . , a . k . fielder , d . landis , and r . isaacs . 2008 . visitation by wild and managed bees ( hymenoptera : apoidea ) to eastern u . s . native plants for use in conservation programs . environmental entomology 37 ( 3 ) : 707 - 718 .\nturnock , w . j . , p . g . kevan , t . m . laverty , and l . dumouchel . 2007 . abundance and species of bumble bees ( hymenoptera : apoidea : bombinae ) in fields of canola , brassica rapa l . , in manitoba : an 8 - year record . journal of the entomological society of ontario 137 : 31 - 40 .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) . 1999 . endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; proposed threatened status for the plant silene spaldingii ( spalding ' s catchfly ) . federal register 64 ( 232 ) : 67814 - 67821 .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) . 2008 . draft recovery plan for the prairie species of western oregon and southwestern washington . u . s . fish and wildlife service , portland , oregon . x + 212 pp . available : urltoken\nwatson , j . c . , a . t . wolf , and j . s . ascher . 2011 . forested landscapes promote richness and abundance of native bees ( hymenoptera : apoidea : anthophila ) in wisconsin apple orchards . environmental entomology 40 ( 3 ) : 621 - 632 .\nwilliams , p . , s . colla , and z . xie . 2009c . bumblebee vulnerability : common correlates of winners and losers across three continents . conservation biology 23 ( 4 ) : 931 - 940 .\nwilliams , p . h . , r . w . thorp , l . l . richardson , and s . r . colla . 2014b . bumble bees of north america : an identification guide . princeton university press . 208 pp .\nwilliams , p . h . , and j . l . osborne . 2009 . bumblebee vulnerability and conservation world - wide . apidologie 40 ( 3 ) : 367 - 387 .\nwilson , j . s . , l . e . wilson , l . d . loftis , and t . griswold . 2010a . the montane bee fauna of north central washington , usa , with floral associations . western north american naturalist 70 ( 2 ) : 198 - 207 .\nwojcik , v . a . , g . w . frankie , r . w . thorp , and j . l . hernandez . 2008 . seasonality in bees and their floral resource plants at a constructed urban bee habitat in berkeley , california . journal of the kansas entomological society 81 ( 1 ) : 15 - 28 .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\nall documents and related graphics provided by this server and any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server are provided\nas is\nwithout warranty as to the currentness , completeness , or accuracy of any specific data . natureserve hereby disclaims all warranties and conditions with regard to any documents provided by this server or any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , including but not limited to all implied warranties and conditions of merchantibility , fitness for a particular purpose , and non - 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disturbing activities are proposed on a site , the appropriate state natural heritage program ( s ) or conservation data center can be contacted for a site - specific review of the project area ( see visit local programs ) .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\noften cited as\nredbelted\nbumble bee , but use of a hyphen is generally preferred when citing common names ( see aou and bou bird checklists ) .\nthe female castes can differ in color of facial hairs as this is often yellow in queens but mostly black in workers .\nmales have large eyes and are relatively small . those with red on t3 - t4 are distinctive but those without can be confused with griseocollis ( not black corners on t2 in most of those ) and nevadensis ( note yellow on t3 in that species ) . antennal proportions are quite helpful . the eyes are less closely approximated above than in nevadensis .\ntranscontinental . best known at northern sites and in the western mountains . very local in occurrence in the northeastern united states but locally numerous at some sites , such as near albany , new york . some surprising , disjunct records are known from new york and also new jersey ( j . s . ascher , unpublished ) .\ntypical open sites , especially prairies , but also mountain meadows and sometimes unusual places such as quarries or pine barrens . not generally distributed and seems to avoid cities .\nthe hosts section of its discover life species page lists known associations based on specimen records and images .\n18 pinned adult images plus detailed description of queen , worker , male , distribution , seasonality ( discoverlife . org )\ncontributed by beatriz moisset on 6 july , 2005 - 5 : 51pm additional contributions by robin mcleod , mike quinn , john s . ascher , h . go last updated 7 march , 2016 - 5 : 47pm\nglobal range : ( > 2 , 500 , 000 square km ( greater than 1 , 000 , 000 square miles ) ) mitchell ( 1962 ) gives the range as pacific coast to michigan , maine and quebec , so apparently this is a rather northern species at least eastward . the urltoken site gives a very similar eastern range and indicates the species to be very widespread ( south to arizona ) in the west ( www . bumblebee . org ) . schmidt and jacobson ( 2005 ) confirm the species as widespread , mostly above 2500 meters , in northern arizona .\nlectotype : 1863 . proceedings of the entomological society of america . 2 : 106 .\nhilty , j . editor . 2015 . insect visitors of illinois wildflowers . world wide web electronic publication . illinoiswildflowers . info , version ( 09 / 2015 ) see : abbreviations for insect activities , abbreviations for scientific observers , references for behavioral observations\nnote : for many non - migratory species , occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there are 7 barcode sequences available from bold and genbank .\nbelow is a sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .\nreasons : this species is a relatively widespread northern and western bumble bee that is not reported by any recent sources to be declining widely . while it seems to have disappeared around san franciso , it appears to be increasing in some places . it is also not a member of any subgenus in which declines have been reported or documented . it is secure for now but , like most bumblebees , its status should be monitored .\ncomments : queens of this species begin activity later in the season than most others ( grixti et al . , 2009 ) , a trait that is shown by williams et al . ( 2009 ) to predispose bumblebees to declines in various parts of the world .\ncomments : no recent sources report this species to be in serious range - wide decline , and colla and packer ( 2008 ) report a slight , but statistically significant , increase recently in southern ontario . see also williams et al . ( 2009 ) . it possibly has also increased in northern illinois , which would be at the southern edge of the eastern range ( grixti et al . , 2009 ) . tuell et al . ( 2008 ) also had this species in their samples in michigan . mcfrederick and lebuhn ( 2005 ) were unable to detect this recently common species in the san francisco area .\ncomments : no recent studies suggest this species to be threatened on a large scale . at a more localized scale habitat changes , pesticides etc . can have a negative impact . the decline around san francisco might be relate in part to competition from b . vosnesenskii .\ncomments : at least many current habitats are secure , possibly unprotected from other threats .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nchecklist of apoidea of north america . . . - 12 - oct - 2006 , manuscript ( version 12 - oct - 06 )\njohn ascher , connal eardley , terry griswold , gabriel melo , andrew polaszek , michael ruggiero , paul williams , ken walker , and natapot warrit . additional credits noted at : urltoken ; = apoidea _ species\nkrombein , karl v . , paul d . hurd , jr . , david r . smith , and b . d . burks\ncatalog of hymenoptera in america north of mexico , vol . 2 : apocrita ( aculeata )\nbulletin of the natural history museum ( entomology ) , vol . 67 , no . 1\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services ."]}
{"id": 2388, "summary": [{"text": "the dwarf manatee ( trichechus pygmaeus , or mistakenly trichechus bernhardi ) is a possible species of manatee found in the freshwater habitats of the amazon , though restricted to one tributary of the aripuan\u00e3 river .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "according to marc van roosmalen , the scientist who proposed it as a new species , it lives in shallow , fast-running water , and feeds on different species of aquatic plants from the amazonian manatee , which prefers deeper , slower-moving waters and the plants found there .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the dwarf manatee reportedly migrates upriver during the rainy season when the river floods to the headwaters and shallow ponds .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "based on its small range , the dwarf manatee is suggested to be considered critically endangered , but at present it is not recognized by the iucn .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the dwarf manatee is typically about 130 cm ( 4.3 ft ) long , and weighs about 60 kg ( 130 lb ) , making it the smallest extant sirenians .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it is overall very dark , almost black , with a white patch on the abdomen .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it may actually represent an immature amazonian manatee , but it is reported to differ in proportions and colour .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is , however , at least very closely related , as mtdna has failed to reveal any difference between the two .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "mutation rates in manatees \u2013 if the dwarf manatee is distinct \u2013 suggests a divergence time of less than 485,000 years .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "daryl domning , a smithsonian institution research associate and one of the world 's foremost experts on manatee evolution , has stated that the dna evidence actually proves that these merely are immature amazonian manatees . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "dwarf manatee", "paragraphs": ["however , the validity of the dwarf manatee as a species is the subject of debate , with some believing it to be an immature amazonian manatee .\ndwarf sperm whales are usually solitary , but have occasionally been seen in small pods .\nthe dwarf sperm whale is the smallest species commonly known as a whale . it grows up to\npicture info : picture 1 : marc van roosmalen with juv . female dwarf marmoset callibella humilis picture 2 : dwarf manatee , trichechus pygmaeus picture 3 : marc van roosmalen with dwarf manatee , trichechus pygmaeus picture 4 : callicebus ( hoffmansi ) sp . nov . rio mamuru titi monkey picture 5 : agouti - colored agouti dasyprocta sp . nov . picture 6 : cacajao ( calvus ) sp . nov . rio pauini bald - headed uakary\nthe amazonian manatee are the smallest ones out there . they are only found in freshwater locations . this is where the debate for the dwarf manatee comes in . they too are only seen in freshwater . they are extremely small so they are termed dwarf to identify them . many researchers feel that they are genetically mutated from the amazonian though and not a distinctly different species .\nthe manatee has been protected by peruvian law since 1973 , via supreme decree 934 - 73 - ag , prohibiting hunting and commercial use of the manatee .\nthe manatee consumes approximately 8 % of its body weight in food per day .\nthere are no national management plans for the amazonian manatee , except in colombia .\nthere is a debate about there being three or four species of manatees . since it isn\u2019t known for sure , i think it is only right to touch on all four of them here . the manatee species that have been identified are the florida manatee , the west african manatee , and the amazonian manatee . the one that is debated over is the dwarf manatee . some feel they are a separate species while others view them as a smaller version of others out there . only time will tell what the verdict is on that one .\naccording to van roosmalen\u2019s scientific description of the dwarf manatee , it lives in one of the tributaries of rio aripuan\u00e3 where it inhabits shallow , fast running water . this distinguishes it from the amazonian manatee which is known to prefer deep and slow moving waters and is found throughout a much larger part of south america . there is also a difference in diet ; both animals feed on aquatic plants but on different species . in addition to this , there is a significant disparity in both proportions and colour . the dwarf manatee weighs about 60 kg as an adult and has a dark , almost black , body adorned with a white patch on the abdomen . the amazonian manatee is much larger than the dwarf manatee and can weigh over 500 kg . this difference has been used by both sides ; those who believe that it is a separate species and those who believe it to be an immature amazonian manatee .\nthe dwarf manatee ( trichechus \u201cpygmaeus\u201d , or mistakenly trichechus \u201cbernhardi\u201d ) is a possible species of manatee that lives in the freshwater habitats of the amazon , though restricted to one tributary of the aripuan\u00e3 river . according to marc van roosmalen , the scientist who proposes it as a new species , it lives in shallow , fast running water and feeds on different species of aquatic plants than the amazonian manatee , which prefers deeper slower moving waters and the plants found there . based on its tiny range , it has been suggested that the dwarf manatee is critically endangered , but at present it is not recognized by the iucn .\nthe amazonian manatee lacks nails on its flippers , setting it apart from other manatees .\nthey are occasionally found overlapping with the west indian manatee along the coasts of brazil .\nall three species of manatee\u2014the amazonian manatee , west indian manatee , and west african manatee\u2014and the related dugong are considered vulnerable ( defined as facing a high risk of extinction in the wild ) by the iucn red list of threatened species . this is due to a variety of threats including boat collisions , hunting , habitat destruction , and toxic red tides .\ninternational trade of the amazonian manatee and any of its products is prohibited under appendix i of cites . other local projects and organizations helping to conserve the manatee include projeto peixe - boi / centre for aquatic mammals , mamiraua project and the friends of the manatee association . amazonian manatee hunting has been prohibited since 1973 ; however , its population trend is still decreasing .\nthe manatee does not have incisors or canine teeth , only cheek teeth ( molars ) .\nthe dwarf sperm whale was actively hunted by commercial whalers . occasional harpoon kills are still made by indonesian and japanese fishermen . since the dwarf is more coastal than the pygmy , it may be more vulnerable to human activities such as fishing and pollution . insufficient data exist as to whether such activities threaten the species survival .\nas the story goes , marc came across the skull of a dwarf manatee and , suspecting it was a new species , searched for it for two years before finding a living specimen . upon locating a couple , he fenced in a portion of the river and studied them in their natural habitat for four months . like its saltwater brethren , the dwarf river manatee lives mostly off aquatic plants but hopes someday to land a lucrative career as a pet in japan . much more info can be found on marc\u2019s site .\n5 . the amazonian manatee ( trichechus inunguis ) lives entirely in freshwater rivers throughout south america in the amazon basin . it is hard to estimate their numbers due to their secretive nature and the murky water where they often live . a fourth dwarf manatee species was described in the mid - 2000s , but this claim was called into question and it is believed to actually be a juvenile amazonian manatee . the main threat to this species is illegal harpoon hunting for subsistence .\nsee the supplementary material for table 1 : summary of reported data by country for extant manatee populations .\n, comes from latin meaning\nhair\n, referencing the whiskers around the manatee ' s mouth .\nthe manatee ' s upper lip is modified into a large bristly surface , which is deeply divided .\nas of 1977 the population count of the amazonian manatee was estimated to be around 10 , 000 .\ni met marc two years ago on a school trip to the amazon rain forest and we traveled down the aripuana tributary where he found the dwarf manatee . unfortunately we didn\u2019t see one , but we did see its teethmarks left behind on the aquatic grass it feeds from = )\nthe manatee has thick stubby bristles on this mouth . this helps it to uproot foot on the river bed .\nmaintaining an herbivorous diet , the manatee has a similar post - gastric digestive process to that of the horse .\nthe amazonian manatee occurs exclusively in freshwater and is the only manatee to do so . it prefers blackwater lakes , oxbows and lagoons . they seem to live most successfully in temperatures of 22 - 30\u2019c ( 72 - 86\u2019f ) .\nthe manatee has muscular lips which it uses with its front flippers to grab food and pull it into its mouth .\ndwarf manatees are typically about 130 cm long , and weigh about 60 kg , making them the smallest extant sirenians . it is overall very dark , almost black , with a white patch on the abdomen . it has been suggested that it actually represents an immature amazonian manatee , but they are reported to differ in proportions and colour . they are , however , at least very closely related , as mtdna has failed to reveal any difference between the two . based on mutation rates in manatees \u2013 if the dwarf manatee is distinct \u2013 this suggests a divergence time of less than 485 , 000 years . daryl domning , a smithsonian institution research associate and the world\u2019s foremost experts on manatee evolution , has stated that the dna evidence actually proves that these merely are immature amazonian manatees .\nmgmvr : my website designer mistakenly named the dwarf manatee after the late prince bernhard of the netherlands like i had done with the new titi monkey callicebus bernhardi in my 2002 review of the genus callicebus . it took a while before i noticed it on my website . i then changed the name into trichechus pygmaeus as in the paper i submitted earlier to nature .\nthe dwarf sperm whale ( kogia sima , formerly kogia simus ) is one of three extant species in the sperm whale family . they are not often sighted at sea , and most extant information comes from the study of stranded carcasses .\nl marino , k sudheimer , da pabst , wa mclellan , and ji johnson ( 2003 ) . magnetic resonance images of the brain of a dwarf sperm whale ( kogia simus ) . journal of anatomy , 203 ( 1 ) : 57\u201376\nstill , splitting hairs can only go so far . if the pictured animal is adult , that\u2019s a different manatee , whatever science calls it .\nyeah there is a dvd out about this guy and his search for the pygmy manatee . it is real interesting . it is called the species hunter\nfor more information on the efforts underway to defend the manatee\u2019s discoverer marc roosmalen against the allegedly fictional charges he is facing in brazil , visit urltoken .\nthe amazonian manatee has the smallest degree of rostral deflection ( 25\u00b0 to 41\u00b0 ) among sirenians , an adaptation to feed closer to the water surface .\nthe amazonian manatee has a large paddle like tail which helps propel it through the water . it moves at 5mph but can reach speeds of up to 15mph .\nregardless of whether this is truly is new species or merely an immature version of the amazonian manatee , i certainly agree with christopher collinson\u2019s comments on the tetrapod zoology blog : \u201c on a side note , why the heck are those dwarf manatees so friggen adorable ? they have way more cutesy factor than any one animal should be allowed to posess , its at least like a million times more than regular old plain jane manatees . \u201d\ni give the chinese about two weeks to discover the incredible , magical , aphrodisiac powers from dried , ground pygmy manatee testicles . these things are f - ed .\nthe amazon ox manatee is gray and bears a white patch on its chest or several white markings on its chest and abdomen . its body is covered with fine hairs and its upper and lower lips are covered with thick bristles . it has two axillary mammae . the largest manatee recorded was a male 2 . 8m in length .\nmgmvr : claims that the holotype skull and mandible of the dwarf manatee that i collected simply represent a juvenile common amazonian manatee trichechus inunguis come from daryl domning , who was the referee for the article on the dwarf manatee . it was therefore rejected for publication by the editors of nature . since then i have seen several solitary ranging specimens of the \u2018pretinho\u2019 \u2013 as the animal is called in the area of the rio arauazinho , the only clearwater - river in which it seems to occur \u2013 that were all adults of about 1 . 3 m long . we even kept alive an adult male my field assistant had captured before . after four months it managed to escape from the coral we had constructed in a bend of the rio arauazinho . this specimen also measured 1 . 3 m and weighed only 60 kg . we fed him with the species\u2019 prime food eleocharis minima , an amphibious grass belonging to the cyperaceae . he only took it in if we had fixed the grass on the sandy bottom of his pan . a specimen of the common amazonian manatee of this size and weight would still have been nursed by its mother and would not have fed on any plant material at all . it soon would have starved to death .\nthe amazonian manatees of peru have experienced much of their decline due to hunting by human populations for meat , blubber , skin and other materials that can be collected from the manatee .\nthe discovery of a valid species of pygmy sea cow calls for a review of the latest on the amazonian dwarf manatee debate . in regard to this alleged new species , wikipedia has a good , new ( december 23 , 2009 ) overview of what has occurred since the announced \u201cdiscovery\u201d of this new species , written possibly by an unknown british or canadian author ( rn1970 ? ) , ( given in plain text below to retain the italicized names , which are critical to the passage ) :\nat this time manatees made their first appearance in caribbean and in north america . they evolved in rivers of sa and only at this time spread north to caribbean . at this time they evolved renewable teeth to withstand wear of griding sea grasses . perhaps disappearance of dugongs , manatees filled the vacuum ( domning , sa ;\nwest indian tuskers\n) there are three living species of manatee ( family trichechidae ) and one species of dugong ( family dugongidae ) ( fig . 1 ) ) . the florida manatee ( trechcus manatus latirostris ) is one subspecies of the west indian manatee . the antilian manatee ( trichechus manatus manatus ) is the other west indian subspecies . west indian manatees occupy coastal and estuarine waters throughout the caribbean .\nthis might not be news for some of you , but for those of you that has missed it : a new species of manatee might have been encountered by dr marc van roosmalen in the brazilian amazon ! not only is this believed to be an entirely new species of manatee ; it is also the smallest living member of the order sirenia , measuring no more than 130 cm as an adult .\nprobably the most well known group of manatee is the florida species . people come from all over to watch them during the year . this is also the place where many manatees migrate in the winter months as they have to move to warmer bodies of water . it is important to understand that the term florida manatee pertains to those that are there all year as well as many that migrate there .\ndwarf sperm whales and pygmy sperm whales are unique among cetaceans in using a form of\nink\nto evade predation in a manner similar to squid . both species have a sac in the lower portion of their intestinal tract that contains up to 12 l of dark reddish - brown fluid , which can be ejected to confuse or discourage potential predators .\nthe dwarf sperm whale is similar in appearance and behavior to its relative , the pygmy sperm whale . identification may be close to impossible at sea ; however , the dwarf is slightly smaller and has a larger dorsal fin . the body is mainly bluish gray with a lighter underside with possible yellowish vein - like streaks . a white false gill is behind each eye . the flippers are very short and broad . the top of the snout overhangs the lower jaw , which is small . dwarves have long , curved , sharp teeth ( none to six in the upper jaw and between 14 and 26 in the lower ) . these teeth led to the species being described as the\nrat porpoise\nin the lower antilles .\ngallican g . j . , r . c . best , and j . w . kanwisher . 1982 . temperature regulation in the amazonian manatee trichechus inunguis . physiological zoology the university of chicago press 255 - 262 .\ntoday , the dwarf sperm whale is generally classified as one of two species , along with the pygmy sperm whale , in the family kogiidae and genus kogia . the two species were not regarded as separate until 1966 . most taxonomists regard the family kogiidae as belonging to the superfamily physeteroidea , though some consider this taxon to be a subfamily ( kogiinae ) of the family physeteridae .\npazin - guterres , michelle ( 2014 ) .\nfeeding ecology of the amazonian manatee ( trichechus inunguis ) in the mamirau\u00e1 and aman\u00e3 sustainable development reserves , brazil .\n. aquatic mammals 40 ( 2 ) : 139\u2013149 .\n- manatees are closely related to elephants , - another name for the amazonian manatee is yara , which is a brazilian indian word meaning \u2018lady of the water\u2019 . - manatees are believed to be the origin of the mermaid myths .\nthe similarity in dna as analysed by my geneticist in the netherlands could be explained for as follows . either some gene flow has taken place between the inunguis population of the rio aripuan\u00e3 and the ancient pygmaeus population that was allopatrically confined to the rio arauazinho during the last glacials of the late - pleistocene and holocene when ocean levels dropped over 100 - 120 m . but during the interglacials males of inunguis theoretically could have mated once - in - a - while with pygmaeus females while foraging during the annual flood in the clearwater floodplain forest ( igap\u00f3 ) of the lower rio arauazinho . or , during one of the last glacials a population of inunguis got trapped in the rio arauazinho basin and had to drastically change its feeding and foraging habits and dwarf in a time scale of some tens of thousand years at the most . we know that this is possible from a number of other creatures that dwarfed in relatively short periods of time , such as the now extinct homo floresiensis from the isle of flores and the dwarf elephant elephas cretensis from the isle of crete . nobody objects if palaeontologists give extinct creatures species status but many question the validity of new extant species if not backed up by dna genome analysis . this is bad news for nature conservationists with a species protection approach like me . if the dwarf manatee would have been accepted by the scientific community as a full and valid species , announced as such in nature , no doubt the whole rio arauazinho would have been declared a rigidly protected nature reserve . it is sad to witness that because of scientific squabbling over taxonomy , a unique population of maybe not more than one hundred dwarf manatees is going extinct soon after the lower rio aripuan\u00e3 basin has been declared a \u2018sustainable development reserve\u2019 . in nowadays brazil that means a \u2018carte blanche\u2019 to destruction .\n) are found only in the united states , although a few vagrants have been known to reach the bahamas . their year - round distribution is restricted to peninsular florida because they need warm water to survive the winter . during the non - winter months ( march to november ) , some manatees disperse to adjoining states . along the atlantic coast these states include georgia ( highest manatee use outside of florida ) , south carolina , north carolina , and virginia ; one satellite - tagged manatee traveled as far north as rhode island ( deutsch\nthe amazonian manatee is a seasonal breeder with a gestational period of 12\u201314 months and a prolonged calving period . most births take place between december and july , with about 63 % between february and may , during a time of rising river levels in their native region .\n13 . if you are a mammal\u2014whether that\u2019s a human , giraffe , whale or rat\u2014then you typically have seven neck vertebrae . only tree sloths and manatees have an irregular number of vertebrae\u2014just six for the manatee . scientists think this may have to do with their slow metabolism .\nthe gestation period of an amazonian manatee is one year . breeding has been reported to occur throughout the year but reproduction in the central amazon basin is seasonal as nearly all births take place from december \u2013 july ( mainly from february \u2013 may when the water level rises ) . a female manatee will give birth to one calf every two years . the calf will measure about 30 inches ( 80 cm ) at birth . it will begin to nurse after a few hours by suckling from a teat under the pectoral flippers and will do so underwater .\ninternational trade of this species is prohibited due to its listing on appendix i of cites ( 4 ) . this species has suffered huge losses but is locally abundant in the more remote regions of the amazonian river basin . however , it is very difficult to control hunting in these economically depressed areas and they are still killed for meat ( 3 ) . while numerous federal , state , and local conservation measures are in place to protect the florida manatee ( t . manatus latirostris ) , south america has limited resources for funding comprehensive conservation projects . several effective programs in brazil include surveys by projeto peixe - boi / center for aquatic mammals ( 14 ) , sustainable use research by mamirau\u00e1 project ( 15 ) , and education / outreach efforts by the friends of the manatee association ( 16 ) . the harbour branch division of marine mammal research and conservation conducts manatee conservation outreach programs in brazil and plays an important role in rehabilitating injured , sick or orphaned individuals ( 12 ) . it is hoped that these measures combined with stronger hunting laws will allow the ancient and wonderful amazonian manatee to recover ( 12 ) ( 13 ) .\n3 . warm water is a must for the west indian and west african manatee species . with low metabolic rates and minimal fat protection from cold water , they stick to water that is 60 degrees or warmer . they may look fat and insulated , but the large body of the manatee is mostly made up of their stomach and intestines ! in colder months , they find their way to warm river tributaries or warm water outputs from power plants . in 2010 at least 246 manatees died in florida due to cold stress from the colder - than - normal winter .\nseasonal breeding in the amazonian manatee , trichechus inunguis ( mammalia : sirenia ) robin c . best biotropica , vol . 14 , no . 1 ( mar . , 1982 ) , pp . 76 - 78 published by : the association for tropical biology and conservation article stable url : urltoken\nonce known to occur in large herds and have healthy populations ( 2 ) , the amazonian manatee has suffered from extensive hunting by subsistence and commercial hunters . it has been sought for meat , oil and fat , and at one time for its hide , which was in demand for use as water hoses and machine belts ( 7 ) . threats now include hunting and accidental drowning in commercial fishing nets . the deforestation of large areas of the forests surrounding this manatee ' s river habitats has also caused soil erosion , degradation of food supplies and the reduction of vegetation in the waterways ( 7 ) .\nclassified as vulnerable ( vu a1cd ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) , listed on appendix i of cites ( 4 ) , and listed as endangered by the us endangered species act . ( 5 ) . the amazonian manatee also has a global heritage status rank of g2 ( 5 ) .\nthe west african manatee continues to decrease in numbers . they are found along africa in the tropical and sub tropical waters . they tend to be losing their natural habitat due to global warming as well as human interactions . conservation efforts there aren\u2019t as great as in the usa though and that is a concern .\nregardless of which species a manatee belongs to , they all have certain things in common . they are very gentle creatures as well as very intelligent . they are herbivores and live their entire lives in the water . they must find water that is at least 60 degrees fahrenheit or warmer in order to survive .\nthe amazonian manatee is a most bizarre - looking aquatic mammal , and was first described as a curious combination of a hippopotamus and a seal ( 6 ) . its body is large , dark grey to black and smooth - skinned , and its forelimbs are modified into flippers like a seal ' s ( 17 ) . it has no hind limbs , and the rear of the body forms a flat , rounded horizontal paddle ( 7 ) . the head is rounded , with nostrils on the upper surface of the snout ( 8 ) . the amazonian manatee is smaller and more slender than the other two manatee species ( west indian manatees trichechus manatus and west african manatees t . senegalensis ) ( 7 ) . it can also be identified by the lack of nails on its flippers , a characteristic referred to in its scientific name , t . inunguis , which literally means ' no nails ' ( 9 ) . a unique feature ( amongst mammals ) of the manatee is the constant replacement of molar teeth ; new teeth enter at the back of the jaw and replace old and worn teeth at the front ( 10 ) . recent evidence suggests that manatees may possess a unique 6th sense that enables them to detect pressure changes through sensory hairs ( 11 ) .\nmetabolism and respiration of the amazonian manatee ( trichechus inunguis ) . g . j . gallivan and r . c . best . physiological zoology , vol . 53 , no . 3 ( jul . , 1980 ) , pp . 245 - 253 . published by : the university of chicago press . article stable url : urltoken\nother highly memorable discoveries were those of some large terrestrial mammals whose existence i did not know of until i had close encounters with them while hiking alone through the forest . first spotting of a giant peccary ( pecari maximus ) family silently crossing my trail while i was watching a group of gray sakis in the canopy , or a group of dwarf peccaries ( pecari ? ) bumping literally into my feet while chasing one another through the undergrowth . and , back in camp , asking the locals what the hell the creature was that i had come upon that day\u2026\neventually , however , van roosmalen ' s iconoclastic style bred resentment . in a country where foreigners\u2014especially foreign scientists\u2014are often regarded with suspicion , his pale complexion and heavily accented portuguese marked him as an outsider , even after he became a naturalized brazilian citizen in 1997 . colleagues were irked by van roosmalen ' s habit of failing to fill out the cumbersome paperwork required by the institute before venturing into the field . they also questioned his methodology . for example , says mario cohn - haft , an american ornithologist at inpa , he often based his findings of a new species on a single live , orphaned monkey , whose provenance could not be proved and whose fur color and other traits might have been altered in captivity . louise emmons , an adjunct zoologist at the smithsonian institution , characterizes van roosmalen ' s discovery of a new species of peccary as\nnot convincing scientifically ,\nand smithsonian research associate daryl domning questions his\ndiscovery\nof a dwarf manatee on an amazon tributary .\nthere ' s no doubt at all in my mind that his ' new species ' is nothing but immature individuals of the common amazonian manatee ,\nsays domning .\nthis is even confirmed by the dna evidence he himself cites .\nevoked brain potentials demonstrate hearing in a manatee ( trichechus inunguis ) . theodore h . bullock , daryl p . domning and robin c . best , journal of mammalogy , vol . 61 , no . 1 ( feb . , 1980 ) , pp . 130 - 133 published by : american society of mammalogists article stable url : urltoken\nthe manatee is a large , cylinder shaped animal where the general coloration is grey , although most amazonian manatees have a distinct white or bright pink patch on the chest . the forelimbs have been modified into flippers and have a flat , rounded , horizontal paddle at the rear . the upper lip has evolved into a large , bristly surface .\n11 . manatee brains are smooth ( compared to our own that have the familiar ins and outs of cortical folds ) and the ratio of their brain to their body size is the lowest of any mammal . they may not be as clever as dolphins , but manatees can learn basic tasks , are extremely sensitive to touch and can differentiate colors .\necology , distribution , harvest , and conservation of the amazonian manatee trichechus inunguis in ecuador robert m . timm , luis albuja v . and barbara l . clauson biotropica , vol . 18 , no . 2 ( jun . , 1986 ) , pp . 150 - 156 published by : the association for tropical biology and conservation article stable url : urltoken\ni once read a claim that in this day and age , there cannot be anymore large animals out there to be discovered , besides the stuff lurking around in the deep oceans . and lo and behold , they go and find a manatee , which , if it\u2019s like its larger cousin , is not prone to evading detection . so what else is out there ?\nthe amazonian manatee\u2019s main threat is hunting by subsistence and commercial hunters . they have been sought for their meat , oil and fat , and in the past , its hide , which could be used for water hoses and belts . other threats to this creature include accidental drowning in commercial fishing nets and degradation of food supplies by soil erosion , which is caused by deforestation .\necology , distribution , harvest , and conservation of the amazonian manatee trichechus inunguis in ecuador . robert m . timm , luis albuja v . and barbara l . clauson . biotropica , vol . 18 , no . 2 ( jun . , 1986 ) , pp . 150 - 156 . published by : the association for tropical biology and conservation . article stable url : urltoken\nthe dwarf sperm whale prefers deep water , but is more coastal than the pygmy sperm . its favorite habitat appears to be just off the continental shelf . in the atlantic , strandings have been observed in virginia , united states in the west and spain and the united kingdom in the east , and as far south as southern brazil and the tip of africa . in the indian ocean , specimens have been found on the south coast of australia and on many places along the indian ocean ' s northern coast - from south africa to indonesia . in the pacific , the known range includes the japanese coast and british columbia . no global population estimates have been made . one survey estimated a population of about 11 , 000 in the eastern pacific .\nwe are not sure what the bigger story here is : the discovery of a new species of tiny adorable river manatee or the fact that this happened in july and we just learned about it last week ! anyway , these critters were discovered by a pioneering amazonian biologist by the name of marc van roosmalen and covered by darren naish of tetrapod zoology a few months back . tetrapod is kind of the better researched , actually informative , articulate and all around nerdier version of zooillogix .\nthe amazonian manatee ( trichechus ininguis ) lives entirely in the amazon river and its tributaries . a third species of manatee , the west african , ( trichechus senagalensis ) occupies the coastal waterways of the west african continent . dugongs ( dugong dugon ) occupy the marine coasts of east africa , the indian subcontinent , malaysia , indonesia and northern australia . a fifth , and largest sirenian of recent times , the stellars sea cow ( hydrodamalis gigas ) , was also a member of the family dugongidae . these enormous sirenians had evolved further to occupy the colder waters along the shores of the eastern pacific ocean . these animals survived off the aleutian islands until 1872 , when the last animal of this species was killed for food , 28 years after being first sighted . although there is only one living species of dugong , ancestors resembling them were diverse and widely distributed in the fossil record . sirenians were most diverse in the miocene ( 5 - 25 mya ) when tropical conditions were widespread .\n14 . manatees have no natural predators in the wild but humans have played a large part in making all three species at risk of extinction . about half of west indian manatee deaths are caused by humans , and most are due to boat collisions . manatees are quite buoyant and use their horizontally placed diaphragm and breathing to control their buoyancy . this and their average speed of 3 to 5 miles per hour means that manatees are way too slow to escape from the path of a speeding boat .\nin september 2002 , wildlife - researcher dr marc van roosmalen collected a complete skull from a recently killed specimen , but it would take an additional two years before he could finally photograph , film and examine a live specimen in its natural environment . as per usual when a new mammal is \u201cdiscovered\u201d , the species is only new to the scientific community , not to the locals of the area , and the skull of the specimen collected by van roosmalen came from a manatee that had been killed and eaten by the locals .\n. 2003 ) , and another manatee was observed in new york ( long island ) . along the gulf coast west of florida , manatees are occasionally sighted in alabama , mississippi , louisiana , and texas . the source ( florida or mexico ) of the texas manatees is not always clear , but the weight of recent genetic and other evidence suggests most are from the florida subspecies . major freshwater bodies utilized by manatees in florida include lake okeechobee , st . johns river , suwannee river , caloosahatchee river , among others .\ndespite their size and stubbly snout , manatees seem cute and cuddly to many ocean visitors . these large , slow - moving marine mammals hang out in coastal areas and rivers where florida spring - breakers can easily see them and think that it is a good idea to hop on for a ride . not only is this and other forms of harassment such as hugging the sea creatures illegal ( the west indian manatee is listed as endangered in the united states ) , but it can also impact manatees\u2019 natural behavior , changing the way they interact with humans .\njustification : listed as vulnerable because the number of mature individuals is currently estimated to number less than 10 , 000 ( based on combined population estimates for the florida and antillean subspecies ) and is expected to decline at a rate of at least 10 % over the course of three generations ( given a generation time of ~ 20 years ) as a result of both habitat loss and anthropogenic factors . trichechus manatus latirostris : en c1 : the florida manatee subspecies is listed as endangered on the basis of a population size of less than 2 , 500 mature individuals and the population is estimated to decline by at least 20 % over the next two generations ( estimated at ~ 40 years ) due to anticipated future changes in warm - water habitat and threats from increasing watercraft traffic over the next several decades . trichechus manatus manatus : en c1 : the antillean manatee subspecies is listed as endangered because the current population is estimated at less than 2 , 500 mature individuals and is predicted to undergo a decline of more than 20 % over the next two generations ( estimated at ~ 40 years for an unexploited population , based on t . m . latirostris data ) without effective conservation actions , due to current and projected future anthropogenic threats ( habitat degradation and loss , hunting , accidental fishing - related mortality , pollution , and human disturbance ) .\nthe west indian manatee is currently divided into the florida ( t . m . latirostris ) and antillean ( t . m . manatus ) subspecies ( hatt 1934 , domning and hayek 1986 ) . recent mtdna data ( garc\u00eda - rodr\u00edguez et al . 1998 , vianna et al . 2006 ) indicate three distinctive lineages corresponding geographically with : ( 1 ) florida and the greater antilles ; ( 2 ) western and southern gulf of mexico , central america , and nw south america west of the lesser antilles ; and ( 3 ) ne south america east of the lesser antilles . evidence exists for viable hybridization with t . inunguis near the mouth of the amazon , in guyana , french guiana , and possibly suriname .\nmarc g . m . van roosmalen ( mgmvr ) : most fun but also most time and energy consuming for me was finding the \u2018land of dermis\u2019 , where the relatives of dermis occur \u2013 the baby black - capped dwarf marmoset that was delivered on my manaus doorstep april 1996 . with decades of experience in keeping all kinds of primates in halfway houses i knew right away that dermis represented a new species of monkey and , undoubtedly , also a new primate genus . that event instantly took away the scepsis in me as a primatologist that nowadays it would be impossible to find new species of primates hitherto unknown to science . the quest that followed to find the monkey\u2019s distribution somewhere in the huge rio madeira basin had me stumbling into a conan doyle type of \u2018lost world\u2019 \u2013 the rio aripuan\u00e3 basin \u2013 a hotspot of biodiversity that i soon recognized to be a totally new ecosystem within amazonia , whose fauna and flora had never before been inventoried by naturalists , animal collectors , botanists and ornithologists alike . it took me a number of boat surveys to find callibella humilis , a needle in a haystack as big as france . during innumerable surveys of the local rainforest and through interviews with the locals showing pictures of dermis i happened to identify at least five other hitherto undescribed primates in the area .\nduring the warm season ( march or april through october or november , depending on latitude and year ) , manatees disperse throughout the coastal waters , estuaries , and major rivers of florida and some migrate to neighboring states , particularly south - eastern georgia . their range constricts dramatically in the winter season ( december to february ) when manatees seek shelter from the cold at a limited number of warm - water sites or areas in the southern two - thirds of florida . these sites include 10 principal power plant thermal outfalls ( seven on the atlantic coast , three on the gulf coast ) and four major artesian springs ( blue spring , springs at the head of crystal river , homosassa spring , and warm mineral spring ) that are frequented by a large proportion of the manatee population during winter .\nthe next morning , our last on the rio negro , the crew anchored the boat at the base of a cliff , and van roosmalen , vivi and i climbed a steep wooden staircase to a nature camp at the edge of the jungle . with a local guide and his two mangy dogs leading the way , we followed a sinuous trail through terre firma vegetation : primary rain forest that , unlike the igap\u00f3 we ' d been exploring , sits high enough above the river to avoid submersion during the rainy season . van roosmalen pointed out lianas as thick as large anacondas , and explained how these and other epiphytes ( flora , in this setting , that live on other plants in the forest canopy ) function as giant vessels for capturing carbon dioxide , and thus play a vital role in reducing global warming .\nthe total surface of leaves in a rain forest is a thousand , maybe even a million times bigger than the monoculture they want to convert the amazon into ,\nhe told me . farther down the jungle trail , he showed me a dwarf species of palm tree that captures falling leaves in its basketlike fronds ; the decomposing material scatters around the base of the tree and fortifies the nutrient - poor soil , allowing the palm to thrive .\nevery creature in the rain forest develops its survival strategy ,\nhe said .\nfor van roosmalen , the journey into the depths of the brazilian prison system marked the low point of a terrible fall from grace . at the height of his career , just five years earlier , the scientist had been hailed as one of the world ' s most intrepid field naturalists and a passionate voice for rain forest preservation . in his native holland , where he is a household name , he received the country ' s highest environmental honor , the order of the golden ark , from the netherlands ' prince bernhard , consort to queen juliana , in 1997 ; the national geographic documentary species hunter , filmed in 2003 , celebrated his adventurous spirit as he trekked up remote amazonian tributaries in search of rare flora and fauna . van roosmalen claimed to have identified seven never - before - seen species of primates\u2014including a dwarf marmoset and a rare orange - bearded titi monkey\u2014along with a collarless , piglike peccary and a variety of plant and tree species . he had used these discoveries to promote his bold ideas about the amazon ' s unique evolutionary patterns and to give momentum to his quest to carve these genetically distinct zones into protected reserves , where only research and ecotourism would be allowed .\ntime after time after time , [ van roosmalen has contributed to ] this sense that we ' re still learning about life on earth ,\nsays tom lovejoy , who conceived the public television series nature and today is president of the h . john heinz iii center for science , economics and the environment in washington , d . c .\nlisted on appendix i of cites . presently there are no national management plans specific for the species , except in colombia . management plans exist for two protected areas ( pacaya samiria in peru and mamiraua reserve in brazil ) , and two communities in colombia ( puerto narino and mocagua ) have informal local management agreements ( ministerio de ambiente , vivienda y desarrollo territorial and fundacin omacha 2005 ) . amazonian manatees have been recorded from two protected areas in ecuador , two in colombia , four in peru and 23 in brazil . unfortunately , hunting continues even within protected areas . presently , inpa ( instituto nacional de pesquisas da amaznia ) cares for 34 captive manatees including eight calves , 18 juveniles and eight adults ( da silva et al . 2006 ) . cppma currently maintains 31 manatees , mostly orphans . so far , the centro mamiferos marinhos - conselho nacional de seringueiros facility in alter - do - cho ( pa , brazil ) has rescued six orphans ( two of which died ) and a sick adult manatee ( luna 2005 pers . comm . ) .\namazonian manatees are aquatic mammals and live almost entirely underwater . indeed the three manatee species and the closely related dugong are unique in that they are the only plant - eating marine mammals ( 7 ) . they feed entirely on aquatic vegetation near lake edges , such as emergent grasses , water lettuce and floating vegetation . shy and secretive , only their nostrils protrude from the surface of the water to breathe as they search for lush vegetation ( 7 ) . despite being slow grazers they are able to consume up to eight percent of their body weight in one day ( 2 ) ( 7 ) . most feeding occurs during the wet season , when they graze upon new plant growth in seasonally flooded water . during the dry season , individuals return to the main water courses , or to deep flooded backwaters where herds congregate ( 7 ) . here they may not eat for weeks or months due to the lack of food . however , manatees have large fat reserves and slow metabolic rates ; at one third of the usual rate for a mammal of its size . this enables them to survive until the water levels rise again and food becomes more abundant ( 2 ) ( 7 ) . these mammals are active by day and night . they are found individually or in small groups of between four and eight animals ( 7 ) . mothers nurse their calves from a teat behind the flipper , and it is the mothers and calves that form the closest bonds ( 7 ) ( 8 ) . a single calf is born after a gestation period of approximately 13 months . it is dependant on its mother for a considerable time , so interbirth intervals may be as long as three and a half years or more . individuals mature at five or six years of age and members maintain group contact by underwater vocalisations ( 8 ) . the lifespan of this animal is unknown , but individuals have lived past twelve and a half years in captivity ( 7 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nvan roosmalen was let out of jail this past august .\nin the best light he was naive ,\nsays a colleague .\nin 2000 , time designated van roosmalen a\nhero for the planet .\nhe began his fieldwork in suriname in 1976 . there , amid jaguars , toucans and macaws , he says , you could\nfeel the breeze of evolution on your neck .\nvan roosmalen ( in a rio negro village last year ) says he won ' t go back to jail .\nbefore his arrest , van roosmalen ( with vivi last november ) championed rain forest preserves .\nyou have to see the amazon basin as an archipelago with islandlike areas ,\nhe argues .\nit ' s like the galapagos . each island has its own ecological evolution .\nvan roosmalen had high hopes that a captive saki monkey he ' d heard of would turn out to be a new species .\nat seven o ' clock in the morning on june 15 , 2007 , the bell rang at the front gate of marc van roosmalen ' s modest house on the outskirts of manaus , brazil . for van roosmalen , a dutch - born primatologist and amazon adventurer who had been chosen one of time magazine ' s\nheroes for the planet\nin 2000 , that was a somewhat unusual event : visitors had lately become scarce . the 60 - year - old scientist was dwelling in semi - isolation , having separated from his wife , become estranged from his two sons , lost his job at a brazilian research institute and been charged with a raft of offenses , including misusing government property and violating brazil ' s biopiracy laws . but things had begun to turn around for van roosmalen : he had been exonerated in three successive trials and had even begun to talk optimistically about getting his old job back . in july , he was planning to travel on a research vessel up the rio negro , the amazon ' s main tributary , with a group of biology students from the united states , his first such trip in years .\nvan roosmalen buzzed open the compound gate , he told me recently . moments later , he said , five heavily armed federal police officers burst into the garden , bearing a warrant for his arrest . then , as his 27 - year - old brazilian girlfriend , vivi , looked on in horror , van roosmalen says , police cuffed his hands behind his back and placed him in the back seat of a black mitsubishi pajero . van roosmalen asked where they were heading . it was only then , he says , that he learned that he had just been found guilty , in a criminal procedure conducted in his absence , of crimes ranging from keeping rare animals without a permit to illegal trafficking in brazil ' s national patrimony , to the theft of government property . the sentence : 14 years and 3 months in prison ."]}
{"id": 2392, "summary": [{"text": "the golden-headed lion tamarin ( leontopithecus chrysomelas ) , also the golden-headed tamarin , is a lion tamarin endemic to brazil .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is found only in the lowland and premontane tropical forest fragments in the state of bahia , and therefore is considered to be an endangered species .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it lives at heights of 3 \u2013 10 metres ( 9.8 \u2013 32.8 ft ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "its preferred habitat is within mature forest , but with habitat destruction this is not always the case .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "several sources seem to have different information on the number of individuals within a group , and the type of social system that may be apparent .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the golden-headed lion tamarin lives within group sizes ranging from 2 to 11 individuals , with the average size ranging from 4 to 7 .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "according to various sources , the group may consist of two adult males , one adult female , and any immature individuals , one male and one female and any immature individuals , or there may be one producing pair and a varying number of other group members , usually offspring from previous generations .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "there is not much known on its mating system , but according to different sources , and information on the possible social groups , it can be assumed that some may practice monogamous mating systems , and some may practice polyandrous mating systems .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "both males and females invest energy in caring for the young , and all members of the group also help with juvenile care . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "golden - headed lion tamarin", "paragraphs": ["pinto lpd , rylands ab . geographic distribution of the golden - headed lion tamarin ,\ngolden - headed lion tamarin geographic range . map courtesy of oona r\u00e4is\u00e4nen & iucn red list\ngolden - headed lion tamarin climbing a tree - trunk . courtesy of arkive . org .\nplay behavior of the golden - headed lion tamarin in brazilian cocoa agroforests . - pubmed - ncbi\nplay behavior of the golden - headed lion tamarin in brazilian cocoa agroforests - abstract - folia primatologica 2014 , vol . 85 , no . 3 - karger publishers\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - golden - headed lion tamarin ( leontopithecus chrysomelas )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - golden - headed lion tamarin ( leontopithecus chrysomelas )\ntitle =\narkive species - golden - headed lion tamarin ( leontopithecus chrysomelas )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\ngolden - headed lion tamarins are one of four species of lion tamarins , all of which are from the rainforests of brazil , and all are endangered species . our golden - headed lion tamarins came to us from the brevard zoo in florida . in the wild a golden - headed lion tamarin\u2019s diet mainly consists of fruit , flowers , and insects . when you visit the zoo you may hear high - pitched trills and whines coming from these small creatures .\nthis fragmentation of the forest threatens loss of genetic diversity in small isolated populations , and collection golden - headed lion tamarin for the pet trade also used to be a big problem .\nnot to be confused with the golden lion tamarin , the golden - headed lion tamarin - - also called the golden - headed tamarin , and the gold and black lion tamarin - - is only found in the state of bahia in brazil . preferring tall evergreen broadleaf forests and semi - deciduous forests along the atlantic coast , they live in the food - rich forest canopy at 10 to 33 feet ( 3 to 10 meters ) . this small monkey thrives in the mature forest habitats that are quickly diminishing and becoming ever more fragmented , thereby impacting the viability of the species .\ncite this page as : cawthon lang ka . 2005 july 20 . primate factsheets : golden - headed lion tamarin ( leontopithecus chrysomelas ) behavior . < urltoken > . accessed 2018 july 9 .\nwhen threatened , the golden - headed lion tamarin raises its mane and fluffs it body hair to appear larger . at the same time , it flicks its tongue to frighten away the threat .\ncite this page as : cawthon lang ka . 2005 july 20 . primate factsheets : golden - headed lion tamarin ( leontopithecus chrysomelas ) conservation . < urltoken > . accessed 2018 july 9 .\ngolden - headed lion tamarins were once found much more widely across eastern brazil . today , surviving populations are scattered and thinly distributed .\nraboy be , dietz jm ( 2004 ) . diet , foraging , and use of space in wild golden - headed lion tamarins .\nan estimated 2 % of the golden - headed lion tamarin ' s original habitat remains in brazil\u2019s atlantic forest , one of the most endangered ecosystems on earth . the majority of the original forest has been cleared for farming , mining , ranching & expanding urban centers . most golden - headed lion tamarins are confined to the protected una biological reserve .\ncite this page as : cawthon lang ka . 2005 july 20 . primate factsheets : golden - headed lion tamarin ( leontopithecus chrysomelas ) taxonomy , morphology , & ecology . < urltoken > . accessed 2018 july 9 .\ngolden lion tamarins move quadrupedally through the trees and can spring and leap between branches and vines .\ngolden lion tamarins were upgraded from critically endangered to endangered in 2003 following these extensive conservation efforts . about one - third of the wild population today originated from golden lion tamarins raised in human care . about 3 , 200 golden lion tamarins live in the wild , most in or near the\nraboy be , neves lg , zeigler s , saraiva n , cardoso n , santos g , ballou j , leimgruber p ( 2010 ) . strength of habitat and landscape metrics in predicting golden - headed lion tamarin presence or absence in forest patches .\ninformation about wild golden - headed lion tamarin ecology primarily comes from research that has been conducted at una biological reserve by raboy and dietz since 1991 . comparative research on the ecology of golden - headed lion tamarins and golden lion tamarins ( l . rosalia ) is unfolding and preliminary results suggest that the two are not as similar as expected given their taxonomic relationship . care should be taken to avoid assuming the two exhibit identical ecological behaviors such as foraging , diet , and ranging patterns ( dietz 1997 ; raboy & dietz 2004 ) .\nsome of the problems contributing to their status in the wild include massive deforestation for commercial agriculture crops , habitat fragmentation , and encroaching human populations . export for the international pet trade may also be a factor contributing to declining golden - headed lion tamarin populations .\nthirty years ago , fewer than 200 golden lion tamarins could be found in their native habitat in brazil .\nstriking manes around their head is what gives them the name lion tamarin . all lion tamarins are endangered because of the serious level of destruction of the atlantic rain forest where they are found .\ngolden - headed lion tamarins are found only in brazil . due to habitat destruction , they are confined to the southern part of the state of bahia , brazil ( mitchell and erwin 1986 ) .\nin tamarin society , males and females mate for life and take equal part in raising their young .\nbecause of their relatively large home range sizes , golden - headed lion tamarins encounter other groups less frequently than golden lion tamarins , but when they do , they exhibit territorial behavior . intergroup behavior is aggressive and includes bouts of vocalizing , chasing , and fighting between individuals ( dietz et al . 1996 ; raboy & dietz 2004 ) .\nthere is scant data available on accidental mortality but there have been some unpublished reports of golden - headed lion tamarins getting caught in snare traps set for other animals and accidentally being killed ( oliver & santos 1991 ) .\nfollowing this important meeting , the zoo made a major commitment to the captive breeding and conservation of the golden lion tamarin and launched a long - term investigation into the reproduction , social behavior and husbandry of the species in human care . for many years , golden lion tamarins were free - ranging at the zoo to help them prepare for eventual reintroduction to the wild in brazil .\nthe zoo played an important role in creating the golden lion tamarin conservation program , which is still active today in field research , reintroduction , environmental education and habitat restoration . currently , the international committee for the conservation and management of lion tamarins advises the brazilian government on the research and conservation activities for these species .\nin the early 1970s , there were as few as 200 golden lion tamarins in the wild . they were upgraded from critically endangered to endangered in 2003 following intensive conservation efforts . about one - third of the wild population today originated from golden lion tamarins raised in human care .\nthe zoo population of golden lion tamarins has been managed globally since 1973 . in 1981 , golden lion tamarins became one of the first species to be designated as part of the association of zoos & aquariums\u2019 species survival plan , with 143 zoos participating in the captive breeding program .\nthe rapid rate of habitat destruction within the range of the golden - headed lion tamarins indicates that their numbers will not remain high for long and suggests that forest fragmentation will continue to whittle away at the existing population much like the pattern seen in golden lion tamarins ( l . rosalia ) ( oliver & santos 1991 ; rylands 1993 - 1994 ; de s . pinto & rylands 1997 ) . actions must be taken immediately to stop habitat destruction and begin to reconnect patches of forest that still harbor golden - headed lion tamarins ( oliver & santos ; de s . pinto & rylands 1997 ) .\ncool animal fact : golden - headed lion tamarins also communicate using smell . they have scent glands which they use to mark their territory and pathways to food sources . individuals can be identified by one another based on their scent .\nas with other lion tamarins , golden lion tamarins are a social species . in the wild , they live in groups of two to eight family members . the groups comprise a breeding pair , offspring of one or two litters and possibly other relatives . golden lion tamarins groom much like other primates . the juveniles play , chasing and wrestling with each other .\nboth male and female golden - headed lion tamarins have well - developed scent glands on their chest and around their genitals which secrete chemicals used to communicate information about the individual including sex and reproductive status as well as territory demarcation . unfortunately , no work has been done to analyze the chemical composition of these secretions and therefore little information is understood about the mechanism by which these work to signal other golden - headed lion tamarins ( ruiz - miranda & kleiman 2002 ) .\nthe limited data available on fecundity and mortality in golden - headed lion tamarins suggests that the population grows more slowly and is subject to higher levels of predation compared to golden lion tamarins ( l . rosalia ) ( dietz 1997 ) . wild golden - headed lion tamarins have never been seen producing more than one litter per year , so population growth is relatively slow . furthermore , disappearance rates are high within the population at una biological reserve and may be attributed to density of predators . mammalian and avian predators are a threat to these small animals , and when forest conditions are right , the predator population can thrive and have a negative effect on golden - headed lion tamarins ( dietz 1997 ) . unidentified disease is another contributor to mortality at una . certain illnesses can sweep through a group and kill all of the members within a few days ( dietz 1997 ) .\nthe nature of habitat fragmentation throughout the golden - headed lion tamarin ' s range will probably lead to problems associated with inbreeding including inbreeding depression , genetic drift , lack of genetic diversity , and lower recruitment rates . the total population at una is estimated to be between 240 and 460 individuals . though there is a wide discrepancy between estimates , the population is still thought to be less than the 500 breeding individuals necessary to maintain genetic diversity over the long term ( dietz et al . 1996 ) . additionally , the population at una represents the largest population in the most intact forest in the entire range of the golden - headed lion tamarin , so it is clear that other subpopulations are subject to loss of genetic diversity over time .\nwith a long , golden lion - like mane around its face the golden - headed lion tamarin is suitably named . about the same size as a squirrel , they can grow up to 30 cm long ( females are usually slightly larger ) plus a tail of approx . 35 cm ; the body is predominantly black with golden - orange limbs and males and females are similar in appearance . they have sharp claws ( unusual in primates as most others have nails ) , and they use these for climbing and catching prey . their food consists mainly of insects and lizards , as well as soft fruit .\ngolden - headed lion tamarins are diurnal and spend most of their time in tropical forests at heights of 3 to 10 meters . they do not even come down to sleep at night . leontopithecus chrysomela sleeps in tree holes , vines , or epiphytes .\nkey research on golden - headed lion tamarins began with adelmar coimbra - filho in the early 1970s and revolved around taxonomic history , geographic distribution and habitat type . he was the first to set up a captive breeding colony of the species and was instrumental in getting the land set aside for una , where long - term research on golden - headed tamarins is still being conducted ( rylands et al . 2002b ) . russell mittermeier , james dietz , anthony rylands , and becky raboy have also contributed greatly to the current base of knowledge about wild golden - headed lion tamarins while kristel de vleeschouwer and linda van elsacker have been driving forces behind captive research ( rylands et al . 2002b ) .\ngenerally hunters in this region are either leisure hunters or subsistence hunters and though golden - headed lion tamarins are seldom hunted for food , there are a few reports that hunters kill and eat them ( oliver & santos 1991 ; dos santos & blanes 1997 ) .\nthe golden - headed lion tamarin lives only in the altantic rainforest of coastal brazil . the primary ( undisturbed ) forest is now extremely fragmented , and while these monkeys will use forest regrowth and rubber plantations where some native trees remain , they depend on old growth forest for sleeping sites . home ranges can be from 40 to 100 hectares , depending on how rich the forest is in food .\ngolden - headed lion tamarins are primarily insectivorous and frugivorous . however , they have been known to eat invertebrates such as spiders and snails . there are also records of this species eating lizards , bird eggs , and even small birds ( nowak and paradiso 1983 ) .\nconservation status and threats the iucn red list categorized the golden - headed lion tamarin as endangered in 1982 , and it remains so today . as previously stated and worth repeating , just 2 % of its original habitat remains in brazil\u2019s atlantic forest , one of the most endangered ecosystems on earth . the majority of the original forest has been cleared for farming , mining , ranching & expanding urban centers . most golden - headed lion tamarins are confined to the protected una biological reserve . surviving populations are scattered and thinly distributed . conservation efforts in 1980 the brazilian government created the una biological reserve for the protection of the golden - headed lion tamarin and its habitat . over the years the park has been slowly growing as the government acquires more land . the population at una is the largest population in the most intact forest . there is also a captive breeding colony of 25 golden - headed lion tamarins at the rio de janeiro primate center . in the early 1990s , the landowner ' s environmental protection plan was created to educate the community about the importance of protecting the forest and the tamarins . the protection plan included conservation activities on over 70 % of the neighboring farms , educating farmers on how to use sustainable agriculture in order to preserve the tamarins ' habitat . the plan also educates school children , hunters and forest guards on conservation , property rights and land use . this method of educating and involving the community has had great success for preserving the tamarin and their habitat .\nappearance , size , & weight the golden - headed lion tamarin is a beautiful little monkey with a long , thick golden to orange mane around the face , as their name implies . the body is shiny black with golden to orange limbs , hands , and feet . its long tail is black and golden . weighing in at about 17 to 25 ounces ( 500 to 700 grams ) and measuring 8 to 13 inches ( 20 to 34 centimeters ) in body length plus a 12 to 15 inch ( 32 to 40 centimeter ) long tail , females are typically the larger gender , a rather uncommon occurrence in primates . with arms and legs of similar size to each other , the golden - headed lion tamarin comfortably moves through the forest canopy quadrupedally ( on all fours ) . as all callitrichids ( the family of new world monkeys that includes marmosets and tamarins ) , their fingers are long and dexterous , and they have claws rather than nails on all but the big toe . this clawed adaptation allows them to cling to and climb trees as easily as squirrels do .\ntranslocation program , where they may pose a risk to both translocated animals and the local animals ( although there was no golden - lion tamarin in the release site , there are other primate species ) . alternatively , in cases of zoonosis , potentially presenting a risk to the human population living in the area [\nthe iucn classes the golden - headed lion tamarin as endangered . once found widely across eastern brazil , today it only survives in pockets of eastern brazil , with total numbers estimated at 6 , 000 - 15 , 000 individuals . the primary threat is the ongoing destruction of the atlantic rainforest , with an estimated 2 - 5 % of their original habitat surviving as a result of deforestation for timber , charcoal and agriculture .\nhistorically , collection for the pet trade , severe habitat loss and fragmentation were the primary threats to golden lion tamarins . habitats were destroyed to make way for sugar cane and coffee production , cattle grazing , logging , charcoal and urbanization . as a result , in the early 1970s , there were as few as 200 golden lion tamarins in the wild .\nsome information about social behaviors must be extrapolated from studies of captive golden lion tamarins ( l . rosalia ) simply because there is not enough data from wild or captive studies on golden - headed lion tamarins . though the two species are closely related and likely share a repertoire of similar behaviors , using data from golden lion tamarins should be done prudently as new research on golden - headed lion tamarins will likely reveal similarities and differences between the species . among golden lion tamarins , grooming is a major form of social activity and occurs between all family members either as they huddle in close contact during the day or evening or between pairs of individuals throughout the day ( kleiman et al . 1988 ) . adult females groom males more frequently than the reverse , and this may indicate that adult males are dominant over adult females within the group . juveniles and subadults have high frequencies of grooming neonatal infants as they are interested in the youngest group members and attempt to make contact with them as often as possible . they will also groom the infants ' mother in an attempt to get closer to the newborn ( kleiman et al . 1988 ) .\nvocalizations among golden - headed lion tamarins are based on activity and behavior . trills are used when activity is solitary . clucks can be heard while an animal is foraging . long calls indicate vigilance . whines are made when two individuals are making contact with one another ( nowak and paradiso 1983 ) .\nlike most primates , golden - headed lion tamarins are a social species , typically living in family groups of 4 to 8 individuals . they breed once a year . when threatened they will fluff up their fur to make themselves appear bigger than they really are , and this helps them ward off predators .\noliveira cr , ruiz - miranda cr , kleiman dg , beck bb ( 2003 ) . play behavior in juvenile golden lion tamarins ( callitrichidae : primates ) : organization in relation to costs .\nat the smithsonian ' s national zoo , golden lion tamarins eat fruits , carrots , sweet potatoes , green beans , hard - boiled eggs , mealworms , crickets , and a marmoset gel .\njust 2 - 5 % of the golden - headed lion tamarin\u2019s original habitat remains in brazil ( 3 ) . this species is now only found in the east of brazil , in the southern portion of bahia ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 7 ) . here , the majority are confined to the protected una biological reserve ( 3 ) . they were originally found much more widely across eastern brazil ; today , surviving populations are scattered and thinly distributed ( 7 ) .\nin the eastern half of their range , golden - headed lion tamarin habitat is characterized by wet conditions throughout the year , but in 1995 , a severe drought occurred and resulted in a serious wildfire that threatened una biological reserve ( anonymous 1995 ) . the fire was started when neighboring farmers lost control of a fire they started to help clear their fields , a common technique used in south america to clear land of growth and add nutrients to the soil before planting crops .\na striking species , golden lion tamarins are small social south america primates with a magnificent reddish - gold coat and a long , backswept mane . once down to 200 individuals in the wild , intensive conservation efforts have helped the population recover . still an endangered species , there are about 3 , 200 in the wild\u2014about a third of which are descendants of golden lion tamarins raised in human care .\ntheir sleep patterns are regular , meaning that they sleep from dusk until sunrise , oftentimes with a midday nap . golden lion tamarins sleep in tree holes for warmth and protection from predators at night .\ngolden - headed lion tamarins live in family groups of 10 or more . multi male and female groups occur in the wild . following a gestation of between 125 - 130 days the female will normally give birth to twins and as with many tamarins , older siblings and the male will take turns in baby - sitting .\ngolden - headed lion tamarins have a pretty broad communications repertoire . their vocalizations are based on activities and social interactions . long calls maintain pair bonds and signal a group ' s presence in their territory . trills are used when activity is solitary , and they cluck while foraging . when two individuals make contact , they whine .\nlike other lion tamarins , the golden - headed lion tamarin is diurnal , that is , it sleeps at night and is active during the day . they live in groups ranging from 2 to 11 individuals , averaging at 5 to 8 . groups typically consist of 2 adult males , 1 adult female , and their offspring . although less is known about the mating habits of this tamarin species , scientists assume that , like other tamarin species , they are primarily monogamous . only one female in the group breeds and , like other callitrichids , she usually gives birth to twins . any other females\u2019 reproduction is suppressed by the pheromones and dominant behavior of the breeding female . both males and females care for the young , and all group members assist in childcare . at night , they sleep in holes in trees that were created by woodpeckers and they may occupy the same nest for 6 days before moving on .\ninformation about visual communication in golden - headed lion tamarins in also limited and therefore what is known about visual signals in golden lion tamarins must be applied to the former species ( ruiz - miranda & kleiman 2002 ) . the repertoire of visual signals is limited compared to the other communication forms , but includes both postural and facial expressions that act as signals to nearby individuals ( kleiman et al . 1988 ; kinzey 1997 ) . golden lion tamarins exhibit tongue - flicking , arch - walking , tail thrashing , rump displays and piloerection in sexual and social contexts ( kinzey 1997 ; ruiz - miranda & kleiman 2002 ) . most visual signals are used during territorial encounters , social interactions , and reproductive events ( ruiz - miranda & kleiman 2002 ) .\nli z , rogers e ( 2004 ) . habitat quality and activity budgets of white - headed langurs in fusui , china .\ngolden - headed lion tamarins are one of four species of lion tamarins in the genus leontopithecus that have similar body shapes and share several common features including a lionlike mane of hair surrounding their dark brown , or black , hairless faces ( rowe 1996 ) . the golden - headed lion tamarin has black fur over its entire body except for on its head and mane , where the fur is a light to deep golden color . it also has golden fur on part of its tail , hands , feet , and forearms ( rowe 1996 ; groves 2001 ) . males and females are about the same size and weight , though a female ' s weight fluctuates more than a male ' s during certain times in the reproductive cycle . in captivity , males weigh between 540 and 700 g ( 1 . 19 and 1 . 54 lb ) and average 620 g 1 . 37 lb ) and measure , on average , 250 mm ( 9 . 84 in ) while females weigh between 480 and 590 g ( 1 . 06 and 1 . 30 lb ) and average 534 . 8 g ( 1 . 18 lb ) and measure , on average 236 . 3 mm ( 9 . 30 in ) ( rosenberger & coimbra - filho 1984 ) . based on a few specimens , wild male golden - headed lion tamarins weigh 550 g ( 1 . 21 lb ) , and the average weight of wild females is 591 g ( 1 . 30 lb ) ( leigh 1994 ; raboy 2002 ) .\nblumstein dt ( 1998 ) . quantifying predation risk for refuging animals : a case study with golden marmots .\nthe first year of life is the most difficult for golden lion tamarins ; 50 percent of infants die during this time . the remaining individuals usually live for eight years and up to 15 years in human care .\ndiet primarily a frugivore , or fruit eater , the golden - headed lion tamarin has a fairly broad diet , consuming plants , fruits , flowers , nectar , insects and small invertebrates , including include insect larvae , spiders , snails , frogs , lizards , bird eggs and small snakes . they find animal prey in the leaf litter of the forest floor , in the holes and crevices of trees , and by breaking open rotting wood to find large insects . their long hands and slender fingers are well adapted to this method of foraging . only occasionally do they supplement their diets with less nutritious gum and tree sap since their preferred foods are available year round . the golden - headed lion tamarin , like all marmosets and tamarins , plays an important role in seed dispersal . the seeds of the fruits that they consume pass through the monkeys\u2019 digestive tracts unharmed and are defecated far enough away from the parent plant to result in greater distribution of the plant species . this , in turn , regrows the forest ' s resources and ultimately feeds more animals .\ngolden - headed lion tamarins are endemic to brazil and are found in small and disjunctive areas of forest in the coastal states of bahia and minas gerais ( rylands et al . 2002a ) . they are the northernmost species of lion tamarins and are found in the very southeastern area of bahia and the extreme northeast of minas gerais within 150 km ( 93 . 2 mi ) of the atlantic coast and at altitudes below 500 m ( 1640 ft ) . the range is bound by the rio de contas in the north , the rio jequitinhonha in the south , the atlantic ocean in the east , and a change in altitude and vegetation in the west ( de s . pinto & rylands 1997 ) . the total area extends over about 19 , 000 km\u00b2 ( 7336 mi\u00b2 ) , but the forests in which they are found are highly fragmented because of land use activities including cattle ranching and cocoa cultivation . they are found in over 100 sites throughout their range , but are protected only in bahia at una biological reserve , a 94 km\u00b2 ( 36 . 3 mi\u00b2 ) area that has a golden - headed lion tamarin population of 450 individuals as of 2000 ( de s . pinto & rylands 1997 ; rylands et al . 2002a ; cruz pers . comm . ) . there are more golden - headed lion tamarins than all of the other three species combined ( l . rosalia , l . chrysopygus , and l . caissara ) , with the total wild population estimated to be between 6 , 000 and 15 , 000 individuals ( de s . pinto & rylands 1997 ) . there are about 600 golden - headed lion tamarins in captivity around the world ( rylands et al . 2002a ) .\ncontinued conservation efforts ( such as reforestation and the creation of wildlife corridors ) are essential to sustain and grow the overall population , and to ensure all of the hard work put into saving golden lion tamarins is not undone .\nanother important behavior of cooperative infant care is food provisioning . for the first four weeks , the infants exclusively nurse , but food sharing begins during week five ( tardif et al . 2002 ) . by week 12 , young golden - headed lion tamarins are being provisioned at the highest rates , and sharing will decrease over time such that by about five months of age , they are no longer being provisioned by group members ( tardif et al . 2002 ) . though there is no data from wild golden - headed lion tamarins , wild golden lion tamarin juveniles ( l . rosalia ) are provisioned until 21 months of age , and the pattern may be similar across species ( tardif et al . 2002 ) . sharing food with infants may teach them an appropriate diet and provide them with important nutrients . in younger infants , foods that are high in lipids and protein that they are unable to acquire on their own , such as insects , are shared more frequently than other types of foods . older juveniles receive a wider variety of foods , probably as a way to learn about appropriate foods ( tardif et al . 2002 ) .\nthe golden - headed lion tamarin\u2019s name describes its striking appearance perfectly . the thick , long golden to orange mane around its face is indeed reminiscent of a male lion\u2019s mane ( 3 ) . when in danger or defending its territory , this tamarin raises its fantastic mane and fluffs up its fur to give it the appearance of being bigger than it really is , whilst flicking its tongue at the intruder to scare them away ( 5 ) . females and males are very similar in appearance , as are the young , but unlike most other primates , it is the adult female that is usually larger than the adult male ( 6 ) . the body is predominantly shiny and black , with golden to orange limbs and paws , and a black and golden coloured , long tail ( 7 ) . its fore and hind limbs are similar in size , allowing it to move quadrupedally through the forest ( 6 ) . their fingers are long and dextrous and , like all callitrichids , the nails have evolved into claws on all but the big toe , which has a flattened nail , allowing them to climb in a squirrel - like fashion through the trees ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) .\nother characteristics shared by lion tamarins include the presence of claw - like nails ( called tegulae ) instead of flat nails ( called ungulae ) as seen in humans and other primates , and the tendency to give birth to twins more frequently than singletons ( sussman 2000 ) . the claw - like nails seen in golden - headed lion tamarins aid in their locomotion patterns of quadrupedal running , clinging , and leaping between trees . having nails at the ends of their fingertips instead of on top of their fingertips allows them to efficiently grip vertical surfaces and may help stabilize them on small branches ( sussman 2000 ) . the pattern of twinning that is common among golden - headed lion tamarins is an unusual characteristic for primates because of the high time and caloric investment necessary to carry and care for two infants at once . lion tamarins and other callitrichines that exhibit this pattern have evolved social organizations and behaviors that include cooperative breeding to decrease the energetic strain on the mother and increase infant survival ( sussman 2000 ) .\nthe only significant protected area in which golden - headed lion tamarins are found is una biological reserve , a 94 km\u00b2 ( 36 . 3 mi\u00b2 ) park created specifically for their protection in 1980 . though the original governmental decree was for an area of 114 km\u00b2 ( 44 . 0 mi\u00b2 ) , this amount of land was not purchased immediately and for the last 25 years , the park has been growing incrementally as the government continues to acquire land ( de s . pinto & rylands 1997 ; cruz pers . comm . ) . forests surrounding una are still relatively intact and it should be a priority to purchase them and integrate them into the biological reserve because , as it exists now , una is not large enough to support a self - sustaining population of golden - headed lion tamarins ( rylands 1993 - 1994 ; de s . pinto & rylands 1997 ) . if purchase and integration is not possible , it will be essential to work with land owners to persuade them to initiate tamarin - friendly land use patterns . existing programs to educate private land owners in the areas around the reserve should continue while corridors should be grown connecting remaining old growth forests on private lands with una forests . ( de s . pinto & rylands 1997 ; mallinson 2001 ) . the landowners ' environmental education programme began in the early 1990s and focused on educating the community surrounding the reserve about the importance of protecting not only the reserve itself but contiguous forests . on over 70 % of the farms in the area , conservation activities have been undertaken including sustainable agricultural practices that focus on preserving forests and golden - headed lion tamarin habitat ( mallinson 2001 ) . school children , farm workers , hunters , and forest guards have been involved in the education program focusing on conservation , property rights , and land use as well as developing alternative sustainable economic undertakings ( mallinson 2001 ) . as land is purchased for more forest reserves or protected areas in areas other than una , programs like this should certainly be part of the transition from private to reserve land so that communities neighboring new reserves understand the importance of their actions on the golden - headed lion tamarin ' s habitat and ultimate survival .\ninteresting fact : all lion tamarins have long fingers and sharp claws to help them catch grubs and bugs in the trees .\nfollowing the drop in cocoa prices and the spread of witch ' s broom disease , unemployment rates soared in the region surrounding una biological reserve . displaced workers swarmed to the forests , both protected and unprotected , clearing the land for subsistence agriculture because of their lack of economic prospects ( padua et al . 2002 ) . additionally , cocoa plantation owners began to cut the primary forests of the cabruca and sell the lumber to supplement income . this resulted in an increased rate of forest fragmentation both within una and in the surrounding areas and directly impacting the golden - headed lion tamarin ( padua et al . 2002 ) .\nwhile the estimate of golden lion tamarins living in the wild has continued to rise in recent years , they are still classified as endangered because their habitat remains fragmented in to small , unconnected areas , each only capable of supporting a small number of groups . this has decreased the quality of tamarin habitat and limited their ability to grow populations . without intervention , inbreeding will contribute to the local extinction of many of these small populations , and eventually the entire species .\ngolden lion tamarins live in the heavily populated atlantic coastal regions of southeastern brazil . they live in humid forests with many vines , bromeliads , and other epiphytes . they occupy the closed canopy , often remaining 29 to 100 feet ( 10 to 30 meters ) off the ground .\nthe landowners ' environmental education programme needs to incorporate information about burning fields and the potential harm that can be done to neighboring forests , especially under certain environmental conditions . while the newly established buffer zone between the reserve and other lands might decrease the chance of a fire spreading too quickly to the center of the reserve , in some situations , una , and the golden - headed lion tamarins that live there , might be subject to serious natural disasters .\nin 1972 , the zoo held a ground - breaking conference bringing together 28 european , american and brazilian biologists to save the golden lion tamarin . long - term recommendations for husbandry were developed for research and conservation activities , including support for the breeding program in brazil , studies of breeding biology , protocols for captive husbandry and management , medical programs , hand - rearing guidelines , inter - institutional cooperation and the establishment of a studbook and a data bank to record all aspects of their propagation in human care .\nboth vocal and chemical communication are important to golden - headed lion tamarin groups . because they live in tropical forests , visual communication is less important in long - distance interactions but is important in interactions between individuals that are in proximity ( ruiz - miranda & kleiman 2002 ) . the only available information about vocal and visual communication in lion tamarins is for the golden lion tamarin ( l . rosalia ) , but it is believed that similarities exist among all species of leontopithecus ( ruiz - miranda & kleiman 2002 ) . there are six discrete categories of vocalizations in golden lion tamarin communication : tonal , clucks , trills , atonal , multisyllable , and combination ( ruiz - miranda & kleiman 2002 ) . tonal vocalizations include the\nwhine\nand\npeep\ncalls and serve as alarm and affiliation calls .\nwhines\nare given in reaction to the presence of predators while\npeeps\nare sounded by solitary young after being reunited with the group or by any group member upon finding food ( kleiman et al . 1988 ; boinski et al . 1994 ; ruiz - miranda & kleiman 2002 ) .\nclucks\nsignal reaction to the presence of a novel item or are giving during foraging bouts . they also can signal aggression when golden lion tamarins encounter neighbors or intruders and are given while chasing or mobbing predators ( kleiman et al . 1988 ; boinski et al . 1994 ) .\ntrills\nhave multiple purposes but mainly serve to indicate the location of the caller to other individuals over long distances . atonal calls such as\nrasps\nor\nscreeches\nare heard mostly during playing or as playing escalates to fighting ( kleiman et al . 1988 ; boinski et al . 1994 ) . multisyllable calls include the most important vocalizations for group cohesion , the\nshort\nand\nlong calls .\nthese are typically heard as golden lion tamarins leave their sleeping sites in the morning to locate their neighbors and are heard throughout the day as individuals keep in vocal contact with other group members ( peres 1991 ; ruiz - miranda & kleiman 2002 ) . combination calls also serve multiple purposes and include\ntrill - rasps ,\ntrill - whines ,\nand\ncluck - whines .\nthese are used by juveniles begging for attention , protection , or food or by group members as they defend their territory against intruders or predators ( ruiz - miranda & kleiman 2002 ) .\neach group has one breeding pair . the breeding season is between september and march , the warmest and wettest time of year . after a gestation period of about four and a half months , the female usually gives birth to twins . golden lion tamarins are born fully furred with their eyes open . they cling to their mothers for the first few weeks . all members of the group will carry and care for the infants , but the adult male usually does the largest share . the mother only takes the babies to nurse them . after about five weeks , babies begin to explore on their own ; they are weaned at 3 months . as with golden - headed lion tamarins , sexual maturity is reached at 18 months for females and 2 years for males .\ngolden - headed lion tamarins are sympatric with three other species of primates , the black tufted - ear marmoset ( callithrix kuhli ) , the yellow breasted capuchin ( cebus xanthosternos ) , and the northern masked titi ( callicebus personatus melanochir ) . the tamarins do not compete for resources with these other species because of differences in foraging techniques at different heights of the forest and the exploitation of different animal prey ( rylands 1989 ; 1993 ) . they form mixed - species groups with the black tufted - ear marmosets and often travel together with them for the entire day . during these associations , individuals of both species use the same pathways in the canopy , forage side - by - side in fruit trees , and coordinate periods of travel and rest ( raboy 1998 ) . golden - headed lion tamarins and black tufted - ear marmosets both utilize fruit as a major food resource and both are small and vulnerable to a number of predators . this interesting pattern of association is probably beneficial to both species in foraging benefits and increased detection of , and safety from , predators ( raboy 1998 ) . because of their excellent skills as insect foragers , golden - headed lion tamarins often facilitate the capture of insects by other species as well . birds like the white - fronted nunbird and the woodcreeper follow behind the tamarins as they forage in microhabitats and capture insects that are flushed out of bromeliads ( raboy 1998 ; hankerson et al . in press ) .\ngolden lion tamarins are small monkeys , weighing 17 to 24 ounces ( 482 to 680 grams ) and measuring 6 to 10 inches ( 15 to 25 centimeters ) in length with a tail of about 12 to 15 inches ( 32 to 40 centimeters ) . males and females are similar in appearance and size .\nwith records of over 100 localities where l . chrysomelas still occur through the region bounded by the rio de contas in the north and the rio jequitinhonha in the south , more populations remain than of all the other three lion tamarin species combined . however , the remaining forests are being destroyed at an unprecedented rate for the region and the populations surviving are seriously depleted and fragmented . an important aspect which has contributed to the more favourable situation of the golden - headed lion tamarin is the traditional and fairly widespread use of the \u201ccabruca\u201d system for shading cacao trees . some of the original canopy trees are left standing , and this allows for connectivity between forest patches . if well managed , this could be an important management tool for future conservation efforts . threats to golden - headed lion tamarins come from socio - economic transformations resulting from the difficulties of the cocoa industry ( low prices and disease epidemics ) , that have dominated the region over the last 15 years , resulting in the expansion of alternative crops , notably african palm oil and coconuts ( alger and caldas 1994 ) . in the west of its range , the forest is increasingly destroyed and fragmented as a result of cattle ranching ( pinto 1994 ; pinto and rylands 1997 ) . a study by dietz et a l . ( 2000 ) examined inbreeding depression in small ( 50 or less ) isolated populations of l . rosalia . they concluded that it reduced probability of long - term survival by about one - third . there is every reason to believe that inbreeding depression is likewise prejudicial to the isolated populations of l . chrysomelas , most especially in the western half of its range where forest fragmentation is extreme ( pinto and rylands , 1997 ) .\nin the early 1980s , large numbers of golden - headed lion tamarins were illegally exported from brazil to countries like belgium , france , french guiana , and japan in order to supply the booming pet trade and exotic animal collectors ( mallinson 2001 ; rylands et al . 2002a ; b ) . the brazilian environmental agency ibama concentrated efforts on recovery of illegally exported tamarins and , in 1986 , was able to begin a captive breeding colony with seized animals ( mallinson 2001 ) . the large numbers of recovered animals helped establish a genetically diverse founder population from which to begin captive breeding programs in brazil , europe , japan , and the united states ( ballou et al . 2002 ) . seizures of golden - headed lion tamarins continue today , though not nearly at as high of a rate as was seen in the 1980s . the international demand for these animals as pets still exists , and though it is not nearly as high , coupled with the other threats to the population , it may affect the future potential of the population to survive .\nlike other lion tamarins , golden - headed - lion tamarins are diurnal . they feed mainly on fruits , and play an important role in seed dispersal . they also feed on flowers and nectar ( 2 ) , and prey on small animals such as frogs , snails , lizards and spiders , and may opportunistically feed on gums , saps and latex from trees ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . animal prey is found in the forest floor litter and in the trees , in holes and crevices , and by breaking rotting wood to find large insects ( 6 ) ( 8 ) . their long hands and slender fingers help with this method of foraging ( 3 ) ( 5 ) .\nadministrators of una biological reserve continue to confiscate illegally kept golden - headed lion tamarins and , in 1999 , the captive population was over 600 individuals ( ballou et al . 2002 ) . one effort to decrease the number of animals taken as pets or killed for food is education . when poachers or hunters are encountered , they receive information about the importance of conservation and the brazilian laws that forbid the activity ( padua et al . 2002 ) . this simple message has been successful in decreasing hunting rates by 50 % according to ibama ( dos santos & blanes 1997 ; padua et al . 2002 ) . not only are hunters directly confronted if caught , education programs for all land owners and community members have been aimed at educating people about the endemism present in nearby the forests ( dos santos & blanes 1997 ) . armed with information about conservation of their unique surroundings , community members begin to see golden - headed lion tamarins not as food or a potential source of income , but as an important part of the ecosystem and part of the local heritage .\nthere are no external signs of ovulation , therefore reproductive females attract attention from breeding males by presenting their rumps toward the male and slightly lifting the tail . the male responds to this behavior by inspecting and sniffing the female ' s genitals , evaluating her attractiveness and reproductive status ( de vleeschouwer et al . 2000 ) . the highest occurrence of sexual behavior is during the peak of female receptivity , and once a female conceives , gestation lasts about four months ( 129 days ) ( french et al . 2002 ) . golden - headed lion tamarins exhibit birth seasonality even though they live in an area in which resources are equally abundant year - round . most births occur from october through april and there is a significant absence of births from may to september ( bach et al . 2001 ) . most primates that exhibit birth seasonality do so because reproductive events are energetically expensive , and to maximize likelihood of infant survival , breeding , birth , and lactation occur during times of high resource abundance ( sussman 2000 ) . golden - headed lion tamarins seem to exhibit birth seasonality in accordance with photoperiod . this may be an adaptation because there may be behavioral advantages of raising offspring during longer days ( bach et al . 2001 ) . in captivity , golden - headed lion tamarins can have one or two litters per year but in the wild they usually only have one per year ( de vleeschouwer et al . 2001 ) . rates of twinning are similar in captivity and in the wild , with more than half of the births resulting in twins rather than singletons ( bach et al . 2001 ) .\nhaving a healthy predator population within una is essential for the functioning of the ecosystem , but other efforts to decrease golden - headed lion tamarin mortality have been undertaken . current studies require that habituated animals be captured every six months to replace radio transmitter batteries . at this semiannual event , veterinary care is provided for the animals as a routine way to check their health and evaluate any concerns ( dietz et al . 1996 ) . by monitoring the health of the animals over time , changes can be noted and care can be provided in certain circumstances . monitoring and attempting to provide care for sick tamarins is an expensive and relatively futile process compared to eliminating sources of inbreeding depression that might cause certain individuals to be at higher risk for health problems . it is essential that una does not become an island of forest , cutting off dispersing golden - headed lion tamarins from entering new territories , starting new groups , or immigrating into the breeding position of existing groups . efforts to connect patches of forest throughout the range will increase the likelihood of gene flow in the population and will help to decrease the chances of the loss of genetic diversity ( dietz et al . 1996 ) . currently , studies to evaluate and prioritze areas for forest linkage are underway and will hopefully lead to management strategies and eventual reconnection of forest fragments ( raboy pers . comm . ) ."]}
{"id": 2394, "summary": [{"text": "scrobipalpa obsoletella , the summer groundling , is a moth of the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in most of europe , turkey , the caucasus , from iran to asian russia ( transbaikal ) and mongolia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it has also been recorded from south africa and north america , where it is probably an introduced species .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the habitat consists of coastal salt marshes and sandy beaches .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the wingspan is 12 \u2013 14 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults have been recorded on wing from may to august .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on atriplex glabriuscula , atriplex halimus , atriplex litoralis , atriplex tatarica and chenopodium species .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "the larvae bore in the pith of the stem .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the frass is ejected through a hole in the stem , located at the base of the leaf or a side branch .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the larvae can be found from june to july and again in september .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "they are light green when young , turning yellowish green later .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the head is light brown .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the species overwinters in the larval stage . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "scrobipalpa obsoletella", "paragraphs": ["scrobipalpa obsoletella ( summer groundling ) - norfolk micro moths - the micro moths of norfolk .\neuscrobipalpa obsoletella ( fischer von roslerstamm 1841 ) ( euscrobipalpa povoln\u00fd 1967 is a junior synonym of scrobipalpa janse 1951 . )\nscrobipalpa obsoletella - those with the forewing a pale greyish colour lacking any red - brown colouration and appearing paler in the final one - third due to a pale postmedial fascia .\nscrobipalpa suaedella - those with an obvious clear pale ochreous dorsal quarter to the forewing .\none pre 1900 record from hunstanton ( barrett ) may not be distinguishable from scrobipalpa nitentella .\ns . nitentella was only distinguished from s . obsoletella in britain in 1935 and as a consequence there is some uncertainty as to the true identity of some of the older records .\nscrobipalpa ocellatella - those with the prominent angled fascia at three quarters on the forewing and dark markings contrasting with the surrounding paler ground colour .\nbecause of the sometimes considerable variation within most saltmarsh inhabiting scrobipalpa species , identification by wing markings alone will often not be possible . caution and care are the watchwords for this group .\nthose more readily identifiable when freshly emerged by the forewing markings are listed below . however all of these also have variation in their wing markings which , when the obvious features are obscured or worn , will then resemble some other scrobipalpa species .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\na new species of fish , pseudoliparis swirei , published in zootaxa ( 4358 : 161 - 177 ) by gerringer , m . e et al . was voted among top 10 new species described in 2017 .\na new species of madagascan crickets described by mustafa \u00fcnal and george beccaloni in zootaxa was featured in a national geographic story . well done mustafa and george !\na new species of wolf spider , lycosa aragogi , is named after aragog\u2014the famous fictional spider from \u201charry potter\u201d book series by j . k . rowling . the new species is similar to the animatronic puppet version of the character used in the film \u201charry potter and the chamber of secrets\u201d , which is actually based on a wolf spider . the naming of the new species is dedicated to the 20th anniversary of harry potter book series .\nmariah o . pfleger , r . dean grubbs , charles f . cotton , toby s . daly - engel\nidentification of nipaecoccus ( hemiptera : coccomorpha : pseudococcidae ) species in the united states , with descriptions of nipaecoccus bromelicola sp . n . and the male of n . floridensis beardsley\nwidely scattered but local over much of england with a strong preference for coastal eastern and southern regions but has been found regularly inland ; locally common on scilly isles ; rare in scotland , wales and ireland and apparently absent from the channel islands .\natriplex spp . ( orache ) including atriplex prostrata ( spear - leaved orache ) , see distribution map , atriplex glabriuscula ( babbington ' s orache ) and supposedly chenopodium spp . ( goosefoot ) .\nin europe on atriplex littoralis ( grass - leaved orache ) , a . halimus ( sea orache ) , a . tatarica and also on chenopodium spp . ( goosefoot ) , both on ruderal and halophytic ( salt - loving ) species .\ndry whitish frass extruding from a small hole in the stem will indicate a larva within the stem and has been found feeding within or between spun fruits of babbington ' s orache .\nsaltmarshes , sea banks and other coastal locations where the foodplants occur . information relating to inland sites where larvae have been found do not appear to have been documented .\nlarva : feeds within the stem , leaving a small hole with dry whitish frass . on babbington ' s orache it has been found feeding in a single fruit or , more usually , two spun together .\nadult : flies at night and comes to light often some miles from its nearest foodplant site .\nusually the palest of the saltmarsh species and greyer than most , often lacking any sign of red - brown colouration on the wings . similar species such as s . nitentella and s . atriplicella usually have darker forewings .\nif a moth has been bred from a known foodplant , and therefore also time of year when the larva feeds and the nature of its feeding methods have been observed , this information , plus a freshly emerged moth , will allow the number of possibilites to be reduced considerably . if the bred or caught moth is a very fresh specimen and displays the distinctive markings of some species ( see below ) then an identification without more detailed examination should be possible in many cases .\nin cases where there is any doubt , particularly where worn light - trapped specimens are concerned , dissection will be essential to obtain an accurate identification until a good familiarity is built up with the range of species and their markings at a particular site .\neven genitalia differences are often small but are constant between the various species . it is advisable to seek confirmation of identifications by genitalia until familiarity is built up with this genus .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nrecorded in 3 ( 4 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1874 . last recorded in 2002 .\nunderlying maps using digital map data \u00a9 norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola\u2122 2018 . \u00a9 james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data \u00a9 nola\u2122 2018\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ngodart & duponchel ( 1832 ) reported the wingspan as\n5 lignes\nor about 10 . 5 mm .\nis a european species that was first reported in washington in 1932 and has spread throughout the western states .\ngodart , j . b . & p . a . j . duponchel , 1832 . histoire naturelle des l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res ou papillons de france , 1 : 261 .\n. university of california press , p . 99 , pl . 10 , fig . 10 .\nchecklist of gelechiidae ( lepidoptera ) in america north of mexico lee s . , hodges r . w . , brown r . l . 2009 . zootaxa 2231 : 1\u201339 .\ncheck list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . hodges , et al . ( editors ) . 1983 . e . w . classey , london . 284 pp .\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 24 june , 2011 - 2 : 07pm additional contributions by terry harrison last updated 31 may , 2014 - 9 : 52am\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nenter the name or part of a name you wish to search for . the asterisk character * can be used as wildcard . e . g . ' papilio * ' . keep in mind that the search is only based on the full taxon name .\nwe are still having problems with the search feature . unfortunately we cannot give a timeline when the advanced search will be fixed .\nhuemer , p . & karsholt , o . - gelechiidae 2 ( gelechiinae : gnorimoschemini . in microlepidoptera of europe 6 . stenstrup . i n prep . 2010\nponomarenko , m . - gelechiidae in pp . 87 - 106 , 327 - 329 . in : s . yu sinev ( ed . ) , 2008 . katalog cheshuekrylykh ( lepidoptera ) rossii ( catalogue of the lepidoptera of russia ) . - kmk scientific press ltd . , st . petersburg - moscow . 424 pp . 2008\nmuseum f\u00fcr naturkunde leibniz - institut f\u00fcr evolutions - und biodiversit\u00e4tsforschung invalidenstr . 43 10115 berlin germany e - mail : fauna - eu ( at ) mfn - berlin . de website : urltoken\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services ."]}
{"id": 2395, "summary": [{"text": "scoparia acropola is a moth in the crambidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by meyrick in 1885 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in australia , where it has been recorded from tasmania .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 25 \u2013 28 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are light ochreous-fuscous , finely irrorated with dark reddish-fuscous and with a few whitish scales .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the first line is indicated only by a suffused dark posterior margin .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the second line is pale .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are ochreous-grey-whitish with a faintly indicated postmedian line .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults have been recorded on wing in december . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "scoparia acropola", "paragraphs": ["vad betyder scoparia ? h\u00e4r finner du 2 definitioner av scoparia . du kan \u00e4ven l\u00e4gga till betydelsen av scoparia sj\u00e4lv\nscoparia antarcticalis staudinger , 1899 ; naturhist . mus . hamburg 2 ( 6 ) : 106\nscoparia \u00e4r ett sl\u00e4kte av fj\u00e4rilar som beskrevs av adrian hardy haworth 1811 . enligt catalogue of life ing\u00e5r scoparia i familjen crambidae , men enligt dyntaxa \u00e4r tillh\u00f6righeten ist\u00e4llet fam [ . . ]\nscoparia pusilla dyar , 1914 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 47 ( 2050 ) : 320 ( ? preocc . scoparia pusilla rosenstock , 1885 ) ; tl : cabima\nscoparia dubitalis var . ivanalis krulikovsky , 1909 ; rev . russ . ent . 9 ( 1 - 2 ) : 113\nscoparia glauculalis hampson , 1897 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1897 : 233 ; tl : falkland is .\nscoparia atropicta hampson , 1897 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1897 : 233 ; tl : u . s . a\nscoparia stereostigma dyar , 1918 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 54 ( 2239 ) : 369 ; tl : jalapa , mexico\nscoparia anagantis dyar , 1918 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 54 ( 2239 ) : 370 ; tl : zacualpan , mexico\nscoparia cyclophora dyar , 1918 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 54 ( 2239 ) : 370 ; tl : zacualpan , mexico\nscoparia anadonta dyar , 1918 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 54 ( 2239 ) : 369 ; tl : real del monte , hidalgo , mexico\nscoparia ichinosawana matsumura , 1925 ; j . coll . agric . hokkaido imp . univ . 15 : 186 , pl . 11 , f . 9 \u2642 ; tl : sakhalin , ichinosawa\nscoparia sachalinensis matsumura , 1925 ; j . coll . agric . hokkaido imp . univ . 15 : 185 , pl . 11 , f . 25 \u2640 ; tl : sakhalin , ( ichinosawa , kiminai , kawakami )\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c1faa - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c25e1 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c277b - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322dd07d - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 32504564 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 32504772 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 33596f78 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nbeccaloni g . , scoble m . , kitching i . , simonsen t . , robinson g . , pitkin b . , hine a . & lyal c . ( 2018 ) . lepindex : the global lepidoptera names index ( version 12 . 3 , jan 2012 ) . in : roskov y . , abucay l . , orrell t . , nicolson d . , bailly n . , kirk p . m . , bourgoin t . , dewalt r . e . , decock w . , de wever a . , nieukerken e . van , zarucchi j . , penev l . , eds . ( 2018 ) . species 2000 & itis catalogue of life , 30th june 2018 . digital resource at urltoken species 2000 : naturalis , leiden , the netherlands . issn 2405 - 8858 .\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 50f47b9f - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\n. if you continue to use the site we will assume that you agree with this .\nthe exact identification of this species is still unknown , but tentatively assumed to belong into this group .\n469x662 ( ~ 93kb ) russia : moscow area ( 36\u00b025 ' e , 56\u00b000 ' n ) , 12 . 07 . 2007 , photo \u00a9\n400x640 ( ~ 104kb ) female russia , moscow area , 5 . 7 . 2006 \u00a9 d . smirnov\nplatytes oxycampyla turner , 1937 ; proc . r . soc . qd 48 ( 10 ) : 66 ; tl : queensland\ngonodiscus australiensis hampson , 1898 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1898 : 606 , pl . 49 , f . 1 ; tl : w . australia , sherlock r . ; queensland , coomoo\nplatytes contempta turner , 1927 ; pap . proc . r . soc . tasm . 1926 : 120 ; tl : tasmania\nplatytes erythroneura turner , 1937 ; proc . r . soc . qd 48 ( 10 ) : 66 ; tl : victoria\ntetraprosopus meyrickii butler , 1882 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 5 ) 9 ( 50 ) : 97 ; tl : australia\nplatytes pediopola turner , 1937 ; proc . r . soc . qd 48 ( 10 ) : 66 ; tl : queensland\ncrambus biradiellus mabille , 1885 ; bull . soc . philom . paris . ( 7 ) 9 : 70\ncrambus biradiellus ; staudinger , 1899 , naturhist . mus . hamburg 2 ( 6 ) : 107\ncrambus ignicola staudinger , 1899 ; naturhist . mus . hamburg 2 ( 6 ) : 108 , f . 9 ; tl : uschuaia\neudorea granitalis moore , 1878 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 5 ) 1 ( 3 ) : 235 ; tl : s . e . of chiklik , yarkund\nthis information is not automatically synchronized with globiz and can sometimes be lagging behind .\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nnew genera and species of tropical crambinae ( studies on the crambinae , lepidoptera , pyralidae . part 48 )\na revision of the moths of the subfamily pyraustinae and family pyralidae . part 1\nlepidoptera britannica , sistens digestimen novam lepidopterorum quae in magna britannica reperiunter . . . adjunguntur dissertationes variae ad historiam naturalam spectantes\ndescriptions of lepidopterous insects collected the late dr . f . stoliczka during the indian - government mission to yarkund in 1873\nturner , 1937 new australian pyraloidea ( lepidoptera ) proc . r . soc . qd 48 ( 10 ) : 61 - 88\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\naustria , belgium , great britain , hungary , germany , denmark , greece , ireland , italy , latvia , lithuania , luxembourg , netherlands , norway , poland , romania , sicily , slovakia , the soviet union - the european part , finland , france , czech republic , switzerland sweden , estonia .\nregions of the russian federation : european north - west , central european , european southern taiga , the western caucasus , kaliningrad , karelia , mid - volzhsky , south ural .\naustria , belarus , belgium , bosnia and herzegovina , the british isles , france , germany , greece ( mainland ) , denmark ( mainland ) , ireland , spain ( mainland ) , italy ( mainland ) , latvia , lithuania , luxembourg , macedonia , netherlands , norway ( mainland ) , the channel islands , poland , portugal ( mainland ) , russia , romania , sicily , slovakia , slovenia , faroe islands , finland , france ( mainland ) , croatia , czech republic , switzerland , sweden , estonia , yugoslavia .\n[ 10 ] de jong , y . s . d . m . ( ed . ) ( 2011 ) fauna europaea version 2 . 4 ( faunaeur . org )\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nhtml public\ni / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken"]}
{"id": 2401, "summary": [{"text": "the black-fronted dotterel ( elseyornis melanops ) is a small , slender plover that is widespread throughout most of australia , to which it is native , and new zealand , where it self-introduced in the 1950s .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is common in freshwater wetlands , around the edges of lakes and billabongs , and in shallow , temporary claypan pools .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is also found occupying saline mudflats and estuaries , but rarely .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "they are generally sedentary , with a single bird , a pair , or a family group occupying a stretch of habitat on a more or less permanent basis .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "however , some individuals appear to travel considerable distances , and flocks will sometimes congregate in food-rich areas .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "unlike many other wading birds , black-fronted dotterels retain the same plumage all year round , which makes identification easier .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "they forage in a series of short running motions , holding the body horizontal , stopping to peck from time to time with a rapid bobbing motion .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "their diet consists of mostly insects and other small creatures , supplemented by a few seeds .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "eggs gestation period : 4-5 weeks .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "up to 3 eggs have been observe on nest .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "24 hours after they hatch chicks leave the nest to hide in less exposed areas , at the same time both parents look after them . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "black - fronted dotterel", "paragraphs": ["i saw my first black - fronted dotterel recently near boggy pond , lake wairarapa .\nscarlett , r . j . 1957 . black - fronted dotterel in canterbury . notornis 7 : 112 .\nblack - fronted dotterel . adult . napier , hawke ' s bay , december 2009 . image \u00a9 neil fitzgerald by neil fitzgerald urltoken\nandrew , i . g . 1956 . black - fronted dotterel ( c . melanops ) near palmerston north . notornis 6 : 185 .\nmackenzie , n . b . 1963 . the black - fronted dotterel in hawke ' s bay . notornis 10 : 202 - 206 .\nthe adult and immature black - fronted dotterel are unmistakable , though the juvenile could be confused with the juvenile and immature red - capped plover .\narmitage , i . 2013 [ updated 2017 ] . black - fronted dotterel . in miskelly , c . m . ( ed . ) new zealand birds online . urltoken\npierce , r . j . 1971 . black - fronted dotterels nesting near timaru . notornis 18 : 133 .\nthe black - fronted dotterel is found in the shallow margins of wetlands , lakes , rivers , sewage farms , storm drains and marshes . it is normally always near freshwater and is not often seen on the coast .\nthe black - fronted dotterel lays its eggs in a shallow scrape , often on pebbly ground and quite close to water . it may have more then one brood per year . both parents incubate the eggs and look after the young .\nthe black - fronted dotterel eats small molluscs as well as aquatic and terrestrial insects . when it forages , it keeps its body horizontal while bobbing its head to look for food , often running then stopping suddenly to peck at food items .\nthe black - fronted dotterel is a small wader with a distinctive black face - mask and breast - band and prominent chestnut scapulars ( shoulder feathers ) . in juveniles , the breast - band is initially absent but a brown band slowly appears as the bird develops . legs are pink orange , and the bill is red with a black tip . the dark eye is ringed with red . in flight the wings look broad and the tail short , while the black and white contrast is striking . flight is slow with almost hesitant wing beats . this species is also called the black - fronted plover .\nsibson , r . b . ; medway , d . g . ; smuts - kennedy , c . ; drew , j . ; grant , g . j . 1972 . the spread of the black - fronted dotterel . notornis 19 : 83 - 85 .\nmackenzie , n . b . 1962 . a new breeding bird for new zealand : black - fronted dotterels in hawkes bay . notornis 9 : 269 - 270 .\nsimilar species : black - fronted dotterels are smaller and slimmer with quite different facial , breast and wing markings . rare vagrant red - kneed dotterel ( recorded once in new zealand ) is larger with longer legs , has a solid black cap extending well below the eye , and has a broad white trailing edge to the wing ( both upper and lower ) .\na small plover with black - tipped red bill , orange legs , and prominent black bands on the breast and face contrasting the rest of the white and light brown plumage . young birds have mostly white on the breast with black bands developing with adulthood .\nlovely bird , the bright red orbital ring its most distinguishing feature . unlike many other wading birds , black - fronted dotterels retain the same plumage all year round , which makes identification easier .\nthe black - fronted dotterel is a small dainty plover with striking plumage markings . in adults , prominent black bands on the breast and head contrast sharply with the otherwise white plumage . young birds have a mostly white breast , the black bands developing with adulthood . it occurs mostly in small numbers in east coast north and south island localities , also in the manawatu . they are found on or beside inland or coastal waterways ( but not the coast itself ) , estuaries , farm ponds , lagoons , on stony river beds and at sewerage sedimentation ponds , but not on coastlines . the plumage colouration provides good camouflage when on shingle sites and stony riverbeds . black - fronted dotterels are smaller and more slightly built than banded dotterels .\nclose up of a sub - adult , yet to aquire the black frontal ' bib ' .\n17cm , 33g ; forehead black , crown brown , white band in front of and above the eye , a black line from nape to eye and a black band extending backwards from eye , around the neck and across breast ; bill orange tipped with black ; iris brown with bright red orbital ring ; feet flesh coloured ; bill 15 , wing 106 , tail 56 , tarsus 25mm .\nblack - fronted dotterels are mainly found at fresh water or brackish estuaries , on gravel riverbeds , and the muddy edges of inland and coastal lakes and ponds , including sewerage ponds . they are rarely seen on coasts .\nthe new zealand range of the black - fronted dotterel has expanded considerably since the 1960s and is probably still expanding , including in western localities . the main threat to adults and young is during breeding . nests and chicks are vulnerable especially where nests are placed close to roads , tracks or livestock , or are at risk from predators , including cats and stoats . some losses on riverbeds are caused by flooding where nests are close to watercourses .\nwiersma , p . , kirwan , g . m . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . black - fronted dotterel ( elseyornis melanops ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nblack - fronted dotterels are uncommon in new zealand but may be increasing slowly . the current population is probably fewer than 3 , 000 birds . they occur mostly in small numbers ( 1 to 4 birds together is typical ) , but favoured wintering sites can have up to 50 birds .\nb . d . heather describes the black - fronted dotterel ' s feeding habits as observed around the greytown sewerage ponds at the juncture of the waiohine and ruamahanga rivers : \u201c ( it ) is a freshwater feeder which prefers the fine silty mud freshly exposed by falling river and pond levels . normally it feeds in the typical plover manner by picking from the surface , with its legs straight , pivoting from the hips . in some mud conditions it probes to a depth about half the length of its bill , which corresponds roughly to the extent of the black tip of its bill . while feeding , it walks carefully and quietly , picking as it goes , without the conspicuous run - and - stop , pick , run - and - stop , pick , of the commonest new zealand plover , the banded dotterel . \u201d\nblack - fronted dotterels are smaller and more dainty than banded dotterels and are recognisable by the striking y - shaped black plumage on the chest contrasting with white plumage above and below , and a conspicuous black stripe through the eye that extends back to the hind neck . the crown is streaked light brown . the plumage below the eye stripe and bill and on the lower foreneck and remaining undersides is white . the back and lower wings are streaked buff to light - brown . there is a wide whitish bar on the inner upperwing ; the rest of the inner wing is dark - brown mottled with white and grey . the outer upperwing is dark brown to black . the underwing is mainly white , with blackish flight feathers forming a broad dark trailing edge . the bill is red with a black tip , the eye - ring is red , and the legs are pinkish to light red . the sexes are similar with no seasonal variation in plumage . juveniles have a mostly white chest . black - fronted dotterels are usually solitary or in pairs or in small groups . they tend to run in short bursts but walk slowly when feeding . in flight they have a jerky , lapwing - like wing action and reveal their bold wing markings .\nthe black - fronted dotterel is widespread in many parts of australia , where it usually inhabits the muddy margins of a variety of shallow terrestrial freshwater wetlands , walking over the soft mud , all the while pecking at its surface to take small invertebrate prey . as well as natural habitats , they also regularly occur at man - made wetlands , and are often seen at the muddy margins of farm dams . they are also often recorded in less salubrious artificial habitats , such as beside sewage treatment ponds and at sludge ponds in abattoirs .\nthe black - fronted dotterel - elseyornis melanops - is a small ( 16 to 18 centimetres long ) , plover with white chin , breast and underside with black y - shaped breast band . face is white ; bill is red with a black end ; there is a red eye - ring in a broad black band from the base of the bill to behind the head . feet are pink . a small black patch above the bill and between the eyes merges with the streaky brown crown . white line over eye extends back to nape . back is grey - brown with dark horizontal shoulder bar of purplish brown . male and female similar . immatures are paler than adults and lack the breast band . inhabits the firm wet edges of fresh water streams , dams , swamps and lakes . short legs and short bill suit it for running and pecking food from damp shoreline surfaces without wading . rarely found in coastal saline waters or tidal mudflats . much of the water it relies on is temporary and the bird is necessarily nomadic . when foraging the body is horizontal and the head bobs ; it runs quickly , stops briefly to peck at food then runs again .\nblack - fronted dotterels consume small invertebrates including insects , small earthworms , snails , crustaceans , spiders and mites . seeds form a small part of diet , including clover and small grasses . food is mostly found on damp ground by walking , running , stopping and bobbing and pecking at the water\u2019s edge , often retracing the area that has been worked over .\n16\u201318 cm ; 27\u201342 g ; wingspan 33\u201335 cm . strikingly coloured , slim plover ; black eyestripe and lores continuing onto forecrown ; white supercilia join on nape ; . . .\nblack - fronted dotterel are generally not gregarious , with birds usually seen singly , in pairs or groups of up to 4 - 5 birds . after breeding most birds stay on rivers , but some form flocks at lagoons , lakes , estuaries and sewage ponds in winter . they have cryptic colouration when on shingle or stony substrate . birds feed throughout the day at the water\u2019s edge of slow moving streams , rivers , estuaries or at still ponds . when a bird walks the body is often held in a nearly horizontal posture . flights are mostly short . birds tend to run for short periods , then stop and walk when feeding .\nleft ; white underside and grey - brown back makes the bird difficult to see from behind . right ; the black v - front is more visible in front view . lake bindegolly , sw qld .\nthe black - fronted dotterel is a solitary nesting species , between august and march , peaking between september and december . nests are in open ground , fields , gravel pits , river beds , stony or shingle land , not far from fresh water . the nest is usually a depression in the ground and is mostly unlined or is surrounded by a few twigs , stones or grass . both sexes share in incubation of the 2 - 3 eggs , which are pale white or yellowish with dark spots or lines . incubation takes 22 - 26 days . young are speckled dark grey - and - white and are well camouflaged . adults shade the young on hot days , and perform distraction displays when alarmed . second and third clutches are common after the first brood has fledged , and may commence even before fledging of an earlier brood has occurred .\nblack - fronted dotterels are mainly found in lowland eastern regions from auckland to southland , especially in hawke\u2019s bay , wairarapa , canterbury and otago ; also in the manawatu and at tokaanu ( lake taupo ) . they colonised new zealand from australia from the 1950s , with early records from hawke\u2019s bay ( 1954 ) , manawatu ( 1955 ) and north canterbury ( 1956 ) . the first nest was found in hawke\u2019s bay in 1962 , and at least 109 birds were present there in 1962 . breeding was first reported in the south island in 1970 , on the opihi river , south canterbury . by 2016 they were known to be breeding on the wairau , awatere , hurunui , ashburton , orari and opihi rivers , as well as at numerous sites in the lower north island .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nturbott , e . g . 1990 . checklist of the birds of new zealand . ornithological society of new zealand , wellington .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size may be moderately small to large , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nby joining the biggest community of bird lovers in australia , you can help us make a positive impact on the future of our native birdlife . the members of birdlife australia , along with our supporters and partners , have been powerful advocates for native birds and the conservation of their habitats since 1901 .\nwe are also the meeting ground for everyone with an interest in birds from the curious backyard observer to the dedicated research scientist . it doesn\u2019t matter what your interest in birds is or how much you know about them , your membership will offer you the opportunity to increase your awareness and enjoyment .\nbirdlife australia would be delighted to welcome you as a new member and we look forward to sharing our news and achievements with you throughout the coming year .\nalthough birds are usually quite easy to see , often they are more difficult to identify . you may have had the briefest glimpse or heard a snatch of its song , or perhaps it was a bird you have never seen before . the best place to look for it is here . you will discover the remarkable variety of birds that occur across australia . with stunning images of featured species and some recordings of their songs and calls , you are sure to find that mystery bird , or learn more about species you already know .\nselect a bird group . . . birds of prey bush birds parrots sea birds water birds\nyou can participate and share in activities and projects with local experts all over australia .\nvisit us in sydney olympic park where you can learn about , see and engage with australian birds up close and personal .\nvisit birdlife australia\u2019s stunning conservation reserves and sanctuaries overflowing with native birdlife and other incredible flora and fauna .\nour bird observatories in western australia may be a little off the track , but that\u2019s what makes them such magical places to see birds .\nwant to know all about our native birds ? explore , learn , discover and enjoy australia\u2019s most comprehensive bird resource .\ndiscover and identify the urban birds in your backyard . get involved by helping us gather and share information about your local birdlife .\nfind places to watch birds in their native habitat . search our listing to find the next opportunity to see your favourite birds nearby and interstate .\nwe hold regular events and activities throughout the year and some have been taking place for decades . there are many ways for keen bird lovers to get involved .\njoin our community of dedicated volunteers that help monitor and collect important data on australia\u2019s birds . we always need more citizen scientists .\nthere are many ways you can help us help our native birds . join as a member , volunteer , make a donation or a bequest . your support makes a real difference .\nfrom urgent conservation activities to ongoing data recording , explore our vital projects that make a real difference to australia\u2019s birds .\nour policies , submissions and campaigns make us the leading voice for australia\u2019s birds by influencing decision makers and stakeholders .\nresearch , monitoring and evaluation underpin all our efforts . we have a long history of expertise in the science of bird conservation .\nour education programs share knowledge and experience in a friendly hands - on environment with staff and volunteers that know and love australia ' s birds and their habitats .\nbirdlife australia has a long and proud history of excellence in publishing . our members ' magazine , journals , newsletters , and reports are all world - class .\nthe h . l . white library is the most comprehensive ornithological library in australia , containing thousands of books , journals , and media about birds and related topics .\nthe atlas is one of birdlife australia ' s greatest resources , allowing us to track changes in birds across the country . since 1998 a dedicated band of . . . more >\nbirdlife australia\u2019s beach - nesting birds project works with community volunteers across australia to help raise awareness among beach users about . . . more >\nthe shorebirds 2020 program aims to reinvigorate and coordinate national shorebird population monitoring in australia . to report on the population . . . more >\nsince european settlement one - third of australia\u2019s woodlands and 80 % of temperate woodlands have been cleared . the woodland birds for biodiversity . . . more >\nbrathwaite , d . h . 1955 . waders on ahuriri lagoon , napier . notornis 6 : 145 - 150 .\nheather , b . d . ; robertson , h . a . 2005 . the field guide to the birds of new zealand . 2nd edition . penguin : rosedale , auckland .\nmarchant , s . ; higgins , p . j . ( eds ) 1993 . handbook of australian , new zealand and antarctic birds . vol . 2 , raptors to lapwings . oxford university press , melbourne .\nmedway , d . g . 2010 . charadriiformes ( waders ) . pp . 191 - 223 . in : checklist committee ( osnz ) 2010 . checklist of the birds of new zealand , norfolk and macquarie islands , and the ross dependency , antarctica ( 4th edn ) . ornithological society of new zealand & te papa press , wellington .\nrobertson , c . j . r . ; hyvonen , p . ; fraser , m . j . ; pickard , c . r . 2007 . atlas of bird distribution in new zealand . ornithological society of new zealand , inc . , wellington .\nrobertson , h . a ; baird , k . ; dowding , j . e . ; elliott , g . p . ; hitchmough , r . a . ; miskelly , c . m . ; mcarthur , n . ; o\u2019donnell , c . f . j . ; sagar , p . m . ; scofield , r . p . ; taylor , g . a . 2017 . conservation status of new zealand birds , 2016 . new zealand threat classification series 19 . wellington , department of conservation . 27 p .\nsagar , p . m . ; shankar , u . ; brown , s . 1999 . numbers and distribution of waders in new zealand , 1983 - 1994 . notornis 46 : 1 - 49 .\nshallow depression in shingle , mostly unlined or lightly lined but maybe surrounded by sticks , grass or pebbles .\nmost - frequently heard call a repeated short , emphatic \u201cpit\u201d . on breeding grounds , several reedy . . .\nbare or sparsely vegetated margins of wetlands , freshwater or sometimes brackish , on areas with mud . . .\nwater snails , crustaceans , earthworms and insects , such as crickets , grasshoppers , flies , ants , water beetles and larvae , occasionally . . .\nseason sept\u2013feb in australia , aug\u2013mar in new zealand , but can occur earlier or later owing to variable conditions , e . g . of rain . . .\npoorly known in australia , but apparently mainly sedentary , although there is evidence of . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . has recently expanded range due to development of new suitable habitat resulting from construction of artificial wetlands , such as . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nmkennewell , nick talbot , stephen wallace , josep del hoyo , keith and lynn youngs , aviceda , philip griffin , pieter de groot boersma , colintrainor , birdinggreynomads , rigdon currie , peter nash , eldert groenewoud , bukoba steve .\nmark broomhall , nick talbot , david taylor , nicholas tomney , colintrainor , margaret leggoe , indra bone , rhonda hansch , ken havard , marco valentini , les george , holger teichmann , glenda rees , peter strauss , arthur grosset , r\u00e9mi bigonneau , paul van giersbergen , cookdj , fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric pelsy , geoffrey dabb , fran trabalon , peter waanders , clivenealon , smoghead , petemorris , hickson fergusson , lousca , brian huggett .\nunmodified recording . bird heard pipping at secs 0 : 1 . 5 , 0 : 5 . 5 , 0 : 14 , 0 : 21 , 0 : 24 , 0 : 29 , 0 : 38 to distinguish from other background noises / birds .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size may be moderately small to large , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : elseyornis melanops . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 300 , 070 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nbirds do keep on coming here from australia , this one , apparently a bird of inland australia , where they are quite widespread , arriving here in the 1950s . they first colonised the hawkes bay , the first sighting being in 1954 , then spread to the manawatu , the wairarapa and across cook strait to marlborough and south canterbury in the late 1960s . it is a welcome addition to our native fauna .\nthey have come to breed here on the shingle river beds of the eastern and southern north island , south of wairoa and wanganui , and are found in increasing numbers on the shingle beds of the rivers of the south island . some birds remain on their territory all year round while others form large groups over the winter . eggs are laid from august to february , the nest being a shallow depression often lined with pebbles and other detritus . the eggs are stone coloured closely marked all over with fine spots and lines of umber and grey .\nheather & robertson field guide , 2000 . oliver , w . r . b . , new zealand birds , 1955 . heather , b . d . , notornis , volume 24 , part 1 , 1977\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\ntemminck , c . j . in temminck , c . j . & laugier de chartrouse , m . 1821 , vol . 1 , pp . livr . 7e , g . levrault , paris\nmathews , g . m . 1912 ,\na reference - list to the birds of australia\n, novitates zoologicae , vol . 18 , pp . 171 - 455\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 216624ad - b51a - 4250 - 8f6b - 55b739677237\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 359968\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : afb3f913 - 5924 - 4a98 - b3ae - 5b2541029af5\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nalthough many dotterels may live in a swamp or around a lake , they are not communal , feeding alone or in pairs . they nest in solitary territories . found over most of australia , including tasmania , except for parts of inland western australia . nesting takes place from september to december in the south and may to september in the north ; any time inland after rain . the nest is a small depression on bare caked mud or on a small bank , often among stones in a riverbed ; nest is lined with mud pellets , stones , shells or broken twigs . two or three eggs are laid ; dull green - grey or stone - coloured , speckled dusky , oval , about 29 mm by 20 mm . incubation ( by both parents ) takes about 26 days ."]}
{"id": 2416, "summary": [{"text": "lygropia tripunctata , the sweetpotato leafroller , is a moth in the crambidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by fabricius in 1794 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in the united states , where it has been recorded from texas to south carolina and florida .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "outside of the states , it is found from the west indies and central america to brazil .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 26 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the wings are light yellowish with a dark greyish-brown band along the costa and then along the outer margin of both the fore - and hindwings .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there are two black dots along the costa .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is a dark discal spot on the hindwings .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults have been recorded on wing from march to october in the united states .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on turbina corymbosa , merremia umbellata and ipomoea species . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "lygropia tripunctata", "paragraphs": ["html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nmeaning marked with three . this refers to the three dark marks along the forewing costa .\ndark grayish - brown band along the costa that continues along the outer margin of both forewing and hindwing , being widest at the apex .\ntwo black spots along the costa with the larger one at the middle of the costa . the smaller spot is half way between the larger and the wing base .\ncompare to others on the archived photos of living moths and pinned plates of moth photographers group .\nfabricius , j . c . 1794 : entomologica systematica emendata et aucta . secundum classes , ordines , genera , species adiectis synonymis , locis , observationibus , descriptionibus . \u2013 c . g . proft et c . f . mohr , hafniae et kiliae . 217 .\nguen\u00e9e , m . a . 1854 : delto\u00efdes et pyralites . pp . 344 - 45 . \u2013 in : boisduval , j . b . a . d . de & m . a . guen\u00e9e , histoire naturelle des insectes . species g\u00e9n\u00e9ral des l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res 8 8 . \u2013 roret , paris .\njones , t . h . 1917 . the sweet - potato leaf - roller . united states dept . of agriculture bulletin no . 609 .\nthe sweet - potato leaf - roller , united states dept . of agriculture bulletin no . 609 . thomas h . jones . 1917 . united states dept . of agriculture .\narthropods of florida and neighboring land areas : lepidoptera of florida j . b . heppner . 2003 . florida department of agriculture 17 ( 1 ) : 1 - 670 .\ndictionary of word roots and combining forms donald j . borror . 1960 . mayfield publishing company .\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 11 june , 2009 - 9 : 08am additional contributions by kyhl austin last updated 12 march , 2018 - 8 : 36pm\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 11 june , 2009 - 9 : 59am last updated 7 december , 2012 - 1 : 22am\nthe sweet - potato leaf - roller , united states dept . of agriculture bulletin no . 609 .\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 13 february , 2013 - 3 : 38pm\ndiaphania costata ( f . ) ( lepidoptera : crambidae : spilomelinae ) , a commonly misidentified pest of ornamental apocynaceae . . .\nby hayden , j . e . , e . r . hoebeke , m . a . bertone & v . a . brou jr .\nproceedings of the entomological society of washington , 119 ( 2 ) : 173 - 190 . , 2017\nhayden , j . e . , e . r . hoebeke , m . a . bertone & v . a . brou jr , 2017 . diaphania costata ( f . ) ( lepidoptera : crambidae : spilomelinae ) , a commonly misidentified pest of ornamental apocynaceae in the southern united states . proceedings of the entomological society of washington , 119 ( 2 ) : 173 - 190 . view and download at bioone here cite : 1415021\ntaxonomic revision of the spilomelinae ( lepidoptera , pyralidae s . l . ) of the gal\u00e1pagos islands , ecuador\nkearfott , w . d . 1909 . descriptions of new species of north american crambid moths . proceedings of the united states national museum 35 : 367 - 393 .\na generic revision of the aquatic moths of north america : ( lepidoptera : pyralidae , nymphulinae ) .\nsolis m . a . , 2009 . transfer of all western hemisphere cybalomiinae to other subfamilies ( crambidae pyraloidea : lepidoptera ) : elusia schaus , dichochroma forbes , schacontia dyar , cybalomia extorris warren , and c . lojanalis ( dognin ) . proceedings of the entomological society of washington . 111 : 493\u2013504 download at researchgate here\nstudies on the crambidae ( lepidoptera ) . part 41 . on some tropical crambidae with descriptions of new genera and species .\n80x5 - 240x3 - 240x4 - 320x1 - 320x2 - 320x3 - 640x1 - 640x2 set display option above . click on images to enlarge .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\n* access to the collection is gratefully acknowledged . for information about the collection , contact dr . john morse in clemson ' s department of entomology , soils , and plant sciences .\nweb page and photo prepared by john snyder of the department of biology at furman university . for links to thousands of north american moth photos , go to web images of north american moth species .\nfor information about lepidoptera ( butterflies and moths ) , go to the website of the lepidopterists ' society ."]}
{"id": 2417, "summary": [{"text": "myrmecia midas is an australian ant which belongs to the myrmecia genus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "this species is native to australia .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "myrmecia midas is distributed mainly across the coastline of several eastern australian states .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it was first described by clark in 1951 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "workers are typically 13-15 millimetres long , with the queens bigger at 18-19 millimetres and males are smaller .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "the head and thorax are a red colour , gaster black , and the mandibles , antennae , and the legs are brownish red . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "myrmecia midas", "paragraphs": ["the above specimen data are provided by antweb . please see myrmecia midas for further details\npolarized light use in the nocturnal bull ant , myrmecia midas . - pubmed - ncbi\nthe study site for the nocturnal ant myrmecia midas . the field site was located on the macquarie university campus . the four nests were located within 100 m of each other .\nfreas ca , narendra a , lemesle c & cheng k . 2017 polarised light use in the nocturnal bull ant myrmecia midas . royal society open science 4 : 170598 [ pdf ]\nfreas ca . wystrach a , narendra a & cheng k . 2018 . the view from the trees : nocturnal bull ants , myrmecia midas , use the surrounding panorama while descending from trees . frontiers in psychology 9 : 16 . [ pdf ]\njayatilaka p , raderschall ca , narendra a & zeil j . 2014 . individual foraging patterns of the jack jumper ant , myrmecia croslandi . myrmecological news 19 : 75 - 83 .\nramirez - esquivel f , zeil j & narendra a . 2014 . the antennal sensory array of the nocturnal bull ant , myrmecia pyriformis . arthropod structure and development 43 : 543 - 558\nraderschall ca , narendra a & zeil j . 2016 . head roll stabilisation in the nocturnal bull ant myrmecia pyriformis : implications for visual navigation . journal of experimental biology 219 : 1449 - 1457\nnarendra a & ribi wa . 2017 . ocellar structure is driven by the mode of locomotion and activity time in myrmecia ants . journal of experimental biology 220 : 4383 - 4390 . [ pdf ] featured inside jeb\nnarendra a , greiner b , ribi wa & zeil j . 2016 . light and dark adaptation mechanisms in the compound eyes of myrmecia ants that occupy discrete temporal niches . journal of experimental biology 219 : 2435 - 2442 . featured inside jeb\nexperiments were conducted from april 2015 to october 2016 on four m . midas nests located at the northern end of the macquarie university campus in sydney , australia ( 33\u00b046\u203211\u2033s , 151\u00b006\u203240\u2033e ) . all testing was conducted on nests that were located within a 100 m area ( fig . 1 ) . the area ' s vegetation consisted of stands of eucalyptus trees with largely barren understories interspersed with grassy areas . myrmecia midas nests were located at or close to the base of a tree ( 25 . 6\u00b14 . 36 cm mean\u00b1s . d . , n = 20 ) , and a portion of the nest ' s nightly foragers ( \u223c30 % ) travelled straight up the nest tree while the remaining foragers travelled to one of the surrounding trees ( observations : c . a . f . , three m . midas nests ) . we used headlamps with red filters to observe the ants at night , and forager behaviour suggests they were not affected by this light . working with this ant species requires no animal ethical approval within australia . all collection and testing procedures were non - invasive and we witnessed no adverse effects either in the tested individuals or in their nests during or after testing . all displacement collection and testing procedures occurred during the evening or morning twilight .\nhere , we investigated the compass cues used by a nocturnal bull ant , myrmecia midas clark 1951 . first , we determined their daily activity schedule . next , we tested whether foragers use a home vector to orient in the absence of familiar landmark information , by displacing foragers to unfamiliar locations . we then asked how ants weight their home vector and terrestrial cues by creating a conflict between the two cue sets . to explore the possibility that foragers navigate using cues beyond the surrounding landmarks , we displaced foragers locally near the nest with the surrounding landmark panorama obscured . finally , we compared the navigational knowledge of ants when they had to travel different distances ( 0 . 3\u201314 . 0 m ) from the nest to reach their foraging tree .\nnightly foraging activity pattern of m . midas foragers . the observation period began on 2 april 2016 with sunset at 18 : 49 h . bars indicate outgoing foragers ( blue , n = 171 ) and incoming foragers ( red , n = 169 ) . the black line indicates the number of individuals actively foraging away from the nest site during this period . data are shown in 10 min bins .\nmyrmecia midas appear to detect and use both path integration and the surrounding terrestrial landmarks to navigate at low light levels during twilight . our results suggest that vector cue strength is weighted by vector length , as only at the longest observed vector lengths did foragers orient successfully in unfamiliar surroundings . the lack of orientation to smaller ( 2\u20135 m ) home vectors in the presence of unfamiliar terrestrial cues and the very weak orientation at the maximum observed natural vector ( 12 . 8\u201314 . 0 m ) coupled with the lack of orientation to all vector lengths ( 2\u201314 m ) when in the presence of conflicting familiar terrestrial cues indicates that vector cues may be weakly integrated during orientation and can be overridden by stronger terrestrial cues or that these foragers do not path integrate over short distances . additionally , terrestrial visual cues appear critical to successful homeward orientation , as blocking these cues in local environments results in foragers no longer being oriented to the nest direction . finally , our results show that a portion of m . midas ' foraging force lacks the ability to navigate back to the nest site using landmark cues over short distances , and that these ants may be unable to extrapolate beyond the nest site panorama even over short distances if they have only experienced the terrestrial panorama immediately surrounding the nest site .\ncircular distributions of individual m . midas foragers ' headings during the long - vector 1\u20132 m inbound condition . histograms show raw data of exit orientation under the filter with the individual ' s initial orientation and reorientation with the forager ' s exit orientation under the filter . the triangle denotes 45\u00b0 in each distribution . the arrow denotes the length of the mean vector direction . n , number of individuals ; \u00f8 , mean vector ; r , length of the mean vector .\nthe overnight and morning inbound testing conditions were chosen so as to mirror the typical inbound activity patterns of this species , with foragers being released during the pre - dawn twilight when motivation to return to the nest should be high . our 15 min delay conditions were chosen as this holding period allows time for the forager to feed in the collection tube while still being tested during twilight , as the navigational abilities of nocturnal myrmecia have been shown to suffer after twilight ends ( narendra et al . , 2013a , b ) .\nwe carried out a 24 h observation at one m . midas nest on 2 april 2016 to establish the species ' activity pattern . we set up a 60 cm diameter reference marker around the nest entrance and filmed ants departing and entering the nest with an hd c920 webcam ( logitech international ) . a lamp covered with a red filter was placed 50 cm away from the nest entrance . filming was carried out for a 24 h period from 1 h before sunset . astronomical data were obtained from calculations in the astronomical almanac ( urltoken ) .\ncircular distributions of individual m . midas foragers ' headings during the inbound conditions . histograms show raw data of exit orientation under the filter with the individual ' s initial orientation and reorientation with the forager ' s exit orientation under the filter . the triangle denotes 45\u00b0 in each distribution . the arrow denotes the length of the mean vector and mean direction . ( a ) orientations for nest 1 during the 4\u20136 m inbound condition . ( b ) orientations for the 1\u20132 m inbound condition . n , number of individuals ; \u00f8 , mean vector ; r , length of the mean vector .\nsolitary foraging ants have a navigational toolkit , which includes the use of both terrestrial and celestial visual cues , allowing individuals to successfully pilot between food sources and their nest . one such celestial cue is the polarization pattern in the overhead sky . here , we explore the use of polarized light during outbound and inbound journeys and with different home vectors in the nocturnal bull ant , myrmecia midas . we tested foragers on both portions of the foraging trip by rotating the overhead polarization pattern by \u00b145\u00b0 . both outbound and inbound foragers responded to the polarized light change , but the extent to which they responded to the rotation varied . outbound ants , both close to and further from the nest , compensated for the change in the overhead e - vector by about half of the manipulation , suggesting that outbound ants choose a compromise heading between the celestial and terrestrial compass cues . however , ants returning home compensated for the change in the e - vector by about half of the manipulation when the remaining home vector was short ( 1 - 2 m ) and by more than half of the manipulation when the remaining vector was long ( more than 4 m ) . we report these findings and discuss why weighting on polarization cues change in different contexts .\nobservations of forager activity at the nest indicate that a portion ( \u223c30 % ) of m . midas foragers do not travel farther than 30 cm to reach their foraging tree . to determine the navigational knowledge of these foragers , we displaced outbound full - vector ants 5 m away from the nest , either directed toward the nest entrance ( nest - side condition ) or directed toward the tree ( tree - side condition ; see fig . 2 b ) . foragers were collected on their outbound trip as they reached the base of the foraging tree . these individuals were fed , held for 15 min , and then released on the goniometer at one of the displacement sites . foragers ' orientations at 20 cm were determined at nests 1 , 2 and 3 . after testing , individuals were marked and returned to the nest .\ncircular distributions of individual m . midas foragers ' headings during outbound conditions . histograms show raw data of exit orientation under the filter and the reorientation after exiting the filter . the triangle denotes 45\u00b0 in each distribution . the arrow denotes the length of the mean vector and the mean direction . ( a ) orientations for nest 1 during the 4\u20136 m outbound condition . ( b ) orientations for nest 2 during the 4\u20136 m outbound condition . ( c ) orientations for nest 1 during the 1\u20132 m outbound condition . closed circles indicate individuals that continued on to the forging tree after testing . open circles represent foragers that retreated once the filter was placed overhead and these individuals returned to within 30 cm of the nest entrance after testing . n , number of individuals ; \u00f8 , mean vector ; r , length of the mean vector .\ncircular histograms of initial headings of individual m . midas foragers at 20 cm in nest - tree experiments . nest location for both conditions was set at 0 deg . histograms show orientation data in 15 deg bins . the arrow denotes the length of the mean vector direction and the filled triangle designates the true nest direction . outbound foragers travelling up the nest - tree were collected at the tree base and displaced 5 m from the nest site either ( a ) on the nest side of the tree ( nest - side condition ; v - test at 0 deg ; v = \u22120 . 04 , p = 0 . 101 ) or ( b ) with the tree in between the nest site and the displacement site ( tree - side condition ; v - test at 0 deg ; v = 0 . 143 , p = 0 . 639 ) .\ncircular histograms of initial headings of individual m . midas foragers at 20 cm in unfamiliar location experiments . nest direction indicated by path integration was at 0 deg and the actual nest site direction was at 180 deg . histograms show orientation data in 15 deg bins . the arrow in each histogram denotes the length of the mean vector and the direction of the average orientation . the filled triangle in each histogram indicates the true nest direction and the open triangle indicates the vector direction . ( a ) foragers were collected during their morning inbound trip and displaced to a site 100 m away ( inbound 100 m condition ; v - test at 0 deg ; v = 0 . 085 , p = 0 . 225 ) . ( b ) foragers were collected during the outbound trip , at the base of the foraging tree , 2\u20135 m from the nest entrance , held for 15 min and then released 100 m from the nest site ( outbound 15 min delay 100 m condition ; v - test at 0 deg ; v = \u22120 . 139 , p = 0 . 906 ) . ( c ) foragers were collected during their outbound trip , held for 12 h , and displaced to a site 100 m away ( outbound overnight delay 100 m condition ; v - test at 0 deg ; v = 0 . 083 ; p = 0 . 240 ) . ( d ) foragers were collected during the outbound trip with the longest observed vectors ( 12 . 8\u201314 . 0 m ) , held for 15 min and displaced to a site 100 m away ( outbound long vector 15 min delay condition ; v - test at 0 deg ; v = 2 . 361 , p = 0 . 009 ) . n , number of individuals in each condition ; \u00f8 , mean vector ; r , length of mean vector .\ncircular histograms of initial headings of individual m . midas foragers at 20 cm in local displacement experiments . nest direction indicated by the home vector was at 270 deg and the actual nest site direction was at 0 deg . histograms show orientation data in 15 deg bins . the arrow denotes the length of the mean vector direction . in all off - route conditions , the filled triangle indicates the true nest direction and the open triangle indicates the vector direction . ( a ) outbound foragers were collected at the base of the foraging tree , held for 15 min and then released at the base of the tree on their foraging route ( outbound 15 min delay on - route condition ; v - test at 0 deg ; v = 0 . 351 , p < 0 . 001 ) . ( b ) inbound foragers were collected during their morning inbound trip and displaced to a site 5 m away ( inbound off - route condition ; v - test at 0 deg ; v = 0 . 703 , p < 0 . 001 ) . ( c ) outbound foragers were collected at the base of the foraging tree 2\u20135 m from the nest entrance , held for 15 min and then released at the 5 m displacement site ( outbound 15 min delay off - route condition ; v - test at 0 deg ; v = 0 . 580 , p < 0 . 001 ) . ( d ) foragers were collected during their outbound trip , held for 12 h and then displaced to a site 5 m away ( outbound overnight delay off - route condition ; v - test at 0 deg ; v = 0 . 554 , p < 0 . 001 ) . ( e ) outbound foragers were collected at the base of their foraging tree 14 m from the nest entrance , held for 15 min and then released at the 5 m displacement site ( outbound long vector 15 min delay off - route condition ; v - test at 0 deg ; v = 0 . 618 , p < 0 . 001 ) . nest direction indicated by path integration was at 270 deg and is marked with an open triangle . ( f ) outbound foragers were collected at the base of their foraging tree 2\u20135 m from the nest entrance , held for 15 min and then released at the 5 m displacement site with the surrounding landmarks blocked from the forager ' s view ( landmark blocking 15 min delay condition ; v - test at 0 deg ; v = \u22120 . 04 , p = 0 . 631 ) .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 01578355 - d3ed - 4ee5 - 98b6 - 92a08e997572\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 372e9441 - f8fb - 49d6 - a902 - 08e17802f9a4\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 3a348904 - 9724 - 45d1 - b9c3 - fcf10537ea7a\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 3aeadb95 - 2eda - 4cb9 - a84d - 4c8a94d674d9\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 44a93557 - dc44 - 493d - bfd4 - fab223a41666\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 6db81751 - 9dbb - 4b3d - 854c - c680cc3a266e\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : b882cdd8 - f06c - 4d9d - 9f32 - fa7026e4f9b6\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : c95cb2c0 - 5717 - 459f - a407 - 0ad17da8ea27\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : cdc577e8 - 9c0b - 444f - b777 - 0e9faabecf80\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 292566\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nthe following information is derived from barry bolton ' s new general catalogue , a catalogue of the world ' s ants .\nholotype , worker , dorrigo , new south wales , australia , froggatt , w . w . , anic32 - 006507 , australian national insect collection .\nparatype , 1 worker , tambourine mtn , queensland , australia , hacker , h . , anic32 - 006513 , australian national insect collection .\nparatype , 4 workers , dorrigo , new south wales , australia , heron , w . , anic32 - 012805 , australian national insect collection .\nclark , j . 1951 . the formicidae of australia . 1 . subfamily myrmeciinae : 230 pp . csiro , melbourne . [ ( 31 . xii ) . 1951 . ] pdf\nthis page was last modified on 19 august 2015 , at 14 : 39 .\nyou must log in to access this functionality . you may create an account , or log in anonymously , here .\nclark , 1951 pdf : 55 , figs . 34 , 35 ( w . q . )\n0 times under rock , 0 times mound , parasite in nest of m . pyriformis , 0 times under large rock , 0 times under flat rock , rare non - agressive , 0 times on rainforest foliage , 0 times on logs , stones and tree trunks , 0 times on foliage .\nantweb content is licensed under a creative commons attribution license . we encourage use of antweb images . in print , each image must include attribution to its photographer and\nfrom urltoken\nin the figure caption . for websites , images must be clearly identified as coming from urltoken , with a backward link to the respective source page . see how to cite antweb .\nantweb is funded from private donations and from grants from the national science foundation , deb - 0344731 , ef - 0431330 and deb - 0842395 . c : 0\nthese vision - based navigational abilities have been widely studied in diurnal ants , which are active when visual cues are easy to distinguish ( wehner et al . , 1996 ; fukushi , 2001 ; beugnon et al . , 2005 ; cheng et al . , 2009 ; b\u00fchlmann et al . , 2011 ) . nocturnal foragers have the challenge of navigating during twilight or at night when ambient light levels drop significantly and visual cues become increasingly difficult to detect ( warrant , 2008 ; warrant and dacke , 2011 ) . yet , little is known about navigation in ant species that forage at low light intensities .\nwe displaced full - vector foragers in three conditions . in the first , we collected inbound homing ants at the base of the tree during the morning twilight as they travelled down the foraging tree ( inbound 100 m condition ) . in the second condition , we collected individuals during their nightly outbound trip at the base of the foraging tree , held them for 15 min with a small amount of honey and released them at the distant displacement site ( outbound 15 min delay 100 m condition ) . in the third condition , we collected outbound foragers during the evening twilight , offered them a small amount of honey and stored them overnight ( 11\u201312 h ) . these foragers were tested in the morning twilight ( outbound overnight delay 100 m condition ) . after testing and marking , foragers were returned to the nest site . foragers ' orientations did not differ between nests and results were pooled across all four nests .\nadditionally , we determined whether the length of the home vector itself affected the ability to orient using path integration . for this test , we studied a subset of ants from nest 1 and nest 3 that foraged on a tree 14 . 0 and 12 . 8 m from the nest entrance , respectively , which were the maximum observed foraging distances at any nest at this site , distances we term long vector . we again collected outbound foragers at the base of the foraging tree , but only during the evening twilight . foragers were held for 15 min , and given a small amount of honey , then released at the 100 m displacement site ( outbound long vector 15 min delay 100 m condition ) , where we recorded their initial orientations . tested foragers were marked and returned to the nest site . foragers ' orientations from the two nests were pooled .\nnext , we asked how ants weight path integration and landmark cues while returning home to the same four nests . we addressed this by capturing ants at the base of their foraging tree under identical collection conditions to the unfamiliar displacements and then displacing them locally . we first tested foragers in a control condition without creating a conflict between the home vector direction and the local landmarks . for this , we released outbound ants during the evening twilight after a 15 min holding period on the goniometer at the base of their foraging tree ( outbound 15 min delay on - route condition ) . we then tested a separate group of foragers with conflicting terrestrial landmarks and the home vector by displacing foragers away from the nest site and perpendicular to the foraging route . the displacement site was 90 deg clockwise from the individual ' s foraging tree with respect to the nest location and 5 m from the nest entrance ( fig . 2 a ) .\nschematic diagram of the experimental setup . ( a ) diagram of collection and displacement conditions for the experiments on cue conflict . ( b ) diagram of collection and displacement conditions for the nest - tree foragers .\nforagers were tested in three separate conditions , similar to the procedures for testing the use of path integration . in the first condition , incoming foragers were collected during the morning twilight at the base of their foraging tree ( inbound off - route condition ) and then tested . in the second and third conditions , foragers were collected on their outbound trip as they reached one of the foraging trees 2\u20135 m from the nest ; foragers were either held for 15 min ( outbound 15 min delay off - route condition ) and then tested or held until morning twilight ( outbound overnight delay off - route condition ) and then tested . at the testing site , under all conditions the forager ' s initial orientation was recorded using the goniometer at 20 cm . after testing , individuals were marked and returned to the nest entrance . we analysed foragers ' initial orientations toward both the true nest direction and the vector from path integration . orientations were pooled across all four nests .\nagain , we determined whether the length of the home vector itself affected the weighting of the home vector . for this test , we studied a subset of ants ( n = 30 ) from nest 1 that foraged on a tree 14 . 0 m from the nest ( outbound long vector 15 min delay off - route condition ) . we collected outbound foragers at the base of the foraging tree , but only during the evening twilight . foragers were held for 15 min , given a small amount of honey , and then released at a displacement site 90 deg clockwise from the foraging tree with respect to the nest and 5 m from the nest entrance ( fig . 2 a ) . at the release site , we recorded initial orientations , and then tested foragers were marked and returned to the nest site .\nnext , we asked whether foragers successfully orient to the nest direction after local displacement in the absence of familiar terrestrial landmark cues . for this test , we collected outbound foragers at the base of their foraging tree 2\u20135 m from nest 1 , nest 3 or nest 4 during the evening twilight ( landmark blocking 15 min delay ) . foragers were held for 15 min , offered a small amount of honey , and then released at a displacement site 90 deg clockwise from the foraging tree with respect to the nest and 5 m from the nest entrance ( fig . 2 a ) . at the release location , a 38 cm high plastic sheet was used to block the landmark cues below 50 deg . the plastic sheet was erected into a 55 cm diameter circle around the goniometer . this sheet was raised 5 cm off the ground to allow any potential scent cues to reach foragers at the centre of the goniometer . after releasing the forager onto the goniometer , we recorded the orientation of animals at 20 cm . after testing , individuals were marked and returned to the nest .\nfor statistical analysis , a minimum of 30 foragers were collected for each condition . in each testing condition , foragers were collected as they were discovered and assigned a condition within that experiment group randomly . data were analysed with circular statistics ( batschelet , 1981 ; zar , 1998 ) using the statistics package oriana version 4 ( urltoken ) . watson and wheeler f - tests were used to compare mean vectors between testing conditions . a rayleigh ' s test was conducted on each displacement condition , to test whether the data met the conditions of a uniform distribution ( p > 0 . 05 ) . we used a v - test , with \u03b1 set at p = 0 . 05 , to determine whether the initial orientation of ants at the release site was significantly towards the nest direction or to the home vector . during displacement tests where foragers did not orient to the nest direction , v - tests were conducted across all 15 deg sections of the goniometer to test whether foragers were oriented to directions other than the nest . all data are available upon request .\nthe onset of foraging activity occurred just before sunset , with most foragers heading out from the nest in the evening twilight ( fig . 3 ) . a small number of foragers left the nest after twilight ended . foragers began returning during the evening twilight , with some individuals carrying insect prey . foragers returned throughout the night , and a burst of incoming foragers arrived at the nest during the morning twilight and just after sunrise . activity was greatly reduced after this burst , and activity ceased completely after 1\u20132 h from sunrise .\nants released on the goniometer would initially remain motionless while within the tube . after emerging from the tube and onto the wooden goniometer board , ants typically scanned the environment along the horizontal axis and then headed off in a chosen direction . the nest - tree distance varied between nests ( fig . 1 ; nest 1 , 2 m ; nest 2 , 2 . 5 m ; nest 3 , 4 m ; nest 4 , 5 m ) , and we found no difference between nests in forager orientation to a home vector .\nants with home vectors ranging from 2 to 5 m when displaced to distant locations did not successfully orient in the direction indicated by their path integrator under any collection condition . foragers ' initial orientations met conditions of a uniform distribution and they were not significantly oriented in the direction of their home vector at 0 deg ( fig . 4 a\u2013c , table 1 ) . foragers from all three conditions were not oriented in any direction on the goniometer , even when using v - tests ( p > 0 . 05 , orientation data binned at 15 deg ) . further observations of individuals with 5 m vectors after distant displacement indicate that they do not continue in this initial direction but loop back to the release point , a behaviour indicative of systematic search .\nin contrast , ants that travelled long distances to their nest - specific tree ( nest 1 and 3 ) and were then displaced to the distant site within 15 min of capture were significantly orientated toward their home vector and away from the true nest location when analysed using a v - test . yet , forager orientations also met the conditions of a uniform distribution when analysed using a rayleigh ' s test , indicating random initial headings and no orientation . as results from nest 1 and nest 3 did not differ ( v - test , p < 0 . 05 ; rayleigh ' s test , p > 0 . 05 ) and had similar mean vectors ( watson and wheeler f - test , p > 0 . 05 ) , they were pooled ( table 1 , fig . 4 d ) . at the end of each experiment , foragers were returned to the nest vicinity , and all foragers immediately searched for and entered the nest .\nfor local on - and off - route displacement tests , full - vector ants were displaced either back at their foraging tree or off - route ( fig . 2 a ) . outbound forager orientations when displaced back on - route after 15 min were non - uniform and were directed towards the nest ( outbound 15 min delay on - route condition ; fig . 5 a , table 1 ) . the orientation of full - vector ants , displaced ( 5 m off - route ) to create a conflict between the vector and local landmark cues , was non - uniform . these ants were significantly oriented toward the nest ( fig . 5 b\u2013d ) and not toward the home vector at 270 deg ( inbound off - route condition , v - test , v = 0 . 776 , p = 0 . 22 ; outbound 15 min delay off - route condition , v - test , v = 0 . 844 , p = 0 . 34 ; outbound overnight delay off - route condition , v - test , v = \u22120 . 771 , p = 0 . 779 ) . in all local displacement conditions , mean vector did not significantly differ between conditions ( watson and wheeler f - test , p > 0 . 05 ) .\nthe orientation of long - vector foragers , accumulating 14 m vectors to their nest - specific tree ( nest 1 ) , then displaced locally with a 90 deg cue conflict within 15 min of collection ( outbound long vector 15 min delay off - route condition ) was also significantly non - uniform and oriented toward the true nest direction and not the vector at 270 deg ( table 1 , fig . 5 e ) . different holding durations did not have an effect on the heading directions in all off - route conditions ( watson and wheeler f - test ; p > 0 . 05 ) .\nthe initial orientation of foragers displaced locally without access to familiar landmark cues within 15 min of collection met the conditions of a uniform distribution , and ants were not significantly oriented in the direction of their nest at 0 deg ( table 1 , fig . 5 f ) .\nfull - vector ants , when displaced 5 m either side of the nest ( fig . 2 b ) , did not orient significantly toward the nest direction . their initial orientation had a uniform distribution at both displacement sites ( nest - side condition , fig . 6 a ; tree - side condition , fig . 6 b ; table 1 ) . foragers from both conditions were not oriented in any direction or toward any other tree ( v - tests , p > 0 . 05 ) . at the end of the experiment , foragers were returned to the nest vicinity , and all foragers immediately searched for and entered the nest .\nin the current study , we show that nocturnal ants with short home vectors of \u22645 m when displaced to distant unfamiliar locations did not orient toward the fictive nest . but ants with longer home vectors of 12 . 8\u201314 . 0 m weakly oriented toward the fictive nest , suggesting vector length influences cue strength . additionally , when foragers were displaced locally with conflicting vector and landmark cues , they oriented exclusively using landmark cues and ignored any potential home vector regardless of vector length . when the landmark panorama ( up to 50 deg elevation ) around the displacement site was obscured , foragers could no longer orient to the nest direction , suggesting terrestrial cues are critical to homeward orientation . finally , we found that the nest - tree forager subset did not orient to local landmark cues when displaced , and these animals appear to have reduced navigational knowledge compared with their nest mates that travel away from the nest to forage .\nconceived and designed experiments : c . a . f . , a . n . , k . c . collected data : c . a . f . drafted and revised paper : c . a . f . , a . n . , k . c .\nthis research was supported by the australian research council through a discovery grant to k . c . and a . n . ( dp150101172 ) and a future fellowship to a . n . ( ft140100221 ) .\nhoming strategies of the australian desert ant melophorus bagoti i . proportional path integration takes the ant half - way home\nhoming strategies of the australian desert ant melophorus bagoti ii . interaction of the path integrator with visual cue information\nthank you for your interest in spreading the word on journal of experimental biology .\nnote : we only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it , and that it is not junk mail . we do not capture any email address .\nmessage body ( your name ) thought you would like to see the journal of experimental biology web site .\nphoto credit : t . - c . francis pan some oyster larvae grow faster than others , but now donal t . manahan and colleagues reveal that the fastest growers are marked out by their high protein synthesis rates .\n\u201cone of the underappreciated benefits of fellowships is the act of applying for them , because you have to write and articulate your ideas . \u201d\nin our latest early - career interview , we chat to simon sponberg , assistant professor at the georgia institute of technology , usa . he shares the story of his career , beginning with how he combined a love of physics and biology by studying how geckos stick to walls .\na new review from craig p . mcgowan and clint e . collins looks at the ecology , biomechanics and evolution of bipedal hopping in mammals , with a focus on why bipedal hopping has arisen in multiple clades of mammals .\nphoto credit : ari friedlaender not all orca species prey on aquatic mammals , so how do delphinids know when they are at risk ? a new study shows that pilot whales and risso\u2019s dolphins flee from a subset of orca calls that share acoustic characteristics with other mammal alarm calls , including human screams . this article was featured in science magazine .\nat the heart of prelights is the community of early - career researchers who select and highlight interesting preprints in various fields . we are now ready to grow our team of prelighters who are passionate about preprints and enjoy writing and communicating science . find out more here and apply by the extended deadline , 20 july 2018 .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nr soc open sci . 2017 aug 30 ; 4 ( 8 ) : 170598 . doi : 10 . 1098 / rsos . 170598 . ecollection 2017 aug .\nfreas ca 1 , narendra a 1 , lemesle c 1 , cheng k 1 .\ndepartment of biological sciences , macquarie university , sydney , new south wales 2109 , australia .\npmid : 28879002 pmcid : pmc5579118 doi : 10 . 1098 / rsos . 170598\nschematics of the polarization filter and experimental set - up . ( a ) diagram of the polarization filter . during the forager ' s outbound trip to the foraging tree , a polarization filter was placed over the forager with the polarization e - vector rotated \u00b145\u00b0 of the ambient e - vector . this filter apparatus was used in a previous study [ ] . ( b ) diagram of measurements collected during polarization filter test . measurements were made using a compass application on a smartphone . initial orientation routes were measured from the nest entrance ( a ) to when the polarization filter was centred over the forager ( b ) . initial route directions ( a \u00b0 ) were calculated with the tree direction from the nest as 0\u00b0 . the magnitude of angle a has been artificially enlarged in this diagram for clarity , with angle a averaging 4 . 42\u00b0 across all conditions during testing . exit orientations were measured from the centre of the polarization filter ( b ) to the exit location of the ant on the filter ' s edge ( c ) . route directions under the filter ( b \u00b0 ) were calculated from the forager ' s initial route direction . reorientations were measured from the forager ' s exit location from the polarization filter ( c ) to the forager ' s path 50 cm after exiting the filter ( d ) . reorientation route directions ( c \u00b0 ) were calculated from the under - filter route direction .\nr soc open sci . 2017 aug ; 4 ( 8 ) : 170598 .\ni am interested in how animals navigate in their natural habitats , the information content in the environment they use , the sensory structures they have and the central processing units that allow them to memorise , integrate and recall information .\nmy research has largely focused on ants to take advantage of the inter - and intra - specific variation in size , in locomotion , in tasks and also in the different ecological and temporal niches they occupy .\ni have a keen interest in photography and love to experiment with macro - photography when time permits . some of my pictures are here .\nphd in biological sciences ; 1 book ; 47 publications ; 3 australian research council fellowships ; 10 research grants .\n2016 . macquarie research and development grant ( with lead ci frances kamhi ) , macquarie university , australia . ( $ 50k )\npalavalli - nettimi r and narendra a . 2018 . does size affect orientation usage celestial cues . insects sociaux . [ in press ]\npalavalli - nettimi r and narendra a . 2018 . miniaturisation decreases visual navigational competence in ants . journal of experimental biology . doi : 10 . 1242 / jeb . 177238\nramirez - esquivel f , ribi wa and narendra a . 2017 . techniques to investigate the anatomy of the ant visual system . journal of visualized experiments 129 : e56339 . [ pdf ]\nnarendra a , kamhi jf & ogawa y . 2017 . moving in dim light : behavioural and visual adaptations in nocturnal ants . integrative and comparative biology 57 : 1104\u20131116 [ pdf ]\nramirez - esquivel f , leitner ne , zeil j & narendra a . 2017 . the sensory arrays of the ant , temnothorax rugatulus . arthropod structure and development 46 : 552 - 563 [ pdf ]\nnarendra a & ramirez - esquivel f . 2017 . subtle changes in the landmark panorama disrupts visual navigation in a nocturnal bull ant . philosophical transactions of the royal society b 372 : 20160068 . [ pdf ]\nfreas ca , narendra a & cheng k . 2017 . compass cues used by a nocturnal bull ant ,\ncard a , mcdermott c & narendra a . 2016 . multiple orientation cues in the trunk trail forming ant , iridomyrmex purpureus . australian journal of zoology 64 : 227 - 232 .\nnarendra a , ramirez - esquivel f & ribi wa . 2016 . compound eye and ocellar structure for walking and flying modes of locomotion in the australian ant , camponotus consobrinus . scientific reports 6 : 22331\nschultheiss p , raderschall ca , narendra a . 2015 follower ants in a tandem pair are not always na\u00efve . scientific reports 5 : 10747\nogawa y , falkowski m , narendra a , zeil j , hemmi jm . 2015 . three spectrally distinct photoreceptors in diurnal and nocturnal australian ants . proceedings of the royal society b 282 : 20150673\nst\u00fcrzl w , grixa i , mair e , narendra a & zeil j . 2015 . three - dimensional models of natural environments and the mapping of navigational information .\nzeil j , ribi wa & narendra a . 2014 . polarization vision in ants , bees and wasps . in polarized light and polarization vision in animal sciences ( ed . horv\u00e1th g ) . springer series in vision research ( eds . collin s & marshall j ) . details here .\ncheung a , collett m , collett ts , dewar a , dyer f , graham p , mangan m , narendra a , philippides a , st\u00fcrzl w , webb b , wystrach a & zeil j . 2014 . still no convincing evidence for cognitive map use by honeybees . proceedings of the national academy of sciences usa 111 : 4396\u20134397\nzeil j , narendra a & st\u00fcrzl w . 2014 . looking and homing : how displaced ants decide where to go . philosophical transactions of the royal society b 369 : 20130034"]}
{"id": 2439, "summary": [{"text": "antheraea mylitta is a species of moth in the family saturniidae known commonly as the tasar silkworm and vanya silkworm .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is actually one of a number of tasar silkworms , species that produce tussar silk , a kind of wild silk that is made from the products of saturniid silkworms instead of the domesticated silkworm ( bombyx mori ) .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "this species is native to india .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "this species is variable , with at least 44 identified ecoraces , populations adapted to varied ecological conditions and food plants .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "ten ecoraces are used for silk production and have been studied to obtain data about their life cycles and silk characteristics .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "some ecoraces are so well differentiated that they do not interbreed in nature , though they are not genetically distinct and can be bred in captivity .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "this species feeds mainly on terminalia trees and on shorea robusta .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "it also eats many other kinds of plants , with various ecoraces specializing on certain taxa .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "other plants appearing in its diet include indian jujube ( ziziphus mauritiana ) , axlewood ( anogeissus latifolia ) , jambul ( syzygium cumini ) , kumbi ( careya arborea ) , anjan ( hardwickia binata ) , and species of teak ( tectona spp. ) and crepe myrtle ( lagerstroemia spp. ) .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "tussar silk from this and related species of wild silkworms is a different color from domesticated silkworm silk , and it is coarser and stronger , making it more favorable in some applications .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "like the domesticated silkworm , this species is susceptible to p\u00e9brine , a disease caused by microsporidian fungi in the genus nosema .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "it is lethal to the larvae .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it is also commonly infected with the antheraea mylitta cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus ( amcpv ) , a reovirus which has been reported to destroy around 20 % of each silk crop by inducing diarrhea in the larvae , leading to a condition known as grasserie .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "natural enemies of this silkworm include the uzi fly ( blepharipa zebina ) , which is a parasitoid that uses the silkworm larvae as a food source for its maggots .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "many ecoraces are threatened due to extensive deforestation and the collection of cocoons from wild populations . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "antheraea mylitta", "paragraphs": ["silk protein fibroin from antheraea mylitta for cardiac tissue engineering . - pubmed - ncbi\nmolecular identification of tropical tasar silkworm ( antheraea mylitta ) ecoraces with rapd and scar markers .\nmolecular identification of tropical tasar silkworm ( antheraea mylitta ) ecoraces with rapd and scar markers . - pubmed - ncbi\ntable 1 - heterosis in the interspecific cross between antheraea pernyi and a . roylei\nparasitization of fifth instar tasar silkworm , antheraea mylitta , by the uzi fly , blepharipa zebina ; a host - parasitoid interaction and its effect o . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nparasitization of fifth instar tasar silkworm , antheraea mylitta , by the uzi fly , blepharipa zebina ; a host - parasitoid interaction and its effect on host ' s nutritional parameters and parasitoid development .\nthe human heart cannot regenerate after an injury . lost cardiomyocytes are replaced by scar tissue resulting in reduced cardiac function causing high morbidity and mortality . one possible solution to this problem is cardiac tissue engineering . here , we have investigated the suitability of non - mulberry silk protein fibroin from indian tropical tasar antheraea mylitta as a scaffold for engineering a cardiac patch in vitro . we have tested cell adhesion , cellular metabolic activity , response to extracellular stimuli , cell - to - cell communication and contractility of 3 - days postnatal rat cardiomyocytes on silk fibroin . our data demonstrate that a . mylitta silk fibroin exhibits similar properties as fibronectin , a component of the natural matrix for cardiomyocytes . comparison to mulberry bombyx mori silk protein fibroin shows that a . mylitta silk fibroin is superior probably due to its rgd domains . 3d scaffolds can efficiently be loaded with cardiomyocytes resulting in contractile patches . in conclusion , our findings demonstrate that a . mylitta silk fibroin 3d scaffolds are suitable for the engineering of cardiac patches .\nthe human heart cannot regenerate after an injury . lost cardiomyocytes are replaced by scar tissue resulting in reduced cardiac function causing high morbidity and mortality . one possible solution to this problem is cardiac tissue engineering . here , we have investigated the suitability of non - mulberry silk protein fibroin from indian tropical tasar antheraea mylitta as a scaffold for engineering a cardiac patch in vitro . we have tested cell adhesion , cellular metabolic activity , response to extracellular stimuli , cell - to - cell communication and contractility of 3 - days postnatal rat cardiomyocytes on silk fibroin . our data demonstrate that a . mylitta silk fibroin exhibits similar properties as fibronectin , a component of the natural matrix for cardiomyocytes . comparison to mulberry bombyx mori silk protein fibroin shows that a . mylitta silk fibroin is superior probably due to its rgd domains . 3d scaffolds can efficiently be loaded with cardiomyocytes resulting in contractile patches . in conclusion , our findings demonstrate that a . mylitta silk fibroin 3d scaffolds are suitable for the engineering of cardiac patches .\njolly , m . s . , narasimhanna , m . n . , sinha , s . s . & sen , s . k . 1969 interspecific hybridisation in antheraea . ind . j . hered . , 1 : 45 - 48 .\nwild silk is very vital biological resource and has a very crucial role in economic and social development of mankind . wild silk is better than other silks from the view point of healthcare . therefore , the book contain taxonomy of wild silkmoths , under which 9 new subspecies of antheraea mylitta have been described for avoiding confusion with ecoraces which refer to antheraea mylitta indica , a . m . jujubi , a . m . arjuni , a . m . greyi , a . m . kolhapurensis , a . m . koynei , a . m . sathei , a . m . badami and a . m . sahyadricus . the book also contains biology of wild silkmoths attacus atlas ( linn . ) , actias selene hubner and a . m . kolhapurensis . rearing techniques for a . atlas , a . selene and a . m . kolhapurensis with different food plants and their assessment by food consumption potential / cocoon characterization and development rate has given special emphasis in the book . thus , the book is unique on biodiversity of wild silkmoths and the wild silk technology which will be very helpful for students , teachers , farmers , sericulturists and researchers in india and at global scenario .\nthe tropical tasar silkworm , antheraea mylitta , has several ecoraces , 10 of which are commercially exploited for the production of tasar silk . these ecoraces are identified by morphological markers that are greatly influenced by photoperiod , humidity , altitude , and host plants . the dna markers , random amplification of polymorphic dna ( rapd ) , and sequence - characterized amplified region ( scar ) are identified to complement the existing morphological markers . seven rapd bands are selected that identify 8 of the 10 ecoraces . these identified rapd fragments are sequenced and primers are designed for scar markers . of the seven sets of primers , a single primer pair produced polymorphic scar bands that diagnose 5 of the 10 ecoraces . all 10 ecoraces are identified by the use of rapd and scar markers together .\ngenome segment 2 ( s2 ) from antheraea mylitta cypovirus ( amcpv ) was converted into cdna , cloned and sequenced . s2 consisted of 3798 nucleotides with a long orf encoding a 1116 amino acid long protein ( 123 kda ) . blast and phylogenetic analysis showed 29 % sequence identity and close relatedness of amcpv s2 with rna dependent rna polymerase ( rdrp ) of other insect cypoviruses , suggesting a common origin of all insect cypoviruses . the orf of s2 was expressed as 123 kda soluble his - tagged fusion protein in insect cells via baculovirus recombinants which exhibited rdrp activity in an in vitro rna polymerase assay without any intrinsic terminal transferase activity . maximum activity was observed at 37 \u00b0c at ph 6 . 0 in the presence of 3 mm mgcl 2 . site directed mutagenesis confirmed the importance of the conserved gdd motif . this is the first report of functional characterization of a cypoviral rdrp which may lead to the development of anti - viral agents .\nthe uzi fly , blepharipa zebina , is a well - known larval endoparasitoid of the tropical tasar silkworm , antheraea mylitta . the present study dealt with the effect of the number of maggots developing per host on host nutritional parameters , parasitoid development and reproduction . nutritional indices for ingestion , digestion , approximate digestibility , relative consumption rate , relative growth rate , and gain in body weight declined significantly with the increase in parasitoid burden , but the efficiency of conversion of digested food recorded a significant increase . the efficiency of conversion of ingested food remained little affected . the developmental period was significantly extended in larvae parasitized with 5 and 10 maggots per larva ( mpl ) . cocoon shell weight decreased by 27 - 63 . 5 % in parasitized groups ( 1 , 2 , and 5 mpl ) while larvae parasitized with 10 mpl could not spin cocoons . the maggot development period , recovery percentage , and fecundity of the uzi fly declined significantly with the increase in number of maggots developing per host .\nantheraea mylitta drury , the semi - wild silk - producing lepidopteran insect commonly known as tasar silkworm is unique to india and is distributed over a wide tropical forest range covering the states of andhra pradesh , bihar , chhattisgarh , madhya pradesh , maharashtra , orissa , and uttaranchal . the populations found in different areas are know by their specific local names and are considered as different ecotypes , but it is difficult to separate the populations on the basis of morphological and life - cycle traits and thus molecular characterization was attempted . the present communication relates to the results obtained from the analysis of polymorphism unraveled by twelve issr primers for 11 populations of a . mylitta belonging to six ecotypes and 41 individuals of railey ecotype collected from five zones of dandakarnya forest in madhya pradesh . this communication , further , presents molecular evidences on genetic differences between eleven ecotype populations and highlights the genotypic diversification of a single ecotype into further separate discrete gene pools . the canonical discriminant function analysis revealed grouping of the five populations of railey ecotype into two \u201cclumps , \u201d while accessions of other ecotypes stood separated from each other . the railey populations on detailed study , further , revealed separation of two ( tokapal and nangur ) populations into discrete gene pools and the other three ( kondagaon , darba , and tongpal ) populations , overlapped in spite of larger geographic distance between them . the analysis also identified nine markers , which can be utilized to characterize specific population and will be of help to follow the ongoing genetic changes triggered by various ecological factors and human influences on the railey ecotype .\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\nm . s . jolly , s . k . sen and m . g . das\nsilkworms are notoriously finicky eaters : they must have mulberry leaves . but not all of them . wild sericulture is traditionally practiced in india and china with silkworms which feed on the leaves of a large variety of naturally grown forest trees . the authors describe the indian tasar silk industry and the way it is being made more economic through management and the use of interspecific hybrid moths .\n) which must be fed exclusively on the leaves of white and black mulberry trees . most , but not all , commercial silk originates this way . in india , the extensive cottage industry concerned with silk weaving gets its raw material from so - called tasar silkworms that feed on the leaves of a variety of trees which grow wild in tropical , subtropical and temperate zones . for centuries indian raw silk has been gathered by the families of forest and hill tribes . the economic significance of their work can be seen in the fact that the country ' s current output of tasar silk now accounts for export earnings of us $ 4 . 4 million annually .\ntasar silk has been produced for a very long time . outside of india it may be called tusah , tussore , tusser or tussur silk . the uneven tan filaments are coarser , stronger and shorter than the normal cultivated silk and it is used in fabrics such as pongee and shantung .\na distinct belt of humid , dense forest sprawling over the central and southern plateaus at an elevation of 600 m is the home of tropical tasar . it extends through the states of bihar , madhya pradesh , orissa and maharashtra and touches the fringes of andhra pradesh , karnataka , west bengal , manipur and assam . the temperate tasar belt , at an elevation of 700 to 2200 m , on the other hand , includes the states of jammu and kashmir , uttar pradesh , himachal pradesh , meghalaya , manipur and assam , while west bengal , arunachal pradesh and nagaland rank next in importance . this oak tasar zone was established on a production basis in 1973 .\ntasar silk culture is known as wild or forest sericulture . more than a hundred thousand tribal families are at present engaged in the tropical tasar zone , and the temperate tasar zone promises full and part - time employment for about 1 million people .\nhas been exploited commercially and is the chief producer of tasar silk in the tropics . it exists in the form of nearly 20 eco - races of a uni - , bi - and trivoltine nature .\nsilk is the finest tasar silk ever produced in india , and the insect has outrun its parents both quantitatively and qualitatively ( table 1 ) .\nis abundant throughout india except in a few low - lying tracts . it ascends to the tops of high mountains and also occurs in higher coastal areas ( hairs , 1921 ) .\nq . flex , q . semicarpifolia , q . semiserrata and q . glauca\nin india the genus is distributed along the western sub - himalayan range , between altitudes of 1300 and 2200 m , and in the eastern hilly tracts at altitudes between 700 and 1600 m . both areas constitute the temperate tasar zone . in the tropical belt the tasar food plants cover an area of 7 . 7 million ha , while in the temperate zone nearly 0 . 8 million ha of oaks are available .\nthe average income per family for traditional rearers is $ 2530 per year . however , new techniques of rearing evolved at the central tasar research station at ranchi ( table 2 ) can now ensure a handsome income of about $ 250 within 40 to 45 days ( jolly , 1973 ) . similarly , the techniques of rearing evolved for the oak tasar zones have been found to be very successful .\nin the traditional practice the tasar larvae feed on irregularly distributed food plants in forests or along the embankments of paddy fields . this creates management problems resulting in losses due to pests , diseases and natural hazards . recent research carried out at ranchi has developed an economic plantation method with close spacing . a large increase in foliage productivity has been recorded with a spacing of 122 cm in either direction , and with the kind of record yields of 17 . 2 tons per ha now being achieved a net return of $ 497 . 50 per ha per year ( table . 3 ) through tasar culture can be anticipated , even under rainfed conditions where the soil fertility is submarginal ( des\nthis type of economic plantation would invariably reduce the amount of labour required , since overlapping twigs will permit the silkworms to move from one plant to another instead of being transferred by hand .\nthe tasar industry provides democratic tremendous scope for future extension in many parts of the world . the species of\nare widely distributed in indo - australian and palaeoarctic regions extending eastward from india to the philippines through viet nam and also dispersed throughout democratic kampuchea ; southeastward to australia through sri lanka , singapore , malaysia , indonesia and new guinea ; northeastward to china , japan and amurland ( u . s . s . r . ) and westward to the united states and latin america . nearly 36 species and 40 forms are known in these regions .\nconsists of about 250 species found within sri lanka , india , burma , lao , democratic : kampuchea and some parts of viet nam , and also extends through indonesia , malaysia and new guinea up to australia . some of its species are also reported in the african continent . the genus\nis a very large genus of some 300 species growing throughout the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere extending to the tropics of latin america in the west and malaysia in the east .\nit is to be noted that out of this vast trasure of tasar flora , only 1015 percent have been examined with reference to the tasar industry in india , while out of numerous tasar insect species and forms only three or four have been put to use .\nthe main tasar silk - producing countries of the world today are china and india . india ranks after china , with an annual production of about 400 tons of tasar raw silk and 200 tons of silk waste ( jolly\ntasar silk has appeared in the export market quite recently . the export figure reached us $ 2 . 6 million in 1973 . the major markets are the federal republic of germany , the united states and japan . foreign exchange earned through the export of tasar silk waste in 1973 was $ 1 . 8 million .\nthe forests which provide food for tasar silkworms are now being utilized in india mainly for fuel and timber , which are of less economic importance than the returns from silk . if these forests were completely diverted to tasar silk production they could provide a significant increase in income for a vulnerable section of society , as has already been shown . there would also be environmental benefits .\nwoodlands utilized for tasar silk production are protected from deforestation , which in turn benefits soil and watershed conservation and management . wherever tasar culture is practiced , the trees are better cared for in general . silkworm excrete and dead remains also enrich the quality of the soil .\nthe hundred thousand tribal families engaged in tasar silk production in the traditional belt are a very small percentage of the total tribal population in india . the temperate zone of india alone can provide employment for nearly 1 million people .\nwe believe that we have shown during the past 10 years at our research station that the tasar silk industry has a significant agri - silvicultural potential for many forest - rich developing countries , and in particular for countries which wish to create employment and raise the standard of living of forest - dwelling peoples who may be lagging behind the rest of the country .\njolly , m . s . 1970 oak oriented tasar culture in the offing .\njolly , m . s . 1974 new dimensions of tasar industry in india .\njolly , m . s . , chaturvedi , s . n . & prasad , s . 1968 a survey of tasar crops in india .\n, p . 1 - 17 and 86 - 106 . 1st edition . bombay , ambika publishers .\na . pernyi g . m . proc . xii international silk congress , barcelona .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\n118th insect fair frankfurt am main , germany . 118 . insektenb\u00f6rse frankfurt am main , deutschland .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\npatra c 1 , talukdar s , novoyatleva t , velagala sr , m\u00fchlfeld c , kundu b , kundu sc , engel fb .\ndepartment of cardiac development and remodelling , max - planck - institute for heart and lung research , parkstrasse 1 , 61231 bad nauheim , germany .\ncentral tasar research and training institute , piska nagri , ranchi - 835 303 , jharkhand , india . ssrathlee @ urltoken\ndepartment of biotechnology , indian institute of technology , kharagpur , 721302 , india .\nthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .\njolly , m . s . , sen , s . k . , and ashan , m . m . ,\n, ranchi , india : central tasar res . training inst . , 1972 .\nakai , h . , nagashima , t . , and aoyagi , s . , ultrastructure of posterior silk gland cells and liquid silk in indian tasar silkworm ,\nsiddique , a . a . , chatterjee , s . n . , goel , a . k . , and sengupta , a . k . , genetic divergence in tasar silkworm\nthnagavelu , k . and sinha , a . k . , population ecology of\n, akai , h . , kato , y . , kiuchi , m . , and inouch , j . , eds . , tsukuba , japan : int . soc . wild silkmoths , nat . inst . sericult . entomol . sci . , 1992 , pp . 87 - 92 .\nalam , m . o . , suresh , m . r . , and sit , s . c . , survey , collection and characterization of modal ecorace of indian wild silk insect\nfang , d . q . and roose , m . l . , identification of closely related\ntsumura , y . , ohba , k . , and strauss , s . h . , diversity and inheritance of inter - simple sequence repeat polymorphisms in douglas fir (\nnagaoko , t . and ogihara , y . , applicability of inter - simple sequence repeat polymorphisms in wheat for use as dna markers comparison to rflp and rapd markers ,\nreddy , d . k . , nagaraju , j . , and abraham , e . g . , genetic characterization of the silkworm\nramkumar rao , k . v . s . and mohobia , g . p . , studies on grainage behavior of nature - grown raily ecorace under natural and captive conditions ,\nsingh , b . m . k . and srivastava , a . k . , ecoraces of\n, ranchi : central tasar res . training inst . , 1997 , base paper 6 : 39 .\nsinha , a . k . and naqni , a . h . , need for maintenance of germplasm of non - mulberry silkworm , in\n, ranchi : central tasar res . training inst . , 1997 , base paper 7 : 16 .\nkantety , r . v . , zhang , x . , bennetzen , j . l . , and zehr , b . z . , assessment of genetic diversity in dent and popcorn (\nprovost , a . and wilkinson , m . j . , a new system of comparing pcr primers applied to issr fingerprinting of potato cultivars ,\nchatterjee , s . n . , mohandas , t . p . , and tanushree , t . ,\nzietkiewics , e . , rafalski , a . , and labuda , d . , genome fingerprinting by simple sequence repeats ( ssr ) - anchored amplification ,\nbreto , m . p . , ruiz , c . , pina , j . a . , and asins , m . j . , diversification of\nculley , t . m . and wolfe , a . d . , population genetic structure of the cleistogamous plant species\nbreto , m . p . , ruiz , c . , pina , j . a . , and asins , m . j . ,\ncharlesworth , d . and wright , s . , breeding system and genome evolution ,\nrao , k . v . s . , ramkumar , mahobia , g . p . ,\nchatterjee , s . n . , vijayan , k . , roy , g . c . et al . russian journal of genetics ( 2004 ) 40 : 152 . urltoken\nall content on this website , including dictionary , thesaurus , literature , geography , and other reference data is for informational purposes only . this information should not be considered complete , up to date , and is not intended to be used in place of a visit , consultation , or advice of a legal , medical , or any other professional .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nwild silk technology : r . k . & sathe t . v . kavane : 9789351242338 : urltoken books\nenter your mobile number or email address below and we ' ll send you a link to download the free kindle app . then you can start reading kindle books on your smartphone , tablet , or computer - 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{"id": 2441, "summary": [{"text": "sepia kiensis is a species of cuttlefish native to the indo-pacific , specifically the kai islands , possibly to timor and northern australia .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it lives at depth to 256 m .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the validity of s. kiensis has been questioned .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "s. kiensis grows to a mantle length of 37 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the type specimen was collected off kai island in the arafura sea .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is deposited at the natural history museum in london . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "sepia kiensis", "paragraphs": ["how can i put and write and define sepia kiensis in a sentence and how is the word sepia kiensis used in a sentence and examples ? \u7528sepia kiensis\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528sepia kiensis\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528sepia kiensis\u9020\u53e5 , sepia kiensis meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .\nsepia kiensis - buy sepia kiensis by surhone , lambert m . | editor ; tennoe , mariam t . | editor ; henssonow , susan f . | editor online at best prices in india - urltoken\n\n' sepia kiensis\n' is a species of cuttlefish native to the indo - pacific , specifically the kai islands , possibly to timor and northern australia .\nyes , it ' s a cephalopod ! this squid and other cephalopods are featured in the cephalopod pages maintained at the national museum of natural history , department of invertebrate zoology ! see the following links for more information on cephalopods .\ncephalopods in action . this is a multimedia appendix to published papers , that features video clips of cephalopods filmed from submersibles . included are :\nthe list of species featured in the videos , arranged as a taxonomic list , only relevant taxa included .\nintroducing an interactive key to the families of the decapodiformes . try this , it ' s exciting !\nexpedition journals from the search for the giant squid off new zealand , 1999 .\nthis page was created by jim felley , mike vecchione , clyde roper , mike sweeney , and tyler christensen . if you have questions or comments , contact mike vecchione .\nhoyle , w . e . ( 1885 ) . diagnoses of new species of cephalopoda collected during the cruise of h . m . s . challenger , ii : the decapoda . annals and magazine of natural history . series 5 , 16 : 181 - 203 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 194 [ details ]\nreid , a . , jereb , p . & roper , c . f . e . ( 2005 ) . family sepiidae . pp . 57 - 152 , in p . jereb & c . f . e . roper eds . cephalopods of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of cephalopod species known to date . volume 1 . chambered nautiluses and sepioids ( nautilidae , sepiidae , sepiolidae , sepiadariidae , idiosepiidae and spirulidae ) . fao species catalogue for fishery purposes [ rome , fao ] . 4 ( 1 ) : 262 pp . 9 pls . page ( s ) : 143 [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis will bring up another web page where you can select your desired location ."]}
{"id": 2454, "summary": [{"text": "the heliconiinae , commonly called heliconians or longwings , are a subfamily of the brush-footed butterflies ( family nymphalidae ) .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "they can be divided into 45 \u2013 50 genera and were sometimes treated as a separate family heliconiidae within the papilionoidea .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the colouration is predominantly reddish and black , and though of varying wing shape , the forewings are always elongated tipwards , hence the common name .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "most longwings are found in the tropics , particularly in south america ; only the argynnini are quite diverse in the holarctic .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "especially tropical species feed on poisonous plants , characteristically passifloraceae vines , as larvae , becoming poisonous themselves .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the adult butterflies announce their acquired toxicity with strong aposematic colours , warning off would-be predators .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "there are several famous cases of batesian and m\u00fcllerian mimicry both within this group and with other butterflies .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "other commonly seen food plants are fabaceae ( which also contain several toxic species ) , and particularly among northerly species of violaceae . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "heliconiinae", "paragraphs": ["a generic revision of the heliconiinae ( lepidoptera , nymphalidae ) . american museum novitates ; no . 1197\nphylogenetic relationships of butterflies of the tribe acraeini ( lepidoptera , nymphalidae , heliconiinae ) and the evolution of host plant use .\nphylogenetic relationships of butterflies of the tribe acraeini ( lepidoptera , nymphalidae , heliconiinae ) and the evolution of host plant use . - pubmed - ncbi\nheliconiinae ( nymphalidae ) ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 229 ; [ wahlberg ] ; [ nl4a ] , 261\nargynnini ( heliconiinae ) ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 235 ; [ wahlberg ] ; [ nl4a ] , 261\npenz , c . , and d . peggie . 2003 . phylogenetic relationships among heliconiinae genera based on morphology ( lepidoptera : nymphalidae ) . systematic entomology 28 : 451 - 479 .\nacraeini ( heliconiinae ) ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 236 ; [ wahlberg ] ; [ afrl ] ; [ nl4a ] , 262\npenz , c . m . & p . djunijanti . 2003 . phylogenetic relationships among heliconiinae genera based on morphology ( lepidoptera : nymphalidae ) . systematic entomology 28 : 451 - 479 . [ links ]\npenz , c . m . 1999 . higher level phylogeny for the passion - vine butterflies ( nymphalidae , heliconiinae ) based on early stage and adult morphology . zoological journal of the linnean society 127 : 277 - 344 . [ links ]\nlamas , g . 2004 . heliconiinae , p . 262 - 274 . in : j . b . heppner ( ed . ) . atlas of neotropical lepidoptera . gainesville , association for tropical lepidoptera , scientific publishers , vol . 5a , 439p . [ links ]\npaluch , m . ; m . m . casagrande & o . h . h . mielke . 2005 . comportamento de agrega\u00e7\u00e3o noturna dos machos de actinote surima surima ( schaus ) ( lepidoptera , heliconiinae , acraeini ) . revista brasileira de zoologia 22 : 410 - 418 . [ links ]\nfreitas , a . v . l . ; r . b . francini & t . s . souza . 2009b . immature stages and natural history of the threatened butterfly actinote quadra ( nymphalidae : heliconiinae : acraeini ) . tropical lepidoptera research 19 ( 2 ) : 82 - 88 . [ links ]\nfreitas , a . v . l . ; l . a . kaminski ; r . g . matos & k . l . silva - brand\u00e3o . 2009a . immature stages of the andean butterfly actinote rufina ( nymphalidae : heliconiinae : acraeini ) . tropical lepidoptera research 19 ( 1 ) : 18 - 21 . [ links ]\nthe subfamily heliconiinae is composed of a diverse group of species distributed widely in the new and old world tropics , and it also includes the largely holarctic fritillaries ( argynnini ) . many species in heliconiini and acraeini sequester and / or synthesize cyanogenic glucosides , which render them unpalatable to predators . as a result , they act as m\u00fcllerian mimics or models for palatable batesian species in other groups .\nfrancini , r . b . ; a . v . l . freitas & k . s . brown jr . 2005 . rediscovery of actinote zikani ( d ' almeida ) ( nymphalidae , heliconiinae , acraeini ) : natural history , population biology and conservation of an endangered butterfly in se brazil . journal of the lepidopterists ' society 59 ( 3 ) : 134 - 142 . [ links ]\nsilva - brand\u00e3o , k . l . ; n . wahlberg ; r . b . francini ; a . m . l . azeredo espin ; k . s . brown jr ; m . paluch ; d . c . lees & a . v . l . freitas . 2008 . phylogenetic relationship of butterflies of the tribe acraeini ( lepidoptera , nymphalidae , heliconiinae ) and the evolution of host plant use . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 46 : 515 - 531 . [ links ]\nsilva - brand\u00e3o , k . l . , wahlberg , n . , francini , r . b . , azeredo - espin , a . m . l . , brown , k . s . j . , paluch , m . , lees , d . c . & freitas , a . v . l . 2008 . phylogenetic relationships of butterflies of the tribe acraeini ( lepidoptera , nymphalidae , heliconiinae ) and the evolution of host plant use . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 46 , 515 - 531 .\na higher level phylogeny for the passion - vine butterflies ( nymphalidae , heliconiinae ) was generated by cladistic analysis of 146 morphological characters from all life stages . the 24 species studied were selected representatives of the ten currently accepted genera of the sub - tribe heliconiiti . analyses of only characters from larvae and pupae did not produce well resolved trees . however , some characters of the immature stages provided critical support for the monophyly of two clades . analysis of only adult characters yielded a tree that closely resembled that obtained from all data combined . the phylogeny here derived from the combined analysis of early stage and adult characters differed in topology from all previously proposed hypotheses , and supported the monophyly of all currently recognized genera . characters supporting each clade are described and illustrated , and various hypotheses of phylogenetic relatedness of passion - vine butterfly taxa are discussed .\nthe tribe acraeini ( nymphalidae , heliconiinae ) is believed to comprise between one and seven genera , with the greatest diversity in africa . the genera abananote , altinote , and actinote ( s . str . ) are distributed in the neotropics , while the genera acraea , bematistes , miyana , and pardopsis have a palaeotropical distribution . the monotypic pardopsis use herbaceous plants of the family violaceae , acraea and bematistes feed selectively on plants with cyanoglycosides belonging to many plant families , but preferentially to passifloraceae , and all neotropical species with a known life cycle feed on asteraceae only . here , a molecular phylogeny is proposed for the butterflies of the tribe acraeini based on sequences of coi , ef - 1alpha and wgl . both maximum parsimony and bayesian analyses showed that the tribe is monophyletic , once the genus pardopsis is excluded , since it appears to be related to argynnini . the existing genus acraea is a paraphyletic group with regard to the south american genera , and the species of acraea belonging to the group of\nold world actinote\nis the sister group of the neotropical genera . the monophyly of south american clade is strongly supported , suggesting a single colonization event of south america . the new world actinote ( s . str . ) is monophyletic , and sister to abananote + altinote ( polyphyletic ) . based on the present results it was possible to propose a scenario for the evolution in host plant use within acraeini , mainly concerning the use of asteraceae by the south american genera .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe root of the current tree connects the organisms featured in this tree to their containing group and the rest of the tree of life . the basal branching point in the tree represents the ancestor of the other groups in the tree . this ancestor diversified over time into several descendent subgroups , which are represented as internal nodes and terminal taxa to the right .\nyou can click on the root to travel down the tree of life all the way to the root of all life , and you can click on the names of descendent subgroups to travel up the tree of life all the way to individual species .\nfor more information on tol tree formatting , please see interpreting the tree or classification . to learn more about phylogenetic trees , please visit our phylogenetic biology pages .\nthis neotropical forest genus is characterized by expanded androconial areas on the costal margin of the hindwing in adult males .\netymology : turner 1976 named this new genus after the chilenian poet pablo neruda , who won the nobel prize for literature in 1971 .\nturner jrg . 1976 . adaptive radiation and convergence in subdivisions of the butterfly genus heliconius ( lepidoptera : nymphalidae ) . zool . j . linn . soc . 58 : 297 - 308 .\nthis media file is licensed under the creative commons attribution - noncommercial - sharealike license - version 3 . 0 .\ncorrespondence regarding this page should be directed to andrew v . z . brower at\n. note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own license , and they may or may not be available for reuse . click on an image or a media link to access the media data window , which provides the relevant licensing information . for the general terms and conditions of tol material reuse and redistribution , please see the\neach tol branch page provides a synopsis of the characteristics of a group of organisms representing a branch of the tree of life . the major distinction between a branch and a leaf of the tree of life is that each branch can be further subdivided into descendent branches , that is , subgroups representing distinct genetic lineages .\nfor a more detailed explanation of the different tol page types , have a look at the structure of the tree of life page .\ntree of life design and icons copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2004 tree of life project . all rights reserved .\nbrower , a . v . z . 2000 . phylogenetic relationships among the nymphalidae ( lepidoptera ) , inferred from partial sequences of the wingless gene . proceedings of the royal society of london series b biological sciences 267 : 1201 - 1211 .\nfreitas , a . v . l . , and k . s . j . brown . 2004 . phylogeny of the nymphalidae ( lepidoptera : papilionoidea ) . systematic biology 53 : 363 - 383 .\nwahlberg , n . , e . weingartner , and s . nylin . 2003 . towards a better understanding of the higher systematics of nymphalidae ( lepidoptera : papilionoidea ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 28 : 473 - 484 .\nthis media file is licensed under the creative commons attribution - noncommercial - sharealike license - version 2 . 0 .\nthis media file is licensed under the creative commons attribution - noncommercial license - version 2 . 0 .\nactinote discrepans photographed in rio grande do sul , brazil , in april 2010 .\nthis media file is licensed under the creative commons attribution - noderivs license - version 2 . 0 .\ncorrespondence regarding this page should be directed to niklas wahlberg at and andrew v . z . brower at\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe nymphalidae is a family of several thousand species found in all zoogeographical regions of the world . most are medium or large in size , but the family is highly variable given that it also includes the satyrinae , a subfamily that has been designated as a family in its own right in earlier classifications .\nthe forelegs in both sexes are vestigial and useless for walking . in the male , there are typically only 2 tarsal joints and the legs have a brush - like appearance , resulting in a common name for this family - the\nbrush - footed butterflies\n. the female foreleg has 4 tarsal joints which , when compared with the male , provides a mechanism of determining the sex of the adult . the midleg and hindleg are normal in both sexes and both tibia and tarsus may have spines .\nthe forewing always has 12 veins . given the variability of this family , there are no further distinguishing characteristics that apply to the family as a whole .\ncopyright \u00a9 peter eeles 2002 - 2018 . all rights are reserved . team member login\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nkunte , k . , s . sondhi , and p . roy ( chief editors ) .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 , all rights reserved . national centre for biological sciences ( ncbs ) holds copyright for all the original material and compilations on this website , although contributing writers and photographers may hold copyright for their material as cited . material from this website can be used freely for educational , basic research and conservation purposes , provided that this website is acknowledged and properly cited as the source . contact us to obtain prior permission for any other use , including for large data downloads and collaborative research .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nsilva - brand\u00e3o kl 1 , wahlberg n , francini rb , azeredo - espin am , brown ks jr , paluch m , lees dc , freitas av .\ndepto . de zoologia , ib , universidade estadual de campinas , cp 6109 , cep 13083 - 970 , campinas , sp , brazil .\nresearch support , u . s . gov ' t , non - p . h . s .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\njavascript is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .\nfull - text is provided in portable document format ( pdf ) . to view articles you must have the free adobe acrobat reader . click here to download the latest version . the . epub version displays best on an ipad , but may work on other devices that accept . epub format . download directly to your device\u2019s book reader ( e . g . , ibooks ) or drag into your e - books collection on your computer .\namerican museum novitates novitates ( latin for\nnew acquaintances\n) , published continuously and numbered consecutively since 1921 , are short papers that contain descriptions of new forms and reports in zoology , paleontology , and geology . new numbers are published at irregular intervals .\ndepartment of library services american museum of natural history central park west at 79th st . , new york , ny 10024 \u00a9 american museum of natural history , 2011\ntowards a better understanding of the higher systematics of nymphalidae ( lepidoptera : papilionoidea ) . - pubmed - ncbi\ntowards a better understanding of the higher systematics of nymphalidae ( lepidoptera : papilionoidea ) .\ndepartment of zoology , stockholm university , s - 106 91 stockholm , sweden . niklas . wahlberg @ urltoken\nhigher classification is mainly after [ wahlberg ] , november 2005 , except some clump / split of genera is not done yet .\nthe exact identification of these species is still unknown , but tentatively assumed to belong into this group .\nchecklist of afrotropical papilionoidea and hesperoidea ; compiled by mark c . williams , 7th ed . ( 2008 ) ( april 2007 ) ;\nvane - wright & de jong , 2003 the butterflies of sulawesi : annotated checklist for a critical island faunda zool . verh . leiden 343 : 3 - 268 , pl . 1 - 16\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\npresent address : department of biology , university of oregon , eugene or 97403 , u . s . a . e - mail : penz @ darkwing . uoregon . edu . from april 2000 : dept . invertebrate zoology , milwaukee public museum , 800 west wells street , milwaukee , wi 53233 , u . s . a .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nignore this text box . it is used to detect spammers . if you enter anything into this text box , your message will not be sent .\nresponsibility michael parsons . imprint san diego ; london : academic press , c1999 . physical description xvi , 736 p . , [ 172 ] p . of plates : ill . ( some col . ) , maps ; 30 cm .\nzoologia ( curitiba , impr . ) vol . 28 no . 5 curitiba oct . 2011\ni museo entomol\u00f3gico piedras blancas , comfenalco antioquia . medell\u00edn - colombia . e - mail : paduve12 @ urltoken ii grupo de entomolog\u00eda universidad de antioquia geua , universidad de antioquia . calle 67 , no . 53 - 108 , medell\u00edn - colombia , aa 1226 . e - mail : mwolff @ urltoken\nthe immature stages ( eggs , larvae and pupae ) , oviposition and larval behavior of altinote ozomene ( godart , 1819 ) are described here for the first time . larvae were reared from egg clutches collected from the host plants erato vulcanica ( klatt ) h . rob and munnozia senecionidis benth ( asteraceae ) . eggs were laid in groups on the undersides of leaves . the number of instars varied from five to eight within the same egg clutch , and the corresponding development time from larva to adult varied from 91 to 115 days . most ( 72 % ) larvae pupated during the sixth instar . the first four instars fed only on the leaf cuticle , whereas later instars consumed the whole leaf . larvae were gregarious during all instars but rested together only during the day in later instars , either hidden inside dry leaves , on the stem at the base of the host plants , or in the leaf litter . larvae showed similar morphology and behavior to those previously described for species of actinote h\u00fcbner , 1819 from southeastern brazil and the andes .\nkey words : host plant ; immature behavior ; lepidoptera ; life cycle ; neotropical .\nthe nymphalid acraeini ( lepidoptera ) comprises between one and seven genera , depending on the taxonomy adopted , and occurs both in the neotropics and the old world , with the greatest diversity in africa ( silva - brand\u00e3o et al . 2008 ) . three genera are found in the neotropics : actinote h\u00fcbner , 1819 , abananote potts , 1943 and altinote potts , 1943 ( lamas 2004 ) . according to the most recent phylogeny of acraeini , which was proposed by silva - brand\u00e3o et al . ( 2008 ) , altinote and abananote are embedded within actinote . several species , however , were not included in that study , including altinote ozomene ( godart , 1819 ) . given the current disarray in the systematics of acraeinae at the generic level , knowledge of the morphology and biology of the immature stages of the species in this subfamily could be of particular value in developing a stable classification ( harvey 1991 , penz 1999 , penz & peggie 2003 , freitas & brown 2004 , silva - brand\u00e3o et al . 2008 ) .\nmost of the existing descriptions of the immature stages of neotropical acraeini involve members of actinote ( paluch et al . 1999 , 2001 , freitas et al . 2009a , b , 2010 ) . currently , no detailed descriptions exist for species of altinote , except for brief notes on altinote ozomene nox ( h . w . bates , 1864 ) ( sensu lamas 2004 , harvey 1983 , devries 1987 ) . the present paper thus provides the most complete description to date of the biology and morphology of the immature stages of an altinote species , focusing on al . ozomene .\nthe study was conducted between january 2006 and december 2009 in the parque ecol\u00f3gico piedras blancas nature reserve in the northeastern region of medell\u00edn , colombia ( 6\u00ba17 ' 40 . 68\nn , 75\u00ba30 ' 4 . 32\nw ) . the altitude at this site is 2350 m , and the average temperature is 15\u00bac . the area consists primarily of large pine plantations interspersed with small fragments of native forest dominated by quercus humboldtii bonpl ( fagaceae ) . observations of the behavior of the immature stages were conducted in the field . host plants were identified , collected and deposited in the herbarium of the universidad de antioquia ( hua ) .\neggs were collected in the field and taken to the laboratory where they were reared in plastic containers with host plant leaves . to determine the time spent in the embryonic phase ( from oviposition to eclosion of the eggs ) , five egg clusters were observed daily after oviposition . to determine the time spent in each larval instar , 4680 eggs from 39 egg clusters collected in the field were monitored daily from the hatching of larvae to the emergence of adults .\nthe samples of first instar larvae were placed in acetic acid for 48 hours , and the samples of other instars were fixed in kahle solution ( borror & delong 1971 ) and then transferred to 80 % ethyl alcohol . adults were mounted on entomological pins and deposited in the museo entomol\u00f3gico de piedras blancas ( mepb ) and in the laboratorio de colecciones entomol\u00f3gicas , universidad de antioquia ( ceua ) . in the following descriptions , t1 - t3 refer to thorax segments and a1a10 to abdominal segments . chaetotaxy of the first instar is described using the terminology of stehr ( 1987 ) . body length was measured at each stage using a millimeter rule under a stereomicroscope .\neggs of al . ozomene were collected from leaves of the asteraceae plants erato vulcanica ( klatt ) h . rob ( fig . 1 ) and munnozia senecionidis benth ( fig . 2 ; velez et al . 2008 ) . the former is a shrub , 4 m in height , with a 5 - cm diameter stem ; the latter has a prostrate habit of growth . both species are abundant in the study area , especially in open areas , scrub and forest edges and along stream margins , paths and tracks ( toro 2000 ) .\neggs were laid in clusters on the undersides of leaves . females typically alighted on the underside of the leaf around noon and remained there for over 2 . 5 hours , laying eggs ( fig . 3 ) . eggs and / or larvae were often found concentrated on plants within close proximity . eggs were sometimes laid on plants where eggs or larvae were already present ( up to two egg clutches were found on the same plant ) , generally on different leaves on large plants , and rarely on the same leaf . the number of eggs in each clutch varied from 100 to 380 ( n = 39 clutches ) . several clutches included four or five infertile eggs ( fig . 6 ) . larvae from clutches that contained fewer than 30 viable eggs ( either because oviposition was interrupted or because most of the eggs died from fungal attack ) died within the first three instars .\neggs from a single clutch hatched within 24 hours of one another . in 92 % ( 36 ) of the clutches , the number of instars varied within the same clutch from five to eight ( tab . i ) . in each of the other three clutches , all larvae showed the same number of instars : five in one clutch and six in the other two clutches . most of the larvae that reached adulthood ( 72 % , n = 349 ) pupated during the sixth instar , and 17 % pupated during the seventh instar ( tab . i ) .\nthe total developmental time was directly related to the number of molts : the time from egg to adult was 91 , 97 , 110 and 115 days for larvae that passed through five to eight instars , respectively ( tab . i ) . this is related to the fact that all instars are of similar duration ( 8 - 10 days ) , except for the final instar ( whether it is the fifth or the eighth ) , which typically lasts 13 - 14 days ( tab . i ) . however , a few larvae that passed through more than five instars pupated after only two or three days in their last instar . no relationship was observed between either the number of instars or the total developmental time and the sex of the adult butterfly . after emerging from pupae , the adults spend two or three days hanging , eliminating meconium , before they fly .\neggs ( figs 4 - 5 ) of al . ozomene are 0 . 6 - 0 . 8 mm in diameter , 0 . 9 - 1 . 1 in height ( n = 14 ) and barrel shaped , with a flat base adhered to the leaf and a flat apical region . the micropyle region resembles a rosette , with tiny ridges surrounded by a ring of polygonal cells , and a similar ring is present in the preapical area . slightly elevated longitudinal ridges run from the apex to the base , varying in number from 17 to 22 ( n = 16 ) and separated by slight grooves . poorly defined transverse ridges are also observed . eggs are ivory - colored from oviposition until the day preceding eclosion , when they become translucent , with the dark - colored head of the larva visible in the apical region . in many cases , the apical region of the egg was observed to be covered with a drop of viscous , transparent liquid throughout the embryonic period . eggs without this liquid were observed to develop a fungus .\nfirst instar larvae ( figs 6 - 12 ) have a round , smooth head without scoli and with golden setae . the body is cylindrical , without scoli and with simple , dark brown setae arising from sclerotized brown pinacula standing out slightly from the skin . the head is black , and the body is ivory - colored immediately after hatching , becoming greenish - white the next day , once food is observable through the translucent skin . the prothoracic shield and anal shield are dark brown . the thorax becomes brown or chestnut and is darkest in t1 and fades through t3 . a1 is brown or dark yellowish ochre , and a2 is similar but has diffuse brown dorsolateral marks . the rest of abdomen is pale , clear yellow or greenish - yellow due to food showing through the skin .\nchaetotaxy is illustrated in figures 10 - 12 . d1 and d2 are present in all body segments . d1 is posterior and dorsal to d2 in t1 and anterior and dorsal to d2 in the remaining segments . d1 is shorter in a1 - a7 than in a8 - a9 . sd2 is absent in a1 - a9 . l2 is absent in t2 , t3 and a9 , and l3 is absent in all segments . sv1 is present in all segments . sv2 is absent in a1 , a7 , a8 and a9 . sv1 and sv2 originate on the same sclerotized plate in a2 and are located on the lateral shield , outside of the prolegs , in a3 - a6 , with sv2 being anterior and shorter and sv1 lateral and longer . sv3 is found on t1 and a10 and sometimes on t2 and / or t3 . v1 is present on a1 , a2 and a10 . the coxae of the thoracic legs are surrounded by a laterally open , chitinous horseshoe - shaped plate with five setae : one anterior , one posterior and three setae on the internal mesal margin . exv1 is located very close to the midline in a10 , and the setae on both sides of the body originate on the same plate . the spiracles are circular and are larger on t1 and a8 , with protruding edges .\nsecond instar larvae ( fig . 13 ) exhibit a shiny black head with thin pale setae , a translucent white clypeus , a brown labrum and a brown mandible . the thorax and a1 are generally brown , and the other abdominal segments are creamy yellow , with or without diffuse brown marks . on a few individuals , the abdomen is dark brown . from the second instar on , the larvae have ivory - colored infraspiracular bands that generally extend from t1 to a10 , and the subventral and ventral regions of the abdomen are creamy yellow . scoli are generally brown on the thorax and on a1 , and the abdominal infraspiracular scoli are creamy yellow . the other scoli vary from brown to creamy yellow . the scoli setae range from chestnut and creamy yellow to brown .\nthe head is smooth , without scoli , spines or chalazae . a pair of dorsal scoli is arranged linearly on each segment except for a10 , where it is absent . the t1 scoli are slightly longer than the remaining thoracic scoli , and the abdominal scoli are uniform in size and slightly smaller than those of t3 . from a1 to a8 , a second line of supraspiracular scoli appears below the dorsal scoli , each slightly anterior to a spiracle . one scolus is present adjacent to the anal shield on a10 , in line with the other supraspiracular scoli on the abdomen . in the lateral region of the thorax , one scolus appears between t1 and t2 and another between t2 and t3 ; both of these are in line with the abdominal spiracles . a third line of infraspiracular scoli that are posterior to the spiracles also appears on a1 to a8 . these scoli are the same size as the supraspiracular scoli and slightly shorter than the dorsal scoli on the abdomen .\nthe chitinous prothoracic shield is shiny black and almost oval in shape , with two setae that are longer than the dorsal scoli of the same segment . the anal shield is black , round and convex . chitinous plate on t1 - t3 and a9 , located below dorsal scolus : on t1 above spiracle , almost triangular in shape , with several setae , on t2 , t3 and a9 rounded in shape ; very small plate under these : on t1 anterior and opposite spiracle , almost square in shape , with several setae , on t2 and t3 , posterior to lateral scoli , rounded in shape . only the plates on t1 protrude from the skin . subventral , elliptic verruca with numerous setae are present above each thoracic leg , and these are arched in t2 and t3 . several ventral setae are clustered together on a1 , a2 , a7 and a8 , with one seta in each cluster that is longer than the others . the circular spiracles are the same size on t1 and a8 and larger on the remaining segments . the spiracle on t1 is slightly more ventrally located .\nthe chitinous plate surrounding the coxa of each thoracic leg is horseshoe - shaped , outwardly open , and of the same dark brown or gray color as the legs . prolegs exhibit dark grey plates on their lateral margins , with uniserial , biordinal crochets arranged in a mesal penellipse . two small grey verrucae are present in the region posterior to a10 under the anus , one of which is inferior and smaller .\nthe arrangement of scoli , plates , and verrucae in the third through eighth instars is the same as described for the second instar .\nthird instar larvae ( figs 14 - 15 ) are slightly variable in coloration , but the thorax is generally brown , the abdomen is brown or dark chestnut , and the thorax and a1 are darker than the abdomen . the abdomen is creamy yellow below the infraspiracular band . the scoli on the thorax and the back of the abdomen are dark brown , the abdominal supraspiracular and infraspiracular scoli are creamy yellow , and the supraspiracular scoli on a1 are typically brown . the spiracles on t1 and a8 are elliptical , equal in size and slightly larger than those on the rest of the abdomen , which are circular .\nfourth instar larvae ( figs 16 - 18 ) exhibit a shiny black head and a dark brown , almost black body . the scoli are generally brown , although the infraspiracular scoli tend to be creamy yellow but are also occasionally brown . all of the body plates , including the prothoracic and anal shields , are shiny and black .\nfifth to eighth instar larvae ( figs 19 - 21 ) are very similar to the fourth instar and to each other in color and morphology ( except in the shape of the spiracle ; see below ) , whether in their last instar or not . for example , all sixth instar larvae are similar to each other regardless of whether they then molt to a seventh instar larvae or whether they pupate . after the fifth instar , all body spiracles are elliptical in shape .\nbody length varies considerably within and between the fifth to eighth instars ( tab . ii ) . for example , in some cases , fifth instar larvae have the same body length as those of the sixth , seventh or eighth instars ; yet at the same time , sibling larvae at the same instar can exhibit differences in length of up to 10 mm . no relationship was found between the size of the larvae and the number of molts . the larvae pupated independently of their final size ( 25 - 40 mm ) . although it was not determined whether adult size is related to the size of the last instar larvae , it seems likely that the smaller pupating larvae become male butterflies , which are smaller than females .\npupae ( figs 23 - 24 ) are white , with thin , discontinuous black lines on the dorsal and lateral surfaces of the abdomen and a thick discontinuous band on both sides of the ventral midline that forms a barrel - like figure on each segment . a black outline is present on the proboscis , legs , antennae , eyes , labrum and wings . the clypeus and labrum are black . barely noticeable tiny black setae are distributed over the entire body , except the wing pads , antennae and legs . the cephalic region contains a pair of small protuberances , and the pronotum and mesonotum each possess a pair of aligned dorsal protuberances ; these proturbances decrease in size on the metanotum , where they appear only as small buttons . t2 exhibits a lateral protuberance at the base of the wings , crossed by a thick black line . lateral projections are present at the base of the wing pads . the spiracles on t1 are crescent - shaped and partially visible . the spiracles on a1 are hidden , those on a2 are hidden at the posterior end , and all others are elliptical and black . five pairs of identically shaped black dorsal spines without ramifications or setae appear on a2 to a6 , along the same line as the thoracic protuberances . a v - shaped marking that opens toward the anterior end appears at the base of each spine on a3 - a7 . posterior to this v - shaped marking , there is a transverse line and several supraspiracular lines . a cremaster formed by the ventral region of a9 and the dorsal and ventral regions of a10 is completely modified into a corrugated black structure .\nlarvae emerge at the preapical region of the egg ( fig . 5 ) and immediately feed on the chorion and on infertile eggs , if present . all activities including feeding , molting , resting and displacing are gregarious , from hatching to adulthood .\nwithin the first several hours after hatching , larvae form a close line such that each individual is in physical contact with its neighbors and begin to feed simultaneously , starting at the edge of the leaf ( fig . 9 ) . the first to fourth instars eat only the leaf cuticle ( figs . 9 and 16 ) and frequently consume less than half of the leaf before passing on to the next leaf . third and fourth instars rapidly devour the leaf cuticle ; the leaf then dries and folds and the two ends are joined with silk ( fig . 18 ) . the first instars weave silk threads on the leaf surface , forming a dense web , under which they move and deposit their feces ( figs . 9 and 18 ) or spend periods of rest or premolt .\nbeginning at the fifth or sixth instar , larvae rest during the day and become active in the early evening . beginning at 06 : 00 to 07 : 00 h , they climb down the stem , one after the other , and hide either among dry leaves attached to branches close to the ground , at the base of the stem , among cracks in the stem or under dry leaves on the ground near the plant ( fig . 22 ) . between 18 : 30 and 19 : 30 h , the larvae emerge from their hiding place and climb , single file , back up the stem of the same plant until they reach the leaves , where they form small groups to feed . in the later instars , the larvae feed simultaneously on the leaves from the edges ( fig . 19 ) and either eat the whole leaf or leave only the veins uneaten .\nduring the first four instars , larvae from different egg clutches do not mix ; each group remains on its own leaf . however , groups of older larvae may hide in the same places close to or on the ground , and these groups may mix when they climb back up the plant to feed . one or two later - instar larvae have been observed together with early - instar larvae on the same leaf . when larvae begin to pupate , they individually move three or four meters away from the host plant and attach themselves to the undersides of leaves on other plants at a minimum height of 60 cm above the ground .\nlarvae of the syrphid fly xanthandrus bucephalus ( wiedemann , 1830 ) ( diptera : syrphidae ) were observed preying on first - to third - instar al . ozomene larvae ( fig . 15 ) . this solitary predator apparently goes unnoticed inside the silk mass of larvae and feces . occasionally , spiders were also seen preying on larvae . larvae and pupae collected in the field were often found to be parasitized by different species of tachinidae ( diptera ) and braconidae ( hymenoptera ) . predation on adults was not observed .\nduring the first three or four instars , when one individual in a group is threatened , the whole group reacts simultaneously by raising their bodies , standing on the last pair of prolegs ( fig . 17 ) and / or moving the anterior half of the body rhythmically from side to side . older larvae entwine themselves together and fall freely from the leaf , suspended by a silk thread . when the pupae are disturbed , they move the first abdominal segments from one side to the other , forming an angle of up to 120\u00ba .\naltinote ozomene adults were normally observed in open areas and at forest edges . males ( fig . 25 ) fly low , frequently alighting on the ground , and can be caught by hand . adults form small groups of four or five individuals while feeding on the ground or on avian ( duck ) excrement on the banks of a reservoir . on several occasions , adults were observed feeding on the ground together with males of gnathotriche mundina steinii ( dewitz , 1877 ) ( lepidoptera : nymphalidae ) , an unrelated species with a very similar wing pattern . females ( fig . 26 ) were observed less often than males .\naltinote ozomene feed on asteraceae , as has also been observed of al . ozomene nox ( sensu lamas 2004 ; harvey 1983 , devries 1987 ) and species of actinote ( devries 1987 , paluch et al . 1999 , 2001 , 2005 , francini et al . 2004 , 2005 , francini & freitas 2010 , freitas et al . 2009a , b , 2010 ) . valencia et al . ( 2005 ) recorded clibadium sp . ( asteraceae ) as a host plant for al . ozomene in the western cordillera of the colombian andes .\nas in all known species of actinote , al . ozomene lays egg clutches under leaves ( devries 1987 , paluch et al . 1999 , 2001 , 2005 , francini et al . 2004 , 2005 , francini & freitas 2010 , freitas et al . 2009a , b , 2010 ) . the maximum number of eggs per oviposition in al . ozomene is notably less than that in actinote pellenea pellenea h\u00fcbner , 1821 ( francini & freitas 2010 ) and slightly less than that in actinote surima ( schaus , 1902 ) ( paluch et al . 1999 ) and ac . carycina jordan ( paluch et al . 2001 ; table iii ) . the number of eggs per oviposition in al . ozomene is likely a limiting factor for larval survival because first - instar larvae in groups of fewer than 20 died and larvae of the first four instars generally only survived if they were in large groups , which was probably due to a better response to leaf structural defenses . when the number of larvae is small , the silk web on which the larvae move is equally small ( pers . obs . ) , leaving the leaf trichomes exposed , which may impede larval displacement and anchorage on the leaf and therefore affect feeding , as suggested by fordyce & agrawal ( 2001 ) . in addition , oviposition in al . ozomene tends to occur in a grouped fashion , on closely spaced plants or on leaves of the same plants , as has been described for ac . pellenea pellenea ( francini & freitas 2010 ) . other factors , including habitat and plant characteristics , may also affect female preference during oviposition . although the general behavior of al . ozomene is similar to that described for species of actinote ( tab . iv ) , nocturnal gregarious feeding has only been recorded in al . ozomene , and hiding in dry leaves during later instars has only recently been described for ac . conspicua ( freitas et al . 2010 ) . however , in contrast to al . ozomene , larvae of ac . conspicua hide individually or in pairs and only during the last instar .\nmost species of actinote have univoltine or bivoltine life cycles ( paluch et al . 1999 , 2001 , 2005 , francini et al . 2005 , freitas et al . 2009a , b , 2010 ) . a multivoltine cycle is presently known for only ac . pellenea pellenea ( francini & freitas 2010 ) . since 2004 , we have found al . ozomene frequently throughout the year , at low densities , except during the second half of 2005 , when no adults or immature stages were found .\na variable number of instars , as observed here in al . ozomene , has never been recorded in actinote ( paluch et al . 1999 , 2001 , paluch et al . 2005 , francini et al . 2005 , freitas et al . 2009a , b , 2010 ) . however , our observations suggest that such variation may occur in other species of altinote ( unpubl . data ) , and further investigation of this phenomenon might reveal both why it occurs and whether it is restricted to this genus .\nthe immature stages of al . ozomene are similar to those of some species of actinote from brazil and the andes in several morphological features . these include the initial color , shape and size of the eggs , the body color and arrangement of the setae in the first instar , the absence of spines on the head , the arrangement of scoli in other instars , the shape of the pupa and the number and arrangement of its abdominal spines ( paluch et al . 1999 , 2001 , francini et al . 2005 , freitas et al . 2009a , b , 2010 ) . al . ozomene differs from the species of actinote in egg color during the days following oviposition ( the eggs become reddish in actinote ) and in the color pattern of the larvae after the first instar . additional studies are clearly needed to identify additional characters that vary within the tribe and thus might provide useful information for phylogenetic studies .\nwe thank eliana fl\u00f3rez , juan d . mar\u00edn , diana grisales , andr\u00e9s v\u00e9lez , and marisol ortega for help with rearing the larvae in the laboratory and alvaro idarraga for the identification of the host plants . this study was funded by comfenalco - antioquia .\nborror , d . j . & d . m . delong . 1971 . an introduction to the study of insects . new york , holt , rinehart and winston . 812p . [ links ]\nbrower , a . v . z . 2010 . neotropical actinote clade . version 13 february 2010 , the tree of life web project , available online at : urltoken [ accessed : 04 / iii / 2011 ] [ links ]\ndevries , p . j . 1987 . the butterflies of costa rica and their natural history . princeton , princeton academic press , 327p . [ links ]\nfrancini , r . b . ; a . v . l . freitas & c . m . penz . 2004 . two new species of actinote ( lepidoptera , nymphalidae ) from southeastern brasil . zootaxa 719 : 1 - 10 . [ links ]\nfrancini , r . b . & a . v . l . freitas . 2010 . aggregated oviposition in actinote pellenea pellenea h\u00fcbner ( lepidoptera : nymphalidae ) . the journal of research on the lepidoptera 42 : 74 - 78 . [ links ]\nfreitas , a . v . l . & k . s . brown jr . 2004 . phylogeny of the nymphalidae ( lepidoptera ) . systematic biology 53 ( 3 ) : 363 - 383 . [ links ]\nharvey , d . j . 1983 . actinote leucomelas , p . 679 - 680 . in : d . h . janzen ( ed . ) . costa rican natural history . chicago , university of chicago press , 816p . [ links ]\nharvey , d . j . 1991 . higher classification of the nymphalidae , p . 225 - 273 . in : h . f . nijhout ( ed . ) . the development and evolution of butterfly wing patterns . washington , d . c , smithsonian series in comparative evolutionary biology , 297p . [ links ]\npaluch , m . ; m . m . casagrande & o . h . h . mielke . 1999 . est\u00e1gios imaturos de actinote surima ( schaus ) ( lepidoptera , nymphalidae , acraeinae ) . revista brasileira de zoologia , 16 ( supl . 2 ) : 129 - 140 . [ links ]\npaluch , m . ; m . m . casagrande & o . h . h . mielke . 2001 . est\u00e1gios imaturos de actinote carycina jordan ( lepidoptera , nymphalidae , acraeinae ) . revista brasileira de zoologia 18 ( 3 ) : 883 - 896 . [ links ]\nstehr , f . w . 1987 . order lepidoptera , p . 288 - 596 . in : f . w . stehr ( ed . ) immature insects . dubuque , kendal / hunt , 750p . [ links ]\ntoro , j . l . 2000 . \u00e1rboles y arbustos del parque regional arv\u00ed . medell\u00edn , corantioquia , 281p . [ links ]\nv\u00e9lez , a . ; p . duque & m . wolff . 2008 . mariposas del parque ecol\u00f3gico piedras blancas . gu\u00eda de campo . medell\u00edn , fondo editorial comfenalco antioquia , 204p . [ links ]\nvalencia , c . a . ; z . n . gil & l . m . constantino . 2005 . mariposas diurnas de la zona central cafetera colombiana . gu\u00eda de campo . chinchin\u00e1 , cenicaf\u00e9 , 244p . [ links ]\ncaixa postal 19020 81531 - 980 curitiba pr brasil tel . / fax : ( 55 41 ) 3266 - 6823 sbz @ urltoken\npapilio doris linnaeus , 1771 ; mantissa plant . 2 : 356 ; tl :\nsurinami\n[ surinam ]\ncrenis brylle h\u00fcbner , 1821 ; index exot . lep . : [ 2 ]\ne - mail : jshuey at tnc . org ; director of conservation science ; indiana office of the nature conservancy ;\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nweymer , 1891 exotische lepidopteren . v stettin ent . ztg 51 ( 7 - 12 ) : 280 - 294\nfor full functionality of this site it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions for enabling javascript in your web browser . orcid uses cookies to improve your experience and to help us understand how you use our websites . learn more about how we use cookies .\nother organization identifiers provided by { { group . getactive ( ) . disambiguationsource . value } }\nsource : { { ( group . getactive ( ) . sourcename = = null | | group . getactive ( ) . sourcename = = ' ' ) ? group . getactive ( ) . source : group . getactive ( ) . sourcename } }\n{ { ( work . sourcename = = null | | work . sourcename = = ' ' ) ? work . source : work . sourcename } }\nsource : { { ( work . sourcename = = null | | work . sourcename = = ' ' ) ? work . source : work . sourcename } }"]}
{"id": 2456, "summary": [{"text": "the grey-lined hawk ( buteo nitidus ) is a smallish raptor found in open country and forest edges .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "it is sometimes placed in the genus asturina as asturina nitida .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the species has been split by the aou from the grey hawk .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the grey-lined hawk is found from southern costa rica to argentina .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the grey-lined hawk is 46 \u2013 61 cm ( 18 \u2013 24 in ) in length and weighs 475 g ( 16.8 oz ) average .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the adult has a pale grey body , the tail is black with three white bands and the legs are orange .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it has fine white barring on the upper parts .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "immature birds have dark brown upperparts , a pale-banded brown tail , brown-spotted white underparts and a brown streaked buff head and neck .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this species is quite short-winged , and has a fast agile flight for a buteo .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "it feeds mainly on lizards and snakes , but will also take small mammals , birds and frogs .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it usually sits on an open high perch from which it swoops on its prey , but will also hunt from a low glide .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the nest is of sticks and built high in a tree .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the usual clutch is one to three , usually two white to pale blue eggs .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the young take about 6 weeks to fledging . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "grey - lined hawk", "paragraphs": ["photo of adult grey - lined hawk perched in dead tree . note barred back and nape , compared with unbarred grey back and nape of grey hawk .\ngrey - lined hawk ( buteo nitidus ) is a species of bird in the accipitridae family .\n38\u201346 cm ; male 350\u2013497 g , female 320\u2013592 g ; wingspan 75\u201394 cm . grey overall , with fine dark grey barring above and bolder white barring below ; tail . . .\n38 - 46 cm . a small pale grey hawk with fairly broad wings , extensively barred dark grey . the tail has a single solid black sub - terminal band . fast flapping flight with short glides , soars on flat wings . voice . a high , clear , drawn out disyllabic whistle .\nbierregaard , r . o . , jr , boesman , p . & marks , j . s . ( 2018 ) . grey - lined hawk ( buteo nitidus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\neitniear , j . , s . mcgehee , w . waddell . 1990 . gray hawk mobbed by olive - throated parakeets .\nglinski , r . 1988 . gray hawk . pp . 83 - 86 in r glinski , b pendleton , m moss , m lefranc , jr . , b millsap , eds .\ngrey - lined hawk , buteo nitidus , parque natural tayrona , birds caribe birding in santa marta many endemics ( about 25 ) and specialties occur here including santa marta antpitta , band - tailed , santa marta wood wren , bangs wood wren , white - tipped quetzal , santa marta sabrewing , santa marta wren , blue bearded helmetcrest , white - tailed starfrontlet , santa marta warbler , santa marta parakeet , santa marta mountain - tanager , yellow - crowned whitestart , santa marta bush - tyrant , santa marta rufous antpitta , brown - rumped tapaculo , rusty - headed spinetail , santa marta brush - finch , santa marta blossomcrown , santa marta foliage - gleaner , golden - breasted fruiteater , yellow - legged and black - hooded thrushes , black - headed tanager \u2013furthermore an undescribed species of santa marta screech - owl , rusty - breasted antpitta , santa marta tapaculo , black backed thornbill , .\napparently some gray hawk pairs stay together after the breeding season is over . the gray hawks that overwintered in arizona were a pair . glinski called them out by mimicking their territorial breeding calls , and they responded in kind ( glinski , 1998 ) .\nthis species and b . plagiatus sometimes placed in asturina , partly because of distinctive moult pattern . probably closest to b . ridgwayi and b . lineatus ; previously considered to form a clade with these and rupornis magnirostris , but latter found to be basal to all buteos # r # r # r , and this group may be more closely allied to leucopternis than to buteo . until recently , commonly considered conspecific with b . plagiatus , which differs in its plain vs barred grey crown , nape , back and wings ( 3 ) ; uppertail coverts white vs grey with white tips , resulting in bold vs narrow white band on base of uppertail ( 2 ) ; and longer call , without sudden drop in pitch in middle of note ( 2 , perhaps 3 ) # r . n race blakei previously known as costaricensis , but latter name invalid , as preoccupied ( by b . jamaicensis costaricensis ) . three subspecies usually recognized .\nthere are no documented cases of predation of gray hawks , but like other mid - sized hawks , they may be vulnerable to larger birds of prey . raptor nestlings in the tropics may on rare occasions succumb to predation from arboreal hunters such as monkeys , coatis , snakes , and other birds , so it is possible that gray hawk nestlings may as well ( emmons and feer , 1997 ) .\non their wintering range , other factors could lead to gray hawk decline . glinski banded seven nestlings in arizona that were recovered in northern sinaloa state in mexico , and six of these had been shot . the greatest threat on these wintering grounds , however , is habitat loss . there , the gray hawks\u2019 thornscrub habitat is being widely cleared for agriculture . gray hawks continue to persist along the living fence rows of trees that divide the agricultural fields , but it is unclear how many hawks this disrupted habitat can support , nor , ultimately , what effects this might have on arizona\u2019s breeding population . little is known about demographics or conservation throughout the rest of the gray hawk ' s range ( glinski , 1988 , 1998 ; nabhan and sheridan , 1977 ; tellman et al . , 1997 ; urls below ) .\ngray hawks are important predators of smaller lizards and snakes throughout their range , though cryptic coloration , speed , and good hiding places can help some reptile prey evade capture . gray hawks occasionally prey upon small birds . smaller birds will often deter predation by mobbing birds of prey to drive them away . olive - throated parakeets have been seen mobbing a gray hawk to force it to leave the area ( eitniear et al . , 1990 ) .\nthroughout their range , gray hawks inhabit woodlands and arid deciduous forests . in the tropics they prefer dry second growth forest and thorn scrub . they tend to select patchy open forest , forest edges , and savanna trees . it is not uncommon to find them on agricultural fields . in denser woodland they tend to keep high in the forest canopy . gray hawk northern breeding range is found in deciduous cottonwood - willow forests and mesquite bosques along riparian corridors or in evergreen oak woodlands ( glinski , 1998 ; stiles and skutch , 1989 ) .\nsince the range of gray hawks in the united states is so limited , many birdwatchers come to arizona and texas to see them . bird watching has become increasingly important to the economy of southeastern arizona . just as the gray hawk ' s distribution barely extends into southern arizona , so do the ranges of many other tropical and subtropical bird species . several migratory species also use the area\u2019s river corridors as they pass north from mexico . over 400 bird species draw birdwatchers from around the world . their visitation has been an economic boon to the area . in 2001 , visitors to two well - known birding spots in southeastern arizona - ramsey canyon preserve and the san pedro riparian national conservation area - spent an estimated $ 10 . 1 million to $ 16 . 9 million . about a third of the gray hawk nest sites in arizona have been identified in the san pedro ncr . while gray hawks are not the sole draw to the area , the numbers clearly illustrate the impact that conservation has on regional economies . gray hawks , as well as people , stand to benefit from this perceived economic value . ( bibles , 1999 ; relly , 2002 ; viers , 2000 ) .\nbibles ( 1999 ) also revealed that gray hawks prefer home ranges with taller trees and more open understory , probably because these enable them to observe their cryptic prey more easily . the increased flight space may also facilitate greater capture success . mesquite bosques are the primary foraging areas of gray hawks breeding in arizona because they have these characteristics . the amount of mesquite bosque seems to be the main factor that determines habitat quality in gray hawk nesting range in arizona . ( amadon and phillips , 1939 ; bibles , 1999 ; glinski , 1988 ; glinski and millsap , 1987 ; gurrola - hidalgo and chavez , 1996 ; stensrude , 1965 ) .\ngray hawks from northern populations arrive in arizona around mid - march to breed . nest site fidelity is high , and gray hawk territories remain fairly constant from year to year . pairs begin building the nest right after courtship , but they partition the work . the male builds the foundation , and the female shapes most of the bowl out of green , leafy twigs from the nest tree or neighboring trees . northerly - breeding gray hawks primarily nest in cottonwood trees , but they will also nest in willow , ash , oak , hackberry , and mesquites . they choose nest sites in the upper third of the tree , usually in branches away from the trunk . nests are crow - sized , about 60 cm across . the female usually lays two eggs in early may , although studies of nest productivity in arizona have recorded nests with four or even eight eggs per clutch with a mean of 1 . 2 or 1 . 1 young per occupied breeding site . the eggs are white to pale blue and rarely marked . only females incubate the eggs . incubation lasts about 33 days , during which the male captures food for the female . after hatching , the young stay in the nest for about six weeks .\n) range from the amazon basin in south america into the southwestern united states . they are migratory in the northern part of their range , arriving in southern arizona and extreme south texas in the spring to breed , and occasionally entering new mexico . these northern members of the species generally depart in mid - october to overwinter in mexico , although they can be found in south texas year - round , and rare records exist of winter residents in arizona . further south in their range , gray hawks are non - migratory ( glinski , 1998 ; kaufman , 2000 ; stiles and skutch , 1989 ; terres , 1980 ) .\ngray hawks are medium - sized , woodland buteos , with shorter wings and longer tails than typical buteos . adult birds have a slate - gray back , finely barred gray and white underparts , a black tail with two or three white bands , and a white rump . juveniles have dark brown backs and buff - streaked underparts , brownish - gray tails with five to nine narrow black bars , and a dark brown eye stripe . both adult and immature birds have dark gray or black beaks , brown irises , and yellow ceres and legs . males are smaller than females . gray hawks fly with accipiter - like movements , alternately flapping and gliding gracefully . their flight pattern and gray color is similar to that of northern goshawks , which led to their other common name , \u201cmexican goshawks . \u201d northern goshawks , however , have a white eyebrow and lack the tail barring distinctive of gray hawks ( glinski , 1998 ; kaufman , 2000 ; stiles and skutch , 1989 ; terres , 1980 ; wheeler and clark , 1995 ) .\narizona is the northernmost stronghold of breeding gray hawks , with nearly 80 known nest sites , most of which are protected in nature preserves or conservation easements . six pairs also nest regularly along the rio grande river in south texas . there is one reported incidence of nesting in new mexico . further south in their range , gray hawks are non - migratory and nest from december through may in tall , evergreen trees ( bibles , 1999 ; brandt , 1951 ; glinski , 1988 ; glinski , 1998 ; hubbard , 1974 ; stiles and skutch , 1989 ; terres , 1980 ) .\nfemales alone provide incubation , but the male feeds her . the male provides most of the food for the first two weeks post - hatching , after which the female begins to hunt as well . it is not known how quickly the young can hunt for themselves once they leave the nest .\ngray hawks are swift , agile fliers that can actively pursue prey by maneuvering through trees . they perch in the forest understory , locate prey in the trees or on the ground with their keen eyesight , and make short dashes to capture it whit their talons . they take reptiles , small mammals , birds , and some insects . in arizona , glinski ( 1988 ) studied food types delivered to nestlings and found that the diet was composed predominantly of terrestrial and arboreal lizards ( 74 % ) , garter snakes ( 5 % ) , nestling and adult birds ( 11 % ) , and mammals ( 10 % ) . bibles\u2019 ( 1999 ) study of nest productivity in arizona revealed similar findings , with reptiles comprising 68 . 6 % of prey delivered to nestlings ( all were lizards but for one snake ) , mammals 19 . 6 % ( rodents and one rabbit ) , birds 9 . 8 % , and amphibians 2 % ( a toad ) .\ngray hawks have no special conservation status , although their limited numbers at the northern extreme of their range have led management agencies in arizona to regard them as \u201csensitive species\u201d and in texas to consider them \u201cthreatened . \u201d arizona breeding populations seem to be holding steady , with reproduction balancing the losses from mortality . fortunately , most of the 80 nest sites in arizona today are located on protected lands . concerned about how human demand for ground and surface water has seriously reduced desert riparian areas in the southwestern united states , private landowners and public and private conservation organizations have worked to set aside the remaining riparian corridors in southern arizona . further protection of the cottonwood - willow forests and mesquite bosques they support will demand protection of the waters that sustain them . if land managers succeed , this will be good news for gray hawks and the myriad other species that use these areas . their only threat then would be recreational disturbance . nesting gray hawks are sensitive to human activity near their nests , and many of the protected areas are frequented by recreational groups . something as innocuous as a family picnic unknowingly staged near a nest tree can cause gray hawks to abandon their nest .\nrobin kropp ( author ) , university of arizona , jorge schondube ( editor ) , university of arizona .\nliving in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .\nliving in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .\nyoung are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nhumans benefit economically by promoting tourism that focuses on the appreciation of natural areas or animals . ecotourism implies that there are existing programs that profit from the appreciation of natural areas or animals .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\nforest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nreproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .\nreferring to something living or located adjacent to a waterbody ( usually , but not always , a river or stream ) .\nthe region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .\ntexas parks and wildlife , texas threatened and endangered birds\n( on - line ) . accessed april 12 , 2002 at urltoken .\nusda forest service , coronado national forest , santa catalina ranger district , tucson , arizona , usa . threatened , endangered , and sensitive species\n( on - line ) . accessed april 12 , 2002 at urltoken .\namadon , d . , a . phillips . 1939 . notes on the mexican goshawk .\n. albuquerque , new mexico : unpublished report to office of endangered species , u . s . fish and wildlife service .\ngurrola - hidalgo , m . , n . chavez . 1996 . serpentes : lampropeltis triangulum nelsoni ( milk snake ) . predation . .\nnabhan , g . , t . sheridan . 1977 . living fencerows of the rio san miguel , sonora , mexico : traditional technology for floodplain management .\nrelly , j . 2002 .\narizona daily star : birding ' s big bucks . february 7 , 2002\n( on - line ) . accessed april 12 , 2002 at urltoken .\nstensrude , c . 1965 . observations on a pair of gray hawks in southern arizona .\narizona\u2019s changing rivers : how people have affected the rivers . water resources research center issue paper 19\nviers , j . 2000 .\neconomic development institute 2000 abstracts - southeastern arizona birdng trail\n( on - line ) . accessed april 12 , 2002 at urltoken .\n. london , san diego : academic press , harcourt brace and co . .\nto cite this page : kropp , r . 2002 .\nasturina nitida\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\nbuteo nitidus and b . plagiatus ( del hoyo and collar 2014 ) were previously lumped as b . nitidus following aou ( 2006 ) , the gender agreement of which follows david and gosselin ( 2002a ) , and before then were placed in the genus asturina following aou ( 1998 ) , and before then were split as a . nitida and a . plagiata following sibley and monroe ( 1990 , 1993 ) .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthis species has a large range from central america to amazonia and south into argentina . occurs from southwest costa rica south through panama and colombia to west ecuador on the west of the andes and on the east of the andes from east colombia , venezuela and guianas through east ecuador , northeast peru and much of brazil to north and east bolivia , paraguay and north argentina . the species is also found on trinidad .\ndescribed in parts of very large range as locally common and tolerant of open and secondary forest ; typically absent from closed humid forest . population likely to be large ( ferguson - lees & christie 2001 ) . trend justification : this species is suspected to lose 21 . 3 - 28 . 7 % of suitable habitat within its distribution over three generations ( 22 years ) based on a model of amazonian deforestation ( soares - filho et al . 2006 , bird et al . 2011 ) . it is suspected to decline by < 25 % over three generations as it is not highly forest - dependent , favouring open country and forest edges .\noccurs in very wide variety of forest habitats from gallery and open woodland through to fairly open savannah with clumps of trees but is not typically found in dense humid forest . found from sea level up to 800 m , occasionally as high as 1 , 300 m . feeds on reptiles , amphibians , insects , small mammals and birds .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n( todd , 1915 ) \u2013 e bolivia and c brazil ( mato grosso to piau\u00ed and rio de janeiro ) s to paraguay and n argentina ( s to tucum\u00e1n and n santa fe ) .\nthere are two primary vocalizations : a series of 3\u20138 piping notes used primarily during the . . .\nadaptable , found in lowland tropical to subtropical zones in rain forest edge , disturbed forest and . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . cites ii . no hard data on numbers or population trends , but generally considered widespread , locally common to relatively numerous , . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\npreviously incorporated several other genera , including e . g . rupornis , morphnarchus , pseudastur , as well as leucopternis and buteogallus . present arrangement based largely on recent molecular studies # r # r # r , but further modification likely .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\njosep del hoyo , thore noernberg , pieter de groot boersma , greg baker , jacob . wijpkema , david ascanio , desmond allen , anthony laven , helbert e . noventa .\nmargareta wieser , lars petersson , jacob . wijpkema , luis r figueroa , paul van giersbergen , josef widmer , eduardo freitez gassan , stanislav harvan\u010d\u00edk , holger teichmann , thore noernberg , manakincarmelo , rodrigo y castro , nimali digo and thilanka edirisinghe , christophe gouraud , lmarce , juan fdo . alvarez castro , mauricio rueda , roger ahlman , samantha klein , sirroyalty , joe tobias , dusan m . brinkhuizen , manakin nature tours , tadeusz stawarczyk , alfredo rosas .\ncombined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : buteo nitidus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 293 , 917 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n* * direct email link protected by javascript . enable javascript or email ' ian ' ( at symbol ) ' urltoken ' . * *\naperture : f8 . 0 shutter speed : 1 / 2000 sec focal length : 400 . 0 mm\nmodel : canon eos 450d exposure : 1 / 1250 s aperture : 5 . 6 focal length : 390 mm iso : 200 flash : no"]}
{"id": 2475, "summary": [{"text": "erebia cyclopius is a species of butterfly of the satyrinae subfamily in the family nymphalidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found from the ural to siberia , northern mongolia , northern china and north korea .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of forest edges , flowery meadows and sparse larch forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the wingspan is 46 \u2013 62 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on wing from june to july .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the species overwinters in the larval stage . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "erebia cyclopius", "paragraphs": ["erebia cyclopius ( eversmann , 1844 ) = erebia cyclopia = cyclopius ( eversmann , 1844 ) .\nbuy butterflies for sale satyridae : erebia cyclopius set 10 from siberia online . worldwide shipping ! beautiful insect butterflies for sale satyridae : erebia cyclopius set 10 for sale at the bugmaniac , one of the world ' s largest dealers of preserved dried insects .\n( 2008 ) : a checklist of the satyrine genus erebia ( lepidoptera ) ( 1758\u20132006 ) .\n{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . erebia cyclopius eversmann , 1844 . [ online ] india biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 9 , 2018 ] .\nfirst of the three erebia plates in the 1915 macrolepidoptera of the world , edited by adalbert seitz . this work was published near the height of taxonomic confusion about these butterflies .\nthe yellow - banded ringlet ( erebia flavofasciata ) is a member of the satyrinae subfamily of nymphalidae . it is a high mountain butterfly found in a small area of the alps in switzerland and italy .\nerebia is a holarctic genus of brush - footed butterflies , family nymphalidae . most of the about 90\u2013100 species ( see also below ) are dark brown or black in color , with reddish brown to orange or more rarely yellowish wing blotches or bands . these usually bear black spots within , which sometimes have white center spots .\nthis genus has found it easy to adapt to arid and especially cold conditions . most of its members are associated with high - altitude lands , forest clearings or high latitude and tundra . erebia species are frequent in the alps , rocky mountains , subarctic and even arctic regions , and the cooler parts of central asia . in fact , the north american term for these butterflies is\nalpines\n. eurasian species are collectively known as\nringlets\nor\narguses\n. however , none of these terms is used exclusively for this genus .\na peculiar case is the colorado alpine , the nominate subspecies of erebia callias . this isolated rocky mountains population has been lumped with the siberian brassy ringlets as they are almost alike morphologically . though one might suspect stronger differentiation and perhaps marked cryptic speciation across the wide range , the rocky mountains population is apparently a very recent isolate . its ancestors apparently crossed over the bering strait at the end of the wisconsinian glaciation , about 15 . 000 - 10 . 000 years ago . thus , brassy ringlets are present on the north american continent quite exactly for the same length of time as a significant human population .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n\u00b7 type locality .\n. . . in provincia irkuzkiensi\n[ irkutsk region , russia ] .\n\u00b7 range . from the n . urals across siberia , n . mongolia and n . china to n . korea .\n\u00b7 distribution and variation . the s . urals , central and s . siberia , the altai and sayan mts . , transbaikalia - the nominate subspecies ; the amur and ussuri regions - ssp . aporia schawerda , 1919 ; sakhalin - yoshikurana kishida et nakamura , 1941 .\n\u00b7 habitat and biology . forest edges , flowery meadows , sparse larch forests , in the mountains up to 2 , 000 m a . s . l . flight period : june - july . larvae hibernating .\n\u00b7 similar species . e . wanga : unh without bluish postdiscal band . e . edda : upf double eye - spot diffusely bordered with reddish colour ; unh without bluish postdiscal band .\nphoto and text : guide to the butterflies of russia and adjacent territories volume 1 . pensoft , sofia - moscow . 1997\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\n| | best supported on google chrome , firefox 3 . 0 + , internet explorer 8 . 0 + , safari 4 . 0 + , opera 10 + . powered by the open source biodiversity informatics platform . technology partner strand life sciences\nour new search experience requires javascript to be enabled . please enable javascript on your browser , then try again .\nebay determines this price through a machine - learned model of the product ' s sale prices within the last 90 days .\ncopyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 ebay inc . all rights reserved . user agreement , privacy , cookies and adchoice\namounts shown in italicized text are for items listed in currency other than canadian dollars and are approximate conversions to canadian dollars based upon bloomberg ' s conversion rates . for more recent exchange rates , please use the universal currency converter\nthis page was last updated : 09 - jul 15 : 22 . number of bids and bid amounts may be slightly out of date . see each listing for international shipping options and costs .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncopyright \u00a9 andre gorodinski . the insects from the palaearctic region . web design by mrs . l . gorodinski . special thanks to mr . a . malinin for technical support website .\nthe wingspan is 46\u201362 mm . adults are on wing from june to july .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nregions of the russian federation : gorno - altai , trans - baikal , krasnoyarsk , nizhny - amur , prealtay , of baikal , pribaikalskiy , primorye , sakhalin , the north - yenisei north okhotsk , mid - amur , average okhotsk , mid - ural , sredneobskaya , tuva , south - uralsky , south yakutia .\n[ 10 ] de jong , y . s . d . m . ( ed . ) ( 2011 ) fauna europaea version 2 . 4 ( faunaeur . org )\n[ 85 ] urltoken ( insecta . pro previous version / c\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430\u044f \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u044f insecta . pro )\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nexports data using a reporting template , the format and the data being exported depends on the desired template to be selected in the next step .\nexports data using a standard excel tabular display format , the data being exported depends on the desired fields to be selected in the next step .\njan van tol general coordinator ncb barcoding ncb naturalis email : jan . vantol @ urltoken\nvincent robert coordinator ncb barcoding part iii cbs - knaw email : v . robert @ urltoken\na diverse and widespread holarctic genus , with some species distributed in both western north america and eastern eurasia .\nphylogenetic relationships among the tyndarus group are based on albre et al . ' s ( 2008 ) study of mitochondrial dna sequences . the remainder of this diverse genus awaits phylogenetic study .\nlarval host plant is unknown . a swiss subspecies , e . flavofasciata warreni , has been proposed .\n( i . e . , without discussing synonymy and relationships ) was published in 2008 .\n. but things hardly improved as more and more of the diversity of these butterflies came to note . in\n. in the 19th and early 20th century the alps were a popular destination for butterfly collectors and specimens of alpine butterflies were very profitable for dealers . the dealers , mostly german , not only sold specimens , but were\nthis , together with the then - popular , even obsessive study of variation by entomologists\u2014examples are james william tutt , george wheeler , felix bryk and brisbane charles somerville warren \u2014led to very many names being applied to what may be or much more likely may not be biological species or subspecies . a further problem is the use of the term\nvariety\n. authors of that time used this for an individual variant , a group of individuals morphologically but not otherwise related , seasonal forms , temperature - related forms , or geographic races ; it was later usually taken to mean the last subspecies though this is often suspected to have been premature .\nstudies add to the available data , it is becoming clear that most\nvarieties\nthat have at least been commonly considered subspecies in the latter 20th century are indeed lineages distinct enough to warrant some formal degree of recognition . another result of recent research is confirmation of the theory that this genus contains many glacial\nspecies is given variously around 90 - 100 , as developments happen so fast that it is hard for authors to remain up to date regarding the newest changes .\nbrower ( 2006 ) , albre et al . ( 2008 ) , and see savela ( 2008 ) for more sources\njim p . brock and k . kaufman . kaufman field guide to butterflies of north america , new york , ny : houghton mifflin , 2003 .\n( lepidoptera , rhopalocera , nymphalidae , satyrinae ) species group combining coxii and nd5 mitochondrial genes : a case study of a recent radiation .\n. version of 2006 - nov - 28 . retrieved 2008 - aug - 11 .\n. version of 2008 - feb - 04 . retrieved 2008 - aug - 11 .\n. version of 2008 - mar - 15 . retrieved 2008 - aug - 11 .\n\u2013 , and in many cases certainly close relatives . a notable trait of their genus is an ability to adapt well to cold and somewhat\nbrassy ringlets are mid - sized members of their genus , with a length of 17\u201322 mm ( roughly two - thirds to one inch ) .\n- colored patch that is lighter than the blackish - brown upperwings . in some , a third black spot , much smaller and without the white dot , is present at the opposite end of the reddish patch . the hindwings have no black spots in many , but in some\nthere are a few ( 2 - 4 or so ) black dots , usually without white in the center , paralleling the outer margin . if hindwing spots are present , they are sometimes surrounded by a lighter brown field like the forewing spots , sometimes not . the wing undersides are\ncolored , usually in greyish - brown and often with a noticeable band arching through the central hindwing , the rest of which has a silvery sheen which makes these species quite recognizable in flight .\nthe eyespots and the forewing patch surrounding them are found on the forewing undersides also ; if a hindwind pattern is present , it may or may not show up on the under hindwings either whole or in parts . the common name derives from the\nas it seems , the origin of this group is perhaps south of the central asian or more likely in the balkans region . probably around 1 million years ago during the pre - pastonian stage , the original population expanded north . during an interstadial , the southern montane metapopulation and the one to the north which ranged across the eurasian taiga split .\ntwo major southern populations were established some 800 . 000 - 700 . 000 years ago during the pastonian stage , when the habitat belt moved uphill , cutting off gene flow between major mountain ranges . coincident with the g\u00fcnz - mindel interglacial , about 600 . 000 - 500 . 000 years ago some more distinct local populations diverged in the south .\nmeanwhile , the northern population had been spreading across europe to the pyrenees and deep into siberia . with the ice \u2013 which had then been covering much of northern and central europe \u2013 retreating at the end of the elsterian stage between 400 . 000 - 300 . 000 years ago , the taiga population and their relatives in the mountains of central and western europe became isolated for good . finally , at the end of the riss / saale glaciation about 130 . 000 years ago , alpine and siberian populations fragmented further . the former stayed rather distinct while more subsequent gene flow occurred between the latter ; this difference is probably an effect of habitat topography .\n, the molecualr and morphological data are still more in favor of retaining a single species .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nsize : 160 x 230 mm wide extend : 544 pp , 10000 colour illustrations , more then 700 maps .\nn . africa ( from morocco to egypt ) , asia minor and near east .\nall information ( text , map and illustrations ) presented on the same page .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\n2 probably this species photographed on the dry hill north of markakol and 4 + almost certainly this species on the way up the alatay pass . 2 / 14\nsubspecies \u2018alpherakyi\u2019 . seen above cim bulak , almaty and 2 + between kamenka and ust - kamenogorsk . 2 / 14\nprobably widespread but only identified with certainty on 4 days . certainly there were other colias species present that went unidentified\nnoted in the kalbinskiy hills and 1 on the alatay pass . 3 / 14\nat times the commonest of the wood whites at markakol . distinctive with pronounced \u2018cross - bars\u2019 on the hindwings and slightly more attentuated forewings . 3 / 14\n1 on the marble pass and 3 + on the dry hill north of markakol . 2 / 14\nnoted between ust - kamenogorsk and zaysan and several at the yourta service area there on the way back . 2 / 14\nthe commonest blue in meadows between markakol and the burkhat pass . 2 / 14\ncommon on the dry hill north of markakol and on the alatay pass . 2 / 14\nsingles on the alatay pass and on the northward tributary of the buktarma below the climb to rakhmanovskie klyuchi . 2 / 14\n1 in the kalbinskiy hills and also noted at the bee farm near kamenka . 2 / 14\nseen on the alatay pass . like the next species but with no orange areas on the inner part of wing\nsingles at markakol and by the north tributary of the bukhtarma river below the rise to rakhmanovskie klyuchi . 2 / 14 . a very distinctive ringlet\nsingles on the alatay pass and in a bog by the lake at rakhmanovskie klyuchi . 2 / 14"]}
{"id": 2479, "summary": [{"text": "amphizoa lecontei is a species of aquatic beetle .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "adults have a body length between 11-16mm .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its elytron has a distinct carina on fifth interval .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "found in western north america , especially in the rocky mountains .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its common name is \" trout-stream beetle \" .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "its synonym is amphizoa carinata . ", "topic": 21}], "title": "amphizoa lecontei", "paragraphs": ["html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nproceedings of the california academy of sciences , vol . 44 , no . 6\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ncontributed by phillip harpootlian on 18 december , 2008 - 12 : 02pm additional contributions by mike quinn , t . loh last updated 5 april , 2016 - 6 : 24pm\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nnew evidence on the phylogeny and biogeography of the amphizoidae : discovery of a new species from china ( coleoptera ) .\ncitation : peiyu , y . , and n . e . stork . 1991 . new evidence onthe phylogeny and biogeography of the amphizoidae : discovery of a new species from china ( coleoptera ) . syst . entomol . 16 ( 2 ) : 253 - 256 .\na systematic review of amphizoid beetles ( amphizoidae : coleoptera ) and their phylogenetic relationships to other adephaga .\ncitation : kavanaugh , d . h . , 1986 . a systematic review of amphizoid beetles ( amphizoidae : coleoptera ) and their phylogenetic relationships to other adephaga . proc . california acad . sci . 44 ( 6 ) : 67 - 109 .\na treatise on the western hemisphere caraboidea ( coleoptera ) : their classification , distributions , and ways of life . vol . iii\npensoft series faunistica 99 . pensoft publishers , sofia - moscow . 412 pp . , 2011\nfull title : a treatise on the western hemisphere caraboidea ( coleoptera ) : their classification , distributions , and ways of life . volume iii ( carabidae \u2013 loxomeriformes , melaeniformes )\na treatise on the western hemisphere caraboidea ( coleoptera ) : their classification , distributions , and ways of life . vol . i\npensoft series faunistica 66 . pensoft publishers , sofia - moscow . 323 pp . , 2007\nfull title : a treatise on the western hemisphere caraboidea ( coleoptera ) : their classification , distributions , and ways of life . volume i ( trachypachidae , carabidae - nebriiformes 1 ) .\nchecklist of the water beetles of florida this checklist registers species known to occur in florida , based on literature citations and material examined by the author . it also includes taxa which may occur in florida ; many of these taxa occur on the u . s . southeastern coastal plain but have not been positively identified from florida . note also that some literature records may be considered doubtful ; some species recorded in earlier literature but misidentified are not listed . only important synonyms pertaining to florida water beetles are listed . in general , only aquatic or semi - aquatic species are listed . the families , genera and species are listed in alphabetic order . undescribed taxa are assigned letter or number designators .\nworld catalogue of insects . vol . 7 : amphizoidae , aspidytidae , haliplidae , noteridae and paelobiidae . ( coleoptera : adephaga ) .\nby nilsson , a . n . and b . j . van vondel . 2005 .\nlimited preview anders n . nilsson , bernhard j . van vondel . 2005 . world catalogue of insects . vol . 7 : amphizoidae , aspidytidae , haliplidae , noteridae and paelobiidae . ( coleoptera : adephaga ) . apollo books , vester - skerninge , denmark . 171 pp . world catalogue of insects is an initiative aiming at compiling worldscale , authoritative catalogues of monophyletic insect taxa . volumes in this series will contain standard nomenclatoral information on all names pertaining to the taxon treated , including type locality and distribution to the extent this is relevant .\non apple osx , or right click on the text above to copy the link .\nmedium - sized ( 11 . 7 - 14 . 0mm ) ; body moderately broad and dark brown or dull black ; pronotum with coarse , sparse puntures ; elytra finely and densely pitted ; elytral striae completely and faintly impressed ; coarsely punctate ; elytron flattened medially with blunt but distint carina on 5th interval ; area medial to carina elevated and flat ; area lateral to carina slightly concave . ( see also identification of genus ) .\nextends from southern yukon territory , south along rocky mountains through alberta and british columbia to chuska mountains of northeast arizona and the sangre de cristo range of northern new mexico ; eastward from wallowa mountains of northeastern oregon and independence mountains of northeastern nevada to the bighorn mountains of north - central wyoming and the front range of central colorado .\ncomments are published according to our submission guidelines . the eh strickland entomological museum does not necessarily endorse the views expressed .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\nthe phylogenetic propositions of baehr ( 1979 ) , and kavanaugh ( 1986 ) , are not consistent with the interpretation provided herein , whereas the conclusions of burmeister ( 1976 ) , ruhnau ( 1986 ) and beutel ( 1986 ) seem to correlate well . therefore , it is suggested that the amphizoidae are the sistergroup of hygrobiidae + dytiscidae .\npresent address : institut f\u00fcr zoologie , rwth aachen , kopernikusstrasse 16 , d - 5100 aachen , federal republic of germany .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !"]}
{"id": 2488, "summary": [{"text": "hayesiana triopus is a moth of the family sphingidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is known from nepal , north-eastern india , southern china and thailand .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the wingspan is 64 \u2013 78 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the metanotum is dark brown with creamy white stripes .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the abdomen upperside is black with an interrupted belt of red and lateral orange spots .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the underside of the thorax and abdomen is reddish-orange .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the forewing upperside is dark grey-green with six narrow transverse blackish bands .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the discal spot is large , rectangular and translucent .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwing upperside is black with a conspicuous white costal patch and tornal area .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwing underside is reddish orange .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "it is a diurnal species with a fast but bumbling flight .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "adults are attracted to the flowers of agapanthus africanus in hong kong .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae have been recorded feeding on adina globiflora in india . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "hayesiana triopus", "paragraphs": ["macroglossa triopus westwood , 1847 , cabinet oriental ent . : [ 14 ] , pl . 6 , fig . 4 . type locality : [ india , ] assam .\ntransferred to rhodosoma by butler , 1876 , trans . zool . soc . lond . 9 : 534 ; then to hayesiana by fletcher & nye , 1982 , in nye ( ed . ) , generic names moths of the world 4 : 74 . erroneously transferred implicitly to rhodosoma by zhu & wang , 1997 , fauna sinica insecta 11 : 317 . implicitly transferred back to hayesiana by kitching & cadiou , 2000 , hawkmoths of the world : 47 .\nwingspan : 64 - - 78mm . an unmistakeable species . forewing upperside dark grey - green ( fading to greyish - brown ) with six narrow transverse blackish bands ; discal spot large , rectangular and translucent . hindwing upperside black with conspicuous white costal patch and tornal area . hindwing underside reddish orange ( as abdomen underside ) . metanotum dark brown with creamy white stripes . abdomen upperside black with an interrupted belt red and lateral orange spots . underside of thorax and abdomen reddish - orange .\na diurnal species with a fast but bumbling flight - - has difficulty pinpointing flowers . attracted to the flowers of agapanthus africanus in hong kong . will fly during damp , overcast conditions and in hot , sunny weather , generally during the the late morning and early afternoon ( r . kendrick , pers . comm . , 2000 ) . the resting position is the same as for those of the genus macroglossum ( bell & scott , 1937 ) .\nchina : vi ( guangdong ; hong kong ) ; 10 . viii ( simao / pu ' er , yunnan ) ; ix ( hong kong ) .\novum : broadly ovoid ; surface smooth and shiny ; colour pale grass - green ; size larger than those of macroglossum and cephonodes ( bell & scott , 1937 ) .\nlarva : full - fed 70mm , width 11mm , horn 14mm . according to bell & scott ( 1937 ) , in the final instar head round , surface smooth . body tapering sharply frontad from segment 5 ; horn long , stout , laterally compressed , ending in a sharp point , basal half gently upcurved , distal half gently down - curved . surface of body dull and smooth except for four small tubercles on the front half of each of segments 6 to 11 , on the dorso - lateral stripe , those on 7 and 8 larger than the rest . horn with tubercles on dorsal and ventral surface .\nin colour , head green , with a white stripe separating face from cheek . body pale green , the divisions between the secondary rings white . there is an indistinct dark green dorsal stripe and a white dorso - lateral stripe , the latter clearly defined on 2 to 4 , faint on 5 to 11 , and with white tubercles on 6 to 11 , edged above with dark green on these segments . there are bluish - white oblique lateral stripes , which are clearest on 7 to 9 . horn bluish - green with a small , triangular , bluish latero - basal patch , the tubercles green . true legs pale flesh - colour , outer faces red ; shanks of prolegs dull terracotta . spiracles pure white with a broad transverse brick - red band across the middle of all except those on segments 11 and 12 , which are immaculate white and twice as large as the rest ( bell & scott , 1937 ) .\npupa : 42 - - 52mm , breadth 11 - - 14mm . very like that of cizara sculpta in shape . in colour , tongue greyish - green , darker at tip ; thorax and wing - case greyish - green ; two pale chestnut spots on segment 2 . legs dark chestnut barred with pale orange , abdomen pale ochreous - brown above , reddish - brown with short longitudinal chestnut lines below ; bevels of free abdominal segments dark chestnut . there are broad blackish patches and short black lines between the spiracles of segments 3 to 10 . tongue - case projecting slightly beyond the frons ; antenna equal to fore leg , coxal piece absent or rudimentary . surface smooth and shiny . cremaster conical , tapering gently to a short , widely bifid tip ( bell & scott , 1937 ) .\nlarval hostplants . adina globiflora ( rubiaceae ) in india ( bell & scott , 1937 ) .\nchina : yunnan ( simao / pu ' er ) ; guangdong ( longtou shan ) ; hong kong ; guangxi ( longmen ) .\nnepal , bhutan , northeastern india , southern china , thailand and northern vietnam . also recorded from fraser ' s hill , peninsular malaysia ( cheongweei gan , pers . obs . 2015 )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncopyright \u00a9 2013 www . sphingidae - museum . com . all rights reserved ."]}
{"id": 2489, "summary": [{"text": "gnophaela clappiana is a moth of the erebidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by holland in 1891 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found from arizona and new mexico to colorado .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is 21 \u2013 25 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on wing from late july to early august .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae have a shining dark maroon head .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "in the mid-dorsal line of the body , there is a row of bright yellow triangles .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "lateral to this is a row of large warty double tubercles of a glistening steel-blue colour , each with a tuft of hairs .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "between these tubercles is a patch of velvety dull black .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "there are also a number of yellow lines and steel-blue tubercles . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "gnophaela clappiana", "paragraphs": ["gnophaela clappiana ; [ nacl ] , # 8033 ; watson & goodger , 1986 , occ . papers on syst . entomology 1 : 34 ; [ nhm card ] ; schmidt & opler , 2008 , zootaxa 1677 : 14 ; vincent & laguerre , 2014 , zoosystema 36 ( 2 ) : 440\ngnophaela epicharis druce , 1896 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 6 ) 18 ( 103 ) : 40 ; tl : guatemala\ngnophaela baileyi laguerre & monzon , 2014 ; j . ins . biodiv . 2 ( 2 ) : 3 ; tl : guatemala , huehuetenango , todos santos , villa alicia\ngnophaela discreta ; [ nacl ] , # 3036 ; watson & goodger , 1986 , occ . papers on syst . entomology 1 : 34 ; [ nhm card ] ; schmidt & opler , 2008 , zootaxa 1677 : 14 ; vincent & laguerre , 2014 , zoosystema 36 ( 2 ) : 440\ngnophaela latipennis ; [ nacl ] , # 8034 ; watson & goodger , 1986 , occ . papers on syst . entomology 1 : 34 ; [ nhm card ] ; schmidt & opler , 2008 , zootaxa 1677 : 14 ; vincent & laguerre , 2014 , zoosystema 36 ( 2 ) : 440\ngnophaela vermiculata ; [ nacl ] , # 8037 ; watson & goodger , 1986 , occ . papers on syst . entomology 1 : 34 , f . 27 ; [ nhm card ] ; schmidt & opler , 2008 , zootaxa 1677 : 14 ; vincent & laguerre , 2014 , zoosystema 36 ( 2 ) : 439\ngnophaela aequinoctialis ; godman & salvin , 1885 , biol . centr . - amer . , lep . heterocera 1 : 115 ; [ nacl ] , # 3035 ; watson & goodger , 1986 , occ . papers on syst . entomology 1 : 34 , f . 28 ; [ nhm card ] ; schmidt & opler , 2008 , zootaxa 1677 : 14 ; vincent & laguerre , 2014 , zoosystema 36 ( 2 ) : 440\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\npowell , j . a . & p . a . opler , moths of western north america , pl . 48 . 3m ; p . 271 . book review and ordering\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nthe information below is based on images submitted and identified by contributors . range and date information may be incomplete , overinclusive , or just plain wrong .\nhover over black occurrence boxes to see number of images submitted . log in to make states , months and boxes clickable .\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 16 august , 2013 - 9 : 39pm\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 4 july , 2013 - 12 : 52am\nphylogeny of milkweed tussocks ( arctiidae : arctiinae : phaegopterini ) and its implications for evolution of . . .\nby michelle a . dacosta , paul larson , julian p . donahue , susan j . weller\nannals of the entomological society of america 99 ( 5 ) : 723 - 742 . , 2006\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 7 may , 2013 - 12 : 35am\nsix species of tiger moths ( arctiidae : lithosiinae , ctenuchinae ) new to the united states fauna , with notes on their . . .\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 28 april , 2013 - 12 : 04am\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 26 april , 2013 - 7 : 42pm\ntiger moths and woolly bears : behavior , ecology , and evolution of the arctiidae .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhodges , r . w . et al . , eds . 1983 . check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . e . w . classey limited and the wedge entomological research foundation , london . 284 pp .\nfollowing lafontaine and schmidt ( 2010 ) , the traditional arctiidae have been transferred to the family erebidae as a subfamily ( arctiinae ) , with former subfamilies such as lithosiinae now treated as tribes . the circumscription of arctiinae remains virtually identical to recent circumscriptions of arctiidae , but circumscriptions of some taxa within the arctiinae have changed .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nlafontaine , j . d . and b . c . schmidt . 2010 . annotated check list of the noctuoidea ( insecta , lepidoptera ) of north america north of mexico . zookeys 40 : 1 - 239 .\nlafontaine , j . d . and m . fibiger . 2006 . revised higher classification of the noctuoidea ( lepidoptera ) . canadian entomologist 138 : 610 - 635 .\nschmidt , b . c . and p . a . opler . 2008 . revised checklist of the tiger moths of the continental united states and canada . zootaxa 1677 : 1 - 23 .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\nall documents and related graphics provided by this server and any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server are provided\nas is\nwithout warranty as to the currentness , completeness , or accuracy of any specific data . natureserve hereby disclaims all warranties and conditions with regard to any documents provided by this server or any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , including but not limited to all implied warranties and conditions of merchantibility , fitness for a particular purpose , and non - infringement . natureserve makes no representations about the suitability of the information delivered from this server or any other documents that are referenced to or linked to this server . in no event shall natureserve be liable for any special , indirect , incidental , consequential damages , or for damages of any kind arising out of or in connection with the use or performance of information contained in any documents provided by this server or in any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , under any theory of liability used . natureserve may update or make changes to the documents provided by this server at any time without notice ; however , natureserve makes no commitment to update the information contained herein . since the data in the central databases are continually being updated , it is advisable to refresh data retrieved at least once a year after its receipt . the data provided is for planning , assessment , and informational purposes . site specific projects or activities should be reviewed for potential environmental impacts with appropriate regulatory agencies . if ground - disturbing activities are proposed on a site , the appropriate state natural heritage program ( s ) or conservation data center can be contacted for a site - specific review of the project area ( see visit local programs ) .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\ngonophaela [ sic ] morrisoni druce , 1885 ; biol . centr . - amer . , lep . heterocera 3 : pl . 12 , 7\nlarva on cynoglossum grande , c . occidentale , hackelia californica , mertensia sp . , myosotis sp . godfrey & crabtree , 1986 , j . lep . soc . 40 ( 3 ) : 206 - 213\njosiomorpha cathetozosta becker , 2013 ; j . res . lepid . 46 : 61 , 54 ( list ) ; tl : guatemala , quetzaltenango , aguas georninas\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nbiologia centrali - americana ; or contributions to the knowledge of the fauna of mexico and central america . zoology . lepidoptera . heterocera\nwatson & goodger , 1986 catalogue of the neotropical tigermoths occ . papers on syst . entomology 1 : 1 - 71\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nsources : specimens in the ua insect collection , michael singer ( eeb , u of a ) , ray nagle ( u of a medical school ) , ferguson et al . 2000 .\nlafontaine , , j . d . , and b . c . schimdt . 2010 . annotated check list of the noctuoidea of north american north of mexico .\nferguson , d . c . and p . a . opler . 2006 . checklist of the arctiidae of ontiental united states and canada .\nferguson , d . c . , p . a . opler , m . j . smith , and j . p . donahue . 2000 .\nmoths of western north america . 3 . distribution of arctiidae of western north american .\ncontributions of the gillette arthropod diveristy museum , colorado state university . also see moths of north america ' s\nferguson , d . c . 1985 . contributions toward reclassification of the world genera of the tribe arctiini , part 1 - - introduction and a revision of the neoarctia - grammia group ( lepidoptera : arctiidae ; arctiinae ) .\nfranclemont , j . g . 1966 . two new species of arctiidae from southern arizona . proceedings of the entomological society of washington 68 : 250 - - 257 .\nknowlton , c . b . 1967 . a revision of the species of cisthene known to occur north of the mexican border . transactions of the american entomological society 93 : 41 - - 103 .\nrecord in richers database : rustler park 8500 ' , cochise co 17 aug 1998 . leuscher id\nreported ( madera cyn , 1 aug 1965 ) by donahue ( 1993 , j . lep . soc 47 : 199 - 210 ) .\nrecord in richers database : cave creek , cochise co . 26 august 1976 , leuschner id\n( mona 8253 ) has black antennae and the wings have a glossy sheen .\nhas white - to - pale - grayish antennae and the wings are dull .\nreported ( douglas : 7 oct 1945 , 4 may 1986 [ uv light ] ) by donahue ( 1993 , j . lep . soc 47 : 199 - 210 ) .\nbruce walsh . jbwalsh @ urltoken . comments , correction and additions most welcome . to get to my home page ."]}
{"id": 2491, "summary": [{"text": "appias sabina , the sabine albatross or albatross white , is a butterfly of the pieridae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in africa .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the wingspan is 44 \u2013 55 millimetres ( 1.7 \u2013 2.2 in ) for males and 44 \u2013 53 mm ( 1.7 \u2013 2.1 in ) for females .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on wing year-round .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on drypetes gerrardi , drypetes ugandensis , ritchiea fragrans , phyllanthus , and boscia species", "topic": 29}], "title": "appias sabina", "paragraphs": ["appias ( glutophrissa ) bicolor appias ( glutophrissa ) defecta appias ( glutophrissa ) divisapex appias ( glutophrissa ) latimarginata appias ( glutophrissa ) reversa appias haendeli appias isokani var . dubia appias sabina f . absyrtus appias sabina f . divisapex appias sabina f . epaphioides appias sabina f . euphrosyne appias sabina f . reversa appias sabina f . semiepaphia appias sabina f . thalia appias sabina sabina f . bicolor appias sabina var . defecta appias sabina var . latimarginata appias udei appias weberi belenois confusa belenois coniata mylothris majungana papilio hecyra phrissura phoebe pieris ( phrissura ) coniata f . hemichlora pieris sabina\nappias ( glutophrissa ) bicolor ( talbot , 1943 ) appias ( glutophrissa ) defecta ( gaede , 1916 ) appias ( glutophrissa ) divisapex ( hulstaert , 1924 ) appias ( glutophrissa ) latimarginata ( gaede , 1916 ) appias ( glutophrissa ) reversa ( stoneham , 1957 ) appias haendeli ( suffert , 1904 ) appias isokani var . dubia ( aurivillius , 1899 ) appias sabina f . absyrtus ( stoneham , 1957 ) appias sabina f . divisapex ( hulstaert , 1924 ) appias sabina f . epaphioides ( stoneham , 1957 ) appias sabina f . euphrosyne ( stoneham , 1957 ) appias sabina f . reversa ( stoneham , 1957 ) appias sabina f . semiepaphia ( strand , 1911 ) appias sabina f . thalia ( stoneham , 1957 ) appias sabina sabina f . bicolor ( talbot , 1943 ) appias sabina var . defecta ( gaede , 1916 ) appias sabina var . latimarginata ( gaede , 1916 ) appias udei ( suffert , 1904 ) appias weberi ( suffert , 1904 ) belenois confusa ( butler , 1872 ) belenois coniata ( butler , 1879 ) mylothris majungana ( grose - smith , 1891 ) papilio hecyra ( mabille , 1880 ) phrissura phoebe ( butler , 1901 ) pieris ( phrissura ) coniata f . hemichlora ( mabille , 1898 ) pieris sabina ( c . & r . felder , 1865 )\nappias sabina ( albatross white ) male , ngoye . [ photo steve woodhall \u00a9 ]\nappias sabina ( albatross white ) female , ngoye . [ photo steve woodhall \u00a9 ]\nappias sabina ( albatross white ) male , ngoye . [ photos steve woodhall \u00a9 ]\nat first glance appias sabina can be mistaken for certain mylothris species , but in appias the apex on the forewing is more acute . in sabina the black spots are small and do not extend onto the costa of the forewing . in similar mylothris species , e . g . poppea and rhodope , there is a flush of bright yellow at the base of the underside forewings , but in appias sabina the yellow is restricted to the costa of the hindwing .\nappias sabina , the sabine albatross or albatross white , is a butterfly of the pieridae family . it is found in africa . the habitat consists of forests .\nappias sabina is a common and widely distributed species found across most of sub - saharan africa from sierra leone to western kenya , and south to the northern parts of south africa . it also occurs on madagascar and the comoro islands .\nthere are about 23 - 28 species that are currently accepted as members of appias , comprising 7 - 8 species from the australian region , 16 - 20 from the oriental region , and 6 in africa . it is difficult to be precise about numbers as there is uncertainty regarding the taxonomic status of some species .\n\u00a9 2016 , butterfly conservation society , ghana - african butterfly research institute - icom ltd .\nthis is a forest species , often seen along logging roads , but is migratory in behaviour so can turn up in savannah / woodland habitats , botanical gardens and city parks .\nmales are usually seen singly or in two ' s and three ' s amidst aggregations of belenois , eurema and mylothris , imbibing mineralised moisture around the edges of puddles on forest tracks .\nall photographs , artwork , text & website design are the property of adrian hoskins ( unless otherwise stated ) and are protected by copyright . photographs or text on this website must not be reproduced in part or in whole or published elsewhere without prior written consent of adrian hoskins / urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe website uses cookies to allow us to better understand how the site is used . by continuing to use this site , you consent to this policy . click to learn more .\nnotification will be sent to your e - mail address every time the item price is decreased .\ncopyright \u00a9 2012 insect designs . all rights reserved . abn : 75141197423 | ecommerce website by online visions\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\njavascript is turned off in your web browser . please turn it on to take full advantage of arctos , or try our html specimensearch option .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nright now the scientific names on some species do not show on the site - we are working to fix this problem which should be solved after the back - up this morning .\nupload tip : if your photo does not get uploaded properly , try to resize it to less than 3 mb .\nwould you like to see your friends photos in the igoterra gallery ? invite them and get 2 months free subcription extension for every new friend who joins . click here to get to the invitation page\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nthe wingspan is 44\u201355 millimetres ( 1 . 7\u20132 . 2 in ) for males and 44\u201353 mm ( 1 . 7\u20132 . 1 in ) for females . adults are on wing year - round ."]}
{"id": 2503, "summary": [{"text": "cinara pilicornis , the spruce shoot aphid or brown spruce shoot aphid , is an aphid species in the genus cinara found on norway spruce ( picea abies ) and sitka spruce ( picea sitchensis ) .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it is a quite large aphid species with a plump , dull brown body .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it seems to have little effect on the tree .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "it is a european species but it has also been reported in spruce forests in new zealand , together with the spruce aphid ( elatobium abietinum ) .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "c. pilicornis , which is attended by the honeydew-collecting ants formica polyctena , is seldom attacked by the parasitoid wasp pauesia pini .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is also a host for entomophthora fungi .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "c. pilicornis produces the trisaccharide melezitose .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "citronellol , cis \u2013 trans-nepetalactone and cis \u2013 trans-nepetalactol are stress-induced compounds released by the host plant .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "these compounds originated from the aphids and they are assumed to be pheromone components for this aphid species . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "cinara pilicornis", "paragraphs": ["[ cinara pilicornis , syn . : c . hyalinus , c . piceicola , c . pinicola , aphis pilicornis , cinaropsis pilicornis , lachnus piceicola ]\nzhang , guangxue , wanyu zhang & tiesen zhong . 1993 . sinozoologia 10 : 134 > > cinara pilicornis\nsemiochemicals related to the aphid cinara pilicornis and its host , picea abies : a method to assign nepetalactone diastereomers .\neastop & hille ris lambers . 1976 . survey of the world\u2019s aphids 73 , 153 , 236 - 238 > > cinara pilicornis\nof the 31 aphid species blackman & eastop list as feeding on sitka spruce ( picea sitchensis ) baker ( 2015 ) lists 16 as occurring in britain : adelges abietis , adelges cooleyi , adelges laricis , adelges viridis , aphis fabae , cinara costata , cinara piceae , cinara piceicola , cinara pilicornis , cinara pruinosa , elatobium abietinum , mindarus obliquus , neomyzus circumflexus , pachypappella lactea , pineus similis , and prociphilus xylostei .\ngittins , bishop , knowlton & parker . 1976 . research bulletin of the idaho agricultural experiment station 96 : 11 > > cinara pilicornis\nsemiochemicals related to the aphid cinara pilicornis and its host , picea abies : a method to assign nepetalactone diastereomers . - pubmed - ncbi\neastop , miyazaki & sorin . 1998 . miscellaneous publication of the national institute of agro - environmental sciences 22 : 3 > > cinara pilicornis\nzhang , guangxue , lijuan liu , he & tiesen zhong . 1988 . acta entomologica sinica 31 ( 2 ) : 228 > > cinara pilicornis\npashtshenko & lobkova . 1990 . in lelej [ ed . ] . news of insect systematics of the soviet far east 7 > > cinara pilicornis\nghosh , a . k . 1982 . the fauna of india and adjacent countries . homoptera , aphidoidea . part 2 . subfamily lachninae 51 > > cinara pilicornis\nhottes . 1953 . proceedings of the biological society of washington 66 : 158 > > cinara pilicornis urn : lsid : aphid . speciesfile . org : taxonname : 16086\nthe cinara pilicornis alate ( see above , second ) is greyish - brown with transverse waxy bars and little sclerotization . the apterous males are green with an elongate flattened body .\ninouye . 1970 . bulletin of the government forest expereriment station 228 : 80 > > cinara ( cinaropsis ) pilicornis urn : lsid : aphid . speciesfile . org : taxonname : 16089\ndanielsson . 1987 . population structure , genetics and taxonomy of aphids and thysanoptera . proceedings of the international symposium , smolenice , czechoslovakia , 9 - 14 september 1985 340 > > cinara pilicornis\nzhang , guangxue , xiaolin chen , tiesen zhong & jinghua li . 1999 . in zhang , guangxue [ ed . ] . fauna of agricultural and forestry aphids of northwest , china : insecta homoptera aphidinea 198 > > cinara pilicornis\nstadler , b ( 1997 ) . egg distribution and survival of cinara pilicornis ( hartig ) on damaged and undamaged norway spruce ( picea abies ) ( l . ) karst . , journal of applied entomology , 121 , 71 - 75 . abstract\nspruce aphid , elatobium abietinum forest and timber insects in new zealand no . 54 : spruce aphid . revised 2009 based on r . zondag ( 1983 ) insect : elatobium abietinum ( walker ) ( hemiptera : aphididae ) * * one other aphid , cinara pilicornis\u2026\nmamontova . 1972 . fauna ukraini 20 ( 7 ) : 147 > > cinaria pilicornis urn : lsid : aphid . speciesfile . org : taxonname : 16090\nb\u00f6rner . 1952 . mitteilungen der th\u00fcringischen botanischen gesellschaft supplement 3 : 43 > > cinaropsis ( cinaropsis ) pilicornis urn : lsid : aphid . speciesfile . org : taxonname : 16087\nhartig . 1841 . zeitschrift f\u00fcr die entomologie , herausgegeben von ernst friedrich germar 3 : 369 > > aphis pilicornis urn : lsid : aphid . speciesfile . org : taxonname : 184956\npa\u0161ek . 1954 . conifer aphids in czechoslovakia ( homoptera - aphidoidea ) 207 > > cinaria ( cinaropsis ) pilicornis urn : lsid : aphid . speciesfile . org : taxonname : 501976\nsteffan . 1972 . in schwenke [ ed . ] . die forstsch\u00e4dlinge europas . ein hanbuch in f\u00fcnf b\u00e4nden . erster band : w\u00fcrmer , schnecken , spinnentiere , tausendf\u00fcssler und hemimetabole insekten 364 > > cinaropsis pilicornis\nvolatiles released by seedlings of norway spruce infested with the aphid cinara pilicornis were analyzed using spme\u2013gc\u2013ms . among the stress - induced compounds released by the host plant , citronellol , cis\u2013trans - nepetalactone and cis\u2013trans - nepetalactol was found . these compounds originated from the aphids and they were assumed to be pheromone components for this aphid species . to determine the relative stereochemistry of the nepetalactone , a diagnostic method was developed . the method was based on multivariate analysis of tabulated relative intensities of mass fragments of the four nepetalactone diastereomers . in the practical method described , a few pairs of fragments in the mass spectra were compared and , in combination with the kovat ' s index , were used to unambiguously identify the relative stereochemistry of the nepetalactone .\nvolatiles released by seedlings of norway spruce infested with the aphid cinara pilicornis were analyzed using spme - gc - ms . among the stress - induced compounds released by the host plant , citronellol , cis - trans - nepetalactone and cis - trans - nepetalactol was found . these compounds originated from the aphids and they were assumed to be pheromone components for this aphid species . to determine the relative stereochemistry of the nepetalactone , a diagnostic method was developed . the method was based on multivariate analysis of tabulated relative intensities of mass fragments of the four nepetalactone diastereomers . in the practical method described , a few pairs of fragments in the mass spectra were compared and , in combination with the kovat ' s index , were used to unambiguously identify the relative stereochemistry of the nepetalactone .\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\nprotecting our eucalyptus trees wednesday , june 20 , 2018 scion are undertaking community pre - consultation on a proposed biological control of the eucalyptus tortoise beetle . eucalyptus plantations are a recognisable part of new zealand\u2019s diversified forestry industry . they provide pulp and\u2026\nforest industry reputation damaged by mobilisation of forest harvest residues sunday , may 27 , 2018 the successful prosecution of a forest management company by the marlborough district council has been endorsed by the forest owners association . merrill and ring has been fined $ 39 , 000 and ordered\u2026\nbiosecurity levy proposal tuesday , may 15 , 2018 as it affects plantation forest owners . consultation document : the new zealand forest owners association ( foa ) and the nz farm forestry association ( ffa ) acting on behalf of new zealand plantation forest\u2026\nforest industry backing judgment against forest companies monday , april 23 , 2018 forest industry associations are supporting penalties imposed in the district court against bay of plenty forest owner whitikau holdings and two harvesting contractors . the companies pleaded guilty to charges laid\u2026\nnew free online forest productivity calculator for small growers sunday , march 25 , 2018 a new online calculator for radiata pine and douglas - fir productivity is now available , free of charge . the forecaster calculator was built for owners and advisors of small forests , who\u2026\nconsultation starts on fumigant for forest industry to replace methyl bromide tuesday , february 27 , 2018 a significant milestone has been reached in replacing methyl bromide as the standard fumigant for export logs and timber . the environmental protection authority has just released application details for approval\u2026\nbillion tree planting timetable gives industry confidence wednesday , february 21 , 2018 forest owners say the announcement of the timetable for the government\u2019s billion tree ten year project will give confidence that the massive afforestation is a serious proposition . the forestry minister\u2026\ncutting rights proposal jeopardising government\u2019s billion tree and climate change mitigation goals saturday , february 03 , 2018 the forest owners association is against the proposal the overseas investment office should approve or decline sales of forest cutting rights . the foa says it would jeopardise the government\u2019s ambitions\u2026\njim anderton\u2019s legacy contribution to forest industry sunday , january 07 , 2018 the forest owners association is paying tribute to jim anderton for his contribution to the forest industry . president peter clark says jim anderton had a keen eye for the significance\u2026\ngovernment recognises forestland and farmland different cases for overseas investment wednesday , november 29 , 2017 the forest owners association says the government would be jeopardising its billion - tree target if it hadn\u2019t separated forest and farmland in its ministerial directive to the overseas investment office . the\u2026\nfarm foresters says foresters should check all selling options for best returns monday , november 27 , 2017 new zealand farm forestry association president neil cullen recommends small - scale forest owners check what offers might be available from local timber processors when they go to sell their woodlots . nzffa , \u2026\n( see section below for colour forms ) . the whole aphid is clothed with\n, or at least paler basally and medially than at apex . most of hairs on the outer side of the middle section of the hind tibia\nwhich has the hairs on the outer side of the hind tibiae all less than 0 . 12 mm long ) . the second hind\nwhich have the second tarsal segment shorter than the maximum diameter of the cones ) . the siphunculi are\nis found throughout europe through to china and japan and it has been introduced to australia , new zealand , north and south america .\nlays its eggs in autumn on current year needles . the eggs begin hatching early the next march before bud burst . initially small colonies develop on undersides of the previous year ' s twigs , but these move on to new growth after bud - burst as shown below . the\nthe mealy covering becomes more apparent ( see picture below ) . the species is usually not ant attended .\n( see first picture below ) which are larger and somewhat darker than their eventual offspring .\nspecies . numerous alatae are produced in may - july ( see picture below ) .\nthere are two colour forms - orange brown or greyish green . an apterous adult of the orange - brown form is pictured below , together with immatures of the green form ( or possibly green males ) .\nreport that in some years it is extremely abundant among young spruce plantations . they also comment that it was far less common in the 1950s and 1960s than it was in the 1980 ' s . our own impression is that it is now less common than at the time carter & maslen were writing , possibly because of a decline in the planting of spruce .\nlooked at factors affecting the low temperature survival of the eggs on sitka spruce . glycerol and mannitol were present in the eggs but neither appeared to be related to their supercooling ability which was related to the temperature in the period preceding collection .\nlooked at the effect of high levels of pollution on the spruce shoot aphid . under experimental conditions aphid populations were found to be higher on seedlings exposed to pollutants ( gaseous sulphur dioxide , sodium fluoride , calcium nitrate and ammonium sulphate ) than on those not exposed . fluoride had a stronger positive effect on aphid numbers than sulphur dioxide or nitrogen .\n) . host trees showing either heavy symptoms of needle - yellowing or looking green and healthy were compared . host plant quality did not seem to influence the proportion of eggs surviving to spring . also , the biomass of developing first instar larvae of the fundatrices was independent of the degree of needle - yellowing . damaged or stressed trees did\nprovides an important source of honeydew for bee populations . hence bee keepers view this aphid very favourably , although it can damage young trees . moulds growing on honey dew may stain shoots black . there is some evidence that the aphid can cause the current year ' s needles to turn yellow and fall from the lower side of the shoots that have supported colonies .\nwe have made provisional identifications from high resolution photos of living specimens , along with host plant identity . in the great majority of cases , identifications have been confirmed by microscopic examination of preserved specimens . we have used the keys and species accounts of blackman & eastop ( 1994 ) and blackman & eastop ( 2006 ) supplemented with blackman ( 1974 ) , stroyan ( 1977 ) , stroyan ( 1984 ) , blackman & eastop ( 1984 ) , heie ( 1980 - 1995 ) , dixon & thieme ( 2007 ) and blackman ( 2010 ) . we fully acknowledge these authors as the source for the ( summarized ) taxonomic information we have presented . any errors in identification or information are ours alone , and we would be very grateful for any corrections . for assistance on the terms used for aphid morphology we suggest the figure provided by blackman & eastop ( 2006 ) .\nexcept where otherwise specified , all text and images on this page are copyright influentialpoints under a creative commons attribution 3 . 0 unported license on condition that a link is provided to urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\naphid species file ( version 5 . 0 / 5 . 0 ) home search taxa key help wiki\ndisplay . you can modify these specifications at any time by clicking the\nchange items displayed\nbutton in the header .\nif you want your changes to be preserved for future sessions , you should login . to do this , click on the logo in the upper left corner .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 . except where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution - sharealike 4 . 0 international license .\nin continuing your browsing of this site , you accept the use of cookies to offer you suitable content and services and realize visits statistics . learn more about cookies .\ncorresponds to a report on the basis of at least one observation proved within a period of 10 years ( 20 years for little - known invertebrates ) preceding the year and no presumption of extinction since obtaining the last data nor doubt on reproductive and implemented nature of this population . for migratory species , the presence indicated concerns areas of reproduction .\nthe last reliable sighting is older than 10 years compared to the reference date , no recent specific research and no presumption of extinction from that date [ vertebrates , invertebrates and plants well studied ( rhopalocera , grasshoppers , dragonflies . . . ) ] ;\nthe last reliable observation being older than 20 years , no recent specific research and no presumption of extinction from that date [ poorly known taxa : fungus , many invertebrates . . . ] .\nthis point covers the absence , more difficult by nature to demonstrate than presence . this status is based on one or more of the following criteria :\nthis status must be assigned to a department in which the presence of the species is casual .\nparticular case of absence due to a proven extinction less than a half century ago ( older disappearances are treated as\nno probable or definite\n) .\nin the state of knowledge , we can not comment on the presence or absence in the current department . this is the default status when not comprised in one of the previous categories or whenever there is doubt .\nwarning : the data available reflects the progression status of knowledge or the availability of the inventories . it should never be considered as comprehensive .\nnational inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nenglish - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\npettersson m 1 , unelius cr , valterov\u00e1 i , borg - karlson ak .\nkth , school of chemical science and engineering , department of chemistry , ecological chemistry group , se - 100 44 stockholm , sweden .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user"]}
{"id": 2509, "summary": [{"text": "the biak scops owl is an owl endemic to the twin islands of biak-supiori in geelvink bay , papua ( formerly irian jaya ) , indonesia .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "it is classified as vulnerable due to its very small range and destruction of its habitat .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "biak scops owls ( scops beccarii salvadori ) are 20 \u2013 25 cm birds from the genus outs contain 45 other species .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "biak scops are frequently seen as dark brown and dark rufous forms with long ear tufts and pale a whitish brown facial disc .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "baik 's are very small creatures , but have hoarse , corvid - like voices .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "their diet mostly consist of small vertebrates or insects , although due to being an ongoing decline they are seldomly seen ; however , most are found in blaik island in heavy wooded areas near villages in supiori islands off northwest new guinea .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "however , the reproducing of biak scops owls is unknown and is still in the process of studying . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "biak scops owl", "paragraphs": ["the biak scops owl is a small owl with moderately long ear - tufts . it is also known as the beccari scops owl .\nowl information . . . index of owl species . . . photos of various owl species for identification\nthe biak scops owls measure about 8 - 10 inches ( 20 - 25 cm ) in length .\nthe biak island scops owls ( otus beccarii ) - also known as beccari scope owls , moluccan scops owls or papuan scops owls - are endemic to the twin islands of biak - supiori in geelvink bay , off northwestern new guinea papua ( formerly irian jaya ) in indonesia .\nbiak scops owls have a very small range and are endangered due to destruction of their forest habitats , and their numbers are suspected to be declining .\naustralasia : biak island . otus beccarii is endemic to the twin islands of biak - supiori in geelvink bay , papua ( formerly irian jaya ) , indonesia\n25 cm ; no data on body mass . medium - sized scops - owl ; said to occur in dark and rufous - brown and tawny and dark grey - brown forms ; almost certainly morphs , but sometimes . . .\n( gibbs 1993 , poulsen and frolander 1994 , eastwood 1996b ) . one was heard in and around biak - utara reserve in 1997\n. 2012 ) . subsequently , it has been suggested that this species is widespread in forested habitats around biak and supiori ( b . beehler\n2000 ) . however , more recently , the species has been encountered regularly in remnant forest patches in southern biak ( k . d . bishop\ntawny - brown owl with short , inconspicuous ear - tufts . yellow eyes . rather distinct , pale whitish eyebrows and facial disc . densely barred brown upperparts with some white on scapulars . brown or rich rufous underparts , probably colour morphs but possibly sex dimorphism , with very fine barring . similar spp . the only owl on biak - supiori . papuan frogmouth podargus papuensis and large - tailed nightjar caprimulgus macrurus have different habits and long tails . voice probably a harsh croak , rasping at close range but sounding more like a deer\u2019s bark at long range . hints calling birds can usually be stalked and seen in the beam of a torch\nmembers of the genus otus are the scops and screech owls . they are relatively small owls , with short , rounded wings . most have erectile ear - tufts . otus is a worldwide genus , containing some 45 species .\nholt , d . w . , berkley , r . , deppe , c . , enr\u00edquez rocha , p . , petersen , j . l . , rangel salazar , j . l . , segars , k . p . , wood , k . l . , de juana , e . , sharpe , c . j . & marks , j . s . ( 2018 ) . biak scops - owl ( otus beccarii ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\n25 cm . tawny - brown owl with short , inconspicuous ear - tufts . yellow eyes . rather distinct , pale whitish eyebrows and facial disc . densely barred brown upperparts with some white on scapulars . brown or rich rufous underparts , probably colour morphs but possibly sex dimorphism , with very fine barring .\nidentify and record the species ' s vocalisations to aid detection . conduct surveys on both biak and supiori , using tape - playback of vocalisations , to establish its current distribution , population status and assess its habitat requirements . investigate further its taxonomic status and relationship to other\nczech : v\u00fdrecek beccariuv , v\u00fdre ? ek beccari ? v . . . danish : papuadv\u00e6rghornugle . . . dutch : biak - dwergooruil . . . estonian : biaki p\u00e4ll . . . finnish : biakinp\u00f6ll\u00f6nen . . . french : petit - duc de beccari . . . german : beccarieule , beccari - zwergohreule . . . indonesian : celepuk biak . . . italian : assiolo di beccari . . . japanese : biakukonohazuku . . . norwegian : biakugle . . . polish : syczek papuaski . . . russian : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? , ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? . . . slovak : v\u00fdrik biacky . . . spanish : autillo de biak . . . swedish : biakdv\u00e4rguv . . . chinese : ? ? ? ?\nthere are very few records of this species , which is classified as endangered on the basis of its very small range and apparent restriction to tall lowland forest , which is severely fragmented and declining . however it may prove to be more common and widespread , and justify reclassification as vulnerable . its status is unclear , as it is a nocturnal species with poorly - known calls and only recently considered to be a separate species . a 1973 survey of the island found only one pair , it was not recorded during three 1990s visits to biak and just one was heard in and around biak - utara reserve in 1997 . however , two were heard one morning in 1995 , and it was suspected to be fairly widespread in moderate numbers in 1982 , based on vocalisations and local reports , although not actually observed .\nthe population is estimated to number 2 , 500 - 9 , 999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records , descriptions of abundance and range size . this is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size , and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated extent of occurrence is likely to be occupied . this estimate is equivalent to 3 , 750 - 14 , 999 individuals , rounded here to 3 , 500 - 15 , 000 individuals . it is assumed that all mature individuals are in a single sub - population ( g . dutson in litt . 2013 ) . trend justification : the widespread loss of forest on the island of biak suggests that the species has declined , but parts of supiori are virtually impenetrable and as such may provide a refuge . based on this information , the population is suspected to be declining at a moderate rate .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nholt , d . w . ; berkley , r . ; deppe , c . ; enriquez rocha , p . l . ; olsen , p . d . ; petersen , j . l . ; rangel salazar , j . l . ; segars , k . p . ; wood , k . l . 1999 . strigidae ( typical owls ) . in : del hoyo , j . ; elliott , a . ; sargatal , j . ( ed . ) , handbook of the birds of the world , pp . 76 - 242 . lynx edicions , barcelona , spain .\nprobably a harsh croak , rasping at close range but sounding more like a deer ' s bark at long range .\ncalling birds can usually be stalked and seen in the beam of a torch .\nvulnerable b1ab ( ii , iii , v ) ; c2a ( ii ) ver 3 . 1\nbeehler , b . , bishop , k . , dutson , g . , holmes , d . , ripley , s . , van balen , b . & van beirs , m .\nallinson , t , benstead , p . , bird , j . , dutson , g . , symes , a . & taylor , j .\nthis species has been downlisted to vulnerable on the basis that its habitat is not as fragmented as once thought , along with evidence that it is more widespread than previously thought . nevertheless , its population is estimated to be small and inferred to be in on - going decline .\n1999 ) . its status is uncertain , as it is a nocturnal species with poorly - known calls and only recently considered to be a separate species . a survey of the island in 1973 found only one pair\n2000 ) . furthermore , forest does not regenerate easily on areas of raised coralline limestone . much of supiori comprises virtually impenetrable forest on limestone mountains , which is likely to be safe from habitat degradation .\nspecies . afford formal protection to key sites supporting the species , as appropriate .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\noriginal description : salvadori , tommaso . 1876 . annali del museo civico di storia naturale di genova , 7 ( 1875 ) , p . 906 - 907 .\nk\u00f6nig , claus & weick , friedhelm . 2008 .\nowls : a guide to the owls of the world ( second edition )\n. yale university press .\nmikkola , heimo . 2013 .\nowls of the world : a photographic guide ( second edition )\n. bloomsbury .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : otus beccarii . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nsometimes treated as conspecific with either o . manadensis or o . magicus ; song similar to latter\u2019s , but significant differences from both in plumage . monotypic .\nhoarse , corvid - like croak , repeated in series ; at close range , described as \u201ca quite . . .\ndense forest and forest edge ; locally near villages . occurs from near sea - level to 1000 m elevation .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nsequence of species in this genus is adopted in an attempt to conform to the findings of several recent molecular - phylogenetic studies # r # r , notwithstanding difficulty that a considerable number of taxa have not yet been sampled . relationships of many species remain uncertain . includes genus mimizuku . previously incorporated genus megascops .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\ntheir primary habitats are forests , including partially logged forests , up to at least 1 , 000 feet ( 300 m ) and coastal swamp forests bounded by heavily forested limestone cliffs . they appear to avoid heavily logged or degraded forests\nthey have short , inconspicuous ear - tufts and densely barred brown upperparts with some white on the scapulars ( shoulder feathers ) . the plumage below is brown or rich rufous , with fine barring .\nthe only other owls occurring within their range - - the papuan frogmouth podargus papuensis and large - tailed nightjar caprimulgus macrurus - - can easily be differentiated by their long tails .\nfor updates please follow beautyofbirds on google + ( google . com / + avianweb )\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 293 , 274 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nrarest bird in the world : the cone - billed tanager , the mystery .\natlapetes blancae , 8 years later , still not found . wish or species ?\nit inhabits forest , including partially logged forest , up to at least 300 m , including coastal swamp - forest bounded by heavily forested limestone cliffs . it may be poorly tolerant of habitat degradation , as there have been no records from heavily logged or degraded forest .\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15"]}
{"id": 2520, "summary": [{"text": "pygopristis denticulata is a species of piranha .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is a rare south american fish found in the orinoco river basin , north and eastern guiana shield rivers , and tributaries of the lower amazon river .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "specimens of this species is frequently found in acidic clear or black waters .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "they usually feed on aquatic insects , small fish , and fruits .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "p. denticulata has pentacuspid teeth and a middle cusp that is usually only slightly larger than the other cusps .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "this is unlike the piranhas , which have tricuspid teeth with a larger middle cusp , making the teeth appear triangular .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "p. denticulata grows to about 20.0 cm ( 7.9 in ) in tl .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it has 62 chromosomes .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "this fish possesses powerful dentition that can cause serious bites .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "it has scales . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "pygopristis denticulata", "paragraphs": ["species is sexually dimorphic based on a lobed anal fin on male p . denticulata .\npygopristis antoni ( fern\u00e1ndez - y\u00e9pez ) from venezuela is a synonym of pristobrycon striolatus . what i found interesting is the photograph of serrasalmus punctatus schomburgk ( pg . 9 ii . 1 . el g\u00e9nero pygopristis m\u00fcller y troschel , 1844 . figura 4 . los peces caribes de venezuela , 1996 ) resembles a very peppery spotted p . denticulata from brazil .\npygopristis m\u00fcller & troschel 1844 : 95 . fem . pygopristis fumarius m\u00fcller & troschel 1844 . type by subsequent designation . type designated by eigenmann 1910 : 441 . synonym of serrasalmus lacep\u00e8de 1803 , but a valid subgenus - - ( g\u00e9ry 1972 : 209 , g\u00e9ry 1976 : 52 ) . valid as pygopristis m\u00fcller & troschel 1844 - - ( taphorn 1992 : 312 ) . pygopristis m\u00fcller & troschel 1844 . characidae : serrasalminae . the proper scientific species name is denticulata not denticulatus . there is mounting evidence to suggest that this species and catoprion mento are genetically more related to each other than other piranha species ( orti , 2000 et al ) .\npygopristis fumarius from m\u00fcller and troschel , o . c . : 21 . 35 . lam ix . fig . 2 .\npygopristis denticulatus m\u00fcller and troschel , 1844 , horae jehth , 1 : 21 . 34 , lam . ix . fig . 1 .\npg . 241 . pygopristis denticulatus ( cuvier ) . serrasalmo denticulatus cuvier , mem . mus . d ' hist . nat . , v , 1819 , 371 . \u2014gunther , catalogue , v , 1864 , 367 ( british guiana ) .\nthe diagnosis of this kind is the same one that is established for serrasalmus . the species of serrasalmus are transformed imperceptibly inside pygopristis , and the distinction among the two , based on the number of tubercles in the teeth seems to be of doubtful generic rank .\npygopristis fumarius muller and troschel , horse ichth . , i , 1848 , 21 , 35 , pi . 9 , fig . 2 ; in schomburgk , reisen , iii , 1848 , 637 ( rupununi ; essequibo ) . \u2014kner ,\nfamilie der characinen ,\nii , 1859 , 27 ( rio branco ) .\ni first purchased p . denticulata ( then classified as s . brandtii in an old piranha book ) in 1964 . i also foolishly tested its weak jaw muscles by sticking my finger in a 3 inch specimens mouth ! interestingly , the fish was not able to draw blood or flesh . but i would never try it with a larger specimen nor should you ! the map to the left is based on the j\u00e9gu & dos santos exploration ( 1988 ) . rev . hydrobiol . trop . 21 ( 3 ) : 239 - 274 .\na single species placed in genus pygopristis , is ( in my opinion ) absolutely one of the prettiest of the serrasalminae this non - dangerous piranha feeds principally on fins , seeds , fruits and such that fall into the water ( click here to view ) . when opefe brought this to the attention of a neo - tropical division at a local state college , there was snickering and skepticism that a piranha would feed on seeds or fruits instead of whole flesh . since then , opefe provided documented proof of the seed and fruit eating behavior and their skepticism is no longer the case . other field researchers have since confirmed the eating habits of this species in the wild .\npygopristis derdiculatus muller and troschel , horse ichth . , i , 1845 , 21 , 34 , pi . 9 , fig . 1 ( guiana ) ; in schomburgk , reisen , iii , 1848 , 637 ( essequibo ; takutu ; rupununi ) . \u2014cuvier and valenciennes , hist . nat . poiss . , xxii , 1848 , 297 ( essequibo ) . \u2014eigenmann and eigenmann , proc . u . s . nat . mus . , xiv . 1891 , 59 . \u2014ulrey , ann . n . y . acad . sci . , vii , 1895 , 296 ( lower amazon ) . - eigenmann , repts . princeton univ . exp . patagonia , iii , 1910 , 441 .\ngreek , pyge = rump + greek , pristis = saw ( ref . 45335 )\nsouth america : orinoco river basin , north and eastern guiana shield rivers ; tributaries of the lower amazon river .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 20 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 12225 )\nrare ( ref . 12225 ) . possesses powerful dentition that can cause serious bites .\nj\u00e9gu , m . , 2003 . serrasalminae ( pacus and piranhas ) . p . 182 - 196 . in r . e . reis , s . o . kullander and c . j . ferraris , jr . ( eds . ) checklist of the freshwater fishes of south and central america . porto alegre : edipucrs , brasil . ( ref . 39031 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 0000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 02042 ( 0 . 01151 - 0 . 03622 ) , b = 3 . 12 ( 2 . 97 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 9 \u00b10 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 12 of 100 ) .\nurltoken website : urltoken facebook : urltoken documentaries : urltoken / video _ gallery _ . . . tropical aquarium fish documentaries\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 strict file : / / en\na monotypic genus this pirambeba is predaceous but to a much lower degree than previously thought . there seem to be different forms in terms of coloration and other unique features ; possess dark bands along the flank with some lightly peppered spotting . these are sometimes erroneously imported as p . striolatus from peru .\nhobbyists can consider this species somewhat harmless in the aquarium . but they do have sharp if not the smallest teeth of the pirambeba - like fish . they will eat small fishes . care is still required in handling them , they have weak jaws , but do not assume that a large specimen cannot lacerate you ! the species may be kept with its relatives the silver dollars ( genus metynnis ) . it is not uncommon to find them mixed up together in pet stores when juvenile , since they externally resemble that genus .\ni do not recommend mixing this species with any other piranha or pirambeba . the main reason is because they likely would get eaten by their more opportunistic sisters . i consider them to be an excellent specimen for the home aquarium and worth collecting .\nserrasalmus denticulatus cuvier , 1819 . mem mus . hist . nat . paris , v : 371 .\neigenmann , c . h . 1910 ( 12 feb . ) catalogue of the fresh - water fishes of tropical and south temperate america . in : reports of the princeton university expeditions to patagonia 1896 - 1899 .\nserrasabno punctatu s schomburgk , fishes brit . guiana , i , 1841 , 223 , pi . 17 . twenty - three specimens , 151 - 234 mm . lama stop - off . ( c . m . cat . no . 1118a - d ; i . u . cat . no . 11637 . ) head 3 . 5 ; depth 1 . 66 ; d . 18 or 19 ; a . 34 - 38 ; scales with pores 87 - 95 ; eye 4 in head , 2 in interorbital ; abdominal serrse 36 + 4 , 33 + 3 , 38 + 4 , 31 + 4 in four individuals respectively .\npumpkin - seed shaped ; snout rounded , lower jaw heavy , truncate , its anterior profile forming a continuous oblique line with the snout . second suborbital leaving four - tenths of the cheeks naked ; opercular bones and suborbitals but little striate ; mouth small ; teeth nearly symmetrical , with a central lobe and two much smaller lobes on each side ; six teeth on each premaxillary , in a single series , the third tooth much smaller than the rest . gill - rakers 9 + 9 , small . dorsal broadly rounded , its base equal to its distance from the caudal ; adipose short ; caudal lobes pointed ; anal with its first two or three developed rays slightly prolonged , the rest of the margin of the fin nearly straight ; ventrals reaching anal groove , pectorals not quite to ventrals . lateral line decurved ; anterior scales of the lateral line largest ; rows of scales along the middle of the sides more numerous than the pores in the lateral line , the pores corresponding to the rows of scales on the caudal peduncle and over the posterior fourth of the anal ; a wide naked area from the dorsal to the occipital .\ndorsal faintly spotted . iridescent steel - blue above . pectorals , ventrals , and most of the anal brick - red ; opercle orange ; a narrow margin of the caudal and anal colorless ; caudal submarginally orange , ranging to lemon - yellow and olive .\ngosline published the origin and evolution of the serrasalminae ( 1951 : 54 ) and indicated . . .\norinoco river basin , north and east guiana shield rivers ; tributaries of lower amazon : brazil , french guiana , guyana , suriname and venezuela .\nmachado - allison , a . & fink , william . 1996 , los peces caribes to venezuela diagnosis , claves , aspectos ecologicos y evolutivos .\nmachado - allison , a . 2002 los peces caribes de venezuela : una aproximaci\u00f3n a su estudio taxon\u00f3mico . bol . acad . c . fis . mat . nat . v . 62 ( no . 1 ) : 35 - 88 .\nreis , r . e . , s . o . kullander and c . j . ferraris , jr . 2003 check list of the freshwater fishes of south and central america . check list freshw . fishes south & cent . amer . 2003 : i - xi + 1 - 729 .\ncuvier , g . , memoires du museum national d ' histoire naturelle , publishing date ; 1819 , sur les poissons du sous - genre \u00abhydrocyn , sur deux nouvelles esp\u00e8ces de \u00abchalceus\u00bb , sur trois nouvelles esp\u00e8ces de \u00abserrasalmes\u00bb , et sur l ' \u00abargentina glossodonta\u00bb de forskahl , quiest l ' \u00abalbula gonorhynchus\u00bb de bloch . cuvier , g . 1819 mem . mus . natl . hist . nat . . 5 : 351 - 379 .\nm\u00fcller , j . and f . h . troschel 1844 synopsis generum et specierum familiae characinorum . ( prodromus descriptionis novorum generum et specierum ) . arch . naturgeschichte v . 10 ( pt 1 ) : 81 - 99 + zu pag . 99 ( foldout ) .\neigenmann , c . h . 1910 ( 12 feb . ) catalogue of the fresh - water fishes of tropical and south temperate america . in : reports of the princeton university expeditions to patagonia 1896 - 1899 . zoology . catalogue v . 3 ( pt 4 ) : 375 - 511 . [ also as a separate , issued 12 feb . 1910 as : catalog and bibliography of . . . ; contr . zool . lab indiana univ . no . 76 ( 2 ) . ]\ng\u00e9ry , j . 1972 ( 19 dec . ) poissons characo\u00efdes des guyanes . i . g\u00e9n\u00e9ralit\u00e9s . ii . famille des serrasalmidae . zool . verh . ( leiden ) no . 122 : 1 - 250 , pls . 1 - 16 .\ng\u00e9ry , j . 1976 ( 18 mar . ) les genres de serrasalmidae ( pisces , characoidei ) . bull . zool . mus . univ . amst . v . 5 ( no . 6 ) : 47 - 54 .\ntaphorn , d . c . 1992 the characiform fishes of the apure river drainage , venezuela . biollania edici\u00f3n especial - no . 4 . monografias cientificas del museo de ciencias naturales , unellez - - guanara , estado portuguesa , venezuela . 1 - 537 .\nfreeman , b . , nico , l . g . , ostentoski , m . jelks , h . j . & collins , t . m . 2007 . molecular systemics of serrasalmidae : deciphering the identities of piranha speceis and unraveling their evoluntionary histories . zootaxa 1484 : 1 - 38 .\nthe opefe web site and its contents ; is disclaimed for purposes of zoological nomenclature in accordance with the international code of zoological nomenclature , fourth edition , article 8 . 3 and 8 . 4 . no new names or nomenclature changes are available from statements at this web site .\ncopyright\u00a9 1994 - 2012 oregon piranha exotic fish exhibit ( the opefe fish exhibit is permanently closed as of 2000 ) sutherlin , oregon . information posted on this web site is archival data on fish scientific classifications and other information . disclaimer : the copyrighted material may not be used for any purpose other than private study , scholarship or research . cited information requires credit and this link www . opefe . com . all rights reserved . all images shown ( unless otherwise noted ) is property of opefe .\nrare ( ref . 12225 ) . possesses powerful dentition that can cause serious bites .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthis article is a stub . we can not complete the encyclopaedia without your help . you can contribute to the aquarium wiki by expanding this article . dont be shy ! .\nthis page was last edited on 13 december 2017 , at 02 : 42 .\ncontent is available under creative commons attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license unless otherwise noted .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use ."]}
{"id": 2523, "summary": [{"text": "the scaly-tailed possum or the ilangnalya ( wyulda squamicaudata ) is found in northwestern australia .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is restricted to the kimberley region in western australia .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "as it is monotypic in its genus , it is sometimes known simply by its genus \u2014 the wyulda .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the scaly-tailed possum is a member of the family phalangeridae , which means that it is related to cuscuses and brushtail possums .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is a solitary nocturnal forager that feeds on leaves , flowers and fruit .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "as its name implies , its distinguishing feature is a hairless , scaly tail .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the possum has a limited range and is found in high rainfall coastal regions of the north kimberley between yampi sound and kalumburu , as well as further inland in the east kimberley at emma gorge .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "populations also inhabit bigge island and boongaree island .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the preferred habitat of this animal is sandstone based woodlands where it can shelter in rock piles and fissures and feed in the trees . ", "topic": 18}], "title": "scaly - tailed possum", "paragraphs": ["the scaly - tailed possum was once considered endangered but is now less threatened .\n( scaly - tailed possum ) is found only in the kimberley region of northwestern australia . scaly - tailed possums are taxonomically placed in the family\nthe scaly - tailed possum is known to breed in the dry season . the recorded litter size is one . information on the reproductive behavior of the scaly - tailed possum is limited .\nthe scaly - tailed possum is restricted to the kimberly division in the north of western australia .\ninformation on the scaly - tailed possum is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nthe enigmatic and poorly understood scaly - tailed possum ( wyulda squamicaudata ) was last seen in 1917 .\nhelp scientists continue their reseach in the kimberley on the scaly - tailed possum and other rare animals .\n\u201cthis left either the scaly - tailed possum or the rock ringtail , and the amount of hair on the base of the tail , easily seen in the photos , confirmed it was the scaly - tailed possum . \u201d\na scaly - tailed possum caught on a camera trap in awc\u2019s artesian range . ( c ) australian wildlife conservancy ,\nthe scaly - tailed possum inhabits areas with trees and rocks in the broken sandstone country of savannah woodlands in hot tropics .\none of the trapping sites . if i were a scaly - tailed possum i would live here ( c ) jack ashby\nruncie , m . 1999 . movements , dens and feeding behavior of the tropical scaly - tailed possum ( wyulda squamicaudata ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - scaly - tailed possum ( wyulda squamicaudata )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - scaly - tailed possum ( wyulda squamicaudata )\ntitle =\narkive species - scaly - tailed possum ( wyulda squamicaudata )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nscaly - tailed possums tend to live solitarily on home ranges of approximately one hectare . individual home ranges often overlap .\nthe diet mainly consists of fruits , blossoms , and leaves of eucalyptus , terminalia , etc . the scaly - tailed possum has also been known to feed on insects and small vertebrates .\nscaly - tailed possum ( wyulda squamicaudata ) specimens were found at el questro station in the east kimberley . the researchers suggest the finding also represents the first discovery of the species in eastern kimberley .\noriginally looking for the northern quoll ( dasyurus hallucatus ) , a species at high risk from the cane toad invasion , the team were surprised to see the rare scaly - tailed possum in the resulting images .\nosborne mj , christidis l ( 2002 ) molecular relationships of the cuscuses , brushtail and scaly - tailed possums ( phalangerinae ) . aust j zool 50 : 135\u2013149\nas its name implies , its distinguishing feature is a hairless , scaly tail .\ntrapping densities suggest that scaly - tailed possums prefer low , open woodlands and vine thickets . they are nocturnal and rely heavily on rock piles for shelter during the day .\nlittle to nothing is known about parental investment in scaly - tailed possums . however , equal participation of both parents in parental investment has been observed in other phalangerid species like\nscaly - tailed possums have no easily definable , direct , or large - scale impact on humans . their remote habitat and rarity make this a difficult topic to research .\nthe pelage of the scaly - tailed possum is short , fine , and dense . the general dorsal color is pale or dark ashy gray while the underside color is white . a dark stripe , which may be obscure or distinct , runs along the mid - dorsal line from the shoulders to the rump . the scaly - tailed possum has a prehensile tail that is densely furred at the base and has nonoverlapping , thick scales for the remainder of its length . the head is short and wide with short ears . the claws are short and not strongly curved .\ndoody , sean j . ; david rhind c , christina m . castellano b and michael bass ( 2012 ) .\nrediscovery of the scaly - tailed possum ( wyulda squamicaudata ) in the eastern kimberley\n. australian mammalogy 34 ( 2 ) : 260\u2013262 . doi : 10 . 1071 / am11039 .\nin general , there is little information about scaly - tailed possum behavior . they are herbivorous , feeding primarily on the leaves of various trees and shrub species . when these phalangerids feed , individuals climb out to the outermost branches of trees and use their forelimbs to pluck leaves . scaly - tailed possums achieve stability by gripping sturdy branches with their prehensile tails . they are also proficient at moving around in tree canopies and have been recorded making branch - to - branch leaps of up to one meter .\nnovember 2012 was a good trip \u2013 we found golden back tree rats in a couple of spots ( in the tree above our tents , it turned out ) , monjons and kimberley rock rats . this was amazing , but not the dream scaly tailed possum ( or golden bandicoots ) . i\u2019d have to go back .\ngenetic analysis has confirmed that although the population is isolated , it is the same species as the west kimberley possum .\nlittle to no data is available on which animals act as primary predators of scaly - tailed possums . it is likely , however , that feral cats , large birds of prey , and large snakes may be important predators .\nas \u201cdata deficient\u201d with a declining population trend . according to the department of environment and conservation western australia , more data must be gathered concerning the conservation status of scaly - tailed possums before they can be declared a threatened species .\nonce again , the holy grail evaded me \u2013 rock rats were everywhere , and we had some exciting encounters with more common species like an echidna , quolls and ningbings , but the scaly - tailed possum stayed out of reach . frustratingly , a week or so after we left one of the january sites , a possum wandered through one of the camera traps we left set in the forests . obviously i\u2019m pleased the species is there , but i can\u2019t help feeling that nature is cruel .\nruncie , m . 2000 . biparental care and obligate monogamy in the rock - haunting possum , petropseudes dahli , from tropical australia .\nthe finding has also extended the habitat range of the possum by some 300 to 400 kilometres from known populations in the west kimberley .\n. artesian range is in one of the least accessible parts of australia , requiring a combination of propeller - plane , serious 4wd and helicopter to get to . as amazing as it was to see these species on the screen , i instantly knew i had to go and see them in the flesh . for me , the scaly - tailed possum had become the holy grail .\nnotable \u2013 children ' s book council of australia a traditional dreamtime story that features the scaly - tailed possum only found in a remote part of the kimberley region of australia\u2019s north west and the echidna , one of australia\u2019s most unusual mammals . illustrated with paintings on silk , the story also tells of the wandjina , the creator and great spirit of the wunambal people of the kimberley .\ni got the call to join two trips to the area ( in november 2012 and january 2014 ) to trap sites on possible dispersal routes out of the artesian hotspot , to see how far their ranges extend . i went to each trip with extremely high hopes , but a sleep - depriving fear that they might be too far from the centre to find the scaly - tailed possum .\nof course , you can\u2019t prove absence , but trips like this have helped determine that the artesian range\u2019s special species seem not to venture too far . now that the inventory of neighbouring properties is drawing to a close i\u2019ll have to get myself onto one of the trips back to the heart of this amazing , extinction - free oasis , and finally set eyes on that scaly - tailed possum .\nbecause so few scaly - tailed possums have ever been captured , vlittle is known about their longevity or population age - structures . however , studies done on other phalangerid species have produced life expectancy statistics of 17 years for females and 12 years for males .\nand are the only member of their genus . little is known about this species due to their overall secretive behavior combined with the rugged nature of their habitat . scaly - tailed possums are considered the least well understood of all phalangerids , with only 54 confirmed scientific captures .\nthe scaly - tailed possum is assessed as near threatened because its area of occupancy may be < 2 , 000 km 2 and may be declining , but not at a rate of 30 % in 12 years ( three generations ) . recent records are from a small number of location . survey effort of the remote area where it occurs has been insufficient to estimate the actual number of locations , but this is probably > 10 .\nlittle is known about the effects that scaly - tailed possums have on the ecosystems they inhabit . because they have different foraging and habitat related behaviors than other closely related phalangerids , it is difficult to assess how similar their effects on the ecosystem are to those of other possums .\nwemmer , c . , l . collins . 1978 . communication patterns in two phalangerid marsupials , the gray cuscus ( phalanger gymnotis ) and the brush possum ( trichosurus vulpecula ) .\nscaly - tailed possums are small - to - medium sized marsupials weighing an average of 1500 grams . they have relatively small ears and a total body length averaging 415 mm for males and 375 mm for females . all individuals have gray dorsal surfaces and white ventral surfaces with naked paws and noses . many individuals also have a black stripe running down the center of their back . as their name implies , scaly - tailed possums have rough tails which are covered in scales . these tails , averaging 290 mm in length , are hairless and prehensile which enables these possums to maintain firm grips on tree branches when they forage . this type of tail is unique to\nbarnett , j . , r . how , w . humphreys . 1982 . habitat effects on organ weights , longevity and reproduction in the mountain brushtail possum , trichosurus caninus ( ogilby ) .\ntaylor , a . , p . cowan , b . fricke , d . cooper . 2000 . genetic analysis of the mating system of the common brushtail possum ( trichosaurus vulpecula ) in the new zealand farmland .\nkreigenhofer , b . 2011 . exploring social interactions and olfactory communication in the common brushtail possum : implications for management : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of master of science in \u201cconservation biology\u201d .\nit seems that artesian range is the only place in mainland australia not to have suffered any mammal extinctions since european colonisation . a community of amazing endemics has clung on \u2013 scaly - tailed possums , golden - backed tree rats , monjons , golden bandicoots and kimberley rock rats . when i was analyzing those camera trap images in 2011 i was a couple of hundred kilometres south of artesian , on awc northwest\u2019s main home sanctuary ,\nthe scaly - tailed possum occurs in rugged sandstones with adjacent open woodland or closed forest , sometimes with rainforest elements . it forages mainly in trees but may venture into open areas to feed on flowers , fruits , seeds and leaves . in captivity it also eats nuts and insects . it shelters in rock piles , under rock slabs and in underground crevices . females give birth mainly in the dry season between march and august , although breeding may extend later in the dry season . a single juvenile is carried in the pouch for 150 - 200 days and is weaned after eight months . females are sexually mature at two years ( humphreys et al . 1984 ; runcie 1999 ; burbidge and webb 2008 ) .\n, although there is some debate over phalangerid relationships . brush - tailed possums establish dominance hierarchies in which dominant males and females are most likely to breed with one another . in brush - tailed possums , these hierarchies are often matriarchal in structure , with females dominant to males . breeding pairs might spend up to 40 days courting before they mate . scent marking and vocalizations are used to avoid direct aggression between co - dominant individuals . it is possible that these or similar behaviors take place in\nthere is no robust estimate of population size . it is locally common at some sites in the north - west kimberley and on bigge island ; but is apparently uncommon in the east kimberley . a 2003 survey demonstrated persistence in prince regent national park and at mitchell plateau ( start et al . 2007 ) . recent surveys ( 2011 , 2012 ) by the australian wildlife conservancy have recorded scaly - tailed possums as locally common in the artesian range south of the prince regent ( sarah legge pers . comm . ) . it has been recently recorded on augustus island via camera trapping .\nnational parks within its range are managed by the department of parks and wildlife . aboriginal lands , most of which are indigenous protected areas , are managed by the wunambal gaambera aboriginal corporation and the dambimangari aboriginal corporation . artesian range sanctuary is managed by the australian wildlife conservancy . emma gorge is within the el questro pastoral lease . there is regional fire management in the western parts of its range , intensive management of fire at artesian range , and regional fire management immediately to the east of the main distribution through the ecofire project . a research project on scaly - tailed possums at artesian range ( australian wildlife conservancy / university of tasmania ) began in late 2012 , aimed at describing the impacts of fire patterns and feral cats on their ecology and survival .\nwe would like to thank the following people and institutions for providing samples or assisting with sample collection : christina castellano , simon clulow , rosie honin , colin mchenry , david pearson , ian radford , western australia department of environment and conservation , australian wildlife conservancy , western australian museum , south australian museum and australian museum . paleo - climate data were generously provided by jeremy vanderwal . we are also grateful to craig moritz for helpful comments on the manuscript . this research was supported by funding from the chadwick fellowship ( australian museum ) , australian geographic society and monash university .\nalexander wb ( 1919 ) a new species of marsupial of the subfamily phalangerinae . j r soc west aust 4 : 31\u201336\namante c , eakins bw ( 2009 ) etopo1 1 arc - minute global relief model : procedures , data sources and analysis . noaa technical memorandum nesdis ngdc - 24 .\nbouckaert r , heled j , k\u01d6hnert d , vaughan tg , wu ch , xie d , suchard ma , rambaut a , drummond aj ( 2013 ) . beast2 : a software platform for bayesian evolutionary analysis .\nbowman dmjs , brown gk , braby mf , brown jr , cook lg , crisp md , ford f , haberle s , hughes j , isagi y , joseph l , mcbride j , nelson g , ladiges py ( 2010 ) biogeography of the australian monsoon tropics . j biogeogr 37 : 201\u2013216\n. in : van dyck s , strahan r ( eds ) the mammals of australia , 3rd edn . reed new holland , sydney , pp 277\u2013278\nbyrne m , yeates dk , joseph l , kearney m , bowler j , williams maj , cooper s , donnellan sc , keogh js , leys r , melville j , murphy dj , porch n , wyrwoll k - h ( 2008 ) birth of a biome : insights into the assembly and maintenance of the australian arid zone biota . mol ecol 17 : 4398\u20134417\nbyrne m , steane da , joseph l , yeates dk , jordan gj , crayn d , aplin k , cantrill dj , cook lg , crisp md , keogh js , melville j , moritz c , porch n , sniderman jmk , sunnucks p , weston ph ( 2011 ) decline of a biome : evolution , contraction , fragmentation , extinction and invasion of the australian mesic zone biota . j biogeogr 38 : 1635\u20131656\ncadotte mc , dinnage r , tilman d ( 2012 ) phylogenetic diversity promotes ecosystem stability . ecology 93 : 223\u2013233\ncracraft j ( 1991 ) patterns of diversification within continental biotas : hierarchical congruence among areas of endemism of australian vertebrates . aust syst bot 4 : 211\u2013227\ndepartment of environment and conservation western australia ( 2013 ) threatened and priority fauna rankings . department of environment and conservation western australia , sydney\ndoughty p ( 2011 ) an emerging frog diversity hotspot in the northwest kimberley of western australia : another new frog species from the high rainfall zone . rec west aust mus 26 : 209\u2013216\neldridge mdb , potter s , cooper sjb ( 2012 ) biogeographic barriers in north - western australia : an overview and standardization of nomenclature . aust j zool 59 : 270\u2013272\nexcoffier l , laval g , schneider s ( 2005 ) arlequin ver . 3 . 0 : an integrated software package for population genetics data analysis . evol bioinform 1 : 47\u201350\nfitzsimons j , legge s , traill b , woinarski j ( 2010 ) into oblivion : the disappearing mammals of northern australia . the nature conservancy , melbourne .\nflannery t , archer m , maynes g ( 1987 ) the phylogenetic relationships of living phalangerids ( phalangeroidea : marsupialia ) with a suggested new taxonomy . in : archer m ( ed ) possums and opossums : studies in evolution . surrey beatty & the royal zoological society of new south wales , sydney , pp 477\u2013506\nflannery t ( 1994 ) possums of the world . a monograph of the phalangeroidea . geo productions , sydney\nfu y - x ( 1997 ) statistical tests of neutrality of mutations against population growth , hitchhiking and background selection . genetics 147 : 915\u2013925\nfuchs r , herold m , verburg ph , clevers jgpw ( 2013 ) a high - resolution and harmonized model approach for reconstructing and analysing historic land changes in europe . biogeosciences 10 : 1543\u20131559\nfujita mk , mcguire ja , donnellan sc , moritz c ( 2010 ) diversification and persistence at the arid - monsoonal interface : australia - wide biogeography of the bynoe\u2019s gecko ( heteronotia binoei ; geckkonidae ) . evolution 64 : 2293\u20132314\nfumagalli l , pope lc , taberlet p , moritz c ( 1997 ) versatile primers for the amplification of the mitochondrial dna control region in marsupials . mol ecol 6 : 1199\u20131201\nhasegawa m , kishino h , yano t ( 1985 ) dating the human - ape splitting by a molecular clock of mitochondrial dna . j mol evol 22 : 160\u2013174\nhoulder dj , hutchinson mf , nix ha , mcmahon jp ( 2000 ) anuclim user guide , version 5 . 1 . centre for resource and environmental studies , australian national university , canberra\nhuelsenbeck jp , ronquist f ( 2005 ) bayesian analysis of molecular evolution using mrbayes . in : nielsen r ( ed ) statistical methods in molecular evolution . springer , new york , pp 183\u2013232\n, alexander 1919 . in : smith ap , hume id ( eds ) possums and gliders . surrey beatty , sydney , pp 162\u2013169\nkeppel g , van niel kp , wardell - johnson gw , yates cj , byrne m , mucina l , schut agt , hopper sd , franklin se ( 2012 ) refugia : identifying and understanding safe havens for biodiversity under climate change . glob ecol biogeogr 21 : 393\u2013404\nkerle ja ( 2001 ) possums : the brushtails , ringtails , and greater glider . university of new south wales press ltd . , sydney\nklein c , wilson k , watts m , stein j , berry s , carwardine j , stafford smith j , mackey b , possingham h ( 2009 ) incorporating ecological and evolutionary processes into continental - scale conservation planning . ecol appl 19 : 206\u2013217\niredale , 1933 ( pulmonata : camaenidae ) . rec aust mus 62 : 217\u2013284\niredale , 1933 from the rainforest patches across the kimberley , western australia ( pulmonata : camaenidae ) . rec aust mus 63 : 167\u2013202\nlegge s , murphy s , heathcote j , flaxman e , augusteyn j , crossman m ( 2008 ) the short - term effects of an extensive and high - intensity fire on vertebrates in the tropical savannas of the central kimberley , northern australia . wildl res 35 : 33\u201343\nlegge s , kennedy ms , lloyd r , murphy sa , fisher a ( 2011 ) rapid recovery of mammal fauna in the central kimberley , northern australia , following the removal of introduced herbivores . austral ecol 36 : 791\u2013799\nlibrado p , rozas j ( 2009 ) dnasp v5 : a software for comprehensive analysis of dna polymorphism data . bioinformatics 25 : 1451\u20131452\nmackey bg , watson jem , hope g , gilmore s ( 2008 ) climate change , biodiversity conservation , and the role of protected areas : an australian perspective . biodiversity 9 : 11\u201318\nmcknight m ( 2008 ) wyulda squamicaudata . in : iucn 2013 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2013 . 1 .\nmelville j , ritchie eg , chapple snj , glor re , schulte ja ( 2011 ) evolutionary origins and diversification of dragon lizards in australia\u2019s tropical savannas . mol phylogenet evol 58 : 257\u2013270\nmeredith rw , westerman m , springer ms ( 2008 ) a phylogeny and timescale for the living genera of kangaroos and kin ( macropodiformes : marsupialia ) based on nuclear dna sequences . aust j zool 56 : 395\u2013410\nmoritz c , ens ej , potter s , catullo r ( 2013 ) the australian monsoonal tropics : an opportunity to protect unique biodiversity and secure benefits for aboriginal communities . pac conserv biol 19 : 343\u2013355\nosborne mj , christidis l ( 2001 ) molecular phylogenetics of australo - papuan possums and gliders ( family petauridae ) . mol phylogenet evol 20 : 211\u2013224\nposada d , crandall ka ( 1998 ) modeltest : testing the model of dna substitution . bioinformatics 14 : 817\u2013818\nramos - onsins se , rozas j ( 2002 ) statistical properties of new neutrality tests against population growth . mol biol evol 19 : 2092\u20132100\nronquist f , huelsenbeck jp ( 2003 ) mrbayes3 : bayesian phylogenetic inference under mixed models . bioinformatics 19 : 1572\u20131574\nrosauer d , laffan sw , crisp md , donnellan sc , cook lg ( 2009 ) phylogenetic endemism : a new approach for identifying geographical concentrations of evolutionary history . mol ecol 18 : 4061\u20134072\nrozas j , sanchez - delbarrio jc , messeguer x , rozas r ( 2003 ) dnasp , dna polymorphism analyses by the coalescent and other methods . bioinformatics 19 : 2496\u20132497\nrussell - smith j , lucas de , brock j , bowman dmjs ( 1993 ) allosyncarpia - dominated rain forest in monsoonal northern australia . j veg sci 4 : 67\u201382\nsingarayer js , valdes pj ( 2010 ) high - latitude climate sensitivity to ice - sheet forcing over the last 120 kyr . quat sci rev 29 : 43\u201355\nstamatakis a ( 2006 ) raxml - vi - hpc : maximum likelihood based phylogenetic analyses with thousands of taxa and mixed models . bioinformatics 22 : 2688\u20132690\nstamatakis a , hoover p , rougemont j ( 2008 ) a rapid bootstrap algorithm for the raxml web - servers . syst biol 57 : 758\u2013771\nsunnucks p , hales df ( 1996 ) numerous transposed sequences of mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase i - ii in aphids of the genus sitobion ( hemiptera : aphididae ) . mol biol evol 13 : 510\u2013524\nswofford d ( 2002 ) paup * . 4 . 0b , 10th edn . sinauer associates inc . , sunderland\ntajima f ( 1989 ) statistical method for testing the neutral mutation hypothesis by dna polymorphism . genetics 123 : 585\u2013595\ntoon a , hughes jm , joseph l ( 2010 ) multilocus analysis of honeyeaters ( aves : meliphagidae ) highlights spatio - temporal heterogeneity in the influence of biogeographic barriers in the australian monsoonal zone . mol ecol 19 : 2980\u20132994\nvanderwal j , falconi l , januchowski s , shoo lp , storlie c ( 2012 ) sdmtools : species distribution modelling tools : tools for processing data associated with species distribution modelling exercises . r package version 1 . 1\u201313 .\nwheeler d , hope r , cooper sjb , dolman g , webb gc , bottema cdk , gooley aa , goodman m , holland rab ( 2001a ) an orphaned mammalian [ beta ] - globin gene of ancient evolutionary origin . proc natl acad sci usa 98 : 1101\u20131106\n- globin gene of ancient evolutionary origin . proc natl acad sci usa 98 : 1101\u20131106\nwoinarski jcz , mackey b , nix h , traill b ( 2007 ) the nature of northern australia : natural values , ecological processes and future prospects . anu e press , canberra\nwoinarski jcz , legge s , fitzsimons ja , traill bj , burbidge aa , fisher a , firth rsc , gordon ij , griffiths ad , johnson cn , mckenzie nl , palmer c , radford i , rankmore b , ritchie eg , ward s , ziembicki m ( 2011 ) the disappearing mammal fauna of northern australia : context , cause and response . conserv lett 4 : 192\u2013201\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nmammalogists for helping to forge the nomenclatural mesh that holds our science together . * journal of mammalogy * to refer to this work as a checklist undervalues it and does not give sufficient credit to the authors and editors for their meticulous efforts in its production . a valuable reference work and a vital tool , particularly for researchers . * journal of natural history * by far the most convenient source for finding the correct scientific name of any mammal and should be on the reference shelf of libraries striving to have useful science sections . * science books and films * the editors and authors are to be congratulated for undertaking such an outstanding and authoritative work , and it should serve as a standard reference for mammalian species taxonomy for many years to come . * journal of mammalian evolution * the third edition adds to its reputation as an outstanding and authorative work . * national museum of natural history weekly update & forecast * impressive and elegant work . - - g . r . seamons * reference reviews * a must - have text for any professional mammalogist , and a useful and authoritative reference for scientists and students in other disciplines . * southeastern naturalist * a magnificent work important to anyone seriously interested in mammals . this work is essential for academic or special libraries supporting zoology or conservation and for large public libraries . * american reference books annual * as were many of our colleagues , we were waiting for this revised edition since 2003 . . . we can say that the wait was worth it . - - sergio solari and robert j . baker * journal of mammalogy *\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nmajor threats are inappropriate fire regimes ( too frequent , extensive and hot ) and predation by feral cats . information on the effects of these threats is limited .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nlittle is known about the mating system of this species . however , substantial research has been done on other phalangerid species . one such highly researched species is the\nfemales produce only one offspring per year , between march and august . young are weaned within eight months and females and males become sexually mature at two years and 18 months , respectively .\n) . as in all mammals , females invest heavily in offspring through gestation and lactation .\nfew intra - specific interactions have ever been witnessed . phalangerids as a group , however , are known to signal one another both chemically and with physical behaviors such as tail slapping to warn of nearby predators . like other mammals , they likely have a keen sense of smell .\nhudson berkhouse ( author ) , texas a & m university , jessica light ( editor ) , texas a & m university , tanya dewey ( editor ) , university of michigan - ann arbor .\nliving in australia , new zealand , tasmania , new guinea and associated islands .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\nforest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nthe kind of polygamy in which a female pairs with several males , each of which also pairs with several different females .\nthe region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .\nreproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .\nheinsohn , t . 2000 . short communication : predation by the white - breasted sea eagle haliaeetus leucogaster on phalangerid possums in new ireland , papua new guinea .\nhumphreys , w . , r . how , a . bradley , c . kemper , d . kitchener . 1984 . the biology of wyulda squamicaudata , alexander 1919 .\nmcknight , m . 2008 .\nwyulda squamicaudata\n( on - line ) . iucn redlist . accessed october 01 , 2015 at urltoken .\npotter , s . , d . rosauer , j . doody , m . webb , m . eldridge . 2014 . persistence of a potentially rare mammalian genus ( wyulda ) provides evidence for areas of evolutionary refugia within the kimberley , australia . .\nto cite this page : berkhouse , h . 2015 .\nwyulda squamicaudata\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nclassified as data deficient ( dd ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\napart from the type specimen , which came from violet valley in the east kimberley , all records are from the high rainfall , near - coastal north - west kimberley of western australia ( burbidge and webb 2008 ) . it has not been recorded in east kimberley since 1917 and is thought to be extinct from here . it is also found on bigge and boongaree islands ( a . burbidge pers . comm . ) .\nit is found in low open woodland , using four different types of rock formations for dens during the day ( it is highly dependent on these rock formations ) : rockpiles , sunken rockpiles , large rock slabs , and underground rock crevices ( runcie 1999 ) . at night , it feeds on four species of trees ( xanthostemon eucalyptoides , x . paradoxus , eucalyptus sp . , and planchonia careya ) ( runcie 1999 ) . one young is born between march and august ( runcie 1999 ) .\nobservations : not much is known about the longevity of these animals . it has been argued that they live over 6 years ( bernhard grzimek 1990 ) , but more detailed studies are lacking .\nlamoreux , j . & hilton - taylor , c . ( global mammal assessment team )\nlisted as data deficient in view of the absence of recent information on its threats and conservation status . there is concern that its habitat quality is declining and the degree to which introduced cats pose a threat is unknown .\nthere have not been many surveys within its range , and there are only isolated records . the species is sparsely and patchily distributed ( runcie 1999 ) . runcie ( 1999 ) found a density of 2 . 3 - 4 . 6 possums per hectare , which is nearly five times higher than that estimated by humphreys et al . ( 1984 ) . however , the study by runcie ( 1999 ) was limited to one small area , and the results may not apply elsewhere ( a . burbidge pers . comm . ) .\nthere are no data on threats , but this species is probably adversely affected by changed fire regimes and predation by introduced cats . on the mitchell plateau , proposed mining activity could affect this species .\nthis species is occurs in prince regent nature reserve . recommended actions ( maxwell et al . 1996 ) for this species include : monitor abundance at selected sites throughout range , including the islands ; conduct research aimed at understanding the biology , ecology , conservation status , and requirements . there needs to be research on fire ecology .\ngroves , c . p . ( 2005 ) . wilson , d . e . ; reeder , d . m , eds . mammal species of the world ( 3rd ed . ) . baltimore : johns hopkins university press . p . 50 . oclc 62265494 . isbn 0 - 801 - 88221 - 4 .\nmcknight , m . ( 2008 ) . wyulda squamicaudata . in : iucn 2008 . iucn red list of threatened species . retrieved 28 december 2008 . database entry includes justification for why this species is data deficient\nmenkhorst , peter ( 2001 ) . a field guide to the mammals of australia . oxford university press . p . 84 .\npotter , sally ; dan rosauer ; j . sean doody ; myfanwy j . webb ; mark d . b . eldridge ( 2014 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nsuomuh\u00e4nt\u00e4kusu\nto\nwyulda squamicaudata alexander , 1918\n.\nan endemic mammal has been rediscovered in the eastern kimberley , almost a century after its last recorded sighting .\nnow a cane toad research team from monash university have rediscovered it in the east kimberley .\nduring an ongoing study of the impacts of cane toad invasion on native fauna in wa , the team set up remote camera traps at el questro station .\n\u201ci was stunned , i\u2019m familiar with the mammal fauna of northern australia , and knew that there were no brushtail possums with bare tails , \u201d dr doody says .\nthree of the cameras set up at emma gorge produced 20 photographs of at least four individual possums in 1 , 037 trap days .\nthe cameras were within 400 metres of each other on both sides of the gorge and close to the tourist trail . possums were exclusively nocturnal .\nthere have been concerns that the first record in 1917 was an error , if so , this represents the first discovery of the species in the eastern kimberley .\ndr doody says the species may have remained elusive due to two main factors .\n\u201cit\u2019s a nocturnal mammal occupying steep escarpments dissected by gorges , and there are not enough biologists surveying the kimberley , \u201d he says .\nthe work has helped fill the knowledge gap about the mammals in tropical australia and the study has been published in csiro ' s australian mammalogy .\nthe population at emma gorge currently receives protection from its location in the el questro wilderness park .\ndr doody says the area will become federal property in 2015 , which should secure this important population .\nless than a year after a life - threatening accident , steve plain began his journey to climb the world\u2019s seven summits .\nthis month we celebrate an event 50 years ago in western new south wales that changed the course of australian history : the discovery of mungo woman .\nphotographer james dorey offers advice on capturing the perfect shot of our native bees .\nwith a hefty body , a massive wingspan , and a loud , low - pitched buzz , the tropical carpenter bee can be a pretty intimidating sight .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nyou must have javascript enabled in your browser to utilize the functionality of this website .\nover the past few years i have been spending my spare time in a remote area of the kimberley , on the northwest corner of australia , helping a conservation ngo \u2013 the australian wildlife conservancy ( awc ) \u2013 to do ecological fieldwork . awc are australia\u2019s largest private owner of land for conservation , and their mission is to manage it based on scientific research . in the northwest their big long - term projects involve determining the effects of cattle and different fire management practices on tropical savannah ecosystems . and in my most recent two trips i\u2019ve been lucky enough to be involved in the detection of super - scarce species in extremely remote pockets of rainforest and monsoonal woodland .\na few years ago awc acquired an amazing patch of the kimberley called artesian range \u2013 monsoonal savannah criss - crossed with sandstone ranges , gorges of vine - thickets and rainforest pockets . i remember going through the first set of remote camera trap images that came back from artestian in 2011 and being amazed at the species that were being detected .\nsoon after , the awc northwest ecologists ventured into artesian range for live trapping and found a number of clustered locations that these species , the \u201cartesian specials\u201d were found . having proved that they weren\u2019t all extinct in this region , the next question was to determine the how far their ranges extended . if artesian range was a \u201csink\u201d for the exciting mammal species , then inventories of the species in the areas that they could feasibly disperse into had to happen , on to other parts of the awc property as well as neighbouring government crown land and cattle stations .\nthese two times of year are actually quite challenging to work in \u2013 november\u2019s season is known as the \u201cbuild up\u201d \u2013 the hottest and most humid time of the year , before the monsoon hits . in order to avoid the 40 + \u00b0c heat and the 80 - 95 % humidity , we would check our mammal traps between about 4am and 8 . 30am , and then sit in a cave or a pond we could be reasonably confident lacked saltwater crocodiles all day until we could venture out to reset the traps in the evening .\nevery four or five days the helicopter would come and drop us in a site that had the characteristic sandstone gorges with boulder fields , rainforest and vine - thicket pockets . we hauled our equipment over creeks and rock features ( rarely through creeks as saltwater crocs were everywhere : standing by camp on one of the sites one night \u2013 on a major tidal river \u2013 i counted seven between me and the far bank ) to see what species we could find . we laid traps and cameras , and spent the nights searching by spotlight .\njanuary 2014 gave me a taste of the wet season in full swing . it\u2019s an incredible time of swollen rivers , suddenly appearing waterfalls and six hour long thunder storms where lightning flashes more than once a second . the amazing things that the water did to the gorge - ridden landscape made it impossible to resent the inch of water in my tent ."]}
{"id": 2527, "summary": [{"text": "dendrophilia mediofasciana is a moth of the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by park in 1991 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in russia ( primorskii krai ) , korea and japan ( honshu ) .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 11-13 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the markings and pattern of the forewings are very similar to those of dendrophilia saxigera .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on lespedeza bicolor . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "dendrophilia mediofasciana", "paragraphs": ["dendrophilia ( dendrophilia ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 47\ndendrophilia ( dendrophilia ) acris ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 47\ndendrophilia ( dendrophilia ) caraganella ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 47\ndendrophilia ( dendrophilia ) saxigera ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 48\ndendrophilia ( dendrophilia ) solitaria ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 48\ndendrophilia ( dendrophilia ) stictocosma ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 48\ndendrophilia ( dendrophilia ) taphronoma ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 48\ndendrophilia ( dendrophilia ) tetragama ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 48\ndendrophilia ( dendrophilia ) unicolorella ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 48\nempalactis ( empalactis ) mediofasciana ; ueda , 2012 , trans . lepid . soc . japan 62 ( 2 ) : 81 ( note )\ndendrophilia ( dendrophilia ) hetaeropsis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 47 ; park & ponomarenko , 1999 , species diversity 4 : 336\nhypatima mediofasciana park , 1991 ; ann . hist . - nat . mus . hung . 83 : 119 ; tl : kaesung , s . hwanghae prov . , n . korea\nmicrodendrophilia ( dendrophilia ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 48\n= ( dendrophilia ) microdendrophilia ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 48\ndendrophilia ( microdendrophilia ) petrinopis ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 48\ndendrophilia ( dendrophilia ) albidella ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 47 ; ueda & kawahara , 2003 , trans . lepid . soc . japan 54 ( 2 ) : 121\nueda & kawahara , 2003 the occurrence of dendrophilia ( dendrophilia ) albidella ( snellen ) ( lepidoptera , gelechiidae ) in japan trans . lepid . soc . japan 54 ( 2 ) : 120 - 124\ndendrophilia ponomarenko , 1993 ; zool . zh . 72 ( 4 ) : 59 ; ts : nothris albidella snellen\ndendrophilia ( chelariini ) ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 46 ; [ sangmi lee ]\ndendrophilia acris park , 1995 ; tropical lepid . 6 ( 1 ) : 83 ; tl : tainan co . , taiwan\ndendrophilia caraganella ponomarenko , 1993 ; zool . zh . 72 ( 4 ) : 70 ; tl : gornotaezhnoe , primorskii krai\ndendrophilia leguminella ponomarenko , 1993 ; zool . zh . 72 ( 4 ) : 68 ; tl : barabash - levada , primorskii krai\ndendrophilia neotaphronoma ponomarenko , 1993 ; zool . zh . 72 ( 4 ) : 69 ; tl : barabash - levada , primorskii krai\nnothris albidella snellen , 1884 ; tijdschr . ent . 27 : 171 , pl . 9 , f . 6 ; tl : blagowetchenk\nlarva on caragana ussuriensis ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 47\nchelaria hetaeropsis meyrick , 1935 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 18 - 19 ) : 590 ; tl : telawa , java\nempalactis ( empalactis ) leguminella ; ueda , 2012 , trans . lepid . soc . japan 62 ( 2 ) : 81 ( note )\nlarva on lespedeza bicolor ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 47\nempalactis ( empalactis ) neotaphronoma ; ueda , 2012 , trans . lepid . soc . japan 62 ( 2 ) : 81 ( note )\nchelaria saxigera meyrick , 1931 ; bull . acad . roum . 14 : 67 ; tl : kwanhsien , china\ndenrophilia solitaria ponomarenko , 1993 ; zool . zh . 72 ( 4 ) : 70 ; tl : andreevka , primorskii krai\n= ; ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 48 ; [ nhm card ]\nchelaria taphronoma meyrick , 1932 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 7 ) : 199 ; tl : pusa , bihar\nchelaria tetragama meyrick , 1935 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 18 - 19 ) : 589 ; tl : telawa , java\ndendrophila unicolorella ponomarenko , 1993 ; zool . zh . 72 ( 4 ) : 68 ; tl : gornotaezhnoe , primorskii krai\nlarva on lespedeza bicolor ponomarenko , 1997 , far east . ent . 50 : 48\nmicrodendrophilia ponomarenko , 1993 ; zool . zh . 72 ( 4 ) : 71 ; ts : chelaria petrinopis meyrick\nchelaria petrinopis meyrick , 1935 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 15 ) : 451 ; tl : osaka , japan\nsangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\nthere are no photos of this species on the website yet . you can offer your photo by logging into your account\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\nin a study of material of microlepidoptera in north korea that was collected during the zoological expeditions ( 1970s\u20131980s ) conducted under a scientific agreement between polish and north korean academies of science , 17 species belonging to the superfamily gelechioidea are recognized . of the total , 11 species of gelechiidae , two species of oecophoridae , and two species of coleophoridae are newly reported from north korea . scrobipalpa atriplicella ( fisher von r\u00f6lslerstamm , 1841 ) of gelechiidae is reported for the first time from the korean peninsula . images of adults and genitalia of all species are given .\npeer review under responsibility of national science museum of korea ( nsmk ) and korea national arboretum ( kna ) .\n\u00a9 2016 , national science museum of korea ( nsmk ) and korea national arboretum ( kna ) . production and hosting by elsevier .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\nthe main directions of the evolutionary transformation of some genital structures are dem - onstrated on the basis of morphoclines . due to the adequate stability in position of the muscles in the copulatory apparatus the functional morphological method is suffi ciently reliable in solving taxonomic and phylogenetic problems . some important misinterpretations of the homology in genital structures and incorrect coding in matrices for cladistic analyses are discussed , highlighting the signifi cance of functional morphological investigations for taxonomic and phylogenetic analyses .\nonstrated on the basis of morphoclines . due to the adequate stability in position of the muscles in the\nsattler , 1960 and belong to the same tribe . the family name litidae bruand , 1859 , established\nthree main criteria , the formulation of which can be traced back to a . remane ( 1956 ) :\norigin of genital structures and helps to trace their transformations . my studies of the\nless than 20 years of gelechiid moths studies . at present i know the morphology of\nmore than 400 gelechiid genera . genera from related families were also studied ( main -\n( 1995 , 1996 ) , japan ( 1998 , 2000 ) , finland ( 1999 ) , and ukraine ( 2001 , 2005 ) . the list\nof papers ( ponomarenko 1992 , 1995 , 1997 , 2004 , 2005 ) .\nlist of the species for which the functional morphology of the genitalia was studied .\nch ( oh ) cooh ) during 15\u201324 hours at less than 40\u00ba c . before dissection\nin the dichomeridini , which does not indicate their origin . omelko ( 1999 ) treated them\nof the tegumen within the family ( figs 3 a\u2013g ) . in many genera of gelechiidae , as in\ntrated on figs 3 a , b was treated as initial . in some groups within the family (\nhomologous in all of these tribes . the presence of separate parategminal sclerites ( apo -\nmorphy 32 ) allows to support subfamily dichomeridinae as a monophyletic group ( fig .\nprocesses and lobes with strong and long setae . besides that , one of the evolution -\ninto separate cucullus and sacculus . different states of the latter are found in differ -\nated basally have been found ( figs 4 , 5 ) . the sclerotized structures have\nthe scientists was attracted only to the sclerotized distal parts of the described glands .\nthat the discussed parts were not homologous to any part of the valva . since these scle -\nmedially to the cuculli and were fused with them basally ( figs 6 c , d , 7 a , b ) . within\ncucullus is still present ( fig . 6 c , marked by blue ) , but it has lost its function to hold the\nexample considered above and should be subjected to a special investigation . the illus -\na gutter - like concavity and both are joined medially by a membranous sac . the pecu -\nallow to hypothesize on the genesis of the above - described glands . i presume that they\nand positined in the same direction . being inserted in the ductus bursae along with the\nmon ancestor and secondarily lost by some of their representatives . thus , the presence\njuxta ; or with vinculum , juxta , and sacculi ) till their ankylosis into one sclerite . the\nlater stage is typical for most specialized groups within the family . such groups were\nh . hodges ( 1986 ) used the traditional term \u201cjuxta\u201d in the same tribe . omelko ( 1991 )\nnot belong to the genitalia . this conclusion was based on the genital morphology of\nthe male genitalia in the subfamily dichomeridinae . one of the directions of trans -\nzeller ) ( figs 9 e , 10 b ) . the juxta , as a result of its fusion with\n. this transformation is shown on fig . 10 . on the base of this\nanarsiini , chelariini , and dichomeridini , have a common origin . they are homologous\nnal sclerites are equal to the \u201cappendix appendicular\u201d in the dichomeridini ( only ! ) .\nphocline ( see above , fig . 3 ) , the transtilla being the apodeme of\nlelism in hodges ( 1998 : character 29 ) . in its reconsidered version and broadened inter -\njuxta in other gelechiid moths ( see morphocline on fig . 10 ) . both states , free juxta and\ndorsally so as to surround aedeagus\u201d . hodges ( 1998 ) , referring to klots , reduced this\nand \u201csicae ( joined juxta and vinculum ) absent / present\u201d . this would not be a subject for\ndiscussion if every author using these states would be consistent in their coding . firstly ,\nnot to the juxta . the juxta in this genus is represented by a bridle - like sclerite with at -\nneither juxta and processes on the vinculum . the large setaceous lobes in both genera\nthem they completely followed hodges ( 1998 ) . the extrapolation of the term \u201csicae\u201d\nthe last point is the newly discovered gland of the male genitalia . the sclerotized\nglandiductors . they are not homologous to parts of the valva . one of the directions in\nmeridinae , are shown by green and blue ovals . synapomorphies marked by red : 20 : presence of glands of\ndirectly depend not from the number of included characters , but from their quality .\nwho promoted my participation with an oral presentation on some of the results of my investigations .\nsattler and dr . g . robinson ( the natural history museum , london , uk ) , prof . k . mikkola ( zoological\nf\u00fcr naturkunde der humboldt - universit\u00e4t , berlin , germany ) , dr . o . v\nthe possibility to work in the collections under their care , and to dr . t\nashington , usa ) , prof . h . li ( nankai university , t\nstate university , belorussia ) for their help with the literature and their loans of material . i also thank the\nhallberg , e . & g . poppy 2003 . exocrine glands : chemical communication and chemical defense .\nheinrich , c . 1920 . on some forest lepidoptera with descriptions of new species , larvae and pupae . \u2013 pro -\nceeding of the u . s . national museum . 57 ( 2305 ) : 53\u201396 .\n. 1986 . gelechioidea . gelechiidae ( part i ) . dichomeridinae . pp . 1\u2013195 , vii\u2013xiii . \u2013\nnick , r . b . et al . , the moths of america north of mexico , fascicle 7 . 6 . \u2013\n. 1984 . studies on the morphology and systematics of primitive lepidoptera ( insecta ) . \u2013\nfauna ] . ( in russian ) . \u2013 sankt - petersburg , nauka : 1\u2013462 .\nomelko , m . 1991 . [ to the system and morphology of the gelechiid moths of the subfam . gelechiinae\n( lepidoptera , gelechiidae ) , mainly on the fauna of far east ] . ( in russian ) . \u2013 entomologicheskoe\ngelechiidae ) . \u2013 bulletin of the british museum ( natural history ) . entomology\nfrom subfam . dichomeridinae sensu novo ( lepidoptera , gelechiidae ) and relationships of its tribes ] .\ndae ) : functional morphology , evolution and taxonomy ] . ( in russian ) . \u2013 chteniya pamyati\ntalia , phylogeny and taxonomy ( lepidoptera , gelechiidae ) ] . ( in russian ) . \u2013 meetings in memory of\nticae . \u2013 franisek slamka , bratislava . 110 pp . , 103 pls .\nscoble , m . j . , 1992 . the lepidoptera : form , function , and diversity . \u2013 oxford university press . v\u2013xi ,\n. . . we think that these tubes may be connected with glands and function in disseminating male pheromones during courtship and mating . ponomarenko ( 2005 ponomarenko ( , 2008 ) has described tubes at the vinculum in the tribe litini ( gelechiidae ) with a similar function , naming them glandiductors . ponomarenko retained ananarsia at first as a subgenus ( ) and later ( 1992 ) as a separate genus . . . .\n. . . however , both of these structures are highly reduced in izatha . as previously mentioned , the juxta in lepidoptera is proposed to function in helping anchor and guide the phallus during copulation ( ever , 1924 ; klots , 1970 ) , and as the musculature of the juxta in closely related gelechiid moths is associated with the phallus ( ponomarenko , 2008 ponomarenko , , 2009 ) , further supports its role in the positioning and movement of the phallus during mating . therefore , the juxtal arms , in conjunction with the elaboration of the juxto - costal plate of the valvae ( see below ) in izatha may compensate for the reduction of the uncus and gnathos . . . .\n. . . similarly to the illustration provided by clarke ( 1969 ) for locharcha emicans meyrick , we could not detect any indication of the presence of the right valve in the genitalia of l . opportuna , which may have been lost . however , as described by ponomarenko ( 2008 ) , these highly modified structures are glandular in nature , which she termed ' glandiductors ' . also , they may not be homologous to any part of the valva , which thus would have been fused to other genital structures . . . .\n. . . the rounded , proximal basis of these structures is secretory in nature , and the sclerotized , slender distal portion has an opening at the apex ; we confirm that this structure is present in the material studied here . ponomarenko ( 2008 ) concluded that these genital glands could be considered as a basal synapomorphy for the subfamily gelechiinae , thus limiting their taxonomic use at the generic level . . . .\n. . . the right valve in the genitalia of l . opportuna , which may have been lost . however , as described by ponomarenko ( 2008 ) , these highly modified structures are glandular in nature , which she termed ' glandiductors ' . also , they may not be homologous to any part of the valva , which thus would have been fused to other genital structures . . . .\n. . . our data support the monophyly of a clade containing the studied taxa from xystophora to exoteleia ( fig . 1 ) , namely 21 out of 52 studied gelechiidae taxa . this clade corresponds to the definition of the subfamily gelechiinae sensu ponomarenko ( 2008b ponomarenko ( , 2009 ) , apart from ponomarenko ' s inclusion of xystophora in anomologinae and sophronia in anacampsinae . their placement here seems not to be contradicted by their morphology either , which supports their previous classification as gelechiinae by hodges ( 1986 hodges ( , 1998 ) . . . .\nthe functional morphology of the male genitalia in the gelichiid - moth genera holcophora stgr . , anana . . .\nthe functional morphology of the male genitalia of holcophora statices stgr . , nothris verbascella ( den . et schiff . ) and ananarsia lineatella ( zell . ) is described . the genus holcophora hbn . is placed into the tribe gelechiini based on the peculiarities of the skeleton - muscular apparatus of the male genitalia . ananarsia ams . is treated as a separate genus owing to a complex of differences from . . . [ show full abstract ]\nannotated review and discussion of phylogenetically important characters for families and subfamilie . . .\ngelechioidea is a large , diverse superfamily of microlepidoptera that is difficult to characterize due to its species richness . the main working taxonomic unit for gelechioidea seems to be the subfamily level , although many researchers use the taxonomy of family and subfamily interchangeably . some researchers believe the superfamily should be split into several superfamilies to better diagnose . . . [ show full abstract ]\nchecklist of the genus epichostis meyrick ( lepidoptera : xyloryctidae ) of the world , with description . . .\na worldwide checklist of 23 epichostis species is given . twelve species are described from china , 11 of which are new to science : e . wufengensis sp . nov . , e . magnimacularis sp . nov . , e . proximitympanias sp . nov . , e . termitruncatula sp . nov . , e . termiprotrusa sp . nov . , e . wenxianica sp . nov . , e . hamatilis sp . nov . , e . jiangkouensis sp . nov . , e . setilata sp . nov . , e . deltata sp . nov . and e . . . . [ show full abstract ]"]}
{"id": 2530, "summary": [{"text": "ypsolopha barberella is a moth of the family ypsolophidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is known from the united states , including arizona , nevada and utah .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the wingspan is 19-24 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the antennae are dark fuscous with a few scattered white scales especially toward the apex .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the labial are palpi black , mottled with light ochreous and white scales .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the brush on the second joint is well developed but shorter than the terminal joint which is strongly roughened in front .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the head and thorax are dark pepper and salt colored .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the forewings have a light whitish steel-gray ground color , strongly overlaid with black and dark fuscous scales .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are shining dark fuscous , nearly black towards the edges .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the abdomen is dark purplish fuscous and the legs are nearly black with a strong purple reflection . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "ypsolopha barberella", "paragraphs": ["ypsolopha helva j . c . sohn & c . s . wu , in sohn et al . , 2010\nypsolopha pseudoparallela j . c . sohn & c . s . wu , in sohn et al . , 2010\nypsolopha sordida j . c . sohn & c . s . wu , in sohn et al . , 2010\nypsolopha species are variable in shape and color and no exclusive superficial features have been established for the group . in contrast , the genitalia of both sexes are remarkably homogeneous .\nypsolopha is a genus of moth of the ypsolophidae family . it is the type genus of the ypsolophidae family and comprises over 120 described species ( about 95 % of the known world diversity of the ypsolophidae family ) .\nadults are nocturnal or rarely diurnal . their resting postures are various , but they often have the head down and the lower body up . ypsolopha acuminata mimics a small broken branch at rest . the larvae usually live in open webs on the leaves of various , primarily woody , plants and mostly feed on a limited range of host plants . they are active primarily at night and have two defensive behaviors that involve wiggling and jumping .\nbiostor is built by @ rdmpage , code on github . page images from the biodiversity heritage library .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nnamed in honor of herbert spencer barber ( 1882 - 1950 ) , who collected the first specimens with eugene amandus schwarz ( 1844 - 1928 ) .\nnotes on the cerostoma group of yponomeutidae , with descriptions of new north american species august busck . 1903 . journal of the new york entomological society , 11 : 45 - 59 .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\nthere are no photos of this species on the website yet . you can offer your photo by logging into your account\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhead cream - coloured , antennae banded with brown on each segment , labial palpi porrect , heavily scaled , dorsally cream - coloured , ventrally yellow . thorax of a cream colour , tegulae and metathorax yellow . legs light grey . forewings strongly hooked . dorsal surface of forewings yellow , with brown scales restricted to a triangular area in the middle of forewing . hindwings light grey , somewhat translucent proximally and basally , with long fringes . ventral wing surfaces uniformly light grey . legs and abdomen light grey . this species can be distinguished from the similarly looking\nhas mostly brown forewings , with yellow scales restricted to a longitudinal band on the basal one third of its forewings .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhodges numbers 1681 - 2700 links to references are included with the captions . those that are only idenified at the genus level by dna barcoding will eventually be identified as new reference specimens are added to the bold database or will be described by someone as new species ."]}
{"id": 2531, "summary": [{"text": "marsupials are any members of the mammalian infraclass marsupialia .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "all extant marsupials are endemic to australasia and the americas .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "a distinctive characteristic common to these species is that most of the young are carried in a pouch .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "well-known marsupials include kangaroos , wallabies , koalas , possums , opossums , wombats , tasmanian devils , and the recently extinct thylacines .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "others include the numbat , the bandicoot , the bettong , the bilby , the quoll , the quokka , and the potoroo .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "marsupials represent the clade originating from the last common ancestor of extant metatherians .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "like other mammals in the metatheria , they give birth to relatively undeveloped young that often reside with the mother in a pouch , for a certain amount of time .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "close to 70 % of the 334 extant species occur on the australian continent ( the mainland , tasmania , new guinea and nearby islands ) .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the remaining 100 are found in the americas \u2014 primarily in south america , but thirteen in central america , and one in north america , north of mexico . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "marsupial", "paragraphs": ["\u2018the production of a marsupial genetic linkage map is perhaps one of the most important objectives in marsupial research . \u2019\nnilsson ma , arnason u , spencer pbs , janke a . marsupial relationships and a timeline for marsupial radiation in south gondwana .\n\u2018dental development also occurs throughout the period of attachment in other marsupial species . \u2019\n\u2018now the tasmanian devil is the largest meat - eating marsupial existing today . \u2019\nwood jones , f . ( 1948 ) . the study of a generalized marsupial\n( didelphidae : marsupialia ) : contribution to the reconstruction of the marsupial morphotype .\n, 1955 . studies on marsupial reproduction . iii . normal and delayed pregnancy in\nseasonal changes in the reproductive tract of the male marsupial bandicoot , isoodon macrourus .\nalso possibly important to marsupial sex lives : kangaroos can unhinge their lower jaws .\n, 1952 . the tasmanian or marsupial devil . its habits and family life .\n, 1955b . studies on marsupial reproduction . 3 . normal and delayed pregnancy in\nthe marsupial mitochondrial genome and the evolution of placental mammals . - pubmed - ncbi\nmarsupial young are born relatively underdeveloped . in some but not all marsupial species , the mother develops a special pouch on her body in which to nurse her young .\nthe team then compared the wallaby and opossum data to the dna of 20 other marsupial species , including the wallaroo , the common wombat , and the marsupial mole , to find out which marsupial lineages are more closely related and which split off first .\nsystematics and evolution of the dasyurid marsupial genus sminthopsis : i . the macroura species group\nsystematics and evolution of the dasyurid marsupial genus sminthopsis : ii . the murina species group\n) , ranges through the united states into canada . the largest living marsupial is the\n\u2018the marsupial family tarsipedidae contains a single species , the honey possum or noolbender . \u2019\nkean , r . i . ( 1961 ) . the evolution of marsupial reproduction .\nrattner , j . b . ( 1972 ) . nuclear shaping in marsupial spermatids .\n) : evidence for multiple , topographically organized and interconnected representations in an australian marsupial .\nnumbats are small marsupial anteaters that eat termites . one species became extinct in 1960s .\nembryo - endometrial interactions during early development after embryonic diapause in the marsupial tammar wallaby .\nliving marsupial are divided into about 16 families representing about 250 species . these include :\n\u2018this was catastrophic for some of the local animals , especially the big marsupial carnivores . \u2019\n\u2018tooth replacement in marsupial mammals differs from the condition generally believed to characterize eutherian mammals . \u2019\nsharman , g . b . ( 1974 ) . marsupial taxonomy and phylogeny . aust .\nchristensen jl , hill rm . receptive fields of single cells of a marsupial visual cortex of\nchristensen jl , hill rm . response properties of single cells of a marsupial visual cortex .\nfrappell pb , mortola jp . respiratory function in a newborn marsupial with skin gas exchange .\ngemmell rt , little gj . the structure of the lung of the newborn marsupial bandicoot ,\nmla citation :\nmarsupial reproduction .\nurltoken . 09 jul 2018 < urltoken > .\nmoir , r . j . , somers , m . and waring , h . ( 1956 ) . studies on marsupial nutrition . i . ruminant - like digestion in a herbivorous marsupial\nnilsson m , arnason u , spencer p . b . s , janke a ( 2004 ) marsupial relationships and a timeline for marsupial radiation in south gondwana . gene 340 : 189\u2013196 .\n\u2018the marsupial wolf , now probably extinct , was once widespread in australia and new guinea . \u2019\n\u2018many of the extinct marsupial megafauna were large , herbivorous browsers , some weighing several tons . \u2019\ndasyurus viverrinus , a small class of marsupial with a gray or brown coat spotted with white .\nan australian marsupial , which somewhat resembles a small bear in appearance . the legs are short and\u2026\n1962b . role of the corpus luteum in marsupial reproduction . nature 194 : 890 - 891 .\nresults of the archbold expeditions . no . 104 . systematic revision of the marsupial dasyurid genus sminthopsis thomas\nwhen a deputy arrived at the scene there was indeed a marsupial wandering around rural palmetto state county .\nhughes , r . l . ( 1965 ) . comparative morphology of spermatozoa from five marsupial families .\ntioughton , e . leg . ( 1959 ) . the marsupial fauna : its origin and radiation .\ntyndale - biscoe , c . h . ( 1968 ) . reproduction and postnatal development in the marsupial\nmagalhaes - castro b , saraiva pe . sensory and motor representation in the cerebral cortex of the marsupial\nszalay x . a new appraisal of marsupial phylogeny and classification . in : archer m , editor .\nclements f , hope p , daniels c , chapman i , wittert g . thermogenesis in the marsupial\ngemmell rt , selwood l . structural development in the newborn marsupial , the stripe - faced dunnart ,\nthe antechinus is a small nocturnal marsupial mouse with a pointy nose . it hunts for small insects .\nand o ' donoghue , c . h . , 1913 . the reproductive cycle in the marsupial (\nseasonal changes in the reproductive tract of the male marsupial bandicoot , isoodon macrourus . - pubmed - ncbi\ngodthelp h , wroe s , archer m ( 1999 ) a new marsupial from the early eocene tingamarra local fauna of murgon , southeastern queensland : a prototypical australian marsupial ? j mammal evol 6 : 289\u2013313 .\n\u201c marsupial \u201d in diccionario de la lengua espa\u00f1ola , vig\u00e9sima tercera edici\u00f3n , real academia espa\u00f1ola , 2014 .\n\u2018the homology of the teeth in the marsupial dentition has been controversial and there are several alternate nomenclatures . \u2019\nhorovitz i , sanchez - villagra mr . a morphological analysis of marsupial mammal higher - level phylogenetic relationships .\nopossum , of the marsupial family . some species have pouches while others do not , and will therefore\u2026\na class of marsupial mammals native to america . they include a large number of species , ranging in size\u2026\nloudon a , rothwell n , stock m . brown fat , thermogenesis and physiological birth in a marsupial .\nembryo - endometrial interactions during early development after embryonic diapause in the marsupial tammar wallaby . - pubmed - ncbi\nthe search for diagnostic south american or australidelphian marsupial morphological characters has been so far confounded by the lack of a resolved marsupial phylogeny [ 21 ] , [ 22 ] , [ 28 ] . the newly established marsupial tree can now be applied not only to morphological and paleontological studies but also to clearly distinguish genomic changes .\nthe dna comparisons clearly showed that the mountain monkey belongs to the south american group on the marsupial evolutionary tree .\n\u201c marsupial \u201d in le tr\u00e9sor de la langue fran\u00e7aise informatis\u00e9 ( the digitized treasury of the french language ) .\nmartin , g . f . and megirian , d . ( 1972 ) . corticobulbar projections of the marsupial phalanger\npak poy , r . k . f . ( 1957 ) . electron microscopy of the marsupial renal glomerulus .\nsharman , g . b . ( 1955 ) . studies on marsupial reproduction . ii . the oestrus cycle of\ntyndale - biscoe , c . h . ( 1965 ) . the female urogenital system and reproduction of the marsupial\nhaight jr , neylon l . an analysis of some thalamic projections to parietofrontal neocortex in the marsupial native cat ,\njohnson ji , haight jr , megirian d . convolutions related to sensory projections in cerebral neocortex of marsupial wombats .\n( phalangeridae ) , with a comparative commentary on the organization of the posterior thalamus in marsupial and placental mammals .\nrose rw , kuswanti n . thyroid function and the development of endothermy in a marsupial , the tasmanian bettong ,\nmarsupial moles of the australian dessert have no eyes or ears and have a horny shield to protect their noses .\nthis small omnivorous marsupial became extinct in 1950 due to rabbits and introduced predators such as feral cats and foxes .\nthe ultrastructure of the lung of two newborn marsupial species , the northern native cat , dasyurus h . . .\n1892 , the american naturalist\u200e , page 125 : showing that this animal is marsupial , consists of the following characters .\naround 23 million years ago , during the late oligocene era , this marsupial lion roamed in northwestern queensland , australia .\nbut the tasmanian tiger , the marsupial lion and megalania ( a 1 , 300 - pound lizard ) are gone .\nfamily \u2020 thylacinidae : thylacine ( a . k . a . marsupial wolf , tasmanian wolf , tasmanian tiger ) .\nkathiresan , s . ( 1969 ) . morphological studies on the thymus . part i . thymus of the marsupial -\nmoss , m . l . and applebaum , e . ( 1963 ) . the fibrillar matrix of marsupial enamel .\nkudo m , aitkin lm , nelson je . auditory forebrain organization of an australian marsupial , the northern native cat (\na genus or subgenus of marsupial quadreupeds of the family phalangistd\u00e6 , peculiar to australia .\n- whitney , \u2026\nrenfree mb . marsupial reproduction : the choice between placentation and lactation . in . in : finn ca , editor .\nspotted tailed quolls are the size of a large cat . they are the second largest carnivorous marsupial and are endangered .\n, 1834 . on the generation of the marsupial animals , with a description of the impregnated uterus of a kangaroo .\nquincy the queensland koala has been equipped with the latest blood sugar monitor , hopefully quelling a quandary for the diabetic marsupial .\nthe new species include microbes , plants , animals and even the confirmation of an extinct marsupial , based on its fossil .\n\u2018unlike the large cats that have two enlarged canines , marsupial lions had enlarged incisors that were used to stab prey . \u2019\n\u2018small mammals such as bush rats and marsupial carnivores survived the fires by hiding under boulders and in damp rock crevasses . \u2019\n\u2018this marsupial family is restricted to wooded areas of eastern australia and contains a single living species , the familiar koala . \u2019\nneylon l , haight jr . neocortical projections of the suprageniculate and posterior thalamic nuclei in the marsupial brush - tailed possum ,\n. marsupial and placental mammals are very different , and diverged from each other a long time ago on the evolutionary tree .\nofficials later released the graphic images of the marsupial , before and after it underwent surgery for the arrows to be removed .\nwere examined between 0 and 21 pp . due to the slow postnatal development of the marsupial offspring , the investigation periods in\nrunciman sic , baudinette rv , gannon bj . postnatal development of the lung parenchyma in a marsupial : the tammar wallaby .\n( 1945 and later ) papers have contributed greatly to knowledge of the comparative anatomy of the marsupial reproduc - tive system .\nthe primers used for amplification of single copy marsupial introns containing retroposed elements . the primers used for amplification of single copy marsupial introns containing retroposed elements . the location of each marker on the chromosomes ( chr . ) in the monodelphis genome is listed .\nthe marsupial mode of reproduction is very complex , and the evolution from placental to marsupial would require the simultaneous alteration of several independent systems not to mention the development of the pouch and the physical capability necessary for the fetus to crawl to the pouch .\nwhat makes a marsupial , a marsupial ? a discussion on the historical biogeography and biological evolution of marsupial mammals . dr . robert voss is a professor at richard gilder graduate school and the american museum of natural history . his primary research interests are the evolution of marsupials and the systematics and biogeography of other neotropical mammals that inhabit moist - forest habitats in amazonia and the andes .\nat the earliest evolutionary split between marsupial relatives and placentals , you would expect two fossils like this to be geographically close .\nmost marsupial females , like this red kangaroo mom , have an upward - opening pocket called a pouch , for their young .\n\u2018\u2018this new fossil provides precious new information , and sheds light on the evolution of all marsupial mammals , \u2019 he said . \u2019\n\u2018placental and marsupial mammals are more closely related to one another than to the third living group of mammals , the monotremes . \u2019\nin marsupial species the young are born live , and the mother has a placenta but it is not considered a true placenta .\nhollis , d . e . and lyne , a . g . ( 1974 ) . innervation of vibrissa follicles in the marsupial\naitkin lm , nelson je , shepherd rk . hearing , vocalization and the external ear of a marsupial , the northern quoll ,\nhaight jr , neylon l . the organization of neocortical projections from the ventroposterior thalamic complex in the marsupial brush - tailed possum ,\nibbotson mr , mark rf . orientation and spatiotemporal tuning of cells in the primary visual cortex of an australian marsupial , the wallaby\na strange carniovorous marsupial that lived around 15 million years ago in australia had an insatiable appetite for escargot , shell and all .\nhughes r . l . , hall l . s . ( 1988 ) structural adaptations of the newborn marsupial . in : tyndale - biscoe c . h . , janssens p . a . ( eds ) the developing marsupial . springer , berlin , heidelberg\ntasmanian tigers were marsupial wolves that had stripes like a tiger . people hunted them to extinction . the last died in 1936 .\nbecause of this multiple - offspring strategy and other adaptabilities unique to the marsupial , populations can increase rapidly when food is plentiful .\nmarsupial reproductive strategies are based primarily on the lactation phase , which is in contrast with eutherian mammals where intrauterine development of the young is the primary reproductive investment . the marsupial neonate is born at an extremely early stage of development ( most weigh < 0 . 01 % of the mother ' s body weight at birth ) relative to the neonate of eutherian mammals , even compared with bears and insectivores whose newborn are more developmentally advanced than any marsupial neonate . newly hatched monotreme young are roughly as immature as the newborn marsupial .\n1952 , the motor\u200e , page 520 : it seemed to me , meandering around earls court , that motors should be more marsupial .\nabout 23 million years ago in australia , a marsupial lion lived in the open forest and spent part of its life in trees .\nbut fair warning \u2014 in some cases , these packs can make their wearers look like marsupial moms carrying their little joeys to term .\n\u2018so the extension of the term \u2018marsupial\u2019 is the set of all marsupials : kangaroos , wallabies , wombats , and so on . \u2019\nflynn , t . t . ( 1911 ) . notes on marsupial anatomy . ii . on the female genital organs of a virgin\nkrause , w . j . ( 1972 ) . the distribution of brunner\u2019s glands in 55 marsupial species native to the australian region .\nwade , o . and neely , p . ( 1949 ) . the heart and attached vessels of the opossum , a marsupial .\nbravo h , olavarria j , martinich s . patterns of interhemispheric and striate - peristriate connections in visual cortex of the south american marsupial\nhaight jr , sanderson kj , neylon l , patten gs . relationships of the visual cortex in the marsupial brush - tailed possum ,\nrenfree mb , tyndale - biscoe ch . manipulation of marsupial embryos and pouch young . in . in : daniel jc , editor .\nspringer ms , kirsch jaw , case ja . the chronicle of marsupial evolution . in : givinish t , sytsma k , editors .\nimportant observations ended a controversy , about the route taken by the marsupial foetus during parturition , which had continued for over 100 years .\nhowever , molecular data also suggests none of the living marsupial orders are much older than 65million years old , and that all the orders had diverged 50 - 55 million years ago . also , whilst all extinct marsupial orders are gondwanan , none are known that existed before the palaeocene . this suggests few marsupials survived the kt mass extinction , and that post - kt marsupial evolution mostly occurred in gondwana .\ndunnart ( sminthopsis ) , a marsupial mouse . the species can be found in australia and new guinea , in grassland and dryland habitats .\ndennis , b . j . and kerr , d . i . b . ( 1961a ) . somaesthetic pathways in the marsupial phalanger ,\nmartin , g . f . , megirian , d . and roebuck , a . ( 1971 ) . corticobulbar projections of the marsupial phalanger\namong the first is another bizarre carnivorous marsupial that looks like a younger and far more powerful cousin of the earlier snail - eating malleodectids .\nburri ph , haenni b , tschanz sa , makanya an . morphometry and allometry of the postnatal marsupial lung development : an ultrastructural study .\npilton , p . e . and sharman , g . b . , 1959 . oestrous cycle , gestation period and parturition in the marsupial\nwerdelin l ( 1987 ) jaw geometry and molar morphology in marsupial carnivores : analysis of a constraint and its macroevolutionary consequences . paleobiology 13 : 342\u2013350\nthe tasmanian tiger , known to science as the thylacine , was the only member of its genus of marsupial carnivores to live to modern times .\none pooch found antechinus species in the scenic rim , an area that hadn ' t seen the marsupial since the late 1980s , baker says .\nwhat made you want to look up marsupial ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\nmartin , g . f . , megirian , d . and roebuck , a . ( 1970 ) . the corticospinal tract of the marsupial phalanger\nshorey , c . d . and hughes , r . l . ( 1972 ) . uterine glandular regeneration during the follicular phase in the marsupial\nheath cj , jones eg . interhemispheric pathways in the absence of a corpus callosum . an experimental study of commissural connexions in the marsupial phalanger .\nweller wl , haight jr , neylon l , johnson ji . a re - assessment of the mechanoreceptor projections to cerebral neocortex in marsupial wallabies (\n, 1961 . the evolution of marsupial reproduction . tech . pap . for . res . inst . n . z . no . 35 .\nnonetheless , many extant marsupials resemble placentals in appearance . for example , the marsupial tasmanian\nwolf\n( thylacinus ) resembles its placental counterpart , the wolf ( canis ) , the marsupial\nmouse\n( dasycerus ) resembles the placental mouse ( mus ) , and the marsupial\nanteater\n( myrmecobius ) resembles the placental anteater ( myrmecophaga ) ( mayr 2001 ) . evolutionists hold this to be an example of independent , convergent evolution .\n\u2018named akidolestes , the extinct animal had jaws , teeth , and forelimbs that identify it as a close relative of modern placental and marsupial mammals . \u2019\n\u2018when we studied all the patterns of amino - acid replacement and silent substitution , we discovered several replacements that all placental and marsupial mammals share . \u2019\nbiggers , j . d . and de lamater , e . d . ( 1965 ) . marsupial spermatozoa pairing in the epididymis of american forms .\nadey wr , kerr di . the cerebral representation of deep somatic sensibility in the marsupial phalanger and the rabbit ; an evoked potential and histological study .\nmakanya an , sparrow mp , warui mp , mwangi dk , burri ph . morphological analysis of the postnatally developing marsupial lung , the quokka wallaby .\nbartholomew , g . a . , 1956 . temperature regulation in the macropod marsupial setonix brachyurus . physiol . zool . 29 : 26 - 41 .\nberger , p . j . , 1966 . eleven - month \u2018embryonic diapause\u2019 in a marsupial . nature 211 ( 5047 ) : 435 - 436 .\nmoir , r . j . , somers , m . and waring , h . , 1956 . studies on marsupial nutrition . i . ruminant - like digestion in a herbivorous marsupial ( setonix brachyurus quoy and gaimard ) . aust . j . biol . sci . 9 : 293 - 304 .\nspringer m . s , westerman m , kavanagh j . r , burk a , woodburne m . o , et al . ( 1998 ) the origin of the australasian marsupial fauna and the phylogenetic affinities of the enigmatic monito de monte and marsupial mole . proc r soc lond b 265 : 2381\u20132386 .\ngoin fj ( 1989 ) late cenozoic south american marsupial and placental carnivores : changes in predator - prey evolution . abstracts v internatl ther congr 1 : 271\u2013272\nbolliger , a . and macindoe , n . m . ( 1950 ) . eye changes in a marsupial experimentally infected with kala - azar and trypanosomiasis .\n, 1947 . some problems of marsupial phylogeny . rep . aust . n . z . assn . adv . sci . 25 : 71 - 102 .\nbennett , verity . 2012 . fossil focus : marsupial evolution \u2013 a limited story ? palaeontology online , volume 2 , article 10 , 1 - 9 .\nhorovitz i , s\u00e1nchez - villagra m . r ( 2003 ) a morphological analysis of marsupial mammal higher - level phylogenetic relationships . cladistics 19 : 181\u2013212 .\nthe animals that migrated into australia after the flood were all exposed to similar conditions and potentially the same environmental extremes which would be necessary to trigger the obligatory convergent evolution of the trait in all local mammals . the mammals that migrated to australia were either all marsupial by coincidence or there exists the ability for the placentals to evolve to a marsupial mode of reproduction if it is advantageous . the existence of the marsupial / placental twins makes the latter seem a possible explanation\nin another picture , a shorts - clad tourist found himself on the receiving end of a marsupial ' s powerful kick , as two other kangaroos looked on .\nblair , d . m . , davies , f . and francis e t . b . ( 1942 ) . the conducting system of the marsupial heart .\nshorey , c . d . and hughes , r . l . ( 1973 ) . development , function , and regression of the corpus luteum in the marsupial\nthe pelvis of the echidna ; sa , sacrum ; il , illum ; is , ischium ; p , pubis ; m , marsupial bone .\n\u2014\u2026\nthese include the articulated skeletons of the ram - sized , sloth - like nimbadon - an extinct marsupial that fell in while moving overhead in the tree tops .\n2002 , fiction fix : first injection , page 58 : but there ' s this pouch just below my belly button , very marsupial , where the kangaroo lives .\n\u2018once the female hip - pocket frog , an australian species also known as the marsupial frog , lays up to 20 white eggs , her work is done . \u2019\nthe arrows , described in news release from the department as ' crossbow arrows ' , struck the marsupial the the side of its body and near its right eye .\nbaudinette rv , runciman sic , frappell pf , gannon bj . development of the marsupial cardiorespiratory system . in : tyndale - biscoe ch , janssens pa , editors .\n\u2018the tasmanian devil is the world ' s largest marsupial predator but its very survival is at stake as an horrific cancer threatens up to 90 % of its population . \u2019\naitkin lm , irvine dr , nelson je , merzenich mm , clarey jc . frequency representation in the auditory midbrain and forebrain of a marsupial , the northern native cat (\nthe most famous marsupial is the kangaroo , but there are many others , such as wallabies , opossums , koalas , and wombats . what makes marsupials different from primates or rodents ( who are also mammals ) is that the mothers have pouches to hold their young . this is because when marsupial babies are born , they ' re not quite ready for the world , so the pouch gives them a chance to grow and be safe before having to live on their own . when you think marsupial , think\npouch .\nguiler , e . r . and heddle , r w . l . ( 1970 ) . testicular and body temperatures in the tasmanian devil and three other species of marsupial .\nconvergent evolution is the appearance of similar traits in distantly related lineages . examples of convergent evolution between placentals and marsupials are the extinct tasmanian \u201cwolf\u201d ( a very wolflike marsupial ) , marsupial \u201cmoles\u201d ( living molelike marsupials that burrow in the sandy deserts of australia ) , and kangaroo rats ( north american rodents that hop on their hind legs like kangaroos ) .\nwhile making a stop in australia during his 24k magic world tour , mars cuddled up alongside a koala and shared a few flirty puns that would make any marsupial - lover blush .\nthe tasmanian tiger , or thylacine , was a striped , wolf - like marsupial now likely extinct . it was hunted by ranchers and farmers because it often attacked sheep and chickens .\nthere are 235 species of australian marsupial and 99 species of american ones . american marsupials are often called opossums and aren ' t as large and as varied as the australian ones .\ngiven this particular developmental scenario , several questions may be examined to determine if the changeover to marsupial reproduction is possible , or if the differences between the two systems are irreducibly complex .\ncoleman gt , zhang hq , murray gm , zachariah mk , rowe mj . organization of somatosensory areas i and ii in marsupial cerebral cortex : parallel processing in the possum sensory cortex .\nbentley , p . j . , 1960 . evaporative water loss and temperature regulation in the marsupial setonix brachyurus . aust . j . exp . biol . 38 : 301 - 306 .\nthe earliest known marsupial , sinodelphys szalaya , has been found in deposits in northeastern china dating to about 125 ma ( luo et al . , 2003 ) . this was a small insectivore / carnivore that had adapted for tree - climbing . it is the earliest known member of the metatheria , the group that living marsupials belong , though it was not strictly a marsupial .\nafter watching the last surviving tasmanian - tiger walking around in a pen on film , i began to wonder how significant the difference was between the marsupial and placental reproductive system . this marsupial wolf appeared and behaved just like any other dog . is it possible for it to belong to the same biblical kindship group as the dingo who later replaced him ? the marsupial counterparts are in many cases identical to a placental twin , and distinguishing them as unrelated is not possible without a much closer inspection than necessary for the differences we typically use to distinguish the biblical kinds .\nthe virginia opossum is north america ' s only marsupial . there ' s an old folk tale that opossum young were born in their mother ' s nose , then sneezed into the pouch .\nmikkelsen t . s , wakefield m . j , aken b , amemiya c . t , chang j . l , duke s , et al . ( 2007 ) genome of the marsupial\nwaring , h . , sharman , g . b . , lovat , d . and kahan , m . ( 1955 ) . studies on marsupial reproduction . i . general features and techniques .\nsince there is no apparent reason for differences in the placement of marsupial and placental wolffian ducts in males , the positions of the wolffian ducts seem to have been determined by the respective female requirements .\nin addition to the wolf , there are numerous other marsupials which are essentially identical to a placental counterpart . there is a marsupial squirrel , anteater , mole , mouse , and others which are indistinguishable from placental mammals with the exception of the differences in their mode of gestation . the evolutionists propose that the marsupial and placental mammals diverged from one another about 100 million years ago and the similarities that exist between these species have evolved coincidently as a result of common environmental exposures . the creationists on the other hand , generally assume each marsupial is a unique kind from each other and from their placental twin .\nmass specific rates of oxygen consumption ( v\u0307o 2 ) in the two marsupial species m . domestica and m . eugenii during the postnatal development . both marsupial species were characterized by low v\u0307o 2 at birth and did not reach v\u0307o 2 levels predictable from the allometric curve of adult marsupials ( hayssen & lacey , 1985 ) until 42\u201356 days in m . domestica and until 111 days in m . eugenii .\nmarsupial babies are nourished with milk supplied by their mothers through teats inside their pouches . because their young are born relatively underdeveloped these young animals lactate for a very long time compared to equivalent placental animals .\nmunemasa m , nikaido m , nishihara h , donnellan s , austin c . c , et al . ( 2008 ) newly discovered young core - sines in marsupial genomes . gene 407 : 176\u2013185 .\nat times when survival has become difficult and the death rates of mothers and children are high , the marsupial mode of reproduction may prevent high mortality rates from affecting the death of the other . under severe environmental stress when giving birth earlier becomes advantageous for the success of the population , then the marsupial reproductive mode may be selectable from the natural variation that exists within the timing and developmental rates of these events .\nthere are no marsupials that are highly specialized runners and none that live in water or have powered flight . however , some fill very similar ecological niches to some placental mammals , and look superficially similar . for example , notoryctes is called the marsupial mole ; the sugar glider , petaurus , glides between trees in the same way as the placental flying squirrel ; the numbat , myrmecobius , is a marsupial anteater ; and the thylacine , which sadly went extinct in the 1980s , is called the marsupial wolf . despite the limited geographical range of modern metatherians , they are found in the fossil record on every modern continent .\nlike all marsupial females , the wombat has a pouch\u2014but it opens toward the mother\u2019s rear , rather than toward her head . this keeps dirt from filling up the pouch when the mother wombat is busy digging !\nthe order dasyuromorphia includes myrmecobius , the numbat or marsupial ant - eater . myrmecobius is interesting because no similar forms are known in the fossil record before the occurrence of still - living species in the pleistocene .\nszalay f . s ( 1982 ) a new appraisal of marsupial phylogeny and classification . in : archer m , editor . carnivorous marsupials . sydney : royal zoological society of new south wales . pp . 621\u2013640 .\nbeck r . m . d , godthelp h , weisbecker v , archer m , hand s . j ( 2008 ) australia ' s oldest marsupial fossils and their biogeographical implications . plos one 3 : e1858 .\nphillips m . j , pratt r . c ( 2008 ) family - level relationships among the australasian marsupial \u201cherbivores\u201d ( diprotodontia : koala , wombats , kangaroos and possums ) . mol phylogent evol 46 : 594\u2013605 .\nthe relationship among the four australasian orders is not resolved , and of special interest is the phylogenetic position of the marsupial mole , notoryctes typhlops , which has been debated for a long time [ 3 ] , [ 4 ] , [ 14 ] , [ 17 ] \u2013 [ 19 ] , [ 21 ] , [ 23 ] . the marsupial mole is the only burrowing marsupial and is found in the deserts of australia . the eyes of the marsupial mole are vestigial and the fore - and hind limbs are morphologically derived due to the burrowing lifestyle . the derived morphology and the fact that the marsupial mole is the single species in the order notoryctemorphia have complicated attempts to resolve its phylogenetic position relative to the other three australian orders . most analyses of molecular sequence data find the marsupial mole closely related to the orders dasyuromorphia and peramelemorphia , but the support values are generally weak [ 3 ] , [ 4 ] , [ 14 ] , [ 17 ] \u2013 [ 19 ] , [ 23 ] , and the exact phylogenetic position relative to the other two orders is yet to be determined . during the retroposon screening one marker was found supporting a grouping of notoryctes , dasyuromorphia , and peramelemorphia ( p = 0 . 3333 [ 1 0 0 ] ) . the single retroposon marker is in agreement with the results from the sequence data . extended screening of retroposons can provide additional evidence for the position of the marsupial mole among marsupials and which of the orders , dasyuromorphia or peramelemorphia , is the sister group .\nadey , w . r . and kerr , d . i . b . ( 1954 ) . the cerebral representation of deep somatic sensibility in the marsupial phalanger and the rabbit ; an evoked potential and histological study .\nclezy , j . k . a . , dennis , b . j . and kerr , d . i . b . ( 1961 ) . a degeneration study of the somaesthetic afferent systems in the marsupial phalanger ,\n' although it is very different from the others , it appears to have been related to the dasyures - marsupial carnivores such as tasmanian devils and the extinct tasmanian tigers that are unique to australia and new guinea . '\nincreasing body size and species numbers also took place in the wombats ( vombatidae ) and the diprotodonts ( diprotodontidae ) . the large predators , thylacines ( thylacinidae ) and marsupial lions ( thylacoleonidae ) also increased in size .\nas the time approaches for the young marsupial to be born the female marsupial cleans out its pouch by sticking her head into her pouch licking the inside of it clean . it then takes up a\nbirthing position\nby sitting on its back with its tail between its legs and the hind legs extended straight forward . it also leans the trunk of its body forward . it then licks its birth canal opening possibly to stimulate the birth .\ntyler cj , dunlop sa , lund rd , harman am , dann jf , beazley ld , lund js . anatomical comparison of the macaque and marsupial visual cortex : common features that may reflect retention of essential cortical elements .\nsinger d , zeller u , hehenkamp e , schmidt h , kuhn h - j . suppression and activation of kleiber ' s rule in the neonatal period : a comparative calorimetric investigation in preterm human and small marsupial neonates .\nthanks to marsha bundman for editorial assistance . pontus lind\u00e9n , petra berkes , and erin m . arms assisted with lab work . axel janke provided samples . the marsupial paintings in figure 2 were provided by j\u00f3n baldur hl\u00ed\u00f0berg .\nmeredith r . w , westerman m , case j . a , springer m . s ( 2008 ) a phylogeny and timescale for marsupial evolution based on sequences for five nuclear genes . j mamm evol 15 : 1\u201326 .\nalthough the advantages of marsupial vs . placental birth may not be obvious , upon further examination several trade - offs become apparent . the placenta is extremely beneficial for many reasons , and allows the organism enough advantage to replace its marsupial counterpart if introduced into the same area . however , for everything there is a trade - off , and the gestation length may represent a direct exchange between what ' s advantageous for the child as opposed to the mother .\ngreen b ( 1997 ) field energetics and water flux in marsupials . in : saunders nr , hinds la ( eds ) marsupial biology : recent research , new perspectives . university of new south wales press , sidney , pp 143\u2013162\nbut the rescue 11 crew from st . tammany parish ' s fire district 1 noticed more than just a dead marsupial on monday morning . ( april 2 ) there were three baby opossums trying to nurse off their dead mother .\nmalleodectes mirabilis ( artist ' s impression pictured ) was a carnivorous marsupial with an ' insatiable appetite ' for snails , according to researchers . they say it had hammer - like premolars that allowed it to crack and crush snail shells\nwhat is a marsupial ? a marsupial is an animal belonging to the order marsupiala , infraclass metatheria . members include the kangaroo , koala , tasmanian devil and the virginia opossum . marsupials give birth to fetal - like young following a brief gestation period . the young then nurse for an extended period of time . it is generally accepted that a marsupial is a non - placental mammal whose female carries her young in a pouch , or marsupium , which provides the developing young with the proper environment , warmth , possess a placenta , although the placenta is non - invasive and functions in nutrient and waste transfer for a very short period of time , about 3 days in the virginia opossum .\nwhile most marsupials can swim , there are no marine marsupials . they reason for this is the fact that marsupial babies are carried in a pouch outside the body and would drown if their mother was to submerge herself in water .\nsharman g . b . ( 1959 ) marsupial reproduction . in : keast a . , crocker r . l . , christian c . s . ( eds ) biogeography and ecology in australia . monographiae biologicae . springer , dordrecht\nthough marsupials today do not have as many species as do the placental mammals , they are quite structurally diverse . they range from small four - footed forms like the marsupial mole , notoryctes , to the large two - legged kangaroos .\nthese example sentences are selected automatically from various online news sources to reflect current usage of the word ' marsupial . ' views expressed in the examples do not represent the opinion of merriam - webster or its editors . send us feedback .\na feature of the gestation period of marsupials is its short duration . the foetal marsupial may spend as little as twelve to thirteen days in the reproductive tract . why is the gestation period so short and what happens in this time ?\nmackerras , m . j . and smith , r . h . , 1960 . breeding the short - nosed marsupial bandicoot , isoodon macrourus gould ) , in captivity . aust . j . zool . 8 : 371 - 382 .\nmarlow , b . j . , 1961 . reproductive behaviour of the marsupial mouse , antechinus flavipes ( waterhouse ) ( marsupialia ) and the development of the pouch young . aust . j . zool . 9 : 203 - 218 .\nhowever , whilst the vast majority of post kt marsupial evolution occurred in the southern continents , they almost certainly first evolved in the northern continents . with a complete absence of south american cretaceous marsupial fossils , the oldest south american marsupials are 63 - 61 million years old fossils found in the tiupampian levels in argentina and bolivia . it is therefore argued that marsupials only migrated to south america from north america by the end of the cretaceous , between 70 and 65 mya .\nthey found that all of the species had common retroposons , and thus a common ancestor . closer analysis revealed that the south american opossum order , didelphimorphia , was the oldest living marsupial order , indicating that all marsupials originated in south america .\nthe pattern of the marsupial vagina is varied by differences in expansions either of the lateral canals anteriorly , or of the median sac . lateral canals are long in the caenolestidae and the whole vagina tends to be long in the australian marsupials .\ncitation : nilsson ma , churakov g , sommer m , tran nv , zemann a , brosius j , et al . ( 2010 ) tracking marsupial evolution using archaic genomic retroposon insertions . plos biol 8 ( 7 ) : e1000436 . urltoken\nphillips m . j , mclenachan p . a , down c , gibb g . c , penny d ( 2006 ) combined mitochondrial and nuclear dna sequences resolve the interrelations of the major australasian marsupial radiations . syst biol 55 : 122\u2013137 .\naplin k . p , archer m ( 1987 ) recent advances in marsupial systematics with a new syncretic classification . in : archer m , editor . possums and opossums : studies in evolution . sydney : surrey beatty . pp . xv\u2013lxi .\nprevious studies had tried to tackle the question by comparing small bits of dna or physical differences between marsupials , such as ankle joint characteristics , phillips said . the new study , in contrast , examines large chunks of marsupial genomes for evolutionary clues .\nthe female reproductive system is generally similar to the placental system , although it does have more differences than the male systems . there is also a larger variation in size and shape between different marsupial species , although all share the same basic morphology .\nthree different search strategies ( see materials and methods ) revealed \u223c217 , 000 retroposon - containing genomic loci . highly conserved exonic primers were generated for 228 loci and experimentally tested on a small set of species . after carefully screening the sequences , we selected 32 loci based on criteria outlined in the materials and methods section for amplification in 20 marsupial species ( table s2 ) . we carefully aligned and analyzed approximately 440 marsupial sequences to reveal 53 informative markers ( figure 2 , table 1 ) .\nwaring , h . , sharman , g . b . , lovat , d . and kahan , m . 1955 . studies on marsupial reproduction . i . general features and techniques . aust . j . zool . 3 : 34 - 43 .\nduring this period , north american marsupials became extinct , with marsupial extinctions occurring during the miocene in europe . this pattern of extinction in the north contrasts to that observed in the south , where marsupials underwent adaptive radiation and continued to migrate throughout gondwana .\n) is an example of a marsupial that has readily adapted to changing conditions brought about by people and is even plentiful in some urban centres . its adaptability to different locales is attributed to its tolerance for a variety of food , including household refuse . the\n) and is considered to have retained many primitive features of the australian common ancestor . the order peramelemorphia consists of two families of bandicoots , both of which have been found in a wide range of habitats . notoryctemorphia only contains one species of marsupial mole (\nwombat ( family vombatidae ) . the three living species of wombats are marsupial mammals found only in australia and tasmania . with a remaining population of only about 100 individuals , the northern hairy - nosed wombat ( lasiorhinus krefftii ) is considered to be critically endangered .\nabstract \u2013 the 3 - d skeletal images obtained from reconstruction of ct scans and x - rays , and soft - tissue images produced by mri , provide invaluable information of the internal and gross anatomy of the north - western marsupial mole ( notoryetes caurinus ) .\ntime - course of lung structural changes ( top panel ) and metabolic development ( bottom panel ) in one marsupial species ( m . domestica ) and eutherian species ( altricial : s . murinus , m . auratus ; precocial : t . belangeri , c . aperea ) . in eutherian species alveolized lung structure and adult metabolic rate were reached at the latest within 1 week after birth ( closed arrow ) , whereas the marsupial species did not reach the same developmental stage until 6\u20138 weeks after birth ( dashed arrow ) .\nmost males and females breed with different partners and then go their separate ways . females raise their joeys on their own . most females have some type of pouch for their young . but not all marsupial pouches are as deep as a kangaroo\u2019s pouch . unlike the koala or kangaroo , most marsupial mothers give birth to several joeys at one time . their pouch is shallow . when the joeys are old enough , they can climb onto mom\u2019s back instead of creating a lot of weight for her to carry around in her pouch .\nthe phylogenetic relationship between marsupial orders is unresolved . for example , the relationship between the order microbiotheria ( boxed ) and other marsupial orders changes depending on what type of data is used to construct the phylogenetic tree . the six phylogenies shown are based on dna sequencing ( a , b ) , dental and skeletal morphology ( c , d ) , mitochondrial genome ( b , e ) , and a meta - analysis that combined numerous phylogenetic relationships described in the literature ( f ) . ( a ) is the same tree shown in\nthe marsupial egg descends from the female ' s ovary into an uterus where it is fertilized . once fertilised the eggs is encased in a very thin shell similar to that of birds and reptiles . this shell is just a few microns thick and disintegrates when the egg reaches the third phase of gestation . a remnant from the evolutionary past this unusual characteristic is common amongst marsupial mammals . marsupials only develop a very ' primitive ' choriovitelline placenta where the egg , with its embryo inside , is attached to the mother ' s uterine wall for only a very short period and doesn ' t develop into a chorioallantoic placenta like in placental mammals . ( the only exception is in bandicoots ) . the gestation period for a marsupial is between 12 to 30 days and varies amongst the different types of marsupials .\nthere exists a mystery concerning the origin or migration of the marsupials ( pouched mammals ) following the great biblical flood of noah . prior to the modern introduction of placentals into australia , the continent was inhabited by only marsupial and monotreme mammals . most of the 140 species of marsupials in australia are found nowhere else in the world . the only naturally occurring marsupial in the united states is the possum , didelphis marsupialis . this overwhelming presence in australia should be explained through natural affects upon these animals during their reoccupation of the postflood world .\non most marsupial females , the pouch is like a pocket opening upward . but the pouch of the virginia opossum of north america and the wombat of australia opens toward the tail . all marsupials have good hearing and a good sense of smell . most walk on the ground or are good climbers , and one , the water opossum or yapok of south america , can swim ! bandicoots , kangaroos , wallabies , and possums have two toes fused together . the numbat is the only marsupial active during the day\u2014all others are nocturnal or crepuscular .\na single functional oviduct is present in birds and monotremes . probably analogous development of a median vagina occurred in oviparous therians during some 50 million years preceding separation of marsupials and placentals . eggs were hard shelled according to the vestigial evidence of a caruncle on the marsupial embryo .\nvan kampen , p . n . , 1905 . die tympnelgegend des sa\u00fcgetierschadels . morph . jahrb . 34 : 321 - 722 . ( cited by patterson , b . , 1965 . the auditory region of the borhyaenid marsupial cladosictis breviora 217 : 1 - 9 . )\nmarsupials are non - placental mammals belonging to the infraclass ( or order ) marsupialia . marsupial females typically have an external pouch ( called the marsupium , from which the name ' marsupial ' derives ) in which the immature young are raised after birth until early infancy . the newborn typically crawl to this pouch after birth , and attach themselves to milk - secreting teats ( nipples ) , and are nursed until they can survive outside the pouch . this time period in the pouch is similar to the later stages of a placental mammal ' s development in the womb .\nearly lineage specification in this marsupial suggests mechanisms that differ from and challenge mammalian paradigms established from studies on mouse development . these new data , together with emerging information on cow , pig and even human show that early developmental mechanisms in mammals are more evolutionarily plastic than was previously recognised .\nfigure 1 \u2014 cleared - and - stained post - natal marsupial ( grey short - tailed opossum , monodelphis domestica ; left ) and pre - natal placental ( four - striped grass mouse , rhabdomys pumilio ; right ) , showing differences in development at time of birth . bony elements are highlighted in pink . ( image modified from goswami , a . , weisbecker , v . and s\u00e1nchez - villagra , m . r . . 2009 . developmental modularity and the marsupial - placental dichotomy . journal of experimental zoology part b , molecular and developmental evolution 312b , 186\u2013195 .\nthe exclusive presence of marsupials in australia following the flood , and the fact that numerous marsupial / placental counterparts exist forces the creation theorist to reach out for a new explanation . if it was possible for the marsupial mode of reproduction to evolve from the placental mammal , then the exclusive existence of the marsupials in australia might be explained through the evolution of placental mammals to marsupials . convergent evolution occurs when several distinct kinds exist in the same biotype , and are all exposed to the same selection . this results in the evolution of similar traits or behaviors in unrelated organisms .\ncalaby , j . h . 1958 . studies on marsupial nutrition ii . the rate of passage of food residues and digestibility of crude fibre and protein by the quokka , setonix brachyurus ( quoy and gaimard ) . aust . j . biol . sci . 11 : 571 - 580 .\ntwo marsupial species ( monodelphis domestica , macropus eugenii ) and four eutherian species ( mesocricetus auratus , suncus murinus , tupaia belangeri and cavia aperea ) were examined to compare and contrast the timing of lung and metabolic development during the postnatal maturation of the mammalian respiratory apparatus . using light , scanning and transmission electron microscopy , the lung structural changes were correlated with indirect calorimetry to track the metabolic development . marsupial and eutherian species followed the same pattern of mammalian lung development , but differed in the developmental pace . in the two newborn marsupial species , the lung parenchyma was at the early terminal sac stage , with large terminal air sacs , and the lung developed slowly . in contrast , the newborn eutherian species had more advanced lungs at the late terminal sac stage in altricial species ( m . auratus , s . murinus ) and at the alveolar stage in precocial species ( t . belangeri , c . aperea ) . postnatal lung development proceeded rapidly in eutherian species . the marsupial species had a low metabolic rate at birth and achieved adult metabolism late in postnatal development . in contrast , newborn eutherian species had high metabolic rates and reached adult metabolism during the first week of life . the time course of the metabolic development is thus tightly linked to the structural differentiation of the lungs and the timing of postnatal lung development . these differences in the neonatal lung structure and the timing of postnatal lung maturation between marsupial and eutherian species reflect their differing reproductive strategies ."]}
{"id": 2532, "summary": [{"text": "the grey-tailed mountaingem or gray-tailed mountaingem ( lampornis cinereicauda ) is a hummingbird which breeds only in the mountains of southern costa rica .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "until recently it was believed to be a subspecies of the white-throated mountaingem .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "this bird inhabits forested areas in hilly terrain , and is found at altitudes from 1850 m to the timberline in the talamanca range .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is 10.5 cm long .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the male weighs 6.2 g and the female 5 g .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the shortish black bill is slightly curved .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the adult male grey-tailed mountaingem has bronze-green upperparts and underparts except for a brilliant green crown , pure white throat and grey tail .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the female lacks the bright crown and throat , and has rich cinnamon underparts .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "young birds resemble the female but have buff fringes to the upperparts plumage .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the female grey-tailed mountaingem is entirely responsible for nest building and incubation .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "she lays two white eggs in a deep plant-fibre cup nest 1 \u2013 3 m high in a scrub .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "incubation takes 15 \u2013 19 days , and fledging another 20-26 .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the food of this species is nectar , taken from a variety of small flowers , including epiphytic ericaceae and bromeliads .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "like other hummingbirds it also takes small insects as an essential source of protein .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "male gray-tailed mountaingems defend flowers and scrubs in their feeding territories , and are dominant except at higher levels where the range overlaps with fiery-throated hummingbird .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the call of this species is a sharp pick or zeet .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "the species is rated as least concern by the iucn . ", "topic": 29}], "title": "grey - tailed mountaingem", "paragraphs": ["white - throated mountaingem ( lampornis castaneoventris ) ; or gray - tailed mountaingem ( l . c . cinereicauda ) . male . threat posture .\nwhite - throated mountaingem ( lampornis castaneoventris ) ; or gray - tailed ( l . c . cinereicauda ) . female . savegre . costa rica .\nwhite - throated mountaingem ( lampornis castaneoventris ) ; or gray - tailed ( l . c . cinereicauda ) . male . savegre , southern costa rica .\nmale gray - tailed mountain - gem hummingbird ( lampornis cinereicauda ) hovering at a flower .\nfemale gray - tailed mountain - gem hummingbird ( lampornis cinereicauda ) about to land , costa rica .\nfemale gray - tailed mountain - gem hummingbird ( lampornis cinereicauda ) about to land on a flower bush , costa rica .\nfemale gray - tailed mountain - gem , lampornis cinereicauda , is a hummingbird which breeds only in the mountains of southern costa rica .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\nlampornis castaneoventris and l . cinereicauda ( del hoyo and collar 2014 ) were previously lumped as l . castaneoventris following sacc ( 2005 ) , which in turn was previously lumped with l . calolaemus as l . castaneoventris following sibley and monroe ( 1990 , 1993 ) .\njustification : although this species may have a small range , it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend is not known , but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' fairly common ' ( stotz et al . 1996 ) and ' over most parts of range one of the commonest mountain hummingbirds ' ( del hoyo et al . 1999 ) . trend justification : the population trend is difficult to determine because of uncertainty over the impacts of habitat modification on population sizes .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ntwo birds chasing each other around the feeders . they would settle away from the feeders but close enough to chase the other off when they got too close to the feeders , think there is an insect in here too .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwe ' ve sent an email to please follow the instructions to reset your password .\nenter your log in email address and we ' ll send you a link to reset your password .\nif is associated with an alamy account you ' ll receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password .\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 300 , 057 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nwe ' ve detected that javascript is disabled in your browser . would you like to proceed to legacy twitter ?\nlikes # wildlife , # photography , # travel , music ( esp rock & funk ) f1 , stone circles . dislikes injustice & bigots . married to @ janesunflower . pix mine except rts .\nyou can add location information to your tweets , such as your city or precise location , from the web and via third - party applications . you always have the option to delete your tweet location history . learn more\nhere ' s the url for this tweet . copy it to easily share with friends .\nby embedding twitter content in your website or app , you are agreeing to the twitter developer agreement and developer policy .\nnot on twitter ? sign up , tune into the things you care about , and get updates as they happen .\nthis timeline is where you\u2019ll spend most of your time , getting instant updates about what matters to you .\nhover over the profile pic and click the following button to unfollow any account .\nwhen you see a tweet you love , tap the heart \u2014 it lets the person who wrote it know you shared the love .\nthe fastest way to share someone else\u2019s tweet with your followers is with a retweet . tap the icon to send it instantly .\nadd your thoughts about any tweet with a reply . find a topic you\u2019re passionate about , and jump right in .\ntwitter may be over capacity or experiencing a momentary hiccup . try again or visit twitter status for more information .\nuse on websites and for limited audiences in social media , apps , or live performances .\npoultry or birds ( including chickens , ducks , geese , pheasants ) are in the phylum chordate class aves is a common feature . a warm - blooded animal baht twitter\nwong drongo general characteristics of birds in this family will have black fur . the tail is forked some eyes are red when fully grown . live on the trees\ncat tien , vietnam - flycatcher on bright green forest bakcground narcissus flycatcher ( ficedula narcissina ) closeup flying and standing on branches with wind .\na single wild white - faced capuchin ( cebus capucinus ) monkey in the rain - forest of costa rica .\nsoccer ball in goal net with slowmotion . slowmotion football ball in the net .\nstage lights and different shapes art gallery . series 3 + version from 1 to 26 + orange - blue - purple and white color series\nover 10 , 961 , 482 royalty - free video clips with 76 , 091 new stock clips added weekly ."]}
{"id": 2536, "summary": [{"text": "the blind electric ray ( typhlonarke aysoni ) is a little-known species of sleeper ray in the family narkidae , endemic to new zealand .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is found on the bottom , typically at a depth of 300 \u2013 400 m ( 980 \u2013 1,310 ft ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "reaching 38 cm ( 15 in ) in length , this species has a thin , nearly circular pectoral fin disc without visible eyes , and a short tail with a single dorsal fin .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "its pelvic fins are divided in two , with the anterior portion forming a limb-like appendage ; in males the claspers do not extend past the disc margin .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "a weak swimmer , the blind electric ray likely pushes itself along using its pelvic fins .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is known to feed on polychaete worms , and can defend itself with an electric shock .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "reproduction is aplacental viviparous .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) does not have enough information to assess the conservation status of this species . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "blind electric ray", "paragraphs": ["benthobatis yangi , a new species of blind electric ray from taiwa . . . : ingenta connect\nwell , the blind electric ray isn\u2019t technically blind ( as neither was the blind shark ) \u2026 it just has tiny eyes that aren\u2019t really visible , instead being beneath the surface of their skin .\nthe blind electric ray is a very small poorly - known electric ray with the typical round body shape , small fleshy tail , one dorsal fin , and almost useless eyes . more\nlearn about the blind electric ray with the fins united initiative . | learn about : rays | pinterest | shark habitat\nthick and flabby with a rudimentary tail , the oval electric ray seems virtually incapable of swimming .\nnotice of an electric ray new to the fauna of new zealand , belonging to the genus astrape .\nblind electric ray typhlonarke aysoni can give an electrical shock and has almost useless eyes . this poorly - known ray uses electroreceptors to\nsee .\nthis numbfish has one dorsal fin and lives at great depths ( 200 - 900 m ) .\nthe blind electric rays are two species of poorly - known electric rays of the genus typhlonarke , belonging to the sleeper ray family , narkidae . the group is known for producing electric shocks for defense . both species are deep - sea rays endemic to the waters off new zealand . more\ngreek , typhlops = blind + greek , narke = numbness ( ref . 45335 )\nby blind electric ray may 3 , 2005 share this 2 . grundies buy grundies mugs , tshirts and hoodiesyour underpants . . . my grundies are soiled by mh jun 6 , 2003 share this 3 . more\ntetronarce cowleyi , sp . nov . , a new species of electric ray from southern africa ( chondrichthyes : to . . .\nthe blind electric ray is dark brown in colour , and is potentially vulnerable to fisheries activity since its known distribution coincides with major trawl fishery grounds . however , recent marine sanctuaries around new zealand provide some safe havens . more\njuvenile speciman of the marbled electric ray , torpedo marmorata risso , 1810 founded in the neum bay . photo by a . gaji\u0107 .\nspecies has led to uncertainty regarding the extent of the oval electric ray ' s distribution . both species are found off the eastern coast of\ncontinental slope , blind electric ray genus that remains poorly understood . revue / journal title bulletin of marine science issn 0007 - 4977 coden bmrsaw source / source 2003 , vol . 72 , no3 , pp . 923 - 939 ( 1 p . more\nhead indistinguishable from disc ( e . g . , stingrays like the bat ray )\n- 2 dorsal fins ( the first closer to pelvis ) , electric organ ( e . g . , the electric rays )\n, endemic to australia ) , the other composed of the electric rays ( narcinidae ) and the shortnose electric rays ( narkidae ) .\ngarrick , j . a . f . ( 1951 ) .\nthe blind electric rays of the genus typhlonarke ( torpedinidae )\n. zoology publications from victoria university college ( 15 ) .\natlantic torpedo ray may be up to 1 . 82 m ( 6 ft . ) in length\nnow , the specific blind electric ray we\u2019re talking about today is typhlonarke aysoni . there\u2019s another two : the brazilian blind electric ray ( benthobatis kreffti ; endemic to brazil ) and the taiwanese blind electric ray ( benthobatis yangi ; endemic to taiwan ) . typhlonarke aysoni is endemic to\u2026 you can\u2019t guess it , can you ? it\u2019s not in the common name , like it seems to always be when it comes to these guys . yet , i get to share waters with these guys - yup , they\u2019re endemic to new zealand ! they\u2019re usually found around cook strait ( and on the continental shelves and slopes that are southward from there ) , anywhere from 100 - 900 meters ( 328 - 2 , 952 ft ) deep . \u200balso known as the \u201cblind legged torpedo\u201d ( i can\u2019t help but giggle at that name ) or \u201cnumbfish , \u201d this deep - watered ray has an interesting genus name , \u201ctyphlonarke , \u201d that explains its common names . \u201ctyphlops\u201d is greek , translating to \u201cblind\u201d and \u201cnarke\u201d is also greek , roughly translating to \u201cnumbness\u201d or \u201cparalysis . \u201d and while it may be electric ( zap ! ) the organs capable of producing their electric discharge varies between 8 volts and 220 volts . no worries , though - at that depth , they pose no threat to you . they do pose a threat to their prey ( like polychaete worms , for example ) , though .\nmost electric rays bury themselves under sand during the day and come out at night to feed . if prey is encountered , the ray will stun the creature with electricity . then , the ray will guide the food with its pectoral fins to its mouth , which is located under its body .\nyeah . freaky , huh ? it leads to them having pretty bad eyesight either way , but i wouldn\u2019t completely label them as \u201cblind . \u201d\nde carvalho , m . r . , l . j . v . compagno and d . a . ebert , 2003 . benthobatis yangi , a new species of blind electric ray from taiwan ( chondrichthyes : torpediniformes : narcinidae ) . bull . mar . sci . 72 ( 3 ) : 923 - 939 . ( ref . 75959 )\nin addition to stunning potential prey and dissuading prospective predators , the electric organs of electric rays may also be used to detect prey and to communicate with each other .\nrays range in size from just a few inches to over 22 feet wide . the smallest ray is the short - nose electric ray , which is the size of a pancake ; it is only 4 inches ( 10 cm ) across and weighs about 1 pound ( 0 . 5 kg ) . the biggest ray is the manta ray which is over 22 feet ( 6 . 7 m ) wide and weighs many tons ( thousands of pounds ) . most rays are in - between these two extremes . more than half of all ray species are over 20 inches ( 50 cm ) long . in fact , rays are some of the largest fish in the sea !\nlargely unknown . blind electric rays of both species have been trawled from 46 to 800 m , but are most common between 300 to 400 m . the flabby disc and rudimentary tail suggest blind electric rays are very poor swimmers and they probably push themselves along the bottom with their well developed pelvic appendages . diet includes polychaete worms . reproduction is probably ovoviviparous . litter size is up to 11 . size at birth is 9 to 10 cm . maximum size 35 cm total length .\nuncertain due to confusion with t . aysoni . blind electric rays have been recorded off east coast north island south of east cape , south island , stewart island , chatham rise ( mernoo bank and chatham islands ) and snares shelf to 49s .\nits mid - length . electric organs visible through skin of ventral surface , elliptical and about\nthe bluespotted ribbontail ray taeniura lymna is a very common , timid ray with an oval - shaped disc and two venomous tail spikes toward the tip of its tail . it grows to be 2 . 25 ft ( 0 . 7 m ) long .\nhamilton , a . ( july 1902 ) .\nnotice of an electric ray new to the fauna of new zealand , belonging to the genus astrape\n. transactions and proceedings of the new zealand institute 34 : 224\u2013226 .\nthe mouth of the australian coffin ray ( hypnos monopterygium ) is enormous , allowing it to gulp prey half the size of its body .\nthe following terminology was used to describe shark behaviour and to assess the effects of the electric field .\nexample of interaction with a change of direction ( proxy for a reaction to the electric deterrent ) .\nexample of interaction during which a shark approached within 0 . 5 m of an activated electric deterrent .\n( greatest transverse width of electric organ at level of third gill slit or its mid - length ) .\nall living creatures produce electricity - even humans - but electric rays have two special kidney - shaped organs that generate and store electricity like a battery . large atlantic torpedo rays can generate enough power to produce a shock of about 220 volts , while smaller rays , like the lesser electric ray ( narcine brasiliensis ) can only muster a shock of about 37 volts .\ngreek , benthos = depth of the sea + greek , batis , - idos = a ray ( raja sp . ) ( ref . 45335 )\nthe primary threat to the taiwanese blind electric ray is shrimp trawling throughout its limited distribution , where it is taken as bycatch . shrimp trawl fisheries operate along the southwestern coast of taiwan island and may range down to depths of 500 m ( d . ebert pers . obs . 2007 ) . fine mesh nets are used in this fishery , thus it is unlikely that the species can avoid or escape the nets , which may also be causing habitat damage .\nfor sharks , and carvalho ( 1999a , 1999b ) for electric rays . compared to other elasmobranchs , elec -\nkalmijn a ( 1971 ) the electric sense of sharks and rays . journal of experimental biology 55 : 371\u2013383 .\nsmith ed ( 1973 ) electric anti - shark cable . civil engineering and public works review 68 : 174\u2013176 .\nof extant batoids , but their highly specialized electrogenic organs \u2014 combined with the fact that the oldest known batoid fossils are very guitarfish - like \u2014 would seem to argue against this interpretation . the electric rays appear to fall into two suborders , the first composed of the torpedo rays ( torpedinidae ) and the short - tailed electric ray ( hypnidae \u2014 represented by a single species ,\nkalmijn a ( 1974 ) the detection of electric fields from inanimate and animate sources other than electric organs . in : fessard a , editor . handbook of sensory physiology vol iii / 3 . berlin : springer - verlag . 147\u2013200 .\nrays and skates have a long gestation period and produces relatively few young ( compared to other fish ) . the growth of ray populations , therefore , is slow .\nmanta ray manta birostris is the largest ray . this graceful swimmer is up to 29 . 5 ft ( 9 m ) wide . mantas eat microscopic plankton , small fish , and tiny crustaceans . they funnel the food into their mouth while they swim , using two large , flap - like cephalic lobes which extend forward from the eyes .\njustification : this small endemic electric ray has a very limited known distribution in the waters of the outer shelf in depths of less than 300 m off southwestern taiwan , province of china . the taiwanese blind electric ray ( benthobatis yangi ) is taken as bycatch in the local shrimp trawl fishery , which uses nets of very fine mesh , likely preventing any capture avoidance . the level of bycatch is not known , however the species is generally retained by the fishing vessels and discarded on landing . the species may also be discarded at sea . although little information has been gathered on its biology and ecology , the high level of endemicity suggests that this species is threatened by incidental fishing mortality . given that intense shrimp trawl fisheries operate throughout this species\u2019 limited range , it is assessed as vulnerable on the basis of suspected declines as a result of continuing , high levels of exploitation .\nat long last , season 11\u2019s blind auditions came to a close on the voice tonight , with coaches adam levine , miley cyrus , alicia keys and blake shelton filling the last few spots of their teams before heading into the fiery battle round .\ndisc of the oval electric ray is ovoid in shape , tapering smoothly towards the rear , and has a very thick margin . the eyes are minute and located 2\u20133 mm ( 0 . 079\u20130 . 12 in ) beneath the surface of the skin ; though not visible externally , their positions are marked by small white patches . the\ncitation : huveneers c , rogers pj , semmens jm , beckmann c , kock aa , page b , et al . ( 2013 ) effects of an electric field on white sharks : in situ testing of an electric deterrent . plos one 8 ( 5 ) : e62730 . urltoken\nlesser electric rays may bear only 2 pups at a time , while atlantic torpedo rays can deliver as many as 60 pups at a time .\n- 2 dorsal fins ( the first closer to pelvis ) , no electric organ ( e . g . , the guitarfish , banjo shark )\ncompagno , l . j . v . and p . c . heemstra ( may 2007 ) .\nelectrolux addisoni , a new genus and species of electric ray from the east coast of south africa ( rajiformes : torpedinoidei : narkidae ) , with a review of torpedinoid taxonomy\n. smithiana , publications in aquatic biodiversity , bulletin 7 : 15\u201349 .\ndepending on the species , electric rays may eat fishes , worms , and crustaceans . adult atlantic rays consume eels , flounders , and small sharks .\natlantic torpedo rays ( torpedo nobiliana ) , for example , live along the coastlines of canada , the united states , united kingdom , and south africa . but they also have been found in the open ocean at depths of approximately 450 m ( 1 , 475 ft . ) . blind electric rays ( typhlonarke aysoni ) have been discovered in waters as deep as 900 m ( 2 , 950 ft . ) .\nwith age , the nerves got worse . eight years ago , i had a stressful eye operation that triggered the worst bout of\nnerves\nin my life . i started waking up in the middle of the night with my heart pounding and obsessive thoughts about going blind .\n. the skin is completely smooth . the oval electric ray is dark brown above , lightening towards the disc margins and on the underside . the area around the mouth and nostrils , and the underside of the pelvic appendages , are white . this species can grow to 36 cm ( 14 in ) long , but most do not exceed 30 cm ( 12 in ) .\nthis study indicates that the behavioural response of white sharks and the level of risk reduction resulting from the electric field is contextually specific , and depends on the motivational state of sharks . the electric field we tested had an effect on white shark behaviour up to two metres from the efs and reduced the incidence of predatory strike , but did not deter or repel this species in all situations nor did it repel all individuals . given that the static bait experiments showed that the electric field did not reduce the likelihood of baits being taken , the effects observed in the seal decoy study are likely to be situation - specific . the large discrepancy in the findings from the present study compared to those of smit and peddemors [ 29 ] also highlights the need for future studies to focus on testing the effects of electric fields at different distances from the efs . an accurate map of the electric field produced by different voltage strengths would also aid in determining the electric current levels eliciting behavioural response and the distance from which white sharks can be expected to first detect and react to the electric field . finally , the study was undertaken on white sharks and further study should include other elasmobranch species , as the behavioural responses to electric fields are known to vary across species [ 22 ] .\nwhite bars represent trials with the electric field source ( efs ) turned off ; black bars represent trials with the activated efs ; standard error bars are shown .\nhistograms of the minimum distance between white sharks and the electric field source ( efs ) when it was turned off ( white ) and on ( black ) .\nsmit cf , peddemors vm ( 2003 ) estimating the probability of a shark attack when using an electric repellent . south african journal of statistics 37 : 59\u201378 .\ntyphlonarke tarakea is a poorly known electric ray , endemic to new zealand . it is apparently rare , however , its distribution and status is uncertain due to confusion with the similar t . aysoni . t . tarakea is potentially vulnerable to fisheries activity since its known distribution coincides with major trawl fishery grounds , but insufficient information is available to assess the species beyond data deficient at this time .\na new species of electric ray of the genus benthobatis alcock , 1898 is described on the basis of five specimens from the continental slope off tungkang , southwestern taiwan . benthobatis yangi , n . sp . , is distinguished from all other species of the genus by a unique combination of characters , including a dark brown to purplish\u2013black dorsal and ventral coloration with irregular creamy blotches ventrally , a narrow nasoral region , a small mouth with slender jaws and shallow circumoral groove , a second dorsal fin with a more broadly rounded apex and more convex posterior margin compared to the first dorsal fin , an interdorsal distance greater than the distance between second dorsal and caudal fins , a narrow and not posteriorly arched suprascapula , size at sexual maturity , and a relatively high number of caudal vertebral centra , and consequently , total vertebral centra . benthobatis yangi is known from adults and juveniles of both sexes . it is only the fourth valid species of benthobatis , and only the second species from the vast indo - pacific region . benthobatis is a continental slope , blind electric ray genus that remains poorly understood .\na new species of electric ray of the genus benthobatis alcock , 1898 is described on the basis of five specimens from the continental slope off tungkang , southwestern taiwan . benthobatis yangi , n . sp . , is distinguished from all other species of the genus by a unique combination of characters , including a dark brown to purplish - black dorsal and ventral coloration with irregular creamy blotches ventrally , a narrow nasoral region , a small mouth with slender jaws and shallow circumoral groove , a second dorsal fin with a more broadly rounded apex and more convex posterior margin compared to the first dorsal fin , an interdorsal distance greater than the distance between second dorsal and caudal fins , a narrow and not posteriorly arched suprascapula , size at sexual maturity , and a relatively high number of caudal vertebral centra , and consequently , total vertebral centra . benthobatis yangi is known from adults and juveniles of both sexes . it is only the fourth valid species of benthobatis , and only the second species from the vast indo - pacific region . benthobatis is a continental slope , blind electric ray genus that remains poorly understood .\n. rays live mostly on or near the sea bed . different ray species are found in habitats ranging from close to shore to the extreme depths of the ocean ( over 10 , 000 feet = 3 , 000 m deep ) .\nlike sharks , rays lack a swim bladder and use their oily liver to maintain buoyancy ( other fish use an air - filled bladder to help them float ) . when a ray stops swimming , it sinks down to the sea bed .\nrays have a flattened body shape and an elongated tail . the pectoral fins are large and connected to the body to form the ray ' s\ndisc .\nthe shape of the disc differs from species to species and may be circular , oval , wedge - shaped or triangular . some body shapes are adapted for living on the sea bed ; others are adapted for almost constant swimming . the ray ' s distinctive tail also varies from species to species . it ranges from stubby ( on the shorttailed electric rays ) to incredibly long ( e . g . , over 10 feet ( 3 m ) long on the whip - like sting rays ) .\nelasmobranchs can detect minute electromagnetic fields , < 1 nvcm \u20131 , using their ampullae of lorenzini . behavioural responses to electric fields have been investigated in various species , sometimes with the aim to develop shark deterrents to improve human safety . the present study tested the effects of the shark shield freedom7\u2122 electric deterrent on ( 1 ) the behaviour of 18 white sharks ( carcharodon carcharias ) near a static bait , and ( 2 ) the rates of attacks on a towed seal decoy . in the first experiment , 116 trials using a static bait were performed at the neptune islands , south australia . the proportion of baits taken during static bait trials was not affected by the electric field . the electric field , however , increased the time it took them to consume the bait , the number of interactions per approach , and decreased the proportion of interactions within two metres of the field source . the effect of the electric field was not uniform across all sharks . in the second experiment , 189 tows using a seal decoy were conducted near seal island , south africa . no breaches and only two surface interactions were observed during the tows when the electric field was activated , compared with 16 breaches and 27 surface interactions without the electric field . the present study suggests that the behavioural response of white sharks and the level of risk reduction resulting from the electric field is contextually specific , and depends on the motivational state of sharks .\ni didn ' t get shocked this time but another time i was shocked and it felt like i sprained my ankle . ouch ! electric rays can thrust forward quickly to attack prey or to defend themselves from predators . they can discharge an electrical jolt up to 220 volts and 30 amps . their electric discharge can stun their prey or painfully shock a diver .\n. . . a litter size of 1\u20132 with a size at birth of > 96mm tl has been observed in the recently described brazilian blind torpedo benthobatis kreffti ( rincon et al . 2001 ) and a litter size of two in the western numbfish narcine lasti with size at birth probably close to 80mm tl ( carvalho and s\u00e9ret 2002 ) . the taiwanese blind numbfish b . yangi is known only from a limited number of specimens detailed in its original description while the dark blindray b . moresbyi is known only from five specimens ( carvalho et al . 2003 ) . there remains numerous undescribed species within the family , including the deepwater narcine sp . . . .\ndigitally recorded video footage from each trial obtained from the underwater camera was reviewed , and independently and \u2018blindly\u2019 coded . coding refers to recording the number of approaches and interactions , and estimating the minimum distance between the shark and the efs during each interaction . the coder was termed \u2018blind\u2019 as they did not participate in the trials and had no prior knowledge of whether an electric field was being produced when coding videos of each trial . the observer data recorded during the trials were used to identify sharks responsible for each approach .\nelectric rays belong to the superorder batoidea , which includes stingrays , skates , guitarfishes , and sawfishes . like their relatives the sharks , batoids have skeletons made of tough connective tissue called cartilage .\nbratton b , ayers j ( 1987 ) observations on the electric discharge of two skate species ( chondrichthyes : rajidae ) and its relationship to behavior . environmental biology of fishes 20 : 241\u2013254 .\njordan lk , mandelman jw , kajiura sm ( 2011 ) behavioral responses to weak electric fields and a lanthanide metal in two shark species . journal of experimental biology and ecology 409 : 345\u2013350 .\nout of the five response variables used to assess the effects of the electric field , the time it took to take the bait , number of interaction per approach , and the minimum distance between sharks and the efs were significantly affected by the electric field ( table 2 ) . additionally , the random factor ( individual sharks ) was also significantly different for all parameters ( table 2 ) .\nrincon , g . , stehmann , m . f . w . and vooren , c . m . 2001 . results of the research cruises of frv ' walther herwig ' to south america . lxxiv . benthobatis kreffti n . sp . ( chondrichthyes , torpediniformes , narcinidae ) , a new deep - water electric ray from off south brazil and the third species of the genus . archive of fishery and marine research . 49 ( 1 ) : 45 - 60 .\nsharks were still capable of taking baits \u223c230 cm away from the efs , but the number of interactions within two metres of the efs decreased when it was activated . such a reduction in the number of interactions towards a stimulus placed two metres away from the efs has previously been observed in other species ( e . g . , galapagos sharks ( carcharhinus galapagensis ) ( robbins , unpublished data ) . although behavioural effects two metres from the efs were observed in both studies , white sharks were observed less than 0 . 5 m from the efs on several occasions ( e . g . , video s10 ) , and galapagos sharks consumed sardines ( sardinops sagax ) two metres away from an efs ( robbins , unpublished data ) . scalloped hammerhead sharks ( sphyrna lewini ) and leopard sharks ( triakis semifasciata ) were affected by a strong pulsed electric field , but were also able to swim through the electric field and into voltage gradients greater than 30 v / m [ 32 ] . four species of small benthic rays and sharks , fiddler ray ( trygonorrhina fasciata ) , eagle ray ( myliobatis australis ) , yellowback stingaree ( urolophus sufflavus ) , and spotted catshark ( asymbolus rubiginosus ) , have been observed to approach a bait positioned next to the same electric field as used in the present study [ 51 ] . these studies confirm that electric fields can affect the behaviour of sharks , but that some rays and sharks , including white sharks , are able to be in close proximity to the efs and consume baits close to electric fields .\nray , t . c . , king , l . j . , & grandin , t . ( 1988 ) . the effectiveness of self - initiated vestibular stimulation in producing speech sounds in an autistic child . journal of occupational therapy research , 8 , 186 - 190 .\nwhile several studies have investigated the behavioural response of elasmobranchs to electric fields [ 22 ] , [ 32 ] , most were conducted under laboratory conditions . a field study that tested the efficiency of a personal electric deterrent on white sharks ( carcharodon carcharias ) concluded that the probability of an attack was reduced from about 0 . 70 in power - off mode to about 0 . 08 in power - on mode [ 29 ] . limited information about approach distance and number of approaches was presented , which would have allowed for a better understanding of the behavioural response of white sharks to electric deterrents . additionally , the product tested ( sharkpod\u2122 ) during this previous study is no longer available and has been replaced by the shark shield\u2122 ( shark shield pty ltd , adelaide , australia ) product range . while the waveform and voltage difference between the electrodes produced by the shark shield\u2122 is not different from that of the sharkpod\u2122 , the electrode configuration differs between the two products . this results in differences in the maximum electric field produced and the distribution of the electric field relative to the body of the person using the device . the electrodes of the shark shield freedom7\u2122 trail behind the leg of the user ( fig . 1 ) , while in the case of the sharkpod\u2122 , one electrode is placed on the scuba tank with the other electrode on the ankle of the diver . as a result , the electric field source of the shark shield freedom7\u2122 is located behind the person wearing the device compared to being centred on the diver when wearing a sharkpod\u2122 . prior to this study , the shark shield freedom7\u2122 had not been independently and scientifically tested , and there remains a need to assess how different electrode configurations and locations of the electric field source may impact the efficiency of the electric deterrent .\nthe bait was consumed on 91 out of 116 trials ( 78 % ) , with the electric field not significantly affecting the likelihood of the bait being consumed ( poisson exact test : p = 1 . 00 ) . out of the 18 identified sharks that interacted with the bait , 14 ( 78 % ) consumed the bait , with 13 ( 72 % ) consuming the bait in the presence of the electric field . six sharks consumed the bait on several occasions , with one shark consuming the bait a total of 23 times including 14 times when the electric field was being produced . sharks responsible for consuming the baits could not be identified on 15 occasions ( 16 % ) .\nthe only previous study testing in situ behavioural responses of white shark to an electric field found an 80 % reduction in the probability of a shark taking the bait [ 29 ] . this result contrasts with the results from the current study , which did not find any differences in the proportion of baits consumed . because the electric pulse and waveform produced during the previous and present study were the same ( shark shield pty ltd , pers . comm . ) , the disparity between these results is likely due the different configuration of the electrodes and position of the bait . smit and peddemors [ 29 ] attached the bait between the electrodes producing the electric field , whereas this study placed the efs \u223c230 cm away from the bait , similar to the way a diver would wear the product tested . further testing should assess the impact that distance between the efs and a bait has on the probability of the bait being consumed . this should be investigated against an accurate map of the electric field produced by the efs to estimate the field strength at which white sharks first detect the field and at which they display a retreat response . this is yet to be carried out in situ , but studies in laboratory conditions have measured the minimum electric field strength that elicits a behavioural response for several shark species [ 13 ] , [ 22 ] , [ 23 ] , [ 32 ] . the mean maximum field strength tolerated by hammerhead and leopard sharks before they displayed a retreat response was 18 . 50\u00b113 . 27 and 9 . 64\u00b110 . 28 vm \u20131 , respectively [ 32 ] . both are higher than the threshold of 3\u20137 vm \u20131 suggested by smith [ 27 ] who investigated the use of an electric field to produce an electric barrier , supporting the idea that behavioural responses to electric fields varies between species [ 22 ] , and that findings for one species should not be generalised to others .\nthe objective of this study was to assess the behavioural effects of the electric field produced by the shark shield freedom7\u2122 ( hereafter referred to as the \u2018electric field source ( efs ) \u2019 ) on white sharks ( carcharodon carcharias ) . this species was selected because it is responsible for the most unprovoked attacks and fatalities [ 30 ] , [ 33 ] . white sharks demonstrate considerable plasticity in swimming patterns depending on their habitats and likely hunting strategies [ 34 ] . in response to this , we tested the effect of the electric field on white sharks in two different situations and locations : around a static bait at the neptune islands off south australia , and breaching on a towed seal decoy at seal island , false bay in south africa .\nelectric rays were used by the ancient greeks as a kind of anesthetic , the electricity supposedly numbing the pain of operations and childbirth \u2014 in fact , the greek work for these rays is narke , from which we get our word ' narcotic ' .\nkalmijn a ( 1978 ) electric and magnetic sensory world of sharks , skates , and rays . in : hodgson e , mathewson r , editors . sensory biology of sharks skates , and rays . arlington , va : office of naval research . 507\u2013528 .\nthere were two potential analytical biases inherent in the data we collected : 1 ) temporal correlation ( lack of temporal independence ) due to the potential habituation of individual sharks or changes in their motivation through time , and 2 ) pseudo - replication due to instances where the same shark interacted with the bait within and across trials . sharks may have become habituated to the electric field , or sharks that consumed the bait , may have become less likely to respond to the electric field due to the positive reinforcement provided by the bait .\nthis is a deepwater electric ray with a known bathymetrical distribution of 400 to 600 m depth at bottom water temperatures from 8 to 9\u00b0c . it feeds mainly on polychaetes and isopod crustaceans , which it unearths from the sediment . maximum size is around 26 cm total length ( tl ) . matures at 14 to 15 cm tl ( males ) and 20 to 21 cm tl ( females ) . ovoviviparous ; number of young one or two per litter ; size at birth 0 . 96 cm tl . may breed year - round since different gestation stages were found in a single capture , but gestation time and reproductive periodicity unknown .\nninety - eight of the 189 tows were performed with the efs turned off and 91 with the efs turned on . due to logistical difficulties including electrodes wrapping around the equipment , poor visibility , and lack of light penetrating through the water surface , video footage was obtained from 169 tows . eighty - six videos were taken with the efs turned off and 83 with the efs turned on during which 61 interactions ( 43 with efs on , 18 with efs off ) between a shark and the decoy were recorded . interactions visible from the surface accounted for 29 of the 61 interactions observed . the number of interactions per tow across all experiments was 0 . 32 and decreased from 0 . 44 to 0 . 20 when the electric field was produced . the strongest effects of the electric field were recorded for breaches , with no breaches observed when the electric field was produced compared with 16 breaches when the efs was off . the number of surface interactions per tow decreased from 0 . 28 to 0 . 02 when the electric field was produced ( fig . 6 ; table 4 ) .\nthe proportion of underwater interactions was expected to increase when the efs was activated as a result of sharks aborting their predatory behaviour . the number of breaches and surface interactions decreased when the efs was turned on , but it did not affect the number of underwater interactions . this suggests that white sharks either aborted their breaches outside of the range of the camera or did not initiate a breaching approach . on most days , the visibility was estimated to be less than 5 m indicating that sharks would have to be affected by the electric field further away than 5 m . this contradicts the results obtained from the static bait experiments , which indicate that the electric field did not affect white sharks further than a distance of two metres . the electric field might not reduce the consumption of bait two metres away from the efs , but white sharks might detect the electric pulse from further away and prior to initiating the predatory attack . they might decide not to initiate a breaching approach , which would explain the reduction in breaches and surface interactions and the lack of associated increased number of underwater interactions .\nschematic representation of ( a ) the experimental set - up used to test the effects of an electric field during static bait trials at north neptune island , and ( b ) the experimental set - up used with the towed seal decoy at seal island off south africa .\nray skillman auto mall has been the go - to dealership group in the indianapolis , carmel , and greenwood area since 1980 . for over 30 years we have been offering quality new and used vehicles to meet the needs of local drivers , and our trusted service department can help keep your current vehicle running great for years to come . stop by or schedule a test drive today !\nwhite sharks may have become acclimatised to the electric field because of habituation to the electric field , or conditioning to the positive rewards resulting from consumption of the bait . for example , a shark that took the bait within the electric field may be more likely to take subsequent baits , because the discomfort caused by the electric field may not have been strong enough to counteract the reward . such temporal correlation and decrease in the effectiveness of an electro - magnetic field has previously been observed in several species [ 48 ] , [ 49 ] . this potential bias was examined but there was no strong decrease with time in the number of approaches per trial , interactions per approach , minimal distance , time to first appear , or time to take the bait . the lack of temporal correlations has also been observed in other species [ 22 ] , [ 50 ] . it is likely that the small number of food rewards provided and the alternation of positive and negative reinforcements from the efs being randomly activated for each trial prevented habituation from occurring and inducing any temporal effects in the study . the proportion of unidentified sharks ( 30 . 6 % ) may have impacted our ability to detect a decreasing response of individual sharks to the pulses . the issue of habituation or conditioning might have also occurred with the towed seal decoy . however , given the low number of interactions recorded when the electric field was present , the likelihood of habituation is low .\nproportion of breaches / tow ( white ) , surface interactions / tow ( light grey ) , underwater interactions / video ( dark grey ) , and total number of interactions recorded ( surface and on video ) / video ( black ) when the electric field source was turned off or on .\na new species of torpedo ray , tetronarce cowleyi , sp . nov . , is described from specimens collected from the southeastern atlantic ocean . the new species is placed in the genus tetronarce based on a uniform dorsal coloration and absence of papillae around the spiracles . the new species is distinguished from its closest congeners , the north atlantic tetronarce nobiliana bonnaparte , 1835 , and . . . [ show full abstract ]\nfinally , the effects of the electric field were tested by comparing the distributions of the minimum distance recorded for each interaction using a kolmogorov - smirnov ( k - s ) test [ 42 ] and by comparing the proportion of interactions within 2 m using the minlike two - sided poisson exact test from the exactci r package .\nthe behavioural responses observed in the present study varied across individuals , with some sharks less affected by the electric field than others . the reason for this variation is unknown and may be a combination of motivation , different natural feeding histories , dominance hierarchies , individual experiences , or behavioural syndrome ( consistency of responses across situations ) . intra - specific variability was also noted for hammerhead and leopard sharks , as seen by the large standard deviations of the maximum voltage gradient and the difference in the voltage gradient required to elicit head twitches [ 32 ] . the electric deterrent tested produced a behavioural reaction in some sharks , but cannot be relied on to prevent shark attacks in all situations .\neach trial was observed by two people and lasted 15 minutes or until a shark took the bait . the status of the efs ( on or off ) was randomised by a coin toss before each trial . the efs was tested to ensure that electric impulses were being produced prior to and following each trial during which the efs was switched on .\nrays and sharks are a type of fish that have no bones , only cartilage . some parts of their skeleton , like their vertebrae , are calcified . cartilage , a strong fibrous substance , is softer than bone ; our nose and ears are made of cartilage . even the ray ' s skull is flattened . rays belong to the group of fishes called elasmobranchii , which also includes the sharks , skates , and ratfish . the elasmobranchii are all fish that have no bones , only cartilage .\nnext up was wedding singer nicholas ray , who said going into his audition that he really hoped to join team adam . it was immediately clear why he felt that way , because his rendition of \u201ci\u2019ve got the music in me\u201d was a little theatrical and showed off his falsetto . he didn\u2019t really stand out on this night of incredible performances , but he definitely had a lot of power behind his voice . levine loved the falsetto ending , but it wasn\u2019t quite enough to get a chair turn .\nthere was no significant difference in the number of approaches per trial when the electric field was produced ( glmm ( poisson , identity ) : t 105 = 0 . 87 , p = 0 . 39 ) ( fig . 4 ) . the number of interactions per approach , however , increased from 1 . 33\u00b10 . 08 when the efs was turned off to 2 . 20\u00b10 . 20 when the efs was turned on ( glmm ( poisson , log ) : t 163 = 3 . 66 , p < 0 . 001 ; table 3 ) . this suggests that the sharks did not approach the bait more often when an electric field was produced , but interacted with the bait more often within each approach ( fig . 4 ) .\nhuveneers c , rogers pj , semmens j , beckmann c , kock aa , et al . . ( 2012 ) effects of the shark shield\u2122 electric deterrent on the behaviour of white sharks ( carcharodon carcharias ) . final report to safework south australia . sardi publication no . f2012 / 000123\u20131 . sardi research report series no . 632 . adelaide : sardi - aquatic sciences .\nwelcome to ray skillman westside auto mall mazda ! we are located at 5309 w pike plaza rd . in indianapolis , and are a trusted and convenient mazda dealership for carmel and greenwood drivers . our dealership has a wide selection of new mazda vehicles as well as many pre - owned models for you to choose from . our knowledgeable and friendly sales staff will be ready to assist you in finding your ideal vehicle , and our financing experts specialize in securing auto loans for drivers with bad credit or no credit history .\n[ schema type =\norganization\norgtype =\nlocalbusiness\nurl =\nurltoken\nname =\nray skillman westside mazda\ndescription =\nstreet =\n5309 west pike plaza road\ncity =\nindianapolis\nstate =\nin\npostalcode =\n46254\ncountry =\nunited states\nemail =\nchangeme @ urltoken\nphone =\n317 - 293 - 8060\nlogo =\nhttps : / / urltoken / wp - content / themes / dealerinspiredealertheme / images / logo . png\n]\nthe efficacy of the electric field in repelling white sharks from attacking a towed seal decoy was assessed by comparing the number of breaches , surface interactions , underwater interactions , and total number of interactions standardised by the number of replicates ( i . e . , the number of tows or number of videos ) using the minlike two - sided poisson exact test from the exactci r package [ 40 ] . a binomial distribution based on the probabilities of breaches and surface interactions occurring with the efs activated was also used to estimate the probabilities of the observed number of breaches and surface interactions occurring when the efs was off . the proportion of aborted breaches and investigations coded and the proportion of underwater interactions with a reaction to the electric field were tested using the same minlike two - sided poisson exact test .\nforty - nine of the 116 trials were performed without an electric field and 67 with an applied electric field . a total of 314 approaches and 527 interactions by 18 different white sharks were observed . identification of white sharks was not possible for 132 approaches ( 42 % ) and 179 interactions ( 34 % ) . sharks interacted with the bait in up to 27 trials ( 6 . 89\u00b11 . 6 , mean \u00b1 standard error ) . the number of approaches per identified shark ranged from 1 to 40 ( 10 . 11\u00b12 . 5 ) , while the number of interactions per identified shark ranged from 1 to 71 ( 19 . 33\u00b14 . 9 ) . during a single trial , the maximum number of approaches , interactions , and interactions per approach was 12 , 29 , and 18 , respectively .\nthe number of breaches per tow , surface interactions per tow , and total number of interactions recorded were significantly less with the electric field being emitted compared to when the efs was turned off ( poisson exact test : p < 0 . 001 for each test ) . the number of underwater interactions per video , however , did not change significantly whether the efs was turned on or off ( poisson exact test : p = 1 . 00 ) . based on the probability of occurrence estimated when the efs was off ( 0 . 16 and 0 . 28 for breaching and surface interaction , respectively ) , the probability of no breach , or two or less surface interactions occurring with the activated efs was < 0 . 001 . it is therefore unlikely that the lack of breaches and small number of surface interactions observed with the electric field was due to chance alone .\nat ray skillman westside auto mall mazda , we carry the most up - to - date inventory of mazda coupes , sedans , and suvs as well as a large mix of pre - owned vehicles . so whether you are in the market for a brand - new car or need a reliable used model , you can count on getting a quality vehicle from our lot . additionally , our pre - owned vehicles go through a rigorous inspection before being made available for sale , and we also offer certified pre - owned mazda models , which come with additional warranty coverage to give you extra security in your purchase .\nsharks first approached the bait within a short period ( 80\u00b111 seconds ) . this was not affected by the electric field , with no significant difference in the time it took sharks to first be sighted whether the efs was turned off ( 77\u00b121 seconds ) or on ( 82\u00b112 seconds ) ( glmm ( gamma , inverse ) : t 49 = \u22120 . 17 , p = 0 . 87 ; table 3 ) ( fig . 4 ) . sharks took , on average , 197\u00b123 seconds from the start of a trial to consume the bait . although the electric field did not affect the time it took sharks to be first sighted , sharks took twice as long to take the bait when the efs was turned on ( 244\u00b132 seconds ) than when it was turned off ( 122\u00b124 seconds ) ( glmm ( gamma , inverse ) : t 61 = \u22122 . 58 , p = 0 . 01 ; table 3 ) ( fig . 4 ) .\nour study assessed the behavioural effects of the electric field produced by the shark shield freedom7\u2122 . the study was performed in two locations and tested two distinct approach and behavioural situations to assess whether the response to the shark shield\u2122 was consistent across behaviours . the electric field did not affect the proportion of static baits consumed , but significantly decreased the number of breaches , and surface interactions on a towed seal decoy . while the differences observed could be due to location or the different white shark populations [ 46 ] , it is more likely related to the behavioural states being tested and associated energetic costs . since rapid swimming is necessary to leave the water , the energy required for a breach is higher than that expended during inquisitive behaviour [ 47 ] . considering the energetic cost of breaching , white sharks might be less likely to breach if they can sense any factor that could reduce their chance of being successful or which appears different to natural situations . on the other hand , a white shark might still be inquisitive around a static bait , regardless of the electric field because such approach requires similar energy expenditure to normal swimming . the inquisitive nature of the shark during the static bait trials is supported by the number of times the same white sharks were observed attempting to consume the bait ( e . g . , one white shark approached the static bait in 27 different trials , and another individual had 18 interactions in one trial ) .\nponciano seoane hoped to have a better fate than ray , singing \u201chome\u201d by phillip phillips . \u201ci\u2019m trying to keep a level head , \u201d seoane said heading into his audition with the knowledge that there were only a couple spots left . \u201cpretty , \u201d shelton remarked after the first few seconds . levine and cyrus turned right away . seoane had a gorgeous tone , and both coaches wanted him to fill their final spots . \u201cyou feel everything you\u2019re singing , \u201d levine said , praising seoane\u2019s introspection . cyrus seemed to understand that she wasn\u2019t winning this one , but she still tried to fight for seoane . he ultimately became the last member of team adam ."]}
{"id": 2552, "summary": [{"text": "acrobasis betulella , the birch tubemaker , is a species of snout moth in the genus acrobasis .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by george duryea hulst in 1890 , and is known from southeastern canada and the united states .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "there is one generation per year .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the larvae feed on betula species , including betula populifolia and betula papyrifera .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the species overwinters in the larval stage .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "young larvae probably bore into unfolding buds .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "older larvae draw several leaves together with silk and consume the margins of the leaves .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "pupation takes place in a pupal chamber which is made at the end of the tube . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "acrobasis betulella", "paragraphs": ["the birch tube - maker acrobasis betulella in a fragmented habitat : the importance of patch isolation and edges .\nthe birch tube - maker acrobasis betulella in a fragmented habitat : the importance of patch isolation and edges . - pubmed - ncbi\nacrobasis betulella ; [ nacl ] , # 5688 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 59 , f . 3e , 14f , pl . 6 , f . 10 - 17\nwe examined the response of the birch tube - maker acrobasis betulella hulst ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) to habitat patch isolation and edges . density of a . \u2423betulella larva was higher on distant islands than on islands close to the shore . following experimental removal of all larvae from the islands , adults were able to recolonize even the most distant islands , and larval density was again positively correlated with the degree of isolation . larval density was not correlated with island size or the amount of birch present on the islands . larvae on more distant islands did not have lower mortality than those in less isolated sites . larvae were found more often on edges than in the interior of birch stands and developed faster on edges . this positive edge effect , coupled with the ability of the adults to disperse to even our most distant islands , suggests that a . betulella would be favored in an environment fragmented at the same scale as our island system .\nacrobasis amplexella ragonot , 1887 ; n . amer . phycitinae galleriidae : 3 ; tl : north carolina\nacrobasis vaccinii riley , 1884 ; can . ent . 16 ( 12 ) : 237 ; tl : massachusetts\nacrobasis rufizonella ragonot , 1887 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . 1887 : 227 ; tl : wladiwostok\nacrobasis atrisquamella ragonot , 1887 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . 1887 : 228 ; tl : asia minor\nacrobasis carpinivorella neunzig , 1970 ; ann . ent . soc . amer . 63 : 1662 ; tl : madison , connecticut\nacrobasis elyi neunzig , 1970 ; ann . ent . soc . amer . 63 : 1661 ; tl : maxton , north carolina\nacrobasis nuxvorella neunzig , 1970 ; ann . ent . soc . amer . 63 : 1659 ; tl : rowland , north carolina\nacrobasis caryalbella ely , 1913 ; ins . insc . mens . 1 ( 5 ) : 52 ; tl : east river , connecticut\nacrobasis comptoniella hulst , 1890 ; trans . amer . ent . soc . 17 : 125 ; tl : long island , new york\nacrobasis irrubriella ; [ nacl ] , # 5676 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 58 , pl . 6 , f . 9\nacrobasis ostryella ely , 1913 ; ins . insc . mens . 1 ( 5 ) : 54 ; tl : east river , connecticut\nacrobasis kearfottella dyar , 1905 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 7 ( 1 ) : 34 ; tl : cleveland , ohio\nacrobasis betulivorella neunzig , 1975 ; proc . ent . soc . washington 77 ( 2 ) : 238 ; tl : elizabethtown , north carolina\nacrobasis amplexella ; [ nacl ] , # 5654 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 23 , pl . 2 , f . 11 - 17\nacrobasis elyi ; [ nacl ] , # 5666 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 34 , pl . 3 , f . 35 - 36\nacrobasis stigmella ; [ nacl ] , # 5669 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 42 , pl . 4 , f . 12 - 16\nacrobasis aurorella ; [ nacl ] , # 5670 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 43 , pl . 4 , f . 17 - 20\nacrobasis exsulella ; [ nacl ] , # 5672 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 44 , pl . 4 , f . 21 - 29\nacrobasis angusella ; [ nacl ] , # 5673 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 46 , pl . 4 , f . 35 - 37\nacrobasis latifasciella ; [ nacl ] , # 5675 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 47 , pl . 4 , f . 38 - 39\nacrobasis evanescentella dyar , 1908 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 10 ( 1 - 2 ) : 44 ; tl : orlando , florida\nacrobasis aurorella ely , 1910 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 12 ( 2 ) : 67 ; tl : waschington , d . c\nacrobasis cunulae dyar & heinrich , 1929 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 31 ( 2 ) : 37 ; tl : mobile , alabama\nacrobasis stigmella dyar , 1908 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 10 ( 1 - 2 ) : 43 ; tl : east river , connecticut\nacrobasis latifasciella dyar , 1908 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 10 ( 1 - 2 ) : 45 ; tl : new brighton , pennsylvania\nacrobasis palliolella ; [ nacl ] , # 5659 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : f . 13b , pl . 4 , f . 40 - 44\nacrobasis cunulae ; [ nacl ] , # 5685 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 54 , 13e , pl . 5 , f . 29 - 30\nacrobasis irrubriella ely , 1908 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 10 ( 3 - 4 ) : 161 ; tl : east river , connecticut\nacrobasis carpinivorella ; [ nacl ] , # 5665 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 61 , f . 14a , pl . 6 , f . 2023\nacrobasis sylviella ely , 1908 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 10 ( 3 - 4 ) : 161 ; tl : east river , connecticut\nacrobasis coryliella dyar , 1908 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 10 ( 1 - 2 ) : 47 ; tl : ( new york ? )\nacrobasis vaccinii ; [ nacl ] , # 5653 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 21 , f . 5a , pl . 2 , f . 1 - 10\nacrobasis minimella ; [ nacl ] , # 5657 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 4a , 7c - d , pl . 3 , f . 17 - 22\nacrobasis caryalbella ; [ nacl ] , # 5660 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 50 , f . 13a , pl . 5 , f . 11 - 13\nacrobasis cirroferella ; [ nacl ] , # 5684 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 56 , f . 14e , pl . 5 , f . 38 - 39\nacrobasis betulivorella ; [ nacl ] , # 5689 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 60 , f . 13h , pl . 6 , f . 18 - 19\nacrobasis ostryella ; [ nacl ] , # 5680 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 63 , f . 14g , pl . 6 , f . 31 - 35\nacrobasis coryliella ; [ nacl ] , # 5682 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 65 , f . 14i , pl . 6 , f . 41 - 43\nacrobasis comptella ; [ nacl ] , # 5656 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 29 , f . 5d , 8b , pl . 3 , f . 7 - 16\nacrobasis comptoniella ; [ nacl ] , # 5691 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 56 , f . 6c , 14c , pl . 5 , f . 31 - 37\nacrobasis blanchardorum neunzig , 1973 ; proc . ent . soc . washington 75 ( 2 ) : 165 ; tl : sierra diablo wildlife mgt . area , culberson co . , texas\nacrobasis blanchardorum ; [ nacl ] , # 5694 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 8a , pl . 3 , f . 23 - 28 , pl . e , f . 2\nacrobasis evanescentella ; [ nacl ] , # 5668 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 36 , pl . 3 , f . 40 - 41 , pl . 4 , f . 1\nacrobasis juglandis ; [ nacl ] , # 5661 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 50 , f . 3a , 5e , 13d , pl . 5 , f . 1 - 10\nacrobasis kearfottella ; [ nacl ] , # 5663 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 51 , 13c , pl . 5 , f . 14 - 19 , pl . e , f . 3\nacrobasis sylviella ; [ nacl ] , # 5662 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 61 , f . 14d , pl . 6 , f . 24 - 27 , pl . e , f . 5\nacrobasis caulivorella neunzig , 1986 ; moths america n of mexico 15 . 2 : 41 , f . 11a - b , 12a , pl . 4 , f . 9 - 11 ; tl : dellwood , florida\nacrobasis tricolorella ; [ nacl ] , # 5655 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 28 , 7a - b , pl . 2 , f . 34 - 45 , pl . 3 , f . 1 - 6\nacrobasis juglanivorella neunzig , 1986 ; moths america n of mexico 15 . 2 : 38 , f . 9a - b , 10b , pl . 4 , f . 7 - 8 ; tl : dane co . , wisconsin\nacrobasis caryivorella ; [ nacl ] , # 5686 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 52 , f . 5f , 13f , pl . 5 , f . 20 - 28 , pl . b , f . 3 - 4\nacrobasis texana neunzig , 1986 ; moths america n of mexico 15 . 2 : 34 , f . 9c - d , 10a , pl . 3 , f . 37 - 39 ; tl : junction , kimble co . , texas\nacrobasis demotella ; [ nacl ] , # 5674 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 5c , pl . 4 , f . 30 - 34 , pl . b , f . 1 - 2 , pl . e , f . 4\nacrobasis rubrifasciella ; [ nacl ] , # 5690 ; [ mna15 . 2 ] : 57 , f . 3c , 5h , 14b , pl . 5 , f . 40 - 42 , pl . 6 , f . 1 - 8\nacrobasis kylesi neunzig , 1986 ; moths america n of mexico 15 . 2 : 62 , f . 11c - d , 12b , 13g , pl . 6 , f . 28 - 30 ; tl : saline , bienville parish , louisiana\ntinea obtusella h\u00fcbner , 1796 ; samml . eur . schmett . [ 6 ] : ( ? )\nfrom ( nova scotia - florida ) - to ( wiscon - texas ) , introduced ? ( washington ) . see [ maps ]\nlarva on vaccinium corymbosum , v . macrocarpon , v . vitis - idaea , v . stamineum , gaylussacia spp . [ mna15 . 2 ] , 23\nnova scotia , prince edward i . , new brunswick , quebec , ontario , maine , new hampshire , massachusetts , connecticut , new york , pennsylvania , mountains ( virginia , north carolina ) , florida ? . see [ maps ]\nlarva on kalmia angustifolia , k . latifolia [ mna15 . 2 ] , 24\nlarva on malus pumila , cydonia oblonga , prunus spp . , cotoneaster , pyracantha , crataegus spp . , eriobotrya japonica [ mna15 . 2 ] , 27\ns . canada , n . usa , rocky mountains - new mexico , arizona , california . see [ maps ]\nlarva on prunus spp . , malus pumila , prunus armeniaca , sorbus americana , rosa sp . , amelanchier sp . , heteromeles arbutifolia , ( buds and fruits ) [ mna15 . 2 ] : 28\ncalifornia , oregon , washington , nevada , arizona , utah , new mexico , w . texas , w . oklahoma . see [ maps ]\nlarva on quercus dumosa , q . douglasii , q . garryana , quercus x _ turbinella _ ajoensis , chrysolepis sempervirens [ mna15 . 2 ] , 29\ncape cod , massachusetts - florida - e . texas - arkansas , tennessee , missouri . see [ maps ]\nlarva on quercus spp . , quercus marilandica , q . velutina , q . rubra , q . falcata , q . laevis , q . alba [ mna15 . 2 ] , 31\nw . texas , new mexico , arizona , colorado . see [ maps ]\nse . ontario , michigan , illinois - south carolina , nw . arkansas . see [ maps ]\nlarva on carya spp . , c . cordiformis , c . tomentosa , c . pallida , c . glabra , c . ovata , carya carolinae - septentrionalis [ mna15 . 2 ] , 34\nlarva on carya spp . , c . tomentosa [ mna15 . 2 ] , 34\nlarva on carya spp . , carya illinoensis [ mna15 . 2 ] , 37\ne . new mexico , texas , oklahoma , louisiana , missouri , s . illinois , mississippi , alabama , florida , na . georgia , south carolina , north carolina . see [ maps ]\nontario , connecticut , new york , new jersey , district of columbia , michigan , illinois , missouri , tennessee , arkansas , north carolina , south carolina , na . georgia , florida , e . texas . see [ maps ]\nlarva on carya spp . , c . tomentosa , c . glabra , c . pallida , juglans regia ? [ mna15 . 2 ] , 43\nmassachusetts , connecticut , new york , new jersey , pennsylvania , district of columbia , west virginia , tennessee , north carolina , michigan , missouri . see [ maps ]\nlarva on carya spp . , c . tomentosa , c . illinoensis [ mna15 . 2 ] , 45\nontario , new hampshire , new york , pennsylvania , w . north carolina , michigan , illinois , missouri , arkansas , e . texas . see [ maps ]\nlarva on carya spp . , c . glabra , carya ovalis , c . tomentosa [ mna15 . 2 ] , 46\nlarva on juglans nigra , carya spp . ? [ mna15 . 2 ] , 57\nontario , new york , connecticut , pennsylvania , tennessee , n . north carolina , michigan , illinois , wisconsin , missouri , nw . arkansas . see [ maps ]\nlarva on carya spp . , c . ovata , carya carolinae - septentrionalis [ mna15 . 2 ] , 49\nontario , from ( vermont - florida ) - to ( north dakota - new mexico ) . see [ maps ]\nphycita juglandis lebaron , 1872 ; 2 nd ann . rept . noxious insects state of illinois : 123 ; tl : ( illinois ? )\nlarva on carya illinoensis , juglans nigra , j . cinerea , juglans microcarpa [ mna15 . 2 ] , 50\nmassachusetts , connecticut , new york , michigan , w . virginia , missouri , nw . arkansas . see [ maps ]\nlarva on carya spp . , c . ovata , c . tomentosa , c . glabra [ mna15 . 2 ] , 51\nfrom ( quebec - florida ) - to ( illinois , missouri , arkansas , e . texas ) . see [ maps ]\nlarva on carya spp . , c . tomentosa , c . glabra , c . ovata , c . cordiformis [ mna15 . 2 ] , 52\nse . ontario , massachusetts - florida - texas , missouri , new mexico . see [ maps ]\nlarva on carya spp . , juglans spp . [ mna15 . 2 ] , 53\nontario , massachusetts , connecticut , new york , na . georgia , alabama , florida , mississippi , texas . see [ maps ]\nnova scotia , new brunswick , quebec , ontario , maine , new hampshire , vermont , massachusetts , connecticut , new york , new yersey , michigan , wisconsin . see [ maps ]\nlarva on myrica asplenifolia , m . gale , m . pensylvanica [ mna15 . 2 ] , 56\nnova scotia - manitoba , from ( maine - n . florida ) - to ( minnesota - e . texas ) . see [ maps ]\nlarva on alnus spp . , alnus serrulata , a . rugosa [ mna15 . 2 ] , 58\nlarva on betula , b . populifolia , b . papyrifera [ mna15 . 2 ] , 60\ne . north carolina , se . mississippi , e . texas . see [ maps ]\nontario , new york , michigan , massachusetts , connecticut , north carolina , louisiana . see [ maps ]\nlarva on ostrya virginiana , less corylus spp . [ mna15 . 2 ] , 62\nontario , massachusetts , connecticut , north carolina , florida , missouri , nw . arkansas . see [ maps ]\nontario , massachusetts , connecticut , n . north carolina , iowa , wisconsin , illinois , missouri . see [ maps ]\nlarva on corylus americana , c . cornuta [ mna15 . 2 ] , 64\nmassachusetts , connecticut , new york , north carolina , illinois , wisconsin . see [ maps ]\nthis information is not automatically synchronized with globiz and can sometimes be lagging behind .\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nfourth annual report on the noxious , beneficial and other insects of the state of missouri , made to the state board of agriculture . . . 4th ann . rep . , missouri :\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nseveral species of birch ( betula ) especially b populifolia and b . papyrifera .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nneunzig , h . h . , 1986 . moths of america north of mexico , fascicle 15 . 2 , p . 59 ; pl . 6 . 10 - 17 . order\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\non sheet with uv black light . submitted for pa record . linked image 2 of 2 of same moth .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nselect your preferred way to display the comments and click ' save settings ' to activate your changes .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ngroupe de recherche en \u00e9cologie foresti\u00e8re , universit\u00e9 du qu\u00e9bec \u00e0 montr\u00e9al , cp 8888 , succ . centre - ville , montr\u00e9al , qu\u00e9bec , h3c 3p8 , canada , , , , , , ca .\nrare in maryland . one record from garrett county on 7 / 23 / 2001 ( glaser , micromoths ) .\nuse of images featured on maryland biodiversity project is only permitted with express permission of the photographer .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhodges , r . w . et al . , eds . 1983 . check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . e . w . classey limited and the wedge entomological research foundation , london . 284 pp .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\ndistribution data for u . s . states and canadian provinces is known to be incomplete or has not been reviewed for this taxon .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users ."]}
{"id": 2566, "summary": [{"text": "a legendary , mythical , or mythological creature , traditionally called a fabulous beast or fabulous creature , is a fictitious , imaginary and often supernatural animal , often a hybrid , sometimes part human , whose existence has not or can not be proved and that is described in legends , myths , mythology , fables , folklore , poetry , fairy tales , novels , or other fiction but also in historical accounts before history became a science .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "on the other hand , many real animals from remote regions and ethnic groups from other continents were long considered legendary before more was known about them .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "for example , whales were considered as mythical or real and as frightening as dragons as recently as in the middle ages , including the belief that whales eject fire .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "similarly , people and even historians freely invented , embellished , and recounted stories about people from other continents , which played a major role in the development of racism and many of which still play a strong role at least subconsciously in how people think about other ethnic groups .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "even at the beginning of the age of discovery , europeans believed fantastic stories about people in asia that were hairy and had dog snouts and about people in africa that were beautiful with crane necks or had only one eye or had been turned dark by the heat .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "in the classical era , monstrous creatures such as the cyclops and the minotaur appear in heroic tales for the protagonist to destroy .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "other creatures , such as the unicorn , were claimed in accounts of natural history by various scholars of antiquity .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "some legendary creatures have their origin in traditional mythology and were believed to be real creatures , for example dragons , griffins , and unicorns .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "others were based on real encounters , originating in garbled accounts of travelers ' tales , such as the vegetable lamb of tartary , which supposedly grew tethered to the earth . ", "topic": 19}], "title": "legendary creature", "paragraphs": ["legendary landwalk ( this creature can ' t be blocked as long as defending player controls a legendary land . )\n205 . 4e any instant or sorcery spell with the supertype \u201clegendary\u201d is subject to a casting restriction . a player can\u2019t cast a legendary instant or sorcery spell unless that player controls a legendary creature or a legendary planeswalker .\nyou can ' t cast a legendary sorcery unless you control a legendary creature or a legendary planeswalker . once you begin to cast a legendary sorcery , losing control of your legendary creatures and planeswalkers won ' t affect that spell . * other than the casting restriction , the legendary supertype on a sorcery carries no additional rules . [ 24 ]\nwhenever brimaz blocks a creature , create a 1 / 1 white cat soldier creature token with vigilance that ' s blocking that creature .\n, sacrifice another creature : you gain life equal to the sacrificed creature ' s toughness .\nlegendary is a supertype of a card . any permanent ( artifact , creature , enchantment , planeswalker , and land ) with the legendary supertype is bound by the\nlegend rule ,\nwhich prevents multiple copies of the card from existing on the battlefield under the same player ' s control . legendary may also appear as a supertype with non - permanents ( sorceries and instants ) . the rules for these are different : you can ' t cast a legendary non - permanent spell unless you control a legendary creature or a legendary planeswalker .\n, sacrifice a creature : target creature gets - 2 / - 2 until end of turn .\nalthough covered by the rules , legendary instants haven ' t been featured yet .\ndeathtouch , lifelink other legendary creatures you control get + 2 / + 2 .\nthis name generator will give you 10 random names for species of legendary creatures .\ndominaria debuted legendary sorcery cards that capture extraordinary moments from characters ' pasts . these powerful spells can be unleashed only with the assistance of a legendary creature or planeswalker on your side of the battlefield . [ 23 ]\n205 . 4d any permanent with the supertype \u201clegendary\u201d is subject to the state - based action for legendary permanents , also called the \u201clegend rule\u201d ( see rule 704 . 5j ) .\nmark rosewater . ( march 10 , 2018 . )\nwhy introduce legendary sorceries if they fundamentally can never work the same way as legendary permanents ?\n, blogatog , tumblr .\nlegendary was first featured on the lands in the set legends . starting with champions of kamigawa it also replaced the creature type legend . [ 3 ]\nwhen this creature transforms into avacyn , the purifier , it deals 3 damage to each other creature and each opponent .\n, exile a creature card from your graveyard : target creature gets - 2 / - 2 until end of turn .\nyour opponent is incorrrect . there can only be one legendary of a particular name on the battlefield at one time . to use your example , you control mirri the cursed . if either you or an opponent casts another mirri the cursed , both would go the the graveyard due to the legendary rule . also , i don ' t believe vampire nocturnus is legendary . edit : nath ' d regarding the legendary rule , but nocturnus isn ' t legendary , so you had no worries there any way .\n, , sacrifice another creature : brion stoutarm deals damage equal to the sacrificed creature ' s power to target player or planeswalker .\nthe commander format requires that a legendary creature be selected as one ' s deck commander . this excludes legendary planeswalkers ( which are not creatures ) , except for the five appearing in commander 2014 and the battlebond planeswalker duo\nwill kenrith\nand\nrowan kenrith\n.\n4 / 27 / 2018 : because damage remains marked on a creature until it ' s removed as the turn ends , nonlethal damage dealt to a legendary creature you control may become lethal if arvad leaves the battlefield during that turn .\nmembers of a group calling themselves bigfoot 911 claim they spotted the giant , walking , bear - like , legendary creature in the woods of western north carolina friday night .\nwhenever ashling , the extinguisher deals combat damage to a player , choose target creature that player controls . the player sacrifices that creature .\n11 / 24 / 2014 : although the creature you return is attacking , it was never declared as an attacking creature ( for purposes of abilities that trigger whenever a creature attacks , for example ) .\nsacrifice an atog creature : atogatog gets + x / + x until end of turn , where x is the sacrificed creature ' s power .\nmothman is a legendary creature reportedly seen in the point pleasant area of west virginia from 15 november 1966 to 15 december 1967 . the first newspaper report was published in the point pleasant register dated 16 november 1966 , titled \u201ccouples see man - sized bird\u2026creature\u2026something\u201d . \u2013 source\n4 / 1 / 2008 : a \u201ccreature card\u201d is any card with the type creature , even if it has other types such as artifact , enchantment , or land . older cards of type summon are also creature cards .\nsam stoddard . ( may 23 , 2013 . ) \u201c legendary rule change \u201d , urltoken , wizards of the coast .\ntom lapille . ( may 13 , 2011 . ) \u201c a legendary disagreement \u201d , urltoken , wizards of the coast .\naaron forsythe . ( september 10 , 2004 . ) \u201c legendary rules changes \u201d , urltoken , wizards of the coast .\nmelee ( whenever this creature attacks , it gets + 1 / + 1 until end of turn for each opponent you attacked with a creature this combat . )\n, sacrifice a permanent : return target creature to its owner ' s hand .\n9 / 20 / 2014 : anafenza ' s first ability can target any tapped creature you control . that creature doesn ' t necessarily have to be attacking .\nrampage 1 ( whenever this creature becomes blocked , it gets + 1 / + 1 until end of turn for each creature blocking it beyond the first . )\nah , yeah , only just noticed myself that nocturnus isn ' t even a legendary creature . bit of a fail there on my part , but yeah , thanks all for clearing it up for me .\nmark rosewater . ( august 29 , 2017 . )\nnow that planeswalkers use the legendary rule\n, blogatog , tumblr .\n9 / 22 / 2011 : the triggered ability triggers only when a creature spell is cast , after costs are paid . the counter put on animar for each creature spell cast won\u2019t affect the cost of that creature spell , only future ones .\n: search your library for a legendary card , reveal that card , and put it into your hand . then shuffle your library .\nif a nontoken creature an opponent owns would die or a creature card not on the battlefield would be put into an opponent ' s graveyard , exile that card instead .\nat the beginning of your upkeep , each player sacrifices a non - vampire creature .\n, : arashi , the sky asunder deals x damage to target creature with flying .\nchannel \u2014 , discard arashi : arashi deals x damage to each creature with flying .\nwhenever a creature with defender enters the battlefield under your control , draw a card .\nshroud ( this creature can ' t be the target of spells or abilities . )\n: another target barbarian creature gets + 1 / + 0 until end of turn .\neach other creature named brothers yamazaki gets + 2 / + 2 and has haste .\nwhen a creature dealt damage by bushi tenderfoot this turn dies , flip bushi tenderfoot .\nhorsemanship ( this creature can ' t be blocked except by creatures with horsemanship . )\nmark rosewater . ( september 02 , 2017 . )\nwhy do you want the legendary rule gone ?\n, blogatog , tumblr .\nmark rosewater . ( august 28 , 2017 . )\nwhy was there a need to make planeswalkers legendary ?\n, blogatog , tumblr .\nmark rosewater . ( august 29 , 2017 . )\nso basically you wish legendary didn ' t exist .\n, blogatog , tumblr .\nthe pope lick monster is a legendary part - man , part - goat and part - sheep creature reported to live beneath a norfolk southern railway trestle over floyd\u2019s fork creek , in the fisherville area of louisville , kentucky . \u2013 source\n, : create a 1 / 1 black and red demon creature token named minor demon .\n9 / 22 / 2011 : the triggered ability will resolve before the creature spell does .\nno . the legend rule works like this : if there are more than one legendary permanent on the battlefield that share a name , each of those permanents is put into their respective owner ' s graveyard when state - based actions are performed . also , vampire nocturnus isn ' t legendary .\nmelee ( whenever this creature attacks , it gets + 1 / + 1 until end of turn for each opponent you attacked with a creature this combat . ) other creatures you control have melee . ( if a creature has multiple instances of melee , each triggers separately . )\nflavorfully , legendary cards represent the key people , places , and objects of a set ' s story . typical expansion sets contain no more than 10 to 15 legendary cards , with the exceptions of dominaria , kamigawa block , and the early expansion legends , each of which contained significantly more . except for cards found in those sets , or in compilation sets , all legendary cards carry a rarity of rare or mythic rare . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]\na mystical , mythical , or legendary creature is a creature from mythology or folklore ( often known as\nfabulous creatures\nin historical literature ) . examples of legendary creatures can be found in medieval bestiaries . many mythical creatures have supernatural powers ( some good , some evil ) , powers that even in contemporary times have no physical explanation . in these cases the creatures bear more similarity to spiritual beings , such as angels , in religious thought . often legendary creatures came to symbolize vices or virtues , or the power of good or evil . in many cases , their actual existence was secondary to the moral of the tale in which they featured .\n, , tap x untapped knights you control : destroy target creature with power x or less .\nflying ( this creature can ' t be blocked except by creatures with flying or reach . )\nmark rosewater . ( march 01 , 2018 . )\nthe printing of legendary creatures at uncommon in the masters series .\n, blogatog , tumblr .\nwhenever anafenza , the foremost attacks , put a + 1 / + 1 counter on another target tapped creature you control . if a nontoken creature an opponent owns would die or a creature card not on the battlefield would be put into an opponent ' s graveyard , exile that card instead .\nlegendary creatures have often been incorporated into heraldry and architectural decoration . this is particularly the case with those symbolizing great strength or other power . in contemporary times , many legendary creatures appear prominently in fantasy fiction . these creatures are often claimed to have supernatural powers or knowledge or to guard some object of great value .\ncreature spells you cast cost less to cast for each + 1 / + 1 counter on animar .\nwhenever another creature you own dies , return it to your hand unless target opponent pays 3 life .\nbontu the glorified can ' t attack or block unless a creature died under your control this turn .\n, sacrifice another creature : scry 1 . each opponent loses 1 life and you gain 1 life .\n: brigid , hero of kinsbaile deals 2 damage to each attacking or blocking creature target player controls .\n{ r } { r } { r } , { t } : destroy target artifact creature .\ni have been playing mtg about 2 months now so am still relatively new to the game . this question is regarding the legendary creature rule . essentially , i have just been trying out a vampire deck build on magic workstation on the online play , and i played a vampire nocturnus , then on the next turn played a mirri the cursed , both legendary vampire creatures . the guy i was playing against told me to destroy one as you are only allowed one legendary creature in play . my question is , is this this true ? as i have been under the assumption that it ' s if two legendary creatures of the same name are in play at the same time then they get destroyed , i ' ve been told nothing about not playing more than one different legendary creature in the same game and them both being in play . i don ' t know if this seems a ridiculous question and something i should have learned when i first started , but yeah , could i just get a bit of an explanation of how it works please ? thanks . please use cardtags in the future . ~ parinoid\nthe griffin is a legendary creature with the body , tail , and back legs of a lion ; the head and wings of an eagle ; and an eagle\u2019s talons as its front feet . as the lion was traditionally considered the king of the beasts and the eagle was the king of the birds , the griffin was thought to be an especially powerful and majestic creature .\nwhenever another nontoken creature enters the battlefield under your control , bolster 1 . ( choose a creature with the least toughness among creatures you control and put a + 1 / + 1 counter on it . )\neach untapped creature you control gets + 0 / + 2 as long as it ' s not attacking .\nremove a ki counter from azamuki , treachery incarnate : gain control of target creature until end of turn .\n{ t } : goka the unjust deals 4 damage to target creature that was dealt damage this turn .\n8 / 23 / 2016 : melee will trigger if the creature with melee attacks a planeswalker . however , the effect counts only opponents ( and not planeswalkers ) that you attacked with a creature when determining the bonus .\nlegendary monsters\nexist ,\nif only in legend , all over the world . the series of monsters continues with a look at a few strange stories from north america .\nwhen a non - angel creature you control dies , transform archangel avacyn at the beginning of the next upkeep .\nas long as your devotion to white and black is less than seven , athreos isn ' t a creature .\nat the beginning of each player ' s upkeep , that player sacrifices an artifact , creature , or land .\n4 / 27 / 2018 : if an effect instructs you to \u201cdouble\u201d a creature ' s power , that creature gets + x / + 0 , where x is its power . the same is true for its toughness .\nlegendary creatures are things such as\ngrumpkins and snarks\nor even krakens , which have not been proven to actually exist but which exist in the folklore and mythology of westeros ( krakens are somewhat on the fence , as some believe they exist but are rarely encountered ; thus they are treated as a\nlegendary animal\nunless the books ever confirm their existence ) .\nthe griffin is a legendary creature with the head and wings of an eagle , and the body , tail , and hind legs of a lion . as the eagle was considered the \u2018king of the birds\u2019 , and the lion the \u2018king of the beasts\u2019 , the griffin was perceived as a powerful and majestic creature . during the persian empire , the griffin was seen as a protector from evil , witchcraft , and slander .\nother creatures you control have melee . ( if a creature has multiple instances of melee , each triggers separately . )\nwhenever you cast a creature spell , put a + 1 / + 1 counter on animar , soul of elements .\nwhen breya , etherium shaper enters the battlefield , create two 1 / 1 blue thopter artifact creature tokens with flying .\nwhen you cast this spell , you may return target angel or human creature card from your graveyard to the battlefield .\nthe jersey devil is a legendary creature or cryptid said to inhabit the pine barrens of southern new jersey , united states . the creature is often described as a flying biped with hooves , but there are many different variations . the common description is that of a kangaroo - like creature with the head of a goat , leathery bat - like wings , horns , small arms with clawed hands , cloven hooves and a forked tail . it has been reported to move quickly and often is described as emitting a \u201cblood - curdling scream . \u201d \u2013 source\nstarting with duel decks : elves vs . inventors and dominaria , all legendary cards , except planeswalkers , have crown - like flourishes on the title bar of the card frame . [ 4 ]\na state - based action that causes a player who controls two or more legendary permanents with the same name to put all but one into their owners\u2019 graveyards . see rule 704 . 5j .\na widely discussed phenomenon , the famous unicorn tapestries held within the famous cloisters museum , tell stories of this fabled beast . with the museum standing as a beautiful salute to medieval art and architecture , it is fitting that these works dedicated to one of the most important legendary creature of medieval times are kept here .\nyour opponents can ' t cast spells with the chosen name ( as long as this creature is on the battlefield ) .\nwhenever anafenza , the foremost attacks , put a + 1 / + 1 counter on another target tapped creature you control .\n\u2022 prevent the next x damage that would be dealt to target creature this turn . spend only white mana on x .\n: prevent all damage that would be dealt to another target creature this turn by sources of the color of your choice .\n, exile balthor the defiled : each player returns all black and all red creature cards from their graveyard to the battlefield .\n: ben - ben , akki hermit deals damage to target attacking creature equal to the number of untapped mountains you control .\nwhenever borborygmos deals combat damage to a player , put a + 1 / + 1 counter on each creature you control .\n306 . 4 . previously , planeswalkers were subject to a \u201cplaneswalker uniqueness rule\u201d that stopped a player from controlling two planeswalkers of the same planeswalker type . this rule has been removed and planeswalker cards printed before this change have received errata in the oracle card reference to have the legendary supertype . like other legendary permanents , they are subject to the \u201clegend rule\u201d ( see rule 704 . 5j ) .\noriginally , only one creature of the same name , with the creature type legend , could be in play at the same time . for a while , they were even on the restricted list , meaning there could be only one creature of the same name in each deck . this was changed around the time of ice age . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ]\nwhenever a creature dealt damage by baron sengir this turn dies , put a + 2 / + 2 counter on baron sengir .\nbushido 1 ( whenever this creature blocks or becomes blocked , it gets + 1 / + 1 until end of turn . )\n4 / 27 / 2018 : if you control baird , your opponents can choose not to pay to attack with a creature that attacks \u201cif able . \u201d if there ' s no other player or planeswalker to attack , that creature simply doesn ' t attack .\nwhenever brimaz , king of oreskos attacks , create a 1 / 1 white cat soldier creature token with vigilance that ' s attacking .\n{ b } { r } { g } , { t } : return target creature card from your graveyard to your hand .\n2 / 25 / 2015 : you determine which creature to put counters on as the spell or ability that instructs you to bolster resolves . that could be the creature with the bolster ability , if it ' s still under your control and has the least toughness .\nprotection from white and from black whenever you cast a creature spell , put a + 1 / + 1 counter on animar , soul of elements . creature spells you cast cost { 1 } less to cast for each + 1 / + 1 counter on animar .\nthe hibagon is described as a \u201cblack creature with white hands and large white feet , standing about five feet tall . \u201d \u2013 source\nnope , that guy is completely wrong . legendary creatures will only be put into their respective owner ' s graveyards if they share an english name - even if they ' re the same character ( eg . kamahl , pit fighter and kamahl , fist of krosa ) , they need to have the same name to die . not to mention that nocturnus isn ' t legendary . edit : that ' s what you call nath ' d .\nwhenever bruse tarl , boorish herder enters the battlefield or attacks , target creature you control gains double strike and lifelink until end of turn .\n2 / 25 / 2015 : bolster itself doesn ' t target any creature , though some spells and abilities that bolster may have other effects that target creatures . for example , you could put counters on a creature with protection from white with aven tactician ' s bolster ability .\n9 / 22 / 2011 : if the creature spell is countered , you\u2019ll still put a + 1 / + 1 counter on animar .\ntrample whenever a creature dealt damage by axelrod gunnarson this turn dies , you gain 1 life and axelrod deals 1 damage to target player .\nis the french word meaning\nsea .\n) a mermaid is an aquatic creature with the head and torso of human female and a\n704 . 5j if a player controls two or more legendary permanents with the same name , that player chooses one of them , and the rest are put into their owners\u2019 graveyards . this is called the \u201clegend rule . \u201d\nmark rosewater . ( september 02 , 2017 . )\nat any point in magic ' s history , was it ever considered to make legendary a deckbuilding restriction instead of a gameplay one ?\n, blogatog , tumblr .\nmark rosewater . ( september 02 , 2017 . )\ndo you think it ' s a flavor fail to be able to summon more than one of the same legendary character from the multiverse ?\n, blogatog , tumblr .\nthe elusive nature of this mammoth swimmer has led to tales of the kraken : a legendary sea monster off the coast of norway and greenland that lurks beneath the dark waters , dragging fishermen to their deaths in the deep seas .\nwhenever a creature dealt damage by axelrod gunnarson this turn dies , you gain 1 life and axelrod deals 1 damage to target player or planeswalker .\n( giant creature of water ) . the ziz is said to be large enough to be able to block out the sun with its wingspan .\nalthough the griffin might seem like a creature conjured from the imagination of mankind , there might actually be some truth to this creature . one theory suggests that the griffin was brought to europe by traders travelling along the silk road from the gobi desert in mongolia . in this desert , the fossils of a dinosaur called the protoceratops can be found . as these bones , especially the skull , which has a bird - like beak , were exposed on the desert floor , ancient observers may have interpreted them as proof that such a hybrid creature once lived in the desert . yet , it has been shown that stories of the griffin have been around even before the silk road was developed . perhaps it was stories about the griffin that made the traders interpret the fossils of the protoceratops as that of the legendary creature .\nnah , the legend rule is that you can ' t have two legendary creatures on the field with the same name . so you can ' t have two nocturnus or two mirri the cursed , but one of each is fine .\nthe second version of the rule checked to see if any other legendary permanent of the same name exists on the entire battlefield ( regardless of the permanents ' controllers ) and sent all of those permanents ( including the one which initiated the situation ) to their owners ' graveyards . [ 12 ] [ 13 ] in effect , each legendary permanent served two purposes : 1 ) its original purpose and 2 ) the removal of all instances of that permanent already on the battlefield .\n, sacrifice another creature : exile target nonland permanent . activate this ability only if you have at least 10 life more than your starting life total .\naccording to the book searching for ropens , it is \u201cany featherless creature that flies in the southwest pacific , and has a tail - length more than 25 % of its wingspan . \u201d on umboi island the word \u201cropen\u201d refers to a large nocturnal creature that glows briefly as it flies . \u2013 source\nissie is a legendary japanese lake monster ; said to lurk in lake ikeda , on kyushu island . it is described as being saurian in appearance . the name is formed in analogy with \u201cnessie\u201d ( the loch ness monster ) . \u2013 source\ngoat\n, literally\ngoat sucker\n) , is a legendary cryptid rumored to inhabit parts of the americas . the name comes from the animal ' s reported habit of attacking and drinking the blood of livestock , especially goats . it is supposedly a heavy creature , the size of a small bear , with a row of spines reaching from the neck to the base of the tail .\nmorph ( you may cast this card face down as a 2 / 2 creature for . turn it face up any time for its morph cost . )\neach creature you control with defender assigns combat damage equal to its toughness rather than its power and can attack as though it didn ' t have defender .\nat the beginning of each player ' s upkeep , that player may put an artifact , creature , or land card from their hand onto the battlefield .\n9 / 15 / 2013 : heroic abilities will trigger only once per spell , even if that spell targets the creature with the heroic ability multiple times .\n{ 2 } { b } { r } , { t } : create a 1 / 1 black and red demon creature token named minor demon .\nophiotaurus was a creature that was part bull and part serpent . it\u2019s entrails were said to grant the power to defeat the gods to whoever burned them .\nstarting with ixalan , this rule was abandonded . [ 15 ] all planeswalkers past , present , and future gained the supertype legendary and became subject to the\nlegend rule\n. thus , if a player controls more than one legendary planeswalker with the same name , that player chooses one and puts the other into their owner ' s graveyard . this means for example that if you control jace , unraveler of secrets and cast jace , cunning castaway , both jaces now can exist under your control .\nmark rosewater has stated multiple times that he considers legendary to be a mechanical downside which he would rather get rid off . [ 19 ] if he was starting over he would make legendary a supertype with no rules baggage . he would create a keyword , called something like unique , for things that needed for gameplay reasons to restricted to having only one in play . [ 20 ] [ 21 ] the rest of r & d doesn ' t concur with rosewater ' s idea . [ 22 ]\nwhat the other guy said was wrong . what you said was correct . if there are 2 + creatures on the battlefield that all have the legendary supertype and have the same name , they are all put into owners graveyard as a state based action .\nhe describes how they heard movement in the woods , three steps at a time , and the creature came into view near a glow stick about 30 yards away .\ndragons do not count as\nmagic\ncreatures because they are well - known to exist and are living , breathing animals - albeit they apparently have some sort of tie to magic in the world . basically , following rpg rules , a\nmagical creature\nis a\nsummoned creature\n, while dragons are actual animals .\nmelon heads is the name given to legendary beings and urban legends in parts of michigan , ohio , and connecticut generally described as small humanoids with bulbous heads who occasionally emerge from hiding places to attack people . different variations of the legend attribute different origins . \u2013 source\ngrandeur \u2014 discard another card named baru , fist of krosa : create an x / x green wurm creature token , where x is the number of lands you control .\nthe creature that finally emerged from the river was huge , limbless and covered in scales . it was a snake , but one so overgrown they called it a dragon .\nthe canvey island monster is the name given to an unusual creature whose carcass washed up on the shores of canvey island , england , in november , 1953 . \u2013 source\nthe bunyip , or kianpraty , is a large mythical creature from aboriginal mythology , said to lurk in swamps , billabongs , creeks , riverbeds , and waterholes . \u2013 source\n4 / 27 / 2018 : if a creature ' s power is less than 0 when it ' s doubled , instead that creature gets - x / - 0 , where x is how much less than 0 its power is . for example , if an effect has given grunn - 7 / - 0 so that it ' s a - 2 / 5 creature , doubling its power and toughness gives it - 2 / + 5 , and it ' s a - 4 / 10 until end of turn .\nbushido 1 ( whenever this creature blocks or becomes blocked , it gets + 1 / + 1 until end of turn . ) if there are exactly two permanents named brothers yamazaki on the battlefield , the\nlegend rule\ndoesn ' t apply to them . each other creature named brothers yamazaki gets + 2 / + 2 and has haste .\nthe names in this generator are based on those of famous legendary creatures , like the phoenix , minotaur , kelpie , wyvern , undine , satyr and so on . as a result the names in this generator will work great for other legendary beings , similar to the many fictional ones found in the witcher series , like the bruxa , alghoul , striga and zeugl . this generator will also randomly generate names based on beings from other cultures , so there ' s plenty of variety , but this does mean some results will likely be less useful to you .\n: target artifact creature ' s controller sacrifices it . that player may search their library for a noncreature artifact card , put it onto the battlefield , then shuffle their library .\n4 / 27 / 2018 : a creature attacks alone if it ' s the only creature declared as an attacker during the declare attackers step ( including creatures controlled by your teammates , if applicable ) . for example , grunn ' s last ability won ' t trigger if you attack with multiple creatures and all but one of them are removed from combat .\nphineus . like many other second - tier greek creatures , the harpies were more prominent in art works than in mythological literature , and while they may occasionally be used in popular culture today , they are most widely remembered for their part in the legendary adventures of jason and the argonauts .\nat the beginning of each end step , put a + 1 / + 1 counter on asmira , holy avenger for each creature put into your graveyard from the battlefield this turn .\nfurther to the east , a part - man , part - bird creature , the garuda , served as a mount for the hindu god vishnu . perhaps the fascination with such hybrid creatures is due to the fact that it allows people to combine the best characteristics of two or more creatures into one \u2019super creature\u2019 , allowing meaningful symbolism to be attached to them .\n9 / 29 / 2017 : in a two - headed giant game , an unblocked attacking creature deals its combat damage to one of the two players it ' s attacking . the attacking team chooses which player that is for each creature as combat damage is assigned . combat damage dealt by pirates your teammate controls will count when checking for admiral beckett brass ' s ability .\n10 / 1 / 2009 : the player you target with axelrod gunnarson ' s ability doesn ' t have to be the player that controlled the creature that was put into a graveyard .\n, pixies are often considered mischievous , but not overtly malevolent creatures of nature . their most commonly depicted image is a wingless and pointy - eared fairy - esque creature dressed in green .\nbanding ( any creatures with banding , and up to one without , can attack in a band . bands are blocked as a group . if any creatures with banding you control are blocking or being blocked by a creature , you divide that creature ' s combat damage , not its controller , among any of the creatures it ' s being blocked by or is blocking . )\n10 / 1 / 2009 : each time a creature is put into a graveyard from play , check whether axelrod gunnarson had dealt any damage to it at any time during that turn . ( this includes combat damage . ) if so , axelrod gunnarson ' s second ability will trigger . it doesn ' t matter who controlled the creature or whose graveyard it was put into .\nwhenever alesha , who smiles at death attacks , you may pay . if you do , return target creature card with power 2 or less from your graveyard to the battlefield tapped and attacking .\n10 / 1 / 2009 : if axelrod gunnarson and a creature it dealt damage to are both put into a graveyard at the same time , axelrod gunnarson ' s second ability will trigger .\nflash when garna , the bloodflame enters the battlefield , return to your hand all creature cards in your graveyard that were put there from anywhere this turn . other creatures you control have haste .\nthe dover demon is an alleged cryptozoological creature sighted on three separate occasions during a 25 - hour period in the town of dover , massachusetts on april 21 and april 22 , 1977 . \u2013 source\n, and at other times only to describe a specific type of more ethereal creature . many folktales are told of fairies , and they appear as characters in stories from medieval tales of chivalry , to victorian\nchupacabra means goat sucker . the legendary animal is said to roam through mexico , southwest usa , and puerto rico as well as other areas . the chupacabra is blamed for mysterious livestock deaths , and examples of chupacabras have been found and photographed , usually dead . the creature is described variously as resembling a hairless bear , sometimes with spikes on its back , or a hairless dog - like animal . some of the carcasses and photographs have been studied and turned out to be coyotes with a severe case of mange . image by deviantart member raenyras .\nhorsemanship ( this creature can ' t be blocked except by creatures with horsemanship . ) when guan yu , sainted warrior is put into your graveyard from the battlefield , you may shuffle guan yu into your library .\nwhile falconry involved careful training and deer hunting adept horsemanship , the netting of birds required more cunning than speed ( 1979 . 185 ) . animals , both real and legendary , frequently appear on works of art associated with more sedentary pastimes , including game pieces ( 16 . 106 ) and boxes for storing them ( 1976 . 327 ) .\n11 / 24 / 2014 : you choose which opponent or opposing planeswalker the creature is attacking as you put it onto the battlefield . it doesn ' t have to be the same player or planeswalker alesha is attacking .\n9 / 15 / 2013 : heroic abilities won ' t trigger when a copy of a spell is created on the stack or when a spell ' s targets are changed to include a creature with a heroic ability .\nif you ' re having creature problems i feel bad for you son you got 99 attackers but i ' m blocking with 1 . the winner is judge | 7 this winner is also judge | 6 club flamingo | lots\nin greek mythology , the chimera is a monstrous creature that was composed of several different animals . other hybrids exist as combinations of human beings with animals and / or birds , as well as a variety of humanoid creatures .\nthe beast of bray road is described by purported witnesses in several ways : as a bear - like creature , as a hairy biped resembling bigfoot , and as an unusually large ( 2\u20134 feet tall on all fours , 7 feet tall standing up ) intelligent wolf - like creature apt to walk on its hind legs and weighing 400 - 700 pounds . it also said that its fur is a brown gray color resembling a dog or bear . \u2013 source\na giant squid was recently filmed swimming next to a human diver in japan\u2019s toyama bay . it\u2019s a creature so elusive it has spawned hundreds of horror stories and legends over the centuries ( including in herman melville\u2019s novel \u2018moby dick\u2019 ) .\n9 / 20 / 2014 : anafenza ' s last ability cares only what the card would be in the zone it ' s moving from , not what it would be in the graveyard . for example , if a land card you control becomes a creature due to an effect and then dies , the land card will be exiled . but if a creature card with bestow is an aura when it would be put into the graveyard , it ends up in the graveyard .\nif a player controls two or more legendary permanents of the same name when state - based effects are checked , that player chooses one of those permanents and immediately put the others into their owners ' graveyards , without any player having an opportunity to respond . this does not destroy the other permanents , does not cause them to be sacrificed , and cannot be prevented by indestructibility or regeneration .\ninterestingly , there are various hybrid creatures that are similar to the griffin . for instance , the lamassu was an assyrian mythical creature that had the head of a man , a body of a lion or bull , and the wings of an eagle .\n8 / 23 / 2016 : creatures that enter the battlefield attacking were never declared as attackers , so they won ' t count toward melee ' s effect . similarly , if a creature with melee enters the battlefield attacking , melee won ' t trigger .\nfirst strike whenever alesha , who smiles at death attacks , you may pay { w / b } { w / b } . if you do , return target creature card with power 2 or less from your graveyard to the battlefield tapped and attacking .\na brownie is a legendary household spirit popular in folklore around scotland and northern england . they are said to inhabit houses and aid in tasks around the house . however , they do not like to be seen and will only work at night , traditionally in exchange for small gifts or food . they usually abandon the house if their gifts are called payments , or if the owners of the house misuse them .\n, described first by pliny the elder and later by claudius aelianus . its head is always pointing downwards , hence its name which means\nto look downwards\nin greek . the creature is said to have the head of a hog and the body of a\n[ \u2026 ] it was not a human in a morphsuit or an animal or anything in between . it stared , this inky black creature , and started to move towards us . now in high stress situations , i usually end up laughing to calm [ \u2026 ]\nknown for their bizarre characteristics , greek mythical creatures have been the subject of popular culture for thousands of years . these mythical monsters are some of the strangest , most bizarre and terrifying creations ever , ranging from glorified animals to humanoid mythical creatures . on today\u2019s list , we are going to take a look at these mythical creatures and learn about some of their epic stories . these are 25 most legendary creatures from greek mythology .\nworks of art dating pre - 1900 are bursting with mythical stories and representations of fabled mythical creatures , whether they be frightening dragons , majestic centaurs or , in this case , the enchanting unicorn . each legendary creature of the past has its own history and origins . unicorns in particular have always been an especially mysterious beast , as their history can be traced back to ancient greek writings of natural history . the truth of their existence therefore has long been disputed , with the debate having lasted for over two millennia . many today believe that they did indeed once walk the earth , but whatever you believe , the unicorn\u2019s existence is set forever within the delicate tapestries and illustrations from throughout the medieval period .\nin chinese mythology , the phoenix is the symbol of high virtue and grace , of power and prosperity . it represents the union of yin and yang . it was thought to be a gentle creature , alighting so gently that it crushed nothing , and eating only dewdrops .\n4 / 27 / 2018 : which creature cards to return to your hand is determined as garna ' s triggered ability resolves . if garna somehow finds its way into your graveyard before that , perhaps due to the \u201clegend rule , \u201d it will be returned to your hand .\n: put a + 1 / + 1 counter on ashling the pilgrim . if this is the third time this ability has resolved this turn , remove all + 1 / + 1 counters from ashling the pilgrim , and it deals that much damage to each creature and each player .\nflying as alhammarret , high arbiter enters the battlefield , each opponent reveals his or her hand . you choose the name of a nonland card revealed this way . your opponents can ' t cast spells with the chosen name ( as long as this creature is on the battlefield ) .\naccording to native folklore the creature has a series of unnatural characteristics related to other fantastic beings of brazilian mythology . these include the creature only having one eye , long claws , caiman skin , backward feet and a second mouth on its belly . in more recent eyewitness accounts it has consistently been described as resembling either an ape or giant ground - dwelling sloth and having long arms , powerful claws that could tear apart palm trees , a sloping back , reaching heights of 7 feet when standing on its hind legs and is covered in thick , matted fur . \u2013 source\nany tentacled creature roaming the deep ocean sounds unnerving , but imagine one that can grow up to 50 feet with hundreds of fine teeth and sharp hooks lining its long , muscly limbs and enormous eyes of up to 40cm . are you scared yet ? good , because it\u2019s totally real .\nthe daughter of poseidon and gaia ; charybdis is a huge bladder of a creature whose face is all mouth and whose arms and legs are flippers . she swallows huge amounts of water three times a day , before belching it back out again , creating large whirlpools capable of sinking large ships .\n9 / 20 / 2014 : while anafenza is on the battlefield , abilities that trigger whenever a nontoken creature your opponent owns dies won ' t trigger , as that card will never reach that player ' s graveyard . ( token creatures will still go to the graveyard briefly before ceasing to exist . )\nthe minotaur was a humanoid mythical creature with the head of a bull on the body of a man . he dwelt at the center of the cretan labyrinth , which was an elaborate maze designed by the architect daedalus and his son icarus . the bull - man was eventually slain by the athenian hero theseus .\nthe centaur is a humanoid mythical creature with the head , arms , and torso of a human and the body and legs of a horse . perhaps one of the most popular centaurs in greek mythology is chiron . he stands in contrast to the typical depiction of centaurs being indulgent and violent drinkers with his intelligence and enviable medical skills .\nthe chimera was a monstrous fire - breathing female creature of lycia in asia minor who was composed of the parts of three animals ; a lion , a snake and a goat . the term chimera has come to describe any mythical or fictional animal with parts taken from various animals , or to describe concepts perceived as wildly imaginative or implausible .\n8 / 23 / 2016 : it doesn ' t matter how many creatures you attacked a player with , only that you attacked a player with at least one creature . for example , if you attack one player with wings of the guard and another player with five creatures , wings of the guard will get + 2 / + 2 until end of turn .\nthe mono grande ( spanish for \u201clarge monkey\u201d ) , a large monkey - like creature , has been occasionally reported in south america . such creatures are reported as being much larger than the commonly accepted new world monkeys . these accounts have received rather little publicity , and typically generated little or no interest from mainstream experts , but have received some notice in cryptozoology . \u2013 source\nthe manananggal ( sometimes confused with the wak wak ) is a mythical creature of the philippines , an evil , man - eating and blood - sucking monster or witch . it is described as hideous , scary , often depicted as female , and capable of severing its upper torso and sprouting huge bat - like wings to fly into the night in search of its victims . \u2013 source\n9 / 20 / 2014 : if your opponent discards a creature card while anafenza is on the battlefield , abilities that function when a card is discarded ( such as madness ) still work , even though that card never reaches a graveyard . in addition , spells or abilities that check the characteristics of a discarded card ( such as chandra ablaze ' s first ability ) can find that card in exile .\ncryptozoology ( from greek : \u03ba\u03c1\u03c5\u03c0\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2 , krypt\u00f3s ,\nhidden\n; \u03b6\u1ff7\u03bf\u03bd , z\u00f4on ,\nanimal\n; and \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 , logos ,\nknowledge\nor\nstudy\n\u2013 c . f . zoology ) is the search for animals believed to exist , but for which conclusive evidence is missing . among these are included some of the legendary creatures . the field also includes the search for known animals believed to be extinct . while cryptozoologists strive for legitimacy \u2013 some of them are respected scientists in other fields \u2013 and discoveries of previously unknown animals are often subject to great attention , however , cryptozoology has not been fully embraced by the scientific community .\ngrassman , also known as the ohio grassman and kenmore grassman , is an alleged bipedal , ape - like creature reportedly seen in the state of ohio , primarily around kenmore , near the akron , ohio area and throughout eastern ohio into western pa . and central and southern ohio into wv . it was first allegedly sighted in gallia county , ohio in 1869 . grassman\u2019s main foodsouce is wheat grass . \u2013 source\nin may 2001 , reports began to circulate in the indian capital new delhi of a strange monkey - like creature that was appearing at night and attacking people . eyewitness accounts were often inconsistent , but tended to describe the creature as about four feet ( 120 cm ) tall , covered in thick black hair , with a metal helmet , metal claws , glowing red eyes and three buttons on its chest ; others , however , described the monkey - man as having a more vulpine snout , and being up to eight feet tall , and muscular ; it would leap from building to building like a parcour enthusiast . still others have described it as a bandaged figure or as a helmeted thing . theories on the nature of the monkey man ranged from an avatar of the hindu god hanuman , to an indian version of bigfoot . \u2013 source"]}
{"id": 2569, "summary": [{"text": "anthozoa is a class of marine invertebrates which includes the sea anemones , stony corals , soft corals and gorgonians .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "adult anthozoans are almost all attached to the seabed , while their larvae can disperse as part of the plankton .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the basic unit of the adult is the polyp ; this consists of a cylindrical column topped by a disc with a central mouth surrounded by tentacles .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "sea anemones are mostly solitary , but the majority of corals are colonial , being formed by the budding of new polyps from an original , founding individual .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "colonies are strengthened by calcium carbonate and other materials and take various massive , plate-like , bushy or leafy forms .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "anthozoa is included within the phylum cnidaria , which also includes the jellyfish , box jellies and parasitic myxozoa and polypodiozoa .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "the two main subclasses of anthozoa are the hexacorallia , members of which have six-fold symmetry and includes the stony corals , sea anemones , tube anemones and zoanthids ; and the octocorallia , which have eight-fold symmetry and includes the soft corals and gorgonians ( sea pens , sea fans and sea whips ) , and sea pansies .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the smaller subclass , ceriantharia , consists of the tube-dwelling anemones .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "anthozoans are carnivores , catching prey with their tentacles .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "many species supplement their energy needs by making use of photosynthetic single-celled algae that live within their tissues .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "these species live in shallow water and many are reef-builders .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "other species lack the zooxanthellae and , having no need for well-lit areas , typically live in deep-water locations .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "unlike other members of this phylum , anthozoans do not have a medusa stage in their development .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "instead , they release sperm and eggs into the water .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "after fertilisation , the planula larvae form part of the plankton .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "when fully developed , the larvae settle on the seabed and attach to the substrate , undergoing metamorphosis into polyps .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "some anthozoans can also reproduce asexually through budding or by breaking in pieces .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "more than 6,100 species have been described . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "anthozoa", "paragraphs": ["a . e . verrill , \u201cadditions to the anthozoa and hydrozoa of the bermudas . anthozoa , \u201d in\ngrzegorz jagodzi\u0144ski added the polish common name\nkoralowce\nto\nanthozoa\n.\n( anthozoa : hexacorallia : zoantharia ) from japan . fauna ryukyuana 29 : 37\u201340\n( cnidaria : anthozoa : actiniaria ) from the gulf of mexico and caribbean .\n( anthozoa : actiniaria ) from southern patagonia : morphological study and new records .\nmaggie whitson set\nimage of anthozoa\nas an exemplar on\nsabellida\n.\nanthozoa : blumentiere . . . staurozoa : stiel - oder becherquallen . . . cub\u2026\n( anthozoa , zoantharia , sphenopidae ) in okinawa , japan . biol bull 220 : 23\u201331\n( cnidaria : anthozoa : zoantharia : sphenopidae ) from okinawajima island , japan . zookeys 606 : 11\u201324\n( anthozoa : hexacorallia ) attached to eunicid worm tubes from the pacific ocean . zookeys 562 : 49\u201371\nspecies ( anthozoa , tabulata ) from the lower devonian of colle ( spain , cantabrian mountains ) .\n( anthozoa : hexacorallia ) from southwestern japan with description of two new species . zool sci 23 : 261\u2013275\nthe oldest fossils seem to be medusae , but the most basal branch , anthozoa , has only polyps .\nkotrc , b . 2005 . anthozoa : subgroups fossil groups . university of bristol . retrieved august 2 , 2008 .\nnomenclature and biology of astrangia poculata ( = a . danae , = a . astreiformis ) ( cnidaria : anthozoa )\nthe oldest fossils seem to be of solitary forms , but the most basal branch , anthozoa , is primarily colonial .\n( cnidaria : anthozoa : antipatharia ) supports classification of antipatharians within the subclass hexacorallia . mol phylogen evol 42 : 776\u2013788 .\nchen ca , odorico dm , ten louis m , veron jen , miller dj ( 1995 ) systematic relationships within the anthozoa ( cnidaria anthozoa ) using the 5\u2032 - end of the 28s rdna . mol phylogenet evol 4 ( 2 ) : 175\u2013183 .\ns . cairns , c . den hertog , and c . arneson , \u201cclass anthozoa ( corals , anemones ) , \u201d in\nthe class anthozoa includes the sea anemones and corals . for anthozoans , the dominant stage in the life cycle is the polyp .\nanthozoa is the largest of the four classes of cnidaria with over 6 , 000 species ( france 2004 ) . they are found worldwide in all oceans , from the arctic to the antarctic . anthozoa means\nflower animals ,\nwhich is descriptive of this class of invertebrates .\nschmidt , h . 1974 . on evolution in the anthozoa . proceedings of the second international coral reef symposium 1 : 533 - 560 .\nsanamyan , n . , & sanamyan , k . ( 1998 ) . some actiniaria from the commander islands ( cnidaria : anthozoa ) .\ncairns sd ( 1995 ) the marine fauna of new zealand : scleractinia ( cnidaria anthozoa ) . nzoi mem . 103 . 210 p .\nsexual - organisms in the anthozoa class can reproduce sexually by forming eggs and sperm , which fertilize like the other organism classes in cnidaria .\nsearch for mesophotic octocorals ( cnidaria , anthozoa ) and their phylogeny : i . a new sclerite - free genus from eilat , northern red sea\nmay , a . 2006 , radiastraea ( anthozoa , rugosa ) from the . . . bulletin of geosciences , 81 , 151 - 162 .\nthe phylum cnidaria encompasses five classes : anthozoa , cubozoa , hydrozoa , scyphozoa , and staurozoa . anthozoa is the most speciose of these classes and is further subdivided into two diverse subclasses hexacorallia ( hard corals and sea anemones ) and octocorallia ( soft corals , sea pens , and gorgonians ) [\npaulay g , puglisi mp , starmer ja ( 2003 ) the non - scleractinian anthozoa ( cnidaria ) of the mariana islands . micronesica 35 : 138\u2013155\nfautin , daphne g . and sandra l . romano . 2000 . anthozoa . sea anemones , corals , sea pens . version 03 october 2000 .\nkerr am ( 2005 ) molecular and morphological supertree of stony corals ( anthozoa : scleractinia ) using matrix representation parsimony . biol rev 80 : 1\u201316 .\nfujii t , reimer jd ( 2011 ) phylogeny of the highly divergent family microzoanthidae ( anthozoa , hexacorallia ) from the pacific . zool scr 40 : 418\u2013431\nfautin , d . g . ( 2016 ) . catalog to families , genera , and species of orders actiniaria and corallimorpharia ( cnidaria : anthozoa ) .\ndaly m , fautin dg , cappola va ( 2003 ) systematics of the hexacorallia ( cnidaria : anthozoa ) . zool j linn soc 139 : 419\u2013437 .\nspp . ( dinophyceae , suessiales ) within closely related host genera : zoanthids ( cnidaria : hexacorallia : anthozoa ) as a case study . galaxea 10 : 3\u201313\n( drayton in dana , 1846 ) ( cnidaria : anthozoa ) , two common actiniid sea anemones from the south east pacific with a discussion of related genera .\nthe anthozoa subphylum consists of sea anemones and corals . most anthozoa organisms are sessile creatures , and anemones found within the united states tidal zones have minimal toxicity . the sea anemone phyllodiscus semoni ( night or wasp - sea anemone ) located in the western pacific ocean is reported to cause fulminant dermatitis and acute renal failure in humans\n] . here we show that paraphyletic anthozoa does not result from unbalanced taxon sampling . in addition , a principal component analysis of the amino acid composition ( additional file\nengland , k . w . , & robson , e . a . ( 1984 ) . a new sea anemone from south africa ( anthozoa , ptychodactiaria ) .\ncairns sd ( 1999 ) cnidaria anthozoa : deep - water azooxanthellate scleractinia from vanuatu , and wallis and futuna islands . mem mus nat hist nat 180 : 31\u2013167 .\nanatomy and taxonomy of three species of sea anemones ( cnidaria : anthozoa : actiniidae ) from the gulf of california , including isoaulactinia hespervolita daly , n . sp .\n( hydrozoans ) ; scyphozoa ( scyphozoans ) ; anthozoa ( anthozoa ns ) ; and cubozoa ( cubozoans ) . all cnidarians share several attributes , supporting the theory that they had a single origin . variety and symmetry of body forms , varied coloration , and the sometimes complex life histories of cnidarians fascinate layperson and scientist alike . inhabiting all marine and some\u2026\npresence of abyssoanthus sp . ( anthozoa : zoantharia ) in the mediterranean sea : indication of a new cold seep or of ecological tolerance of abyssoanthus to non - chemotrophic environments ?\nchen , c . a . , d . m . odorico , m . ten lohuis , j . e . n . veron , and d . j . miller . 1995 . systematic relationships within the anthozoa ( cnidaria : anthozoa ) using the 5 ' - end of the 28s rdna . molecular phylogeny and evolution 4 : 175 - 183 .\ncappola , v . a . , & fautin , d . g . ( 2000 ) . all three species of ptychodactiaria belong to order actiniaria ( cnidaria : anthozoa ) .\ndaly , m . , fautin , d . g . , & cappola , v . a . ( 2003 ) . systematics of the hexacorallia ( cnidaria : anthozoa ) .\nriemann - z\u00fcrneck , k . 1969 . sagartia troglodytes ( anthozoa ) biologie und morphologie einer schlick bewohnenden aktinie . ver\u00f6ff . inst . meeresforsch . bremerhaven , 12 : 169\u2013230 .\nfilkorn hf , allor jp ( 2004 ) a new early cretaceous coral ( anthozoa ; scleractinia ; dendrophylliina ) and its evolutionary significance . j paleont 78 ( 3 ) : 501\u2013512 .\nto cite this page : myers , p . and j . burch 2001 .\nanthozoa\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\n, a new family , new genus and new species of deep - sea zoanthid ( anthozoa : hexacorallia : zoantharia ) from a northwest pacific methane cold seep . invertebr syst 21 : 255\u2013262\nberntson ea , france sc , mullineaux ls ( 1999 ) phylogenetic relationships within the class anthozoa ( phylum cnidaria ) based on nuclear 18s rdna sequences . mol phylogen evol 13 : 417\u2013433 .\nreimer jd , albinsky d , yang sy , lorion j ( 2014a ) zoanthid ( cnidaria : anthozoa : hexacorallia : zoantharia ) species of coral reefs in palau . mar biodivers 44 : 37\u201344\na . acosta , m . casas , c . a . vargas , and j . e . camacho , \u201clista de zoantharia ( cnidaria : anthozoa ) del caribe y de colombia , \u201d\n] included a dense sampling of both anthozoan and medusozoan taxa . however , studies based on mitochondrial dna data suggest that anthozoa is paraphyletic , with octocorals forming a sister group relationship with medusozoans [\nzibrowius h , gili jm ( 1990 ) deep - water scleractinia ( cnidaria : anthozoa ) from namibia , south africa , and walvts ridge , southeastern atlantic . sci mar 54 : 19\u201346 .\nfautin , d . g . , and s . l . romano . 2000 . anthozoa . sea nemones , corals , sea pens tree of life web project . retrieved august 2 , 2008 .\nchen , c . a . , d . m . odorico , m . ten lohuis , j . e . n . veron , and d . j . miller . 1995 . systematic relationships within the anthozoa ( cnidaria : anthozoa ) using the 5 ' - end of the 28s rdna molecular phylogeny and evolution 4 ( 2 ) : 175\u2013183 . pmid 7663762 . retrieved august 2 , 2008 .\nanthozoa is a class of marine invertebrates within the phylum cnidaria that are unique among cnidarians in that they do not do not have a medusa stage in their development . these exclusively polypoid cnidarians are characterized by a tubular body with tentacles around the mouth and most are sedentary after the larval stage . anthozoa includes the sea anemones , corals , sea pens , sea pansies , and sea fans , among others .\nreimer jd , ono s , sinniger f , tsukahara j ( 2008b ) distribution of zooxanthellate zoanthid species ( zoantharia : anthozoa : hexacorallia ) in southern japan limited by cold temperatures . galaxea 10 : 57\u201367\nreimer jd , sinniger f , irei y ( 2013c ) preliminary list of macrocnemic zoanthid diversity ( anthozoa : hexacorallia : zoantharia ) from southern shikoku , japan . kuroshio biosphere 9 : 1\u2013x + 2 pls\nsinniger f , montoya - burgos ji , chevaldonne p , pawlowski j ( 2005 ) phylogeny of the order zoantharia ( anthozoa , hexacorallia ) based on the mitochondrial ribosomal genes . mar biol 147 : 1121\u20131128\ny . h . fadlallah , r . h . karlson , and k . p . sebens , \u201ca comparative study of sexual reproduction in three species of panamanian zoanthids ( coelenterata : anthozoa ) , \u201d\nf . sinniger , j . i . montoya - burgos , p . chevaldonn\u00e9 , and j . pawlowski , \u201cphylogeny of the order zoantharia ( anthozoa , hexacorallia ) based on the mitochondrial ribosomal genes , \u201d\nt . l . shearer , m . j . h . van oppen , s . l . romano , and g . w\u00f6rheide , \u201cslow mitochondrial dna sequence evolution in the anthozoa ( cnidaria ) , \u201d\ndaly , m . , chaudhuri , a . , gusm\u00e3o , l . c . , & rodriguez , e . ( 2008 ) . phylogenetic relationships among sea anemones ( cnidaria : anthozoa : actiniaria ) .\nscholarspace at university of hawaii at manoa : anatomy and taxonomy of three species of sea anemones ( cnidaria : anthozoa : actiniidae ) from the gulf of california , including isoaulactinia hespervolita daly , n . sp .\nj . d . reimer , s . ono , f . sinniger , and j . tsukahara , \u201cdistribution of zooxanthellate zoanthid species ( zoantharia : anthozoa : hexacorallia ) in southern japan limited by cold temperatures , \u201d\ndata on the ecology and distribution in the estuarine region of the rivers rhine , meuse and scheldt are given for ten species of anthozoa . these data have been correlated with several environmental variables , but especially salinity .\ncairns , s . d . , den hartog , j . c . , & arenson , c . ( 1986 ) . anthozoa . in w . sterrer & c . schoepfer - sterrer ( eds . ) ,\nengland , k . w . ( 1992 ) . certain actiniaria ( cnidaria : anthozoa ) from hong kong with additional data on similar species from aden , bahrain and singapore . in b . morton ( ed . ) ,\nunlike the dichotomous anthozoa - medusozoa , our strongly supported finding that anthozoa is paraphyletic further supports the idea that bilateral symmetry , a step of foremost importance in metazoan evolution as it is exhibited as part of most animal body plans ( bauplan ) , was anciently acquired prior to the divergence between cnidaria and bilateria . in fact in cnidaria , increasing evidence supports the presence of bilateral symmetry in corals and sea anemones , where it is represented by the siphonoglyph [\nwon j , rho b , song j : a phylogenetic study of the anthozoa ( phylum cnidaria ) based on morphological and molecular characters . coral reefs . 2001 , 20 : 39 - 50 . 10 . 1007 / s003380000132 .\n( drayton in dana , 1846 ) ( cnidaria : anthozoa : actiniidae ) , an actiniid sea anemone from chile and per\u00fa with special fighting tentacles ; with a preliminary revision of the genera with a \u201cfrond - like\u201d marginal ruff .\nforsman zh , guzman hm , chen ac , fox ge , wellington gm ( 2005 ) an its region phylogeny of siderastrea ( cnidaria : anthozoa ) : is s . glynni endangered or introduced ? coral reefs 24 : 343\u2013347 .\nburnett wj , benzie jah , beardmore ja , ryland js ( 1997 ) zoanthids ( anthozoa , hexacorallia ) from the great barrier reef and torres strait , australia : systematics , evolution and a key to species . coral reefs 16 : 55\u201368\nfautin , d . g . ( 2005 ) . three species of intertidal sea anemones ( anthozoa : actiniidae ) from the tropical pacific : description of anthopleura buddemeieri , n . sp . , with remarks on anthopleura asiatica and gyractis sesere .\nreimer jd , kim s , arai s , keshavmurthy s , choi k - s ( 2016b ) first records of zooxanthellate zoanthus ( anthozoa : hexacorallia : zoantharia ) from korea and japan ( east ) sea . mar biodiv ( in press )\nberntson ea , france sc , mullineaux ls : phylogenetic relationships within the class anthozoa ( phylum cnidaria ) based on nuclear 18s rdna sequences . mol phylogenet evol . 1999 , 13 : 417 - 433 . 10 . 1006 / mpev . 1999 . 0649 .\ncitation : kitahara mv , cairns sd , stolarski j , blair d , miller dj ( 2010 ) a comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of the scleractinia ( cnidaria , anthozoa ) based on mitochondrial co1 sequence data . plos one 5 ( 7 ) : e11490 . urltoken\ndaly m . 2004 . anatomy and taxonomy of three species of sea anemones ( cnidaria : anthozoa : actiniidae ) from the gulf of california , including isoaulactinia hespervolita daly , n . sp . . pac sci 58 ( 3 ) : 377 - 390 .\nh . fukami , c . a . chen , a . f . budd et al . , \u201cmitochondrial and nuclear genes suggest that stony corals are monophyletic but most families of stony corals are not ( order scleractinia , class anthozoa , phylum cnidaria ) , \u201d\nberntson , e . a . , s . c . france , and l . s . mullineaux . 1999 . phylogenetic relationships within the class anthozoa ( phylum cnidaria ) based on nuclear 18s rdna sequences . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 13 : 417 - 433 .\nrodr\u00edguez , e . , & l\u00f3pez - gonz\u00e1lez , p . j . ( 2013 ) . new records of antarctic and sub - antarctic sea anemones ( cnidaria , anthozoa , actiniaria and corallimorpharia ) from the weddell sea , antarctic peninsula , and scotia arc .\nrodr\u00edguez , e . , barbeitos , m . , daly , m . , gusm\u00e3o , l . c . , & h\u00e4ussermann , v . ( 2012 ) . toward a natural classification : phylogeny of acontiate sea anemones ( cnidaria , anthozoa , actiniaria ) .\nfrance sc , rosel pe , agenbroad je , mullineaux ls , kocher td ( 1996 ) dna sequence variation of mitochondrial large - subunit rdna provides support for a two - subclass organization of the anthozoa ( cnidaria ) . mol mar biol biotechnol 5 : 15\u201328 .\nreimer jd , wee hb , put a jr , hoeksema bw ( 2015 ) zoantharia ( cnidaria : anthozoa : hexacorallia ) of the south china sea and gulf of thailand : species list based on past reports and new photographic records . raffles bull zool 63 : 334\u2013356\ncitation : aratake s , tomura t , saitoh s , yokokura r , kawanishi y , shinjo r , et al . ( 2012 ) soft coral sarcophyton ( cnidaria : anthozoa : octocorallia ) species diversity and chemotypes . plos one 7 ( 1 ) : e30410 . urltoken\nfritzenwanker , j . h . , and technau , u . ( 2002 ) . induction of gametogenesis in the basal cnidarian nematostella vectensis ( anthozoa ) . dev . genes evol . 212 , 99\u2013103 . doi : 10 . 1007 / s00427 - 002 - 0214 - 7\nclass anthozoa exclusively polypoid with biradial symmetry . oral end a disk with central mouth and hollow tentacles arising at margin and / or on surface . mouth leads to coelenteron via stomodaeum that has ciliated troughs ( siphonoglyphs ) for water transport into and out of coelenteron . coelenteron divided by radial\u2026\nkitahara mv , cairns sd , stolarski j , blair d , miller dj : a comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of the scleractinia ( cnidaria , anthozoa ) based on mitochondrial co1 sequence data . plos one . 2010 , 5 : e11490 - 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0011490 .\nfukami h , knowlton n : analysis of complete mitochondrial dna sequences of three members of the montastraea annularis coral species complex ( cnidaria , anthozoa , scleractinia ) . coral reefs . 2005 , 24 : 410 - 417 . 10 . 1007 / s00338 - 005 - 0023 - 3 .\nw . j . burnett , j . a . h . benzie , j . a . beardmore , and j . s . ryland , \u201czoanthids ( anthozoa , hexacorallia ) from the great barrier reef and torres strait , australia : systematics , evolution and a key to species , \u201d\nfrance sc , rosel pe , agenbroad je , mullineaux ls , kocher t : dna sequence variation of mitochondrial large - subunit rrna provides support for a two - subclass organization of the anthozoa ( cnidaria ) . mol . mar . biol . biotechnolog . 1996 , 5 : 15 - 28 .\nanthozoa ( class ) , bio - eye\u00ae hydroxyapatite implant , calcium carbonate matrix , carbonate bone replacement graft ( brg ) , coral carbonate , coral grafts , coral watert , coralline , goniopora species , hydroxyapatite , natural coral , natural coral calcium , nc ( porites ) , sea coral calcite .\nwells , j . w . and d . hill . 1956 . anthozoa - general features . pp . f161 - f165 in : r . c . moore ( ed . ) , treatise on invertebrate paleontology part f : coelenterata . geological society of america and university of kansas press , lawrence .\nfukami h , chen ca , budd af , collins a , wallace c , et al . ( 2008 ) mitochondrial and nuclear genes suggest that stony corals are monophyletic but most families of stony corals are not ( order scleractinia , class anthozoa , phylum cnidaria ) . plos one 3 : e3222 .\nbrugler mr , france sc : the complete mitochondrial genome of the black coral chrysopathes formosa ( cnidaria : anthozoa : antipatharia ) supports classification of antipatharians within the subclass hexacorallia . mol phylogenet evol . 2007 , 42 : 776 - 788 . 10 . 1016 / j . ympev . 2006 . 08 . 016 .\nmcfadden cs , france sc , s\u00e1nchez ja , alderslade p : a molecular phylogenetic analysis of the octocorallia ( cnidaria : anthozoa ) based on mitochondrial protein - coding sequences . mol phylogenet evol . 2006 , 41 : 513 - 27 . 10 . 1016 / j . ympev . 2006 . 06 . 010 .\nreimer j . d . , fujii t . ( 2017 ) zoantharia ( cnidaria : anthozoa : hexacorallia ) diversity research in japan : current state and future trends . in : motokawa m . , kajihara h . ( eds ) species diversity of animals in japan . diversity and commonality in animals . springer , tokyo\nwith about 6 , 000 species , the class anthozoa includes about two - thirds of extant cnidarian phylum . but unlike other cnidarians , anthozoans do not have a medusa stage in their development . some of species harbor a type of algae ( dinoflagellates called zooxanthellae ) , with which they form a symbiotic relationship . [ 1 ]\nbrugler mr , france sc : the mitochondrial genome of a deep - sea bamboo coral ( cnidaria , anthozoa , octocorallia , isididae ) : genome structure and putative origins of replication are not conserved among octocorals . j mol evol . 2008 , 67 : 125 - 136 . 10 . 1007 / s00239 - 008 - 9116 - 2 .\nsummary of the debate ) . anthozoa are traditionally divided into two or three groups , either recognising the black corals and tube anemones , which both have singly occurring mesenteries as a shared feature , as a subclass ( ceriantipatharia ) or demoting them to orders within the zoantharia . the latter scheme ( of hyman , 1940 ) is used here .\nthe class anthozoa includes a variety of animals that have polyps with a flower - like appearance . in these forms , the gastrovascular cavity is large . it is divided by walls or septa , which arise as folds from the body wall . these folds , along with the mouth and pharynx , are usually arranged in a biradially symmetric pattern .\nemblem \u00e5 , karlsen bo , evertsen j , johansen sd : mitogenome rearrangement in the cold - water scleractinian coral lophelia pertusa ( cnidaria , anthozoa ) involves a long - term evolving group i intron . mol phylogenet evol . 2011 , 61 : 495 - 503 . 10 . 1016 / j . ympev . 2011 . 07 . 012 .\nfrance , s . c . , p . e . rosel , j . e . agenbroad , l . s . mullineaux , and t . d . kocher . 1996 . dna sequence variation of mitochondrial large - subunit rrna provides support for a two subclass organization of the anthozoa ( cnidaria ) . molecular marine biology and biotechnology 5 : 15 - 28 .\n] . we also included sequences from two octocoral orders penatulacea and helioporacea , and two hexacoral orders antipatharia and ceriantharia . our analyses suggest that the paraphyly of anthozoa does not result from poor taxon sampling . we also found the groupings [ discomedusae + hydrozoa ] and [ coronatae + [ cubozoa + staurozoa ] ] , contradicting the current rdna - based phylogenetic hypothesis within medusozoa .\nthough taxonomic classification is a dynamic process , there are currently three recognized cnidaria subphyla . the subphylum medusozoa contains five classes : ( 1 ) hydrozoa , ( 2 ) scyphozoa , ( 3 ) cubozoa , ( 4 ) polypodiozoa , and ( 5 ) staurozoa . species from each class have caused human envenomations . the subphyla anthozoa and myxozoa have also been implicated in envenomation .\ntheoretically , members of cnidaria have life cycles that alternate between asexual polyps ( the body as a vase shaped form ) , and sexual , free - swimming forms called medusae ( singular medusa ; the body in a bell - shaped form ) . however , members of anthozoa live only as polyps . the anthozoa larva , once fusing with the substratum and developing into the polyp stage , grows benthic or sessile , meaning it no longer metamorphoses into the medusal stage . ( members of scyphozoa live most of their life cycle as medusa , the hydrozoa live as polyps , medusae , and species that alternate between the two , and those of the class cubozoa are named for their cube - shaped medusae , which form the dominant part of their life cycle . )\nfautin , d . g . and r . n . mariscal . 1991 . cnidaria : anthozoa . pp . 267 - 358 in f . w . harrison and j . a . westfall ( eds . ) , microscopic anatomy of invertebrates , volume 2 : placozoa , porifera , cnidaria , and ctenophora . wiley - liss , inc . , new york and other cities .\nrodr\u00edguez , e . , barbeitos , m . , brugler , m . r . , crowley , l . m . , grajales , a . , gusm\u00e3o , l . c . , et al . ( 2014 ) . hidden among sea anemones : the first comprehensive phylogenetic reconstruction of the order actiniaria ( cnidaria , anthozoa , hexacorallia ) reveals a novel group of hexacorals .\nsoft corals ( cnidaria : anthozoa : octocorallia ) often equal or exceed the total coverage of scleractinian corals in coral reef ecosystems [ 1 ] \u2013 [ 4 ] , and as dominant space - occupiers , important structural components of coral reef communities , and contributors to coral reef biomass [ 4 ] , [ 5 ] , have been the subjects of biological studies since the nineteenth century .\n: figure s4 ) . by comparison , under bi we found no support for the validity of anthozoa ( pps = 0 ; bv = 0 ) , acraspeda ( pps = 0 ; bv = 0 ) , scyphozoa ( pps = 0 ; bv = 0 ) , and semaeostomeae ( pps = 0 ; bv = 0 ) in any of our trees under both gtr and catgtr models .\npearson , c . v . , rogers , a . d . , and sheader , m . ( 2002 ) . the genetic structure of the rare lagoonal sea anemone , nematostella vectensis stephenson ( cnidaria ; anthozoa ) in the united kingdom based on rapd analysis . mol . ecol . 11 , 2285\u20132293 . doi : 10 . 1046 / j . 1365 - 294x . 2002 . 01621 . x\nfrance , s . c . , p . e . rosel , j . e . agenbroad , l . s . mullineaux , and t . d . kocher . 1996 . dna sequence variation of mitochondrial large - subunit rrna provides support for a two subclass organization of the anthozoa ( cnidaria ) molecular marine biology and biotechnology 5 ( 1 ) : 15\u201328 . pmid 8869515 . retrieved august 2 , 2008 .\nscleractinian corals belong to the phylum cnidaria . they form the basis of many tropical reefs ecosystems , but are also abundant in colder waters . there are four classes : hydrozoa ( hydroids ) , scyphozoa ( jellyfishes ) , cubozoa ( sea wasps ) , and anthozoa ( scleractinian corals , corallimorpharians , sea fans , sea anemones , zoanthids and black corals ) , distinguished on the basis of life history and morphology . they are united by certain characteristics : radial symmetry , a central mouth surrounded by tentacles , a single opening through which food is ingested and expelled ( coelenteron ) , a jelly - like middle germ layer ( the mesoglea ) , and intracellular stinging structures called nematocysts . members of the remaining class , anthozoa , exist only as polyps , either solitary or forming colonies ( for a more detailed insight on cnidarian taxonomy , try this link ) .\nanthozoa is one of four classes of the invertebrate phylum , the others being hydrozoa ( portuguese man o ' war , obelia , etc . ) , scyphozoa ( true jellyfish ) , and cubozoa ( box jellies ) . all are aquatic and most are marine . the name of the phylum comes from cnidocytes , which are specialized cells that carry stinging secretions that are the cnidarians ' main form of offense or defense and function .\nmembers of most species of anthozoa are suspension feeders , capturing small planktonic invertebrates , phytoplankton , bacteria , and other suspended organic matter ( france 2004 ) . most common are passive methods of capturing prey , when it comes in contact with the tentacles . all cnidarian species can feed by catching prey with nematocysts , with large sea anemones capable of catching fish , crabs , and bivalves , and corals are capable of catching plankton .\nthe origins of the anthozoa lie in the precambrian , but concrete evidence is sketchy . a number of the vendian , or latest precambrian , soft - bodied\nmedusoids\nare now thought to represent benthic polyp - like organisms . some of the frondlike fossils of the time could represent colonial anthozoans similar to living\nsea pens ,\neoporpita is one such vendian fossil that could be a single anthozoan polyp , and charnia is a frondlike fossil that in the past has been linked with\nsea pens\nor soft corals . however , this issue has not been resolved to everyone ' s satisfaction , although some well - preserved frondlike fossils of the genus charniodiscus from australia may show spicules and individual polyps ( jenkins 1989 ) . in any case , there is molecular evidence to suggest that the anthozoa are the earliest branch of the phylum cnidaria ( bridge et al . 1992 ) .\n: figure s3 ) , the other analyses resulting in the near absence of phylogenetic resolution . when some resolution was achieved , the codon analyses yielded similar results to those from the amino acid dataset . we found paraphyletic anthozoa , with medusozoa the sister taxon to octocorallia ( pp > 0 . 95 ) in all codon analyses , but monophyletic cnidaria only in the qmm analysis of the codalim75tx - ser3 dataset ( pp = 0 . 85 , additional file\nfukami h , chen ca , budd af , collins a , wallace c , chuang y - y , chen c , dai c - f , iwao k , sheppard c , knowlton n : mitochondrial and nuclear genes suggest that stony corals are monophyletic but most families of stony corals are not ( order scleractinia , class anthozoa , phylum cnidaria ) . plos one . 2008 , 3 : e3222 - 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0003222 .\n] . however , the latter view has only slight phylogenetic support in the currently accepted cnidarian phylogeny , where the most parsimonious scenario involves the gain of the polyp form in the ancestral cnidaria and of the medusa form in medusozoa . alternatively , both the polyp and the medusa forms could have been acquired in the ancestral cnidarian , and the medusa form subsequently lost in the branch leading to anthozoa . the multiple losses of the medusa stage in different medusozoan lineages suggest that this character is indeed evolutionary labile .\n) . in addition , gtr - based analyses do not significantly reject the validity of anthozoa ( au = 0 . 63 ; kh = 0 . 41 ; sh = 0 . 93 ) , scyphozoa ( au = 0 . 10 ; kh = 0 . 08 ; sh = 0 . 42 ) , or the clade acraspeda [ cubozoa + scyphozoa ] ( au = 0 . 80 ; kh = 0 . 59 ; sh = 0 . 99 ) , even after removal of the long - branch coronate\nfautin , d . g . , crowther , a . l . & wallace , c . c . ( 2008 ) . sea anemones ( cnidaria : anthozoa : actiniaria ) of moreton bay . in davie , p . j . f . & phillips , j . a . ( eds . ) , proceedings of the thirteenth international marine biological workshop , the marine fauna and flora of moreton bay , queensland . memoirs of the queensland museum \u2014 nature 54 ( 1 ) : 35\u201364 . brisbane . issn 0079 - 8835 .\nwe used an extended dataset of mitochondrial protein genes to reevaluate the phylogeny of cnidaria , paying attention to common biases in phylogenetic reconstructions resulting from insufficient taxon sampling and using more simplistic models of sequence evolution . our phylogenetic analyses suggest the grouping of octocorallia and medusozoa to the exclusion of hexacorallia , resulting in paraphyletic anthozoa . we also recovered the [ discomedusae + hydrozoa ] and [ coronatae + [ cubozoa + staurozoa ] ] relationships within medusozoa . it should be noted , however , that although our data provide little or no support for the clades anthozoa , acraspeda and scyphozoa , they are not rejected with statistically significant support in the maximum - likelihood framework . using the new mito - phylogenomic view , we reconstructed the evolution of several morphological characters in medusozoans . in particular , our phylogenetic hypothesis provided additional evidence for the \u201cpolyp first\u201d theory , where the ancestral cnidarian was a bilateral polyp - like organism , and that a radially symmetrical and vagile medusa evolved in the branch leading to medusozoa . our analyses support the view that the ancestor of cnidarians and bilaterians ( ureumetazoa ) possessed bilateral symmetry [\ncnidarian mitochondrial genomic data contain phylogenetic signal informative for understanding the evolutionary history of this phylum . mitogenome - based phylogenies , which reject the monophyly of anthozoa , provide further evidence for the polyp - first hypothesis . by rejecting the traditional acraspeda and scyphozoa hypotheses , these analyses suggest that the shared morphological characters in these groups are plesiomorphies , originated in the branch leading to medusozoa . the expansion of mitogenomic data along with improvements in phylogenetic inference methods and use of additional nuclear markers will further enhance our understanding of the phylogenetic relationships and character evolution within cnidaria .\nthe phylogenetic relationships within the anthozoa were re - evaluated based on 41 morphological characters and nuclear sequences of 18s ribosomal dna ( 29 anthozoans as ingroups and 3 hydrozoans as outgroups ) . the parsimony trees derived from the morphological data did not coincide closely with the molecular data , and the presence of several polytomies at some nodes of the trees resulted in ambiguities among the systematic relationships . on the other hand , the combined analysis using total evidence presents a more resolved and highly supported topology , as is indicated by higher bootstrap values and decay indices than either analysis alone . however , strict and semi - strict consensus trees derived from taxonomic congruence show a poorer resolution for the phylogeny of anthozoa . the trees constructed from the molecular data , using neighbor - joining and maximum - likelihood methods , are nearly congruent with the result from the total evidence . based on these results , anthozoa is divided into three subclasses : alcyonaria , zoantharia , and ceriantipatharia . the ceriantipatharia now includes only one order , ceriantharia , since the order antipatharia is more closely related to orders within the zoantharia . the alcyonaria is a monophyletic group , in which the order pennatulacea is basal , and orders alcyonacea and telestacea branch later . the order gorgonacea is divided into two suborders , holaxonia and scleraxonia . bellonela is more related to order stolonifera , forming a monophyletic group . in zoantharia , the order zoanthinaria is basal , and the remaining taxa are divided into two clades : one includes the order actiniaria and the other includes orders antipatharia , corallimorpharia , and scleractinia . the latter two orders form a monophyletic group . this study presents a different phylogeny of actiniarians from the earlier hypothesis of scleractinian ancestry .\nthe class anthozoa also includes many kinds of corals , including many reef - building species . reefs are formed by the calcareous skeletons of many generations of coral polyps . the polyps inhabit only the surface of the reefs . these reefs are among the most productive environments of the world , housing thousands of species of fish and invertebrates , not to mention plants and protists . like some anemones , many corals are inhabited by symbiotic algae called zooxanthellae . these photosynthetic algae are essential for those coral , which generally do not live at depths to which light does not penetrate .\nclass anthozoa is traditionally considered to have two or three subclasses . hyman ( 1940 ) divided the class into alcyonaria and zoantharia , based largely on polyp symmetry and tentacle form and number . wells and hill ( 1956 ) recognized a third subclass , ceriantipatharia ( listed also by dunn 1982 ) , based on similarity of the ceriantharian larval stage to the antipatharian polyp , on the very weak mesentery musculature in both groups , and on the insertion of new mesenterial couples only in the dorsal intermesenterial space of members of both orders . evidence from morphology ( hand 1966 ) , nematocysts ( hand 1966 , schmidt 1974 ) , and dna ( france et al . 1996 , song and won 1997 , berntson et al . 1999 ) does not support the monophyly of the ceriantharia and antipatharia . indeed , hand ( 1966 ) suggested division of anthozoa into four subclasses ( antipatharia , ceriantharia , zoantharia , and alcyonaria ) could be justified . while the most complete molecular data available ( berntson et al . 1999 ) do not support the monophyly of the ceriantharia and antipatharia , placement of the ceriantharia remains uncertain . the ceriantharia may merit subclass status but more data are necessary to determine its phylogenetic position ( berntson et al . 1999 ) .\nwe expanded the sampling of cnidarian mitochondrial genomes , particularly from medusozoa , to reevaluate phylogenetic relationships within cnidaria . our phylogenetic analyses based on a mitochogenomic dataset support many prior hypotheses , including monophyly of hexacorallia , octocorallia , medusozoa , cubozoa , staurozoa , hydrozoa , carybdeida , chirodropida , and hydroidolina , but reject the monophyly of anthozoa , indicating that the octocorallia + medusozoa relationship is not the result of sampling bias , as proposed earlier . further , our analyses contradict scyphozoa [ discomedusae + coronatae ] , acraspeda [ cubozoa + scyphozoa ] , as well as the hypothesis that staurozoa is the sister group to all the other medusozoans .\n: figure s5 ) suggests that compositional bias is also an unlikely explanation . the amino acid composition of hexacorallia is rather divergent , but not similar to those of the two outgroups ( porifera and placozoa ) ; in fact , the composition similarity between octocorallia and the outgroups would favor the alternative possibility of anthozoa paraphyly [ medusozoa + hexacorallia ] , which is not observed in our analyses . to further test the possible impact of compositional bias , we analyzed our alignments using the catgtr model with a dayhoff recoding strategy , despite the fact that it implies a loss of signal resulting in increasing the stochastic error . interestingly , octocorallia remained sister - group of medusozoa , even if the statistical support was reduced ( data not shown ) .\ncnidaria ( corals , sea anemones , hydroids , jellyfish ) is a phylum of relatively simple aquatic animals characterized by the presence of the cnidocyst : a cell containing a giant capsular organelle with an eversible tubule ( cnida ) . species within cnidaria have life cycles that involve one or both of the two distinct body forms , a typically benthic polyp , which may or may not be colonial , and a typically pelagic mostly solitary medusa . the currently accepted taxonomic scheme subdivides cnidaria into two main assemblages : anthozoa ( hexacorallia + octocorallia ) \u2013 cnidarians with a reproductive polyp and the absence of a medusa stage \u2013 and medusozoa ( cubozoa , hydrozoa , scyphozoa , staurozoa ) \u2013 cnidarians that usually possess a reproductive medusa stage . hypothesized relationships among these taxa greatly impact interpretations of cnidarian character evolution .\nanthozoans have two mainly related structures , the actinopharynx and the mesenteries , which are unique among cnidarian polyps . the actinopharynx , or stomodeum , is a tubular gullet extending all the way from mouth to the coelenteron . the actinopharynx of most species contains at least one siphonoglyph , flagellated longitudinal channel , that drives water into the coelenteron . most of corals and sea anemones have two siphonoglyphs situated directly opposite on one another in the actinopharynx . siphonoglyphs and their associated structures make the polyps bilateral or a biradial symmetry . [ 4 ] mesenteries , longitudinal sheets of tissue , increase surface area for respiration and especially for absorption of food , they also provide support . perhaps because mesenteries increase , some polyps of anthozoa can grow much larger than any other polyps in other class of cnidaria . [ 5 ]\nin 1913 carglren , who was probably the most active researcher on this order , said \u201camong the anthozoa ( \u2026 ) there is hardly a group which is so uniform in its morphological characteristics as the zoantharia \u2026\u201d [ 23 ] . nearly a hundred years later , despite numerous taxonomical investigations of the morphological characteristics of this order , carlgren ' s statement is still accurate . the sphincter position has been traditionally used to identify zoanthid genera , although lwowsky [ 24 ] illustrated the risks of misidentification using this character . this is exemplified in the parazoanthidae , in which recent taxonomic work casts doubts on the significance of the sphincter muscle position ( the main distinguishing feature of isozoanthus ) as a valid character [ 7 ] and recent studies based on morphology assigned various unrelated zoanthids to the genus isozoanthus [ 25 ] \u2013 [ 28 ] , none of which matched with the ecological characteristics of previously described isozoanthus species . similarly , swain [ 29 ] showed clearly that the sphincter position did not allow proper identification at the genus level and does not represent the evolutionary history of this group .\ncnidarians comprise four classes of toxic marine animals : anthozoa , cubozoa , scyphozoa and hydrozoa . they are the largest and probably the oldest phylum of toxic marine animals . any contact with a cnidarian , especially the box jellyfish ( chironex fleckeri ) , can be fatal , but most cnidarians do not possess sufficiently strong venomous apparatus to penetrate the human skin , whereas others rarely come into contact with human beings . only a small , almost negligible percentage of the vast wealth of cnidarian toxins has been studied in detail . many polypeptide cnidarian toxins are immunogenic , and cross - reactivity between several jellyfish venoms has been reported . cnidarians also possess components of innate immunity , and some of those components have been preserved in evolution . on the other hand , cnidarian toxins have already been used for the design of immunotoxins to treat cancer , whereas other cnidarian toxins can modulate the immune system in mammals , including man . this review will focus on a short overview of cnidarian toxins , on the innate immunity of cnidarians , and on the mode of action of cnidarian toxins which can modulate the immune system in mammals . emphasis is palced on those toxins which block voltage activated potassium channels in the cells of the immune system .\none of the most common groups of organisms on the reefs of florida and the greater caribbean is the zoanthids . in fact , some zoanthids ( anthozoa : hexacorallia ) are so common that a portion of the shallow intertidal zone has been called the \u201c zoanthus zone\u201d [ 7 ] . like many reef - building hard corals , most shallow tropical and subtropical zoanthids are in symbiosis with symbiodinium ( = zooxanthellae ) species , endosymbiotic , photosynthetic dinoflagellates . despite being an obvious and ubiquitous part of the caribbean coral reef ecosystem , the taxonomy and diversity of zoanthids worldwide are poorly understood , and even species identification remains problematic [ 8 \u2013 10 ] . however , recent research utilizing different mitochondrial and nuclear dna markers has allowed researchers to begin to reassess zoanthid species identification [ 9 , 10 ] . in this study , we apply these molecular methods to investigate the diversity of shallow water zoanthids in florida . phylogenetic species or species groups were then compared with original species descriptions in an attempt to formally identify specimens . our results ( 1 ) demonstrate the utility of molecular methods in zoanthid identification , ( 2 ) indicate that previously undescribed zoanthid diversity may be common in the caribbean sea despite overall diversity being likely lower than in the taxonomic literature , and ( 3 ) highlight the considerable taxonomic problems of shallow water brachycnemic zoanthids in the caribbean sea .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\ncambrian - age localities with soft - bodied organisms preserved also include some soft - bodied sea anemones and\nsea pens ,\nsuch as mackenzia and thaumaptilon from the burgess shale and xianguangia from the chengjiang biota of china . a few of the cambrian\nsmall shelly fossils\nare spicules \u0097 nearly microscopic , mineralized , needle - like pieces \u0097 that appear similar to the spicules of living octocorals ( bengtson et al . 1990 ) .\na few mineralized corals and coral - like organisms also appeared as early as the lower cambrian ( e . g . , sorauf and savarese 1995 ; tynan 1983 ) . a minor group of corals , the cothoniida , is known from the middle cambrian . however , it was not until the ordovician that mineralized corals became important parts of marine ecosystems . by the middle of the ordovician , several lineages of corals had become distinct : the tabulata , the rugosa , and the smaller heliolitida . the best - known rugose corals are the\nhorn corals ,\nsolitary polyps , usually with a conical or horn - like shape , that are abundant at many paleozoic localities ( such as the large middle devonian fossil heliophyllum pictured at the top of this page ) . however , all three groups of corals could and did form massive reefs . heliolitids went extinct in the late devonian , at the time of a mass extinction event that also impacted the rugosa and , to a lesser extent , the tabulata . however , these two groups soon recovered and flourished until the end of the permian .\nboth tabulate and rugose corals disappeared in the permo - triassic mass extinction about 245 million years ago . in the middle\n. the scleractinia do not appear to be close relatives of either the tabulata or the rugosa , and probably evolved from sea anemone - like ancestors that have not been preserved as fossils . like earlier corals , the scleractinians soon evolved massive colonial species that formed great reefs . the image above shows an early scleractinian reef , now a massive limestone layer preserved in dunlap canyon , nevada , near the town of mina . ( note the person standing on top for scale . ) colonial scleractinians have continued to dominate most tropical reef habitats since the triassic , while other scleractinians live as solitary polyps in a wide range of habitats .\nthe fossil record of octocorals is sparse . as mentioned , there are some cambrian fossils that indicate their presence . there are also a few paleozoic fossil\nsea pens\nand\nsea fans\n( e . g . , bengtson 1981 ; glinski 1956 ) . however , most of the known fossil octocorals are cretaceous and cenozoic in age ( e . g . , deflandre - rigauld 1956 ; kocurko 1993 ) . fossil octocorals may be more common than is usually suspected , but probably go unrecognized when found .\nbengtson , s . 1981 . atractosella , a silurian alcyonacean octocoral . journal of paleontology 55 : 281 - 294 .\nbengtson , s . , s . conway morris , b . j . cooper , p . a . jell , and b . n . runnegar . 1990 . early cambrian fossils from south australia . memoirs of the association of australasian palaeontologists 9 : 1 - 364 .\nbridge , d . , c . w . cunningham , b . schierwater , r . desalle , and l . w . buss . 1992 . class - level relationships in the phylum cnidaria : evidence from mitochondrial gene structure . proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the usa 89 : 8750 - 8753 .\nconway morris , s . 1993 . ediacaran - like fossils in cambrian burgess shale - type faunas of north america . palaeontology 36 : 593 - 635 .\ndeflandre - rigaud , m . 1956 . les scl\u00e8rites d ' alcyonaires fossiles . \u00e9l\u00e8ments d ' une classification . annales de pal\u00e8ontologie 42 ( 4 ) : 1 - 24 .\nglinski , a . 1956 . plumalina conservata n . sp . ( gorgonaria ) aus dem mittel - devon der eifel . senckenbergiana lethaea 37 : 53 - 57 .\njenkins , r . j . f . 1989 . the\nsupposed terminal precambrian extinction event\nin relation to the cnidaria . memoirs of the association of australasian palaeontologists 8 : 307 - 317 .\nkocurko , m . j . 1993 . eunicella sp . , octocorallia from the red bluff formation , lower oligocene , mississippi . tulane studies in geology and paleontology 26 : 35 - 40 .\nsorauf , j . e . , and m . savarese . 1995 . a lower cambrian coral from south australia . palaeontology 38 : 757 - 770 .\ntynan , m . g . 1983 . coral - like microfossils from the lower cambrian of california . journal of paleontology 57 : 1188 - 1211 .\ngreek , ippos = horse + greek , kampe = curvature ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; reef - associated ; non - migratory ; depth range 16 - 40 m ( ref . 30915 ) . tropical ; 3\u00b0n - 23\u00b0s\nindo - west pacific : japan to queensland , australia eastward to vanuatu . conservation status : data deficient ( ref . 30915 ) . international trade is monitored through a licensing system ( cites ii , since 5 . 15 . 04 ) .\nmaturity : l m 1 . 3 range ? - ? cm max length : 2 . 4 cm ot male / unsexed ; ( ref . 31803 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 13 - 15 . description based on 4 specimens : adult height , less than 2 . 0 cm . rings , 11 - 12 + 31 - 34 . snout length is greater than 4 . 0 in head length . dorsal fin rays , 13 - 15 covering 1 + 1 rings . pectoral fin rays , 10 . coronet , a rounded knob . spine , as irregular bulbous tubercles scattered over body and tail ; a single prominent rounded eye spine ; a single low rounded cheek spine . other distinctive characters : head and body very fleshy , mostly without recognizable body rings ; ventral portion of trunk segments incomplete ; snout extremely short . color pattern : two color morphs are known : ( a ) pale grey or purple with pink or red tubercles ( found on gorgonian coral muricella plectana ) and ( b ) yellow with orange tubercles ( found on gorgonian coral muricella paraplectana ) .\nonly known to occur on gorgonian corals of the genus muricella , with up to 28 pairs on a single gorgonian . the tubercles and truncated snout of this species match the color and shape of the polyps of the host gorgonian , while its body matches the gorgonian stem . so extreme is this camouflage that the original specimens were only noticed after their host gorgonian had been collected and observed in an aquarium . post - pelagic young settle on various hosts , but to breed , they appear to prefer the red polyp muricella spp . that usually grow in depths over 20 m ( ref . 48635 ) . ovoviviparous ( ref . 205 ) . the male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail ( ref . 205 ) .\npossibly monogamous in the wild ( ref . 30915 ) . male carries the eggs in a brood pouch ( ref . 205 ) .\nlourie , s . a . , a . c . j . vincent and h . j . hall , 1999 . seahorses : an identification guide to the world ' s species and their conservation . project seahorse , london . 214 p . ( ref . 30915 )\n) : 25 . 9 - 29 , mean 27 . 7 ( based on 134 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00427 ( 0 . 00164 - 0 . 01111 ) , b = 3 . 00 ( 2 . 78 - 3 . 22 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 4 \u00b10 . 5 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( fec = 34 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 10 of 100 ) .\nknowledge of scleractinian coral reproduction has expanded greatly over the past 10 years into one of most intensely studied aspects of coral biology . review by richmond and hunter ( 1990 ) provides overview of status of knowledge . reproductive data are now available for about 210 of approx . 600 spp . of reef corals . what is most impressive is the variety and versatility of coral reproduction ( according to region , varies even within same species ) and can be both sexual and asexual ( veron , 2000 ) . the individual coral polyp can be male , female , both or may not be reproductively active at all . if a polyp is just of one sex then it is termed gonochoric . a polyp that is both male and female is known as a hermaphrodite . egg and sperm production can occur on the same mesentery or on differentiated mesenteries in same polyp , in different polyps of same colony , or at different times in same colony ( i . e . sequential as well as simultaneous hermaphroditism ) .\n: corals are immobile organisms with separate sexes ( 25 % of all known species ; veron , 2000 ) . they rely on precise timing in order to bring their gametes together . species which spawn must release their gametes into the water simultaneously . this is done in response to environmental cues , sexual reproduction offers two opportunities for new genetic combinations to occur :\nb ) the genetic contribution of two different parents when an egg is fertilized by a sperm .\nto prevent self - fertilization , male and female gametes in hermaphroditic corals never mature at the same time .\nbroadcasters ( spawners ) : in hermatypic corals , spawners outnumber brooders ; about 75 % of all known coral species spawn positively buoyant gametes ( eggs and sperm ) at very specific times so as to ensure fertilization ( veron , 2000 ) . broadcasting is typical of corals in buttress and forereef zones of massive colonial forms with indeterminate growth ; broadcasters have high larval mortality but successful recruits can invade new environments with lower competition with surviving colonies that can live 100s of years . fertilization is external at the water surface . many coral species mass spawn ; i . e . within a 24 hour period , all the corals from one species and often within a genus release their eggs and sperm at the same time ; e . g . montastraea , montipora , platygra , galaxea , favia , and favites ( wallace , 1994 ) . intraspecies fertilization is common but mass spawning raises the possibility of hybridization by congeneric species ( wallace , 1994 - breaking with the dogma of species as a biological unit ) . the zygote develops into a larvae ( called planulae ) which attaches itself to a suitable substrate , metamorphoses to a founder polyp , and grows into a new colony . brooders : most ahermatypic corals are brooders as are hermatypes living in disturbed , nearshore reef zones . likewise , species in zones with high adult mortality , have high competition for spaces , and are exposed to intense bioerosion , require high rates of recruitment . in this strategy , sperm , but never eggs , are released into the water . brooding produces mature , often negatively buoyant planulae ready to settle ; ( e . g . favia fragum broods embryos for 3 weeks ; brooding also found in goniopora , diaseris , and agaricia ) . asexually brooded planulae larvae may be developed by a kind of budding ; i . e . internal fertilization , brooding of zygote , and release of a positively buoyant planulae . the larvae float to the top , sink back , settle , and metamorphose into a founder polyp , to become later on another colony . species of acropora release brooded larvae ( vivipary ) ."]}
{"id": 2570, "summary": [{"text": "mpanjaka elegans is a moth of the family of erebidae that is found in central madagascar .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the wings are white , speckled with black scales , particularly upon the basal third that is limited by a brown stripe .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "it wears a zig-zagged pale black post-median line .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the head is whity-brown and the palpi black .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the antennae are white , black speckles with brown pectinations .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the male of this species has a wingspan of 51 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "it was described by a specimen from ankafana , central madagascar . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "mpanjaka elegans", "paragraphs": ["have a fact about mpanjaka collenettei ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for mpanjaka collenettei ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a fact about mpanjaka betschi ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for mpanjaka betschi ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nthere are no reviews yet . be the first one to write a review .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nholotype \u2642 , mnhn ; neallotype \u2640 ( see collenette 1933b : 23 ) , bmnh .\nle cerf f . 1921 . descriptions de l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res nouveaux de madagascar . - bulletin du mus\u00e9um national d ' histoire naturelle 27 ( 6 ) : 419\u2013423 .\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .\nwe ' ve detected that javascript is disabled in your browser . would you like to proceed to legacy twitter ?\non our journey to digitise the collection of over 80 million objects and specimens .\nscientists are investigating whether a grey seal that was recently found in kent had ingested any plastics before it died . warning : this article contains images that some readers may find upsetting .\n2018 / july / searching - for - plastic - in - the - belly - of - a - seal . html ? utm _ source = tw - link - post - 20180706 - eo & utm _ medium = social & utm _ campaign = news\n# tbt may 2018 when i spent time @ sdnhm scanning fossil # whales & # dolphins including this parapontoporia sternbergi . what a job ! the sdnhm team were so helpful & gave up 3 days of their time to help me flip & scan larger skulls . # phdlife # sandiego # fossilfriday @ london _ nerc _ dtp urltoken\nthe date was chosen as it can be written as \u2018507\u2019 which , in nanometres , is the wavelength of the green in the rainbow flag , representing nature . in the us , it\u2019s \u2018705\u2019 - the wavelength of the red , representing life\ncelebrating inclusion and diversity in science this # lgbtstemday with a of lepidoptera ( moths and butterflies ) from the collection . urltoken\nthis # lgbtstemday , we\u2019re celebrating and saying a big thank you to all our scientists , curators , engineers and technicians who belong to # lgbtq + communities . diversity in science is vital , and we could not succeed without you . urltoken\nthanks to @ gbif we know that more than 90 scientific papers use data from the @ nhm _ london portal alongside data from global institutions . we are delighted to contribute to the global understanding of biodiversity . congratulations for reaching # gbif1billion ! urltoken\ncan you guess the species from the # 3dscan of its bill ? this weeks beak was chosen by @ sheardcat and # 3dscanned @ nhm _ tring / @ nhm _ london . best of luck folks ! @ sheffieldaps @ nhm _ digitise @ nhm _ citsci urltoken\nthis magpie ( abraxas grossulariata ) was found # otd 130 years ago . this pretty moth was a favourite with early collectors due to its variable pattern . the magpie has variable black and white patterned wings with an orange stripe . # taxonomytuesday urltoken\ncollection labels can accumulate over time as scientists add more and more information . ypthima batesii , a madagascan butterfly holds the record so far with 17 labels . find out how we digitised our madagascan lepidoptera type specimens in this blog :\nsummer exhibition\nnurturing nature ' s innovations\nnext week . come visit our stand :\ntwitter may be over capacity or experiencing a momentary hiccup . try again or visit twitter status for more information .\nyou can add location information to your tweets , such as your city or precise location , from the web and via third - party applications . you always have the option to delete your tweet location history . learn more\nhere ' s the url for this tweet . copy it to easily share with friends .\nby embedding twitter content in your website or app , you are agreeing to the twitter developer agreement and developer policy .\nnot on twitter ? sign up , tune into the things you care about , and get updates as they happen .\nthis timeline is where you\u2019ll spend most of your time , getting instant updates about what matters to you .\nhover over the profile pic and click the following button to unfollow any account .\nwhen you see a tweet you love , tap the heart \u2014 it lets the person who wrote it know you shared the love .\nthe fastest way to share someone else\u2019s tweet with your followers is with a retweet . tap the icon to send it instantly .\nadd your thoughts about any tweet with a reply . find a topic you\u2019re passionate about , and jump right in .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nfeltia herilis ( noctuidae ) 07 / 12 , dunn co . | moths of wisconsin | pinterest | moth"]}
{"id": 2571, "summary": [{"text": "polistes humilis is a species of wasp in the vespidae family that is found throughout australia and which has been introduced to northern new zealand .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "also known as the common paper wasp , this species can be identified by their long thin legs and banded yellow and black coloring .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "interestingly , this species has been known to re-utilize old nests .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "while the species does not exhibit morphological class differences , there are distinct behavioral differences between queens and workers .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "in addition , the species is eusocial and benefits from relatedness between individuals .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "this species of wasp is known for delivering a painful sting , especially when their nest is disturbed , a behavior that has been developed as a nest defense mechanism .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "while wasps are often viewed negatively , they play an important pollination role for many plants . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "polistes humilis", "paragraphs": ["in\npolistes humilis\nthere are distinct benefits to having larger nest sizes .\npolistes humilis\nis probably most known to humans by its painful sting .\nas a stinging wasp ,\npolistes humilis\nhas a very powerful defense mechanism .\npolistes humilis are a native wasp species , but other paper wasp species are introduced .\nthroughout the year , production of\npolistes humilis\nnests typically follow a distinctive cycle .\nhow can i put and write and define polistes humilis in a sentence and how is the word polistes humilis used in a sentence and examples ? \u7528polistes humilis\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528polistes humilis\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528polistes humilis\u9020\u53e5 , polistes humilis meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .\npolistes humilis and nest . image by donald hobern - some rights reserved . ( view image details )\npolistes humilis\nare observed to subsist on food brought back to the nest by worker wasps .\nwhile\npolistes humilis\nis very common now , competition for food could reduce its population in the future .\npolistes humilis\nalso has developed two defenses against disease : genetic diversity and the production of cuticular antimicrobial compounds .\ntwo polistes humilis , eggs and nest structure . image by donald hobern - some rights reserved . ( view image details )\npolistes humilis\nnests are often found in\nmodified habitats\nwhere there is a mix of human structures and vegetation .\nin southern australia ,\npolistes humilis\nappears to specialize in consuming lepidopteran larvae for protein as well as small spiders .\npolistes humilis\nhas to compete with other species for food , particularly the newly introduced , invasive species\nvespula germanica\n.\nas each queen selfishly wants to have as many offspring as possible , it is likely that oophagy occurs in\npolistes humilis\n.\n\n' polistes humilis\n' is a species of the vespidae family that can be found throughout australia and new zealand .\nassessment of prey overlap between a native ( polistes humilis ) and an introduced ( vespula germanica ) social wasp using morphology and phylogenetic analyses of 16s rdna .\nfor example , in the species\npolistes humilis\nthe queen displays a\ntail - wagging\nbehavior to assert her dominance over the worker class .\nassessment of prey overlap between a native ( polistes humilis ) and an introduced ( vespula germanica ) social wasp using morphology and phylogenetic . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nnesting biology of asian paper wasps polistes chinensis antennalis perez , and australian paper wasps p . humilis ( fab . ) ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) in northern new zealand\ndistribution and abundance of the asian paper wasp polistes chinensis antennalis p\u00e9rez and the australian paper wasp p . humilis ( fab . ) ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) in new zealand\nall mainland australian states . < em > polistes humilis < / em > introduced to south - west wa and new zealand . < em > polistes stigma < / em > widespread from india through se asia to new guinea and sw pacific .\nnesting biology of asian paper wasps polistes chinensis antennalis p\u00e9rez , and australian paper wasps p . humilis ( fab . ) ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) in northern new zealand\nin new zealand , we have two species of exotic paper wasps , polistes humilis which is native to australia and polistes chinensis antennalis which is native to asia . both species have been in new zealand for several decades and are now widespread but limited by climatic conditions .\nito , y . 1986 . spring behaviour of an australian paper wasp , polistes humilis synoecus : colony founding by haplometrosis and utilization of old nests . kontyu 54 : 191 - 202 .\ndistribution and abundance of the asian paper wasp polistes chinensis antennalis p\u00e9rez and the australian paper wasp p . humilis ( fab . ) ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) in new zealand | request pdf\nito , y . 1986 . spring behaviour of an australian paper wasp , polistes humilis synoecus : colony founding by haplometrosis and utilization of old nests . kontyu 54 : 191 - 202 .\nsince antimicrobial compounds in\npolistes humilis\nare found in the species ' venom and only females produce the sting venom , larger colonies with more males might have lower effectiveness of this mechanism .\nthe polistes ( polistella ) humilis synoecus saussure , 1853 is permitted - s11 for the whole of state and is not assigned to any control category for a local government area at this time .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 species of native wasps in australia , but the one that is most likely to be encountered around the melbourne suburbs \u2013 and most likely to become a pest \u2013 is the common paper wasp ( polistes humilis ) . there are 11 species of polistes found in australia , of which p . humilis is the most common . two subspecies have been identified : p . humilis humilis occurs in southern queensland , new south wales , victoria , south australia and new zealand , where it was accidentally introduced in the 1880s , while p . humilis synoecus is found in northern new south wales , queensland , the northern territory and western australia , where it was also an accidental introduction in about 1950 .\nsubstrata categories used for nesting by polistes versicolor in an antropic environment in southeast brazil .\npolistes chinensis antennalis ( asian paper wasp ) - general view of nest with adults present .\nsouthern australia , polistes humillis may also be beneficial to agriculture , and in the home garden .\npolistes chinensis antennalis ( asian paper wasp ) - close - up of an adult on nest .\np . humilis humilis - female wing length 10 - 15mm ; propodeum usually black , rarely with yellow stripes ; gaster unbanded , rarely with more than 1 yellow band ( occurs in s . qld rare ; nsw , vic , sa , new zealand )\ncolony productivity of the polistes sp . ( latreille ) in neotropical areas was already studied for different species , including p . versicolor ( gobbi and zuchi 1985 ; gobbi et al . 1993 ; ramos and diniz 1993 ) , polistes lanio lanio ( giannotti 1992 ) , polistes cinerascens , polistes canadensis ( giannotti 1997 ; santos and gobbi 1998 ) and polistes simillimus ( prezoto 2001 ) . these studies corroborated the michener ( 1964 ) paradox of an inverse relationship between the group size and per capita productivity .\nbody mostly brown or black with cream or yellow markings and stripes . two common species are < em > polistes humilis < / em > and < em > polistes stigma < / em > . the latter has dark spots at the tips of the wings . nests are disc - shaped and suspended by a short , central stalk .\ncomparative data of 37 nests ' productivity by polistes versicolor colected in an antropic environmet in southeast brazil .\ninformations on polistes chinensis antennalis has been recorded for the following locations . click on the name for additional informations .\ngiannotti e . notes on the biology of polistes ( epicnemius ) subsericeus saussure , 1854 ( hymenoptera , vespidae ) .\nthe asian paper wasp resembles the australian ( sometimes called the tasmanian ) paper wasp polistes tasmaniensis humilis , a black and red - brown wasp with yellowish legs ( facing page , below ) which has been part of the bush and garden scene of northern new zealand for over 100 years .\nhunt , j ( 1984 ) .\nadult nourishment during larval provisioning in a primitively eusocial wasp , polistes metricus say\n.\naspectos biol\u00f3gicos e etol\u00f3gicos da vespa social neotropical polistes ( aphanilopterus ) lanio lanio ( fabricius , 1775 ) ( hymenoptera , vespidae ) .\nasian paper wasps are of medium size ( larger than australian paper wasp ( polistes humilis ) ) and have a slender reddish - brown to black body with yellow rings and reddish areas on their abdomen . they have unusually long legs ( that are hanging down when they are flying ) and reddish to brown wings .\nclapperton , b . k . , and lo , p . l . 2000 . nesting biology of asian paper wasps polistes chinensis antennalis perez , and australian paper wasps p . humilis ( fab . ) ( hymenoptera : vesipade ) in northern new zealand . new zealand journal of zoology , 27 : 189 - 195 . urltoken\npolistes humilis is a slender wasp with long , thin , reddish to brown wings . there are distinctly black and reddish - brown bands of colouration on their slender bodies ( 10mm to 15mmin length ) . there are some yellow markings on the face . they have unusually long legs ( that hang down when they are flying ) .\nrecommended citation : global invasive species database ( 2018 ) species profile : polistes chinensis antennalis . downloaded from urltoken on 09 - 07 - 2018 .\ncumber , r . a . 1951 . some observations on the biology of the australian wasp , polistes humilis fabr . ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) in north auckland ( new zealand ) , with special reference to the nature of the worker caste . proceedings of the royal entomological society , london ( a ) 26 : 11 - 16 .\npolistes humilis ( common paper wasp ) is probably most known to humans by its painful sting . these stings often result from agitation of nest sites . polistes humilis nests are often found in\nmodified habitats\nwhere there is a mix of human structures and vegetation . since nests are typically found in walls , eaves of buildings , and fences , humans are particularly at risk of accidentally disturbing a nest site . however , while the sting is very painful , humans are not at risk of serious injury from the sting unless they are allergic . the best way to avoid a sting is to simply stay away from known nest sites if possible , as these wasps typically only sting as a defense mechanism .\nzara , fernando ; balestieri , jose ( 2000 ) .\nbehavioural catalogue of polistes versicolor olivier ( vespidae : polistinae ) post - emergent colonies\n.\n. . . more recently , genetic studies have overcome such deficiencies , particularly in the study of social insects where microsatellite markers have been deployed to determine colony relatedness , maternity of broods and levels of genetic variation ( queller and goodnight 1989 ; queller et al . 1993 ; peters et al . 1995 ) . here we examine polistes humilis , a paper wasp endemic to australia ( and invasive in new zealand : clapperton et al . 1996 ) which is distributed from southern queensland , through new south wales to victoria and west to south australia ( richards 1978 ) . in p . humilis , as in other polistes species , there is no observable morphological differentiation between reproductive and sterile castes ( reeve 1991 ) . . . .\npolistes chinensis is a polistine vespid wasp in the cosmopolitan genus polistes , and is commonly known as the asian , chinese or japanese paper wasp . it is found in east asia , in particular china and japan . the subspecies p . chinensis antennalis is an invasive species in new zealand , having arrived in 1979 .\n. . . the australian paper wasp , polistes humilis ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) has been in new zealand for more than a century ( thomson 1922 ) , while the asian paper wasp , p . chinensis antennalis established itself probably in the late 1970s ( clapperton et al . 1989 ) . both species are widespread through the northern half of the north island ( clapperton et al . 1996 ) . the southernmost record for p . humilis is from manawatu , while p . c . antennalis nests have been found in nelson since 1990 ( rees 1999 ) . . . .\nclapperton , b . k . , tilley , j . a . v . and pierce , r . j . 1996 . distribution and abundance of asian paper wasps polistes chinensis antennalis perez and australian paper wasps p . humilis ( fab . ) ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) in various habitats in new zealand . new zealand journal of zoology 23 : 19 - 25 urltoken\nwe provide the first description of the mating system , genetic structuring and dispersal in the australian paper wasp , polistes humilis . individuals were collected from 13 colonies that were within 700 m of each other at a location near sydney , australia . analysis of genotypic data from four microsatellite loci provided no evidence of males siring offspring in their natal colony and heterozygote excesses within most colonies suggest that this form of outbreeding is typical in p . humilis . the same data show that queens are singly mated and that the number of queens and therefore groups of full siblings increase with colony size . consequently , genetic variation also increases with colony size . the relationship between the number of queens and colony size in p . humilis may be indicative of a breakdown in dominance hierarchies in larger colonies or a defence against disease transmission .\nclapperton , b . k . , and lo , p . l . 2000 . nesting biology of asian paper wasps polistes chinensis antennalis perez , and australian paper wasps p . humilis ( fab . ) ( hymenoptera : vesipade ) in northern new zealand . new zealand journal of zoology , 27 : 189 - 195 . summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 15 august 2005 ]\nin an ideal world , humans would be able to leave wasps alone . wasps are actually beneficial for most homeowners , because they kill off garden pests and are very gentle when away from their hive . paper wasps ( polistes humilis ) feed their young by hunting the garden - killing insects that would otherwise harm your plants and enter your home , and they help pollinate the environment .\np . humilis synoecus - female wing length 9 . 5 - 13 . 5mm ; propodeum usually with longitudinal yellow stripes ; gaster with 2 or 3 yellow bands ( occurs in northern nsw , qld , nt , wa )\nlima et al . ( 2000 ) studied the substrata used by the social wasps in an area close to this study area , and they verified that the polistes species found nested preferably in human constructions ; finding nests in the vegetation was rare . butignol ( 1992 ) observed that the plants used as substratum by p . versicolor , in florian\u00f3polis , south of brazil , had perennial leaves , such as acacia podzarilifolia , fucreasea gigantea and acalipa wilkesianae . the use of plants as nesting substratum in anthropic environments was also observed by giannotti ( 1995 ) , who recorded nine polistes subsericeus colonies in a single pandanus veitichi ( pandanaceae ) plant . the author suggested that this plant offers a protected and criptic shelter for this species ' colonies . although the anthropic environment offers nesting resources , some species demonstrate preference for nesting in the natural environment , as observed by claperton ( 2000 ) for polistes humilis and polistes chinensis antennalis .\n. . . the southernmost record for p . humilis is from manawatu , while p . c . antennalis nests have been found in nelson since 1990 ( rees 1999 ) . there have been recent records from other sites in the south island ( clapperton et al . 1996 ) , but the ability of p . c . antennalis to maintain populations at the higher latitudes of the south island might be limited by climatic conditions , especially temperature ( miyano 1981 ) . although p . c . antennalis has not displaced p . humilis in any region of new zealand , anecdotal evidence suggests that p . humilis has become less common in recent years ( clapperton et al . 1996 ) . . . .\np . chinensis is a member of the cosmopolitan genus polistes , the largest genus in the family vespidae , with over 300 recognized species and subspecies . two subspecies are known :\nthe asian paper wasp ( polistes chinensis antennalis ) is native to areas of japan and china and is currently a widespread introduced species in new zealand . research on its impact on nativ\nsuzuki , t . 1978 . area , efficiency and time foraging in polistes chinensis antennalis perez ( hymenoptera , vespidae ) . japanese journal of ecology , 28 , 179 - 189 .\nclapperton , b . k . , tilley , j . a . v . and pierce , r . j . 1996 . distribution and abundance of asian paper wasps polistes chinensis antennalis perez and australian paper wasps p . humilis ( fab . ) ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) in various habitats in new zealand . new zealand journal of zoology 23 : 19 - 25 summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 15 august 2005 ]\npolistes can be distinguished from ropalidia by a number of characters , probably the easiest is in ropalidia the 2nd gastral segment is solidly fused and does not overlap the 3rd gastral segment - this gives the petiole a\nknob\nlike appearance ; in polistes the 2nd gastral segment clearly overlaps the 3rd segment and ther is no\nknob\nlike appearance to the gaster .\nkudo , k . 2000 . variable investments in nests and worker production by the foundresses of polistes chinensis ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) . journal of ethology , 18 , 37 - 41 .\nstrassmann , j . e . & meyer , d . c . ( 1983 ) . gerontocracy in the social wasp , polistes exclamans . animal behavior , 31 : 431 - 438 .\nasian paper wasp occur on shrubland , wetland and in urban areas . their nest is a delicate paper nests ( about the size of a pear ) is similar to those of australian paper wasp ( polistes humilis ) , and generally built in trees or bushes ( branches ) or on man - made structures . they feed on nectar and honeydew and prey on invertebrates . they are weak fliers with a maximum distance of less than 80m .\n. . . there have been recent records from other sites in the south island ( clapperton et al . 1996 ) , but the ability of p . c . antennalis to maintain populations at the higher latitudes of the south island might be limited by climatic conditions , especially temperature ( miyano 1981 ) . although p . c . antennalis has not displaced p . humilis in any region of new zealand , anecdotal evidence suggests that p . humilis has become less common in recent years ( clapperton et al . 1996 ) . for example , in a rural garden near whangarei , northland , p . humilis nests decreased from 25 % of the paper wasp population in 1992 to 14 % in 1993 and 5 % in 1994 ( bkc unpubl . . . .\nkudo , k . 2005 . effects of body mass on nest and brood development in the paper wasp , polistes chinensis ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) . sociobiology , 46 , 647 - 654 .\nrabb r . l . 1960 . biological studies of polistes in north carolina ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america . 53 : 111\u2013121 . find this article online\nrabb r . l . 1960 . biological studies of polistes in north carolina ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america . 53 : 111\ufffd121 . find this article online\ncumber , r . a . ( 1951 ) . some observations on the biology of the australia wasp polistes humilis fabr . ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) on north auckland ( new zeland ) with special reference to the nature of work caste . proceedings of the royal entomological society of london . series a , general entomology , 26 : 11 - 16 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1365 - 3032 . 1951 . tb00104 . x .\nkasuya , e . 1983 . social behaviour of early emerging males of a japanese paper wasp , polistes chinensis antennalis ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) . researches on population ecology 25 : 143 - 149 .\ndavid c . post , and robert l . jeanne , \u201cvenom as an interspecific sex pheromone , and species recognition by a cuticular pheromone in paper wasps ( polistes , hymenoptera : vespidae ) , \u201d\nrabb , r . l . & f . r . lawson , 1957 . some factors influencing the predation of polistes wasps on the tobacco hornworm . j . econ . entomol . 50 : 778\u2013784 .\nwest - eberhard , mary jane .\ndominance relations in polistes canadensis ( l . ) , a tropical social wasp .\nmonitore zoologico italiano 20 . 3 ( 1986 ) : 263 - 81 .\nrabb , r . l . & f . r . lawson , 1957 . some factors influencing the predation of polistes wasps on the tobacco hornworm . j . econ . entomol . 50 : 778\ufffd784 .\ngiannotti e . , & machado , v . l . l . ( 1999 ) . behavioral castes in the primitively eussocial wasp polistes lanio fabricius ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) . revista brasileira de entomologia , 43 : 185 - 190 .\ndymock , j . j . 2000 . risk assessment for establishment of polistine ( polistes spp . ) and vespine ( vespula spp . ) wasps on the three kings islands in the far north of new zealand . science for conservation 156 : 18 . urltoken\nsledge m . f . , boscaro , f . & turillazzi , s . ( 2001 ) . cuticular hydrocarbons and reproductive status in the social wasp polistes dominulus . behavioral ecology and sociobiology , 49 : 401\u2013409 . doi : 10 . 1007 / s002650000311 .\nvarious other insects are parasites or parasitoids of polistes , including flies ( e . g . , sarcophagidae ) , mantispids , and wasps in the families torymidae , mutillidae ( rarely ) , braconidae , and ichneumonidae ( e . g . latibulus argiolus ) . some more specialized groups are more intimately associated with polistes ; this includes strepsipterans in the family stylopidae ( genus xenos ) , wasps of the genus elasmus ( formerly placed in their own family ,\nelasmidae\n) , and wasps in the family trigonalidae .\nharris , a . , 2002 paper wasp heads south , in stowaway newsletter no . 2 october 2002 , landcare research , new zealand summary : records show that the asian paper wasp ( polistes chinensis antennalis ) is capable of surviving in southern new zealand .\ntoft , r . j . and harris , r . j . 2004 . short communication : can trapping control asian paper wasp ( polistes chinensis antennalis ) population ? new zealand . new zealand journal of ecology 28 ( 2 ) : 272 - 282 . urltoken\n. . . polistes versicolor is introduced to the ecologically sensitive and historic galapagos islands , where it competes with native vertebrate predators for insect prey ( causton et al 2006 ) . other examples of invasive paper wasps are polistes aurifer saussure throughout the hawaian islands ( carpenter 2008 ) and polistes chinensis antennalis p\u00e9rez in new zealand ( clapperton et al . 1996 ) . mitigation of social wasp numbers and pest status can sometimes be achieved with poison baits ( chang 1988 ; hanna et al . 2012 ) or lures for traps that are based on food materials ( dvorak & landolt 2006 ; ross et al . 1984 ; silveira et al . 2005 ; spurr 1995 spurr , 1996 ) or chemical attractants ( davis et al . 1969davis et al . , 1973 landolt 1998 ) . . . .\npaper wasps have a small head , with medium sized eyes and medium length antennae . the body is slender , with a very narrow waist . there are two pairs of brown - tinted wings , with the first pair larger . the abdomen has some yellow / orange bands , but is mainly black . recently , the introduced asian paper wasp ( polistes chinensis ) has been reported from several inner city suburbs of sydney . this closely related species is larger than the native polistes and tends to have more distinctive yellow and brown bands .\nclapperton , b . k . and dymock , j . j . 1997 . growth and survival of colonies of the asian paper wasp , polistes chinensis antennalis ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) , in new zealand . new zealand journal of zoology 24 : 9 - 15 . urltoken\nkasuya , e . , hibino , y . , and ito , y . 1980 . on \u201cintercolonial\u201d cannibalism in japanese paper wasps , polistes chinensis antennalis p\u00e9rez and p . jadwigale dalla torre ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) . researches on population ecology 22 : 255 - 262 .\nr\u00f6seler , p . f . , r\u00f6seler , i . & strambi , a . ( 1985 ) . role of ovaries and ecdysteroids in dominance hierarchy establishment among foundresses of the primitively social wasp , polistes gallicus . behavioral ecology and sociobiology , 18 : 9 - 13 .\nkasuya , e . , hibino , y . , and ito , y . 1980 . on \ufffdintercolonial\ufffd cannibalism in japanese paper wasps , polistes chinensis antennalis p\ufffdrez and p . jadwigale dalla torre ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) . researches on population ecology 22 : 255 - 262 .\naustralian paper wasps are smaller in size than the asian paper wasp ( polistes chinensis antennalis ) and can have a distinct black and reddish - brown coloration of their slender body . they have unusually long legs ( that are hanging down when they are flying ) and reddish to brown wings .\naustralian paper wasp occur on shrubland , wetland and in urban areas . their nest is a delicate paper nests ( similar to asian paper wasp ( polistes chinensis antennalis ) and attached by a short stalk to trees or man - made structures . they feed on nectar and honeydew and prey on invertebrates .\npolistes humilis is the only species of the tribe polistini found in new zealand after it was accidentally introduced from australia in the 1880s . this social species of wasp is largely confined to the northisland north of tauranga and west of te kuiti . it is usually found in shrubland and swamps . in new zealand , it is classed as an unwanted organism because it is in competition with honeybees and native bird species over nectar and honeydew . the adults will also eat fruit . their larvae can be beneficial as they feed on some pest caterpillars provided by the adults . if a caterpillar is too large to carry the wasp will cut the body up with her sharp mouthparts and carry it back to the larvae in bits .\ndymock , j . j . 2000 . risk assessment for establishment of polistine ( polistes spp . ) and vespine ( vespula spp . ) wasps on the three kings islands in the far north of new zealand . science for conservation 156 : 18 . summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 15 february 2008 ]\ntoft , r . j . and harris , r . j . 2004 . short communication : can trapping control asian paper wasp ( polistes chinensis antennalis ) population ? new zealand . new zealand journal of ecology 28 ( 2 ) : 272 - 282 . summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 25 january 2008 ]\nclapperton , b . k . and dymock , j . j . 1997 . growth and survival of colonies of the asian paper wasp , polistes chinensis antennalis ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) , in new zealand . new zealand journal of zoology 24 : 9 - 15 . summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 15 august 2005 ]\nthe asian paper wasp ( polistes chinensis antennalis ) is native to areas of japan and china and is currently a widespread introduced species in new zealand . research on its impact on native fauna is lacking but as it consumes insects it may potentially threaten native invertebrate species . it may also compete with native fauna for invertebrate and nectar resources .\nthey built a 10cm to 12cm diameter nest with multiple hexagonal cells out of a grey papery material made from chewed up wood fibre and saliva . the cone - shaped nest hangs by a single attachment point with a short stalk . this is attached to shrubs or man - made structures . an egg laid in each cell which hatches into a grub - like larva which is feed by the adults . after a period the cells are sealed and the larvae are left to pupate inside . most of the adult paper wasps die in winter , with a few hibernating to start new colonies . a polistes humilis nest . they are usually built them high in a tree . this nest is in a coastal tree ' karo ' ( pittosporum crassifolium ) . thanks to wikipedia for text and information : urltoken\nthis study ' s results demonstrate that p . versicolor nesting behavior is very similar to that described for other polistes species . in an anthropic environment , p . versicolor exhibited a preference for artificial substrata for nesting , which probably provides larger longevity for the nests due to protection from the stress of weather . in this type of environment , usually a group of females found their nests in different climatic situations , which results in production of colonies of various sizes and also causes a different productivity among them . although these results enlarge knowledge on the p . versicolor foundation pattern in anthropic environments , there are many subjects needing further study mainly to increase knowledge about nesting behavior of other neotropical polistes species .\ndapporto , l . , sledge , f . m . & turillazzi , s . ( 2005 ) . dynamics of cuticular chemical profiles of polistes dominulus workers in orphaned nests ( hymenoptera , vespidae ) . journal of insect physiology , 51 : 969 - 973 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . jinsphys . 2005 . 04 . 011 .\n. . . this suggests that it has not yet reached its maximum distribution . a survey conducted in northern north island in the 1990s indicated that p . chinensis was more abundant than p . humilis in most habitat types ( clapperton et al . 1996 ) . although it was less common in dense forests , p . chinensis was frequently found in flax and salt meadows , manuka / kanuka forests and low scrub , as well as urban habitats . . . .\ngobbi , n . , noll , f . b . & penna , m . a . h . ( 2006 ) . \u201cwinter\u201d aggregations , colony cycle , and seasonal phenotypic change in the paper wasp polistes versicolor in subtropical brazil . naturwissenschaften , 93 : 487 - 494 . doi : 10 . 1007 / s00114 - 006 - 0140 - z .\ntannure - nascimento , i . c . , nascimento , f . s . & zucchi , r . ( 2005 ) . size and colony cycle in polistes satan , a neotropical paper wasp ( hymenoptera , vespidae ) . ethology , ecology and evolution , 17 : 105 - 119 . doi : 10 . 1080 / 08927014 . 2005 . 9522601 .\ndapporto , l . , lambardi , d . & turillazzi , s . ( 2008 ) . not only cuticular lipids : first evidence of differences between foundresses and their daughters in polar substances in the paper wasp polistes dominulus . journal of insect physiology , 54 : 89 - 95 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . jinsphys . 2007 . 08 . 005 .\nthe neotropical social wasp , polistes versicolor ( olivier ) ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) , possesses nests consisting of a single comb fixed to the substratum by a peduncle ( richards 1978 ) . the simple arrangement of suspended cells seems to protect the colony from ant attacks , which constitute the largest predatory pressure for social wasps ( jeanne 1975 , 1980 ; post and jeanne 1985 ) .\nbetween 1987 and 1991 , nearly 1500 samples of wasps were collected by the public after two national publicity campaigns . the asian paper wasp ( polistes chinensis antennalis ) arrived in 1979 and by 1990 was widespread throughout the upper north island and present as far south as lower hutt and nelson . it had also reached various islands near the coast of northland and auckland . p . c . antennalis populations increased the most between 1987 and 1990 in the central north island . the australian paper wasp ( p . humilis ) arrived in the 1880s and its distribution did not change between 1987 and 1991 . it was still restricted to the upper north island , apart from one record from manawatu . it had not been displaced by p . c . antennalis . most paper wasps were collected from urban habitats . a survey of natural habitats in northland showed that p . c . antennalis also reached high population densities in open warm shrublands , flax swamps , and salt meadows . paper wasps were rarely collected at altitudes above 100 m a . s . l . p . c . antennalis appeared in the samples earlier in the season than p . humilis , and both were most abundant during march and april . high populations of p . c . antennalis have increased the danger of stings to people by paper wasps , the predation of indigenous invertebrates , and also the beneficial reduction of lepidopteran pests in gardens .\npolistine and vespine wasps were captured in malaise traps in two fire - modified shrubland habitats of varying canopy height and composition at lake ohia , northland , new zealand . prey consumption rates were calculated for the asian paper wasp ( polistes chinensis antennalis ) occupying these two areas of shrubland and a home garden in whangarei , northland . the sites were systematically searched . . . [ show full abstract ]\nsexual discrimination may also occur after pupation . an unusual way to funnel colony resources into females has been observed in the social wasp polistes dominulus , where workers forcibly \u2018stuff\u2019 young males head - first into empty nest - cells when foragers return to the colony ( starks & poe , 1997 ) . \u2018stuffed\u2019 males are temporarily unable to feed , which seems to ensure that food is preferentially distributed to larvae .\n. . . the australian p . humilis , is thought to have been introduced in new zealand in the 1880s . it occurs mostly in warmer regions of the upper north island , with few records from other parts of the north island ( clapperton et al . 1996 ) . by contrast , the east asian p . chinensis , which was detected in 1979 near auckland , has spread rapidly across much of the north island and , since the 1990s , has colonized several locations in the south island ( clapperton et al . 1996 ) . . . .\npaper wasps are distinguished from vespulid wasps by their body shape . they have slender 13mm to 25mm reddish brown to black bodies with yellow rings and reddish areas on abdomen . their wings are reddish or amber brown and they have long legs that especially noticeable in flight when they hang down . please see padil ( pests and diseases image library ) wasps : asian paper wasp polistes chinensis antennalis perez for high quality diagnostic and overview images .\nhunt , j . h . , mutti , n . s . , havukainen , h . henshaw , m . t . & amdam , g . v . ( 2011 ) . development of an rna interference tool , characterization of its target , and an ecological test of caste differentiation in the eusocial wasp polistes . plos one 6 ( 11 ) : e26641 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0026641 .\npolistes versicolor colony contruction pattern in an anthropic environment , juiz de fora , minas gerais state , southeastern brazil . a = place inspection for foundation , b = oviposition behavior in the first cell , c = first cell with circular format and egg , d = construction behavior by the female in the solitary foundation , e = hexagonal format of cells in the solitary foundation , and f = foundress association . high quality figures are available online .\nso when the asian paper wasp , polistes chinensis ( right ) arrived in new zealand in the late 1970s wearing the same black - and - yellow livery as its european relatives the german and common wasps , it boded no good for either people or other insects . and so it proved : the new arrival settled quickly into the suburbs of auckland , and is now responsible for the majority of wasp stings there that result in visits to the doctor .\npaper wasps are distinguished from vespulid wasps by their body shape . they have slender 13mm to 25mm reddish brown to black bodies with yellow rings and reddish areas on abdomen . their wings are reddish or amber brown and they have long legs that especially noticeable in flight when they hang down . please see padil ( pests and diseases image library ) wasps : asian paper wasp \\ r \\ n polistes chinensis antennalis perez for high quality diagnostic and overview images .\nbonavita - cougourdan , a . , theraulaz , g . , bagn\u00e8res , a . g . , roux , m . , pratte , m . , provost , e . & cl\u00e9ment , j . l . ( 1991 ) . cuticular hydrocarbons , social organization and ovarian development in a polistine wasp : polistes dominulus christ . comparative biochemistry and physiology , 100 : 667\u2013680 . doi : 10 . 1016 / 0305 - 0491 ( 91 ) 90272 - f .\nin temperate climates , female paper wasps typically initiate new colonies in the spring . several nest - founding tactics have been documented in polistes species , including solitary nest initiation , joining a cooperative association , usurping an existing nest , or adopting an abandoned nest . occasionally , exceptionally large groups of females have also been found reusing nests from the previous season . here we report this phenomenon in introduced populations of the eurasian species polistes dominulus . we describe in detail the demographic and genetic characteristics of one such spring colony from los angeles , california , usa , which was collected with 84 associated adults and all stages of developing brood in its 613 cells . genetic and morphological data indicate the presence of multiple reproductively active females of varying relatedness , as well as many nonbreeding females , including probable early - produced offspring . despite some evidence of chaotic social conditions , the colony appeared to have been highly productive . additional observations of similar colonies are needed to determine how control is maintained within such a large breeding aggregation .\nonce male reproductives emerge and both males and females disperse from the natal nest for mating flights , the so - called intermediate phase begins . brood care and foraging behavior decline and worker numbers drop as dying individuals are no longer replaced by new ones . intracolonial aggression increases and the social cohesion of the nest declines . in temperate polistes species , individuals ( almost exclusively inseminated females ) gather in groups of up to 50 individuals and seek a sheltered location ( called a hibernaculum ) in which to overwinter .\nthe p . versicolor unproductive cells were concentrated on periphery of the comb , which was also noted for p . canadensis ( santos and gobbi 1998 ) and p . simillimus ( prezoto 2001 ) , and the cells with the largest number of utilizations were located in close proximity to the peduncle and in the central nest area , that are the oldest part of the comb . this disposition can work as a strategy against the predatory pressure , parasitism and reproductive conflicts , all mentioned by gobbi et al . ( 1993 ) as factors that impose limits on the number of cells built in polistes nests .\na large number of polistes species use human constructions as nesting substratum ( fowler 1983 ; butignol 1992 ; giannotti and mansur 1993 ) ; although they can also use natural environment , such as plants and termite colonies ( makino 1985 ; henriques et al . 1992 ; claperton 2000 ; sinzato and prezoto 2000 ) . the results of this study demonstrated the p . versicolor synantropism in relation to the constructions with little human interference , which is a behavior already described for the species ( butignol 1992 ; sinzato and prezoto 2000 ) , as well as for p . lanio ( giannotti 1992 ) and p . simillimus ( prezoto 2001 ) .\nthe high failure number ( 90 . 06 % ) of the colonies founded by a single female p . versicolor in the present study occurred mainly because the foundress abandoned the nest during the initial colony establishment phase , before the larvae appeared . this same phenomenon was described by tannure and nascimento ( 1999 ) for the same species . it is believed that this behavior is associated with the fact that the wasps migrate in search of association with other foundresses . other factors as foundress death or disappearance and dominance disputes also promote colony failure in polistes species ( reeve 1991 ; giannotti and mansur 1993 ; tannure and nascimento 1999 ; prezoto 2001 ) .\n. . . such comparison provides direct evidence of what factors would affect invasive population structures in relation to the factors above mentioned and will help our deeper understanding of invasion mechanisms . the paper wasp , polistes chinensis antennalis , was accidentally introduced to new zealand by long distant dispersal across the hemispheres , was first detected in 1979 ( clapperton et al . 1996 ) around the whangaparaoa peninsula near the city of auckland and became a threat against human outdoor activity due to its sting ( beggs et al . 2011 ) . the species subsequently expanded its distribution range to include almost all of north island and the northern half of south island . . . .\nworkers police each other ' s eggs . 88 . 5 % of queens eggs survive to hatching vs 1 . 4 % of worker\u2019s . worker reproduction is frequent in queen - right colonies in which the queen is alive . both queen and workers replaced workers eggs . p . chinensis was studied alongside polistes snelleni for comparison in this conflict . in p . snelleni , queens monopolize egg production . queens contributed 2 . 4 times more to replacing than workers . workers sequentially perform oophagy and oviposition in the same cells . the ratio of worker - produced eggs to eggs laid by the queen is 3 or 4 times to one in a colony having between 100 and 500 wasps .\nthere are two options for advancing a biocontrol programme for paper wasps in new zealand . the fi rst would involve conducting surveys in the native ranges of the two species to identify their natural enemies and any prospective biocontrol agents . the second , cheaper approach would be to consider the natural enemies already known to have a major impact on other polistes species and whether they might be suitable for new zealand . the advantage of using less specific agents is that any new species of paper wasps that manage to invade new zealand in the future might also be suppressed early on . fortunately , because our native hymenoptera are not closely related to the introduced paper wasps , it is unlikely that any potential biocontrol agents would pose a threat to them .\nstudies accomplished at other places in brazil describe foundress association as a foundation type commonly observed for p . versicolor ( it\u00f4 1985 ; butignol 1992 ; giannotti and mansur 1993 ; ramos and diniz 1993 ; tannure and nascimento 1999 ; sinzato and prezoto 2000 ) . females association is also a common strategy in other neotropical species such as polistes ferreri ( tannure and nascimento 1999 ) , p . canadensis ( it\u00f4 1985 ) and p . lanio ( giannotti 1992 ) . however , prezoto ( 2001 ) observed that the foundation by a single female constitutes 56 . 3 % of p . simillimus foundations , with success of 37 . 09 % of them . in spite of that , the author observed that , even being the smallest part of the total foundations , the foundress association was responsible for the largest number of successful colonies in p . simillimus .\nduring nest foundation the solitary nesting females typically construct and oviposit in combs with from 20 to 30 cells ( west - eberhard 1969 ) . a polistes foundress has at least two reproductive options besides solitary nest founding . she can join conspecific females in another nest or attempt to take over a nest initiated by a conspecific female ( reeve 1991 ) . this behavior creates a series of advantages to the new nests , as productivity can increase and consequently , colony success can increase , offspring survival can improve in the case of dominant female death , as well as providing a more effective defense against natural enemies ( west - eberhard 1969 ; it\u00f4 1985 ; butignol 1992 ; giannotti and mansur 1993 ; tannure and nascimento 1999 ; sinzato and prezoto 2000 ; tibbetts and reeve 2003 ) . during the colony ' s foundation ( i . e . prior to eclosion of new adults ) , aggressive interactions happen among the nestmates , many times involving intense fights ( west - eberhard 1969 ; gamboa and dropkin 1979 ; strasmmann 1989 ) .\na fundamental feature in the evolution of social insects is the separation of castes , and the presence of wide differentiation between castes indicates a more advanced degree of sociability . in this study , we evaluated factors that indicate the reproductive status of females in colonies of the social wasp polistes versicolor . the reproductive status of each female was examined by measuring nine morphometric characters , by the cuticular chemical profile , insemination and by her relative age . we conclude that in p . versicolor colonies there are 3 female groups that show cuticular chemical profile difference . the first group belong to females with ovarioles filamentous , typical of workers ; the second is females with ovarioles intermediates ; and the third is a group of queens , which are older females , inseminated and with greater degree of ovarian development found among all females . on the other hand , there was no significant morphological differences between these female groups . therefore , although no significant morphological differences among females there are other factors such as the cuticular chemical composition that is an indicative of reproductive physiological condition of female in the colony .\nwalker , k . 2007 . asian paper wasp ( polistes chinensis antennalis ) pest and diseases image library summary : padil ( pests and diseases image library ) is a commonwealth government initiative , developed and built by museum victoria s online publishing team , with support provided by daff ( department of agriculture , fisheries and forestry ) and pha ( plant health australia ) , a non - profit public company . project partners also include museum victoria , the western australian department of agriculture and the queensland university of technology . the aim of the project is : 1 ) production of high quality images showing primarily exotic targeted organisms of plant health concern to australia . 2 ) assist with plant health diagnostics in all areas , from initial to high level . 3 ) capacity building for diagnostics in plant health , including linkage developments between training and research organisations . 4 ) create and use educational tools for training undergraduates / postgraduates . 5 ) engender public awareness about plant health concerns in australia . padil is available from : urltoken this page is available from : urltoken [ accessed 10 november 2007 ]\nthis site requires the use of cookies to function . it also uses cookies for the purposes of performance measurement . please see our privacy policy .\ncommon paper wasps are social insects , that are common around the outside of homes and in gardens . these slender wasps have long thin wings and are tan with darker bands and some yellow markings on the face . their paper nests are often seen hanging by a short stalk from eaves , pergola or shrubbery . although they can be pests because of their readiness to sting , paper wasps can also be beneficial in that they are predators of some pest caterpillars .\nadult paper wasps feed on nectar . larvae feed on caterpillars provided by the adults .\npaper wasps are social wasps forming small colonies of 12 to 20 individuals . they built a nest out of grey papery material made from chewed up wood fibre and saliva . nests are often located under eaves , pergolas or in shrubs . the nest is cone - shaped , becoming rounder as more cells are added . the nest has a maximum diameter of 10cm to 12cm with numerous hexagonal cells visible underneath , some of the cells having white caps . an egg laid in each cell which hatches into a grub like larva . the adults feed the larvae on chewed - up caterpillars caught by the adults . the cells are then capped and the larvae pupate inside . most of the adult paper wasps die in winter , with a few hibernating to start new colonies .\npaper wasps are found across southern mainland australia including southern queensland , new south wales , victoria , south australia and southern western australia .\npaper wasps will readily attack and sting anyone approaching or disturbing their nest . they have a painful sting and will attack any person approaching or disturbing their nest . nests in high traffic areas should be sprayed at night ( when the wasps are at rest on the nest ) with appropriate insecticide . nests that are out of reach are not a problem and can be left alone . generally applying a cold pack to the sting is enough , but seek medical attention if symptoms become more severe or victim has known allergy to stings . .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nrichards , o . w . 1978 ,\nthe australian social wasps ( hymenoptera : vespidae )\n, australian journal of zoology supplementary series , vol . 61 , pp . 1 - 132\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 465be0e3 - 9e2f - 4883 - beba - cd9cfdb3c80f\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : b058ca7e - 53da - 4927 - a0b5 - 5b8b5f217780\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : e27d813a - 0e26 - 45c5 - 9396 - 687d368a2c37\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 456815\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nthe common paper wasp is about 10 - 15mm in length ( slightly longer than a honey bee ) , with a slender body , a very narrow waist , a pointed abdomen and long thin legs and wings . the body has brown , black and yellow bands . in melbourne , common paper wasps are common around the outside of homes and in gardens , and are often mistaken for european wasps ."]}
{"id": 2572, "summary": [{"text": "the lesser prairie chicken ( tympanuchus pallidicinctus ) , a species in the grouse family , is slightly smaller and paler than its near relative the greater prairie chicken .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "about half of its current population lives in western kansas , with the other half in the sandhills and prairies of western oklahoma , the texas panhandle including the llano estacado , eastern new mexico , and southeastern colorado .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "like its larger relative , it is known for its lekking behavior .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "considered \" vulnerable \" by the iucn due to its restricted and patchy range , it is vulnerable to habitat destruction .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "there is evidence suggesting that global warming may have a particularly detrimental influence by greatly reducing the size of the sagebrush ecosystem .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "subfossil remains are known , e.g. , from rocky arroyo in the guadalupe mountains , outside the species ' current range but where more habitat existed in the less humid conditions in the outgoing last ice age .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "range contraction apparently took place no later than about 8000 bc .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the united states department of the interior has proposed creating a lesser prairie chicken preserve as a national monument , but it remains controversial , and president barack obama has not taken action on the proposal under the antiquities act of 1906 as of february 2010 .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "on march 27 , 2014 , the lesser prairie chicken was listed as threatened ( t ) under the endangered species act .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "in 2015 , senator jerry moran ( r-kan ) introduced an amendment to legislation authorizing construction of the keystone xl pipeline that would overturn the listing .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "he disputed the listing as , \" ... another example of unnecessary intrusion into private lives and businesses by the federal government . \u201d his action as supported by the american energy alliance , and opposed by the league of conservation voters .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "when the senate voted on the keystone bill , it did not get the 60 votes in favor that was required to pass .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "it got only 53 republican and 1 democratic senator to vote in favor . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "lesser prairie chicken", "paragraphs": ["the purchase of 30 , 000 acres of lesser prairie chicken habitat in kansas .\nnrcs\u2019 prairie chicken efforts are part of working lands for wildlife ( wlfw ) , through which nrcs provides technical and financial assistance to help ranchers restore and protect habitat for prairie chicken . visit nrcs\u2019 lesser prairie - chicken webpage to learn more .\nthe species - protection battle over the lesser prairie chicken has raged for over 20 years . as part of a\nwoodward\u2019s lesser prairie chicken festival wraps nature , wildlife , geography and conservation into a compelling package of eco - adventuring .\nthis march 2007 photo provided by the texas parks and wildlife department shows a male lesser prairie chicken in a mating stature in the texas panhandle . the obama administration has placed the lesser prairie . . . more\nwashington \u2013 - the fight over the keystone xl pipeline is about to become a fight over the lesser prairie chicken as well .\nthe western association of fish and wildlife agencies , which oversees the lesser prairie - chicken range - wide conservation plan , said in its second annual report to the u . s . fish and wildlife service that the lesser prairie chicken had another successful year in 2015 .\nthe surveys will be conducted by helicopter in locations chosen randomly within lesser prairie chicken range , which is part of the methodology strategy .\nhicken is because it ' s smaller and pastier than the greater prairie - chicken .\na smaller , paler version of the greater prairie - chicken , the lesser prairie - chicken is now found only in restricted areas of five states in the southern great plains . it inhabits open rangeland dominated by shinnery oak or sand sagebrush .\nproducers in kansas , oklahoma , new mexico , texas and colorado are helping the lesser prairie - chicken rebound by voluntarily conserving habitat on their land .\na male lesser prairie chicken in the texas panhandle . the bird ' s entire habitat includes parts of colorado , kansas , new mexico , oklahoma and texas .\nfederal plan to save prairie chickens ruffles state feathers the federal government just listed the lesser prairie chicken as a threatened species , but states are pushing back hard , saying that restrictions could negatively impact a number of industries .\nsee and hear the quickly vanishing lesser prairie chicken displaying on its booming and gobbling grounds at the annual lesser prairie chicken festival in woodward . a popular birding event in the state of oklahoma , visitors to this festival are invited to come share and experience the natural heritage of the high plains of northwest oklahoma with activities that include prairie dog , turkey and owl viewing , as well as geocaching , star gazing and nature workshops .\na male lesser prairie chicken in the texas panhandle . the bird ' s entire habitat includes parts of colorado , kansas , new mexico , oklahoma and texas . jon mcroberts / ap hide caption\nthe fish and wildlife service has been threatening to step in and protect the lesser prairie chicken for years , a sour prospect for farmers and ranchers , who own almost all the bird ' s habitat .\nother species of birds that may be spotted besides the popular lesser prairie chicken include the snowy plover , burrowing owl , prairie falcon , least tern , roadrunner , chestnut - collared longspur , scissor - tailed flycatcher , canyon wren , rock wren , indigo bunting , lark sparrow and more . whether enjoying a birding trek in the early morning , or setting out on a nighttime owl prowl , the lesser prairie chicken festival is a bird - lover ' s paradise .\nthis undated file photo provided by u . s . fish and wildlife service shows a male lesser prairie chicken in southeastern new mexico . ( u . s . fish and wildlife service via ap , file )\nasked how many takes it took him to get \u201clesser prairie chicken\u201d out , duffy just laughs . \u201conce , in the old dallas , we had the phrase , \u2018well , daddy , i think the whole herd\u2019s got screwworm . \u2019 and \u2018screwworm\u2019 did not come out of larry\u2019s and my mouth for about an hour . it\u2019s one of those phrases . \u2018lesser prairie chicken\u2019 is one of those phrases , \u201d he says .\nrecently the five range states , wafwa , federal and state agencies and organizations working on lesser prairie - chicken conservation met in edmond , oklahoma , to share information on current chicken conservation efforts and identify new strategies for working together . you can read wafwa ' s piece on the edmond meeting\nthough it has achieved a complete legal victory , the petroleum association and the other businesses , landowners , and developers that have partnered with the states on the lesser prairie chicken initiative council have many challenges ahead of them . when announcing that it had finalized the chicken ' s delisting , fws\nsen . jerry moran ( r - kansas ) is seeking to attach an amendment to legislation authorizing construction of the pipeline that would throw out federal protections for the lesser prairie chicken , a bird native to midwestern prairies .\na month after senior u . s . district judge robert junell upheld his september 2015 ruling overturning the listing of the lesser prairie chicken as \u201cthreatened , \u201d a second - year update offered good news on the species .\n\u201cthose industry participants within the rwp are demonstrating they can be both economically viable and conserve the lesser prairie chicken even with the downturn in oil prices , which extends to other energy - related industries , \u201d he said .\nthe lesser prairie - chicken is a nationally identified target species of the working lands for wildlife ( wlfw ) partnership , a collaborative approach to conserve habitat while keeping working lands working . from 2010 to 2015 , the lesser prairie - chicken initiative ( part of the wlfw family ) enabled producers to conserve more than 1 million acres of prime habitat . from 2016 to 2018 , nrcs aims to conserve 500 , 000 additional acres . read our fy2016 - 2018 conservation strategy .\nthis year the lesser prairie - chicken has faced a variety of attacks aimed at undoing its recent listing . now , a lawsuit filed by the permian basin petroleum association and four new mexico counties has succeeded in doing just that\u2014at least temporarily .\njoin the oklahoma audubon council for an amazing prairie experience . this year ' s event will include another round of field trips and workshops , such as lesser prairie chicken viewing from blinds or vans , an opportunity to actively participate in protecting the species by helping to mark fences in the area and much more .\nnrcs offers technical and financial assistance to help agricultural producers to voluntarily conserve lesser prairie - chicken habitat on private lands . this assistance helps producers plan and implement a variety of conservation activities , or practices , that benefit the bird and agricultural operations .\nthe states and their private - sector partners will need to consistently demonstrate that their commitment to preserving the lesser prairie chicken has not wavered after their court win . they will have to demonstrate the type of positive results detailed in a march 31 , 2016\n( lincoln : university of nebraska press , 1983 ) . v . w . lehmann ,\nthe attwater prairie chicken : current status and restoration opportunities ,\nthe prairie grass has died back and the wildlife that depends on it is suffering . lesser prairie chickens only live about a year and a half on average , so a couple of years without many chicks takes a serious toll .\n. wind - energy facilities are increasing in the great plains , particularly in states with lesser prairie - chickens as these have the highest potential for wind energy development .\nscience to solutions : a new study by researchers at kansas state university identifies specific grazing practices that create the varied grassland habitat structure that lesser prairie - chickens need .\nfinancial assistance helps producers pay for the adoption of a system of conservation practices that improve the health of prairie and grassland ecosystems . nrcs assistance covers part of the cost . common conservation practices for the lesser prairie - chicken include the removal of redcedar and mesquite and use of prescribed grazing and burning . see a full list of practices .\nenvironmental activist groups instinctively oppose voluntary conservation , and organizations such as defenders of wildlife\u2014which brought the original listing suit against fws\u2014will fight vigorously to restore federal control over the lesser prairie chicken . after the federal court ' s september 1 decision , a defenders of wildlife senior official\nstill , it ' s tough being a lesser prairie chicken these days . this type of grouse once spanned an enormous area , though now they survive mainly in pockets of oklahoma and kansas . their numbers are plummeting ; in 2012 , the population dropped by half .\nadult male lesser prairie chickens ( tympanuchus pallidicinctus ) have brightly colored air sacs on the sides of their neck that they inflate during courtship displays . cimarron national grassland , kansas .\nthe service is officially removing the lesser prairie - chicken from the federal list of endangered and threatened wildlife in accordance with the september 2015 court order vacating our 2014 listing determination . this administrative action and the decision not to appeal the court\u2019s ruling do not constitute a biological determination on whether or not the lesser prairie - chicken warrants federal protection . the direct final rule ( docket no . fws - es - r2 - 2016 - 0028 ) will be available in the federal register reading room on july 19 , 2016 , and publish on july 20 , 2016 .\n\u201cthis is a tribute to wafwa and all of the stakeholders who work every day to ensure the success of the range - wide plan . this is good news for the lesser prairie chicken , the habitat and everyone who lives , works and plays in these areas , \u201d he added .\nfield report ; what does the prairie look like from a coyote ' s eye view , and why does that matter to lesser prairie - chickens ? lpci range conservationist marina osier , based in lamar , colorado , answers this question in her recent field report .\nvan pelt reported landowners are stepping up and implementing conservation practices benefiting the chicken . eight landowner contracts were finalized covering 67 , 512 acres . conservation measures are being implemented range - wide , including habitat restoration on 8 , 214 of 15 , 911 prescribed acres . a total of $ 1 , 821 , 737 was paid to landowners managing their lands to generate credits for lesser prairie chicken conservation , he said .\nwhen you enroll land with lpci , follow a sustainable grazing plan , and complete other conservation practices to benefit lesser prairie - chickens , you can run your ranch without fear of esa regulation .\nlast year\u2019s aerial surveys found an abundance of spring rainfall in 2015 , along with ongoing efforts associated with the range - wide plan and other conservation initiatives , helped increase the lesser prairie chicken population by approximately 25 percent from 2014 to 2015 . results from this year\u2019s surveys will be available on july 1 .\nthis march 2007 photo provided by the texas parks and wildlife department shows a male lesser prairie chicken in a mating stature in the texas panhandle . the obama administration has placed the lesser prairie chicken on a list of threatened species , a move that could affect oil and gas drilling , wind farms and other activities in five central and southwestern states . the decision by the fish and wildlife service is a step below \u201cendangered\u201d status and allows for more flexibility in how the protections for the bird will be carried out under the endangered species act . ( ap photo / texas parks and wildlife department , jon mcroberts ) less\ngerrit vyn is a wildlife biologist who photographed and recorded the sounds of five of these species : the greater and lesser prairie chicken , greater sage grouse , sharp - tailed grouse and gunnison sage grouse .\nall of these species have undergone drastic population declines since we settled the west ,\nvyn says .\nfor the fish and wildlife service to come out and say , ' yes , we ' re going to classify the lesser prairie chicken as a threatened species , but we ' re not going to change anything , ' seems to beg the question , then why did you take the step ?\npruitt says .\nprimarily due to large - scale loss of habitat and fragmentation of habitat , their range distribution has been reduced by roughly 85 percent . about 95 percent of the lesser prairie chicken\u2019s habitat is privately owned , making the land management decisions of producers pivotal to the bird\u2019s success . stewardship - minded producers are helping the at - risk bird and many other wildlife species by voluntarily improving the health of prairie and grassland ecosystems .\nthrough wlfw , nrcs targets conservation efforts where the returns are highest by targeting threats to the bird . for the lesser prairie - chicken , the loss and fragmentation of habitat is caused by invading mesquite and redcedars , poor grassland and prairie health and conversion to cropland . wlfw is able to provide technical and financial assistance through the environmental quality incentives program and agricultural conservation easement program , two programs funded through the farm bill .\n\u201cthe u . s . fish and wildlife service is best suited to judge whether a species requires a listing . . . voluntary measures are essential and will continue to play a role in this species\u2019 conservation management , but unfortunately they alone are not sufficient for the lesser prairie - chicken , \u201d trusty said in a statement for audubon .\nwayne keller is scanning the vast expanse of caramel - colored prairie from his ranch south of dodge city for prairie chickens . keller says it ' s drought that is killing them .\nagain later that year , arguing that the bird belonged on the endangered list . a petroleum industry association and four new mexico counties sued fws as well , arguing that the agency failed to take into consideration voluntary conservation efforts in the affected states\u2014colorado , kansas , new mexico , oklahoma , and texas . wildlife regulators and private enterprises in those states , concerned with the severe economic impact of an esa listing for the chicken , created a voluntary lesser prairie chicken initiative .\nproviding predictability . when you enroll land with lpci , follow a sustainable grazing plan , and complete other conservation practices to benefit lesser prairie - chickens , you can run your ranch without fear of esa regulation . learn more\nadult male lesser prairie chickens ( tympanuchus pallidicinctus ) have brightly colored air sacs on the sides of their neck that they inflate during courtship displays . cimarron national grassland , kansas . gerrit vyn / gerritvynphoto . com hide caption\nmeet ed koger , a rancher in south - central kansas who manages his pastures with prescribed grazing and burning , which simultaneously provides good forage for his cattle and habitat for the lesser prairie - chicken . \u201cas long as i incorporate fire in my management of the prairie on this ranch , \u201d he says , \u201ci\u2019m going to have more wildlife , and i\u2019m going to produce more pounds of beef . \u201d learn more about ed\u2019s ranch .\nthe lesser prairie chicken is the latest member of the grouse family to face congressional scrutiny . in december , a provision included in the omnibus spending bill barred the interior department from moving forward on proposing endangered species act protections for the greater sage - grouse , and from finalizing those protections for the gunnison sage - grouse , which the department has listed as threatened .\ntop , from left : lesser prairie - chicken , melody lytle / audubon photography awards ; ring - necked pheasant , lynn cleveland / apa ; california quail , pat ulrich / apa ; bottom , from left : wild turkeys , steve green / apa ; willow ptarmigan , nps photos / katie thoresen / flickr creative commons ; spruce grouse , justin peter / apa .\n( boston : houghton mifflin , 1977 ) . heather miller ,\nvanishing with the prairie ,\ncome to woodward ' s lesser prairie chicken festival and embark on a series of field trips led by local experts around northwest oklahoma plus an excursion to black mesa . visitors to this much - loved birding event will also enjoy an art show and sale showcasing local artists and vendors , as well as a variety of informative workshops and speakers . most events require pre - registration .\nthe u . s . fish and wildlife service has completed initial reviews of three endangered species act petitions and found that two present substantial information that the petitioned action may be warranted . a petition to list the lesser prairie - chicken as endangered and another to list the leopard as endangered throughout its range in africa will move to the next phase , where each species will undergo a thorough status review .\nto fws on the conservation plan ' s second year . the plan has led to a\n25 percent increase in the lesser prairie chicken population . . . industry partners committed nearly $ 51 million in fees to pay for mitigation actions , and landowners across the range agreed to conserve more than 67 , 000 acres of habitat .\non june 13 , 2016 , an umbrella group of western - state wildlife agencies\nthe department of interior ' s fish and wildlife service listed the bird as threatened under the endangered species act in march , citing the\nrapid and severe decline\nof lesser prairie chicken populations . protections for\nthreatened\nspecies are not as strict as those for\nendangered\nspecies , but the service said the listing recognizes that the bird is\nlikely to become in danger of extinction within the foreseeable future .\nnrcs launched the lesser prairie - chicken initiative ( lpci ) in 2010 , establishing a partnership of ranchers , agencies , universities , non - profit groups and businesses that embrace a common vision \u2013 wildlife conservation through sustainable ranching . this innovative partnership of ranchers , agencies , universities , non - profit groups and businesses all embrace a common vision \u2013 achieving wildlife conservation through sustainable ranching . visit urltoken to learn more about the partnership .\nallow habitat regeneration , manage grazing to provide adequate cover and forage for prairie chickens . continue to manage occupied habitats on private lands , and hasten progress towards effective management on public lands . protect occupied habitats . develop and promote effective incentives for land - owners to maintain populations . continue monitoring leks and develop statistically robust methods of estimating populations from lek data . regulate the construction of tall structures in or near lesser prairie - chicken habitats . ensure effective evaluation and mitigation of the impacts of wind turbine and other tall structure installation on the species .\nspoiler alert ! this week\u2019s episode of dallas saw john ross ( josh henderson ) and bobby ( patrick duffy ) each take bold steps in their battle over fracking at southfork . in the end , even though john ross had convinced the ranch hands that more money could be made in oil than cattle , bobby managed to put a hold on john ross\u2019s drilling permit by informing the sierra club of a potentially endangered population of lesser prairie chicken .\nvoluntary conservation efforts have been in the works for years . in the lead - up to the usfws decision in 2014 , the western association of fish and wildlife agencies ( wafwa ) and the five states with lesser prairie - chicken habitat finalized a massive plan to protect the bird across its range . but in the end , usfws decided that it couldn ' t measure the impact of those programs because not enough landowners and companies had enrolled in them .\na little smaller and paler than the greater prairie - chicken , this grouse is adapted to arid short - grass regions of the southern great plains . at one time it was abundant in this region , but it has declined seriously , and is now an uncommon bird found in a few local concentrations .\nthey ' ve lost 84 percent of the shortgrass prairie , which this bird depends on as its home ,\nashe says .\nthe pbpa , along with chaves , eddy , lea and roosevelt counties in new mexico , had sued the department of the interior and fish and wildlife service to overturn the chicken\u2019s listing .\nstill , participants who walk away would sacrifice their hefty enrollment fees , counters wafwa grassland coordinator bill van pelt . and even if the bird\u2019s federally threatened status evaporates , prairie - chicken declines could trigger yet another listing process , van pelt says , prodding more people to sign up . \u201cfor us , it\u2019s still business as usual . \u201d\nwafwa in partnership with the states of new mexico , colorado , kansas , oklahoma and texas have embarked on an innovative and unprecedented approach to wildlife conservation . this partnership began in 2012 with the directors of the five states that are home to the lesser prairie chicken ( lpc ) and its habitat to create a document that outlined the needs of this charismatic grouse species endemic to the five states . this document , \u201c the lesser prairie chicken range - wide conservation plan , \u201d ( rwp ) , written by the states lpc interstate working group , addresses the needs of this species , establish population goals and provides a mechanism for industry to continue operating . this document brings together the different voluntary conservation programs in the high plains into a common approach to provide for both minimization and mitigation of impacts and conservation of lpc habitat . the only plan of its kind endorsed by the us fish and wildlife service , it was incorporated into the section 4 ( d ) special rule at the time of listing in 2014 . strong participation in the plan could lead to a timely delisting of the lpc .\nhas disappeared from most of former range and is probably still declining ; considered to be threatened . biggest problem is conversion of natural prairie to farmland .\nwe ' re walking toward a lek , which is kind of like a singles bar for prairie chickens . they get together and do their thing .\n, val w . lehmann , nancy lehmann - carssow , and nova j . silvy ,\nprairie chickens ,\naccessed july 09 , 2018 ,\naerial surveys of the chicken\u2019s population began march 17 and are expected to continue through mid - may in the five states that contain the bird\u2019s habitat : texas , new mexico , oklahoma , kansas and colorado .\non september 1 , a u . s . district judge in texas vacated the u . s . fish and wildlife service\u2019s decision to designate the lesser prairie - chicken as threatened under the endangered species act . his ruling stated that prior to listing , the agency failed to follow its own rules for gauging whether existing conservation programs could help stem the bird ' s decline . \u201cit\u2019s just one more cut into the ( agency\u2019s ) authority and the efficacy of the esa , \u201d says karyn stockdale , a senior advisor for the national audubon society and former director of audubon new mexico .\nturkeys , ptarmigans , pheasants , grouse , and quail\u2014these birds are all capable of doing crazy things . take the lesser prairie - chicken for example . to show off to the ladies , the males suck air in and out of the ping pong balls on the sides of their neck , make weird moaning sounds , and do a snazzy quick - feet display , all at the same time . so the real question is , just how crazy can these birds be ? try this true / false quiz , and check the answers below to see if you can separate fowl truth from fiction .\n. in oklahoma 39 . 5 % of the prairie - chicken mortality recorded was due to fence collisions , while in new mexico , this figure was 26 . 5 percent . the species has also been found to avoid power lines and so it is likely that the erection of other tall structures ( including wind turbines ) will lead to increased habitat fragmentation and reduced home range sizes ( pruett\nbest known for their dramatic courtship display , the bird depends on prairie and grassland ecosystems that have evolved under the interaction of fire and large herbivore grazing over the years .\nif it\u2019s good for the bird , it\u2019s good for the herd . with lpci technical and financial assistance , landowners can improve habitat for both prairie - chickens and livestock , boosting ranch sustainability .\nwayne keller , a rancher whose land is south of dodge city , kan . , scans his land for prairie chickens . the federal government has proposed listing the bird as an endangered species .\nsome sound like alien techno music , others resemble old lawnmower engines . . . but all of these calls were made by grouse and prairie chickens . recordings provided by cornell laboratory of ornithology .\nsandhill country , sage and bluestem grass , oak shinnery . found in sandy short - grass prairie regions with scattered shrubs such as sand sage . often found around stands of low , scrubby oaks ( havard and mohr ' s oak , also called\nshin oak\n) . regularly comes to agricultural fields to feed on waste grain , but disappears from areas where too much of native prairie is taken over by farmland .\nwayne keller , a rancher whose land is south of dodge city , kan . , scans his land for prairie chickens . the federal government has proposed listing the bird as an endangered species . frank morris / kcur hide caption\nwin - win conservation . if it\u2019s good for the bird , it\u2019s good for the herd . with lpci technical and financial assistance , landowners can improve habitat for both prairie - chickens and livestock , boosting ranch sustainability . learn more\nin the report , wafwa said the chicken\u2019s range - wide population had increased by 25 percent to just more than 29 , 000 birds , industry partners had committed nearly $ 51 million in fees to pay for mitigation actions , and landowners across the five - state range agreed to conserve more than 67 , 000 acres of habitat .\nthe plan will pay landowners to make their property more livable for prairie chickens , and companies that degrade habitat will have to compensate landowners to create more of it elsewhere . it could be profitable for farmers and ranchers \u2014 and it needs to be .\nscience to solutions : hot off the press ! new research shows that patch - burn grazing creates the mosaic of grassland habitat structure that prairie - chickens depend on . lpci ' s latest science to solutions paper describes the research and its implications for range management .\nthey only nest on the ground , nowhere near a tree or anything else , like an oil derrick or wind turbine , sticking up from the prairie . there were once millions of the birds , and ashe says now there may be fewer than 18 , 000 .\nevery spring , flocks of prairie chickens and grouse gather in the prairies of the american west to strut and sing and fight for the attention of females . it ' s called a lek , and like many wildlife mating rituals , it ' s all about female choice .\nthe prairie - chicken , which has an elaborate , chest - puffing mating dance and a call similar to woody the woodpecker\u2019s laugh , currently struts on just 16 percent of its historic range . oil and gas development , wind farms , roads , transmission lines , fences , and other development have threatened these last slivers of existing habitat . and thanks to drought on the southern plains , population numbers plummeted from around 35 , 000 to 17 , 616 between 2012 and 2013\u2014which partly explains usfws ' s motivation for listing them . \u201cthis is an incredibly difficult creature to save , \u201d says audubon texas executive director brian trusty . \u201cit\u2019s really fickle . \u201d\nan aggressive encounter between two male greater prairie chickens ( tympanuchus cupido ) . during aggressive encounters , males leap into the air and strike their opponent with feet , wings and / or beak . fort pierre national grassland , south dakota . gerrit vyn / gerritvynphoto . com hide caption\nin montana , an area of unplowed grassland called the northern prairie was listed on the interior department memorandum , discussed as a possible home for a new national bison range . but the state\u2019s representative at large , denny rehberg , a republican , said in a statement , \u201cthe antiquities act was never intended as an end - run around the will of the people nor as a land - grab device for east coast politicians . \u201d\nthat business may already be producing some results for prairie - chickens : their numbers have climbed back to 29 , 000 , a 25 percent increase since last year ' s listing . \u201cyou can\u2019t ignore that you had 180 companies modifying their behavior , \u201d van pelt argues . but even he admits that drought relief is the most important factor : \u201cwe\u2019ve had a lot of rain . that\u2019s what it takes for this bird . \u201d\nif the federal court ' s decision stands , prairie - chickens will be cut off from federal endangered species recovery funds , and landowners will be free to destroy the bird ' s remaining habitat without consequence . even wafwa\u2019s range - wide plan could lose its teeth : without the looming threat of the listing , there would be no incentive for landowners and industries to participate , li says . with 100 , 000 acres and $ 46 million tied up in voluntary contracts , \u201cthere\u2019s potentially a lot to lose . \u201d\nthe global population is estimated to number 20 , 000 - 40 , 000 individuals ( h . whitlaw in litt . 2007 ) . trend justification : this species is declining rapidly ( rogers 1997 ; wolfe et al . 2007 ) , owing to conversion and development of prairie grasslands . it has undergone a large and statistically significant decrease over the last 40 years in north america ( 99 . 6 % decline over 40 years , equating to a 75 . 7 % decline per decade ; data from breeding bird survey and / or christmas bird count [ butcher and niven 2007 ] ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndownload tiles as . zip files : a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | i | j | k | l | m | n | o | p | all tiles in one . zip file download tiles as . gz files : a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | i | j | k | l | m | n | o | p | all tiles in one . tgz file\nurltoken no longer supports internet explorer 9 or earlier . please upgrade your browser .\ncedar mesa in southeastern utah is on an interior department list of possible national monuments . the department says the list is preliminary .\ndenver \u2014 in much of the nation , \u201cmonument\u201d is an innocuous word , conjuring up images of historical figures cast in bronze or road - side plaques few stop to read .\nin the west , though , it\u2019s a fighting word , bound up for years with simmering resentments against the federal government and presidential powers . the feeling dates to the days when , with the stroke of a pen , theodore roosevelt declared lands he wished to protect as national monuments under the american antiquities act .\na new monument fight erupted this week when representative rob bishop , republican of utah , said he had uncovered a \u201csecret\u201d interior department memorandum suggesting that the federal government was considering national monument designation for 14 huge blocks of land in nine states from montana to new mexico .\na spokeswoman for the department of the interior , kendra barkoff , said the list was not secret at all , but simply a \u201cvery , very , very preliminary , \u201d internal working document resulting from a brainstorming session that interior secretary ken salazar , a democrat and former senator from colorado , had requested about the lands in the west .\n\u201cno decisions have been made about which areas , if any , might merit more serious review and consideration , \u201d ms . barkoff said in a statement .\nbut the word \u201csecret , \u201d especially when applied to the possible doings of far - away federal bureaucrats , is right up there with \u201cmonument\u201d in its ability to unleash vitriol among western conservatives . in 1996 , president bill clinton created the 1 . 7 million - acre grand staircase - escalante national monument in southern utah with a surprise announcement that still resonates across the region as a symbol of government powers , or what critics call the abuse of those powers .\nthe new interior department memorandum , people in both parties said , has reopened a wound from those days that never quite healed .\nthe san rafael swell in central utah is on the list , along with 13 other sites .\n\u201cgiven the lingering frustration felt by many utahns , following the 1996 \u2018stroke of the pen\u2019 monument designation , it is totally inappropriate for this federal agency to even have preliminary discussions without involving the stakeholders on the ground , \u201d said representative jim matheson , democrat of utah , a state that had two of the possible new monuments on the list , the san rafael swell and cedar mesa .\nms . barkoff at the interior department said in an interview that mr . salazar , as colorado\u2019s attorney general , united states senator and secretary of the interior , had a history of seeking consensus , and that any discussion of monument designation would be open to public and congressional involvement .\nfrom the new york times . you may opt - out at any time .\nyou agree to receive occasional updates and special offers for the new york times ' s products and services .\na spokesman for the southern utah wilderness alliance , a conservation group , said the appearance of secrecy in monument talks had melded with ideological opposition to the obama administration \u2014 widespread in a deeply republican part of the country .\n\u201ci don\u2019t think it\u2019s as much about the specifics of the land issues as it is pure ideological concerns , \u201d said the group\u2019s executive director , scott groene . \u201cthere\u2019s already been a great fury going on in this state , and it\u2019s hard to imagine that this really changes any of that . \u201d\nthe fury is nothing new . in 1969 , for example , the town of boulder , utah , passed a resolution changing its name to johnson\u2019s folly , and predicted the town\u2019s demise after president lyndon b . johnson added thousands of acres to arches and capitol reef national monuments , which were both later designated national parks by congress .\nthe town later reverted to its original name , and on its web site the boulder business group now proudly calls the town the \u201cgateway to the grand staircase - escalante national monument . \u201d\nrepresentative bishop , who was teaching history and government in a high school in northern utah when that monument was created in 1996 , also held out the possibility that cooler heads and calmer discussions could prevail on land protection in the west . the prerequisite , he said , is transparency and genuine dialogue . if westerners think there is a foregone conclusion , hostility to more national monuments will be unavoidable .\n\u201cif they do things in an open and transparent way and involve everyone , then there\u2019s no need for yelling and screaming , \u201d mr . bishop said . \u201cdo it the right way , and we can work it out . \u201d\nwe\u2019re interested in your feedback on this page . tell us what you think .\naccessibility concerns ? email us at accessibility @ urltoken . we would love to hear from you .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\ntap here to turn on desktop notifications to get the news sent straight to you .\nmoran said in a statement that the listing is\nyet another example of unnecessary intrusion into private lives and businesses by the federal government .\nhe said the listing is hurting farmers , ranchers , oil and gas development , transportation , and wind farms .\ni am confident there are ways to conserve the species without hindering economic development in rural communities ,\nmoran said .\nlisting the bird as a threatened species is not the answer .\nthe league of conservation voters called the moran amendment\negregious\nin a letter to senators urging them to vote against it , describing it as\ncongressional meddling in science - based decision making .\nthe american energy alliance , a group linked to one of the koch brothers , put out a statement monday , saying the alliance would treat the amendment as a\nkey vote ,\nto be included in its annual energy scorecard rating of lawmakers .\n' yes ' is the pro - wildlife , pro - energy , pro - private property , and pro - human flourishing vote ,\nthe group wrote .\nsen . lisa murkowski ( r - alaska ) , who has been leading the senate floor debate on the keystone bill , indicated tuesday evening that votes on the moran amendment and others are likely on wednesday .\nupdate : jan . 28 , 4 : 36 p . m . - - the senate voted on the moran measure wednesday afternoon . a majority of 54 senators - - all the republicans present and one democrat , joe manchin ( w . va . ) - - voted in favor of the measure , but the amendment did not get the 60 votes it needed to pass .\nfirst - person essays , features , interviews and q & as ; about life today .\nfrom the < a href =\nurltoken\ntarget =\n_ blank\n> u . s . state department ' s report < / a > on the keystone xl pipeline , jan . 2014 . drivers of oilsands development are global and any single infrastructure project is unlikely to significantly affect the rate of extraction in oilsands areas .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\n40 cm . plump , brown - barred gamebird . yellow wattles of skin form eyebrow . in courtship , reddish - orange air - sacs on sides of neck inflated and neck - plumes ( pinnae ) erected . female has shorter neck - plumes and barred tail .\nin west - central kansas , which is larger , darker and has yellow - orange air - sacs .\nthis species qualifies as vulnerable owing to a long - term and rapid population decline . although most populations appear to have stabilized or increased since 1995 , populations in north - east texas and parts of oklahoma have declined precipitously since 2005 , and in south - east new mexico since 2001 . as the effects of drought and the increasing demand for both fossil fuel and renewable energy development ( including wind and biofuels ) continue to place remaining habitats at risk , the species is precautionarily retained as vulnerable until positive trends have been sustained .\n. it is now most common in dwarf shrub - mixed grass vegetation , sometimes interspersed with short grass and , optimally , with some portion ( < 25 % ) of the landscape in row grains as supplemental winter forage . successful nests tend to be in areas with greater shrub cover and visual obstructions ( davis 2009 ) . leks are usually on elevated areas with short vegetation ( hagen 2005 , wolfe\n. large areas of habitat have been purchased by some states and the nature conservancy and candidate conservation agreements with assurances are being implemented in texas . research has been conducted on its ecology and conservation which will facilitate the production of recovery plans . over 900 birds have been radio - tracked between 1999 and 2010 . miles of unneeded fences have been removed in parts of oklahoma and texas and a method has been developed to mark remaining fences to reduce mortality ( rogers 1997 )\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t22679519a118850421 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nu . s . fish and wildlife service home page about the u . s . fish & wildlife service department of the interior urltoken accessibility privacy notices\nthe mission of the u . s . fish and wildlife service is working with others to conserve , protect , and enhance fish , wildlife , plants and their habitats for the continuing benefit of the american people .\nall images credit to and courtesy of the u . s . fish and wildlife service unless specified otherwise .\nforages mostly on ground , sometimes above ground in oaks . may move several miles every day from roosting areas to good feeding sites .\nusually 11 - 13 . whitish to pale buff , finely speckled with brown and olive . incubation is by female only , 22 - 24 days . young : downy young leave nest shortly after hatching . female tends young , but young feed themselves . young are able to make short flights at age of 1 - 2 weeks , but are not full - grown for several more weeks .\ndowny young leave nest shortly after hatching . female tends young , but young feed themselves . young are able to make short flights at age of 1 - 2 weeks , but are not full - grown for several more weeks .\nincludes seeds , acorns , insects , leaves . diet varies with season . eats seeds and leaves of a wide variety of plants , including oak leaves and acorns . may eat much waste grain around agricultural fields in fall and winter . eats many insects , including grasshoppers and beetles , especially in summer . also eats some flowers , twigs , oak galls .\nin spring , at dawn and again in evening , males gather on\nbooming grounds\nand display there to attract females . booming ground on slight rise or level open ground , with good visibility . in display , male raises feather tufts on neck , stamps feet rapidly while making hollow gobbling sounds ; may leap in the air with loud cackles . female visits booming ground , mates with one of the males . nest site is on ground , usually under a shrub or clump of grass . nest ( built by female ) is shallow depression lined with a few bits of grass , weeds .\nno regular migration , but some may move many miles between summer and winter ranges .\naudio \u00a9 lang elliott , bob mcguire , kevin colver , martyn stewart and others .\nin the broadest and most detailed study of its kind , audubon scientists have used hundreds of thousands of citizen - science observations and sophisticated climate models to predict how birds in the u . s . and canada will react to climate change .\nthe darker the color , the more favorable the climate conditions are for survival . the outlined areas represent approximate current range for each season .\neach map is a visual guide to where a particular bird species may find the climate conditions it needs to survive in the future . we call this the bird\u2019s \u201cclimatic range . \u201d\nthe darker the shaded area , the more likely it is the bird species will find suitable climate conditions to survive there .\nthe outline of the approximate current range for each season remains fixed in each frame , allowing you to compare how the range will expand , contract , or shift in the future .\nthe first frame of the animation shows where the bird can find a suitable climate today ( based on data from 2000 ) . the next three frames predict where this bird\u2019s suitable climate may shift in the future\u2014one frame each for 2020 , 2050 , and 2080 .\nyou can play or pause the animation with the orange button in the lower left , or select an individual frame to study by clicking on its year .\nthe darker the color , the more favorable the climate conditions are for survival . the outlined areas represent approximate current range for each season . more on reading these maps .\ngail patricelli is one of a few researchers using robotic birds to study avian courtship . her current work focuses on the greater sage - grouse .\nthe endangered species act is under attack . but how much trouble is it in ?\npoliticians are asking for major changes to the law\u2014and even an outright repeal . here ' s how the esa could take a hit and everything that ' s at stake .\nhow well do you know your north american fowl ? find out with this true / false quiz .\ntell congress to oppose a harmful rider that threatens sage - grouse and other wildlife .\ntell congress and the department of the interior to uphold the country ' s most important bird protection law .\ntechnical assistance is free to producers , through which the agency\u2019s conservationists work side - by - side with producers to develop a conservation plan . this plan is customized the producer\u2019s land and provides a roadmap for how to use a system of conservation practices to meet natural resource and production goals .\nif you\u2019re interested in technical and financial assistance from nrcs , please contact your local usda service center . a conservationist in your community will help you develop a conservation plan customized to your land , and if you\u2019re interested , apply for financial assistance through farm bill conservation programs . learn more about getting started with nrcs .\ncollaboration and partnership . more than 25 agencies , nonprofit organizations , universities , and private businesses have pooled resources and know - how to conserve rural agriculture and provide habitat for native wildlife . learn more\nscience - based action . how do we know if our range management strategies are working ? lpci - funded research ensures we\u2019re doing enough of the right things in the right places to achieve our conservation goals . learn more\nmore than 25 agencies , nonprofit organizations , universities , and private businesses have pooled resources and know - how to conserve rural agriculture and provide habitat for native wildlife .\nhow do we know if our range management strategies are working ? lpci - funded research ensures we\u2019re doing enough of the right things in the right places to achieve our conservation goals .\non july 20 , 2016 , ten months after a u . s . district court for the western district of texas judge\nits delisting decision . the decision not only validates the work of a public - private bird - conservation partnership , it will also test the viability of such state - based efforts .\narrangement with environmental activists , fws listed the bird as threatened in april 2014 . preferring a higher designation , the same activist groups with which fws settled\ndecision agreed with the states that under the esa , fws failed to fully \u201ctak [ e ] into account those efforts , if any , being made by any state \u2026 to protect such species . \u201d 16 u . s . c . \u00a7 1533 ( b ) ( 1 ) ( a ) . a september 15 , 2015\nby featured expert contributor sam boxerman of sidley austin llp provides a full analysis of that decision . on february 29 , 2016 , the texas federal court\nthat it would be\nundertaking a thorough re - evaluation of the bird ' s status and the threats it faces using the best available scientific information to determine anew whether listing under the esa is warranted .\nfws ' s statement , and its silence on the private - public conservation effort , is not surprising , especially considering that the agency had endorsed the council ' s rangewide conservation plan in october 2013 , but then reversed course and imposed the\nthreatened\ndesignation just seven months later .\n,\npeople who had previously been prepared to abide by the rules under a listing are now heading towards the bulldozers again .\n. all those involved in a self - regulatory mechanism have a shared stake in its success , and the voluntary nature of the program allows them to quickly adapt their efforts . such incentives and flexibility do not exist in a one - size - fits - all government regulation ."]}
{"id": 2574, "summary": [{"text": "leptothorax acervorum is a small brown to yellow ant in the subfamily myrmicinae .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "it was first described by johan christian fabricius in 1793 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "l. acervorum is vastly distributed across the globe , most commonly found in the coniferous forests of central , western and northern europe .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the morphology of l. acervorum is extremely similar to that of other leptothorax ants .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the difference arises in the two-toned appearance of l. acervorum , with the head and metasoma being darker than the mesosoma segment of the body , and hair across its body .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "following bergmann 's rule \u2014 unusually , for ectothermic animals \u2014 body size increases with latitude . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "leptothorax acervorum", "paragraphs": ["she is a important hostant for the slavekeepingant harpagoxenus sublaevis and the three workerless leptothorax - species leptothorax goesswaldi , leptothorax kutteri and leptothorax pacis .\nsenior synonym of leptothorax lacteipennis : nylander , 1846a pdf : 936 ; of leptothorax kamtshaticus : kupyanskaya , 1986b : 96 ; of leptothorax acervorum orientalis : kupyanskaya , 1990a : 137 ; of leptothorax nigrescens , leptothorax superus : radchenko , 1995a : 23 .\nmating frequency and mating system of the polygynous ant , leptothorax acervorum . - pubmed - ncbi\nqueen - worker ratios in high skew and low skew populations of the ant leptothorax acervorum .\nsenior synonym of leptothorax acervorum vandeli : casevitz - weulersse & galkowski , 2009 pdf : 488 .\nkurtjacobsen\u2019s leptothorax acervorum journal - including lots of pictures and videos . - the ant farm and myrmecology forum\nkey words : leptothorax acervorum , functional monogyny , mating behavior , intranidal mated offspring hibernation , ecology .\nthe measured values are by no means unusual among related leptothorax species . leptothorax athabasca is a bit larger than the european leptothorax muscorum and the syntopic leptothorax retractus , but smaller than leptothorax acervorum and the north american leptothorax \u201csp . b\u201d sensu heinze & buschinger ( 1987 ) , heinze ( 1989b ) and loiselle & al . ( 1990 ) .\na misunderstood instance of teratology in belgian leptothorax acervorum ( fabricius , 1793 ) ( hymenoptera , formicidae ) .\nthis taxon is not in use as it is currently considered to be a junior synonym of leptothorax acervorum .\nkamtshaticus . leptothorax ( mychothorax ) acervorum subsp . kamtshaticus ruzsky , 1920 : 77 ( w . ) russia . junior synonym of acervorum : kupyanskaya , 1986b : 96 .\nhammond rl , bourke af , bruford mw . mating frequency and mating system of the polygynous ant , leptothorax acervorum .\nin deze video laat ik mijn leptothorax acervorum ( behaarde slankmier ) kolonie zien . mail : mierenkopen @ gmail . com .\nleptothorax mayr , 1855 : 431 . type - species : formica acervorum , by subsequent designation of bingham , 1903 : 214 .\nintra - and inter - nest variation in mitochondrial dna in the polygynous ant leptothorax acervorum ( hymenoptera ; formicidae ) . insectes soc\na misunderstood instance of teratology in belgian leptothorax acervorum ( fabricius , 1793 ) ( hymenoptera , formicidae ) . | vankerkhoven francois - urltoken\nafg ( 1995a ) geographical variation in the social and genetic structure of the ant , leptothorax acervorum - heinze , lipski , et al .\nbourke afg ( 1995 ) further evidence of lack of pheromonal inhibition among queens of the ant leptothorax acervorum . ethology 101 : 46 - 50 .\nqueen behaviour , reproduction and egg cannibalism in multiple - queen colonies of the ant leptothorax acervorum . anim behav 42 : 295 - afg - 1991\nru\u0308ppell o ( 2001 ) sex allocation ratios in the facultatively polygynous ant , leptothorax acervorum . behav ecol sociobiol 50 : 270\u2013274 - heinze , hartmann\ncombination in leptothorax : mayr , 1855 pdf : 436 ; in leptothorax ( mychothorax ) : ruzsky , 1904a pdf : 288 .\nin britain no parasitic ant species is known to be associated with l . acervorum .\nbourke afg ( 1993 ) lack of experimental evidence for pheromonal inhibition of reproduction among queens in the ant leptothorax acervorum . animal behaviour 45 : 501 - 509 .\nreproductive status and skew of pyrenean ( py ) and inner iberian colonies of l . acervorum\nleptothorax acervorum is the only species remaining in leptothorax after the other four british species were moved to temnothorax ( bolton 2003 ) . l . acervorum are small myrmicine ants with distinct propodeal spines and three - segmented antennal clubs . l . acervorum are larger than the british temnothorax species and can be distinguished by an 11 - segmented antenna in the females ( 12 in males ) ; the temnothorax species have one extra funicular segment .\nfriend la , bourke afg ( 2012 ) absence of within - colony kin discrimination in a multiple - queen ant , leptothorax acervorum . ethology 118 : 1182 - 1190 .\nhammond rl , bourke afg , bruford mw ( 2001 ) mating frequency and mating system of the polygynous ant , leptothorax acervorum . molecular ecology 10 : 2719 - 2728 .\nbourke afg ( 1991 ) queen behaviour , reproduction and egg - cannibalism in multiple - queen colonies of the ant leptothorax acervorum . animal behaviour 42 : 295 - 310 .\nmychothorax ruzsky , 1904a : 288 . type - species : formica acervorum , by original designation .\nresults of analysis of molecular variance ( amova ) by pairwise comparison between regions for l . acervorum\nthe flights of l . acervorum males and gynes usually occur in mid - summer and are inconspicuous .\ngenetic diversity indices and neutrality tests for mtdna sequences of l . acervorum in sw - and c - europe\nheinze j , lipski n , h\u00f6lldobler b , bourke afg ( 1995 ) geographical variation in the social and genetic structure of the ant , leptothorax acervorum . zoology 98 : 127 - 135 .\n[ later misspelled as leptothorax superbus by ruzsky , 1936 pdf : 94 . ] .\nthe above specimen data are provided by antweb . please see leptothorax athabasca for further details\nmychothorax junior synonym of leptothorax : smith , m . r . 1950 : 29 .\nthe above specimen data are provided by antweb . please see leptothorax crassipilis for further details\nmaterial of the nomen nudum leptothorax melanocephala referred here by mayr , 1855 pdf : 411 .\nmychothorax subgenus of leptothorax : ruzsky , 1905b : 609 ; emery , 1915g : 24 .\n[ leptothorax and mychothorax share the same type - species , synonymy is therefore absolute . ]\nleptothorax acervorum are small ants that can resist extremely cold temperatures and live in regions where temperatures can reach - 40\u00b0c in winter . they live in small colonies made of about 200 workers and a few queens .\n19 . bernadou a , r\u00f6mermann c , gratiashvili n , heinze j ( 2016 ) body size but not colony size increases with altitude in the holarctic ant , leptothorax acervorum . ecol entomol 41 : 733 - 736\n63 . trettin j , seyferth t , heinze j ( 2014 ) behavioral plasticity in ant queens : environmental manipulation induces aggression among normally peaceful queens in the socially polymorphic ant leptothorax acervorum . plos one 9 : e95153\nthe origin of workerless parasites in leptothorax ( s . str . ) ( hymenoptera : formicidae )\nleptothorax acervorum is a non - aggressive ant which avoids most combats with other ants . the workers forage singly , predating small insects or scavenging insect corpses . they are suitable to co - house them with other ants .\nresult of general linear model tests for the second experiment : the effect of manipulation on different life - history traits , whilst accounting for species ( leptothorax acervorum and l . muscorum ) and habitat ( abensberg and innichen )\nthis 5x photo of an ant ( leptothorax acervorum ) carrying its larva received an honorable mention in the 2014 nikon small world photomicrophotography competition , which recognizes excellence in photography with the optical microscope , and was taken by . . .\nresults of general linear model tests for the first experiment : the effect of parasite manipulation on different life - history traits , whilst accounting for habitat heterogeneity ( experimental blocks ) and host species ( leptothorax acervorum and l . muscorum )\nheinze and gratiashvili ( 2015 ) - a phylogenetic analysis suggests that functional monogyny evolved convergently in several lineages of leptothorax . reproductive skew thus appears to be a labile trait . this is made particularly obvious by the existence of both functionally monogynous and polygynous populations of leptothorax acervorum ( heinze et al . 1995 ; gill et al . 2009 ) .\ncitation : trettin j , seyferth t , heinze j ( 2014 ) behavioral plasticity in ant queens : environmental manipulation induces aggression among normally peaceful queens in the socially polymorphic ant leptothorax acervorum . plos one 9 ( 4 ) : e95153 . urltoken\nremarks on the occurrence of leptothorax nylanderi ( f\u00f6rst . ) ( hymenoptera , formicidae ) in poland and its taxonomy\ndiethe ortius , and j\u00fcrgen heinze , \u201cdynamics and consequences of hierarchy formation in the ant leptothorax sp . a , \u201d\nmackay , w . p . 2000 . a review of the new world ants of the subgenus myrafant , ( genus leptothorax ) ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . sociobiology 36 : 265 - 444 ( page 267 , leptothorax in myrmicinae , formicoxenini )\nsur le polymorphisme social de la fourmi leptothorax nylanderi ( f\u00f6rster ) . ii . \u2212 activit\u00e9 des ouvri\u00e8res et d\u00e9terminisme des castes\nj . heinze , and n . gratiashvili , \u201chigh skew in the caucasus : functional monogyny in the ant leptothorax scamni , \u201d\nthe color of l . athabasca gynes and workers is evenly dark brown , similar to l . acervorum ( but lacking the lighter areas on the body of that species ) , lighter than in the sympatric leptothorax \u201csp . b\u201d , and darker than in l . retractus from the same site .\nthis stacking image of the ant , leptothorax acervorum carrying won honorable mention in the 2014 nikon small world competition . leptothorax acervorum is a model system used to study ant colonies with multiple queens . female reproductives leave the nest and mate with males from other nests . a successful mated queen will typically follow one of two options . she will drop to the ground near her home nest and hope to be \u201cadopted\u201d . adopted queens are carried into the nest by workers . alternatively the a mated queen can disperse to initiate a new colony . the success rate of new colony initiation is low .\nsculpture and pilosity are quite similar to other north american species of leptothorax . some negative characters may be helpful for identification , though :\nj . \u00fcrgen heinze , \u201cthe origin of workerless parasites in leptothorax ( s . str . ) ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) , \u201d\nj . heinze , and b . oberstadt , \u201cworker age , size and social status in queenless colonies of the ant leptothorax gredleri , \u201d\nleptothorax retractus is characterized by a small but clearly visible notch in the anterior margin of the clypeus . this notch lacks in l . athabasca .\nsnelling , r . r . 1986 . new synonymy in caribbean ants of the genus leptothorax ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . proc . entomol . soc . wash . 88 : 154 - 156 ( page 154 , leptothorax senior synonym of macromischa ( and its junior synonyms antillaemyrmex and croesomyrmex ) )\nleptothorax acervorum colonies were more abundant and larger than l . muscorum colonies in innichen . leptothorax acervorum colonies also contained more queens and exhibited higher total production , but only in innichen . in abensberg , the other host species , l . muscorum , often did better ; for example , it had higher per capita productivity than l . acervorum . this result can be explained by the colder climate of innichen , which is approximately 800 m higher than abensberg , as expected from previous studies of ectotherms in general and ants in particular . in addition , the body size of l . acervorum workers is larger than that of the other host species . colonies in innichen did not contain more queens per se , but l . acervorum , which was more abundant than l . muscorum in innichen , contained , in general , more queens , fitting the expected increase in polygyny in harsher habitats . finally , the average colony size was more than double in innichen compared with abensberg . it should be noted that , in a previous study comparing two populations of l . acervorum , such a climate - dependent difference in colony size was not found ( heinze et al . , 2003 ) . in any case , only a large - scale documentation of colony sizes along the whole geographical range ( and not focusing only on two populations as performed here and in the former study ) will provide strong support for this temperature\u2013size pattern .\npropodeal spine length ( psl , gusten & al . 2006 ) has not been measured in other species of leptothorax . the propodeal spine index ( psi ; epinotal spine index in buschinger 1966 ) can be compared among a few species . in l . athabasca gynes it is 1 . 3 - 1 . 6 ; in l . acervorum ( europe ) 1 . 87 \u00b1 0 . 06 ( buschinger 1966 ) ; in l . muscorum ( europe ) 1 . 73 \u00b1 0 . 09 ( buschinger 1966 ) ; in leptothorax gredleri ( europe ) 1 . 48 \u00b1 0 . 06 ( buschinger 1966 ) ; in leptothorax scamni ( caucasus and northern turkey ) c . 2 . 0 ( heinze & al . 1993 ) ; in leptothorax pocahontas ( canada ) 1 . 7 - 1 . 8 ( buschinger 1979 ) ; and in leptothorax faberi ( canada ) 1 . 5 - 1 . 8 ( buschinger 1983 ) .\nsmith , m . r . 1950a . on the status of leptothorax mayr and some of its subgenera . psyche ( camb . ) 57 : 29 - 30 ( page 29 , leptothorax senior synonym of mychothorax ; [ both have the same type - species , synonymy is therefore absolute ] . )\ns . foitzik , m . stratz , and j . heinze , \u201cecology , life history and resource allocation in the ant , leptothorax nylanderi , \u201d\nthe aims of this study , therefore , were ( i ) to map the distribution of the two social phenotypes of l . acervorum in inner iberian mountains and pyrenees , ( ii ) to analyse the micro - evolutionary history of the two social forms using genetic markers , and ( iii ) to infer the population history of l . acervorum in sw - europe in a broader phylogeographic context .\nleptothorax sp . c ( sensu heinze & buschinger 1987 , heinze 1989b and loiselle & al . 1990 ) , supposed to be the host species of l . pocahontas , is much lighter in coloration . higgins ( year unknown ) suggested that leptothorax sp . c from jasper np is identical to leptothorax muscorum var . septentrionalis wheeler , 1917 , though this taxon still is considered a junior synonym of l . muscorum according to urltoken and bolton & al . ( 2007 ) .\nleptothorax senior synonym of mychothorax : smith , m . r . 1950 : 29 [ both have the same type - species , synonymy is therefore absolute ] .\nintrapopulation nest clusters of maternal mtdna lineages in the polygynous ant leptothorax mec _ 1394 . fm page 2727 tuesday , october 23 , 2001 6 : 43 pm 2728\nsecond experiment . number of queens according to treatment ( parasite - free , sympatric parasite and allopatric parasite plots ) ( a ) and species ( leptothorax acervorum and l . muscorum ) and habitat ( abensberg and innichen ) ( b ) . total production according to treatment ( c ) and species and habitat ( d ) . means \u00b1 standard error are presented .\n39 . heinze j , gratiashvili n ( 2015 ) high skew in the caucasus : functional monogyny in the ant leptothorax scamni . insectes soc 62 : 385 - 392\nmean pairwise migration rates for iberian populations of l . acervorum ( with error bars indicating 95 % cis ) . rates are given as immigration and emigration separately , with respect to pyrenees ( py i and ii )\ncantiacus \u2013 you know more about this species ? by the way , what ant is it on your avatar \u2013 it could actually look a bit like leptothorax or similar .\nbolton , b . 2003 . synopsis and classification of formicidae . mem . am . entomol . inst . 71 : 370pp ( page 247 , leptothorax in myrmicinae , formicoxenini )\ngt dinucleotide repeat polymorphisms in a polygynous ant , leptothorax spinosior and their use for measurement of relatedness . naturwissenschaften 80 : 179\u2013181 - hamaguchi , ito\u0302 , et al . - 1993\nleptothorax acervorum is widely distributed throughout england , wales , scotland and ireland . it is relatively abundant throughout its range from cornwall to northern scotland and can be found quite readily in most areas , apart from extreme urban and intensively agricultural sites . the species is more commonly associated with inland rather than coastal sites . this species occurs from arctic scandinavia south to southern europe , and across asia to japan .\nhey , i have wondered where to buy springtails in europe for a while . they seem like awsome food for temnothorax / leptothorax colonies . where abouts do you get them ? thanks .\nfabricius ' s ( 1793 ) description is at . nylander ( 1846a : 936 ) gave a full description , as myrmica acervorum , this is at . bondroit ( 1918 : 112 ) gave a fuller description , this is at .\nscientists have asked , \u201cwhy has sociality evolved many times in the hymenoptera . one answer proposes that genetic relatedness is key . male hymenoptera have only one set of chromosomes . every female progeny of the male with a single queen will be on average 3 / 4 genetically identical . the half of their genes that come from the male are 100 % identical . the half of the genes that come from the queen are 50 % identical . thus , sociality may be genetically favorable because workers would benefit more from raising sisters ( which are 3 / 4 identical ) than raising their own offspring which would share only 50 % identity . when societies such as leptothorax acervorum have multiple queens , this answer no longer applies because the relatedness of sisters is less than half on average . leptothorax acervorum is studied as a model of a society with low relatedness of workes .\nthe flat and slender mesosoma in the female castes probably represents an adaptation to life in narrow rock crevices . this character corresponds well with the fact that practically all other leptothorax species both in europe and in north america preferably are nesting in dead wood or bark ( leptothorax acervorum in some places also in rock crevices ) , where nest entrances and galleries usually are tubular . the new species seems to have an extremely limited range as far as is known , a phenomenon , however , that appears to be not unusual among the formicoxenini . intensive search in alberta did not reveal any other site where l . athabasca would occur .\nl ' essaimage de quelques fourmis leptothorax : r\u00f4les de l ' \u00e9clairement et de divers autres facteurs . effet sur l ' isolement reproductif et la r\u00e9partition g\u00e9ographique . 2e partie , suite et fin\nmayr , g . 1861 . die europ\u00e4ischen formiciden . nach der analytischen methode bearbeitet . wien : c . gerolds sohn , 80 pp . ( page 57 , leptothorax in myrmicinae [ myrmicidae ] )\nallies ab , bourke afg , franks nr ( 1986 ) propaganda substances in the cuckoo ant leptothorax kutteri and the slave - maker harpagoxenus sublaevis . journal of chemical ecology 12 : 1285 - 1293 .\nfew studies have reported intraspecific tests within ant species . there was no support for the prediction of transactional models of a positive association between skew and relatedness in myrmica tahoensis ( evans , 1995 ) , and data from formica fusca agrees better with predictions of compromise models ( hannonen mt and sundstr\u00f6m l , personal communication ) . in contrast , bourke et al . ( 1997 ) provided supportive data for transactional models by comparing two populations of leptothorax acervorum .\nbolton , b . 1994 . identification guide to the ant genera of the world . cambridge , mass . : harvard university press , 222 pp . ( page 105 , leptothorax in myrmicinae , formicoxenini )\nkusnezov , n . 1964 [ 1963 ] . zoogeograf\u00eda de las hormigas en sudam\u00e9rica . acta zool . lilloana 19 : 25 - 186 ( page 57 , leptothorax in myrmicinae , myrmicini ( anachronism ) )\n41 . bernadou a , ruther j , heinze j ( 2015 ) avoid mistakes when choosing a new home : nest choice and adoption of leptothorax ant queens . j insect physiol 79 : 88 - 95\nsupplementary material tab . s1 . collecting sites of leptothorax samples , genbank accession numbers of gene sequences , and deposition of voucher specimens [ to be completed in final version ] . ( doc 65 kb )\nr\u00fcppell o , sch\u00e4ffler l , h\u00f6lldobler b ( 2002 ) lack of plasticity in the behaviour of queens of the ant leptothorax rugatulus emery ( formicidae : hymenoptera ) . j insect behav 15 : 447\u2013454 .\nthe evolutionary origin of workerless parasitic ants parasitizing colonies of leptothorax ( s . str . ) is investigated using data on morphology , chromosome number , and allozyme phenotype of both social parasites and their hosts . of the three previously proposed pathways , the evolution of workerless parasites from guest ants or slave - makers is unlikely , at least according to a phenogram obtained by upgma clustering of nei ' s similarities based on seven enzymes , lntraspecific evolution of the workerless parasites doronomyrmex goesswaldi , d . kutteri , and d . pacis from their common host , leptothorax acervorum cannot be excluded with the present data . the workerless parasite l . paraxenus , however , clearly differs from its host , l . cf . canadensis , in morphology and biochemistry , and most probably did not evolve from the latter species . it is proposed to synonymize doronomyrmex under leptothorax ( s . str . ) .\nfrequency of egg eating ( observations per queen during the total observation period , median , quartiles , range ) in colonies of the ant leptothorax acervorum from the low - skew population in n\u00fcrnberger reichswald . individual colonies were subjected to different types of stress ( food reduction f , worker reduction w , or both fw ) or left unmanipulated ( control c ) in two different seasons ( july , i , and september , ii ) . outliers are indicated as circles .\nwheeler , w . m . 1910b . ants : their structure , development and behavior . new york : columbia university press , xxv + 663 pp . ( page 139 , leptothorax in myrmicinae , myrmicini )\nfrequency of queens groomed by workers ( observations per queen and worker during the total observation period , median , quartiles , range ) of the ant leptothorax acervorum from the low - skew population in n\u00fcrnberger reichswald . individual colonies were subjected to different types of stress ( food reduction f , worker reduction w , or both fw ) or left unmanipulated ( control c ) in two different seasons ( july , i , and september , ii ) . outliers are indicated as circles .\nforel , a . 1895b . a fauna das formigas do brazil . bol . mus . para . hist . nat . ethnogr . 1 : 89 - 139 ( page 125 , leptothorax in myrmicinae , myrmicini )\nforel , a . 1917 . cadre synoptique actuel de la faune universelle des fourmis . bull . soc . vaudoise sci . nat . 51 : 229 - 253 ( page 244 , leptothorax in myrmicinae , leptothoracini )\nemery , c . ; forel , a . 1879 . catalogue des formicides d ' europe . mitt . schweiz . entomol . ges . 5 : 441 - 481 ( page 458 , leptothorax in myrmicinae [ myrmicidae ] )\nfrequency of trophallaxis , i . e . , food exchange , among queens ( observations per queen during the total observation period , median , quartiles , range ) of the ant leptothorax acervorum from the low - skew population in n\u00fcrnberger reichswald . individual colonies were subjected to different types of stress ( food reduction f , worker reduction w , or both fw ) or left unmanipulated ( control c ) in two different seasons ( july , i , and september , ii ) . outliers are indicated as circles .\nwe investigated whether queens from a low - skew population of the ant leptothorax acervorum adjust their behavior towards nestmate queens and the partitioning of reproduction in response to experimentally changed conditions . our data show that experimental manipulation , in particular the reduction of worker numbers , provoked fighting and dominance interactions similar in quality and quantity to those previously observed in high - skew populations of this and other leptothorax species . though the absolute number of queen - queen attacks was low , few and infrequent interactions may suffice to establish clear social and reproductive rank orders among ants ( e . g . , [ 31 ] ) . food reduction alone did not lead to an increase in aggression but resulted in a higher frequency of food begging and food exchange among queens .\nbolton , b . 1982 . afrotropical species of the myrmecine ant genera cardiocondyla , leptothorax , melissotarsus , messor and cataulacus ( formicidae ) . bulletin of the british museum ( natural history ) . entomology , 46 : 307 - 370 ( page 319 , leptothorax senior synonym of dichothorax , mychothorax , myrafant ( and its junior synonym icothorax ) , myrmammophilus , nesomyrmex ( and its junior synonyms caulomyrma , goniothorax ( junior homonym ) and limnomyrmex ) , temnothorqax , tetramyrma )\nbingham , c . t . 1903 . the fauna of british india , including ceylon and burma . hymenoptera , vol . ii . ants and cuckoo - wasps . london : taylor and francis , 506 pp . ( page 214 , type - species : formica acervorum , by subsequent designatio )\nwheeler , w . m . 1915i [ 1914 ] . the ants of the baltic amber . schr . phys . - \u00f6kon . ges . k\u00f6nigsb . 55 : 1 - 142 ( page 63 , leptothorax in myrmicinae , myrmicini )\nbuschinger , a . and a . schulz . 2008 . leptothorax athabasca sp . n . ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) from alberta , canada , an ant with an apparently restricted range . myrmecologische nachrichten . 11 : 243 - 248 . pdf\narnold , g . 1916 . a monograph of the formicidae of south africa . part ii . ponerinae , dorylinae . ann . s . afr . mus . 14 : 159 - 270 ( page 257 , leptothorax in myrmicinae , leptothoracini )\ndalla torre , k . w . von . 1893 . catalogus hymenopterorum hucusque descriptorum systematicus et synonymicus . vol . 7 . formicidae ( heterogyna ) . leipzig : w . engelmann , 289 pp . ( page 122 , leptothorax in myrmicinae )\nemery , c . 1877b . saggio di un ordinamento naturale dei mirmicidei , e considerazioni sulla filogenesi delle formiche . bull . soc . entomol . ital . 9 : 67 - 83 ( page 81 , leptothorax in myrmicidae , myrmicidae ` )\nleptothorax rugatulus is widespread in the western united states ( creighton , 1950 ) . in our study area ( southern arizona and new mexico ) , it mainly nests under stones or in rock crevices in mixed coniferous forests on mountain ranges . to investigate the pattern of reproduction among leptothorax rugatulus queens , two experimental groups of colonies were established in the laboratory : unmanipulated colonies and artificially mixed groups . both groups comprised colonies with only macrogynes , only microgynes , or both ( mixed colonies ) .\nworkers of l . acervorum forage singly and unobtrusively , mainly in search of carrion , although they may tackle very small and weak invertebrates . homoptera are not actively tended for their honeydew . they forage over the ground and rock surface or amongst fallen dead wood and leaf litter and can often be found taking scraps of food , dead corpses and nest rubbish from around the colonies of other much larger ants such as formica species . they are rarely bothered by the larger ants due to their stealthy and appeasing nature and l . acervorum nests can also often be found in close association with those of other species .\nsupported by deutsche forschungsgemeinschaft ( he1623 / 30 ) and shota rustaveli national science foundation ( 04 / 24 ) . we thank abel bernadou and nina spitzenpfeil for providing sequences of l . gredleri and andreas trindl and j\u00fcrgen trettin for sequences of l . acervorum . three referees made helpful comments on the manuscript .\nideally we should also have performed the opposite experiment , i . e . , trying to induce queen tolerance in colonies from high skew populations of l . acervorum by adding workers or overfeeding the colonies . however , documenting the complete disappearance of a rare behavioral trait is more difficult than documenting its induction . furthermore , queen aggressiveness and reproductive skew appear to vary to some extent among natural colonies of high skew populations of l . acervorum and related species , and not in all studied colonies were queens seen to engage in aggressive interactions [ 19 ] , [ 28 ] , [ 31 ] , [ 49 ] .\nemery , c . 1895l . die gattung dorylus fab . und die systematische eintheilung der formiciden . zool . jahrb . abt . syst . geogr . biol . tiere 8 : 685 - 778 ( page 769 , leptothorax in myrmicinae , myrmicini )\nleptothorax pocahontas has long , tapering hairs and , in the typical case , a smooth and shiny surface ( however ,\ndull\ngynes with shorter hairs have been found and provisionally attributed to this species , cf . buschinger & heinze 1993 ) .\nheinze , j . and n . gratiashvili . 2015 . high skew in the caucasus : functional monogyny in the ant leptothorax scamni . insectes sociaux . 62 : 385 - 392 . doi : 10 . 1007 / s00040 - 015 - 0415 - 5\nbuschinger & schulz ( 2008 ) - the habitat is the river bank that sometimes is evidently flooded . a horizontally split , schist - like sandstone cliff is exposed there . the ants were exclusively found in rock crevices , whereas above the flood line a number of related species of leptothorax were dwelling dead wood , or a layer of conifer needles and debris beneath small flat rocks . mainly leptothorax retractus could be found there . close to the river and in the collecting site the coniferous forest was comparatively open .\nheinze , j . 1998 (\n1995\n) . the origin of workerless parasites in leptothorax ( s . str . ) ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . psyche ( cambridge ) 102 : 195 - 214 . [ 1998 - 03 - 27 ] pdf\nsupplementary material fig . s1 . close up of the nest of leptothorax scamni under spruce bark . the arrow points to the nest cavity with a cluster of larvae . the white material above and below the nest is dried resin . ( jpeg 173 kb )\nhaplotype network of l . acervorum from sw - europe , germany ( d ) and england ( e ) . populations and geographic regions are labelled by different colours . the size of haplotypes is proportional to the number of individuals ( see concentric circles ) and each line between haplotypes represents a single mutational step . included are two extreme divergent haplotypes that differ by 31 ( 23 + 8 ) ( py i ) and 26 ( fr iii ) mutations and a reference sequence of leptothorax kutteri ( lk ) that differ by 32 ( 24 + 8 ) mutations from the core network , respectively\n. . . queen : worker ratios of 1 : 4 or more are commonly observed in high - skew populations of l . acervorum ( e . g . , see figure s1 in trettin et al . 2014 ) . for example , the ratio varied from 1 : 8 to 1 : 4 queens per worker in l . acervorum colonies in japan ( ito 2005 ) , and queen : worker ratios \u22651 : 4 were observed in 25 of 50 colonies from spain ( felke 1999 ; felke and buschinger 1999 ) . therefore , the ratio employed in our study is biologically realistic and resembles natural conditions observed in high - skew popu - lations . . . .\nbuschinger & schulz ( 2008 ) - a detailed differential diagnosis cannot be provided because of the desolate condition of leptothorax taxonomy in north america . a comparison is possible only with a few well - known species and with the sympatric forms in the vicinity of the type locality .\nashmead , w . h . 1905c . a skeleton of a new arrangement of the families , subfamilies , tribes and genera of the ants , or the superfamily formicoidea . can . entomol . 37 : 381 - 384 ( page 383 , leptothorax in myrmicinae , stenammini )\nangelika oppelt , fernanda c . humann , marion fuessl , sergio v . azevedo , david s . marco antonio , juergen heinze , and klaus hartfelder , \u201csuppression subtractive hybridization analysis reveals expression of conserved and novel genes in male accessory glands of the ant leptothorax gredleri , \u201d\nemery , c . 1914e . intorno alla classificazione dei myrmicinae . rend . sess . r . accad . sci . ist . bologna cl . sci . fis . ( n . s . ) 18 : 29 - 42 ( page 42 , leptothorax in myrmicinae , leptothoracini )\ntotal production was higher in allopatric parasite plots than in parasite - free plots ( least - significant difference post hoc test ; fig . 3c ) . species and habitat interacted again to affect total production : l . acervorum had a higher total production in innichen , whereas l . muscorum did better in abensberg ( significant habitat \u00d7 species ' interaction ; fig . 3d ) . habitat and species as main effects were not significant . per capita productivity differed between species ( higher in l . muscorum ) and between habitats ( higher in abensberg ) . the treatment ' s main influence was through a treatment \u00d7 habitat interaction : allopatric parasite plots included more productive colonies than parasite - free plots in abensberg , but treatment had little effect in innichen ( fig . 4a ) . leptothorax muscorum colonies showed higher per capita productivity in abensberg than in innichen , whereas l . acervorum colony per capita productivity did not differ between the habitats ( significant habitat \u00d7 species ' interaction ; fig . 4b ) .\nwe investigated sex allocation in a central european population of the facultatively polygynous ant leptothorax acervorum . the population - wide sex ratio was found to be quite balanced , with a proportional investment in female sexuals of 0 . 49 . sex allocation varied considerably between colonies , resulting in split sex ratios . the productivity of colonies was negatively correlated with queen number and positively with colony size . in contrast , the sex ratio ( proportional investment in female sexuals ) was neither correlated with queen number , colony size , nor total sexual production , but with worker relatedness . the uncoupling of the genetic colony structure and queen number presumably results from frequent queen turnover and colony splitting .\nin social insects , workers of different morphological castes and age are known to act differently . yet , it is unclear how body size and ovarian development influence worker personalities ( i . e . consistent behavioral variation ) and task allocation in similar aged ant workers of monomorphic species . behavioral variation is thought to be a key element of division of labor , but few studies have linked worker personality to task allocation . we investigated individual behavior in leptothorax acervorum ant workers at two time points during the first three months of their life and in two different settings . we observed worker behavior in the nest ( i . e . task allocation ) and in standardized aggression , exploration and brood care experiments ( i . e . personality ) and found behavioral repeatability in foraging and exploration . further , workers acted consistently across settings : workers with a more aggressive and exploratory personality type were more active in the nest . moreover , ovarian development was associated with worker personality and task allocation : older workers with well - developed ovaries foraged less , but were more aggressive and exploratory . in accordance with the typical age - polyethism of social insects , workers became more active and foraged more as they grew older . consequently , our study suggests that task allocation in leptothorax acervorum is not only influenced by ovarian development and age , but moreover by the personalities of its workers\nmultiple mating by queens ( polyandry ) and the occurrence of multiple queens in the same colony ( polygyny ) alter patterns of relatedness within societies of eusocial insects . this is predicted to influence kin - selected conflicts over reproduction . we investigated the mating system of a facultatively polygynous uk population of the ant leptothorax acervorum using up to six microsatellite loci . we estimated mating frequency by genotyping 79 dealate ( colony ) queens and the contents of their sperm receptacles and by detailed genetic analysis of 11 monogynous ( single - queen ) and nine polygynous colonies . results indicated that 95 % of queens were singly mated and 5 % of queens were doubly mated . the corrected population mean mating frequency was 1 . 06 . parentage analysis of adults and brood in 17 colonies ( 10 monogynous , 7 polygynous ) showed that female offspring attributable to each of 31 queens were full sisters , confirming that queens typically mate once . inbreeding coefficients , queen - mate relatedness of zero and the low incidence of diploid males provided evidence that l . acervorum sexuals mate entirely or almost entirely at random . males mated to queens in the same polygynous colony were not related to one another . our data also confirmed that polygynous colonies contain queens that are related on average and that their workers had a mixed maternity . we conclude that the mating system of l . acervorum involves queens that mate near nests with unrelated males and then seek readoption by those nests , and queens that mate in mating aggregations away from nests , also with unrelated males .\nwheeler , w . m . 1922i . ants of the american museum congo expedition . a contribution to the myrmecology of africa . vii . keys to the genera and subgenera of ants . bull . am . mus . nat . hist . 45 : 631 - 710 ( page 664 , leptothorax in myrmicinae , leptothoracini )\nthe genus leptothorax may prove particularly important for tests of reproductive partitioning in ants because the relatively small colonies can be collected completely and maintained under seminatural condition in the laboratory ( buschinger , 1974a ) . leptothorax species exhibit a variety of social structures ( bourke and heinze , 1994 ; buschinger , 1974b ) , and remarkable data sets exist on various aspects of their biology ( e . g . , bourke et al . , 1997 ; herbers , 1990 ) . social diversity is also common within leptothorax species : in many cases single - queen ( monogynous ) and multiple - queen ( polygynous ) colonies coexist ( facultative polygyny ; bourke and franks , 1995 ) , which can be attributed to variation in ecological constraints on independent founding ( bourke and franks , 1995 ; herbers , 1993 ) . in some cases , variation in reproductive strategies has led to alternative queen morphs ( buschinger and heinze , 1992 ; heinze and tsuji , 1995 ; r\u00fcppell and heinze , 1999 ) .\nsupplementary material fig . s2 . timing of sexual activity ( median , quartiles of the proportion of active female sexuals ) in 16 colonies of the ant leptothorax scamni . colonies were removed from dark incubators at 15 \u00b0c and exposed to light and room temperature ( 19 \u00b0c ) at 8 : 00 . ( jpeg 23 kb )\nloiselle , r . ; francouer , a . ; fischer , k . ; buschinger , a . 1990 . variations and taxonomic significance of the chromosome numbers in the nearctic species of the genus leptothorax ( s . s . ) ( formicidae : hymenoptera ) . caryologia 43 : 321 - 334 ( page 329 , see also )\nmayr , g . 1865 . formicidae . in : reise der \u00f6sterreichischen fregatte\nnovara\num die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859 . zoologischer theil . bd . ii . abt . 1 . wien : k . gerold ' s sohn , 119 pp . ( page 20 , leptothorax in myrmicinae [ myrmicidae ] )\nthe disjunct distribution of several palearctic species has been widely shaped by the changes in climatic conditions during the quaternary . the observed genetic differentiation or reproductive isolation between extant populations may be the outcome of their contemporary geographic separation or reproductive incompatibility due to differences in phenotypic traits which have evolved in isolated refugia . in the boreal ant leptothorax acervorum , colonies from central and peripheral populations differ in social structure : colonies from central and northern europe may contain several equally reproductive queens ( facultative polygyny ) , while in colonies from peripheral populations in spain only one the most dominant of several queens lays eggs ( functional monogyny ) . by reconstructing the specie\u2019s evolutionary and demographic history in southwestern europe we examine whether variation in social organization is associated with restricted gene flow between the two social forms .\nthere are several studies with ants that explore the relationship between latitude , altitude , and either colony size or body size ; kaspari & vargo ( 1995 ) , for example , found that extreme latitudes hold larger colonies and they explained this as a strategy to survive winter starvation . this explanation is known as the endurance hypothesis and found support from heinze et al . ( 2003 ) paper where worker size in leptothorax acervorum ( fabricius ) decreases but colony size increases with latitude . porter & hawkins ( 2001 ) however , questioned the application of these results to all social insects . we are unaware of papers studying jame ' s rule ( or bergmann ' s rule in an extended sense ) in social wasps despite that there are several species with wide altitudinal and latitudinal ranges .\nour study demonstrates that queens of l . acervorum from low skew populations are able to react to changes in their social environment . in addition , it highlights the importance of queen - worker ratio for the adjustment of skew and the need for further studies to clarify its role and the role of other factors ( e . g . , egg cannibalism and habitat structure ) in the formation and maintenance of reproductive skew in insect societies .\nanalysis of genetic structure and relationship between and within iberian populations ( for microsatellites ) of l . acervorum . a unrooted neighbour - joining tree using nei ' s d a distance ( bootstrap values given as numbers close to nodes ) . b bayesian assignment analysis with all samples included ( individual membership proportions for k = 2 clusters ) . c bayesian assignment analysis without samples from py ii ( individual membership proportions for k = 4 clusters )\nkin selection theory predicts that social insects should perform selfish manipulations as a function of colony genetic structure . we describe a novel mechanism by which this occurs . first , we use microsatellite analyses to show that , in a population of the ant leptothorax acervorum , workers ' relatedness asymmetry ( ratio of relatedness to females and relatedness to males ) is significantly higher in monogynous ( single\u2013queen ) colonies than in polygynous ( multiple\u2013queen ) colonies . workers rear mainly queens in monogynous colonies and males in polygynous colonies . therefore , split sex ratios in this population are correlated with workers ' relatedness asymmetry . together with significant female bias in the population numerical and investment sex ratios , this finding strongly supports kin\u2013selection theory . second , by determining the primary sex ratio using microsatellite markers to sex eggs , we show that the ratio of male to female eggs is the same in both monogynous and polygynous colonies and equals the overall ratio of haploids ( males ) to diploids ( queens and workers ) among adults . in contrast to workers of species with selective destruction of male brood , l . acervorum workers therefore rear eggs randomly with respect to sex and must achieve their favoured sex ratios by selectively biasing the final caste ( queen or worker ) of developing females .\nsupplementary material fig . s5 . maximum likelihood consensus tree inferred from 523 bp sequences of the nuclear protein - coding gene longwave rhodopsin of leptothorax scamni and related species . figures at the nodes represent the percentage of replicate trees with a particular branching pattern . branches found in less than 50 % of 1000 bootstrap replicates are collapsed . ( pdf 9 kb )\nkin selection theory predicts that social insects should perform selfish manipulations as a function of colony genetic structure . we describe a novel mechanism by which this occurs . first , we use microsatellite analyses to show that , in a population of the ant leptothorax acervorum , workers ' relatedness asymmetry ( ratio of relatedness to females and relatedness to males ) is significantly higher in monogynous ( single - queen ) colonies than in polygynous ( multiple - queen ) colonies . workers rear mainly queens in monogynous colonies and males in polygynous colonies . therefore , split sex ratios in this population are correlated with workers ' relatedness asymmetry . together with significant female bias in the population numerical and investment sex ratios , this finding strongly supports kin - selection theory . second , by determining the primary sex ratio using microsatellite markers to sex eggs , we show that the ratio of male to female eggs is the same in both monogynous and polygynous colonies and equals the overall ratio of haploids ( males ) to diploids ( queens and workers ) among adults . in contrast to workers of species with selective destruction of male brood , l . acervorum workers therefore rear eggs randomly with respect to sex and must achieve their favoured sex ratios by selectively biasing the final caste ( queen or worker ) of developing females .\nsupplementary material fig . s6 maximum likelihood consensus tree inferred from 361 bp sequences of the nuclear protein - coding gene elongation factor 1\u03b1 - f1 of leptothorax scamni and related species . figures at the nodes represent the percentage of replicate trees with a particular branching pattern . branches found in less than 50 % of 1000 bootstrap replicates are collapsed . ( pdf 10 kb )\n. . . unclear . if queens outbreed , and polygyny arises purely by the adoption of daughter queens , relatedness among queens within colonies is predicted to be negatively correlated with colony queen number ( = - = keller 1995 - = - ) . however , we found no relationship between queen number and the relatedness of queens in polygynous colonies of l . acervorum . likewise , heinze et al . ( 1995b ) found no relationship between queen numb . . .\nas studies of reproductive distributions in field collected colonies of leptothorax have proven difficult due to potentially missing queens ( bourke et al . , 1997 ) , we investigated the reproductive distribution among cohabiting leptothorax rugatulus queens in a controlled laboratory experiment . specifically , the influence of intracolonial relatedness and body size of queens on reproductive partitioning were studied . we used unmanipulated colonies to investigate naturally occurring skew , as well as randomly assembled colonies to confront alien queens with each other and control for potential worker nepotism ( i . e . , to exclude the possibility that high skews resulted from workers nepotistically favoring the reproduction of their own mother ) . in addition , we investigated whether queens biased their reproduction toward one particular offspring type , relative to their nest - mate queens .\nsupplementary material fig . s4 . maximum likelihood consensus tree inferred from 646 bp sequences of the mitochondrial co i gene of leptothorax scamni and related species , including additional sequences of l . gredleri . figures at the nodes represent the percentage of replicate trees with a particular branching pattern . branches found in less than 50 % of 1000 bootstrap replicates are collapsed . ( pdf 15 kb )\nin southern germany , the two sibling species meet close to the continental divide in the franconian alb , following the line neumarkt\u2013berching\u2013beilngries\u2013ingolstadt\u2013allershausen\u2013mering ( fig . 1 ) . both species were found syntopically in four collecting sites in this area ( dietfurt , manching , eichst\u00e4tt , berching ) and almost syntopically in velburg , where the two populations are divided by a field approximately 150 m in width . the ranges of both species therefore appear to overlap for at most 25 km . specimens collected further west in germany and other parts of europe were all t . nylanderi , whereas all material collected east and south - east of the contact zone were t . crassispinus . in some areas with apparently suitable habitat ( light forests with pines , beeches , and oaks ) close to the expected contact zone , neither t . crassispinus nor t . nylanderi could be found despite the presence of other ants , which regularly co - occur with the two sibling species in other sites ( e . g . leptothorax gredleri , leptothorax acervorum , temnothorax unifasciatus ) . furthermore , neither t . crassispinus nor t . nylanderi were found in deciduous forests at the northern border of the alps ( kempten , marktoberdorf , schongau , weilheim ; fig . 1 , see also appendix ) .\n. . . ehaviour ( felke & buschinger 1999 ) , suggest that queens mate singly . furthermore , inbreeding coefficients not significantly different from zero are consistent with random mating ( stilleset al . 1991 ; = - = stille & stille 1993 - = - ; seppset al . 1995 ; bourkeset al . 1997 ; heinzeset al . 1995a , b , 2001 ) . field observations suggest that at least somesl . acervorum sexuals mate in large mating aggregations situated away from nests . . .\nsupplementary material fig . s3 . maximum likelihood consensus tree inferred from 820 bp sequences of the mitochondrial co i gene of leptothorax scamni and related species . figures at the nodes represent the percentage of replicate trees with a particular branching pattern . branches found in less than 50 % of 1000 bootstrap replicates are collapsed . functionally monogynous taxa are highlighted by red font . ( pdf 13 kb )\napproximately 10 years ago , seifert ( 1995 , 1996 ) recognized that one of the most common ant species in deciduous forests in central europe actually comprises two morphologically very similar sibling species , temnothorax nylanderi [ formerly leptothorax ( myrafant ) nylanderi f\u00f6rster 1850 ; bolton , 2003 ] and temnothorax crassispinus ( karavajev 1926 ) [ previously leptothorax ( myrafant ) crassispinus ; bolton , 2003 ] . these species probably originated from populations of a common ancestor species in different glacial refugia in southern europe and re - immigrated into central europe after the retreat of glaciation . presently , t . nylanderi is widely distributed throughout deciduous forests in western europe , whereas t . crassispinus inhabits similar habitats in eastern europe ( seifert , 1995 , 1996 ; radchenko , czechowski & czechowska , 1999 ; radchenko , 2000 ) .\nskew within multiple queen colonies is known to vary widely among species ( see keller 1993 ; bourke & franks 1995 ; keller 1995 ) , although relatively little variation has been found within species ( e . g . field et al . 1998 ; reeve et al . 2000 ; fournier & keller 2001 ; seppa et al . 2002 ; sumner et al . 2002 ; hannonen & sundstrom 2003 ; nonacs et al . 2004 ; liebert & starks 2006 ) . in ants with multiple queen colonies , the majority of species have low skew as reproduction is partitioned fairly evenly among queens ; a situation known as polygyny . however , there are species in which a single queen monopolizes all reproduction in multiple queen colonies . this rare social organization , termed functional monogyny ( buschinger 1968 ) , has been reported in just a handful of ant species : formicoxenus hirticornis ( buschinger 1979 ) ; formicoxenus nitidulus ( buschinger & winter 1976 ) ; formicoxenus provancheri ( buschinger 1980 ; heinze et al . 1993 ) ; leptothorax gredleri ( see heinze et al . 1992 ; lipski et al . 1992 ) ; leptothorax species a ( see heinze & buschinger 1989 ; heinze & smith 1990 ) and leptothorax sphagnicolus ( see buschinger & francoeur 1991 ) .\nleptothorax acervorum populations consist of both single queen and multiple queen colonies . we sampled colonies from a potentially functionally monogynous population : orihuela del tremendal , sierra de albarracin , spain , in 2004 ( ot04 ) and 2006 ( ot06 ) . in 2004 , we sampled in june , before eclosion of sexual offspring , and in 2006 , we sampled in october , after eclosion of sexual offspring and mating . we also sampled colonies from a known polygynous population in sherwood forest , uk , in march and october 2007 . to increase the geographical spread of populations sampled for our study of genetic relationships among populations , we collected colonies from an additional five populations : valdelinares , spain ( v ) ; solvorn , norway ( so ) ; umea , sweden ( um ) ; tvarminne , finland ( tv ) and vaasa , finland ( vn ) . we also used workers previously collected from colonies in santon downham , uk ( sd ) ( hammond et al . 2006 ) ."]}
{"id": 2579, "summary": [{"text": "cleridae are a family of beetles of the superfamily cleroidea .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "they are commonly known as checkered beetles .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the family cleridae has a worldwide distribution , and a variety of habitats and feeding preferences .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "cleridae have a large number of niches and feeding habits .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "most genera are predaceous and feed on other beetles and larvae ; however other genera are scavengers or pollen feeders .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "clerids have elongated bodies with bristly hairs , are usually bright colored , and have variable antennae .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "checkered beetles range in length between 3 millimeters and 24 millimeters .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "cleridae can be identified based on their 5 \u2013 5 \u2013 5 tarsal formula , division of sternites , and the absence of a special type of vesicle .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "female cleridae lay between 28 \u2013 42 eggs at a time predominately under the bark of trees .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "larvae are predaceous and feed vigorously before pupation and subsequently emergence as adults .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "clerids have a minor significance in forensic entomology .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "some species are occasionally found on carrion in the later dry stages of decay .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "also , some species are pests ( stored product entomology ) and are found infesting various food products .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "research efforts related to cleridae have focused primarily on using certain species as biological controls .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "this is a very effective technique for controlling bark beetles due to the voracious appetite of many clerid species . ", "topic": 12}], "title": "cleridae", "paragraphs": ["classification , natural history , phylogeny and subfamily composition of the cleridae and generic content of the subfamilies ( coleoptera , cleridae ) .\n1960 . the cleridae of north america . part i . the geographical distribution of cleridae of north america , north of the panama canal .\n( leconte ) ( coleoptera : cleridae ) , with a review of subspecies taxa in the family cleridae . psyche 99 : 199 - 206 .\nthe checkered beetles ( coleoptera : cleridae ) of the maritime provinces of canada .\nas a valid name ( cleridae , tillinae ) . zookeys 299 : 49\u201375 .\n( gorham ) ( coleoptera : cleridae ) . coleopterists bulletin 25 : 127\u2013129 .\nclassification , phylogeny and zoogeography of the genus perylipus ( coleoptera : cleridae ) .\n( coleoptera : cleridae ) . the canadian entomologist , 40 : 229 - 233 .\nthe clerid homepage gives information on cleridae and the people who work with these beetles .\ngerstmeier , r . ( 1991 ) mimolesterus gen . n . , a new genus of australian cleridae ( coleoptera : cleridae ) , koleopterologische rundschau , 61 , 171\u2013173 .\nmost species of cleridae are predators as larvae and adults on immature wood boring insects .\nde geer , 1775 coleoptera ; cleridae associated with pet food in brazil\npdf .\nfour new species of cymatodera gray from mexico ( coleoptera , cleridae , tillinae ) .\n( coleoptera , cleridae ) in the new world . zookeys 179 : 75 - 157 .\non the cytology of two species of necrobia ( oliv . ) ( coleoptera : cleridae )\na new species of cymatodera gray ( coleoptera : cleridae : tillinae ) from southern mexico .\nfaunistic composition of cleridae ( coleoptera ) in el lim\u00f3n de cuauchichinola , morelos , mexico .\nkuwert ( coleoptera : cleridae : enopliinae ) . canadian entomologist 147 ( 5 ) : 501\u2013526 .\ncleridae are a somewhat large family with more than 3 , 000 species known as of 2000 .\nadults of cleridae are known as\ncheckered beetles\u0094 due to the color pattern on their back .\n( coleoptera : cleridae ) . entomologische arbeiten aus dem museum g . frey 23 : 1 - 32 .\ngerstmeier , r . ( in press ) an overview on classification , taxonomic history and biology of cleridae ( coleoptera , cleroidea , cleridae ) , giornale italiano di entomologia , 13 ( 59 ) , in press .\nphotographs of north american cleridae associated with conifers , by b . d . ayres & w . f . barr\nfrom the southwestern united states and northern mexico ( coleoptera , cleridae ) . american museum novitates 1572 : 1\u20139 .\ngahan ( coleoptera : cleridae : clerinae ) from the western united states . zootaxa 2168 : 57 - 62 .\n( coleoptera : cleridae ) . smithsonian contributions to zoology . 227 : i - iv + 1 - 138 .\n( herbst ) ( coleoptera : cleridae ) . texas tech university special publications no . 11 . 86 p .\n( coleoptera : cleridae : hydnocerinae ) . giornale italiano di entomologia 13 ( 59 ) : 471 - 480 .\nmore from capsule | michele wang . . . view all 8 patterns aspen bingham celyn cleridae hague ilia palmer radmere\ncoleoptera : cleridae , to pheromones of the spruce beetle and two secondary bark beetles coleoptera : scolytidae\npdf .\na new genus and species of checkered beetle from honduras with additions to the honduran fauna ( coleoptera : cleridae ) .\ncatalogue of north american beetles of the family cleridae wolcott a . b . 1947 . fieldiana : zoology 32 : 63\u2013105 .\n( coleoptera : cleridae : enopliinae ) . folia entomol . mexicana 44 ( supl . 1 ) : 55 - 62 .\nherbst ( coleoptera : cleridae ) . proceedings of the entomological society of washington 106 ( 1 ) : 199 - 201 .\nnew species of cymatodera gray ( coleoptera : cleridae : tillinae ) from mexico and central america , with notes on others .\ngerstmeier , r . ( 2001 ) short communications on systematics of cleridae . 4 . changes within the genera cleromorpha gorham , 1876 and crobenia blackburn , 1891 ( cleridae , clerinae , korynetinae ) , acta coleopterologica , 17 ( 2 ) , 38 .\ngahan : predators of chemically protected ladybird beetles ( coleoptera : cleridae and coccinellidae ) . insecta mundi 0514 : 1 - 5 .\ntaxonomic revision of the genus callimerus gorham s . l . ( coleoptera , cleridae ) . part i . latifrons species - group\nwolcott ( coleoptera : cleridae : clerinae ) . proceedings of the entomological society of washington 113 ( 2 ) : 137 - 153 .\nmajka , c . 2006 .\na guide to the cleridae of atlantic canada\n. chebucto community net . 03 - 19 .\nthe checkered beetles ( coleoptera : cleridae ) of the maritime provinces of canada christopher g . majka . 2006 . zootaxa 1385 : 31\u201346 .\nopitz , w . 2007 . classification , natural history , and evolution of epiphloeinae ( coleoptera , cleridae ) . part iv . the genera\nopitz , w . 2008 . classification , natural history , and evolution of epiphloeinae ( coleoptera : cleridae ) . part vii . the genera\nvaurie , p . 1952 . the checkered beetles of north central mexico ( coleoptera , cleridae ) . american museum novitates 1597 : 1\u201337 .\ncleridae received a peer review by wikipedia editors , which is now archived . it may contain ideas you can use to improve this article .\nsix new species of cymatodera from mexico and central america and the retention of cymatodera obliquefasciata as a valid name ( cleridae , tillinae ) .\narticle : taxonomic revision of the genus callimerus gorham s . l . ( coleoptera , cleridae ) . part i . latifrons species - group\nbarr ( coleoptera : cleridae ) . annales de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 entomologique de france ( n . s . ) , 49 : 1 - 35 .\nwhat made you want to look up cleridae ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\nkolib\u00e1\u010d , j . ( 2003 ) a review of australian genera of korynetinae ( coleoptera , cleridae ) , entomologica basiliensia , 25 , 41\u201397 .\n( coleoptera , cleridae ) , a larval predator in the nests of bees and wasps . annals of the entomological society of america 36 : 589\u2013601 .\nbartlett , j . s . ( 2009b ) taxonomic revision of apteropilo lea , 1908 ( coleoptera : cleridae ) , zootaxa , 2200 , 41\u201353 .\ngorham , h . s . ( 1876 ) notes on the coleopterous family cleridae , with descriptions of new genera and species , cistula entomologica , 57\u2013104 .\nschaeffer , c . 1917 . on some north american cleridae . ( col . ) . journal of the new york entomolgical society 26 : 129 - 134 .\ndetails - taxonomic revision of the genus callimerus gorham s . l . ( coleoptera , cleridae ) . part i . latifrons species - group - biodiversity heritage library\nthe checkered beeltes ( coleoptera : cleridae ) of florida . leavengood , jr . , j . m . 2008 . university of florida , gainesville . 206 pp .\nopitz , w . 2010 . new taxa of epiphloeinae kuwert ( cleridae ) and chaetosomatidae crowson ( coleoptera : cleroidea ) . insecta mundi 0123 : 1 - 28 .\nwolcott , a . b . 1909 . the cleridae of the public museum of the city of milwaukee . bulletin of the wisconsin natural history society 7 : 93\u2013102 .\nwolcott , a . b . 1927 . descriptions of a new genus and four new species of north american cleridae . coleopterological contributions , 1 : 105 - 110 .\ndorshorst , j . j . 2006 . a comprehensive survey of the checkered beet ; es of wisconsin ( coleoptera : cleridae ) . m . s . thesis .\nwe name this beetle for prof . dr . roland gerstmeier ( technische universit\u00e4t m\u00fcnchen , germany ) , in recognition of his many contributions to the study of cleridae .\nknull , j . n . 1951 . the checkered beetles of ohio ( coleoptera : cleridae ) . ohio biological survey bulletin 8 ( 42 ) : 268 - 350 .\ncorporaal , j . b . ( 1950 ) cleridae . coleopterorum catalogus , supplementa pars 23 , uitgeverij dr . w . junk , ' s - gravenhage , 1\u2013373 .\nknull , j . n . 1951 . the checkered beetles of ohio ( coleoptera : cleridae ) . ohio biological survey bulletin , 8 ( 42 ) : 268 - 350 .\nclassification , natural history , phylogeny , and subfamily composition of the cleridae and generic content of the subfamilies opitz w . 2010 . entomologica basiliensia et collections frey 32 : 31\u2013128 .\nwolcott , a . b . 1947 . catalogue of north american beetles of the family cleridae . fieldiana : zoology , 32 ( 2 ) : 61 - 105 . full pdf\ngerstmeier , r . ( 2002 ) generic concept of clerid taxa related to clerus ( coleoptera : cleridae : clerinae ) , entomological problems , 32 ( 2 ) , 99\u2013111 .\nsolervicens , j . a . ( 2007 ) cladistic analysis of species of natalis laporte ( 1836 ) and related genera eunatalis schenkling ( 1909 ) , metademius schenkling ( 1899 ) and eurymetomorphon pic ( 1950 ) ( coleoptera : cleridae : clerinae ) with redescription of a restored clerinae genus ( coleoptera : cleridae : clerinae ) , zootaxa , 1389 , 1\u201314 .\nknull , j . n . 1934 . five new species of coleoptera ( cleridae , elateridae , buprestidae and cerambycidae ) . entomological news 45 ( 1 ) : 9 - 13 .\nschaeffer , c . 1908 . on new and known coleoptera of the families coccinellidae and cleridae . journal of the new york entomological society , 16 ( 3 ) : 125 - 135\nbartlett , j . s . ( 2009c ) a replacement name for phlogistus blackburni hintz , 1908 ( coleoptera : cleridae ) , australian entomologist , 36 ( 3 ) , 97\u201398 .\n( gorham , 1883 ) ( coleoptera : cleridae : hydnocerinae ) , including the first report from the united states . the coleopterists bulletin , 66 ( 4 ) : 351 - 356 .\nopitz , w . 2014 . taxonomy of the new world genera of enopliinae ( coleoptera : cleridae ) . journal of the kansas entomological society 87 ( 4 ) : 358 - 384 .\nopitz , w . 2017 . classification , natural history , and evolution of the subfamily peloniinae opitz ( coleoptera : cleroidea : cleridae ) . part viii . systematics of the checkered beetle genus\nwolcott , a . b . 1910 . notes on some cleridae of middle and north america , with descriptions of new species . fieldiana zoology 7 ( 10 ) : 339 - 401 .\nbartlett , j . s . ( 2010 ) a new species of bicoloured eleale newman ( coleoptera : cleridae ) from the northern territory , australian entomologist , 36 ( 4 ) , 183\u2013188 .\nopitz , w . ( 2002a ) 73 . cleridae latreille 1804 . in : arnett jr . , r . h . et al . ( eds ) : american beetles . volume 2 .\nopitz , w . ( 2010 ) classification , natural history , phylogeny , and subfamily composition of the cleridae and generic content of the subfamilies . entomologica basiliensia et collections frey , 32 , 31\u2013128 .\nopitz , w . 1997 . classification , natural history , and evolution of the epiphloeinae ( co1eoptera : cleridae ) . part i . the genera of epiphloeinae . insecta mundi 11 : 51 - 96 .\nbartlett , j . s . ( 2009d ) the cleridae of lord howe island , with descriptions of two new species ( coleoptera : cleroidea ) , records of the australian museum 61 , 225\u2013228 . urltoken\nopitz , w . ( 2002b ) flower foraging behavior of the australian species eleale aspera ( newman ) ( coleoptera : cleridae : clerinae ) , the coleopterists bulletin , 56 ( 2 ) , 241\u2013245 .\nmawdsley , j . r . 2002 .\necological notes on species of cleridae insecta : coleoptera associated with the prairie flora of central north america\n. the great lakes entomologist 35 1 : 15\u009622 .\ngerstmeier , r . ( 1990b ) revision of the genus olesterus spinola , 1841 , with description of new species from australia ( coleoptera , cleridae ) , mitteilungen der m\u00fcnchner entomologischen gesellschaft , 80 , 21\u201338 .\nauthors ( 2015 ) four new species of cymatodera gray from central and southern mexico ( coleoptera , cleridae , tillinae ) . zookeys 513 : 105\u2013121 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 513 . 9935\ngerstmeier , r . ( 1990a ) short communications on systematics of cleridae . 1 . neoscrobiger ephippius ( boisduval , 1835 ) is a trogodendron spinola , 1841 , acta coleopterologica , 6 ( 2 ) , 80 .\nschenkling , s . ( 1903 ) coleoptera . malacodermata . fam . cleridae . in : wytsman p . ( ed . ) genera insectorum , fasc . 13 , p . wytsman , bruxelles , 124 pp .\nopitz , w . 2010 . classification , natural history , phylogeny , and subfamily composition of the cleridae and generic content of the subfamilies ( coleoptera : cleroidea ) . entomologica basiliensia et collectionis frey , 32 : 31\u2013128 .\nopitz , w . 2011 . classification , natural history , and evolution of epiphloeinae ( coleoptera , cleridae ) part x . the genus madoniella pic , 1935 . entomologica basiliensia et collectionis frey 33 : 133 - 248 .\nleavengood jr . , j . m . 2008 . the checkered beeltes ( coleoptera : cleridae ) of florida . unpublished thesis for the degree of master of science . university of florida , gainesville . 206 pp . full pdf\nleconte , j . l . 1849 . synopsis of the coleopterous insects of the group cleridae , which inhabit the united states . ann . lyc . nat . hist . n . y . 5 : 9 - 35 .\nekis , g . ( 1975 ) taxonomic and nomenclatural status of clerid taxa described by massimiliano spinola ( 1780\u20131857 ) ( coleoptera , cleridae ) . bollettino del museo di zoologia dell ' universit\u00e0 di torino , 1 , 1\u201380 .\nbartlett , j . s . ( 2009a ) scrobiger splendidus ( newman ) ( coleoptera : cleridae ) associated with hylaeus sp . ( hymenoptera : colletidae ) in southeastern queensland , australian entomologist , 36 ( 2 ) , 79\u201383 .\n4 . hemp c , hemp a , dettner k . attraction of the colour beetle species pallenothriocera rufimembris by cantharidin ( coleoptera : cleridae ) . entomol gen . 1999 ; 24 ( 1 ) : 115 - 23 . [ links ]\nopitz , w . 2011 . classification , natural history , and evolution of korynetinae laporte ( coleoptera : cleridae ) . part i . generic composition of the subfamily and key to genera . journal of afrotropical zoology 7 : 29 - 67 .\na fact from cleridae appeared on wikipedia ' s main page in the did you know ? column on 3 april 2009 ( check views ) . a record of the entry may be seen at wikipedia : recent additions / 2009 / april .\ndorshorst , j . j . and d . k . young . 2008 . an annotated checklist of wisconsin checkered beetles ( coleoptera : cleridae and thanerocleridae ) . the great lakes entomologist 41 : 169 - 184 ( publication in 2009 ) .\nleavengood jr , j . m . and b . h . garner . 2014 . nomenclatural notes on some checkered beetle ( coleoptera : cleridae ) types of the natural history museum , london ( bmnh ) . zootaxa 3760 : 301 - 335 .\nlambkin , t . a . and n . khatoon . 1990 . culture methods for necrobia rufipes ( degeer ) and dermestes maculatus degeer ( coleoptera : cleridae and dermestidae ) . j . stored prod . res . 26 : 59 - 60 .\nas a student of woodboring beetles for more than a quarter - century now , i\u2019ve had occasion to encounter a goodly number of checkered beetles ( family cleridae ) \u2013 both in the field and as a result of rearing them from dead wood . \u2026\nwinkler , j . r . ( 1972 ) cleridae ( coleoptera ) of australia : eleale cuprea mj\u00f6b . , e . neboissi sp . n . , e . balfourbrownei sp . n . , acta entomologica bohemslovaca , 69 ( 5 ) , 330\u2013338 .\nwinkler , j . r . ( 1989 ) sedlacekvia tanamica gen . n . , sp . n . , an anomalous new taxon from australia , tentatively assigned to the familiy cleridae ( coleoptera ) , acta univiversitatis carolinae - biologica , 32 , 457\u2013476 .\nnecrobia rufipes ( degeer ) is a beetle of the family cleridae and is the commonest species of necrobia found on cured fish . two related species , n . ruficollis ( fabricius ) and n violacea ( linnaeus ) , are only rarely found on this commodity .\nkolib\u00e1\u010d , j . ( 1998 ) notes on the classification of natalis laporte de castelnau and notocymatodera schenkling , with a description of notocymatodera disjuncta sp . n . ( coleoptera : cleridae ) , acta musei moraviae , scientiae biologicae , 82 ( 1997 ) , 191\u2013198 .\nhasan , md m . and t . w . phillips . 2010 . mass - rearing of the redlegged ham beetle , necrobia rufipes degeer ( coleoptera : cleridae ) for laboratory research . j . stored prod . res . 46 ( 1 ) : 38 - 42 .\nthe checkered beetles ( cleridae ) are a diverse and fascinating group of insects . corporaal ( 1950 ) catalogued 3 , 366 described species in the world and opitz ( 2002 ) listed 291 species in north america . of these 15 species are known to occur in atlantic canada .\nburke , a . f . , j . m . leavengood , g . zolnerowich . 2015 . a checklist of the new world species of tillinae ( coleoptera : cleridae ) , with an illustrated key to genera and new country records . zootaxa 4059 : 1 - 39 .\nthere are over 60 insect families which play an important role in carrion ecology . however , only the families ( calliphoridae , sarcophagidae , staphylinidae , cleridae and dermestidae ) of coleoptera ( beetles ) are the most important to be used in forensic entomology [ 4 , 5 ] .\nopitz , w . 2014 . classification , natural history , and evolution of the epiphloeinae ( coleoptera : cleridae ) part xi . generic taxonomy , intergeneric phylogeny , and catalogue of the subfamily . acta musei moraviae , scientiae biologicae , special issue 99 ( 2 ) : 1 - 94 .\namong checkered beetles ( family cleridae ) , the genus trichodes contains among the largest and most strikingly - colored species . the 11 north american species of this predominantly holarctic genus are primarily western in distribution , although two species ( t . nuttalli and t . apivorus ) do occur in the \u2026\ngoals / objectives larval and adult checkered beetles ( cleridae ) are one of the most important families of insect predators attacking injurious forest insects . yet , no surveys of the wisconsin or western great lakes region clerid fauna have ever been conducted . i estimate that we currently have published records and information on only half of the species indigenous to the state . thus , the primary objective is to conduct a comprehensive , systematic survey of wisconsin cleridae with special emphasis on species inhabiting wisconsin forests . this will establish a baseline of knowledge regarding species diversity , geographical and temporal distributions , and biology .\nty - jour ti - taxonomic revision of the genus callimerus gorham s . l . ( coleoptera , cleridae ) . part i . latifrons species - group t2 - zookeys vl - 294 ur - urltoken pb - pensoft publishers py - 2013 sp - 9 ep - 35 do - 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 294 . 4669 au - yang , gan - yan au - montreuil , olivier au - yang , xing - ke kw - brachycallimerus kw - callimerus kw - cleridae kw - new species kw - oriental region kw - species group kw - synonymy kw - systematics er -\n@ article { bhlpart100097 , title = { taxonomic revision of the genus callimerus gorham s . l . ( coleoptera , cleridae ) . part i . latifrons species - group } , journal = { zookeys } , volume = { 294 } , url = urltoken publisher = { pensoft publishers 2013 } , author = { yang , gan - yan and montreuil , olivier and yang , xing - ke } , year = { 2013 } , pages = { 9 - 35 } , keywords = { brachycallimerus | callimerus | cleridae | new species | oriental region | species group | synonymy | systematics | } , }\nthe family cleridae is probably better known by its other common name , the checkered beetles . most are predaceous on the larvae of other insects . a small subset of this group , however , prefers to feed on flesh . entomologists sometimes refer to these clerids as bone beetles or ham beetles . one species in particular ,\nbeetles ( coleoptera ) have been recognised as providing significant entomological evidence in the medico - legal field , particularly with reference to dry human skeletal remains in the later stages of decomposition . the dermestidae ( skin beetles ) and cleridae ( bone beetles ) have been found as the most common types infesting exposed human remains and providing evidence in estimating the minimum postmortem interval ( pmi ) .\noverall , great article . one minor error that i found was a capitalization mistake . on your general characteristics section ,\ncharacteristics\nshould not be capitalied . also , on the picture demonstrating the narrow pronotum , maybe adding\nof cleridae\nor naming the genus / specie in the picture would be a nice touch . - - skk1214aggie ( talk ) 23 : 38 , 14 april 2009 ( utc ) skk1214aggie\na total of 414 insects in 5 families of three orders : diptera ( muscidae , bombyliidae , syphiidae ) ; coleopteran ( cleridae ) and hemiptera ( reduviidae ) were collected from the forest genet . m . domestica was dominant ( 78 % ) ( table 3 ) . m . domestica was collected daily throughout the 25 - day period , from the display of fresh carcass to complete skeletonization ; the appearance of other species was discontinuous ( fig 3 ) .\ni am truly impressed with this article ; every section is very descriptive and informational . in your general characteristics section , i like the way you all differentiated between the appearance of cleridae and ways to identify them . the identification paragraph was very distinct and straight to the point . i also noticed how you intertwined appearance in the development section\nthe larvae are covered in hair and have two horn - type projections on the dorsal area of the last body segment\ngood work because although you already discussed appearance , you still kept the topic flowing throughout the article . one suggestion i have is to try and find a picture for the forensic relevance section of your article such as a cleridae feeding on carrion or on stored products . there is a wide variety pictures on your page so keep up the good work . this is a great article . cassiegz ( talk ) 16 : 11 , 15 april 2009 ( utc )\nthis new state survy project began in october 2003 . while much of the research will have a field focus , research prior to the first field season ( spring / summer 2004 ) centers on conducting background searchs for checkered beetles ( cleridae ) in existing collections , as well as accumulation of pertinent research literature . we have also begum to electronically database specimens in existing collections ( primarily from the university of wisconsin insect research collection ) . to date , 1 , 415 specimens have been entered .\nthe checkered beetles ( cleridae ) are small to medium - sized , elongated , often brightly colored species . worldwide about 3600 species have been described from virtually all biogeographical realms , in central europe and germany 20 species are known to occur . numerous species are visitors of flowers and feed on other insects , but also pollen . other representatives of the family live on trees and under the bark and prey mainly on bark beetles and their larvae . some species are scavengers , feeding on dry carrion and animal products ( dried and smoked meat , hides , bones ) and can become pests . the larvae are predaceous as well .\nlarva - appearance as in figure 1 ( right ) . typical beetle larva with three pairs of jointed legs ; moderately hairy . most of body creamish - grey with mottled violet - grey markings on the upper surface . head , and upper surfaces of the 1st thoracic segment and the last large abdominal segment ( the ninth ) , with brown hardened plates ; 2nd and 3rd thoracic segments also with tiny brownish plates . plate on last large abdominal segment with two horn - like protuberances which curve strongly upwards . very difficult to distinguish from closely - related species of cleridae , but easily distinguished from dermestes larvae by coloration and normal amount of hairs , and from fly larvae by presence of legs and obvious head .\nfirst of all , you did a good job covering this broad topic . my group had to cover genus chrysomya , so i know how difficult it is to include everything . one thing i will suggest is although you listed the subfamilies of the genus , maybe focus on one or two of the important species and mention them more in depth . just an idea . other than that , you had a very good description of the different habitats that cleridae inhabits . i also was very impressed with the way you split up the forensic importance by stored product and medico - legal entomology . overall , this article was very educational and very easy to read . well done . msrubar ( talk ) 02 : 40 , 7 april 2009 ( utc ) msrubar\ngreat job on the article ! cleridae had a lot of information to cover and overall it is very thorough . i feel like this webpage does a great job in touching every topic . a few small suggestions for the webpage would be to link the word\nantennae\nin the intro and\nbark beetle\nin the geography and distribution section . also , there were a few grammatical errors found in the geography and distribution section . when you talk about\nnest robbers category lives in shrubbery and trees . .\nand also\nfeed only on dead . . .\n. these changes are simple and easy but will make a huge difference on your page . again , good job on the page ! amanda . turchi ( talk ) 18 : 53 , 15 april 2009 ( utc )\nfive doses of lanierone ( 2 - hydroxy - 4 , 4 , 6 - trimethyl - 2 , 5 - cyclohexadien - 1 - one ) were tested with one dose of enantiomerically pure [ 99 . 4 % ( 4 r ) - ( \u2212 ) ] ipsdienol ( 2 - methyl - 6 - methylene - 2 , 7 - octadien - 4 - ol ) for activity as an aggregation pheromone of ips pini ( say ) in california . the response of i . pini to 1 mg / day ipsdienol + 20 \u03bcg / day lanierone was significantly greater than the response to ipsdienol alone , but the response pattern did not demonstrate a clear dose - response relationship . the response to the highest dose of lanierone ( 2 mg / day ) was significantly lower than the response to ipsdienol alone . ipsdienol attracted significantly more i . pini than a male - infested log . lanierone did not alter the percentage of male i . pini responding to ipsdienol alone . neither sex of i . pini or dendroctonus brevicomis leconte from california produced detectable amounts of lanierone , but myrcene - aerated male d . brevicomis produced 97 . 8 % - ( 4s ) - ( + ) - ipsdienol . the black - bellied clerid , enoclerus lecontei ( wolcott ) ( coleoptera : cleridae ) was attracted to lanierone when released with ipsdienol . neither compound was attractive when released alone , proving synergism for the kairomone of this predator . lanierone did not influence the response of the predators temnochila chlorodia ( mannerheim ) ( coleoptera : trogositidae ) and enoclerus sphegeus ( f . ) ( coleoptera : cleridae ) , which were attracted to all treatments containing ipsdienol . tomicobia tibialis ashmead ( hymenoptera : pteromalidae ) responded in significantly greater numbers to the male - infested log than it did to ipsdienol or ipsdienol + 20 \u03bcg / day lanierone .\nthis second edition is completey updated compared to the first edition published in 2000 . this new guide to phytophagous beetles of europe is devoted to the families buprestidae , elateridae , cleridae and cerambycidae . a host of species are described and illustrated , to help you recognise and identify almost all the jewel beetle and longhorn species you might encounter in europe , ranging from portugal and great britain to finland and the balkans . these include species quite recently described . phytophagous beetles of europe , volume 1 is packed with new information and discoveries , enriching the entries on the biology in general and the ethology and ecology of each species in particular , allowing for the many additional host - plants found over the past few years . distribution maps , drawn up in line with the most recent publications , feature alongside the descriptions . the new classification adopted is from the catalogue of palaearctic coleoptera , by l\u00f6bl and smetana , published from 2003 to 2013 , now used by all entomologists . this resolves many of the problems that stem from working with synonymies .\n< mods xmlns : xlink =\nurltoken\nversion =\n3 . 0\nxmlns : xsi =\nurltoken\nxmlns =\nurltoken\nxsi : schemalocation =\nurltoken urltoken\n> < titleinfo > < title > taxonomic revision of the genus callimerus gorham s . l . ( coleoptera , cleridae ) . part i . latifrons species - group < / title > < / titleinfo > < name > < namepart > yang , gan - yan < / namepart > < / name > < name > < namepart > montreuil , olivier < / namepart > < / name > < name > < namepart > yang , xing - ke < / namepart > < / name > < typeofresource > text < / typeofresource > < genre authority =\nmarcgt\n> < / genre > < note type =\ncontent\n> 294 < / note > < subject > < topic > brachycallimerus < / topic > < / subject > < subject > < topic > callimerus < / topic > < / subject > < subject > < topic > cleridae < / topic > < / subject > < subject > < topic > new species < / topic > < / subject > < subject > < topic > oriental region < / topic > < / subject > < subject > < topic > species group < / topic > < / subject > < subject > < topic > synonymy < / topic > < / subject > < subject > < topic > systematics < / topic > < / subject > < relateditem type =\nhost\n> < titleinfo > < title > zookeys < / title > < / titleinfo > < origininfo > < publisher > pensoft publishers < / publisher > < / origininfo > < part > < detail type =\nvolume\n> < number > 294 < / number > < / detail > < extent unit =\npages\n> < start > 9 < / start > < end > 35 < / end > < / extent > < date > 2013 < / date > < / part > < / relateditem > < identifier type =\nuri\n> urltoken < / identifier > < identifier type =\ndoi\n> 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 294 . 4669 < / identifier > < / mods >\na total of 281 insects in four families of 2 orders : diptera ( muscidae , syrphidae , calliphoridae ) and hymenoptera ( adidae ) , and 2 ixodids were collected from the mona monkey , cercipithecus mona . the major species was the house fly , musca domestica ( 72 % ) . the entomofauna from the giant cane rat , thyronomys swinderianus carcass , totalled 257 in 3 families of 2 orders : diptera ( muscidae , syrphidae ) and hymenoptera ( formicidae ) . the dominant species was m . domestica ( 76 % ) . the highest insect population was 414 , recorded from the carcass of the forest genet , genetta poensis ; it consisted of 5 families in 3 orders : diptera ( muscidae , bombyliidae , syrphidae ) , coleoptera ( cleridae ) and hemiptera ( reduviidae ) . the order diptera was dominant on all carcasses and the most prominent dipteran m . domestica was collected continuously , while the appearance of the other species was sporadic . complete decomposition period was shortest ( 11 days ) in the giant cane rat and longest ( 44 days ) in the forest genet ; the period in the mona monkey was 14 days . successional occurrence of these arthropods was not discernible . these results are compared to those from other studies .\ncantharidin has never been detected in plants , but the first crc , palasonin ( demethylcantharidin ) , which lacks one of the angular methyl groups of cantharidin , was characterized in 1960 ( 25 ) . it was initially isolated from the seeds of the indian tree , butea frondosa ( leguminoseae ) ( 26 ) . fietz was the first to detect palasonin in bodily extracts from a blister beetle ( hycleus lunatus ) and a clerid beetle ( trichodes apiaries , cleridae ) ( 27 ) . dettner et al . ( 21 ) reported the second crc , palasoninimide , from the south african species h . lunatus . cantharimides , whose anhydride oxygen atoms are replaced by basic amino acids , and cantharimide dimers , which consist of two cantharimide units combined with a tri - , tetra - , or penta - methylene group , have been reported in the chinese meloid mylabris phalerata pall . ( 28 , 29 ) . a low amount of cantharidinimide was found in bodily extracts from mylabris impressa stillata ( 20 ) . variable titers of palasonin were recently detected in two other southern african species , hycleus oculatus and hycleus tinctus ( 23 ) . although there are a few studies on palasonin , the crcs ' function , concentration , transfer or production site have never been discussed . the impact of sex or mating status on the diversity and frequency of such compounds was also unclear .\nthe wisconsin beetle diversity project continues with 20 families now extensively surveyed : ischaliidae ( 1 species ; 1985 ) , bolboceratidae ( 7 species , 2000 ) , ceratocanthidae ( 1 species , 2000 ) , geotrupidae ( 6 species , 2000 ) , glaresidae ( 1 species , 2000 ) , lucanidae ( 7 species , 2000 ) , ochodaeidae ( 1 species , 2000 ) , passalidae ( 1 species , 2000 ) , scarabaeidae ( 139 species , 2000 ; 140 species , 2006 ) , trogidae ( 14 species , 2000 ) , tenebrionidae ( 90 species , 2001 ) , endomychidae ( 9 species , 2002 ) , histeridae ( 95 species , 2002 ) , lycidae ( 22 species , 2002 ) , rhipiceridae ( 1 species , 2002 ) , kateretidae ( 4 species , 2003 ) , nitidulidae ( 78 species , 2003 ) , mordellidae ( 68 species , 2003 ) , cleridae ( 30 species , 2006 ) , cerambycidae ( lamiinae ) ( 78 species , 2006 ) . ongoing surveys include cupedidae , micromalthidae , anobiidae , meloidae , and pyrochroidae . a survey of the wasp familiy mutillidae is complete for wisconsin and should be published in 2007 . a new project on bog - endemic butterflies will being in 2007 , as well . ongoing intensive , long - term insect field sampling projects continue at hemlock draw ( sauk co . ) and qunicy bluff ( adams co . ) .\nunderstanding the composition of the insect / arthropod fauna of wisconsin is central , and critical , to our understanding of how to manage wisconsin ' s natural and forest / agricultural lands . surveys supported in part by the sampling component initiate that task , but it comes of age only when the specimens have been processed , curated , identified , and when the associated data have been databased , published , and posted to our departmental ( wirc ) web page . here the information becomes available to other entomologists , ecologists , agriculture specialists , foresters , and the public for inspection and analysis . a particular emphasis has been the development of electronic storage of specimen data . to date , we have databased more than 60 , 000 specimens . we have now begun to increase image and web - based support for these data as well as linking the data to other web - based data ( vegetation , physiography , climate , etc . ) and worldwide data distribution sites ( e . g . , morphbank , genbank , itis , etc . ) . three new research papers ( a wisconsin cantharid beetle & parasitoid , cleridae of wisconsin , and a new species of ptinidae ) were in press / published in 2009 . several web sites for species of wisconsin beetle families are now published or under development . two additional manuscripts ( ptinidae of wisconsin ; mutillidae of wisconsin ) are being prepared at the time of this report .\nunderstanding the composition of the insect / arthropod fauna of wisconsin is central , and critical , to our understanding of how to manage wisconsin ' s natural and forest / agricultural lands . surveys supported in part by the sampling component initiate that task , but it comes of age only when the specimens have been processed , curated , identified , and when the associated data have been databased , published , and posted to our departmental ( irc ) web page . here the information becomes available to other entomologists , ecologists , agriculture specialists , foresters , and the public for inspection and analysis . a particular emphasis has been the development of electronic storage of specimen data . to date we have databased more than 30 , 000 specimens . we have now begun to increase image and web - based support for these data as well as linking the data to other web - based data ( vegetation , physiography , climate , etc . ) and worldwide data distribution sites ( e . g . , morphbank , genbank , itis , etc . ) . one new manuscript has been submitted ( endomychidae of wisconsin ) and an associated website is nearing completion , along with the development of several additional web sites for species of wisconsin beetle families . two additional manuscripts ( cleridae of wisconsin ; mutillidae of wisconsin ) are being prepared at the time of this report ; both are expected to be submitted in the first few months of 2008 .\ni enjoyed reading this article . it was presented in an easily understandable way especially for such a broad topic . just a few thoughts for enhancement . first , a link for the word elytra is already present on its first usage so you don ' t need the quick parenthesis explanation after it . second , i noticed a link is not available for\neversible vesicles\nso you put a quick parenthesis explanation after using it . however , i think it would be better to put the explanation after the first usage at the top of the article and not after the second usage that is mid - way into the article so the reader can know immediately what you are talking about . thirdly , the sentence\nmostly the antennae are clubbed at the tip . . .\ncould use a little revision . it could sound more professional if the sentence went like\nthe antennae are mostly clubbed at the tip . . .\n,\nthe antennae are clubbed at the tip for most species . . .\n, or\nthe antennae are clubbed mostly at the tip . . .\n. use whichever one more correctly conveys what you want to say . and finally , the sentence\ncleridae can be found in the americas , africa , europe , the middle east and even australia .\nneeds a comma after australia . overall , a great article . loved the pictures ! jkski23 ( talk ) 13 : 34 , 15 april 2009 ( utc )\nunderstanding the composition of the insect / arthropod fauna of wisconsin is central , and critical , to our understanding of how to manage wisconsin ' s natural and forest / agricultural lands . surveys supported in part by the sampling component initiate that task , but it comes of age only when the specimens have been processed , curated , identified , and when the associated data have been databased , published , and posted to our departmental ( ircw ) web page . here the information becomes available to other entomologists , ecologists , agriculture specialists , foresters , and the public for inspection and analysis . a particular emphasis has been the development of electronic storage of specimen data . to date we have databased more than 35 , 000 specimens . we have now begun to increase image and web - based support for these data as well as linking the data to other web - based data ( vegetation , physiography , climate , etc . ) and worldwide data distribution sites ( e . g . , morphbank , genbank , itis , etc . ) . one new research paper ( endomychidae of wisconsin ) was published in 2008 ; the associated website is now on - line . several additional web sites for species of wisconsin beetle families are now published or under development . three additional manuscripts ( cleridae of wisconsin ; mutillidae of wisconsin ; a wisconsin cantharid beetle ) are being prepared at the time of this report ; one has been submitted and accepted for publication ; the other two should be submitted in 2009 .\nto date , several families forming part of the wisconsin beetle diversity have been extensively surveyed . in 1985 , the family ischaliidae ( 1 species ) was discovered in wisconsin for the first time from specimens collected in sauk co . a number of county records now exist for the species / family in wisconsin . suveys were completed for the scarabaeid beetles and their relatives ( scarabaeoidea ) in 2000 . prior to this study , 120 species had been recorded for wisconsin ; our survey increased the number by 49 % to 150 species . the darkling beetle ( tenebrionidae ) survey was completed in 2001 with a 150 % increase [ 36 - prior , to 90 species following our survey ] . in 2002 , the families endomychidae [ 1 - prior , to 9 species following our survey - 800 % increase ] , histeridae [ 21 - prior , to 95 species following our survey - 352 % increase ] , lycidae [ 4 - prior , to 22 species following our survey - 450 % increase ] , and rhipiceridae [ 0 - prior , to 1 species following our survey - 100 % increase ] were completed . in 2003 , the families kateretidae [ 2 - prior , to 4 species following our survey - 100 % increase ] , nitidulidae [ 36 - prior , to 78 species following our survey - 117 % increase ] , and mordellidae [ 5 - prior , to 68 species following our survey - 1260 % increase ] were completed . ongoing surveys continue for cleridae , cerambycidae ( lamiinae ) , and pyrochroidae , while new state surveys have been initiated for meloidae and anobiidae ( first field season in 2006 ) .\nestimating the pre - appearance interval ( pai ) of carrion insects from temperature is a new and promising improvement of entomological methods for post - mortem interval estimation . in order to use this approach in casework , a taxon should demonstrate a close relationship between pai and temperature . in this article we test this relationship in selected species of beetles , namely thanatophilus sinuatus fabr . , t . rugosus l . , necrodes littoralis l . ( silphidae ) , necrobia rufipes de geer , n . violacea l . ( cleridae ) , dermestes frischii kug . ( dermestidae ) , creophilus maxillosus l . , philonthus politus l . , ontholestes murinus l . ( staphylinidae ) , saprinus semistriatus scriba , s . planiusculus motch . and margarinotus brunneus fabr . ( histeridae ) . data were collected from 30 pig carcasses decomposing under different temperature conditions in open and forest habitats of western poland . beetles were sampled with pitfall traps and with manual and soil sampling . the on - site temperature of the ground level was recorded . the relationship was tested separately in adult and larval stages . all species , except for d . frischii , revealed significant relationship between pai and temperature . in all cases pai was found to decrease exponentially with an increase in temperature . moreover , above some temperature it was nearly constant . the relationship was strong in the case of adult and larval n . littoralis , adult n . rufipes , adult and larval c . maxillosus , adult p . politus , s . semistriatus and s . planiusculus . the relationship of moderate strength was found for adult and larval t . sinuatus , adult n . violacea and adult m . brunneus . in the case of adult t . rugosus and o . murinus the relationship was weak . current results demonstrate that there are solid premises for estimating pai from temperature in t . sinuatus , n . littoralis , n . rufipes , n . violacea , c . maxillosus , p . politus , s . semistriatus , s . planiusculus and m . brunneus . implications for forensic entomology are discussed .\n) are important predators of various lignicolous insects , particularly bark beetles ( scolytidae ) . adults can often be found on the surface of fallen limbs and trees which are infested with various kinds of saproxylic invertebrates and both adults and larvae are voracious predators of these . they run swiftly and are able to fly readily and in some contexts are thought to have an important economic role in regulating the populations of such insects .\n) are found on herbaceous vegetation . the larvae often feed on gall insects and the adults are predaceous on various insects found on flowers and vegetation . the larvae of\nare predators and / or parasites of grasshoppers or bees and wasps ( where they feed on pollen and / or invertebrate contents of nest cells ) . species in the genus\nare saprophytic and predaceous and are found on bones , dead skin and , carrion of fish and another animals . the bionomics of the family are diverse and clerids are found in a variety of ecological situations .\n4 . 5 - 6 . 5 mm . note the bright red color of the elytra and lack of patterning which distinguishes this species from all other clerids in this region . they have open procoxal cavities and no lateral ridge on the pronotum . this species is predatory on various sub - cortical and wood - boring insects , particularly scolytines and are typically found in coniferous forests . there are records from prince edward island , nova scotia , and new brunswick .\n5 . 5 - 10 . 0 mm . this species is almost entirely black except for the basal and apical margins of the prontum , the legs , labrum , palpi , and basal two antennomeres which are reddish - yellow . this coloration distinguishes this species from all others in the region . the apical antennomere is only slightly longer than the penultimate . opitz ( 2002 ) reports that adults feed on larvae of cynipoid wasps and other gall insects , fruit tree caterpillars , and larvae of various wood - boring beetles . there is one record from nova scotia .\nare distinguished from related genera by having a broad basal tooth on the tarsal claws . the eyes are only feebly emarginate . this species is almost entirely bluish black in colouration except for the humeral angles which are reddish and the antennae , mouthparts and ( sometimes ) the anterior legs which are yellowish . the color form\nleconte is entirely dark . note the expanded margins of the pronotum which form a lateral tubercle . opitz ( 2002 ) reports that they have been reared from in sect galls and are known to prey on small wood borers , immature weevils , and larvae of hymenoptera . they are typically found on the leaves and flowers of various flowering herbaceous plants . in atlantic canada the species is recorded from new brunswick , nova scotia , and prince edward island .\nby having a short elytra that does not completely cover the abdomen . note the coloration : the head and pronotum are entirely dark ; the elytra yellowish brown with dark markings at the humeri , along the suture and at the apicies along with a median transverse band . bionomics : see\n. in atlantic canada the species is recorded from new brunswick , nova scotia , and prince edward island .\nalso has a short elytra which incompletely covers the abdomen . although the coloration is reported to be somewhat variable , in general the head is largely dark except for the mouthparts and gulular region ; the pronotum , sterna , and elytra are entierley , or almost entirely black . the legs are yellow . bionomics : see\n: 3 . 5 - 5 . 5 mm . this species has been found in new brunswick and on prince edward island . on prince edward island found on pine (\nsp . ) and elsewhere associated with pine ( downie and arnett 1996 ) .\nin that the elytra in this genus is also short leaving a portion of the abdomen uncovered . they differ from\nin having a small basal tooth on the tarsal claws and in having antennomere 3 twice as long as wide . they are an dark bluish black in coloration with the legs , front of head , and a variably sized triangular area at the base of the elytra yellow . opitz ( 2002 ) reports this species from the galls of\n) . in atlantic canada they are recorded from new brunswick and nova scotia .\n8 . 0 - 10 . 0 mm . this species has recently been discovered in new brunswick by sean blaney . not the densely hairy , narrow body and the blue - black elytra with variable orange patterning ( usually with a transverse crossbar , and spots around the humeral umbone and sub - apical spots or bars ) which distinguishes this species from any other clerid found in the region . the adults feed on pollen and are found on a variety of flowers including goldenrods (\n) . the larvae are predaceous on a variety of insect hosts including bees and grasshoppers ( opitz 2002 ) .\n7 . 5 - 9 . 0 mm . species of this genus have a loose anetennal club , a triangular apical maxillary palpomere , and sub - serial punctation at the base of the elytra . in this region two species occur .\nis a larger species with more extensive areas of orange at the base of the elytra . also not the respective widths and positions of the transverse white bands on the elytra of this species and\nspp . ) . recorded from both new brunswick , nova scotia , and newfoundland .\nbut smaller and with slightly different color pattern ( see above ) . found in similar habitats to\n( but often more abundant ) where they are also avid predators of lignicolous insects , particularly of bark beetles ( scolytinae ) . recorded from new brunswick , nova scotia , prince edward island , and newfoundland .\nthe antennal club is dense and the apical antennomere is long , securiform , and sinuate on the inner side . both\n( spinola ) ( entire dorsal surface black ) have been recorded in new brunswick and nova scotia . both adults and larvare are voracious predators of various lignicolous insects , particularly of bark beetles ( scolytinae ) and are commonly encountered in coniferous forests where there are dead or dying trees or limbs .\n3 . 5 - 6 . 0 mm . this is a slender , narrow species with very prominent rows of serial punctures and an elytral pattern of three yellowish markings ; the first running obliquely from humerus to suture , the second an undulate post - medial band , and the third a pair of yellow sub - apical spots . the eyes are emarginate and the funicular antennomeres are not densely setose . the three - segmented antennal club is shorter than the remaining portion of the antenna . the adults and larvae are predaceous on various wood - boring insects , particularly bark beetles ( scolytinae ) . they appear to be rather rare local in their distribution in nb & ns where they are found in coniferous forests . until recently this species was placed in the genus\nwolcott 1944 . recorded in new brunswick , nova scotia , and prince edward island .\n3 . 5 - 6 . 0 mm . this species and the following are short rounded beetles with head , prontum and elytra a metallic greenish or bluish coloration . a distinctive feature of this genus is that the 9th and 10th antennomeres are narrowly transverse .\nhas its legs and basal antennomere reddish brown . they are found on dried fish , skins and bones of dead animals , and other carrion where they are saprophagous and predaceous ( opitz 2002 ) . this is a cosmopolitan species probably originally from the palearctic region and introduced here . to date they have only been recorded in newfoundland and nova scotia in atlantic canada .\nexcept that the legs and antennae are entirely dark . also found on dried fish , skins and bones of dead animals , and other carrion where they are saprophagous and predaceous . this is also a cosmopolitan species probably originally from the palearctic region and introduced here . in this region they have been recorded in new brunswick , nova scotia , prince edward island , and newfoundland .\nmany thanks to sean blaney , yves bousquet , serge laplante , david mccorquodale , and jacques rifkind for their assistance .\nhinks , w . d . [ ed . ] . coleopterum catalogus supplementa , pars 23 ( edito secunda ) . w . junk , ' s - gravenhage , 373 pp .\ndownie , n . m . and arnett , r . h . , jr . 1996 . the beetles of northeastern north america . sandhill crane press . gainsville , florida . 1721 pp .\nbousquet , y . checklist of beetles of canada and alaska . agriculture canada publication 1861 / e . pp . 208 - 211 .\narnett , r . h . , jr . , thomas , , m . c . , skelley , p . e . , and frank , j . h . [ eds ] . 2002 . american beetles , volume 2 : polyphaga : scarabaeoidea through curculionoidea . crc press , boca raton , usa . pp . 267 - 280 .\n( c ) all rights reserved . christopher majka & empty mirrors press . revised 20 june , 2006 .\nthe consumer financial protection bureau ( cfpb ) is considered by many as a 21st century agency that assists consumer finance markets function properly by coming up with rules that make the market much more effective . the agency is also tasked with the role of fairly and consistently enforcing the said rules so as to empowering consumers to take more control over their economic livelihoods .\nthe cfpb was established by congress through the dodd - frank wall street reform and consumer protection act of 2010 , with rich cordray being appointed the first director of the cfpb in january 2012 . the organization works to give consumers the information they need so as to understand the terms of their agreements with financial institutions .\nseveral large loan service companies supports and follows cfdb guidelines . these consumers can still obtain personal loans for people with really bad credit and they have supporting programs . to understand more we will look at consumer protection through the cfdb .\nit is important to note from the onset that in america , equal access to credit is law . in this regard , federal laws guaranteeing every american fair housing and equal credit opportunity do provide for penalties to those who may for one reason or the other violate these protections . on anything that\u2019s concerns credit , cfpb is the leading enforcement agency that works with other federal agencies to ensure that these laws are upheld and followed .\nsince its establishment , the organization has strived to protect consumers by coming up with and implementing federal consumer financial laws . it ensures this by writing rules , supervising companies and strictly enforcing federal consumer financial protection laws that support fairness for consumers . the body has also strives to restrict deceptive , unfair , or abusive practices and acts which are detrimental to the general well being of the consumer . further to the above , the cfpb does also take consumer complaints on a wide range of financial transactions that include but are not limited to installment loans ."]}
{"id": 2583, "summary": [{"text": "nealyda kinzelella is a moth of the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by august busck in 1900 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from florida .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 5.5-6.5 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the basal half of the forewings is light brown , the color gradually becoming darker outwardly and terminating in a deep velvety brown .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is a transverse fascia at the middle of the wing , on the outside edged with a thin line of white scales .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the fascia is more thickly scaled than the rest of the wing and protrudes in a small dorsal scale tooth .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the ground color of the apical half of the wing is silvery white , thickly suffused with black , fuscous and bluish scales .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "an ill-defined group of dark scales at beginning of cilia is edged below with a few brown scales .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "another at the apex also has a few brown scales below .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "at the tornus is a nearly black spot and the entire apical edge is nearly black .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are silvery gray .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on guapira obtusata .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they mine the leaves of their host plant , creating upper surface , trumpet-formed blotch mines .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "pupation takes place outside of the mine in a snow white cocoon . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "nealyda kinzelella", "paragraphs": ["nealyda kinzelella busck , 1900 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 23 ( 1208 ) : 230 ; tl : palm beach , florida\nnealyda dietz , 1900 ; ent . news 11 ( 2 ) : 350 ; ts : nealyda bifidella dietz\nnealyda kinzelella ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 77 ; clarke , 1946 , j . wash . acad . sci . 36 : 425 ( key ) ; [ nacl ] , # 1682 ; [ nhm card ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 2\nnealyda leucozostra meyrick , 1923 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 1 - 2 ) : 5 ; tl : brazil , obidos\nnealyda phytolaccae clarke , 1946 ; j . wash . acad . sci . 36 : 427 ; tl : stock island , florida\nnealyda neopisoniae clarke , 1946 ; j . wash . acad . sci . 36 : 427 ; tl : jamainitas , habana , cuba\nnealyda accincta meyrick , 1923 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 1 - 2 ) : 5 ; tl : brazil , r . trombetas\nnealyda leucozostra ; clarke , 1946 , j . wash . acad . sci . 36 : 427 ( key ) ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nnealyda bifidella dietz , 1900 ; ent . news 11 ( 2 ) : 351 , pl . 1 , f . 2 - 2b ; tl : glenwood , colorado\nnealyda accincta ; clarke , 1946 , j . wash . acad . sci . 36 : 426 ( key ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nnealyda bicolor ; clarke , 1946 , j . wash . acad . sci . 36 : 427 ( key ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nnealyda pisoniae busck , 1900 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 23 ( 1208 ) : 229 , pl . 1 , f . 5 ; tl : palm beach , florida\nnealyda bifidella ; clarke , 1946 , j . wash . acad . sci . 36 : 425 ( key ) ; [ nacl ] , # 1681 ; [ nhm card ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 2\nnealyda pisoniae ; brown , adamski , hodges & bahr , 2004 , zootaxa 510 : 113 ; clarke , 1946 , j . wash . acad . sci . 36 : 425 ( key ) ; [ nacl ] , # 1684 ; [ nhm card ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 2\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\ndidactylota bicolor walsingham , [ 1892 ] ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1891 : 522 ; tl : west indies , st . vincent\nbougainvilleae hering , 1955 ; dt . ent . z . ( n . f . ) 2 : 323\nlarva on ( mines ) pisonia obtusata busck , 1900 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 23 ( 1208 ) : 230\nlarva on pisonia aculeata clarke , 1946 , j . wash . acad . sci . 36 : 427\naristotelia panchromatica meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 9 ) : 274 ; tl : assam , shillong\napatetris panchromatica ; sakamaki , 2000 , tijdschr . ent . 143 ( 1 - 2 ) : 215 ( note )\nlarva on phytolacca decandra clarke , 1946 , j . wash . acad . sci . 36 : 427\nlarva on ( mines ) pisonia aculeata busck , 1900 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 23 ( 1208 ) : 229\nsangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nwalsingham , [ 1892 ] on the micro - lepidoptera of the west indies proc . zool . soc . lond . 1891 : 492 - 549 , pl . 41\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nlarva lives in a round blotch mine in a blolly ( guapira ) leaf .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !"]}
{"id": 2588, "summary": [{"text": "anelosimus eximius is a species of social spider in the genus anelosimus , native to the lesser antilles and the area from panama to argentina .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "colonies can comprise several thousand individuals .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "anelosimus eximius are classified as a social spider species because they engage in shared brood care and cooperate to capture prey within their web , which allows them to capture prey much larger than a single individual would be able to .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "their webs do not capture a lot of prey , but the prey that are caught are significantly larger than most prey captured in the webs of other individual social or antisocial spider species .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "thus , their techniques provide more nutrients than other social spider colonies may obtain .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "these techniques are most efficient in anelosimus eximius colonies of about 1,000 individuals .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the sociality of anelosimus eximius aids in the increased fitness of the species .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "one potential cost of sociality in anelosimus eximius is that they produce fewer egg sacs .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "however , each egg sac holds more individual offspring than most arachnid egg sacs would normally hold .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "thus , the benefits seem to outweigh the costs .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it is difficult to explain how sociality has evolved from a typically solitary animal .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "one trait that has facilitated this shift is the lack of discrimination against foreign offspring .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "it has also been questioned whether the alloparental behavior of anelosimus eximius was an ancestral trait or if the species had to overcome discrimination in order to gain their trait of sociality .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "through studies on social and sub-social species that observed reactions to foreign offspring , scientists discovered that the species did not need to overcome discrimination ; both sub-social and social species of arachnids showed no discrimination towards foreign offspring . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "anelosimus eximius", "paragraphs": ["colony size and individual fitness in the social spider anelosimus eximius . - pubmed - ncbi\nexploratory recruitment plasticity in a social spider ( anelosimus eximius ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nsmith , d . 1986 . population genetics of anelosimus eximius ( araneae , theridiidae ) .\nview image of anelosimus eximius are social spiders ( credit : aaron pomerantz / perunature . com )\nview image of anelosimus eximius live in dense colonies ( credit : aaron pomerantz / perunature . com )\nview image of anelosimus eximius colonies can be massive ( credit : bernard dupont , cc by 2 . 0 )\naviles , l . 1986 . sex - ratio bias and possible group selection in the social spider anelosimus eximius .\nvollrath , f . 1985 . eusociality and extraordinary sex ratios in the spider anelosimus eximius ( araneae : theridiidae .\nnentwig , w . 1985 . social spiders catch larger prey : a study of anelosimus eximius ( araneae : theridiidae .\naviles , l . , p . tufino . 1998 . colony size and individual fitness in the social spider anelosimus eximius .\nvollrath , f . 1986 . environment , reproduction and the sex ratio of the social spider anelosimus eximius ( araneae , theridiidae ) .\nsaffre , f . , a . mailleux , j . deneubourg . 2000 . exploratory recruitment plasticity in a social spider ( anelosimus eximius ) .\nebert , d . 1998 . behavioral asymmetry in relation to body weight and hunger in the tropical social spider anelosimus eximius ( araneae , theridiidae ) .\nvakanas , g . , k . bertrand . 2001 . coordination of behavioral sequences between individuals during prey capture in a social spider , anelosimus eximius .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - south american social spider ( anelosimus eximius )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - south american social spider ( anelosimus eximius )\ntitle =\narkive species - south american social spider ( anelosimus eximius )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nto cite this page : carrell , s . 2016 .\nanelosimus eximius\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nagnarsson i ( 2006 ) a revision of the new world eximius lineage of anelosimus ( araneae , theridiidae ) and a phylogenetic analysis using worldwide exemplars . zool j linnean soc 146 ( 4 ) : 453\u2013593\nsettepani , v . , l . grinsted , j . granfeldt , j . jensen , t . bilde . 2013 . task specialization in two social spiders , stegodyphus sarasinorum ( eresidae ) and anelosimus eximius ( theridiidae ) .\na . eximius is perhaps the best known of the social spiders , but that is not saying much .\nfowler , h . , e . venticinque . 1996 . interference competition and scavenging by crematogaster ants ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) associated with the webs of the social spider anelosimus eximius ( araneae : theridiidae ) in the central amazon .\nview image of this bee got stuck in an a . eximius colony ( credit : aaron pomerantz / perunature . com )\nin species like a . eximius , spiders are essentially clones . brothers and sisters mate with each other , generation after generation , so that colonies become highly inbred .\nthese two processes together help to explain why a . eximius colonies tend to be found in clusters , sometimes as many as 40 related colonies within just a few kilometres .\namong the thousands of species of spiders ( 40 , 000 arachnids ) , there are only about 23 species that live in social groups . anelosimus eximius is most commonly found in south american countries from panama to argentina . the massive spider webs that are created by these spiders can contain spiders in excess of 50 , 000 with females outnumbering men 10 to 1 .\nthese spiders , like a . eximius with its massive funnel pits of doom , may superficially seem to behave like social insects . but in truth they could hardly be more different .\naviles , l . , w . maddison . 1991 . when is the sex ratio biased in social spiders ? : chromosome studies of embryos and male meiosis in anelosimus species ( araneae , therididae ) .\nmajer , m . , i . agnarsson , j . scenning , j . bilde . 2013 . social spiders of the genus anelosimus occur in wetter , more productive environments than non - social species .\nanelosimus eximius is a species of spider that is also known as \u201csocial spider\u201d because it socializes with its fellow spiders and builds colossal spider webs that have the potential of reaching up to 25 feet ( 7 . 6m ) in height and 5ft ( 1 . 5m ) in width . according to the journal of arachnology , this brazilian spider species is a very cooperative and group - living spider .\nviera c , ghione s , costa , fg ( 2007 ) mechanisms underlying egg - sac opening in the subsocial spider anelosimus cf . studiosus ( araneae theridiidae ) . ethol evol ecol 19 ( 1 ) : 61\u201367\nanelosimus eximius , the species i encountered in the rainforest , is not the only kind of social spider in the world , but it does construct the biggest webs . some can reach more than 25ft ( 7 . 6m ) feet long and 5ft ( 1 . 5m ) wide . a web that size could contain as many as 50 , 000 individual spiders . that is a lot of legs , eyes and fangs .\nbut these cases aside , social spiders just about always build webs . and most of these webs have complex , three - dimensional structures , like the cone - shaped a . eximius webs i encountered in the jungle .\na . eximius was first discovered more than a century ago by a french arachnologist named eug\u00e8ne simon . more social spiders have been discovered since . one was found as recently as 2006 , in ecuador , by entomologist leticia avil\u00e9s .\nfor example , an a . eximius colony contains adult males and females as well as youngsters , but the majority of spiders on the web are females . in the early 1980s , researchers found that males comprise only between 5 % and 22 % of any colony ' s populace .\na . eximius was first discovered more than a century ago by a french arachnologist named eug\u00e8ne simon . an interesting advantage that these social spiders acquire by building giant webs is that they can capture prey which can be much larger in size than what a solitary spider would have been able to catch . these communal spiders work together to build , maintain and clean their webs .\nexploratory recruitment was investigated in an artificial experimental set - up on location in french guyana . groups of 200 freshly collected spiders of the neotropical social theridiid anelosimus eximius were released on an open circular surface and offered a choice between two accessible shelters . results indicated that a clear - cut collective decision was not always reached , unlike what we found using a different set - up in another set of experiments . simulations were conducted using available information in order to explore the potential causes for this difference . theoretical projections fit experimental data and strongly suggest that variability in the collective response results from a combination between modifications of the environment ' s properties and alteration of the recruitment procedure . multiple variants of the theoretical set - up ( including external bias ) are investigated and emphasize plasticity in the collective response . new experimental studies are suggested and adaptative value of exploratory recruitment in social spiders is briefly discussed .\nfunding was provided by a natural sciences and engineering research council of canada ( nserc ) discovery grant to l . a ( 261354 - 2008 rgpi ) . k . s . was additionally supported by an nserc canada graduate scholarship ( master\u2019s ) award ( 2009\u20132010 ) . the staff of simbioe and el ministerio del ambiente de ecuador assisted greatly with logistics and obtaining permits . the associates of reserva ec\u00f3logica antisana , estacion biol\u00f3gica jatun sacha , and bellavista cloudforest reserve all provided fantastic general assistance and field support . maurico vega and gabriel iturralde provided valuable field and spider identification assistance . members of the zoology department at ubc provided valuable comments on the manuscript . two anonymous reviewers provided many detailed suggestions that improved the manuscript greatly .\nn . sp . from uruguay ( araneae : theridiidae ) . j arachnol 40 ( 1 ) : 78\u201384\nagnarsson i , aviles l , coddington j , maddison w ( 2006 ) sociality in theridiid spiders : repeated origins of an evolutionary dead end . evolution 60 ( 11 ) : 2342\u20132351\nspiders ( araneae : theridiidae ) inferred from six molecular loci and morphology . mol phylogenet evol 43 ( 2007 ) : 833\u2013851\nagnarsson i , maddison wp , avil\u00e9s l ( 2010 ) complete separation along matrilines in a social spider metapopulation inferred from hypervariable mitochondrial dna region . mol ecol 19 : 3052\u20133063\navil\u00e9s l ( 1997 ) causes and consequences of cooperation and permanent - sociality in spiders . in : choe j , crespi b ( eds ) evolution of social behaviour in insects and arachnids . cambridge university press , cambridge , pp 476\u2013498\navil\u00e9s l , harwood g , koenig w ( 2012 ) a quantitative index of sociality and its application to group - living spiders and other social organisms . ethology 118 : 1219\u20131229\n, a cloud forest social spider with only slightly female - biased primary sex ratios . j arachnol 39 : 178\u2013182\nbates d , maechler m , bolker b ( 2011 ) lme4 : linear mixed - effects models using s4 classes . r package version 0 . 999375 - 38 .\nbergm\u00fcller r , johnstone r , russell a , bshary r ( 2007 ) integrating cooperative breeding into theoretical concepts of cooperation . behav process 76 ( 2 ) : 61\u201372\nclutton - brock t ( 2009 ) cooperation between non - kin in animal societies . nature 461 : 51\u201357\ncrawley , mj ( 2002 ) . statistical computing : an introduction to data analysis using s - plus . wiley , chichester\ncrespi b , yanega d ( 1995 ) the definition of eusociality . behav ecol 6 ( 1 ) : 109\u2013115\ncullen e ( 1957 ) adaptations in the kittiwake to cliff - nesting . ibis 99 : 275\u2013302\ndugatkin la ( 1997 ) cooperation among animals : an evolutionary perspective . oxford university press , oxford\nevans ta ( 1998 ) offspring recognition by mother crab spiders with extreme maternal care . proc biol sci 265 ( 1391 ) : 129\u2013134\nfoelix rf ( 1996 ) the biology of spiders , 2nd edn . harvard university press , cambridge\ngadagkar r ( 1990 ) evolution of eusociality : the advantage of assured fitness returns . phil trans r soc lond b 329 ( 1252 ) : 17\u201325\ngibbons me , ferguson am , lee dr , jaeger rg ( 2003 ) mother\u2013offspring discrimination in the red - backed salamander may be context dependent . j inf 59 ( 3 )\ngrinsted l , agnarsson i , bilde t ( 2012 ) subsocial behaviour and brood adoption in mixed - species colonies of two theridiid spiders . naturwissenschaften 99 ( 12 ) : 1021\u20131030\nhunt j ( 1999 ) trait mapping and salience in the evolution of eusocial vespid wasps . evolution 53 : 225\u2013237\njamieson ig , craig jl ( 1987 ) critique of helping behaviour in birds : a departure from functional explanations . in : bateson p , klopferm p ( eds ) perspectives in ethology , vol 7 . plenum , new york , pp 79\u201398\n( araneae , sicariidae ) and the evolution of maternal care in spiders . j arachnol 31 : 90\u2013104\njones tc , riechert s ( 2008 ) patterns of reproductive success associated with social structure and microclimate in a spider system . anim behav 76 : 2001\u20132019\njones tc , riechert se , dalrymple se , parker pg ( 2007 ) fostering model explains variation in levels of sociality in a spider system . anim behav 73 : 195\u2013204\njones tc , pruitt jn , riechert se ( 2010 ) fecundity and reproductive success in a socially polymorphic spider : social individuals experience depressed fitness when in isolation . ecol entomol 35 : 684\u2013690\nkoenig w , dickinson j ( 2004 ) ecology and evolution of cooperative breeding in birds . cambridge university press , cambridge\nlefevre k , montgomerie r , gaston aj ( 1998 ) parent\u2013offspring recognition in thick - billed murres ( aves : alcidae ) . anim behav 55 : 925\u2013938\nlubin yd , bilde t ( 2007 ) the evolution of sociality in spiders . adv study behav 37 : 83\u2013145\nphillips ml , tang - martinez z ( 1998 ) parent\u2013offspring discrimination in the prairie vole and the effects of odors and diet . can j zool 76 ( 4 ) : 711\u2013716\nr development core team ( 2008 ) r : a language and environment for statistical computing . r foundation for statistical computing , vienna , austria . isbn 3 - 900051 - 07 - 0 , url\nsaffre f , krafft b , deneubourg jl ( 1997 ) what are the mechanisms involved in the emergence of cooperation ? the spider model . in : th\u00e9raulaz g , spitz g ( eds ) auto - organization et comportement . herm\u00e9s , paris , pp 85\u201390\nsamuk k , ledue ee , avil\u00e9s l ( 2011 ) sister clade comparisons reveal reduced maternal care behaviour in social cobweb spiders . behav ecol 23 ( 1 ) : 35\u201343\n( araneae : eresidae ) and the implications for the evolution of sociality . anim behav 63 ( 4 ) : 649\u2013658\nseddon pj , van heezik y ( 1993 ) parent\u2013offspring recognition in the jackass penguin . j field ornithol 64 : 27\u201331\ntella j , forero m , donazar j , negro j , hiraldo f ( 1997 ) non - adaptive adoptions of nestlings in the colonial lesser kestrel : proximate causes and fitness consequences . behav ecol sociobiol 40 : 253\u2013260\ntoth al , varala k , newman tc , miguez fe , hutchison sk , willoughby da , simons jf , egholm m , hunt jh , hudson me ( 2007 ) wasp gene expression supports an evolutionary link between maternal behavior and eusociality . science 318 : 441\u2013444\nwisenden b ( 1999 ) alloparental care in fishes . rev fish biol fish 9 : 45\u201370\nsamuk , k . & avil\u00e9s , l . behav ecol sociobiol ( 2013 ) 67 : 1275 . urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ndepartment of ecology and evolutionary biology , university of arizona , tucson , arizona 85721 , usa .\nit is like a scene from a horror film : spider webs several metres wide that are home to thousands of spiders . why did these spiders turn social ?\neight legs , eight eyes and a pair of venomous fangs \u2013 the average spider is so well - equipped that it ' s easy to see why arachnophobes are terrified . but there is one saving grace : at least spiders are solitary , so they are usually encountered in small numbers .\nbut then i found myself trudging along a muddy path in the peruvian amazon jungle , face to face with a spider colony several thousand strong . their funnel - shaped web arched from tree to tree , a structure containing too many of the creepy crawlies to count .\nthese were spiders but not as i knew them : they appeared to function as a society , just like ants or bees .\nmost spiders are indeed lone wolves , but a scant handful have evolved a level of sociality to rival ant colonies , bee hives , or even primate societies .\nsociality shows up in at least seven spider families . in all we know of around 25 social species among the 45 , 000 described spider species on the planet . sociality evolved at least a dozen separate times among them .\nwhile the details vary from species to species among the social spiders , many of their features are similar .\ncommunal spiders work together to build , maintain , and clean their webs . they cooperate in capturing prey , and dine together when they snare a large feast .\nthe females feed their offspring by vomiting up food for them , just like mother birds . they even regurgitate food for juveniles other than their own . in other words , they work together to care for the youngest in the colony . it is a sort of spider day - care .\nnearby colonies tend to be related to each other , because new colonies form in one of two ways .\nsometimes , a large web is broken in half , perhaps by heavy rainfall or falling branches , or even a falling monkey . in its place , two smaller colonies are left behind .\nother times , individual females will strike out on their own , setting up a new web . eventually other dispersing females will join the group ; perhaps ones who tried to set up their own webs but failed . survival is more likely in groups , after all .\ngregarious arachnids are not much studied \u2013 perhaps because so few of them exist in the first place .\nmy students know more about social spiders than your average arachnologist ,\nsays linda rayor , an entomologist at cornell university in ithaca , new york , who studies australia ' s social huntsman spiders .\nmost animals are solitary ,\nshe tells me ,\nwhether you ' re looking at mammals , or birds , or whatever . social behaviour in otherwise solitary animals is cool .\nas i watched the social spiders go about their day deep in the jungle , a bee found itself stuck in the giant web . suddenly , dozens of the eight - legged predators descended en masse onto the struggling black - and - yellow striped insect . it was impossible to see through the writhing mass of tiny spider legs , but one thing was certain : that bee was done for .\nif death by one spider seems bad enough , it must be nothing compared to an attack by a whole swarm of them .\nthe first spider , the proto - spider , was probably solitary . so the spiders that gave rise to today ' s truly social species must have been too . but then they did something remarkable : they turned sub - social : they learned to tolerate each other , at least for a time \u2013 even if they did not exactly enjoy hanging out in groups .\nthat early tolerance could have come about as a result of parental care . in some spiders alive today , that is just defending an egg sac , but in others \u2013 the ones that are poised to evolve sociality \u2013 it looks more familiar to our mammal brains .\nin those species , females provide food and protection for their developing offspring , and occasionally even to other juveniles . in some species , mothers even make the ultimate sacrifice , allowing themselves in their last moments to become a meal for their brood . sub - social spiders can still be cannibals , after all .\nthey ' re the spiders that already have cooperation as juveniles ,\nsays arachnologist jonathan pruitt of the university of california , santa barbara .\nbut as they mature , they become intolerant of each other .\nin other words , juvenile tolerance alone is not enough to turn spiders fully social . the environment in which the spiders live also has to be right . researchers have discovered three ecological elements that often lead to cooperative living among arachnids .\nsolitary spiders living in places where it is difficult to subdue large or more profitable prey alone may eventually figure out that it is in their interest to work together . it is a smaller step from tolerance to cooperation than from aggression to cooperation .\nanother common feature is heavy rain . rain does not have to be frequent , but when it is really intense , it has the potential to seriously damage spider webs . when a tempest takes out the web and threatens a spider ' s survival , the ones with just a glimmer of social behaviour might fare just a little better than their isolationist peers .\nas a result , some have hypothesised that rough weather favours cooperation , since in those conditions it is the spiders that share the task of maintaining and repairing their webs that fare best .\nmany hands make light work of web repair ,\nsays pruitt .\nthen there is the web itself . there are only a couple of instances in which spiders that do not build webs have evolved to be sub - social . these web - less social spiders , living in places like the australian deserts or in african scrub habitat , have to cope with unusual circumstances \u2013 like enormous prey or particularly aggressive raiding ants .\npruitt thinks that could be a simple matter of mechanics . it is easier for two spiders just on the cusp of evolving sociality to join their webs together if they exist in three dimensions than if they weave flatter , two - dimensional ones , like charlotte ' s eponymous web .\nsome combination of tolerance , prey size , rough weather , and web geometry combine to create the perfect storm for social behaviour to emerge in spiders .\nadd in the fact that it is easier to defend yourself against predators in a group , and that communal webs offer spiders the relative safety of staying in one place rather than risking travelling away from the web onto which you are born to live somewhere else , and for some species , cooperation is a good deal .\nbees and ants sort into separate castes . some are workers , some are soldiers ( or drones ) , and then there is a reproductive class . those not included in the reproductive class are sterile ; they could not reproduce even if they wanted to .\nsocial spiders , meanwhile , are more egalitarian . anyone can do any job , and all are capable of reproduction .\nview image of driver ants are divided into strict castes ( credit : redmond o . durrell / alamy stock photo )\nit is not that spider societies do not rely on the division of labour . it is just that those roles are not strictly governed as they are for the social insects .\nand while some female social spiders do not wind up reproducing , it is not because they are physically or genetically incapable . instead , it is usually just because they have not lived successful enough lives . it takes a lot of nutrition to make a few hundred spider babies , and a spider that does not have a rich enough diet is not really up to the task .\ninstead , roles in spider colonies are usually sorted on the basis of age and sex . researchers are increasingly coming to realise that social spiders also sort themselves according to their individual personalities .\nthey ' re incredibly well organised ,\nsays pruitt .\nby paying close attention to individual spiders , he and others have discovered that certain spiders are more likely to spend their days attacking predators , while others are more likely to repair the webs , help keep parasites away , clean the web , rear the young , and so on .\nspider vocations are intimately tied to their efficiency at those vocations ,\nhe says .\nthough it is not yet clear whether those skills develop through experience or because of innate aptitude , some spiders are clearly in the construction business , some are hunters , others are on janitorial duty , and still others offer childcare services .\nsince adolescent spiders do not go off in search of new colonies , there is no influx of new genetic material . for that reason , some suspect that spider personalities develop as a result of early life experiences , not genetics .\nin spite of a lack of genetic diversity , they exhibit this exquisite diversity in terms of their personalities ,\npruitt says .\nview image of stegodyphus sarasinorum spiders have personalities ( credit : dinesh rao , cc by 2 . 0 )\nin 2013 , he and his colleagues looked at a social spider called stegodyphus sarasinorum , native to india , sri lanka , and nepal . they found that individual personality traits predict which job each spider performs .\ns . sarasinorum is found in dry scrubland . but like the spiders i found in the rainforests of peru , these arachnids work cooperatively to build and maintain their webs and to capture food .\nusing tiny dabs of paint applied to the spiders , pruitt and his team were able to track 40 from each of two different wild colonies . individuals that were bolder were more likely to be involved in attacking prey \u2013 but other characteristics , like body size or a spider ' s level of aggression , did not factor into their vocation .\nresponding to stimuli from a prey caught in the web elicits different responses according to a set of individual characteristics ,\nthey concluded .\nin other words , social spiders have distinct personalities , which in turn help to define their roles in the community .\nin a way , that is not so different from human societies . bold , risk - taking people might be more likely to wind up fighting fires or enrolling in a police academy , while the more calculating , deliberative types wind up as lawyers or architects .\ndespite lacking a backbone , invertebrates like insects and arachnids lend themselves well to studying complex social behaviour .\nwhen it comes to a behaviour that any sort of animal can do , insects [ and arachnids ] can do it , if not do it better ,\nsays entomologist phil torres .\nafter all , they have been evolving on our planet for a lot longer than any bird or mammal has .\nsometimes , as many as 40 colonies can be found within a distance of 1 km . to put that into perspective , check out the below image\nin the below picture , a colonized spider web was discovered in a north texas park in 2007 . the people in the below picture - mike mccord , left , and freddie gowin - the lake tawokoni state park rangers , monitor a giant communal spider web at the park .\nin 2013 in santo antonio da platina , brazil , these spider webs housing large quantities of spiders were eradicated by strong winds that detached the webs from their anchors , thereby , carrying the spiders and their ruined home to new sites . this event led to a \u201cspider rain\u201d in which people in santo antonio da platina observed spiders raining from the sky .\nwithin the built colonies , roles are segregated for all the spiders - males and females alike . some work as \u201cwarriors\u201d - those who act as predators and attack the prey - while some work to clean and maintain the webs .\nsocial spiders are likely to have evolved from subsocial ancestors via the subsocial route .\nit has been suggested that the transition from subsocial to social living requires a change in three behavioural traits : from premating dispersal ( wherein juveniles are dispersed from the colonies before breeding ) to postmating dispersal ( wherein juveniles are dispersed from the colonies after breeding ) , from outbreeding to inbreeding mating system , and from maternal care to cooperative breeding .\nromanian workers accidentally discover 5 . 5 million - year - old sealed cave teeming with freakish , bizarre looking creatures .\ninformation on the south american social spider is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\npublished online 4 august 2008 | nature | doi : 10 . 1038 / news . 2008 . 1007\nfor many people it ' s the ultimate nightmare : thousands of spiders collaborating to form a well organized society . a new study published this week in\nreveals how colonies of one spider species grow to an enormous size , and the surprising factors that ultimately limit their expansion .\nspiders are usually thought of as lone hunters . however , a few dozen species do live cooperatively , building collective webs and sharing food - gathering and child care between them . one example is the neotropical species\nresearchers based in the university of arizona , tucson , and university of british columbia , vancouver , have now examined colonies of the spiders in the jatun sacha biological reserve and cuyabeno nature reserve in ecuador , measuring the sizes of colonies and recording the prey captured in their communal webs .\nthe team discovered that as colonies grew larger , they actually caught fewer prey per spider than smaller colonies . to explain this , they turned to allometry , the study of the relationship between size and shape in biology . this is usually applied to single organisms , but the researchers found that it was equally relevant for the whole colony of spiders .\nas the number of occupants grows , the volume of the webs they construct increases - but the surface - area - to - volume ratio declines . the area of web is the all - important determinant of numbers of prey caught , so bigger colonies catch proportionally fewer prey items .\nat first , researcher leticia avil\u00e9s was puzzled by the finding : \u201cit begged the question of why the spiders lived in groups in the first place . \u201d\nbut she and her colleagues found a factor that compensated for the numbers effect . when they estimated the biomass \u2013 the dry weight - of prey caught , they found that larger webs spun by bigger colonies are able to capture larger prey items . larger portion sizes compensated for the falling number of prey - at least , up to a certain point .\ncombining both of these factors , they found that the amount of food available for each spider peaked in colonies containing around 500 spiders . \u201cprevious work had shown that social spiders are able to capture prey several times their body size . no previous work , however , had shown the relationship between colony size and the number and size of insects captured or between colony size and biomass captured per capita , \u201d notes avil\u00e9s .\nit was previously known that above a certain size the colonies break up , with the occupants dispersing to form new colonies . this research now seems to provide an explanation . although the study found many colonies larger than the optimum size , none was found with more than 9 , 000 spiders . below this size the occupants are better off staying put than starting a new , much smaller colony .\nthis is an exciting new perspective for thinking about how social web - spinning spiders have evolved ,\nsays todd blackledge at the university of akron , ohio , who studies web - weaving spiders .\nin the past the focus has been on the genetic effects of inbreeding in colonies . this tells us a lot more about the ecological factors governing colony size .\nis a social spider found in the neotropical region , specifically in central and south america . in particular , it inhabits as far north as panama and then sthrough eastern ecuador to peru . this spider is found patchily in locations such as suriname as well as eastern and southern brazil . colonies can also be found on islands such as trinidad and the lesser antilles .\nis found in the lowland rainforest . in particular , this social spider is found in the interior forest floor and forest edge . therefore this species of spider is rarely ever found in the canopy levels of the rain forest . typically , they are found in cleared areas or around tree falls . the webs can be found as low as a meter off the ground to 20 meters in the canopy .\ncolonies decrease in web area size altitude decreases . according to volrath ( 1986 ) , this is due to seasons generally being harsher at lower altitudes and damaging the webs .\n( majer , et al . , 2013 ; smith , 1986 ; vollrath , 1986 )\nsize can range from 4 . 4 to 6 millimeters . guevara and aviles ( 2011 ) report the female weight ranges from 2 . 55 to 11 . 82 mg . females are reported to be larger in weight and length than males although no specific measurements have been published for males . the size and weight of juvenile spiders have not yet been recorded in any published studies .\nthe social spider , like other arachnids , begins as an egg . here in this first stage , the spider goes through its first molt . the incubation period within the egg sac is 20 to 30 days . after the first molt the spiders emerge from the egg sacs . after emerging the social spiders then go through 5 to 6 developmental stages , depending on sex . each time period in between molts is numbered as an instar , or stage . the third instar is when the spiders begin to take part in colony duties . the males reach reproductive maturity in their 5th instar while females reach reproductive maturity in their 6th instar . reaching these maturity stages can take up to 2 to 3 months .\nmales can attract females through patterned vibrations with the strings that make up their web , as well as visual cues , such as swaying of the legs . in addition males can lay down a scent of pheromones on a line of thread to direct the female towards them . in some cases , the males use both methods of vibration and pheromone communication .\nin most cases males seek out the female because the females stay with the nest to invest in the web and eggs . this social spider is considered polygynandrous .\nis aseasonal , meaning the spiders do not have a particular season . furthermore , the social spider can breed more than once in its life span . depending on the resource factor , such as food , each egg sac can carry 17 to 53 eggs . the eggs hatch after an incubation period of 20 to 30 days .\nfemales reach maturity in the 6th instar while males mature in the 5th instar . when spiders reach their 3rd instar they become involved in colony tasks , such as hunting , maintenance , and mating .\naviles ( 1986 ) suggests that both parents invest an equal amount in the offspring . however , according to vollrath ( 1985 ) , females invest significantly more into the young . vollrath says the males contribute little to nothing beyond the mating process .\nthe spiderlings are cared for by the female until the 3rd instar . the female protects , feeds , and hunts for the young . the adult social spiders invest in the spiderlings until they can interact in colony duties .\naccording to avil\u00e9s ( 1986 ) , female spiders have an average life span of 76 \u00b1 13 days while males have an average of 71 \u00b1 13 days . the maximum lifespan of sexes are close in range . a single female was reported to have lived 94 - 103 days in the wild , while there are recordings of three males living 103 \u00b1 13 days in the wild . these spiders are not kept in captivity .\nthese particular social spiders perform tasks that are shared through the colony . the tasks include web maintenance and construction , brood care , defenses , along with attacking prey for when insects hit their trap . furthermore , the spiders cooperate when capturing the trapped insects . according to settepani et al . ( 2013 ) , these tasks are often separated by age and sex . females after the third instar are more likely to perform the colony tasks as well as hunt . researchers believe\nperforms these tasks to be more efficient in the idea of maintaining a successful colony .\nthe social spiders are sedentary . emigration is very rare . however , according to smith and hagen ( 1996 ) , when the spiders do relocate it occurs when the nests are by the roadside . this may be due to the nests being more open or vulnerable to trucks driving or having less cover from the weather .\n( agnarrson , 2005 ; kim , et al . , 2005 ; powers and aviles , 2007 ; settepani , et al . , 2013 ; smith and hagen , 1996 )\nhome range and territory size is the size of their web . rarely , does\ntravel out of its own web . therefore its home range is a 3 - d area with the range of volume from 0 . 0001 to 1 , 000 meters cubed .\nnentwig ( 1985 ) records area of the social spiders ' webs being from 20 to 28 meters squared .\naccording to vakanas and bertrand ( 2001 ) and kraft and cookson ( 2012 ) , there is no observable direct communication between the spiders . however , there does appear to be organization and cooperation , leading to the ability to catch larger prey . the spiders appear to adjust their behavior to match the situation or the prey .\nin terms of perception , these social spiders perceive their surroundings through their web . the span of their web acts as a visual perception of depth of their environment .\nutilizes the strings by vibration of the legs and abdomen to communicate with another spider . in addition , they can also communicate through attaching pheromones to threads for sexual communication .\ncreates its web to act as a net trap . above their main net they have a vertical non - stick web . this part acts as a net to trap and cause insects to fall into a bowl shaped nest below to be bombarded by the thousands of spiders ( vollrath , 1986 ) . although they are small organisms this technique allows them to catch much larger prey . reported by nentwig ( 1994 ) , the diet of\nwas studied in two sites . the first was cerro galera , panama where their prey - capture made up of 19 . 9 % of formicoidea ( ants ) , 17 . 8 % of coleoptera ( beetles ) , 17 . 2 % of heteroptera ( true bugs ) , and 12 . 7 % of blattodea ( roaches ) . the second was el valle , panama where their diet composed of 9 . 1 % of formicoidea , 35 . 0 % of coleoptera , 10 . 6 % of heteroptera , and 10 . 6 % of blattodea . the authors concluded that the spiders are consuming these groups in larger percentages than what is naturally available .\n, the spider has kleptoparasites that thrive within their web . these are organisms that are also referred to as food stealers . the social spiders ' main kleptoparaiste is\n. according to cangialosi ( 1990 ) due to the parasitic spiders , the social spiders can lose up to 26 % of their food resource . consequently , the social spiders address this problem through avoiding , tolerating , and fighting off the kleptoparasites .\nthe conservation status of this spider has not yet been reported . this spider is not recognized by the iucn red list , is not protected by cites , and is not federally or state listed . because no scientific publications suggest its populations are in peril , no conservation measures are currently in place .\nskyler carrell ( author ) , radford university , karen powers ( editor ) , radford university , april tingle ( editor ) , radford university , emily clark ( editor ) , radford university , cari mcgregor ( editor ) , radford university , jacob vaught ( editor ) , radford university .\nliving in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nused loosely to describe any group of organisms living together or in close proximity to each other - for example nesting shorebirds that live in large colonies . more specifically refers to a group of organisms in which members act as specialized subunits ( a continuous , modular society ) - as in clonal organisms .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nreproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .\nthe kind of polygamy in which a female pairs with several males , each of which also pairs with several different females .\nrainforests , both temperate and tropical , are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground . epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant . precipitation is typically not limiting , but may be somewhat seasonal .\na wetland area that may be permanently or intermittently covered in water , often dominated by woody vegetation .\nthe region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .\n2014 .\niucn red list\n( on - line ) . accessed march 23 , 2015 at urltoken .\naviles , l . 1997 . causes and consequences of cooperation and permanent - sociality in spiders .\nbreene , r . 2014 .\narachnid developmental stages : current terminology\n( on - line ) . welcome to the american tarantula society headquarters . accessed march 01 , 2015 at urltoken .\nguevara , j . , l . aviles . 2011 . influence of body size and level of cooperation on the prey capture efficiency of two sympatric social spiders exhibiting an included niche pattern .\nkim , k . , k . bertrand , j . choe . 2005 . cooperative prey capture by young subsocial spiders : ii . behavioral mechanism .\nkrafft , b . , l . cookson . 2012 . the role of silk in the behaviour and sociality of spiders .\npowers , k . , l . aviles . 2007 . the role of prey size and abundance in the geographical distribution of spider sociality .\nsalomon , m . , d . mayntz , y . lubin . 2008 . colony nutrition skews reproduction in a social spider .\nyip , e . , l . rayor . 2013 . the influence of siblings on body condition in a social spider : is prey sharing cooperation or competition ? .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\ncenter for nonlinear phenomena and complex systems , universit\u00e9 libre de bruxelles , c . p . 231 , bvd , du triomphe , brussels , b - 1050 , belgium ."]}
{"id": 2590, "summary": [{"text": "brachmia sigillatrix is a moth in the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by meyrick in 1910 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in southern india .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 11-12 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are deep ochreous-yellow , irregularly mixed with light brown suffusion .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the stigmata is black , edged with white , the plical obliquely before the first discal .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the hindwings are ochreous-whitish . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "brachmia sigillatrix", "paragraphs": ["this is the place for sigillatrix definition . you find here sigillatrix meaning , synonyms of sigillatrix and images for sigillatrix copyright 2017 \u00a9 urltoken\nhere you will find one or more explanations in english for the word sigillatrix . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word sigillatrix and , of course , sigillatrix synonyms and on the right images related to the word sigillatrix .\nbrachmia sigillatrix is a moth in the gelechiidae family . it was described by meyrick in 1910 . it is found in southern india .\nbrachmia sigillatrix meyrick , 1910 ; rec . ind . mus . 5 : 222 ; tl : ernaculam , cochin state , malabar coast ; karwar , kanara\nbrachmia dimidiella ( denis & schiffermuller , 1775 ) = brachmia costiguttella zeller 1846 = brachmia kneri nowicki 1865 .\nbrachmia infixa meyrick , 1938 ; inst . parcs nat . congo belge 14 : 17\nbrachmia leucopla meyrick , 1938 ; inst . parcs nat . congo belge 14 : 16\nbrachmia leucospora meyrick , 1938 ; inst . parcs nat . congo belge 14 : 17\nbrachmia neuroplecta meyrick , 1938 ; inst . parcs nat . congo belge 14 : 17\nbrachmia fuscogramma janse , 1960 ; moths s . afr . 6 ( 2 ) : 209\nbrachmia insuavis meyrick , 1914 ; suppl . ent . 3 : 51 ; tl : kankau\nbrachmia tholeromicta meyrick , 1931 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 2 - 4 ) : 84\nbrachmia circumfusa ; [ nhm , [ ref . on card incorrect ] card ] ; [ afromoths ]\nbrachmia antichroa meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 5 ) : 156 ; tl : ceylon , kandy\nbrachmia brunneolineata legrand , 1966 ; m\u00e9m . mus . hist . nat . paris ( a ) 37 : 81\nbrachmia ioplaca meyrick , 1934 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 15 ) : 453 ; tl : taiwan , alikano\nbrachmia obfuscata meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 14 ) : 436 ; tl : queensland , brisbane\nbrachmia obtrectata meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 16 ) : 506 ; tl : china , shanghai\nbrachmia perumbrata meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 4 ) : 113 ; tl : bengal , pusa\nbrachmia resoluta meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 4 ) : 113 ; tl : bengla , pusa\nbrachmia tepidata meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 16 ) : 505 ; tl : china , shanghai\nbrachmia autonoma meyrick , 1910 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1910 : 369 ; tl : chagos islands\nbrachmia circumfusa meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 16 ) : 506 ; tl : french guinea , konakri\nbrachmia liberta meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 10 ) : 291 ; tl : madagascar , antananarivo\nbrachmia ( cladodes ) procursella rebel , 1903 ; verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 53 : 97\nbrachmia velitaris meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 295 ; tl : barberton\nbrachmia deltopis meyrick , 1920 ; in alluaud & jeannel , voyage afr . orientale , ins . l\u00e9p . 2 : 79\nbrachmia ditemenitis meyrick , 1934 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 10 ) 14 ( 82 ) : 408\nbrachmia infuscatella rebel , 1940 ; soc . sci . fenn . , comm . biol . 8 ( 1 ) : 38\nbrachmia melicephala meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 4 ) : 114 ; tl : burma , lashio , 3000ft\nbrachmia strigosa meyrick , 1910 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1910 : 450 ; tl : borneo , kuching\nbrachmia torva meyrick , 1914 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 9 ) : 278 ; tl : nyassland , mt mlanje\nbrachmia craterospila meyrick , 1923 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 1 - 2 ) : 46 ; tl : assam , shillong\nbrachmia syntonopis meyrick , 1923 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 1 - 2 ) : 48 ; tl : bombay , belgaum\nbrachmia apricata meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 295 ; tl : barberton , waterval onder\nbrachmia cenchritis meyrick , 1911 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 3 ) : 721 ; tl : khasis\nbrachmia hedemanni caradja , 1920 ; dt . ent . z . iris 34 ( 1 / 2 ) : 112 ; tl : darjeeling\nbrachmia ptochodryas meyrick , 1923 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 1 - 2 ) : 46 ; tl : assam , shillong , 5000ft\nbrachmia custos meyrick , 1911 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 3 ) : 725 ; tl : nilgiris , 6000ft\nbrachmia robustella rebel , 1910 ; verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 60 : 28 , f . 1 ; tl : herzegovina\nbrachmia amphisticta meyrick , 1914 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 9 ) : 279 ; tl : portuguese east africa , e of mt . chiperone\nbrachmia vecors meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 4 ) : 112 ; tl : s . india , palnis and gooty , madura , hampsagaram\nbrachmia insuavis ; [ nhm card ] ; park & hodges , 1995 , korean j . syst . zool . 11 ( 2 ) : 232 ( unrecognized )\nbrachmia ioplaca ; [ nhm card ] ; park & hodges , 1995 , korean j . syst . zool . 11 ( 2 ) : 233 ( unrecognized )\nbrachmia ( dichomeridinae ) ; [ nacl ] , 24 ; [ sangmi lee ] ; [ afromoths ] ; [ fe ] ; karsholt , mutanen , lee & kaila , 2013 , syst . ent . 38 : 343\nanacampsis anisopa meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 5 ) : 140 ; tl : colombia , la crumbre , 6000ft\nballotellus ( amsel , 1935 ) ( hypsolophus ) ; mitt . zool . mus . berl . 20 ( 2 ) : 298\napethistis carphodes meyrick , 1908 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 18 ( 2 ) : 459 ; tl : khasi hills\naulacomima ceramochroa turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 150 ; tl : queensland , brisbane\ndilutiterminella ( gerasimov , 1930 ) ( cladodes ) ; ann . mus . zool . acad . sci . leningr . 31 ( 1 ) : 33 , pl . 7 , f . 3\ndryotyphla meyrick , 1937 ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 4 - 5 ) : 123\ngelechia inornatella douglas , 1850 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . ( n . s . ) 1 : 65 ; tl : charlton\ngelechia ( ceratophora ? ) japonicella zeller , 1877 ; horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 365 , pl . 5 , f . 124\ndichomeris japonicella ; bae , lee & park , 2014 , ent . res . 44 : 19 ( list )\nmonotona caradja , 1927 ; mem . sect . stiint . acad . rom . ( 3 ) 4 ( 8 ) : 420\nmurinula turati , 1930 ; atti soc . ital . sci . nat . 69 : 80\nopaca meyrick , 1927 ; bull . acad . ( 3 ) 4 : 421 [ ? ] 9\northomastix meyrick , 1931 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 2 - 4 ) : 84\nphilochersa meyrick , 1938 ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 87 : 514\nphilodema meyrick , 1938 ; dt . ent . z . iris 52 : 7\nceratophora radiosella erschoff , 1874 ; in fedschenko , travels in turkestan . 2 ( 5 ) : 102 , pl . 6 , f . 115\nstactopis meyrick , 1931 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 2 - 4 ) : 84\nsubsignata diakonoff , 1954 ; verh . k . akad . wet . amst . ( 2 ) 50 ( 1 ) : 61\nlecithocera triophthalma meyrick , 1910 ; rec . ind . mus . 5 : 220 ; tl : tenmalai , w . ghats , travancore\naulacomima trinervis meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 395 ; tl : sydney , new south wales\nxeronoma meyrick , 1935 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 18 - 19 ) : 591\n[ afromoths ] de prins , j . & de prins , w . , 2013\nsangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nmicrolepidoptera of new guinea , results of the third archbold expedition ( american - netherlands indian expedition 1938 - 1939 ) . part iv\nzur lepidopteren - fauna mittel - asiens . 1 . microheterocera aus dem distrikt kaschka - darja ( so - buchara )\ndie schmetterlinge deutschlands und der schweiz . 2 . abteilung , kleinschmetterlinge . 2 . die motten und federmotten\nthe moths of america north of mexico including greenland . fascicle 7 . 1 . gelechioidea , gelechiidae ( part ) , dichomeridinae\nh . sauter ' s formosa ausbeute . pterophoridae , tortricidae , eucosmidae , gelechiadae , oecophoridae , cosmopterygidae , hypomeutidae , sesiadae , glyphipterygidae , plutellidae , teneidae , adelidae ( lep . )\nvoyage de ch . alluaud et r . jeannel en afrique orientale ( 1911 - 1812 ) . r\u00e9sultats scientifique . insectes l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res . 2 . microlepidoptera in alluaud & jeannel ,\nthe percy sladen and godman trusts expedition to the islands in the gulf of guinea , october 1932 march 1933 . iii . micro - lepidoptera\nzeller , 1877 exotische microlepidopteren horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 3 - 493 , pl . 1 - 6\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnb : the taxon name search is for single names only . for example , to locate dysodia vitrina flammata warren , 1904 you should enter flammata only .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nthe wingspan is 11 - 12 mm . the forewings are deep ochreous - yellow , irregularly mixed with light brown suffusion . the stigmata is black , edged with white , the plical obliquely before the first discal . the hindwings are ochreous - whitish .\naustria , belgium , bulgaria , hungary , germany , denmark , spain , italy , latvia , lithuania , the netherlands , norway , poland , romania , the soviet union - the european part , finland , france , czech republic , switzerland , sweden , estonia , yugoslavia .\nregions of the russian federation : the volga - don , east caucasus , the european north - west , central european , european southern taiga , trans - baikal , karelia , krasnoyarsk , of baikal , seaside , mid - volzhsky , south ural .\nalbania , austria , belarus , belgium , bulgaria , bosnia and herzegovina , hungary , germany , denmark ( mainland ) , spain ( mainland ) , italy ( mainland ) , latvia , lithuania , macedonia , netherlands , norway ( mainland ) poland , romania , russia , slovakia , slovenia , ukraine , finland , france ( mainland ) , czech republic , switzerland , sweden , estonia , yugoslavia .\n[ 10 ] de jong , y . s . d . m . ( ed . ) ( 2011 ) fauna europaea version 2 . 4 ( faunaeur . org )\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nthe gelechiidae is similar to other gelechioid families in that its members have a scaled proboscis and strongly recurved labial palpus , but differs from other gelechioid families by having a combination of the following characters : 1 ) hindwing subrectangular to trapezoidal with sinuous or concave termen and prominent apex , 2 ) forewing lanceolate to elongate\u2013ovate with cup absent , 3 ) the retinaculum of the wing\u2013coupling mechanism on the radial vein of the female forewing , 4 ) labial palpus long , second segment often with ventral brush , third segment long , acute , rarely with short dorsal brush of rough scales , 5 ) male gnathos forming a pair of lateral , articulated , symmetrical sclerites with an articulated , mesial hook ( hodges , 1986 , 1999 ) ."]}
{"id": 2593, "summary": [{"text": "the asiatic glassfishes are a family , ambassidae , of freshwater and marine fishes in the order perciformes .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the species in the family are native to asia , oceania , the indian ocean , and the western pacific oceans .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the family includes eight genera and about 49 species .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the family has also been called chandidae , and some sources continue to use the name .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "because ambassidae was used first , in 1870 , it has precedence over chandidae , which was first used in 1905 .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the largest species reaches a maximum size of about 26 cm ( 10 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "many of the species are noted for their transparent or semi-transparent bodies .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "a number of species are used as aquarium fish , noted for their transparent bodies .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the indian glassy fish , parambassis ranga , is a colorful fish , but showier specimens that had been injected with artificial coloring were sold as novelty pets in the 1990s .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "since then these \" painted fish \" have become much less popular , with more fishkeepers seeking naturally pigmented specimens . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "ambassidae", "paragraphs": ["kottelat , m . ( 2003 ) parambassis pulcinella , a new species of glassperch ( teleostei : ambassidae ) from the ataran river basin ( myanmar ) , with comments on the family - group names ambassidae , chandidae and bogodidae . ichthyological explorationbof freshwaters , 14 ( 1 ) , 9\u201318 .\nambassidae , or asiatic glassfish , are a family of around 40 species belonging to the order of perciformes . the species in the family are native to the waters of asia and oceania and the indian and western pacific oceans . the family was formerly known as the chandidae , a name which itis continues to use . fishbase notes that ambassidae , which was named by klunzinger in 1870 , has priority over chandidae , which was created by fowler in 1905 .\nroberts , t . r . ( 1994 ) systematic revision of tropical asian freshwater glassperches ( ambassidae ) , with descriptions of three new species . natural history bulletin of siamese society , 42 ( 1994 [ 1995 ] ) , 263\u2013290 .\nallen , g . r . & burgess , w . e . ( 1990 ) . a review of the glass - fishes ( ambassidae ) of australia and new guinea . rec . west . aust . mus . suppl . 34 : 139\u2013206\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndistribution : asia and oceania , indo - west pacific oceans . dorsal fin usually with 7 - 8 spines and 7 - 11 soft rays ; anal fin with three spines and 7 - 11 softrays . pelvic fin with 1 spine and 5 softrays ; 24 - 25 vertebrae . many species with semi - transparent body . maximum length about 26 cm . formerly known as chandidae .\nthe list below must not be used as an authority reference synonymy list like those found in scientific published revisions , which must be the source to be used and cited eventually when they exist .\nrather , it reflects the current content of fishbase , and the progress with respect to synchronization with the catalog of fishes . however , we think it can be useful for users to assess the quality of information in fishbase , to start new work on the family , or to cross - check with other lists .\nbut we appreciate to be cited in publications when this list has been of any working value . in particular , for published scientific , we suggest then to cite it in the material and method section as a useful tool to conduct the research , but again , not as a taxonomic or nomenclatural authority reference .\nunless it is explicitly precised , the list is not complete , please search all original names published for the family in the catalog of fishes ( genera , species ) , including those with uncertain or unknown status , that are not included in fishbase when they are not attached to a valid species .\nthis list uses some data from catalog of fishes ( not shown but used to sort names ) .\nin the column coff , the digit indicates the status of synchronization with coff : 0 : not checked ; 1 : same status ; 2 : different status ; 3 : other combination ; 4 : synonym in coff ; 5 : species / subspecies issue ; 6 : synonym of another species in coff ; 7 : not in coff ; 8 : should not be in coff . the coff version currently used is the one published on 23 - 07 - 2014 ( ref . 97102 ) .\nwhen subfamilies are recognized , nominotypical subfamily first then other subfamilies by alphabetical order .\ntype genus of the family first ( or of subfamily when subfamilies are recognized ) then other genera by chronological order of description ( and alphabetical order ) .\ntype species of the genus first by chronological order ( and alphabetical order ) , with last listed misapplied names in a light gray font .\nuse the table to access images and fact sheets of the ambassid fishes on the site . these fishes are also called chanda perches and perchlets\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ndescription asia and oceania , indo - west pacific oceans . dorsal fin usually with 7 - 8 spines and 7 - 11 soft rays ; anal fin with three . . .\ndescription asia and oceania , indo - west pacific oceans . dorsal fin usually with 7 - 8 spines and 7 - 11 soft rays ; anal fin with three spines and 7 - 11 softrays . pelvic fin with 1 spine and 5 softrays ; 24 - 25 vertebrae . many species with semi - transparent body . maximum length about 26 cm . family named chandidae in nelson , 1994 . [ details ]\nvan der laan , r . ; eschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ( 2014 ) . family - group names of recent fishes . zootaxa . 3882 ( 1 ) : 1 - 230 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of chandidae fowler , 1905 ) van der laan , r . ; eschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ( 2014 ) . family - group names of recent fishes . zootaxa . 3882 ( 1 ) : 1 - 230 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\neschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of chandidae fowler , 1905 ) eschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nthis page was last edited on 23 july 2010 , at 12 : 20 .\ncontent is available under creative commons attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license unless otherwise noted .\nthe glassfishes of australia were recently reviewed by allen & burgess ( 1990 ) . this work includes a key and diagnostic illustrations for all species . the family contains approximately 40 species belonging to about eight genera ; 14 species and three genera are known from australia . one undescribed species is known from the lake eyre basin and northern australia ( allen et al . , 2002 ) . that species was previously referred to as ambassis muelleri . a number of species are figured in whitley ( 1935 ) and lectotypes selected for several species .\nthe family is confined to the tropical indo - west pacific , although about two - thirds of this total dwell in fresh waters of india , southeast asia and the indo - australian archipelago . five of the australian species are restricted to fresh water . the remainder are estuarine dwellers which are sometimes found in the lower reaches of freshwater streams . glassfishes are apparently nocturnal , and congregate amongst plants or other shelter during daylight hours .\nmost species are small in size , usually under 100 mm , with the exception of parambassis which may grow in excess of 250 mm .\nthe diet includes micro - crustaceans , aquatic insects , small arachnids , terrestrial insects and small amounts of fishes and algae .\nwhitley , g . p . ( 1935 ) . fishes from princess charlotte bay , north queensland . rec . s . aust . mus . 5 ( 3 ) : 345\u2013365 figs 1\u201311\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmayanglambam dishma department of life sciences , manipur university , canchipur\u2013795003 , manipur , india .\nwaikhom vishwanath department of life sciences , manipur university , canchipur\u2013795003 , manipur , india .\nparambassis serrata , a new species of glassperch from the kolo river , kaladan drainage , mizoram , india is described . it is distinguished from its congeners by the combination of characters that includes : presence of a faint , vertically - elongated brown humeral blotch ; posterior margin of most spines of first dorsal fin proximally blackish ; 14\u221216 dorsal and anal - fin branched rays ; a black longitudinal stripe on ventral surface of caudal peduncle ; absence of predorsal scales ; a serrated preopercular ridge ; 51\u221256 scales in lateral series ; and 11 pectoral - fin rays .\nfraser - brunner , a . ( 1955 ) a synopsis of the centropomid fishes of the subfamily chandidae , with description of a new genus and two new species . bulletin of the raffles museum , 25 ( 1954 [ 1955 ] ) , 185\u2013213 .\ngreenwood , p . h . ( 1976 ) a review of the family centropomidae ( pisces : perciformes ) . bulletin of the british museum ( natural history ) , 29 ( 1 ) , 1\u201381 .\nhollister , g . ( 1934 ) clearing and dyeing fish for bone study . zoologica 12 , 89\u2013101 .\nkar , d . & sen , n . ( 2007 ) systematic list and distribution of fishes in mizoram , tripura and barak drainages of north eastern india . zoos\u2019 print journal , 22 , 2599\u20132607 . urltoken\nkottelat , m . ( 2013 ) the fishes of the inland waters of southeast asia : a catalogue and core bibliography of the fishes known to occur in freshwaters , mangroves and estuaries . raffles bulletin of zoology supplement , 27 , 1\u2212663 .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nyearsley , g . k . , last , p . r . & morris , g . b . 1997 ,\ncodes for australian aquatic biota ( caab ) : an upgraded and expanded species coding system for australian fisheries databases\n, pp . 15 pp . + appendices\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 3c4a157c - a149 - 4796 - b3b5 - e8c14c22fee8\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : c5397f67 - deec - 47f1 - 8481 - 029ef2b0d9d6\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 257633\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country ."]}
{"id": 2612, "summary": [{"text": "phocides belus , the beautiful beamer or belus skipper , is a skipper in the hesperiidae family .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is found from mexico to costa rica .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "strays have been reported as far north as texas .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the wings have a powder-blue hue .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "last instar larvae reach a length of 38 mm .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "they are mostly uniform white with a light brown head capsule .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they feed on thouinidium decandrum . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "phocides belus", "paragraphs": ["phocides belus ; ypm ent 445471 ; north america ; mexico ; monte ; don b . stallings , j . e . turner\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nskippers are big - headed , thick - bodied , stubby - winged butterflies that quickly dart or\nskip\nabout . with more than 3500 species worldwide , mostly in the american tropics , the skipper family , the hesperiidae , is huge . we ' ve seen lots of them , and they ' re mostly brownish , rather plain , and often hard to identify . and then there are some like the one shown above .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nthis system is free software released under gnu / gpl 3 . 0 - portal version 1 . 0\nthis work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial - sharealike 3 . 0 united states license .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nerora gabina ; ypm ent 755852 ; central america ; panama ; canal zone ; francis r . arnhold ; 1972 - 05 - 02\niophanus pyrrhias ; ypm ent 755944 ; central america ; guatemala ; chimaltenango quisache , acatenango ; eduardo c . welling ; 1966 - 11 - 04"]}
{"id": 2615, "summary": [{"text": "macroglossum saga is a moth of the family sphingidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is known from nepal , north-eastern india , southern china , northern vietnam , taiwan , south korea , japan , and northern and western thailand .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the single record from the russian far east is of a vagrant .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the wingspan is 54 \u2013 66 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the head and thorax upperside have a darker mesial streak .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the abdomen upperside has two yellow lateral patches , with a further vestigial patch on the second segment and a double series of dark dorsal spots .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the thorax underside is greyish wood-brown and the abdomen underside is uniform in colour .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the forewing upperside has well contrasted pale and dark areas .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "both wing undersides are dark russet , somewhat shaded with grey on the hindwing .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "larvae have been recorded on daphniphyllum macropodum in korea . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "macroglossum saga", "paragraphs": ["minden pictures stock photos - hummingbird hawk moth ( macroglossum saga ) feeding on rosy periwinkle ( catharanthus roseus ) , japan - satoshi kuribayashi . . .\nmacroglossa saga butler , 1878 , entomologist ' s mon . mag . 14 : 206 . type locality : japan : [ honshu , kanagawa , ] < < yokohama > > .\nwingspan : 54 - - 66mm . forewing upperside with pale and dark areas well contrasted ; antemedian lines curved , filled in with brownish black to form a band that is dilated basad at the hind margin ; median area grey ; first and second discal lines angled at vein m1 , concave between m1 and hind margin , the space between dark except posteriorly ; first line not usually prominent posteriorly ; grey costal area extended to apex of wing , the subapical rufous patch between veins rs3 and rs4 shaded with grey ; the grey postdiscal line here conspicuous , and vein m1 grey between the second and third discal lines ; the grey area limited by the apical chevron , by the subapical patch behind vein rs4 , and by the grey line of vein m1 ; the area behind the grey patch blackish . both wings undersides dark russet , somewhat shaded with grey on hindwing . hindwing upperside yellow band of variable width , barely half the width of the black border at vein m2 ; fringe reddish cinnamon . hindwing underside yellow anal area not sharply defined distally .\nhead and thorax upperside with darker mesial streak ; no white line above eye . abdomen upperside with two yellow lateral patches , with a further vestigial patch on second segment ; a double series of dark dorsal spots ; tail blackish - brown dorsally ; side tufts of posterior segments with dark buff tips , those of the proximal segments white tipped . palpi long , white speckled with black scales ventrally . thorax underside greyish wood - brown . abdomen underside uniform in colour .\nin the male genitalia , uncus somewhat prism - shaped , truncate apically . gnathos rounded apically . valve with stridulatory scales . harpe very short , obtusely pointed , conical . aedeagus with process variably dentate only basally , slightly extending onto the aedeagus itself ; internal rods obtuse apically .\na species of woodland meadows and open areas of burnt and logged woodland in the russian far east , where it generally flies in the afternoon ( izerskiy , 1999b ) .\nchina : i - iii ( hong kong ) ; urltoken ( yunnan ) ; vii ( sichuan ) ; x ( hong kong ) . taiwan : 19 . ii ( taoyuan hsien ) ; urltoken ( nantou hsien ) ; japan : v ( ryukyu archipelago ) ; 27 . v - 28 . vii ( hokkaido ) ; vi - vii ( honshu ; kyushu ; ryukyu archipelago ) ; 28 . viii ( hokkaido ) ; ix - x ( kyushu ; honshu ) ; 28 . ix - 7 . x ( hokkaido ) . russia : 23 . viii ( primorskiy kray ) .\npark et al . ( 1999 ) give late june until late october as the flight period in korea .\novum : although mell ( 1922 ) bred this species , no details were recorded .\nlarva : full - fed 43 - - 46mm . although mell ( 1922 ) bred this species , no details were recorded .\npupa : although mell ( 1922 ) bred this species , no details were recorded .\nlarval hostplants . recorded in japan and korea on daphniphyllum macropodum ( daphniphyllaceae ) ( nagano , 1904 ; park et al . , 1999 ) .\nchina : ? nei mongol ( urad qianqi ) ; beijing ( baihua shan ) ; sichuan ( emei shan ) ; yunnan ( nr . yingjiang , 2080m ; gaoligong shan ) ; south xizang / tibet ( mutu , namjagbarwa region , 1600m ( wang , 1988 ) ) ; guangdong ; hong kong ( tai lung ; ho piu ) .\ntaiwan : nantou hsien ( tienchi , 1860m ; tatachia ) ; taipei hsien ( fushan ) ; kaohsiung hsien ( shanping , 640m ) ; taoyuan hsien ( taoyuan city ) .\nsouth korea : seoul ; kyonggi prov . ( asan bay ) ; kangwon prov . ( gubong - san ) ; south cholla prov . ( baekyang temple ; mudeung - san ; hong - do ; gwangyang ) ; south kyongsang ( jinju ; geoje - do ; goseong ; namhae ; sancheong ; jinyang ; hadong ; hamyang ; hapcheon ) ; cheju prov . ( cheju - do ; halla - san ; youngsil ; sungpanak ; sinsan ; topyung ; ara - dong ; ora - dong ; cheonjiyun ; donnaeko ; gyolae - ri ; isidol ; ipseok - dong ; suakbong ) .\njapan : hokkaido ; honshu ( karuizawa ; norikura kogen , 1500m ; sejogahara ; kiyosato , 1300m ; tokyo ; dorokawa ; kyoto ; kobe ; fujiwara , gunma pref . ) ; shikoku ( matsuyama ) ; kyushu ( hikosan ) ; hachijojima ; ryukyu archipelago ( okinawa ; awashima ; yakushima ) .\nnepal , northeastern india , southern china , northern vietnam ( sa pa ) , taiwan , south korea , japan , and northern and western thailand . the single record from the russian far east is of a vagrant .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nlectotype [ \u2642 ] japan : [ honshu , kanagawa , ] \u00abyokohama ( jonas ) \u00bb [ nhmuk ] ; implicitly designated by wang , 1995 , guide book insects of taiwan 9 : 245 . the lectotype has not been found in nhmuk ( 1 . viii . 2017 ) .\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nyour browser doesn ' t support javascript or you have disabled javascript . please enable javascript , then refresh this page . javascript is required on this site .\neuropean union funding : for a one - year period ( 2017 - 12 - 16 to 2018 - 12 - 15 ) , eppo has been awarded an eu grant for the further development of the eppo code system ( agreement nb : sante / 2017 / gs / eppo / s12 . 768842 ) . the eu commission is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information from this project subsequently included in the eppo global database .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nterms | privacy | phone : 831 . 661 . 5551 | email : info @ urltoken | \u00a9 2015 minden pictures inc | all content on this website is protected by copyright\n{ { t ( ' get _ image _ for ' , { price : formatprice ( selectedsize . premiumpacksavings . priceperimage ) } ) } }\n{ { t ( ' buy _ card . add _ to _ cart ' ) } }\n{ { t ( ' buy _ card . update _ cart ' ) } }\n{ { t ( ' buy _ card . view _ cart ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . add _ notes ' ) } } { { : : t ( ' errors . messages . enter _ required _ info ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . project _ codes ' ) } } { { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . select _ project _ code ' ) } } { { projectcode } } { { : : t ( ' errors . messages . enter _ required _ info ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . download _ will _ be _ saved _ to _ dropbox ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' buy _ card . calculate _ price _ cta ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' buy _ card . save _ to _ cart _ cta ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' buy _ card . view _ cart ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' site _ specific . getty . request _ preview ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . usage _ rights _ restrictions ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . eza _ restrictions _ info ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . eza _ agreement _ title ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . eza _ agreement _ check _ info ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' buy _ card . download _ button ' ) } }\nmix and match royalty - free images , videos , and editorial with packs that never expire . *\n{ { t ( ' save _ amount ' , { amount _ saved : formatprice ( selectedsize . premiumpacksavings . fivepackpricing . amountyousave ) } ) } }\n{ { t ( ' save _ amount ' , { amount _ saved : formatprice ( selectedsize . premiumpacksavings . tenpackpricing . amountyousave ) } ) } }\n{ { t ( ' compared _ with _ single _ price ' , { price : formatprice ( selectedsize . price ) } ) } }\nyou are welcome to use content from the getty images site on a complimentary basis for test or sample ( composite or comp ) use only , for up to 30 days following download . however , unless a license is purchased , content cannot be used in any final materials or any publicly available materials . no other rights or warranties are granted for comp use .\nthe ibm strategic repository for digital assets such as images and videos is located at urltoken . this repository is populated with tens of thousands of assets and should be your first stop for asset selection ."]}
{"id": 2617, "summary": [{"text": "melitara texana is a species of snout moth in the genus melitara .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by neunzig in 1997 , and is found in southern texas and adjacent mexico .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the larvae feed on opuntia lindheimeri var . lindheimeri .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "young larvae hollow out a small cell under the epidermis near the margin of the cladode .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they remain in this cell during winter .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in april , they tunnel farther into the cladode .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "pupation takes place in late august and september within hollow stems of their host plant . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "melitara texana", "paragraphs": ["melitara texana neunzig , 1997 n . sp . , mona fascicle . 15 . 4 .\nmelitara texana is a species of snout moth in the genus melitara . it was described by neunzig in 1997 , and is found in southern texas and adjacent mexico .\nhome \u00bb guide \u00bb arthropods ( arthropoda ) \u00bb hexapods ( hexapoda ) \u00bb insects ( insecta ) \u00bb butterflies and moths ( lepidoptera ) \u00bb pyralid and crambid snout moths ( pyraloidea ) \u00bb pyralid moths ( pyralidae ) \u00bb phycitinae \u00bb phycitini \u00bb pricklypear borer ( melitara ) \u00bb melitara texana - hodges # 5971 . 2 ( melitara texana )\nthe destruction of so many prickly pears has spurred me to action . no , i am not going to spray chemicals to save the cactuses . but i have collected a few larvae with the intent to rear them and determine , if i can , the identity of the moth . in a quick search of the web to determine the identity of the caterpillars , i found that there are at least six prickly pear borer moths , including melitara prodenialis and melitara dentata that are native to several states in the united states . neither of these two moths along with melitara texana have been documented in texas . i could find no images of melitara texana or its larvae .\nmoved from moths . ann , these are very closely related to alberada . i get m . texana and there is m . dentata from n . and western tx . i need to check collection records to see which you get . they are determined by genitalia and range .\nmoved from melitara dentata . after revisiting my bold results this may be m . doddalis . although my results came back 100 % m . dentata , bold did not make a species choice and my coi was only 586 . there is a lot of m . dentata dna available but all of it was from canada and mine were the only ones from texas . there is only one bold tested m . doddalis ( coi 658 ) and was from uvalde and looks similar to mine . several bold identified m . doddalis were from texas but did not have dna .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nneunzig , h . h . , 1997 . moths of america north of mexico , fascicle 15 . 4 : p . 54 ; pl . 3 . 14 - 15 . order\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nneunzig , h . h . , 1997 . moths of america north of mexico , fascicle 15 . 4 : p . 54 ; pl . 3 . 14 - 15 .\nthe moths of north america north of mexico . fascicle 15 . 4 . pyraloidea , pyralidae , phycitinae ( part ) h . h . neunzig . 1997 . the wedge entomological research foundation .\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 31 october , 2012 - 5 : 39pm\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nthank you . it will be interesting to see what your final id is .\nselect your preferred way to display the comments and click ' save settings ' to activate your changes .\njavascript is disabled . please enable javascript on your browser to best view this site .\nwell , they are back and up to their old tricks . this time i intend to find out the name of the rascals and add it to the official list of residents or visitors in kendall county . to borrow and paraphrase a few of the lines from that doc watson song \u201cmuskrat , \u2026 they have been lying around eating up all the owners\u2019 prickly pear\u2026 but i found out where they been usin\u2019\u201d .\nwhen we moved to boerne a few years ago , the small acreage where we built our home had several large prickly pear cactus plants at various locations . the plants were 3 - 4 feet tall and up to 5 feet across . each spring i enjoyed seeing the variety colors that they produced . some had beautiful , deep peach blooms , some had yellow blooms with red centers and some blooms were entirely yellow .\ntwo years ago i noticed that there was a sawdust - like substance on some of the pads of a few plants . i broke off one of the tops and saw a few larvae in the stem . i assumed that this was just another example of a moth and a host plant and didn\u2019t pursue it more than taking a few pictures .\nnow there are only two or three of those large plants left . the others , including many on adjoining lots , have been decimated by those moths , which deposit their eggs on the prickly pear . when the larvae eclose ( emerge from the eggs ) , they eat the interior of the pads and excrete their frass ( poop ) through small holes in the pads leaving a sawdust - like residue . all that remains of those large cactus plants are the skeletal veins of the pads and stems , decaying like fallen logs\nsurely i am not the only person in texas that has lost and regretted the loss of a prickly pear , our state cactus . i can only assume that when others lost that plant , they just decided it was easier to get another . but i am now about naming the culprit . i want to make sure that this moth is listed as being present in texas and in kendall county . i will bring you a report if i am successful .\neven so all is not lost . the native plants that grow in our area are survivors . so far each has changed to meet every challenge that the climate , insects and the environment have provided . i have no doubt that the prickly pears will overcome the attack of the moths . in some of those piles of debris , small green pads are visible . it will take a few years , but hopefully those beautiful blooms will return .\non a more pleasant subject , a couple of weeks ago , i had the opportunity to join donna taylor , patty leslie pasztor and an out of town botanist on a ride through a small portion of the 500 plus acres of the cibolo preserve . as you probably know the cibolo preserve is adjacent to the cibolo nature center and has been set aside by its owner , bill lende , for restoration , research , education and conservation . what a pleasure it was to take that ride .\neven though we are entering the month of august in a continuing period of drought , albeit with some late spring rain , the condition of the land was spectacular . grasses of all kinds was at least knee high . the big bluestem , vigorous and in bloom , was 5 \u00bd to 6 feet tall . the fields were filled with butterflies ; and ducks rose from the creek as we crossed . a night heron flew into a tree from its hunting spot along the creek and flew to the same tree when we returned along the same route . hawks were circling in the sky .\nplants that have passed their bloom time along the county roads were still in bloom in the fields . a skeleton plant , still producing nectar , was visited by a pipevine swallowtail butterfly and narrowly avoided my camera lens . ( ernesto has skeleton plants for sale at medina garden nursery in medina , if you are interested ) .\nalthough native plants have evolved to survive nature\u2019s challenges , loss of habitat , which is mainly our doing , may prove a hill too high . it is a pleasure to see what bill has accomplished with this vision of the past and oasis of hope .\n80x5 - 240x3 - 240x4 - 320x1 - 320x2 - 320x3 - 640x1 - 640x2 set display option above . click on images to enlarge ."]}
{"id": 2623, "summary": [{"text": "myrmecia ferruginea is an australian ant which belongs to the myrmecia genus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "this species is native to australia .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the myrmecia ferrguinea has been notably distributed in queensland .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "being described in 1876 by mayr , the myrmecia ferruginea has a similar identity to the m. nigriceps .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the appearance of the myrmecia ferruginea is mostly a reddish like colour .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it was once assumed to be a colour variant of the m. nigriceps as well . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "myrmecia ferruginea", "paragraphs": ["myrmecia ferruginea - urdu meaning and translation of myrmecia ferruginea , translation , multiple word search ( seperate words with space ) , english to urdu machine translation of myrmecia ferruginea and more .\nmyrmecia ferruginea is an australian ant which belongs to the myrmecia genus . this species is native to australia .\nrichness of myrmecia species ( countries with darker colours are more species - rich ) . for a list of species and subspecies see the checklist of myrmecia species or for valid names only see myrmecia species .\nthe following myrmecia species groups are based on ogata & taylor ( 1991 [ 1 ] ) .\ndie gattung myrmecia ist unterteilt in 9 artengruppen damit sich die vielen arten dieser gattung leichter klassifizieren lassen .\nthe genus myrmecia is sub - divided in 9 species groups for an easier classification of the many species .\nogata , k . , taylor , r . w . ( 1991 ) ants of the genus myrmecia fabricius : a preliminary review and key to the named species ( hymenoptera : formicidae : myrmeciinae ) . journal of natural history , 25 , 1623\u20131673 .\nthis page was last modified on 14 march 2013 , at 01 : 49 .\nthis page was last modified on 25 january 2015 , at 11 : 14 .\nantweb content is licensed under a creative commons attribution license . we encourage use of antweb images . in print , each image must include attribution to its photographer and\nfrom urltoken\nin the figure caption . for websites , images must be clearly identified as coming from urltoken , with a backward link to the respective source page . see how to cite antweb .\nantweb is funded from private donations and from grants from the national science foundation , deb - 0344731 , ef - 0431330 and deb - 0842395 . c : 1\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service ."]}
{"id": 2625, "summary": [{"text": "conchylodes ovulalis , the zebra conchylodes moth , is a moth in the crambidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by guen\u00e9e in 1854 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found from the united states , where it has been recorded from pennsylvania to florida , west to arizona , south through mexico and costa rica to colombia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 23 \u2013 30 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the wings are white with a violet sheen .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the forewings are marked with six blackish-brown lines and a hollow reniform spot .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing from may to september in the united states .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on asteraceae species . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "conchylodes ovulalis", "paragraphs": ["a zebra conchylodes moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 6 / 18 / 2015 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na zebra conchylodes moth in harford co . , maryland ( 8 / 6 / 2007 ) . photo by mike burchett . ( mbp list )\na zebra conchylodes moth in allegany co . , maryland ( 6 / 18 / 2017 ) . photo by josh emm . ( mbp list )\na zebra conchylodes moth in howard co . , maryland ( 8 / 8 / 2006 ) . photo by larry line . ( mbp list )\na zebra conchylodes moth in calvert co . , maryland ( 6 / 18 / 2006 ) . photo by arlene ripley . ( mbp list )\na zebra conchylodes moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 7 / 27 / 2017 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na zebra conchylodes moth in harford co . , maryland ( 7 / 27 / 2017 ) . photo by josh emm . ( mbp list )\na zebra conchylodes moth collected in frederick co . , maryland ( 7 / 25 / 2002 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\na zebra conchylodes moth forewing found in howard co . , maryland ( 8 / 2 / 2013 ) . photo by nancy magnusson . ( mbp list )\na zebra conchylodes moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 8 / 12 / 2016 ) . verified by roger downer / bamona . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nmoths of southeastern arizona pinned adult image ; date not visible ( photo from u . of arizona collection )\npeterson field guides : eastern moths charles v . covell . 1984 . houghton mifflin company .\ninsects of north carolina c . s . brimley . 1938 . north carolina department of agriculture .\nkaufman field guide to insects of north america eric eaton , kenn kaufman . 2006 . houghton mifflin .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nwings white with violet sheen . forewing marked with six blackish brown lines and prominent hollow reniform spot .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\n80x5 - 240x3 - 240x4 - 320x1 - 320x2 - 320x3 - 640x1 - 640x2 set display option above . click on images to enlarge .\nuse of images featured on maryland biodiversity project is only permitted with express permission of the photographer .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nwest to arizona\ndang . i never saw one . gorgeous ! !\npretty little moths , i ' ve seen a few of these in our area , usually at the porch light .\ni ' ve seen them , but i ' ve never really looked at one before . thanks for forcing me to do that . a striking insect .\nwow this moth is appropriately named as it looks like it has zebra stripes . cool photo .\nthis is a spectacular bug . why aren ' t such things shown on local tv news every night , along with relevant ( intelligent ) information about them ? beautiful . thanks .\nwow , i ' ve never seen a moth like that ! beautiful violet sheen and zebra stripes , unbelievable .\n* paseo arts festival , oklahoma city , ok ( 5 / 27 / 17 ) . * .\nmaker of wooden spoons , strong - backed cohort of a wifely potter , gardener , photographer , back yard naturalist with a 40 - acre backyard .\nnature notes ( # 377 ) ~ the fourth of july should be celebrated with big hearts . ~ camila alves\nchil\u00edbre cave , panama ( h\u00f6hle von chil\u00edbre , panama ) ( chil\u00edbre - barlang , panama ) 07 . 2017 .\nthis work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - sharealike 4 . 0 international license .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\none of these fellows appeared on a calla lily blossom . . . read more\na tree in your backyard has died or become diseased . . . . read more\ncopyright \u00a9 2000 - 2018 dave ' s garden , an internet brands company . all rights reserved .\nuse of this web site constitutes acceptance of the urltoken terms of use , rules , privacy policy , and cookie policy ."]}
{"id": 2626, "summary": [{"text": "the rock martin ( ptyonoprogne fuligula ) is a small passerine bird in the swallow family that is resident in central and southern africa .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it breeds mainly in the mountains , but also at lower altitudes , especially in rocky areas and around towns , and , unlike most swallows , it is often found far from water .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is 12 \u2013 15 cm ( 4.7 \u2013 5.9 in ) long , with mainly brown plumage , paler-toned on the upper breast and underwing coverts , and with white \" windows \" on the spread tail in flight .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the sexes are similar in appearance , but juveniles have pale fringes to the upperparts and flight feathers .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the former northern subspecies are smaller , paler , and whiter-throated than southern african forms , and are now usually split as a separate species , the pale crag martin .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the rock martin hunts along cliff faces for flying insects using a slow flight with much gliding .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "its call is a soft twitter .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "this martin builds a deep bowl nest on a sheltered horizontal surface , or a neat quarter-sphere against a vertical rock face or wall .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the nest is constructed with mud pellets and lined with grass or feathers , and may be built on natural sites under cliff overhangs or on man-made structures such as buildings , dam walls , culverts and bridges .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "it is often reused for subsequent broods or in later years .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "this species is a solitary breeder , and is not gregarious , but small groups may breed close together in suitable locations .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "the two or three eggs of a typical clutch are white with brown and grey blotches , and are incubated by both adults for 16 \u2013 19 days prior to hatching .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "both parents then feed the chicks .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "fledging takes another 22 \u2013 24 days , but the young birds will return to the nest to roost for a few days after the first flight .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "this small martin is caught in flight by several fast , agile falcon species , such as hobbies , and it sometimes carries parasites , but it faces no major threats .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "because of its range of nearly 10 million km \u00b2 ( 4 million sq mi ) and large , apparently stable , population , it is not seen as vulnerable and is assessed as least concern on the iucn red list . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "rock martin", "paragraphs": ["round rock express placed cf leonys martin on the 7 - day disabled list .\nrock martin ( ptyonoprogne fuligula ) is a species of bird in the hirundinidae family .\nmartin said jay ford will ride rock song if cassidy does not make the trip .\nrock martin at nest with chicks , south africa . [ photo johan van rensburg \u00a9 ]\nlittle rock school desegregation | the martin luther king , jr . , research and education institute\nmany roads in south texas were built with martin marietta rock , delivered by union pacific .\nmartin ' s study of progressive rock is really ambitous and is a must for all fans of that genre .\nthe only consistent difference we found was the pattern of the throat , with the least marked crag martin still more dark / dusky streaked than the most marked rock martin . indeed , this is the single best character that leaded us to identify the birds observed in tunisia as rock martin\nlane j , martin ta , watkins g , mansel re , jiang wg . the expression and prognostic value of rock i and rock ii and their role in human breast cancer .\nrock martin juveniles , west coast fossil park , western cape , south africa . [ photo h . robertson , iziko \u00a9 ]\nlistening to the future : the time of progressive rock , 1968 - 1978 : bill martin jr . : 9780812693683 : urltoken books\nmartin ' s second book on progressive rock suffers from comparison with his first ( yes ) and his competition - macan and stump .\ni found this book enjoyable and infuriating at the same time . martin ' s take on prog rock is well informed and thorough .\nthe rock martin also has etymology for the genus name , missing here . ucucha 07 : 57 , 22 may 2010 ( utc )\nrock martin chick in nest , west coast fossil park , western cape , south africa . [ photo h . robertson , iziko \u00a9 ]\nhere ' s how casterly rock is described in george r . r . martin ' s\na world of ice and fire\n:\ntake a quick look at the path martin marietta rock takes before it ' s used to construct the roads you drive on every day .\nartist designer anderson hunt client peet ltd . greenvale estate fabrication rock martin photograph ( 1 - 3 sharon walker ) ( 4 rockmartin ) date 2011\nwe have an extensive background in all aspects jewelry . our family has been running rock martin custom jewelry in laguna beach for over 44 years .\nat the end of every competition , owchar and martin exchange glances . martin always says , \u201chow many more of these can we do ? \u201d\nmy wife and i are always excited to drop by rock martin and see what ' s new since they have such a unique vision with their brand . personally\npredators and parasites\nshouldn ' t be under\nbehavior\n( i think i said the same in the review for the rock martin ; i now notice that the article on the eurasian crag martin has the same problem ) .\nmartin marietta\u2019s trusted relationship with union pacific dates back decades . while martin marietta is one of union pacific\u2019s largest volume customers , martin marietta also is union pacific\u2019s largest supplier of ballast , which is used to form the bed of railroad tracks .\non vacation we visited laguna beach and happened to wander in to rock martin . fabulous jewelry and michael was so helpful and patient ! michael was very good , absolutely\nmartin , r . l . 1971 . the natural history and taxonomy of the rock vole , microtus chrotorrhinus . ph . d . thesis , university of connecticut .\nmartin idolized ed lukowich , a champion curler out of calgary , alberta . martin loved the smooth delivery , the flawless mechanics . lukowich wrapped math into curling\u2019s motions .\npredators : the bobcat and timber rattlesnake are predators known to prey upon rock voles .\nmartin , r . l . 1972 . parasites and diseases of the rock vole . occasional papers of the university of connecticut 2 ( 8 ) : 107 - 113 .\nchris martin and bruce springsteen had to stand in for a stricken bono in new york , but rock has a rich history of temporary stand - ins . test your knowledge \u2026\nmartin has decided to go after his first win in the albury cup on friday week with rock song in preference to group and listed races at rosehill in the next 10 days .\n( scopoli , 1769 ) ( holotype and paratype at mczr ) . studying birds from skins and photos , we found that but for different dimension ( rock martin being visibly smaller ) the plumage is often quite similar , tail pattern its extremely variable with the white \u201cblobs\u201d on average smaller and squarer in rock martin but often wider , therefore often same as in crag .\n, is the first beach on french saint martin when travelling north from the dutch side .\nk . martin , leslie a . robb , scott wilson , and clait e . braun\neorge martin was the greatest music producer who ever lived . and perhaps the least likely .\ndetroit tigers placed cf leonys martin on the 10 - day disabled list . left hamstring strain\n) . these results indicate that in the cell lines tested , inhibiting rock does not increase microtubule stability , suggesting that increased mctns observed upon rock inhibition do not arise from increased microtubule stabilization .\nmartin makes me want to argue with him ! i love that . martin has an opinion and a bias , doesn ' t pretend otherwise , and the book is stronger for it .\nmartin , r . l . 1971 . the natural history and taxonomy of the rock vole , microtus chrotorrhinus . ph . d . thesis . univ . conn . , storrs , ct .\nst . martin\u2019s 37 beaches are such pearls that they rank among the finest in the caribbean .\nlies just off the east coast of saint martin , at the heart of the nature reserve .\nits beaches are the last on the dutch side before the northern border with french saint martin .\ndetroit tigers placed cf leonys martin on the 10 - day disabled list . left hamstring strain .\nfrisco roughriders placed cf leonys martin on the 7 - day disabled list . lower back injury .\nclark , t . , 2001 , routledge critical thinkers : martin heidegger , london : routledge .\nlry guy but i always seem to find something here that intrigues me . i ' m very impressed by their sparkly items as well as their amazing customer service . i highly recommend rock martin .\ndescribed as a \u201chalf - century opportunity , \u201d medina rock and rail is equipped to support the southern texas region for the foreseeable future , placing union pacific and martin marietta in an important position .\nfigure 2 . total rock shrimp dollar vale and percentage by county for the years 1987 - 2001 .\nrock pipit / littoralis subspecies ( ? ) thornham harbour , norfolk . 27 / 02 / 17 .\nmalolotja information : widespread resident of cliffs and mountains . rocky hillsides with scattered trees rock / cliff faces\n. a delicate and beautiful piece for my delicate and beautiful partner of 30 years . i cannot recommend rock martin jewelry highly enough .\nart in metal and stones . . . passion in execution .\nrosehill trainer tim martin has decided to bypass sydney autumn carnival options with his rising star rock song in favour of a tilt at next week ' s $ 125 , 000 commercial club albury gold cup .\nmartin marietta is one of the country\u2019s leading suppliers of rock . learn how the aggregate supplier works with union pacific to transport the resources used to build the highways and driveways we rely on every day .\nspandau ballet bassist martin kemp tweeted :\nrip you lovely man rick parfitt ! you rocked all around the world and back again ! one of rock ' s great characters you will be missed .\nott , h . , 1993 , martin heidegger : a political life , london : harper collins .\na drawing of casterly rock in\na world of ice and fire\ncompared to the hbo version .\nmartin ' s albury cup choice may bring a bonus as he has offered champion jockey jim cassidy the ride on rock song , who will be having only his ninth start and will be seeking his fifth win .\n] , rock - regulated markers of tubulin stability were analyzed to investigate the role of microtubule stabilization in mctn formation in the y - 27632 treated cells . rock has been reported to destabilize microtubules by decreasing tubulin acetylation [\nwhipple ra , cheung am , martin ss . detyrosinated microtubule protrusions in suspended mammary epithelial cells promote reattachment .\nseattle mariners traded cf leonys martin and cash to chicago cubs for player to be named later and cash .\ntable 1 . total dollar value to irl counties of rock shrimp , sicyonia brevirostris , between 1987 - 2001 .\ncassidy has ridden rock song in his last two starts for wins at rosehill and randwick over 1500m and 1600m .\nthe book ' s idea of punk rock bill martin ' s argument is that punk rock appeared as a new wave of music . he completely shatters the myth of it being a type of music against progressive rock by stating that it was a great part of the rock era . the line ,\nby the mideighties , punk was either a ' hard - core ' taste for a few people with leather jackets , and mohawks or it had merged into a larger new wave scene\nis an example of biased word choise . this is not historically accurate . this resource , however , is scholarly because of the many noted historians in its bibliography . it also goes into a hardcore generation and bands that have shaped punk music . it does not recognize punk rock as an entirely new music , but views it as one large part of progressive rock history . the historical question being persued is what has punk rock provided for progressive rock ? this is answered and then the book moves on to other music genres .\nthe purple martin ' s popularity as a backyard bird has spawned a flood of literature on the species , a profitable industry in birdhouse manufacturing , and two national organizations in which martin enthusiasts regularly communicate their observations via newsletters .\nrock song , who has won his last two starts in restricted company in sydney , was entered for the $ 100 , 000 sky high stakes ( 1900m ) at rosehill on saturday before martin decided to target the albury cup .\ntable 2 . by - county annual and cumulative percentages of the rock shrimp harvest for the years 1987 - 2001 .\nst . martin features some of the world\u2019s finest seascapes . from unspoiled , quiet shores to lively hubs of activity , every single one of st . martin\u2019s beaches is fantastically unique and reflects the rich diversity of the island itself .\nwhile a short line railroad manages the train\u2019s movement inside medina rock and rail , union pacific employees get back on the train when it\u2019s fully loaded , handling transportation to one of martin marietta\u2019s rail distribution yards in south texas or houston .\nrock martin started making jewelry in high school . after serving his country in the navy his family settled into the artist colony of laguna beach . rock began doing some local jewelry shows and selling out his product every show . eventually he was accepted to the famous sawdust festival and then the prestigious festival of the arts in laguna beach . after opening his first store on coast highway rock moved to downtown laguna beach where the store stands today . rock has since retired but his family is still running the business and making the great jewelry people have come to know and love over the years .\nby far the best customer service in town ! the entire rock martin staff is very friendly and able to accommodate any request . my wife and i often have our jewelry cleaned and maintained here . we have also purchased custom designer items and appreciate the service and fair pricing . rock martin focuses on quality and a premium experience . if you want jewelry that ' s timeliness , yet out of the box and unique to your personality , this is store is for you !\nchris martin : \u2018i don\u2019t want to change places with any person in history . \u2019 photograph : marcelo sayao / epa\ngwyneth paltrow and chris martin at gala function in beverly hills . photograph : colin young - wolff / invision / ap\nask allen or his martin marietta colleagues , and they\u2019ll tell you their job is making big rocks into little rocks .\nmath came naturally to martin , and he sought sports with similar elements , anything with angles , geometry , calculations .\nmartin ( music of yes , lj 11 / 15 / 96 ) argues convincingly that the progressive rock movement of the early 1970s , whose pillars are the bands king crimson and yes , deserves consideration as important avant - garde art . while the first three chapters offer an academic , philosophical , and sociological analysis of the genre , casual fans will appreciate chapter 4 : a lengthy annotated discography of important progressive rock albums . unfortunately , martin ' s biases sometimes undercut his thoughtful arguments . he dismisses with contempt valid criticism of\nprog rock\nfrom the mainstream rock press , for example , and he fails to recognize the influence progressive rock had on the onstage excesses of 1980s\narena rock\nhe considers\nawful .\nstill , martin ' s book nicely complements two other recent works on the genre , musicologist edward macan ' s rocking the classics ( lj 10 / 15 / 96 ) and paul stump ' s the music ' s all that matters : a history of progressive rock ( quartet , 1997 ) . recommended for most popular music collections . ? lloyd jansen , stockton - san joaquin cty . p . l . , cal . copyright 1997 reed business information , inc .\nbefore the 1970s , rock shrimp were primarily captured incidentally by trawlers seeking out commercially valuable penaeid shrimps . the fishery first emerged as viable with the first recorded rock shrimp landings in 1970 . in that year , 1200 pounds of rock shrimp were harvested , with an estimated value of $ 642 . in 1972 , landings totaled 443 , 035 pounds and were valued at $ 258 , 528 . by 1977 , the fishery was being studied for sustainability , and substantial rock shrimp populations offshore of\n3 ) the real identity of the tunisian birds and then the taxonomic status of these : are they rock martin ? are they belonging to the so called ssp . presaharica ( which would be a better candidate on geographical biasis ) or spatzi ? or they are a pale population of crag martin \u2013 simply a plumage variability or a yet non described taxon ?\nif you live in the area , or planning a visit to laguna beach , please stop by and visit heather , michael , and the rest the laguna beach custom jewelry designers at rock martin . we promise you\u2019ll be happy you did .\nwatson a , moss r , rae s ( 1998 ) population dynamics of scottish rock ptarmigan cycles . ecology 79 : 1174\u20131192\nopening on april 16th is director neil labute\u2019s death at a funeral , which stars chris rock , martin lawrence , tracy morgan , zo\u00eb salda\u00f1a , columbus short , luke wilson , peter dinklage , danny glover , regina hall , and keith david .\ni have never had a starter at albury and i am looking forward to attending the carnival ,\nmartin said .\nseattle mariners placed cf leonys martin on the 15 - day disabled list retroactive to may 26 , 2016 . strained left hamstring\ncobb et al . ( 1973 ) reported that brown rock shrimp are nocturnally active , likely burrowing into substrata during daylight hours .\nahead of the episode , fans knew casterly rock would make an appearance . everyone was getting hyped up on twitter and reddit .\nwith his flowing blond locks , denim gear and fender telecaster , rick parfitt was one of rock ' s most recognisable guitarists .\nmatrone ma , whipple ra , balzer em , martin ss . microtentacles tip the balance of cytoskeletal forces in circulating tumor cells .\nwhen was the genus first described ? when were the species discovered ? also , the article on the rock martin actually has more information on the taxonomic status of the genus ( saying that various other genera should be subsumed into hirundo if this one is ) .\nfigure 1 . annual dollar value of the commercial catch of rock shrimp to the 5 - county area of the indian river lagoon .\ntable 3 . by - county cumulative dollar value and percentage of the total for the irl rock shrimp harvest from 1987 - 2001 .\ntheberge jb , west gc ( 1973 ) significance of brooding to the energy demands of alaskan rock ptarmigan chicks . arctic 26 : 138\u2013148\n\u201cit would be difficult for trucks to deliver the massive rock quantities needed for sustaining growth , \u201d said steve mcgill , business director at union pacific . \u201cthe only way to feed that is establishing a logistics system , like union pacific and martin marietta have done . \u201d\nholger teichmann , loutjie , martin flack , laurent demongin , fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric pelsy , ken havard , jmdebruyn , guy poisson , fran trabalon .\nmartin , k . , l . a . robb , s . wilson , and c . e . braun ( 2015 ) .\nmartin\u2019s popularity spans all ages , genders and ethnicities . but he remains especially popular with older women . much , much older women .\ncitation : drake a , rock ca , quinlan sp , martin m , green dj ( 2014 ) wind speed during migration influences the survival , timing of breeding , and productivity of a neotropical migrant , setophaga petechia . plos one 9 ( 5 ) : e97152 . urltoken\nrock doves are exempt from the migratory bird treaty act ( mbta ) of 1918 , which was passed for the protection of migratory birds . rock doves are classed as predatory birds under state rules ( wac 232 - 12 - 004 ) . under another state rule ( wac 232 - 12 - 005 ) , it is unlawful to hunt for or take rock doves without a hunting license , except as allowed under rcw 77 . 36 . 030 . rcw 77 . 36 . 030 allows rock doves causing property damage to be trapped or killed without a hunting license .\nenglish explorer martin frobisher is best known for his attempts to discover a northwest passage and his voyages to labrador and frobisher bay in canada .\nraffel tr , martin lb , rohr jr ( 2008 ) parasites as predators : unifying natural enemy ecology . trends ecol evol 23 : 610\u2013618\nwhy is the article not titled\ncrag martin\n? ( presumably because that is also a common name for p . rupestris ? )\nomg ! precious cover from @ coldplay ' s leader chris martin graceland . . . definitely one of the best albums of all time !\nlook , someone can always join in on backing vocals to cover your errors , but you ' ll do . consider yourself chris martin .\nbut sand often is a byproduct . a series of crushers , conveyor belts and screens allow martin marietta to customize rock size according to customers\u2019 needs . much like a recipe , rocks are fed into a blend tunnel that runs more than 1 , 000 - feet underground . stackers reach over the tunnel , roughly 150 - feet in the air , and create massive piles of rock , ready to be loaded into rail cars .\ni think this is a scandinavian rock pipit and not what i expected to find feeding around the tidal creek at thornham harbour in late winter .\nparfitt ' s musical partnership with francis rossi , which spanned five decades , made status quo one of british rock ' s most enduring acts .\ntheir brand of boogie - woogie rock survived changes in musical fashion and made them one of the best - loved live acts of their generation .\nwe failed to find a crag martin in the field or in skins / photos we ever seen in europe ( in italy is a rather common and widespread bird for ex . ) closely matching ( but see further ) these birds from tunisia while we found rock martin of the subspecies presaharica ( vaurie , 1953 ) and even more of the ssp . spatzi ( geyr von schweppenburg , 1916 ) to be a much better match .\nbalzer em , whipple ra , cho eh , matrone ma , martin ss . antimitotic chemotherapeutics promote adhesive responses in detached and circulating tumor cells .\nthe most accessible bay ,\nbaie blanche\n, is situated on the west coast facing saint martin and has a delightful beach for swimming .\nwolin , r . , 1990 , the politics of being : the political thought of martin heidegger , cambridge , mass . : mit press .\ncell migration and invasion are steps that are critical for metastasis and rely on rho / rock - mediated cytoskeletal modifications and actomyosin contraction [ 41 ] . the ability of rock inhibitors to reduce the migratory and invasive properties of adherent tumor cells has led to suggestions that they could possibly be used to reduce metastasis in cancer patients and combined with the clinical success of rock inhibitors in other pathological conditions with deregulated actomyosin contraction such as cardiovascular diseases [ 42 ] , hypertension [ 43 ] and atherosclerosis [ 44 ] , rock inhibitors are gaining popularity as safe compounds that could be easily transitioned to cancer therapy .\nin 1992 , 10 , 000 maniacs drummer jerry augustyniak was injured just before a five - week tour . which legendary stadium rock drummer replaced him ?\n2 ) the plumage , morphometric measurements and genetic of the sardinian population , or at least of the types of c . o . sarda arrigoni degli oddi , 1902 ; ie , the two specimens used as types are indeed simply pale crag martin or they were two real rock martin collected in sardinia , therefore the first record of this species in europe ( as for other north african species , most notably 2 records of twany eagle ) .\nmartin marietta is a leading supplier of aggregates - sand or crushed stone that when mixed with cement and water make concrete . after more than a decade in the works , the company opened its newest quarry 40 miles west of san antonio in january , dubbing the massive facility medina rock and rail .\ntwo breathtaking beaches await visitors here : the first , facing saint martin , is a very sheltered sandy strip with shallow waters . ideal for children ,\ntexas rangers traded cf leonys martin and rhp anthony bass to seattle mariners for rhp tom wilhelmsen , cf james jones and player to be named later .\necided on a beautiful white gold ring set with a single large diamond . michael suggested dipping my wedding band in white gold to match , what a fantastic idea , they look perfect together . i could not be happier . i would highly recommend rock martin jewelry , all the rings i tried were individual\nas you can tell from the illustration , done by ted nasmith , the rock is supposed to be colossally tall \u2014 three times higher than the wall .\nmartin is obviously a passionate , committed , and highly knowledgeable fan of progressive rock . he is fully entitled to his opinions . unfortunately , martin ties himself up in philosophical knots - - and envelops himself in the political correctness of tenured academia - - to justify the inconsistent categorization / taxonomy of progressive rock that ultimately derives from his tastes . this is too bad , because a more consistent and fair - minded treatise would have been more valuable . it also would have most likely not been book - length , because the tedious\ntoward a theory\nchapter could have been condensed into 10 pages or less . martin would also have known to avoid this tedium if he had read ben watson ' s\nnegative dialectics of poodle play\n. . . but then martin has no use for frank zappa , so of course he didn ' t read it . martin may be a philosopher , but he is evidentially not up on his aristotlean logic . if he were , he would understand the following : ! jt jt - > pf hc - > fz\nin the early seventies , king crimson , yes , jethro tull , emerson , lake and palmer , and many others brought forth a series of adventurous and visionary works , often of epic length . responding both to the new possibilities in rock music opened up by\nsergeant pepper ' s lonely hearts club band\n, as well as to the countercultural politics and aesthetics of the late sixties , these musicians applied consummate instrumental and compositional skill to transgressing boundaries . since the late seventies , histories of rock music have either ignored or marginalized the progressive rock era . in part , this has occurred because rock music criticism has taken an almost completely sociological turn , with little or no interest in musical form itself . in\nlistening to the future\n, bill martin argues that it is a musical and political mistake to ignore this period of tremendous creativity , a period which still finds resonance in rock music today . he sets the scene for the emergence of progressive rock ( showing that , in fact , there has always been a progressive trend in rock music , a trend that took a quantum leap in the late sixties ) , and develops a terminology for understanding how an avant - garde could arise out of the sonic and social materials of\nas curling has grown , so has martin\u2019s place within it . recent crowds featured the retired track star carl lewis and vernon davis , the san francisco 49ers tight end . martin said he heard that stephen harper , the prime minister of canada , would attend . even \u201cthe simpsons\u201d showed marge and homer curling .\n\u201cdig a hole in houston , and you\u2019ll hit sand and some rock that\u2019s not as high quality construction material , \u201d said chance allen , regional vice president and general manager of aggregates at martin marietta\u2019s central texas aggregates district . \u201cbut dig in san antonio and you\u2019ll only go about 4 inches before hitting limestone . \u201d\npatel ra , liu y , wang b , li r , sebti sm . identification of novel rock inhibitors with anti - migratory and anti - invasive activities .\nchris martin was born on march 2 , 1977 , in exeter , devon , england . he attended university college london , where he met will champion , guy berryman and jonny buckland , who would go on to form the band coldplay . with martin as lead singer , rhythm guitarist and pianist , coldplay & apos ; s debut album , parachutes , sold 5 million copies and won a grammy . martin married gwyneth paltrow in 2003 . the couple separated in 2014 .\nother synonyms afrikaans : kransswael arabic : \u062e\u0637\u0627\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u062e\u0648\u0631 , \u0633\u0646\u0648\u0646\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u062e\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0627\u0647\u062a catalan : roquerol isabel\u00ed czech : brehule hned\u00e1 , vla\u0161tovka hn\u011bd\u00e1 danish : bleg klippesvale german : felsenschwalbe , steinschwalbe english : african rock martin , african rock swallow , african rock - martin , crag martin , pale crag martin , rock martin , rock martin ( rock ) spanish : avi\u00f3n isabel meridional , avi\u00f3n isabelino , avi\u00f3n isabelino [ grupo fuligula ] , av\u00edon roquero , avi\u00f3n roquero africano spanish ( spain ) : avi\u00f3n isabelino [ grupo fuligula ] estonian : aafrika kivip\u00e4\u00e4suke finnish : afrikankalliop\u00e4\u00e4sky french : hirondelle \u00e0 gorge rousse , hirondelle de rochrs , hirondelle du d\u00e9sert , hirondelle isabelline , hirondelle isabelline ( nominal ) , hirondelle isabelline [ fuligula ] hebrew : \u05e1\u05e0\u05d5\u05e0\u05d9\u05ea \u05de\u05d3\u05d1\u05e8 hungarian : sivatagi szirtifecske , sivatagi szirtifescke [ fuligula csoport ] icelandic : steinsvala italian : rondine montana , rondine montana rupicola , rondine rupestre africana japanese : afurikachairotsubame , afurikachairotsubame ( fuligula guru - pu ) japanese : \u30a2\u30d5\u30ea\u30ab\u30c1\u30e3\u30a4\u30ed\u30c4\u30d0\u30e1 , \u30a2\u30d5\u30ea\u30ab\u30c1\u30e3\u30a4\u30ed\u30c4\u30d0\u30e1 ( fuligula \u30b0\u30eb\u30fc\u30d7 ) kwangali : sisampamema latin : hirundo fuligula , hirundo fuligula fuligula , hirundo fusciventer , ptyonoprocne fuligula , ptyonoprogne fuligula , ptyonoprogne fuligula [ fuligula group ] , ptyonoprogne fuligula fuligula , ptyonoprogne rufigula lithuanian : afrikin\u0117 uolin\u0117 kreg\u017ed\u0117 , rudoji kreg\u017ed\u0117 latvian : akme\u0146u \u010durkste dutch : kaapse rotszwaluw , rotszwaluw , vale rotszwaluw , vale rotszwaluw ( fuligula groep ) norwegian : ravinesvale , ravinesvale ( fuligula gr . ) polish : jask\u00f3lka blada , jask\u00f3\u0142ka blada portuguese : andorinha de uropigio cinzento , andorinha - das - rochas - africana , andorinha - de - uropigio - cinzento portuguese ( portugal ) : andorinha - das - rochas - africana [ grupo fuligula ] russian : \u0430\u0444\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0441\u043a\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\u044f \u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043a\u0430 slovak : lastovi\u010dka previsov\u00e1 slovenian : afri\u0161ka skalna lastovka shona : nyenganyenga sotho , southern : lekabelane swedish : afrikansk klippsvala swahili : kinegwa miwamba , mbayuwayu koo - jeusi tswana : p\u00eaolwane turkish : k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck kaya k\u0131rlang\u0131c\u0131 tsonga : mbawulwana xhosa : inkonjane chinese : \u975e\u6d32\u5ca9\u71d5 chinese ( traditional ) : \u975e\u6d32\u5ca9\u71d5 zulu : inhlolamvula\nin contrast to other titans of rock , martin\u2019s childhood seems to have had little visible angst . after prep school in exeter , he boarded at sherborne . he was president of a sting fan club and featured in school bands that played pet shop boys - esque pop and billy joel - style honky - tonk piano .\nbut martin almost gave up curling to play hockey , a decision that ranks among the most difficult of his life . eventually , he chose rocks over pucks , because he wanted to play for owchar , a coach with 30 years\u2019 experience at the northern alberta institute of technology , a coach martin labeled canada\u2019s very best .\nmartin turned professional in 1987 and took four years\u2019 worth of beatings . he won a canadian national championship in 1991 and made his first olympics a year later .\nhowever , we feel that still the plumage variability of both the cited species ( rock and crag martins ) need to be investigated and that the \u201coverlapping area\u201d is not well clear . in particular , colour of both underparts and chiefly upperparts in crag martin , contrariwise to what illustrated in most ( if not all ! ) modern field guide , is far more variable and birds of some populations or in some age / state of sun - bleaching and abrasion could appear as pale as rock martin from morocco to sinai ; similarly , underwing and undertail coverts vary a lot for both colour intensity and pattern of the feathers , not only due to light incidence and sun exposure , but individually and during the different seasons ( stage of moult and ageing ) . we found for ex . some birds in sardinia showing a pretty pale plumage all over , including the mentioned plumage areas . in fact , arrigoni degli oddi ( 1902 ) described a subspecies of rock martin from sardinia as \u201c\nas the name implies , medina rock and rail was built to be served by rail only . the highest quality limestone dictated its exact location 11 miles from union pacific\u2019s mainline . martin marietta installed 57 , 300 track feet of rail , enough to make it one of the largest privately funded rail projects in the united states .\ntorka r , thuma f , herzog v , kirfel g . rock signaling mediates the adoption of different modes of migration and invasion in human mammary epithelial tumor cells .\ni really wanted to like this book . i like a lot of progressive rock . i like a lot of philosophy . unfortunately , professor martin writes with a meandering obscurity that resembles yes lyrics at their most impenetrable , or like reading hegel after not having slept for sixteen hours . simply put , martin is an appallingly bad writer . it ' s too bad that as writing models , martin bypassed schopenhauer , hume & nietzsche . he seems to prefer hegel , fichte and heidegger . i agree with several of martin ' s opinions , though . i love king crimson , jethro tull and gentle giant , and all of these bands are given thoughtful analysis by prof . martin . martin has little time for rush ; considering that rush is the most overrated prog band ever , i heartily concur . frank zappa isn ' t included among the giants of progressive music ( martin takes something like eight pages to explain why zappa isn ' t covered , but he never gets much beyond the\ni don ' t like his lyrics\nstage ) . zappa ' s music is , truly , more\nprogressive\nthan most of the bands covered here . personally , i think i detect a political bias on martin ' s part : one gets the feeling that had zappa wrote utopian lyrics that involved gnomes and fairies , or had embraced the left as had his contemporaries , he would take up a major part of this book . some more curious omissions are captain beefheart & pink floyd . as far as martin ' s philosophy is concerned , he is apparently of the hegelian - marxist school of thought . perhaps that is why his theory of a progressive - rock\nzeitgeist\nnever really gets going . the main flaw , in my opinion , is that this\nlogic of history\napproach is biased from the get - go . for his theory to work , martin had to leave out inconvenient accessories . that explains the absence of zappa .\ncharacteristics two different subspecies of rock pipit occur at flamborough . in bridlington harbour , the local \u2018rockits\u2019 can feed at your feet all year , while the south cliffs of the great white cape supports a small breeding population . each autumn and winter a migrant wave of \u2018scandinavian rock pipits\u2019 subspecies littoralis arrives from near and far parts of scandinavia .\nthis article was amended on 16 december 2015 to correct the sum that the martin family\u2019s caravan business fetched in 1999 and to remove an incorrect reference to winston churchill .\n\u201cthere\u2019s a club in every town in canada , \u201d martin said . \u201ceverybody curls . everybody plays hockey . and that\u2019s canada , that\u2019s how we grew up . \u201d\ncanadian teams that advance to the olympics have already beaten an elite field . martin estimated that 20 of them would have a legitimate chance to win a medal here .\nbut the world of music , and , indeed , the world at large , knows what martin did , and will listen to the music he helped make forever .\n) . this decrease in the assembly competent form of myosin indicates decreased actin binding and bundling activity . additionally rock can stabilize the actin cortex by phosphorylating and inactivating cofilin [\nrock shrimp resemble penaeid shrimp in general size and body form , but they can be easily separated from other penaeoid shrimp species by their thick , rigid , stony exoskeleton .\ni weighed up the options for rock song and the albury cup looks a better choice as he will be racing for more prizemoney than the carnival races in sydney .\nmartin k , wiebe lk ( 2004 ) coping mechanisms of alpine and arctic breeding birds : extreme weather conditions and limitations to reproductive resilience . integr comp biol 44 : 177\u2013185\nin south asia , migrant eurasian birds sometimes join with flocks of the dusky crag martin and roost communally on ledges of cliffs or buildings .\n\u2014do they hybridize ?\n\u2013\u2013\u2013 , 2010 , \u201cthe turn\u2019 , in b . w . davis ( ed . ) , martin heidegger : key concepts , durham : acumen , pp . 82\u2013101 .\n- y - 27632 ) . since rock regulates the actin cytoskeleton through phosphorylation of its downstream substrates , to determine the efficacy of rock inhibition we analyzed protein phosphorylation levels in the y - 27632 treated cells . myosin ii is a motor protein that forms a closed compact molecule due to head to tail interactions ( known as the assembly incompetent form ) [\nschofield av , steel r , bernard o . rho - associated coiled - coil kinase ( rock ) protein controls microtubule dynamics in a novel signaling pathway that regulates cell migration .\nworst of times mocked for making \u201cmusic for bedwetters\u201d by former oasis label boss , alan mcgee . the band has struggled to shrug off complaints that it\u2019s too boring to rock .\ni was greeted by a wonderful lady named july about a year ago when i was desperate to get several knots out of my necklace . she was amazing ! quick , personable and full of great referrals . upon returning to thank her for a referral she offered , i met michael , owner of rock martin . he had several people lined up to talk to him and it was quickly apparent that this wasn ' t only a great jewelry store where people bought and brought their finest jewels but a meeting place where locals came to\npay homage\nto this man ! michael is honest , funny , creatively talented , straight forward and most importantly , he brought life into several pieces of mine that haven ' t been ever worn because i didn ' t like them ! i love them now , wear them all the time and get heaps of compliments ! go to rock martin jewelry ! can ' t miss them , they are located dead center of forrest avenue in laguna beach ! ! thank you michael , july and rock martin jewelers !\nenglish musician chris martin was born christopher anthony john martin on march 2 , 1977 , in exeter , devon , england , the eldest of five children to a teacher and an accountant . his interests in music developed at a young age and he formed his first band , the rocking honkies , while he was attending the prepatory exeter cathedral school .\nmore than a decade on , the description from that interview still fits . chris martin believes in himself and the world , it seems , apart from a few remaining sarcastic commentators , believes in him . the tunes are melodic and expansive . there goes the 21st - century british rock star : wildly ambitious , monstrously successful , square as a chessboard .\nin due course we are going again in the gorge north - east of tozeur , tunisia to obtain a better photographic documentation and feathers sample for genetic study . if confirmed , our observations will confirm the presence of rock martin in tunisia and thus being the first acceptable and proven records , closest known range being some hundreds kilometres away . isenmann , et al . ( 2005 ) mention only crag martin as confirmed for tunisia , reporting that in the saharan part of tunisia rock martin could occur but its presence has never been proved . we checked all the main historical reference of the birds of tunisia , which have a special part in ac\u2019s library : whitaker ( 1905 ) do not give mention of any record , not even possible , of rock martin in tunisia , while report \u201c i have one c . obsoleta , cab . , which mr . dodson obtained at the small town of sebha , in the interior of the vilayet , in the month of june \u201d . so , at least for south - west libya the species was reported at that time . later , lavauden ( 1924 ) , corti ( 1926 ) and bannerman ( 1927 ) give no mention as well as blanchet ( 1951 , 1955 , 1957 ) .\nother great producers have been louder , brasher , more notorious and more obviously brilliant , with signature sounds that remain immediately recognisable today . whereas martin was a quintessential english gentleman : a former grammar school boy and navy pilot , who carried himself with the quiet gravitas of a british officer . he dressed with the modest conservatism of a university academic and spoke with the gentle tones and sophisticated eloquence of a royal equerry . martin was eminently respectable . in rock and roll terms , he is just about the most improbable revolutionary ever .\nmartin gore is best known as the keyboardist and primary songwriter for depeche mode . gore wrote many hit tracks , including\npolicy of truth\nand\npersonal jesus .\nsandercock bk , martin k , hannon sj ( 2005 ) demographic consequences of age - structure in extreme environments : population models for arctic and alpine ptarmigan . oecologia 146 : 13\u201324\nsmall - scale traps are available from the purple martin conservation association and other enterprises over the internet . check the trap at least twice a day for non - targeted birds .\nneske , g . and kettering , e . , 1990 , martin heidegger and national socialism : questions and answers , translated by lisa harries , new york : paragon house .\nthe beach is lively and has a pleasant atmosphere . competent swimmers will enjoy swimming through the small rock arch , where a small secluded beach awaits at the base of the cliffs .\nby day , visitors relax by the calm waters of the caribbean sea , but when the sun goes down friar ' s bay beach moves to the sounds of rock and reggae .\npernollet ca , korner - nievergelt f , jenni l ( 2015 ) regional changes in the elevational distribution of the alpine rock ptarmigan lagopus muta helvetica in switzerland . ibis 157 : 823\u2013836\nroads help drive growth , create jobs and fuel local economies . the medina rock and rail stone facility can handle the demand needed to sustain growth for at least a half century .\na man could not believe his eyes when a giant bobbit worm akin to a sea monster emerged from behind a rock in his fish tank - after hiding there for two years .\nas the name suggests , this species usually lives among the rocks suck as talus slopes , rocky outcrops , and boulder strewn floors of coniferous , deciduous , and mixed deciduous - coniferous forests in cool areas near flowing or subsurface water , mosses , ferns , and forbs . rock voles build nests of plant fibers and sphagnum in rock crevices , under rocks or logs .\ndistribution of rock martin in southern africa , based on statistical smoothing of the records from first sa bird atlas project ( \u00a9 animal demography unit , university of cape town ; smoothing by birgit erni and francesca little ) . colours range from dark blue ( most common ) through to yellow ( least common ) . see here for the latest distribution from the sabap2 .\nkilpatrick , c . w . and k . l . crowell . 1985 . genetic variation of the rock vole , microtus chrotorrhinus . journal of mammalogy , 66 : 94 - 101 .\nn a 2002 interview , chris martin was asked whether he believed in himself . at the time , his band , coldplay , were accelerating to escape velocity . he had just met\nchris martin is lead singer , rhythm guitarist and pianist for the alternative band coldplay . the group has won multiple grammy awards over the years , one being for their debut album .\nwilson s , martin k ( 2010 ) variable reproductive effort for two sympatric ptarmigan lagopus in response to spring weather conditions in a northern alpine ecosystem . j avian biol 41 : 1\u20138\nshouldn ' t the ' m ' be capitalized ? i . e . ,\ncrag martin\n? jrw1234 ( talk ) 18 : 06 , 1 september 2012 ( utc )\n] . rock - mediated phosphorylation of the regulatory light chain of myosin ( mlc ) at serine - 19 unfolds myosin into an assembly - competent conformation that is capable of binding actin . rock further regulates myosin phosphorylation by inactivating myosin phosphatase ( mlcp ) through phosphorylation of its myosin - binding subunit ( mypt1 ) at threonine - 853 , which prevents mlcp from binding to myosin [\nkamai t , tsujii t , arai k , takagi k , asami h , ito y , oshima h . significant association of rho / rock pathway with invasion and metastasis of bladder cancer .\nthis is definitely the jewelry store to go to for beautiful selection , quality , and gracious staff . i stopped in to drop off a watch for repair and oogle over the cases of scrumptious pearls ( and more ) and they offered to make the repair right on the spot . it will be the place i take my husband to pick out my birthday gift ! ! thanks rock martin\nat 36 years old , with an incredible array of unusual skills , he was not just ready for the beatles when they turned up in his studio \u2013 he was the only a & r man in the music business to recognise their potential . martin signed this powerhouse northern combo when everyone else was turning them down . decca records had the absurdity to tell them guitar groups were on the way out . martin , significantly , was not of the rock and roll generation . perhaps this is what allowed him to detect something bigger in the talents and personalities of lennon and mccartney .\nmitchell , a . j . , 2010 , \u201cthe fourfold\u201d , in b . w . davis ( ed . ) , martin heidegger : key concepts , durham : acumen , pp . 208\u201318\n\u2013\u2013\u2013 , 2010 , \u201c ereignis : the event of appropriation\u201d , in b . w . davis ( ed . ) , martin heidegger : key concepts , durham : acumen , pp . 140\u201354\n] . stress fibers are actin filament bundles cross - linked by myosin that require active rock for their formation and thus serve as a downstream indicator of rock activity . to visualize stress fibers , the cells were stained with phalloidin , a filamentous actin binding dye . immunofluorescence analysis showed that vehicle - treated bt549 cells displayed thick actin stress fibers in the cell center as well as the cell periphery ( figure\nwhile not abundant within the indian river lagoon , brown rock shrimp populations can be large in nearshore and offshore waters . in a 3 - region area of florida which spanned from amelia island near jacksonville , florida south to st . lucie inlet , florida , rock shrimp were found in all regions when water depth was between 18 - 73 m ( 60 - 240 feet ) ( anderson 1956 ) . highest densities of sicyonia brevirostris occurred between 34 - 55 m ( 110 - 180 feet ) , with density decreasing both inshore and offshore of this range . the deep water limit to rock shrimp occurrence is likely habitat related , as suitable bottom type decreases beyond 55m depths . the shallow water limit of rock shrimp occurrence is largely unknown , but the species is known to be scarce on muddy substrata .\nmany thanks to all the person whom accompanied us during the trips in tunisia , in particular for the rock martin roberta corsi ( and for her photos ! ) , dante dalla , claudia calvano , giovanni soldato , paolo faifer , arianna passarotto , andrea tarozzi , mauro grano , cristina cattaneo , verena penna . all my tunisian researches started long years ag\u00f2 thanks to hichem azafzaf , thanks hichem !\nvancouver , british columbia \u2014 the line stretched out the door of the vancouver curling club on monday afternoon , the entrance blocked by a bouncer , befitting the rock - star status of the man inside .\nafter martin finally gets off his political / philosophical soap box ( hard to get through even if you agree with most of it ) , he presents a very good analysis of the music itself .\nin martin\u2019s grade there were seven students , five boys . they had to play every sport because they needed bodies , for badminton , volleyball , soccer , baseball , hockey , curling , golf .\nmartin earned a silver medal in salt lake city , missing gold by a half - inch . that defeat still burns , eight years later . he holds his fingers a sliver apart for emphasis .\ni have acquired several pieces from rock martin including rings , necklaces , earrings and watches . the owner , michael mcfadden is very knowledgeable and friendly and helped my wife and i recreate a custom family heirloom ring that turned out beautiful . their custom designs are truly one of a kind . if you are looking for a piece of jewelry , large or small , i highly recommend checking with them first .\nla r\u00e9serve naturelle de saint - martin est une aire marine prot\u00e9g\u00e9e de 30km2 situ\u00e9e au nord - est de l\u2019\u00eele de saint - martin . cr\u00e9\u00e9 en 1998 , cet espace pr\u00e9serve les cinq principaux \u00e9cosyst\u00e8mes de l\u2019\u00eele : r\u00e9cifs coralliens , mangroves , herbiers de phan\u00e9rogames , \u00e9tangs et for\u00eat s\u00e8che littorale . la r\u00e9serve g\u00e8re \u00e9galement les 14 \u00e9tangs du conservatoire du littoral et ses 11 km de rivages terrestres naturels .\nthe presence of circulating tumor cells ( ctcs ) in blood predicts poor patient outcome and ctc frequency is correlated with higher risk of metastasis . recently discovered , novel microtubule - based structures , microtentacles , can enhance reattachment of ctcs to the vasculature . microtentacles are highly dynamic membrane protrusions formed in detached cells and occur when physical forces generated by the outwardly expanding microtubules overcome the contractile force of the actin cortex . rho - associated kinase ( rock ) is a major regulator of actomyosin contractility and rho / rock over - activation is implicated in tumor metastasis . rock inhibitors are gaining popularity as potential cancer therapeutics based on their success in reducing adherent tumor cell migration and invasion . however , the effect of rock inhibition on detached cells in circulation is largely unknown . in this study , we use breast tumor cells in suspension to mimic detached ctcs and show that destabilizing the actin cortex through rock inhibition in suspended cells promotes the formation of microtentacles and enhances reattachment of cells from suspension . conversely , increasing actomyosin contraction by rho over - activation reduces microtentacle frequency and reattachment . although rock inhibitors may be effective in reducing adherent tumor cell behavior , our results indicate that they could inadvertently increase metastatic potential of non - adherent ctcs by increasing their reattachment efficacy ."]}
{"id": 2643, "summary": [{"text": "the tarry hogfish , bodianus bilunulatus , is a species of wrasse native to the indian ocean from the african coast to the western pacific ocean to japan , new caledonia , and the philippines .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "this species occurs on reef slopes at depths of from 3 to 160 m ( 9.8 to 524.9 ft ) with the adults being found in deeper waters than the juveniles .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "this species can reach 55 cm ( 22 in ) in total length with a maximum recorded weight of 1.8 kg ( 4.0 lb ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it is of minor importance to local commercial fisheries and is also popular as a game fish .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it can also be found in the aquarium trade .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "other common names include : blackspot wrasse , crescent-banded hogfish , hawaiian hogfish , saddle-back hogfish , table boss , and tuxedo hogfish . ", "topic": 27}], "title": "bodianus bilunulatus", "paragraphs": ["( of bodianus bilunulatus bilunulatus ( lacep\u00e8de , 1801 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\na saddleback pigfish , bodianus bilunulatus , in the murion islands , western australia , april 2009 . source : eschlogl / inaturalist . org . license : cc by attribution - noncommercial\nbodianus after bodiano or pudiano , from the portuguese pudor , meaning modesty ( jordan & evermann , 1896 ) .\nfor taxonomic treatment see gomon ( 2006 ) . bodianus bilunulatus has long been confused with three other closely related species with which it is broadly sympatric : b . loxozonus , b . macrourus and b . perditio ( gomon 2006 ) .\ngomon , m . f . 2006 . a revision of the labrid fish genus bodianus with descriptions of eight new species . records of the australian museum , supplement 30 : 1 - 133\nlabrus bilunulatus lac\u00e9p\u00e8de , 1801 , histoire naturelle des poissons : 454 , 526 , pl . 31 ( 2 ) . type locality : indo - pacific ( as great equatorial ocean ) .\n( of labrus bilunulatus lacep\u00e8de , 1801 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of lepidaplois bilunulatus ( lacep\u00e8de , 1801 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : little is known about population and life history characteristics . it is very widespread throughout the indo - west pacific and is fairly common in deeper areas . this species is moderately small and sought by aquarium fish collectors , but there is no catch data . it is probably occasionally caught by hook and line and spear fishing . this species is listed as least concern .\nthis species is found in the indo - pacific from somalia to durban , south africa to the abrolhos islands , western australia . in the western pacific , it is found from wakayama , japan to bali , indonesia and new caledonia . it is evidently absent from the red sea , northwestern indian ocean and the east coast of australia . the relatively poor representation of this species in collections , especially from indonesia and southeast asia , may be due to its occurrence on deep offshore reefs . this habitat is poorly collected at many localities ( b . russell pers . comm . 2008 ) .\nthere is no population information available for this species . this is fairly common in some areas and in deeper waters .\nthis is a large species , to about 310 mm sl . it occurs on deep reef slopes rich with invertebrates such as sponges and seawhips , but young adults are occasionally seen much shallower . specimens have been taken at depths of 8 - 160 m . it is usually solitary in coral and rocky reefs . it feeds mainly on benthic , hard - shelled , invertebrates such as mollusks and crustaceans . it is protogynous ( demartini et al . 2005 ) . size at sex change : 38 . 6 - 40 . 5 cm l .\nthis species is collected for the aquarium trade . it is probably occasionally caught by hook and line or speared , and eaten .\nthere are no specific conservation measures in place for this species . its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nname formed from the latin adverb bis , for twice and latin diminutive noun lunula ( luna + ulus ) for ' somewhat like the moon ' ; apparently referring to the lunate caudal fin ( double emarginate with filamentous lobes ) of the type specimen ( ref . 75973 )\nmarine ; reef - associated ; depth range 3 - 160 m ( ref . 9823 ) . tropical ; 30\u00b0n - 30\u00b0s\nindo - west pacific : east coast of africa to japan , the philippines and new caledonia .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 55 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 4392 ) ; max . published weight : 1 . 8 kg ( ref . 4887 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 12 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 10 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 12 . young easily identified by the unusual coloration . adults normally have an oval shaped black saddle near the tail , but it may become indistinct in large males ( ref . 48636 ) .\nadults occur on deep reef slopes rich with invertebrates such as sponges and seawhips , but young adults are occasionally seen much shallower ( ref . 48636 ) . usually solitary in coral and rocky reefs . feed mainly on benthic , hard - shelled , invertebrates such as mollusks and crustaceans . protogynous ( ref . 55080 ) . oviparous , distinct pairing during breeding ( ref . 205 ) .\noviparous , distinct pairing during breeding ( ref . 205 ) . size at sex change : 38 . 6 - 40 . 5 cm l ( ref . 55080 ) .\nwestneat , m . w . , 2001 . labridae . wrasses , hogfishes , razorfishes , corises , tuskfishes . p . 3381 - 3467 . in k . e . carpenter and v . niem ( eds . ) fao species identification guide for fishery purposes . the living marine resources of the western central pacific . vol . 6 . bony fishes part 4 ( labridae to latimeriidae ) , estuarine crocodiles . fao , rome . ( ref . 9823 )\n) : 23 . 6 - 28 . 8 , mean 27 . 4 ( based on 932 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 4 \u00b10 . 49 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate to high vulnerability ( 53 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nsaddleback hogfish , medium : over 1 . 5 - 3 . 5\n, hawaii\nsaddleback hogfish , large : over 3 . 5 - 5 . 5\n, hawaii\ndue to availability and individuality of each species , colors and sizes may vary .\nsaddleback hogfish - juv , small : over . 75 - 1\n, hawaii\na large species with fine reddish stripes along the upper head and back , sides with reddish scale margins , a large black saddle the rear of the dorsal fin ( indistinct in large males ) , and a yellow tail . juveniles are bright yellow above , with fine red stripes along the sides , and a broad black bar on the rear of the body .\nrecorded in australia from the houtman abrolhos , wa ( 28\u00b031 ' s ) to the cobourg peninsula , nt ( 132\u00b0e ) , including offshore wa reefs , and ene of cape moreton , qld ( 26\u00b058 ' s ) . found elsewhere in the tropical indo - west - central pacific . inhabits corals and rocky reefs , often on deep outer reef slopes rich with corals , sponges and seawhips .\nallen , g . r . 1985 . fishes of western australia . book 9 . 2207 - 2534 526 pls in burgess , w . e . & axelrod , h . r . ( eds ) . pacific marine fishes . neptune , new jersey : t . f . h . publications .\nallen , g . r . 1997 . marine fishes of tropical australia and south - east asia . perth : western australian museum 292 pp . 106 pls .\nallen , g . r . & erdmann , m . v . 2012 . reef fishes of the east indies . perth : tropical reef research 3 vols , 1260 pp .\nallen , g . r . & swainston , r . 1988 . the marine fishes of north - western australia . a field guide for anglers and divers . perth , wa : western australian museum vi 201 pp . , 70 pls .\ngloerfelt - tarp , t . & kailola , p . j . 1984 . trawled fishes of southern indonesia and northwest australia . jakarta : dir . gen . fish . ( indonesia ) , german tech . coop . , aust . dev . ass . bur . 406 pp .\ngrant , e . m . 1991 . fishes of australia . brisbane : em grant pty ltd 480 pp .\nhobbs , j . - p . a . , ayling , a . m . , choat , j . h . , gilligan , j . j . , mcdonald , c . a . , neilson , j . & newman , s . j . 2010 . new records of marine fishes illustrate the biogeographic importance of christmas island , indian ocean . zootaxa 2422 : 63\u201368\nkuiter , r . h . 1996 . guide to sea fishes of australia . a comprehensive reference for divers and fishermen . sydney , nsw , australia : new holland publishers xvii , 434 pp .\nlac\u00e9p\u00e8de , b . g . 1801 . histoire naturelle des poissons . paris : chez plassan vol . 3 558 pp . 34 pls .\nrandall , j . e . 1986 . family no . 220 : labridae . pp . 683 - 706 in smith , m . m . & heemstra , p . c . ( eds ) . smith ' s sea fishes . johannesburg : macmillan south africa xx + 1047 pp . 144 pls .\nwestneat , m . w . 2001 . labridae . pp . 3381 - 3467 in carpenter , k . e . & niem , t . h . ( eds ) . the living marine resources of the western central pacific . fao species identification guide for fisheries purposes . rome : fao vol . 6 pp . 3381 - 4218 .\nadults occur on deep reef slopes rich with invertebrates such as sponges and seawhips , but young adults are occasionally seen much shallower ( ref . 48636 ) . usually solitary in coral and rocky reefs . feed mainly on benthic , hard - shelled , invertebrates such as mollusks and crustaceans . protogynous ( ref . 55080 ) . oviparous , distinct pairing during breeding ( ref . 205 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ndescription usually solitary in coral and rocky reefs . feeds mainly on benthic , hard - shelled , invertebrates such as molluscs and . . .\ndescription usually solitary in coral and rocky reefs . feeds mainly on benthic , hard - shelled , invertebrates such as molluscs and crustaceans . [ details ]\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nhong kong marine fish database . afcd . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\na saddleback pigfish at a depth of 15 m , ' nix lumps ' , ningaloo reef , western australia , 27 april 2009 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nspecial publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3\nichthyological bulletin of the j . l . b . smith institute of ichthyology , no . 68\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service ."]}